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where do they get the tree for rockefeller center | Rockefeller Center Christmas tree - wikipedia
The Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree is a large Christmas tree placed annually in Rockefeller Center, in Midtown Manhattan. The tree is erected in mid November and lit in a public ceremony in late November or early December. Since 1997, the lighting has been broadcast live, to hundreds of millions, on NBC 's Christmas in Rockefeller Center telecast on a Wednesday after Thanksgiving. The tree lighting ceremony is aired at the end of every broadcast, following live entertainment and the tree is lit by the current Mayor of New York City and special guests. An estimated 125 million people visit the attraction each year.
The tree, usually a Norway spruce 69 to 100 feet (21 to 30 m) tall, has been a national tradition each year since 1933. The 2017 Christmas Tree Lighting took place on November 29, 2017; the tree remains on display until January 7, 2018.
Trees are traditionally donated to Rockefeller Center, which in turn donates the lumber after display. Until his death in 2009, the late David Murbach, Manager of the Gardens Division of Rockefeller Center, scouted for the desired tree in upstate New York and surrounding states, and even Ottawa, Canada.
The trees are now scouted by Erik Pauzé, Head Gardener at Rockefeller Center. Pauzé visits nurseries throughout the tri-state area while keeping his eye out for one - of - a-kind backyard trees. Trees may also be submitted for consideration through Rockefeller Center 's web site. Pauzé and his team choose each year 's tree based on its heartiness and "Christmas tree shape, '' as well as its ability to support the heavy ornaments.
Once a tree is selected, a crane supports the tree while it is cut, then moved to a custom telescoping trailer able to transport trees up to 125 feet (38 m) tall, although the width of city streets around Rockefeller Center limits the height of the tree to 100 feet (30 m). Local business Christmas Tree Brooklyn provides support in delivering the tree safely into the city. On its way to Manhattan, the tree is often dressed in giant red bows or banners extending holiday greetings to witnesses. Trucks, barges, and even a transport plane have all been used to help the tree make the trip.
Once at Rockefeller Center, the tree is supported by four guy - wires attached at its midpoint and by a steel spike at its base. Scaffolding is erected around the tree to assist workers in hanging about 50,000 multi-colored LED lights and the star top. The crystal star that has topped the tree since 2004 is 9.5 feet (2.9 m) in diameter and weighs 550 pounds (250 kg). This "Swarovski Star, '' containing 25,000 Swarovski crystals, 1 million facets, and LED lights, was created by German artist Michael Hammers.
Although the official Christmas tree tradition at Rockefeller Center began in 1933 (the year 30 Rockefeller Plaza opened), an unofficial tradition began during the Depression - era construction of the Center, when workers decorated a smaller 20 foot (6.1 m) balsam fir with "strings of cranberries, garlands of paper, and even a few tin cans '' on Christmas Eve (December 24, 1931), as recounted by Daniel Okrent in his history of Rockefeller Center. According to Rockefeller Center, workers pooled their money for that unlit tree, with the garlands made by workers ' families.
With the lighting of the 50 - foot - tall (15 m) first official tree two years later, the tree became what Rockefeller Center dubbed "a holiday beacon for New Yorkers and visitors alike. '' A skating rink was opened below the tree in the plaza in 1936. Rockefeller Center has observed the tree to be "from the beginning... a gathering place and reflection of what was happening in the world around it. ''
World War II ushered in simple, patriotic decorations, including red, white and blue unlit globes and painted wooden stars. In 1942, instead of one large tree, three more modest trees were raised, each decorated in one of the flag 's colors. From 1944 until the war 's end in 1945, the tree went unlit due to blackout regulations. After the war, the year of darkness was left behind, as six ultraviolet light projectors were employed to make it appear as though the tree 's 700 fluorescent globes were glowing in the dark.
By the 1950s, workers began using scaffolding to decorate the tree, as larger trees were accommodated. Before the decade was over, the decorating process called for 20 workers and nine days. 1951 marked the first time that NBC televised the tree lighting with a special on "The Kate Smith Show. ''
In 1969, artist Valerie Clarebout 's towering wire herald angels were added to the Channel Gardens in front of the tree near Fifth Avenue. Clarebout created the 12 sculptures using 75 points of metal wire each.
The 1971 tree, a 65 - footer from East Montpelier, Vt., was the first to be mulched and recycled. It was turned into 30 three - bushel bags of mulch for the nature trails of upper Manhattan. Though the tree typically makes its journey on a truck bed, in 1998 it was flown in from Richfield, Ohio on the world 's largest transport plane.
1999 saw Rockefeller Center 's tallest tree, a 100 foot (30 m) spruce from Killingworth, Conn. In 2001, following the events of September 11, the tree was again decorated in hues of red, white and blue.
In 2007, the tree went "green '', converting to energy - efficient lighting with LEDs. The LEDs use 1,200 fewer kilowatts of electricity per day, enough to power a 2,000 - square - foot home for a month.
Also since 2007, each year after display, the tree has been milled into lumber and donated to Habitat for Humanity for use in house construction.
The 2016 tree, a Norway Spruce from Oneonta, N.Y., is at 94 feet high the second tallest ever erected at Rockefeller Center. At 56 feet wide and over 30,000 pounds, the tree is the widest and heaviest to date, according to construction crews.
Since 2011, the tree lighting ceremony has been followed by the singing of Joy to the World.
The decorated tree remains on display at Rockefeller Plaza, between West 48th and 51st Streets and Fifth and Sixth Avenues, at least through January 6 of the new year.
More than a half million people pass by the tree each day while it is on display, according to Rockefeller Center.
Since 1997, the lighting ceremony has been broadcast live on NBC in the first hour of primetime, live in the Eastern and Central time zones, and on tape elsewhere. The ceremony is hosted by Today 's Al Roker and Savannah Guthrie.
Coordinates: 40 ° 45 ′ 31 '' N 73 ° 58 ′ 42 '' W / 40.75861 ° N 73.97833 ° W / 40.75861; - 73.97833
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what is the tigers name on the jungle book | List of the Jungle Book characters - wikipedia
This is a list of characters that appear in Rudyard Kipling 's Jungle Book story collection, its sequel The Second Jungle Book, and the various film adaptations based on those books. Characters include both human and talking animal characters.
The following characters appear in the Disney adaptions:
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air india gifted 3 aircrafts to which country | Air India - wikipedia
Air India is the flag carrier airline of India. It is owned by Air India Limited, a government - owned enterprise, and operates a fleet of Airbus and Boeing aircraft serving 94 domestic and international destinations. The airline has its hub at Indira Gandhi International Airport, New Delhi, alongside several focus cities across India. Air India is the largest international carrier out of India with an 18.6 % market share. Over 60 international destinations are served by Air India across four continents. Additionally, the carrier is the third largest domestic airline in India in terms of passengers carried (after IndiGo and Jet Airways) with a market share of 13.5 % as of July 2017. The airline became the 27th member of Star Alliance on 11 July 2014.
The airline was founded by J.R.D. Tata as Tata Airlines in 1932; Tata himself flew its first single - engine de Havilland Puss Moth, carrying air mail from Karachi to Bombay 's Juhu aerodrome and later continuing to Madras (currently Chennai). After World War II, it became a public limited company and was renamed as Air India. On 21 February 1960, it took delivery of its first Boeing 707 named Gauri Shankar and became the first Asian airline to induct a jet aircraft in its fleet. In 2000 -- 01, attempts were made to privatise Air India and from 2006 onwards, it suffered losses after its merger with Indian Airlines.
Air India also operates flights to domestic and Asian destinations through its subsidiaries Alliance Air and Air India Express. Air India 's mascot is the Maharajah (Emperor) and the logo consists of a flying swan with the wheel of Konark inside it.
Air India had its origin as Tata Air Services later renamed to Tata Airlines founded by J.R.D. Tata of Tata Sons, an Indian aviator and business tycoon. In April 1932, Tata won a contract to carry mail for Imperial Airways and the aviation department of Tata Sons was formed with two single - engine de Havilland Puss Moths. On 15 October 1932, Tata flew a Puss Moth carrying air mail from Karachi to Bombay (currently Mumbai) and the aircraft continued to Madras (currently Chennai) piloted by Nevill Vintcent, a former Royal Air Force pilot and friend of Tata. The airline fleet consisted of a Puss Moth aircraft and a de Havilland Leopard Moth. Initial service included weekly airmail service between Karachi and Madras via Ahmedabad and Bombay. In its first year of operation, the airline flew 160,000 miles (260,000 km), carrying 155 passengers and 9.72 tonnes (10.71 tons) of mail and made a profit of ₹ 60,000 (US $870).
The airline launched its first domestic flight from Bombay to Trivandrum with a six - seater Miles Merlin. In 1938, it was re-christened as Tata Air Services and later as Tata Airlines. Colombo in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and Delhi were added to the destinations in 1938. During the Second World War, the airline helped the Royal Air Force with troop movements, shipping of supplies, rescue of refugees and maintenance of aircraft.
After World War II, regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became a public limited company on 29 July 1946 under the name Air India. After Indian independence in 1947, 49 % of the airline was acquired by the Government of India in 1948. On 8 June 1948, a Lockheed Constellation L - 749A named Malabar Princess (registered VT - CQP) took off from Bombay bound for London Heathrow marking the airline 's first international flight.
In 1953, the Government of India passed the Air Corporations Act and purchased a majority stake in the carrier from Tata Sons though its founder J.R.D. Tata would continue as Chairman till 1977. The company was renamed as Air India International Limited and the domestic services were transferred to Indian Airlines as a part of a restructuring. From 1948 to 1950, the airline introduced services to Nairobi in Kenya and to major European destinations Rome, Paris and Düsseldorf. The airline took delivery of its first Lockheed Constellation L - 1049 and inaugurated services to Bangkok, Hong Kong, Tokyo and Singapore.
On 21 February 1960, Air India International inducted its first Boeing 707 -- 420, thereby becoming the first Asian airline to enter the Jet Age. The airline inaugurated services to New York on 14 May 1960. On 8 June 1962, the airline 's name was officially truncated to Air India and on 11 June 1962, Air India became the world 's first all - jet airline. Air India was also a launch customer for Boeings newly developed long range jet Boeing 747. In 1971, the airline took delivery of its first Boeing 747 - 200B named Emperor Ashoka (registered VT - EBD) and introduced a new Palace in the Sky livery and branding. In 1986, Air India took delivery of its first Airbus A310 - 300. In 1993, Air India took delivery of a Boeing 747 - 400 named Konark (registered VT - ESM) and operated the first non-stop flight between New York and Delhi.
In 2000 -- 01, attempts were made to re-privatize Air India. In 2000, Air India introduced services to Shanghai, China. On 23 May 2001, the Ministry of Civil Aviation charged Michael Mascarenhas, the then - managing director, with corruption. According to the ministry reports, the airline lost approximately ₹ 570 million (US $8.3 million) because of extra commissions that Mascarenhas sanctioned and he was later suspended from the airline. In May 2004, Air India launched a wholly owned low cost subsidiary called Air - India Express connecting cities in India with the Middle East and Southeast Asia. Until 2007, Air India mainly operated on international long - haul routes while Indian Airlines operated on domestic and international short - haul routes.
In 2007, Air India and Indian Airlines were merged under Air India Limited and the airline took delivery of its first Boeing 777 aircraft. The airline was invited to be a part of the Star Alliance in 2007.
The combined losses for Air India and Indian Airlines in 2006 -- 07 were ₹ 7.7 billion (US $110 million) and after the merger, it went up to ₹ 72 billion (US $1.0 billion) by March 2009. In July 2009, State Bank of India was appointed to prepare a road map for the recovery of the airline. The carrier sold three Airbus A300 and one Boeing 747 - 300 M in March 2009 for $18.75 million to finance the debt. By March 2011, Air India had accumulated a debt of ₹ 426 billion (US $6.2 billion) and an operating loss of ₹ 220 billion (US $3.2 billion), and was seeking ₹ 429 billion (US $6.2 billion) from the government. A report by the Comptroller and Auditor General blamed the decision to buy 111 new aircraft and the ill - timed merger with Indian Airlines for the poor financial situation. In August 2011, the invitation to join Star Alliance was suspended as a result of its failure to meet the minimum standards for the membership. The government pumped ₹ 32 billion (US $470 million) into Air India in March 2012.
On 1 March 2009, Air India made Frankfurt Airport its international hub for onward connections to the United States from India. However, the airline shut down the Frankfurt hub on 30 October 2010 because of high operating costs. In 2010, financially less lucrative routes were terminated and the airline planned to open a new hub for its international flights at Dubai. In 2012, a study commissioned by the Corporate Affairs Ministry recommended that Air India should be partly privatised. In May 2012, the carrier invited offers from banks to raise up $800 million via external commercial borrowing and bridge financing. In May 2012, the airline was fined $80,000 by the US Transportation Department for failing to post customer service and tarmac delay contingency plans on its website and adequately inform passengers about its optional fees.
In 2013, the then - Civil Aviation Minister Ajit Singh stated privatisation was the key to the airline 's survival. However, the opposition led by the BJP and the CPI (M) slammed the government. In 2013, the Indian government planned to delay equity infusion of ₹ 300 billion (US $4.4 billion) that was slated to be infused into the airline slowly over a period of eight years. In January 2013, Air India cleared a part of its pending dues through funds raised by selling and leasing back the newly acquired Boeing 787 Dreamliners. In March 2013, the airline posted its first positive EBITDA after almost six years and 20 % growth in its operating revenue since the previous financial year. Air India Limited split its engineering and cargo businesses into two separate subsidiaries, Air India Engineering Services Limited (AIESL) and Air India Transport Services Limited (AITSL) in 2013. In December 2013, the airline appointed veteran pilot SPS Puri as its head of operations. The appointment was criticised by the Air India pilots union as Puri allegedly has multiple violations to his name.
Air India became the 27th member of Star Alliance on 11 July 2014. In August 2015, it signed an agreement with Citibank and State Bank of India to raise $300 million in external commercial borrowing to meet working capital requirements. For FY 2014 -- 15, its revenue, operating loss and net loss were ₹ 198 billion (US $2.9 billion), ₹ 2.171 billion (US $32 million) and ₹ 5.41 billion (US $79 million) compared FY 2011 -- 12, which were ₹ 147 billion (US $2.1 billion), ₹ 5.138 billion (US $75 million) and ₹ 7.55 billion (US $110 million). As of May 2017, Air India is the third largest carrier in India (after IndiGo and Jet Airways), with a market share of 13 %.
On 28 June 2017, the Government of India announced the privatisation of Air India. A committee has been set up to start the process.
Air India Limited is headquartered at the Indian Airlines House, New Delhi. Air India moved its headquarters from Air India Building, Mumbai to Delhi in 2013. The former headquarters is a 23 - storey tower on Marine Drive and was one of the targets of the 1993 Bombay bombings.
Air India Regional was established as Alliance Air, a wholly owned subsidiary of Indian Airlines on 1 April 1996 and started operations on 21 June 1996. It was renamed Air India Regional after the merger between Air India and Indian Airlines. Air India Express began operations on 29 April 2005 and was initially owned by Air India Charters. It operates flights from South India to the Middle East and Southeast Asia.
Air India became the first Asian airline to operate freighters when Air India Cargo was set up in 1954 and started its freighter operations with a Douglas DC - 3 aircraft. Air India Cargo ended freighter aircraft operations in early 2012.
Air India 's mascot is the Maharajah (high king). It was created by Bobby Kooka, the then - commercial director of Air India, and Umesh Rao, an artist with J. Walter Thompson Limited in 1946. Kooka stated that, "We call him a Maharajah for want of a better description. But his blood is n't blue. He may look like royalty, but he is n't royal ''. Air India adopted the Maharajah as its mascot in 1946. It was used in promoting it although initially designed only for the airline 's memo - pads. The Maharajah was given a makeover in 2015 and the brand is represented by a younger version.
Air India 's colour scheme is red and white. The aircraft were painted in white with red palace style carvings on the outside of the windows and the airline 's name written in red. The name is written in Hindi on the port side fuselage and in English on the port side tail. On the starboard side fuselage, the name is written in English, and in Hindi on the starboard tail. The window scheme was designed in line with the slogan Your Palace in the Sky. The aircraft were earlier named after Indian kings and landmarks. In 1989, to supplement its Flying Palace livery, Air India introduced a new livery that included a metallic gold spinning wheel on a deep red - coloured tail and a Boeing 747, Rajendra Chola, was the first aircraft to be painted in the new colours.
The first logo of Air India was a centaur, a stylised version of Sagittarius shooting an arrow in a circle representing the wheel of Konark. The logo chosen by founder J.R.D. Tata was introduced in 1948 and represented the airline until 2007. On 22 May 2007, Air India and Indian Airlines unveiled their new livery consisting of a Flying Swan with the wheel of Konark placed inside it. The flying swan was morphed from the centaur logo and the chakra was derived from Indian 's erstwhile logo. On 15 May 2007, Air India refreshed its livery, making the Rajasthani arches along the windows slightly smaller, extending a stylised line from the tail of the aircraft to the nose and painting the underbelly red. The new logo features on the tail and the engine covers with red and orange lines running parallel to each other from the front door to the rear door.
As of March 2018, Air India flies to a total of 94 destinations including 54 domestic destinations and 40 international destinations in 28 countries across four continents around the world. Its primary hub is located at Indira Gandhi International Airport, New Delhi, and it has a secondary hub at Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, Mumbai.
Air India became the 27th member of Star Alliance on 11 July 2014.
Air India codeshares with the following airlines:
As of March 2018, the Air India (excluding fleet of subsidiaries - Alliance Air and Air India Express) fleet consists of the following aircraft:
In 1932, Air India started operations with a de Havilland Puss Moth. It inducted its first Boeing 707 -- 420 named Gauri Shankar (registered VT - DJJ), thereby becoming the first Asian airline to induct a jet aircraft in its fleet and on 4 August 1993, Air India took the delivery of its first Boeing 747 - 400 named Konark (registered VT - ESM). Apart from the Boeing aircraft, Air India also operates a wide range of Airbus aircraft. In 1989, Indian Airlines introduced the Airbus A320 - 200 aircraft, which Air India now uses to operate both domestic and international short haul flights. In 2005, Indian Airlines introduced smaller A319s, which are now used mainly on domestic and regional routes. After the merger in 2007, Air India inducted the biggest member of the A320 family, the A321, to operate mainly on international short haul and medium haul routes. At the same time, Air India leased Airbus A330s to operate on medium - long haul international routes. Currently Air India has many narrow body aircraft for domestic destinations like A320, A321 and A320 neo. Air India has also many wide body aircraft like Boeing 777 - 200LR, Boeing 777 - 300ER, Boeing 747 - 400 and Boeing 787 - 8 mainly for international destinations. Air India Express, a subsidiary of Air India has a fleet of 23 Boeing 737 - 800.
Air India One (also referred to as AI - 1 or AIC001) is the call sign of any Air India aircraft carrying the Prime Minister, President or the Vice-President. Air India One operates on one of the five Boeing 747 - 400s that Air India currently owns as VIP flights. Customised Embraer 135 and Boeing Business Jets are also used.
As a part of the financial restructuring, Air India sold five of its eight Boeing 777 - 200LR aircraft to Etihad Airways in December 2013. According to the airline, plans for introducing ultra-long flights with service to Seattle, San Francisco and Los Angeles were cancelled due to factors like high fuel prices and weak demand. Air India flights to Los Angeles and San Francisco have been resumed with more new international destinations. On 24 April 2014, Air India issued a tender for leasing 14 Airbus A320 aircraft for up to six years, to strengthen its domestic network. Air India has purchased many Boeing 787 - 8 dreamliners to strengthen international operations.
Apart from the aircraft listed above, Air India operated several other aircraft. Air India operated the de Havilland Puss Moth, de Havilland Fox Moth, Waco YQC - 6, de Havilland Dragon Rapide, Percival Petrel, Douglas DC - 2, Douglas DC - 3, Vickers VC. 1 Viking, Lockheed L - 749 Constellation, Douglas DC - 4 and the Lockheed L - 1049 Super Constellation up to 1960. Thereafter, Air India started operating the Boeing 707 and the de Havilland Comet.
The Boeing 777 - 200LR / 777 - 300ER and Boeing 747 - 400 aircraft operated on long haul flights are in a three - class configuration. Boeing 787 Dreamliner and Airbus A321 aircraft have a two - class configuration. Airbus A320 aircraft operated on domestic - and short haul international flights are in either an all - economy configuration or a two - class configuration. Airbus A319 aircraft have a full economy configuration. Air India serves meals on all international flights and on domestic flights with a flight duration of over 90 minutes.
Air India aircraft are equipped with Thales i3000 in - flight entertainment system. Passengers can choose from five channels airing Hindi and English content. Air India 's Boeing 777, 747 and 787 aircraft are also equipped with personal on demand in - flight entertainment systems on which passengers can choose from available content. Showtime is the official entertainment guide published by Air India. Shubh Yatra (meaning Happy Journey) is a bilingual in - flight magazine published in English and Hindi by Air India.
Flying Returns is Air India 's frequent - flyer programme. It is shared by Air India and its subsidiaries. The points can be redeemed for awards travel on some other airlines.
The Maharaja Lounge (English: Emperor 's Lounge) is available for the use of First and Business class passengers. Air India shares lounges with other international airlines at international airports that do not have a Maharaja Lounge available. There are eight Maharaja Lounges:
The airline entered the Guinness Book of World Records for the most people evacuated by civil airliner. Over 111,000 people were evacuated from Amman to Mumbai, a distance of 4,117 kilometres (2,558 mi), by operating 488 flights from 13 August to 11 October 1990 -- lasting 59 days. The operation was carried out during Persian Gulf War to evacuate Indian expatriates from Kuwait and Iraq. The event was later featured in the film Airlift.
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john cena theme song you can't see me | You Ca n't See Me - wikipedia
You Ca n't See Me is the debut studio album by WWE 's wrestler John Cena and his cousin, Tha Trademarc, billed together as John Cena & Tha Trademarc. It was released on May 10, 2005, by WWE Music Group and Columbia Records. The album features sole guest appearances from Esoteric and Bumpy Knuckles, who featured on several songs throughout the album. The album production was handled by James McEwan and Todd Spadafore, with the duo serving as the executive producers on the album. The album 's cover art is based on Cena 's customized WWE Championship belt, while the title comes from his popular catchphrase coined on WWE television. The album debuted at number 15 on the Billboard 200 charts, with over 40,000 copies sold in the first week of its release. In the United Kingdom, the album peaked at number 103 on the UK Albums Chart, and has since became a certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), selling 1,346,000 units, as of October 8, 2010.
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when does season 2 of twist of fate start | Zee World - Wikipedia
Zee World is an English - Bollywood channel on DStv which launched on 3 February 2015. It is an Indian channel that dubs original Bollywood Zee series (Hindi, Tamil & Telugu) to English for South African audiences. The channel is owned by Zee Entertainment Enterprises and has offices in Gordon 's Bay, South Africa.
It airs shows such as Hello Pratibha, Love Oh Love, Lies Of The Heart and Love Happens.
Home channel of hit shows like Twist Of Fate, King Of Hearts, Married Again & Sacred Ties.
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what is the sum of all real numbers | 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ - wikipedia
The infinite series whose terms are the natural numbers 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ is a divergent series. The nth partial sum of the series is the triangular number
which increases without bound as n goes to infinity. Because the sequence of partial sums fails to converge to a finite limit, the series does not have a sum.
Although the series seems at first sight not to have any meaningful value at all, it can be manipulated to yield a number of mathematically interesting results, some of which have applications in other fields such as complex analysis, quantum field theory, and string theory. Many summation methods are used in mathematics to assign numerical values even to a divergent series. In particular, the methods of zeta function regularization and Ramanujan summation assign the series a value of − 1 / 12, which is expressed by a famous formula:
where the left hand side has to be interpreted as being the value obtained by using one of the aforementioned summation methods and not as the sum of an infinite series in its usual meaning.
In a monograph on moonshine theory, Terry Gannon calls this equation "one of the most remarkable formulae in science ''.
The partial sums of the series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ⋯ are 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, etc. The nth partial sum is given by a simple formula:
This equation was known to the Pythagoreans as early as the sixth century BCE. Numbers of this form are called triangular numbers, because they can be arranged as an equilateral triangle.
The infinite sequence of triangular numbers diverges to + ∞, so by definition, the infinite series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ also diverges to + ∞. The divergence is a simple consequence of the form of the series: the terms do not approach zero, so the series diverges by the term test.
Among the classical divergent series, 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ is relatively difficult to manipulate into a finite value. Many summation methods are used to assign numerical values to divergent series, some more powerful than others. For example, Cesàro summation is a well - known method that sums Grandi 's series, the mildly divergent series 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ⋯, to 1 / 2. Abel summation is a more powerful method that not only sums Grandi 's series to 1 / 2, but also sums the trickier series 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯ to 1 / 4.
Unlike the above series, 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ is not Cesàro summable nor Abel summable. Those methods work on oscillating divergent series, but they can not produce a finite answer for a series that diverges to + ∞. Most of the more elementary definitions of the sum of a divergent series are stable and linear, and any method that is both stable and linear can not sum 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ to a finite value; see below. More advanced methods are required, such as zeta function regularization or Ramanujan summation. It is also possible to argue for the value of − 1 / 12 using some rough heuristics related to these methods.
Srinivasa Ramanujan presented two derivations of "1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ = − 1 / 12 '' in chapter 8 of his first notebook. The simpler, less rigorous derivation proceeds in two steps, as follows.
The first key insight is that the series of positive numbers 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ closely resembles the alternating series 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯. The latter series is also divergent, but it is much easier to work with; there are several classical methods that assign it a value, which have been explored since the 18th century.
In order to transform the series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ into 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯, one can subtract 4 from the second term, 8 from the fourth term, 12 from the sixth term, and so on. The total amount to be subtracted is 4 + 8 + 12 + 16 + ⋯, which is 4 times the original series. These relationships can be expressed using algebra. Whatever the "sum '' of the series might be, call it c = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯. Then multiply this equation by 4 and subtract the second equation from the first:
The second key insight is that the alternating series 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯ is the formal power series expansion of the function 1 / (1 + x) but with x defined as 1. Accordingly, Ramanujan writes:
Dividing both sides by − 3, one gets c = − 1 / 12.
Generally speaking, it is incorrect to manipulate infinite series as if they were finite sums. For example, if zeroes are inserted into arbitrary positions of a divergent series, it is possible to arrive at results that are not self - consistent, let alone consistent with other methods. In particular, the step 4c = 0 + 4 + 0 + 8 + ⋯ is not justified by the additive identity law alone. For an extreme example, appending a single zero to the front of the series can lead to inconsistent results.
One way to remedy this situation, and to constrain the places where zeroes may be inserted, is to keep track of each term in the series by attaching a dependence on some function. In the series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯, each term n is just a number. If the term n is promoted to a function n, where s is a complex variable, then one can ensure that only like terms are added. The resulting series may be manipulated in a more rigorous fashion, and the variable s can be set to − 1 later. The implementation of this strategy is called zeta function regularization.
In zeta function regularization, the series ∑ n = 1 ∞ n (\ displaystyle \ sum _ (n = 1) ^ (\ infty) n) is replaced by the series ∑ n = 1 ∞ n − s (\ displaystyle \ sum _ (n = 1) ^ (\ infty) n ^ (- s)). The latter series is an example of a Dirichlet series. When the real part of s is greater than 1, the Dirichlet series converges, and its sum is the Riemann zeta function ζ (s). On the other hand, the Dirichlet series diverges when the real part of s is less than or equal to 1, so, in particular, the series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ that results from setting s = -- 1 does not converge. The benefit of introducing the Riemann zeta function is that it can be defined for other values of s by analytic continuation. One can then define the zeta - regularized sum of 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ to be ζ (− 1).
From this point, there are a few ways to prove that ζ (− 1) = − 1 / 12. One method, along the lines of Euler 's reasoning, uses the relationship between the Riemann zeta function and the Dirichlet eta function η (s). The eta function is defined by an alternating Dirichlet series, so this method parallels the earlier heuristics. Where both Dirichlet series converge, one has the identities:
The identity (1 − 2 1 − s) ζ (s) = η (s) (\ displaystyle (1 - 2 ^ (1 - s)) \ zeta (s) = \ eta (s)) continues to hold when both functions are extended by analytic continuation to include values of s for which the above series diverge. Substituting s = − 1, one gets − 3ζ (− 1) = η (− 1). Now, computing η (− 1) is an easier task, as the eta function is equal to the Abel sum of its defining series, which is a one - sided limit:
Dividing both sides by − 3, one gets ζ (− 1) = − 1 / 12.
The method of regularization using a cutoff function can "smooth '' the series to arrive at − 1 / 12. Smoothing is a conceptual bridge between zeta function regularization, with its reliance on complex analysis, and Ramanujan summation, with its shortcut to the Euler -- Maclaurin formula. Instead, the method operates directly on conservative transformations of the series, using methods from real analysis.
The idea is to replace the ill - behaved discrete series ∑ n = 0 N n (\ displaystyle \ sum _ (n = 0) ^ (N) n) with a smoothed version
where f is a cutoff function with appropriate properties. The cutoff function must be normalized to f (0) = 1; this is a different normalization from the one used in differential equations. The cutoff function should have enough bounded derivatives to smooth out the wrinkles in the series, and it should decay to 0 faster than the series grows. For convenience, one may require that f is smooth, bounded, and compactly supported. One can then prove that this smoothed sum is asymptotic to − 1 / 12 + CN, where C is a constant that depends on f. The constant term of the asymptotic expansion does not depend on f: it is necessarily the same value given by analytic continuation, − 1 / 12.
The Ramanujan sum of 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ is also − 1 / 12. Ramanujan wrote in his second letter to G.H. Hardy, dated 27 February 1913:
Ramanujan summation is a method to isolate the constant term in the Euler -- Maclaurin formula for the partial sums of a series. For a function f, the classical Ramanujan sum of the series ∑ k = 1 ∞ f (k) (\ displaystyle \ sum _ (k = 1) ^ (\ infty) f (k)) is defined as
where f is the (2k − 1) - th derivative of f and B is the 2kth Bernoulli number: B = 1 / 6, B = − 1 / 30, and so on. Setting f (x) = x, the first derivative of f is 1, and every other term vanishes, so:
To avoid inconsistencies, the modern theory of Ramanujan summation requires that f is "regular '' in the sense that the higher - order derivatives of f decay quickly enough for the remainder terms in the Euler -- Maclaurin formula to tend to 0. Ramanujan tacitly assumed this property. The regularity requirement prevents the use of Ramanujan summation upon spaced - out series like 0 + 2 + 0 + 4 + ⋯, because no regular function takes those values. Instead, such a series must be interpreted by zeta function regularization. For this reason, Hardy recommends "great caution '' when applying the Ramanujan sums of known series to find the sums of related series.
A summation method that is linear and stable can not sum the series 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ to any finite value. (Stable means that adding a term to the beginning of the series increases the sum by the same amount.) This can be seen as follows. If
then adding 0 to both sides gives
By linearity, one may subtract the second equation from the first (subtracting each component of the second line from the first line in columns) to give
Adding 0 to both sides again gives
and subtracting the last two series gives
contradicting stability.
The methods used above to sum 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ are either not stable or not linear.
In bosonic string theory, the attempt is to compute the possible energy levels of a string, in particular the lowest energy level. Speaking informally, each harmonic of the string can be viewed as a collection of D − 2 independent quantum harmonic oscillators, one for each transverse direction, where D is the dimension of spacetime. If the fundamental oscillation frequency is ω then the energy in an oscillator contributing to the nth harmonic is nħω / 2. So using the divergent series, the sum over all harmonics is − ħω (D − 2) / 24. Ultimately it is this fact, combined with the Goddard -- Thorn theorem, which leads to bosonic string theory failing to be consistent in dimensions other than 26.
The regularization of 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ is also involved in computing the Casimir force for a scalar field in one dimension. An exponential cutoff function suffices to smooth the series, representing the fact that arbitrarily high - energy modes are not blocked by the conducting plates. The spatial symmetry of the problem is responsible for canceling the quadratic term of the expansion. All that is left is the constant term − 1 / 12, and the negative sign of this result reflects the fact that the Casimir force is attractive.
A similar calculation is involved in three dimensions, using the Epstein zeta - function in place of the Riemann zeta function.
It is unclear whether Leonhard Euler summed the series to − 1 / 12. According to Morris Kline, Euler 's early work on divergent series relied on function expansions, from which he concluded 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ = ∞. According to Raymond Ayoub, the fact that the divergent zeta series is not Abel summable prevented Euler from using the zeta function as freely as the eta function, and he "could not have attached a meaning '' to the series. Other authors have credited Euler with the sum, suggesting that Euler would have extended the relationship between the zeta and eta functions to negative integers. In the primary literature, the series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ is mentioned in Euler 's 1760 publication De seriebus divergentibus alongside the divergent geometric series 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + ⋯. Euler hints that series of this type have finite, negative sums, and he explains what this means for geometric series, but he does not return to discuss 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯. In the same publication, Euler writes that the sum of 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ⋯ is infinite.
David Leavitt 's 2007 novel The Indian Clerk includes a scene where Hardy and Littlewood discuss the meaning of this series. They conclude that Ramanujan has rediscovered ζ (− 1), and they take the "lunatic asylum '' line in his second letter as a sign that Ramanujan is toying with them.
Simon McBurney 's 2007 play A Disappearing Number focuses on the series in the opening scene. The main character, Ruth, walks into a lecture hall and introduces the idea of a divergent series before proclaiming, "I 'm going to show you something really thrilling, '' namely 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ = − 1 / 12. As Ruth launches into a derivation of the functional equation of the zeta function, another actor addresses the audience, admitting that they are actors: "But the mathematics is real. It 's terrifying, but it 's real. ''
In January 2014, Numberphile produced a YouTube video on the series, which gathered over 1.5 million views in its first month. The 8 - minute video is narrated by Tony Padilla, a physicist at the University of Nottingham. Padilla begins with 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ⋯ and 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯ and relates the latter to 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ using a term - by - term subtraction similar to Ramanujan 's argument. Numberphile also released a 21 - minute version of the video featuring Nottingham physicist Ed Copeland, who describes in more detail how 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯ = 1 / 4 as an Abel sum and 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ = − 1 / 12 as ζ (− 1). After receiving complaints about the lack of rigour in the first video, Padilla also wrote an explanation on his webpage relating the manipulations in the video to identities between the analytic continuations of the relevant Dirichlet series.
In the New York Times coverage of the Numberphile video, mathematician Edward Frenkel commented, "This calculation is one of the best - kept secrets in math. No one on the outside knows about it. ''
Coverage of this topic in Smithsonian magazine describes the Numberphile video as misleading, and notes that the interpretation of the sum as − 1 / 12 relies on a specialized meaning for the equals sign, from the techniques of analytic continuation, in which equals means is associated with. A further error is: S1 never equals 1 / 2 nor is associated with its limit average of 1 / 2; it is 0 or 1 depending on odd or even count of summations, requiring a case analysis.
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who is the actress that plays mary jane in spiderman | Kirsten Dunst - wikipedia
Kirsten Caroline Dunst (/ ˈkɪərstən /; born April 30, 1982) is an American actress. She made her film debut in Woody Allen 's short film Oedipus Wrecks for the anthology film New York Stories (1989). At the age of twelve, Dunst gained widespread recognition as Claudia in Interview with the Vampire (1994), a role for which she was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress. She appeared in Little Women the same year and in Jumanji the following year. After a recurring role in the third season of the NBC medical drama ER (1996 -- 97) as Charlie Chemingo and starring in films such as Wag the Dog (1997), Small Soldiers (1998), the English dub of Kiki 's Delivery Service (U.S. release 1998), and The Virgin Suicides (1999), Dunst began making romantic comedies and comedy - dramas, starring in Drop Dead Gorgeous (1999), Bring It On (2000), Get Over It and Crazy / Beautiful (both released in 2001).
Dunst achieved fame for her portrayal of Mary Jane Watson in Sam Raimi 's Spider - Man trilogy (2002 -- 07). Since then, her films have included the romantic comedy Wimbledon (2004), the science fiction romantic comedy - drama Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004) and Cameron Crowe 's romantic tragicomedy Elizabethtown (2005). She played the title role in Sofia Coppola 's biographical film Marie Antoinette (2006) and starred in the comedy film How to Lose Friends & Alienate People (2008). She won the Best Actress Award at the Cannes Film Festival and the Saturn Award for Best Actress for her performance in Lars von Trier 's Melancholia (2011). She starred in the second season of the television series Fargo in 2015, playing the role of Peggy Blumquist, a hairdresser who gets mixed up in a war between two crime families. Her performance garnered widespread critical acclaim, leading to her winning the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Actress and being nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie, losing to Lady Gaga and Sarah Paulson, respectively.
In 2017, Dunst won her first Screen Actors Guild Award for her performance in the space drama Hidden Figures (2017) and co-starred in her third collaboration with Coppola, the historical drama thriller The Beguiled.
In 2001, Dunst made her singing debut in the film Get Over It, in which she performed two songs. She also sang the jazz song "After You 've Gone '' for the end credits of the film The Cat 's Meow (2001).
Dunst was born in Point Pleasant, New Jersey, to Klaus Hermann Dunst and Inez Dunst. She has a younger brother, Christian. Her father worked as a medical services executive, and her mother worked for Lufthansa as a flight attendant, and was an artist and one - time gallery owner. Dunst 's father is German, originally from Hamburg, and Dunst 's mother was born in New Jersey, and is of Swedish descent.
Until the age of eleven, Dunst lived in Brick Township, New Jersey, where she attended Ranney School. In 1993, her parents separated, and she subsequently moved with her mother and brother to Los Angeles, where she attended Laurel Hall School in North Hollywood and Notre Dame High School. In 1995, her mother filed for divorce.
After graduating from Notre Dame in 2000, Dunst continued the acting career that she had begun. As a teenager, she found it difficult to deal with her rising fame, and for a period she blamed her mother for pushing her into acting as a child. However, she later expressed that her mother "always had the best intentions ''. When asked if she had any regrets about the way she spent her childhood, Dunst said: "Well, it 's not a natural way to grow up, but it 's the way I grew up and I would n't change it. I have my stuff to work out... I do n't think anybody can sit around and say, ' My life is more screwed up than yours. ' Everybody has their issues. ''
Dunst began her career when she was three years old as a child fashion model in television commercials. She was signed with Ford Models and Elite Model Management.
At the age of six, she made her feature film debut in a minor role in Woody Allen 's short film Oedipus Wrecks that was released as one - third of the anthology film New York Stories (1989). Soon after, she co-starred with Tom Hanks in the comedy - drama The Bonfire of the Vanities (1990), based on Tom Wolfe 's novel of the same name, where she played the daughter of Hanks ' character. In 1993, Dunst guest - starred on the science fiction drama Star Trek: The Next Generation in season 7: episode 7 titled "Dark Page '' as Hedril.
The breakthrough role in Dunst 's career came in 1994 in the horror drama Interview with the Vampire opposite Tom Cruise and Brad Pitt, based on Anne Rice 's novel of the same name, where she played Claudia, the child vampire who is a surrogate daughter to Cruise and Pitt 's characters. The film received ambivalent reviews, but many film critics complimented Dunst 's performance. Roger Ebert commented that Dunst 's creation of the child vampire Claudia was one of the "creepier '' aspects of the film, and mentioned her ability to convey the impression of great age inside apparent youth.
Todd McCarthy in Variety noted that Dunst was "just right '' for the family. The film featured a scene in which Dunst shared her first on - screen kiss with Pitt, who is almost two decades older.
In an interview with Interview magazine, she revealed, while questioned about her kissing scene with Pitt, that kissing him had made her feel uncomfortable: "I thought it was gross, that Brad had cooties. I mean, I was 10. '' Her performance earned her the MTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance, the Saturn Award for Best Young Actress, and her first Golden Globe Award nomination.
Later in 1994, Dunst co-starred in the drama film Little Women opposite Winona Ryder and Claire Danes. The film received favorable reviews. Critic Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that the film was the greatest adaptation of Louisa May Alcott 's novel of the same name and remarked on Dunst 's performance, "The perfect contrast to take - charge Jo comes from Kirsten Dunst 's scene - stealing Amy, whose vanity and twinkling mischief make so much more sense coming from an 11 - year - old vixen than they did from grown - up Joan Bennett in 1933. Ms. Dunst, also scarily effective as the baby bloodsucker of Interview With the Vampire, is a little vamp with a big future. ''
In 1995, Dunst co-starred in the fantasy adventure film Jumanji, loosely based on Chris Van Allsburg 's 1981 book of the same name. The story is about a supernatural and ominous board game which makes animals and other jungle hazards appear upon each roll of the dice. She was part of an ensemble cast that included Robin Williams, Bonnie Hunt and David Alan Grier. The movie grossed $262 million worldwide. That year, and again in 2002, she was named one of People magazine 's 50 Most Beautiful People.
From 1996 to 1997, Dunst had a recurring role in season three of the NBC medical drama ER. She played Charlie Chemingo, a child prostitute taken under the guidance of the ER pediatrician Dr. Doug Ross (George Clooney). In 1997, she voiced Young Anastasia in the animated musical film Anastasia. Also in 1997, Dunst co-starred in the black comedy film Wag the Dog, opposite Robert De Niro and Dustin Hoffman. The following year she voiced the title character, Kiki, a thirteen - year - old apprentice witch who leaves her home village to spend a year on her own, in the anime movie Kiki 's Delivery Service (1998).
Dunst was offered the role of Angela in the 1999 drama film American Beauty, but turned it down because she did not want to appear in the film 's suggestive sexual scenes or kiss the film 's star Kevin Spacey. She later explained: "When I read it, I was 15 and I do n't think I was mature enough to understand the script 's material. '' That same year, she co-starred in the comedy film Dick, opposite Michelle Williams. The film is a parody retelling the events of the Watergate scandal which led to the resignation of U.S. president Richard Nixon.
Dunst appeared in Savage Garden 's music video "I Knew I Loved You '', the first single from their second and final album Affirmation (1999). When interviewed by MTV, Darren Hayes of Savage Garden stated that "She 's wonderful. She 's really talented and a great person ''.
Dunst co-starred opposite James Woods in Sofia Coppola 's drama film The Virgin Suicides (1999), based on Jeffrey Eugenides ' novel of the same name. She played Lux Lisbon, one of the troubled teenage daughters of Ronald Lisbon (Woods). The film was screened as a special presentation at the 43rd San Francisco International Film Festival in 2000. The movie received generally favorable reviews, and San Francisco Chronicle critic Peter Stack noted in his review that Dunst "beautifully balances innocence and wantonness. ''
In 2000, Dunst starred in the comedy Bring It On as Torrance Shipman, the captain of a cheerleading squad. The film generated mostly positive reviews, with many critics reserving praise for her performance. In his review, A.O. Scott called her "a terrific comic actress, largely because of her great expressive range, and the nimbleness with which she can shift from anxiety to aggression to genuine hurt. '' Charles Taylor of Salon noted that "among contemporary teenage actresses, Dunst has become the sunniest imaginable parodist '', even though he thought the film had failed to provide her with as good a role as she had either in Dick or in The Virgin Suicides. Jessica Winter from The Village Voice complimented Dunst, stating that her performance was "as sprightly and knowingly daft as her turn in Dick '' and commenting that "(Dunst) provides the only major element of Bring It On that plays as tweaking parody rather than slick, strident, body - slam churlishness. '' Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle, despite giving the film an unfavorable review, commended Dunst for her willingness "to be as silly and cloyingly agreeable as it takes to get through a slapdash film. ''
The following year, Dunst starred in the comedy film Get Over It (2001). She later explained that one of the reasons for accepting the role was that it gave her the opportunity to sing. Also in 2001, she starred in the historical drama The Cat 's Meow, directed by Peter Bogdanovich, as the American actress Marion Davies. Derek Elley of Variety described the film as "playful and sporty '', saying that this was Dunst 's best performance to date: "Believable as both a spoiled ingenue and a lover to two very different men, Dunst endows a potentially lightweight character with considerable depth and sympathy. '' For her work, she won the Best Actress Silver Ombú category award at the 2002 Mar del Plata International Film Festival.
In 2002, Dunst co-starred opposite Tobey Maguire in the superhero film Spider - Man, the most financially successful film of her career to date. She played Mary Jane Watson, the best friend and love interest of Peter Parker (Maguire). The film was directed by Sam Raimi. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly remarked on Dunst 's ability to "lend even the smallest line a tickle of flirtatious music. '' In the Los Angeles Times review, critic Kenneth Turan noted that Dunst and Maguire made a real connection on screen, concluding that their relationship "involved audiences to an extent rarely seen in films. '' Spider - Man was a commercial and critical success. The movie grossed $114 million during its opening weekend in North America and went on to earn $822 million worldwide.
Following the success of Spider - Man, Dunst co-starred opposite Billy Bob Thornton, Morgan Freeman and Holly Hunter in Ed Solomon 's drama Levity (2003). That same year, she co-starred opposite Julia Roberts, Maggie Gyllenhaal and Julia Stiles in the drama Mona Lisa Smile (2003). The film generated mostly negative reviews, with Manohla Dargis of the Los Angeles Times describing it as "smug and reductive. '' She co-starred opposite Jim Carrey, Kate Winslet and Tom Wilkinson in Michel Gondry 's science fiction romantic comedy - drama Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004) as Mary Svevo. The latter film received very positive reviews, with Entertainment Weekly describing Dunst 's subplot as "nifty and clever ''. The movie grossed $72 million worldwide.
The success of the first Spider - Man film led Dunst to reprise her role as Mary Jane Watson in 2004 in Spider - Man 2. The movie was well received by critics and a financial success, setting a new opening weekend box office record for North America. With revenue of $783 million worldwide, it was the second highest - grossing film in 2004. Also in 2004, Dunst co-starred opposite Paul Bettany in the romantic comedy Wimbledon where she portrayed a rising tennis player in the Wimbledon Championships, while Bettany portrayed a fading former tennis star. The film received mixed reviews, but many critics enjoyed Dunst 's performance. Claudia Puig of USA Today reported that the chemistry between Dunst and Bettany was potent, with Dunst doing a fine job as a sassy and self - assured player.
In 2005, she co-starred opposite Orlando Bloom in Cameron Crowe 's romantic tragicomedy Elizabethtown as Claire Colburn, a flight attendant. The film premiered at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival. Dunst revealed that working with Crowe was enjoyable, but more demanding than she had expected. The movie garnered mixed reviews, with the Chicago Tribune rating it one out of four stars and describing Dunst 's portrayal of a flight attendant as "cloying. '' It was a box office disappointment.
In 2006, Dunst collaborated with Sofia Coppola again and starred as the title character in Coppola 's historical drama Marie Antoinette, based on Antonia Fraser 's book Marie Antoinette: The Journey. The movie was screened at a special presentation at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival, and was reviewed favourably. International revenues were $45 million out of $60 million overall.
In 2007, Dunst reprised her role as Mary Jane Watson in Spider - Man 3. In contrast to the previous two films ' positive reviews, Spider - Man 3 received mixed reviews from critics. Nonetheless, with a total worldwide gross of $891 million, it stands as the most commercially successful film in the series and Dunst 's highest - grossing film to the end of 2008. Having initially signed on for three Spider - Man films, she revealed that she would do a fourth, but only if Raimi and Maguire also returned. In January 2010, it was announced that the fourth film was cancelled and that the Spider - Man film series would be restarted, and therefore dropping Dunst, Maguire and Raimi from the franchise.
In 2008, Dunst co-starred opposite Simon Pegg in the comedy How to Lose Friends & Alienate People, based on former Vanity Fair contributing editor Toby Young 's memoir of the same name.
Dunst made her screenwriting and directorial debut with the short film Bastard which premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival in 2010, and was later featured at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival. She co-starred opposite Ryan Gosling in the mystery drama All Good Things (2010), based on a true story as the wife of Gosling 's character from a run - down neighborhood who goes missing. The film received reasonable reviews, and earned $640,000 worldwide. Dunst co-starred with Brian Geraghty in Carlos Cuarón 's short film The Second Bakery Attack, based on Haruki Murakami 's short story.
In 2011, Dunst co-starred opposite Charlotte Gainsbourg, Kiefer Sutherland and Charlotte Rampling in Lars von Trier 's drama film Melancholia as a depressed woman at the end of the world. The film premiered at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival and received positive reviews and Dunst was singled out for praise. Steven Loeb of Southampton Patch wrote, "This film has brought the best out of von Trier, as well as his star. Dunst is so good in this film, playing a character unlike any other she has ever attempted... Even if the film itself were not the incredible work of art that it is, Dunst 's performance alone would be incentive enough to recommend it. ''
Sukhdev Sandhu wrote from Cannes in The Daily Telegraph that "Dunst is exceptional, so utterly convincing in the lead role -- trouble, serene, a fierce savant -- that it feels like a career breakthrough. Dunst won several awards for her performance, including the Best Actress Award at the Cannes Film Festival and the Best Actress Award from the U.S. National Society of Film Critics
Dunst has signed to star in Sweet Relief as Marla Ruzicka, a peace activist and U.S. relief worker killed by a suicide bomb in Baghdad. She has expressed interest in playing the role of Blondie frontwoman Debbie Harry in Michel Gondry 's upcoming biographical film about the band.
In 2012, Dunst co-starred in Juan Diego Solanas ' science fiction romantic drama Upside Down opposite Jim Sturgess. She co-starred opposite Isla Fisher, Rebel Wilson and Lizzy Caplan in Leslye Headland 's romantic comedy Bachelorette, produced by Will Ferrell and Adam McKay. In 2012, she co-starred opposite Sam Riley, Kristen Stewart and Garrett Hedlund in the adventure drama On the Road as Camille Moriarty, based on Jack Kerouac 's novel of the same name. She made a cameo appearance in the short film Fight For Your Right Revisited. It premiered at the 2011 Sundance Film Festival.
In 2015, Dunst co-starred as Peggy Blumquist in the second season of the critically acclaimed FX crime comedy - drama Fargo, for which she received a Golden Globe nomination. In 2016, Dunst co-starred in Jeff Nichols ' science fiction drama Midnight Special with Michael Shannon and Joel Edgerton. In May 2016, she was a member of the main competition jury of the 2016 Cannes Film Festival.
In 2017, Dunst starred with Colin Farrell, Nicole Kidman, and Elle Fanning in the drama The Beguiled, her third collaboration with Sofia Coppola, who directed, wrote, and produced. The film is a remake of Don Siegel 's original 1971 film about a wounded Union soldier who seeks shelter at an all - girls ' school deep in Confederate country.
In May 2015, it was announced that Dunst would star in the Rodarte label founders ' feature directorial debut Woodshock about a woman who falls deeper into paranoia after taking a deadly drug. In October 2015, Dunst said that she is co-writing and set to direct a film adaptation of a novel. In July 2016, it was announced that Dunst would be making her feature film directorial debut with an adaptation of Sylvia Plath 's novel The Bell Jar with Dakota Fanning in the lead role.
Dunst made her singing debut in the comedy film Get Over It, performing two songs written by Marc Shaiman.
She recorded Henry Creamer and Turner Layton 's jazz standard "After You 've Gone '' that was used in the end credits of The Cat 's Meow. In Spider - Man 3, she sang two songs as Mary Jane Watson, one during a Broadway performance, and one as a singing waitress in a jazz club. Dunst revealed that she recorded the songs earlier and later lip - sync to it when filming began. She appeared in the music videos for Savage Garden 's "I Knew I Loved You '', Beastie Boys ' "Make Some Noise '' and R.E.M. 's "We All Go Back to Where We Belong '' and she sang two tracks which were "This Old Machine '' and "Summer Day '' on Jason Schwartzman 's 2007 solo album Nighttiming.
In 2007, Dunst stated that she had no plans to follow the steps of other actors who release albums, saying: "Definitely not. No way. It worked when Barbra Streisand was doing it, but now it 's a little cheesy, I think. It works better when singers are in movies. ''
Dunst starred as the magical princess Majokko in the Takashi Murakami and McG directed short Akihabara Majokko Princess singing a cover of "Turning Japanese ''. This was shown at the "Pop Life '' exhibition in London 's Tate Modern museum from October 1, 2009, to January 17, 2010. It shows Dunst prancing around Akihabara, a crowded shopping district in Tokyo, Japan.
Dunst was treated for depression in early 2008 at the Cirque Lodge treatment center in Utah. She explained that she had been feeling low in the six months before her admission. In late March 2008, she checked out of the treatment center and began filming the mystery drama All Good Things. In May 2008, she went public with this information in order to dispel rumors of drug and alcohol abuse, stating that "Now that I 'm feeling stronger, I was prepared to say something... Depression is pretty serious and should not be gossiped about ''.
Dunst dated actor Jake Gyllenhaal from 2002 to 2004. She dated Razorlight frontman Johnny Borell in 2007. She dated her On the Road co-star Garrett Hedlund from 2012 to 2016. In 2016, she began dating her Fargo co-star Jesse Plemons. By 2017, the couple had become engaged.
Dunst gained German citizenship in 2011 and now holds dual citizenship of Germany and the United States.
Dunst supported Democratic candidate John Kerry for the 2004 U.S. presidential election. She supported Barack Obama for the 2008 presidential election, directing and narrating a documentary, Why Tuesday, about the tradition of voting on Tuesdays and the low voter turnout in the US, as she felt it important to "influence people in a positive way ''.
Dunst works with the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation, for which she helped design and promote a necklace whose sales proceeds went to the Foundation. She worked in breast cancer awareness, participating in the Stand Up to Cancer telethon in September 2008 to raise funds for cancer research. On December 5, 2009, she participated in the Teletón in Mexico, to raise funds for cancer treatment and children 's rehabilitation.
Dunst owns a home in Toluca Lake, Los Angeles, California, which she purchased in 2001. In 2010, she sold a residence in Nichols Canyon, Los Angeles. She also resided in a lower Manhattan apartment which she listed for sale in 2017.
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the three major components in a nucleotide are | Nucleotide - wikipedia
Nucleotides are organic molecules that serve as the monomer units for forming the nucleic acid polymers deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), both of which are essential biomolecules in all life - forms on Earth. Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids; they are composed of three subunit molecules: a nitrogenous base, a five - carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and at least one phosphate group. They are also known as phosphate nucleotides.
A nucleoside is a nitrogenous base and a 5 - carbon sugar. Thus a nucleoside plus a phosphate group yields a nucleotide.
Nucleotides also play a central role in life - form metabolism at the fundamental, cellular level. They carry packets of chemical energy -- in the form of the nucleoside triphosphates ATP, GTP, CTP and UTP -- throughout the cell to the many cellular functions that demand energy, which include synthesizing amino acids, proteins and cell membranes and parts; moving the cell and moving cell parts, both internally and intercellularly; dividing the cell, etc. In addition, nucleotides participate in cell signaling (cGMP and cAMP), and are incorporated into important cofactors of enzymatic reactions (e.g. coenzyme A, FAD, FMN, NAD, and NADP).
In experimental biochemistry, nucleotides can be radiolabeled with radionuclides to yield radionucleotides.
A nucleotide is composed of three distinctive chemical sub-units: a five - carbon sugar molecule, a nitrogenous base -- which two together are called a nucleoside -- and one phosphate group. With all three joined, a nucleotide is also termed a "nucleoside monophosphate ''. The chemistry sources ACS Style Guide and IUPAC Gold Book prescribe that a nucleotide should contain only one phosphate group, but common usage in molecular biology textbooks often extends the definition to include molecules with two, or with three, phosphates. Thus, the terms "nucleoside diphosphate '' or "nucleoside triphosphate '' may also indicate nucleotides.
Nucleotides contain either a purine or a pyrimidine base -- i.e., the nitrogenous base molecule, also known as a nucleobase -- and are termed ribonucleotides if the sugar is ribose, or deoxyribonucleotides if the sugar is deoxyribose. Individual phosphate molecules repetitively connect the sugar - ring molecules in two adjacent nucleotide monomers, thereby connecting the nucleotide monomers of a nucleic acid end - to - end into a long chain. These chain - joins of sugar and phosphate molecules create a ' backbone ' strand for a single - or double helix. In any one strand, the chemical orientation (directionality) of the chain - joins runs from the 5 ' - end to the 3 ' - end (read: 5 prime - end to 3 prime - end) -- referring to the five carbon sites on sugar molecules in adjacent nucleotides. In a double helix, the two strands are oriented in opposite directions, which permits base pairing and complementarity between the base - pairs, all which is essential for replicating or transcribing the encoded information found in DNA.
Unlike in nucleic acid nucleotides, singular cyclic nucleotides are formed when the phosphate group is bound twice to the same sugar molecule, i.e., at the corners of the sugar hydroxyl groups. These individual nucleotides function in cell metabolism rather than the nucleic acid structures of long - chain molecules.
Nucleic acids then are polymeric macromolecules assembled from nucleotides, the monomer - units of nucleic acids. The purine bases adenine and guanine and pyrimidine base cytosine occur in both DNA and RNA, while the pyrimidine bases thymine (in DNA) and uracil (in RNA) in just one. Adenine forms a base pair with thymine with two hydrogen bonds, while guanine pairs with cytosine with three hydrogen bonds.
Nucleotides can be synthesized by a variety of means both in vitro and in vivo.
In vivo, nucleotides can be synthesized de novo or recycled through salvage pathways. The components used in de novo nucleotide synthesis are derived from biosynthetic precursors of carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism, and from ammonia and carbon dioxide. The liver is the major organ of de novo synthesis of all four nucleotides. De novo synthesis of pyrimidines and purines follows two different pathways. Pyrimidines are synthesized first from aspartate and carbamoyl - phosphate in the cytoplasm to the common precursor ring structure orotic acid, onto which a phosphorylated ribosyl unit is covalently linked. Purines, however, are first synthesized from the sugar template onto which the ring synthesis occurs. For reference, the syntheses of the purine and pyrimidine nucleotides are carried out by several enzymes in the cytoplasm of the cell, not within a specific organelle. Nucleotides undergo breakdown such that useful parts can be reused in synthesis reactions to create new nucleotides.
In vitro, protecting groups may be used during laboratory production of nucleotides. A purified nucleoside is protected to create a phosphoramidite, which can then be used to obtain analogues not found in nature and / or to synthesize an oligonucleotide.
The synthesis of the pyrimidines CTP and UTP occurs in the cytoplasm and starts with the formation of carbamoyl phosphate from glutamine and CO. Next, aspartate carbamoyltransferase catalyzes a condensation reaction between aspartate and carbamoyl phosphate to form carbamoyl aspartic acid, which is cyclized into 4, 5 - dihydroorotic acid by dihydroorotase. The latter is converted to orotate by dihydroorotate oxidase. The net reaction is:
Orotate is covalently linked with a phosphorylated ribosyl unit. The covalent linkage between the ribose and pyrimidine occurs at position C of the ribose unit, which contains a pyrophosphate, and N of the pyrimidine ring. Orotate phosphoribosyltransferase (PRPP transferase) catalyzes the net reaction yielding orotidine monophosphate (OMP):
Orotidine 5 ' - monophosphate is decarboxylated by orotidine - 5 ' - phosphate decarboxylase to form uridine monophosphate (UMP). PRPP transferase catalyzes both the ribosylation and decarboxylation reactions, forming UMP from orotic acid in the presence of PRPP. It is from UMP that other pyrimidine nucleotides are derived. UMP is phosphorylated by two kinases to uridine triphosphate (UTP) via two sequential reactions with ATP. First the diphosphate form UDP is produced, which in turn is phosphorylated to UTP. Both steps are fueled by ATP hydrolysis:
CTP is subsequently formed by amination of UTP by the catalytic activity of CTP synthetase. Glutamine is the NH donor and the reaction is fueled by ATP hydrolysis, too:
Cytidine monophosphate (CMP) is derived from cytidine triphosphate (CTP) with subsequent loss of two phosphates.
The atoms that are used to build the purine nucleotides come from a variety of sources:
The de novo synthesis of purine nucleotides by which these precursors are incorporated into the purine ring proceeds by a 10 - step pathway to the branch - point intermediate IMP, the nucleotide of the base hypoxanthine. AMP and GMP are subsequently synthesized from this intermediate via separate, two - step pathways. Thus, purine moieties are initially formed as part of the ribonucleotides rather than as free bases.
Six enzymes take part in IMP synthesis. Three of them are multifunctional:
The pathway starts with the formation of PRPP. PRPS1 is the enzyme that activates R5P, which is formed primarily by the pentose phosphate pathway, to PRPP by reacting it with ATP. The reaction is unusual in that a pyrophosphoryl group is directly transferred from ATP to C of R5P and that the product has the α configuration about C1. This reaction is also shared with the pathways for the synthesis of Trp, His, and the pyrimidine nucleotides. Being on a major metabolic crossroad and requiring much energy, this reaction is highly regulated.
In the first reaction unique to purine nucleotide biosynthesis, PPAT catalyzes the displacement of PRPP 's pyrophosphate group (PP) by an amide nitrogen donated from either glutamine (N), glycine (N&C), aspartate (N), folic acid (C), or CO. This is the committed step in purine synthesis. The reaction occurs with the inversion of configuration about ribose C, thereby forming β - 5 - phosphorybosylamine (5 - PRA) and establishing the anomeric form of the future nucleotide.
Next, a glycine is incorporated fueled by ATP hydrolysis and the carboxyl group forms an amine bond to the NH previously introduced. A one - carbon unit from folic acid coenzyme N - formyl - THF is then added to the amino group of the substituted glycine followed by the closure of the imidazole ring. Next, a second NH group is transferred from a glutamine to the first carbon of the glycine unit. A carboxylation of the second carbon of the glycin unit is concomittantly added. This new carbon is modified by the additional of a third NH unit, this time transferred from an aspartate residue. Finally, a second one - carbon unit from formyl - THF is added to the nitrogen group and the ring covalently closed to form the common purine precursor inosine monophosphate (IMP).
Inosine monophosphate is converted to adenosine monophosphate in two steps. First, GTP hydrolysis fuels the addition of aspartate to IMP by adenylosuccinate synthase, substituting the carbonyl oxygen for a nitrogen and forming the intermediate adenylosuccinate. Fumarate is then cleaved off forming adenosine monophosphate. This step is catalyzed by adenylosuccinate lyase.
Inosine monophosphate is converted to guanosine monophosphate by the oxidation of IMP forming xanthylate, followed by the insertion of an amino group at C. NAD is the electron acceptor in the oxidation reaction. The amide group transfer from glutamine is fueled by ATP hydrolysis.
In humans, pyrimidine rings (C, T, U) can be degraded completely to CO and NH (urea excretion). That having been said, purine rings (G, A) can not. Instead they are degraded to the metabolically inert uric acid which is then excreted from the body. Uric acid is formed when GMP is split into the base guanine and ribose. Guanine is deaminated to xanthine which in turn is oxidized to uric acid. This last reaction is irreversible. Similarly, uric acid can be formed when AMP is deaminated to IMP from which the ribose unit is removed to form hypoxanthine. Hypoxanthine is oxidized to xanthine and finally to uric acid. Instead of uric acid secretion, guanine and IMP can be used for recycling purposes and nucleic acid synthesis in the presence of PRPP and aspartate (NH donor).
An unnatural base pair (UBP) is a designed subunit (or nucleobase) of DNA which is created in a laboratory and does not occur in nature. In 2012, a group of American scientists led by Floyd Romesberg, a chemical biologist at the Scripps Research Institute in San Diego, California, published that his team designed an unnatural base pair (UBP). The two new artificial nucleotides or Unnatural Base Pair (UBP) were named d5SICS and dNaM. More technically, these artificial nucleotides bearing hydrophobic nucleobases, feature two fused aromatic rings that form a (d5SICS -- dNaM) complex or base pair in DNA. In 2014 the same team from the Scripps Research Institute reported that they synthesized a stretch of circular DNA known as a plasmid containing natural T-A and C-G base pairs along with the best - performing UBP Romesberg 's laboratory had designed, and inserted it into cells of the common bacterium E. coli that successfully replicated the unnatural base pairs through multiple generations. This is the first known example of a living organism passing along an expanded genetic code to subsequent generations. This was in part achieved by the addition of a supportive algal gene that expresses a nucleotide triphosphate transporter which efficiently imports the triphosphates of both d5SICSTP and dNaMTP into E. coli bacteria. Then, the natural bacterial replication pathways use them to accurately replicate the plasmid containing d5SICS -- dNaM.
The successful incorporation of a third base pair is a significant breakthrough toward the goal of greatly expanding the number of amino acids which can be encoded by DNA, from the existing 21 amino acids to a theoretically possible 172, thereby expanding the potential for living organisms to produce novel proteins. The artificial strings of DNA do not encode for anything yet, but scientists speculate they could be designed to manufacture new proteins which could have industrial or pharmaceutical uses.
Nucleotide (abbreviated "nt '') is a common unit of length for single - stranded nucleic acids, similar to how base pair is a unit of length for double - stranded nucleic acids.
A study done by the Department of Sports Science at the University of Hull in Hull, UK has shown that nucleotides have significant impact on cortisol levels in saliva. Post exercise, the experimental nucleotide group had lower cortisol levels in their blood than the control or the placebo. Additionally, post supplement values of Immunoglobulin A were significantly higher than either the placebo or the control. The study concluded, "nucleotide supplementation blunts the response of the hormones associated with physiological stress. ''
Another study conducted in 2013 looked at the impact nucleotide supplementation had on the immune system in athletes. In the study, all athletes were male and were highly skilled in taekwondo. Out of the twenty athletes tested, half received a placebo and half received 480 mg per day of nucleotide supplement. After thirty days, the study concluded that nucleotide supplementation may counteract the impairment of the body 's immune function after heavy exercise.
The IUPAC has designated the symbols for nucleotides. Apart from the five (A, G, C, T / U) bases, often degenerate bases are used especially for designing PCR primers. These nucleotide codes are listed here. Some primer sequences may also include the character "I '', which codes for the non-standard nucleotide inosine. Inosine occurs in tRNAs, and will pair with adenine, cytosine, or thymine. This character does not appear in the following table however, because it does not represent a degeneracy. While inosine can serve a similar function as the degeneracy "D '', it is an actual nucleotide, rather than a representation of a mix of nucleotides that covers each possible pairing needed.
Sigel, Astrid; Operschall, Bert P.; Sigel, Helmut (2017). "Chapter 11. Complex Formation of Lead (II) with Nucleotides and Their Constituents ''. In Astrid, S.; Helmut, S.; Sigel, R.K.O. Lead: Its Effects on Environment and Health. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 17. de Gruyter. pp. 319 -- 402. doi: 10.1515 / 9783110434330 - 011.
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where do you find dna in the body | DNA - wikipedia
Deoxyribonucleic acid (/ diˈɒksiˌraɪboʊnjʊˌkliːɪk, - ˌkleɪɪk / (listen); DNA) is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids; alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), they are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life. Most DNA molecules consist of two biopolymer strands coiled around each other to form a double helix.
The two DNA strands are called polynucleotides since they are composed of simpler monomer units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of one of four nitrogen - containing nucleobases (cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A) or thymine (T)), a sugar called deoxyribose, and a phosphate group. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar - phosphate backbone. The nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands are bound together, according to base pairing rules (A with T and C with G), with hydrogen bonds to make double - stranded DNA.
The complementary nitrogenous bases are divided into two groups, pyrimidines and purines. In a DNA molecule, the pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine, the purines are adenine and guanine.
DNA stores biological information. The DNA backbone is resistant to cleavage, and both strands of the double - stranded structure store the same biological information. This information is replicated as and when the two strands separate. A large part of DNA (more than 98 % for humans) is non-coding, meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences.
The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are thus antiparallel. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases (informally, bases). It is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes biological information. RNA strands are created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription. Under the genetic code, these RNA strands are translated to specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in a process called translation.
Within eukaryotic cells DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes. During cell division these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, providing each cell its own complete set of chromosomes. Eukaryotic organisms (animals, plants, fungi and protists) store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus and some of their DNA in organelles, such as mitochondria or chloroplasts. In contrast prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) store their DNA only in the cytoplasm. Within the eukaryotic chromosomes, chromatin proteins such as histones compact and organize DNA. These compact structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed.
DNA was first isolated by Friedrich Miescher in 1869. Its molecular structure was first identified by James Watson and Francis Crick at the Cavendish Laboratory within the University of Cambridge in 1953, whose model - building efforts were guided by X-ray diffraction data acquired by Raymond Gosling, who was a post-graduate student of Rosalind Franklin. DNA is used by researchers as a molecular tool to explore physical laws and theories, such as the ergodic theorem and the theory of elasticity. The unique material properties of DNA have made it an attractive molecule for material scientists and engineers interested in micro - and nano - fabrication. Among notable advances in this field are DNA origami and DNA - based hybrid materials.
DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides. The structure of DNA is dynamic along its length, being capable of coiling into tight loops, and other shapes. In all species it is composed of two helical chains, bound to each other by hydrogen bonds. Both chains are coiled round the same axis, and have the same pitch of 34 ångströms (3.4 nanometres). The pair of chains has a radius of 10 ångströms (1.0 nanometre). According to another study, when measured in a different solution, the DNA chain measured 22 to 26 ångströms wide (2.2 to 2.6 nanometres), and one nucleotide unit measured 3.3 Å (0.33 nm) long. Although each individual nucleotide repeating unit is very small, DNA polymers can be very large molecules containing millions to hundreds of millions of nucleotides. For instance, the DNA in the largest human chromosome, chromosome number 1, consists of approximately 220 million base pairs and would be 85 mm long if straightened.
In living organisms, DNA does not usually exist as a single molecule, but instead as a pair of molecules that are held tightly together. These two long strands entwine like vines, in the shape of a double helix. The nucleotide contains both a segment of the backbone of the molecule (which holds the chain together) and a nucleobase (which interacts with the other DNA strand in the helix). A nucleobase linked to a sugar is called a nucleoside and a base linked to a sugar and one or more phosphate groups is called a nucleotide. A polymer comprising multiple linked nucleotides (as in DNA) is called a polynucleotide.
The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and sugar residues. The sugar in DNA is 2 - deoxyribose, which is a pentose (five - carbon) sugar. The sugars are joined together by phosphate groups that form phosphodiester bonds between the third and fifth carbon atoms of adjacent sugar rings. These asymmetric bonds mean a strand of DNA has a direction. In a double helix, the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to their direction in the other strand: the strands are antiparallel. The asymmetric ends of DNA strands are said to have a directionality of five prime (5 ′) and three prime (3 ′), with the 5 ′ end having a terminal phosphate group and the 3 ′ end a terminal hydroxyl group. One major difference between DNA and RNA is the sugar, with the 2 - deoxyribose in DNA being replaced by the alternative pentose sugar ribose in RNA.
The DNA double helix is stabilized primarily by two forces: hydrogen bonds between nucleotides and base - stacking interactions among aromatic nucleobases. In the aqueous environment of the cell, the conjugated π bonds of nucleotide bases align perpendicular to the axis of the DNA molecule, minimizing their interaction with the solvation shell. The four bases found in DNA are adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). These four bases are attached to the sugar - phosphate to form the complete nucleotide, as shown for adenosine monophosphate. Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine. It was represented by A-T base pairs and G-C base pairs.
The nucleobases are classified into two types: the purines, A and G, being fused five - and six - membered heterocyclic compounds, and the pyrimidines, the six - membered rings C and T. A fifth pyrimidine nucleobase, uracil (U), usually takes the place of thymine in RNA and differs from thymine by lacking a methyl group on its ring. In addition to RNA and DNA, many artificial nucleic acid analogues have been created to study the properties of nucleic acids, or for use in biotechnology.
Uracil is not usually found in DNA, occurring only as a breakdown product of cytosine. However, in several bacteriophages, Bacillus subtilis bacteriophages PBS1 and PBS2 and Yersinia bacteriophage piR1 - 37, thymine has been replaced by uracil. Another phage - Staphylococcal phage S6 - has been identified with a genome where thymine has been replaced by uracil.
5 - hydroxymethyldeoxyuracil (dU) is also known to replace thymidine in several genomes including the Bacillus phages SPO1, φe, SP8, H1, 2C and SP82. Another modified uracil - 5 - dihydroxypentauracil -- has also been described.
Base J (beta - d - glucopyranosyloxymethyluracil), a modified form of uracil, is also found in several organisms: the flagellates Diplonema and Euglena, and all the kinetoplastid genera. Biosynthesis of J occurs in two steps: in the first step, a specific thymidine in DNA is converted into hydroxymethyldeoxyuridine; in the second, HOMedU is glycosylated to form J. Proteins that bind specifically to this base have been identified. These proteins appear to be distant relatives of the Tet1 oncogene that is involved in the pathogenesis of acute myeloid leukemia. J appears to act as a termination signal for RNA polymerase II.
In 1976 a bacteriophage - S - 2L - which infects species of the genus Synechocystis was found to have all the adenosine bases within its genome replaced by 2, 6 - diaminopurine. In 2016 deoxyarchaeosine was found to be present in the genomes of several bacteria and the Escherichia phage 9g.
Modified bases also occur in DNA. The first of these recognised was 5 - methylcytosine which was found in the genome of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in 1925. The complete replacement of cytosine by 5 - glycosylhydroxymethylcytosine in T even phages (T2, T4 and T6) was observed in 1953 In the genomes of Xanthomonas oryzae bacteriophage Xp12 and halovirus FH the full complement of cystosine has been replaced by 5 - methylcytosine. 6N - methyadenine was discovered to be present in DNA in 1955. N6 - carbamoyl - methyladenine was described in 1975. 7 - methylguanine was described in 1976. N4 - methylcytosine in DNA was described in 1983. In 1985 5 - hydroxycytosine was found in the genomes of the Rhizobium phages RL38JI and N17. α - putrescinylthymine occurs in both the genomes of the Delftia phage ΦW - 14 and the Bacillus phage SP10. α - glutamythymidine is found in the Bacillus phage SP01 and 5 - dihydroxypentyluracil is found in the Bacillus phage SP15.
The reason for the presence of these non canonical bases in DNA is not known. It seems likely that at least part of the reason for their presence in bacterial viruses (phages) is to avoid the restriction enzymes present in bacteria. This enzyme system acts at least in part as a molecular immune system protecting bacteria from infection by viruses.
This does not appear to be the entire story. Four modifications to the cytosine residues in human DNA have been reported. These modifications are the addition of methyl (CH) -, hydroxymethyl (CH OH) -, formyl (CHO) - and carboxyl (COOH) - groups. These modifications are thought to have regulatory functions.
Seventeen non canonical bases are known to occur in DNA. Most of these are modifications of the canonical bases plus uracil.
Twin helical strands form the DNA backbone. Another double helix may be found tracing the spaces, or grooves, between the strands. These voids are adjacent to the base pairs and may provide a binding site. As the strands are not symmetrically located with respect to each other, the grooves are unequally sized. One groove, the major groove, is 22 Å wide and the other, the minor groove, is 12 Å wide. The width of the major groove means that the edges of the bases are more accessible in the major groove than in the minor groove. As a result, proteins such as transcription factors that can bind to specific sequences in double - stranded DNA usually make contact with the sides of the bases exposed in the major groove. This situation varies in unusual conformations of DNA within the cell (see below), but the major and minor grooves are always named to reflect the differences in size that would be seen if the DNA is twisted back into the ordinary B form.
In a DNA double helix, each type of nucleobase on one strand bonds with just one type of nucleobase on the other strand. This is called complementary base pairing. Here, purines form hydrogen bonds to pyrimidines, with adenine bonding only to thymine in two hydrogen bonds, and cytosine bonding only to guanine in three hydrogen bonds. This arrangement of two nucleotides binding together across the double helix is called a Watson - Crick base pair. Another type of base pairing is Hoogsteen base pairing where two hydrogen bonds form between guanine and cytosine. As hydrogen bonds are not covalent, they can be broken and rejoined relatively easily. The two strands of DNA in a double helix can thus be pulled apart like a zipper, either by a mechanical force or high temperature. As a result of this base pair complementarity, all the information in the double - stranded sequence of a DNA helix is duplicated on each strand, which is vital in DNA replication. This reversible and specific interaction between complementary base pairs is critical for all the functions of DNA in living organisms.
The two types of base pairs form different numbers of hydrogen bonds, AT forming two hydrogen bonds, and GC forming three hydrogen bonds (see figures, right). DNA with high GC - content is more stable than DNA with low GC - content.
As noted above, most DNA molecules are actually two polymer strands, bound together in a helical fashion by noncovalent bonds; this double - stranded (dsDNA) structure is maintained largely by the intrastrand base stacking interactions, which are strongest for G, C stacks. The two strands can come apart -- a process known as melting -- to form two single - stranded DNA (ssDNA) molecules. Melting occurs at high temperature, low salt and high pH (low pH also melts DNA, but since DNA is unstable due to acid depurination, low pH is rarely used).
The stability of the dsDNA form depends not only on the GC - content (% G, C basepairs) but also on sequence (since stacking is sequence specific) and also length (longer molecules are more stable). The stability can be measured in various ways; a common way is the "melting temperature '', which is the temperature at which 50 % of the ds molecules are converted to ss molecules; melting temperature is dependent on ionic strength and the concentration of DNA. As a result, it is both the percentage of GC base pairs and the overall length of a DNA double helix that determines the strength of the association between the two strands of DNA. Long DNA helices with a high GC - content have stronger - interacting strands, while short helices with high AT content have weaker - interacting strands. In biology, parts of the DNA double helix that need to separate easily, such as the TATAAT Pribnow box in some promoters, tend to have a high AT content, making the strands easier to pull apart.
In the laboratory, the strength of this interaction can be measured by finding the temperature necessary to break the hydrogen bonds, their melting temperature (also called T value). When all the base pairs in a DNA double helix melt, the strands separate and exist in solution as two entirely independent molecules. These single - stranded DNA molecules have no single common shape, but some conformations are more stable than others.
A DNA sequence is called "sense '' if its sequence is the same as that of a messenger RNA copy that is translated into protein. The sequence on the opposite strand is called the "antisense '' sequence. Both sense and antisense sequences can exist on different parts of the same strand of DNA (i.e. both strands can contain both sense and antisense sequences). In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, antisense RNA sequences are produced, but the functions of these RNAs are not entirely clear. One proposal is that antisense RNAs are involved in regulating gene expression through RNA - RNA base pairing.
A few DNA sequences in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and more in plasmids and viruses, blur the distinction between sense and antisense strands by having overlapping genes. In these cases, some DNA sequences do double duty, encoding one protein when read along one strand, and a second protein when read in the opposite direction along the other strand. In bacteria, this overlap may be involved in the regulation of gene transcription, while in viruses, overlapping genes increase the amount of information that can be encoded within the small viral genome.
DNA can be twisted like a rope in a process called DNA supercoiling. With DNA in its "relaxed '' state, a strand usually circles the axis of the double helix once every 10.4 base pairs, but if the DNA is twisted the strands become more tightly or more loosely wound. If the DNA is twisted in the direction of the helix, this is positive supercoiling, and the bases are held more tightly together. If they are twisted in the opposite direction, this is negative supercoiling, and the bases come apart more easily. In nature, most DNA has slight negative supercoiling that is introduced by enzymes called topoisomerases. These enzymes are also needed to relieve the twisting stresses introduced into DNA strands during processes such as transcription and DNA replication.
DNA exists in many possible conformations that include A-DNA, B - DNA, and Z - DNA forms, although, only B - DNA and Z - DNA have been directly observed in functional organisms. The conformation that DNA adopts depends on the hydration level, DNA sequence, the amount and direction of supercoiling, chemical modifications of the bases, the type and concentration of metal ions, and the presence of polyamines in solution.
The first published reports of A-DNA X-ray diffraction patterns -- and also B - DNA -- used analyses based on Patterson transforms that provided only a limited amount of structural information for oriented fibers of DNA. An alternative analysis was then proposed by Wilkins et al., in 1953, for the in vivo B - DNA X-ray diffraction - scattering patterns of highly hydrated DNA fibers in terms of squares of Bessel functions. In the same journal, James Watson and Francis Crick presented their molecular modeling analysis of the DNA X-ray diffraction patterns to suggest that the structure was a double - helix.
Although the B - DNA form is most common under the conditions found in cells, it is not a well - defined conformation but a family of related DNA conformations that occur at the high hydration levels present in living cells. Their corresponding X-ray diffraction and scattering patterns are characteristic of molecular paracrystals with a significant degree of disorder.
Compared to B - DNA, the A-DNA form is a wider right - handed spiral, with a shallow, wide minor groove and a narrower, deeper major groove. The A form occurs under non-physiological conditions in partly dehydrated samples of DNA, while in the cell it may be produced in hybrid pairings of DNA and RNA strands, and in enzyme - DNA complexes. Segments of DNA where the bases have been chemically modified by methylation may undergo a larger change in conformation and adopt the Z form. Here, the strands turn about the helical axis in a left - handed spiral, the opposite of the more common B form. These unusual structures can be recognized by specific Z - DNA binding proteins and may be involved in the regulation of transcription.
For many years exobiologists have proposed the existence of a shadow biosphere, a postulated microbial biosphere of Earth that uses radically different biochemical and molecular processes than currently known life. One of the proposals was the existence of lifeforms that use arsenic instead of phosphorus in DNA. A report in 2010 of the possibility in the bacterium GFAJ - 1, was announced, though the research was disputed, and evidence suggests the bacterium actively prevents the incorporation of arsenic into the DNA backbone and other biomolecules.
At the ends of the linear chromosomes are specialized regions of DNA called telomeres. The main function of these regions is to allow the cell to replicate chromosome ends using the enzyme telomerase, as the enzymes that normally replicate DNA can not copy the extreme 3 ′ ends of chromosomes. These specialized chromosome caps also help protect the DNA ends, and stop the DNA repair systems in the cell from treating them as damage to be corrected. In human cells, telomeres are usually lengths of single - stranded DNA containing several thousand repeats of a simple TTAGGG sequence.
These guanine - rich sequences may stabilize chromosome ends by forming structures of stacked sets of four - base units, rather than the usual base pairs found in other DNA molecules. Here, four guanine bases form a flat plate and these flat four - base units then stack on top of each other, to form a stable G - quadruplex structure. These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonding between the edges of the bases and chelation of a metal ion in the centre of each four - base unit. Other structures can also be formed, with the central set of four bases coming from either a single strand folded around the bases, or several different parallel strands, each contributing one base to the central structure.
In addition to these stacked structures, telomeres also form large loop structures called telomere loops, or T - loops. Here, the single - stranded DNA curls around in a long circle stabilized by telomere - binding proteins. At the very end of the T - loop, the single - stranded telomere DNA is held onto a region of double - stranded DNA by the telomere strand disrupting the double - helical DNA and base pairing to one of the two strands. This triple - stranded structure is called a displacement loop or D - loop.
In DNA, fraying occurs when non-complementary regions exist at the end of an otherwise complementary double - strand of DNA. However, branched DNA can occur if a third strand of DNA is introduced and contains adjoining regions able to hybridize with the frayed regions of the pre-existing double - strand. Although the simplest example of branched DNA involves only three strands of DNA, complexes involving additional strands and multiple branches are also possible. Branched DNA can be used in nanotechnology to construct geometric shapes, see the section on uses in technology below.
The expression of genes is influenced by how the DNA is packaged in chromosomes, in a structure called chromatin. Base modifications can be involved in packaging, with regions that have low or no gene expression usually containing high levels of methylation of cytosine bases. DNA packaging and its influence on gene expression can also occur by covalent modifications of the histone protein core around which DNA is wrapped in the chromatin structure or else by remodeling carried out by chromatin remodeling complexes (see Chromatin remodeling). There is, further, crosstalk between DNA methylation and histone modification, so they can coordinately affect chromatin and gene expression.
For one example, cytosine methylation produces 5 - methylcytosine, which is important for X-inactivation of chromosomes. The average level of methylation varies between organisms -- the worm Caenorhabditis elegans lacks cytosine methylation, while vertebrates have higher levels, with up to 1 % of their DNA containing 5 - methylcytosine. Despite the importance of 5 - methylcytosine, it can deaminate to leave a thymine base, so methylated cytosines are particularly prone to mutations. Other base modifications include adenine methylation in bacteria, the presence of 5 - hydroxymethylcytosine in the brain, and the glycosylation of uracil to produce the "J - base '' in kinetoplastids.
DNA can be damaged by many sorts of mutagens, which change the DNA sequence. Mutagens include oxidizing agents, alkylating agents and also high - energy electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light and X-rays. The type of DNA damage produced depends on the type of mutagen. For example, UV light can damage DNA by producing thymine dimers, which are cross-links between pyrimidine bases. On the other hand, oxidants such as free radicals or hydrogen peroxide produce multiple forms of damage, including base modifications, particularly of guanosine, and double - strand breaks. A typical human cell contains about 150,000 bases that have suffered oxidative damage. Of these oxidative lesions, the most dangerous are double - strand breaks, as these are difficult to repair and can produce point mutations, insertions, deletions from the DNA sequence, and chromosomal translocations. These mutations can cause cancer. Because of inherent limits in the DNA repair mechanisms, if humans lived long enough, they would all eventually develop cancer. DNA damages that are naturally occurring, due to normal cellular processes that produce reactive oxygen species, the hydrolytic activities of cellular water, etc., also occur frequently. Although most of these damages are repaired, in any cell some DNA damage may remain despite the action of repair processes. These remaining DNA damages accumulate with age in mammalian postmitotic tissues. This accumulation appears to be an important underlying cause of aging.
Many mutagens fit into the space between two adjacent base pairs, this is called intercalation. Most intercalators are aromatic and planar molecules; examples include ethidium bromide, acridines, daunomycin, and doxorubicin. For an intercalator to fit between base pairs, the bases must separate, distorting the DNA strands by unwinding of the double helix. This inhibits both transcription and DNA replication, causing toxicity and mutations. As a result, DNA intercalators may be carcinogens, and in the case of thalidomide, a teratogen. Others such as benzo (a) pyrene diol epoxide and aflatoxin form DNA adducts that induce errors in replication. Nevertheless, due to their ability to inhibit DNA transcription and replication, other similar toxins are also used in chemotherapy to inhibit rapidly growing cancer cells.
DNA usually occurs as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes. The set of chromosomes in a cell makes up its genome; the human genome has approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA arranged into 46 chromosomes. The information carried by DNA is held in the sequence of pieces of DNA called genes. Transmission of genetic information in genes is achieved via complementary base pairing. For example, in transcription, when a cell uses the information in a gene, the DNA sequence is copied into a complementary RNA sequence through the attraction between the DNA and the correct RNA nucleotides. Usually, this RNA copy is then used to make a matching protein sequence in a process called translation, which depends on the same interaction between RNA nucleotides. In alternative fashion, a cell may simply copy its genetic information in a process called DNA replication. The details of these functions are covered in other articles; here the focus is on the interactions between DNA and other molecules that mediate the function of the genome.
Genomic DNA is tightly and orderly packed in the process called DNA condensation, to fit the small available volumes of the cell. In eukaryotes, DNA is located in the cell nucleus, with small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts. In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid. The genetic information in a genome is held within genes, and the complete set of this information in an organism is called its genotype. A gene is a unit of heredity and is a region of DNA that influences a particular characteristic in an organism. Genes contain an open reading frame that can be transcribed, and regulatory sequences such as promoters and enhancers, which control transcription of the open reading frame.
In many species, only a small fraction of the total sequence of the genome encodes protein. For example, only about 1.5 % of the human genome consists of protein - coding exons, with over 50 % of human DNA consisting of non-coding repetitive sequences. The reasons for the presence of so much noncoding DNA in eukaryotic genomes and the extraordinary differences in genome size, or C - value, among species, represent a long - standing puzzle known as the "C - value enigma ''. However, some DNA sequences that do not code protein may still encode functional non-coding RNA molecules, which are involved in the regulation of gene expression.
Some noncoding DNA sequences play structural roles in chromosomes. Telomeres and centromeres typically contain few genes but are important for the function and stability of chromosomes. An abundant form of noncoding DNA in humans are pseudogenes, which are copies of genes that have been disabled by mutation. These sequences are usually just molecular fossils, although they can occasionally serve as raw genetic material for the creation of new genes through the process of gene duplication and divergence.
A gene is a sequence of DNA that contains genetic information and can influence the phenotype of an organism. Within a gene, the sequence of bases along a DNA strand defines a messenger RNA sequence, which then defines one or more protein sequences. The relationship between the nucleotide sequences of genes and the amino - acid sequences of proteins is determined by the rules of translation, known collectively as the genetic code. The genetic code consists of three - letter ' words ' called codons formed from a sequence of three nucleotides (e.g. ACT, CAG, TTT).
In transcription, the codons of a gene are copied into messenger RNA by RNA polymerase. This RNA copy is then decoded by a ribosome that reads the RNA sequence by base - pairing the messenger RNA to transfer RNA, which carries amino acids. Since there are 4 bases in 3 - letter combinations, there are 64 possible codons (4 combinations). These encode the twenty standard amino acids, giving most amino acids more than one possible codon. There are also three ' stop ' or ' nonsense ' codons signifying the end of the coding region; these are the TAA, TGA, and TAG codons.
Cell division is essential for an organism to grow, but, when a cell divides, it must replicate the DNA in its genome so that the two daughter cells have the same genetic information as their parent. The double - stranded structure of DNA provides a simple mechanism for DNA replication. Here, the two strands are separated and then each strand 's complementary DNA sequence is recreated by an enzyme called DNA polymerase. This enzyme makes the complementary strand by finding the correct base through complementary base pairing and bonding it onto the original strand. As DNA polymerases can only extend a DNA strand in a 5 ′ to 3 ′ direction, different mechanisms are used to copy the antiparallel strands of the double helix. In this way, the base on the old strand dictates which base appears on the new strand, and the cell ends up with a perfect copy of its DNA.
Naked extracellular DNA (eDNA), most of it released by cell death, is nearly ubiquitous in the environment. Its concentration in soil may be as high as 2 μg / L, and its concentration in natural aquatic environments may be as high at 88 μg / L. Various possible functions have been proposed for eDNA: it may be involved in horizontal gene transfer; it may provide nutrients; and it may act as a buffer to recruit or titrate ions or antibiotics. Extracellular DNA acts as a functional extracellular matrix component in the biofilms of several bacterial species. It may act as a recognition factor to regulate the attachment and dispersal of specific cell types in the biofilm; it may contribute to biofilm formation; and it may contribute to the biofilm 's physical strength and resistance to biological stress.
Cell - free fetal DNA is found in the blood of the mother, and can be sequenced to determine a great deal of information about the developing fetus.
All the functions of DNA depend on interactions with proteins. These protein interactions can be non-specific, or the protein can bind specifically to a single DNA sequence. Enzymes can also bind to DNA and of these, the polymerases that copy the DNA base sequence in transcription and DNA replication are particularly important.
Structural proteins that bind DNA are well - understood examples of non-specific DNA - protein interactions. Within chromosomes, DNA is held in complexes with structural proteins. These proteins organize the DNA into a compact structure called chromatin. In eukaryotes, this structure involves DNA binding to a complex of small basic proteins called histones, while in prokaryotes multiple types of proteins are involved. The histones form a disk - shaped complex called a nucleosome, which contains two complete turns of double - stranded DNA wrapped around its surface. These non-specific interactions are formed through basic residues in the histones, making ionic bonds to the acidic sugar - phosphate backbone of the DNA, and are thus largely independent of the base sequence. Chemical modifications of these basic amino acid residues include methylation, phosphorylation, and acetylation. These chemical changes alter the strength of the interaction between the DNA and the histones, making the DNA more or less accessible to transcription factors and changing the rate of transcription. Other non-specific DNA - binding proteins in chromatin include the high - mobility group proteins, which bind to bent or distorted DNA. These proteins are important in bending arrays of nucleosomes and arranging them into the larger structures that make up chromosomes.
A distinct group of DNA - binding proteins is the DNA - binding proteins that specifically bind single - stranded DNA. In humans, replication protein A is the best - understood member of this family and is used in processes where the double helix is separated, including DNA replication, recombination, and DNA repair. These binding proteins seem to stabilize single - stranded DNA and protect it from forming stem - loops or being degraded by nucleases.
In contrast, other proteins have evolved to bind to particular DNA sequences. The most intensively studied of these are the various transcription factors, which are proteins that regulate transcription. Each transcription factor binds to one particular set of DNA sequences and activates or inhibits the transcription of genes that have these sequences close to their promoters. The transcription factors do this in two ways. Firstly, they can bind the RNA polymerase responsible for transcription, either directly or through other mediator proteins; this locates the polymerase at the promoter and allows it to begin transcription. Alternatively, transcription factors can bind enzymes that modify the histones at the promoter. This changes the accessibility of the DNA template to the polymerase.
As these DNA targets can occur throughout an organism 's genome, changes in the activity of one type of transcription factor can affect thousands of genes. Consequently, these proteins are often the targets of the signal transduction processes that control responses to environmental changes or cellular differentiation and development. The specificity of these transcription factors ' interactions with DNA come from the proteins making multiple contacts to the edges of the DNA bases, allowing them to "read '' the DNA sequence. Most of these base - interactions are made in the major groove, where the bases are most accessible.
Nucleases are enzymes that cut DNA strands by catalyzing the hydrolysis of the phosphodiester bonds. Nucleases that hydrolyse nucleotides from the ends of DNA strands are called exonucleases, while endonucleases cut within strands. The most frequently used nucleases in molecular biology are the restriction endonucleases, which cut DNA at specific sequences. For instance, the EcoRV enzyme shown to the left recognizes the 6 - base sequence 5 ′ - GATATC - 3 ′ and makes a cut at the horizontal line. In nature, these enzymes protect bacteria against phage infection by digesting the phage DNA when it enters the bacterial cell, acting as part of the restriction modification system. In technology, these sequence - specific nucleases are used in molecular cloning and DNA fingerprinting.
Enzymes called DNA ligases can rejoin cut or broken DNA strands. Ligases are particularly important in lagging strand DNA replication, as they join together the short segments of DNA produced at the replication fork into a complete copy of the DNA template. They are also used in DNA repair and genetic recombination.
Topoisomerases are enzymes with both nuclease and ligase activity. These proteins change the amount of supercoiling in DNA. Some of these enzymes work by cutting the DNA helix and allowing one section to rotate, thereby reducing its level of supercoiling; the enzyme then seals the DNA break. Other types of these enzymes are capable of cutting one DNA helix and then passing a second strand of DNA through this break, before rejoining the helix. Topoisomerases are required for many processes involving DNA, such as DNA replication and transcription.
Helicases are proteins that are a type of molecular motor. They use the chemical energy in nucleoside triphosphates, predominantly adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to break hydrogen bonds between bases and unwind the DNA double helix into single strands. These enzymes are essential for most processes where enzymes need to access the DNA bases.
Polymerases are enzymes that synthesize polynucleotide chains from nucleoside triphosphates. The sequence of their products is created based on existing polynucleotide chains -- which are called templates. These enzymes function by repeatedly adding a nucleotide to the 3 ′ hydroxyl group at the end of the growing polynucleotide chain. As a consequence, all polymerases work in a 5 ′ to 3 ′ direction. In the active site of these enzymes, the incoming nucleoside triphosphate base - pairs to the template: this allows polymerases to accurately synthesize the complementary strand of their template. Polymerases are classified according to the type of template that they use.
In DNA replication, DNA - dependent DNA polymerases make copies of DNA polynucleotide chains. To preserve biological information, it is essential that the sequence of bases in each copy are precisely complementary to the sequence of bases in the template strand. Many DNA polymerases have a proofreading activity. Here, the polymerase recognizes the occasional mistakes in the synthesis reaction by the lack of base pairing between the mismatched nucleotides. If a mismatch is detected, a 3 ′ to 5 ′ exonuclease activity is activated and the incorrect base removed. In most organisms, DNA polymerases function in a large complex called the replisome that contains multiple accessory subunits, such as the DNA clamp or helicases.
RNA - dependent DNA polymerases are a specialized class of polymerases that copy the sequence of an RNA strand into DNA. They include reverse transcriptase, which is a viral enzyme involved in the infection of cells by retroviruses, and telomerase, which is required for the replication of telomeres. For example, HIV reverse transcriptase is an enzyme for AIDS virus replication. Telomerase is an unusual polymerase because it contains its own RNA template as part of its structure. It synthesizes telomeres at the ends of chromosomes. Telomeres prevent fusion of the ends of neighboring chromosomes and protect chromosome ends from damage.
Transcription is carried out by a DNA - dependent RNA polymerase that copies the sequence of a DNA strand into RNA. To begin transcribing a gene, the RNA polymerase binds to a sequence of DNA called a promoter and separates the DNA strands. It then copies the gene sequence into a messenger RNA transcript until it reaches a region of DNA called the terminator, where it halts and detaches from the DNA. As with human DNA - dependent DNA polymerases, RNA polymerase II, the enzyme that transcribes most of the genes in the human genome, operates as part of a large protein complex with multiple regulatory and accessory subunits.
A DNA helix usually does not interact with other segments of DNA, and in human cells, the different chromosomes even occupy separate areas in the nucleus called "chromosome territories ''. This physical separation of different chromosomes is important for the ability of DNA to function as a stable repository for information, as one of the few times chromosomes interact is in chromosomal crossover which occurs during sexual reproduction, when genetic recombination occurs. Chromosomal crossover is when two DNA helices break, swap a section and then rejoin.
Recombination allows chromosomes to exchange genetic information and produces new combinations of genes, which increases the efficiency of natural selection and can be important in the rapid evolution of new proteins. Genetic recombination can also be involved in DNA repair, particularly in the cell 's response to double - strand breaks.
The most common form of chromosomal crossover is homologous recombination, where the two chromosomes involved share very similar sequences. Non-homologous recombination can be damaging to cells, as it can produce chromosomal translocations and genetic abnormalities. The recombination reaction is catalyzed by enzymes known as recombinases, such as RAD51. The first step in recombination is a double - stranded break caused by either an endonuclease or damage to the DNA. A series of steps catalyzed in part by the recombinase then leads to joining of the two helices by at least one Holliday junction, in which a segment of a single strand in each helix is annealed to the complementary strand in the other helix. The Holliday junction is a tetrahedral junction structure that can be moved along the pair of chromosomes, swapping one strand for another. The recombination reaction is then halted by cleavage of the junction and re-ligation of the released DNA. Only strands of like polarity exchange DNA during recombination. There are two types of cleavage: east - west cleavage and north - south cleavage. The north - south cleavage nicks both strands of DNA, while the east - west cleavage has one strand of DNA intact. The formation of a Holliday junction during recombination makes it possible for genetic diversity, genes to exchange on chromosomes, and expression of wild - type viral genomes.
DNA contains the genetic information that allows all modern living things to function, grow and reproduce. However, it is unclear how long in the 4 - billion - year history of life DNA has performed this function, as it has been proposed that the earliest forms of life may have used RNA as their genetic material. RNA may have acted as the central part of early cell metabolism as it can both transmit genetic information and carry out catalysis as part of ribozymes. This ancient RNA world where nucleic acid would have been used for both catalysis and genetics may have influenced the evolution of the current genetic code based on four nucleotide bases. This would occur, since the number of different bases in such an organism is a trade - off between a small number of bases increasing replication accuracy and a large number of bases increasing the catalytic efficiency of ribozymes. However, there is no direct evidence of ancient genetic systems, as recovery of DNA from most fossils is impossible because DNA survives in the environment for less than one million years, and slowly degrades into short fragments in solution. Claims for older DNA have been made, most notably a report of the isolation of a viable bacterium from a salt crystal 250 million years old, but these claims are controversial.
Building blocks of DNA (adenine, guanine, and related organic molecules) may have been formed extraterrestrially in outer space. Complex DNA and RNA organic compounds of life, including uracil, cytosine, and thymine, have also been formed in the laboratory under conditions mimicking those found in outer space, using starting chemicals, such as pyrimidine, found in meteorites. Pyrimidine, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the most carbon - rich chemical found in the universe, may have been formed in red giants or in interstellar cosmic dust and gas clouds.
Methods have been developed to purify DNA from organisms, such as phenol - chloroform extraction, and to manipulate it in the laboratory, such as restriction digests and the polymerase chain reaction. Modern biology and biochemistry make intensive use of these techniques in recombinant DNA technology. Recombinant DNA is a man - made DNA sequence that has been assembled from other DNA sequences. They can be transformed into organisms in the form of plasmids or in the appropriate format, by using a viral vector. The genetically modified organisms produced can be used to produce products such as recombinant proteins, used in medical research, or be grown in agriculture.
Forensic scientists can use DNA in blood, semen, skin, saliva or hair found at a crime scene to identify a matching DNA of an individual, such as a perpetrator. This process is formally termed DNA profiling, but may also be called "genetic fingerprinting ''. In DNA profiling, the lengths of variable sections of repetitive DNA, such as short tandem repeats and minisatellites, are compared between people. This method is usually an extremely reliable technique for identifying a matching DNA. However, identification can be complicated if the scene is contaminated with DNA from several people. DNA profiling was developed in 1984 by British geneticist Sir Alec Jeffreys, and first used in forensic science to convict Colin Pitchfork in the 1988 Enderby murders case.
The development of forensic science and the ability to now obtain genetic matching on minute samples of blood, skin, saliva, or hair has led to re-examining many cases. Evidence can now be uncovered that was scientifically impossible at the time of the original examination. Combined with the removal of the double jeopardy law in some places, this can allow cases to be reopened where prior trials have failed to produce sufficient evidence to convince a jury. People charged with serious crimes may be required to provide a sample of DNA for matching purposes. The most obvious defense to DNA matches obtained forensically is to claim that cross-contamination of evidence has occurred. This has resulted in meticulous strict handling procedures with new cases of serious crime. DNA profiling is also used successfully to positively identify victims of mass casualty incidents, bodies or body parts in serious accidents, and individual victims in mass war graves, via matching to family members.
DNA profiling is also used in DNA paternity testing to determine if someone is the biological parent or grandparent of a child with the probability of parentage is typically 99.99 % when the alleged parent is biologically related to the child. Normal DNA sequencing methods happen after birth, but there are new methods to test paternity while a mother is still pregnant.
Deoxyribozymes, also called DNAzymes or catalytic DNA, are first discovered in 1994. They are mostly single stranded DNA sequences isolated from a large pool of random DNA sequences through a combinatorial approach called in vitro selection or systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX). DNAzymes catalyze variety of chemical reactions including RNA - DNA cleavage, RNA - DNA ligation, amino acids phosphorylation - dephosphorylation, carbon - carbon bond formation, and etc. DNAzymes can enhance catalytic rate of chemical reactions up to 100,000,000,000-fold over the uncatalyzed reaction. The most extensively studied class of DNAzymes is RNA - cleaving types which have been used to detect different metal ions and designing therapeutic agents. Several metal - specific DNAzymes have been reported including the GR - 5 DNAzyme (lead - specific), the CA1 - 3 DNAzymes (copper - specific), the 39E DNAzyme (uranyl - specific) and the NaA43 DNAzyme (sodium - specific). The NaA43 DNAzyme, which is reported to be more than 10,000-fold selective for sodium over other metal ions, was used to make a real - time sodium sensor in living cells.
Bioinformatics involves the development of techniques to store, data mine, search and manipulate biological data, including DNA nucleic acid sequence data. These have led to widely applied advances in computer science, especially string searching algorithms, machine learning, and database theory. String searching or matching algorithms, which find an occurrence of a sequence of letters inside a larger sequence of letters, were developed to search for specific sequences of nucleotides. The DNA sequence may be aligned with other DNA sequences to identify homologous sequences and locate the specific mutations that make them distinct. These techniques, especially multiple sequence alignment, are used in studying phylogenetic relationships and protein function. Data sets representing entire genomes ' worth of DNA sequences, such as those produced by the Human Genome Project, are difficult to use without the annotations that identify the locations of genes and regulatory elements on each chromosome. Regions of DNA sequence that have the characteristic patterns associated with protein - or RNA - coding genes can be identified by gene finding algorithms, which allow researchers to predict the presence of particular gene products and their possible functions in an organism even before they have been isolated experimentally. Entire genomes may also be compared, which can shed light on the evolutionary history of particular organism and permit the examination of complex evolutionary events.
DNA nanotechnology uses the unique molecular recognition properties of DNA and other nucleic acids to create self - assembling branched DNA complexes with useful properties. DNA is thus used as a structural material rather than as a carrier of biological information. This has led to the creation of two - dimensional periodic lattices (both tile - based and using the DNA origami method) and three - dimensional structures in the shapes of polyhedra. Nanomechanical devices and algorithmic self - assembly have also been demonstrated, and these DNA structures have been used to template the arrangement of other molecules such as gold nanoparticles and streptavidin proteins.
Because DNA collects mutations over time, which are then inherited, it contains historical information, and, by comparing DNA sequences, geneticists can infer the evolutionary history of organisms, their phylogeny. This field of phylogenetics is a powerful tool in evolutionary biology. If DNA sequences within a species are compared, population geneticists can learn the history of particular populations. This can be used in studies ranging from ecological genetics to anthropology; For example, DNA evidence is being used to try to identify the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel.
In a paper published in Nature in January 2013, scientists from the European Bioinformatics Institute and Agilent Technologies proposed a mechanism to use DNA 's ability to code information as a means of digital data storage. The group was able to encode 739 kilobytes of data into DNA code, synthesize the actual DNA, then sequence the DNA and decode the information back to its original form, with a reported 100 % accuracy. The encoded information consisted of text files and audio files. A prior experiment was published in August 2012. It was conducted by researchers at Harvard University, where the text of a 54,000 - word book was encoded in DNA.
Moreover, in living cells, the storage can be turned active by enzymes. Light - gated protein domains fused to DNA processing enzymes are suitable for that task in vitro. Fluorescent exonucleases can transmit the output according to the nucleotide they have read.
DNA was first isolated by the Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher who, in 1869, discovered a microscopic substance in the pus of discarded surgical bandages. As it resided in the nuclei of cells, he called it "nuclein ''. In 1878, Albrecht Kossel isolated the non-protein component of "nuclein '', nucleic acid, and later isolated its five primary nucleobases. In 1919, Phoebus Levene identified the base, sugar, and phosphate nucleotide unit. Levene suggested that DNA consisted of a string of nucleotide units linked together through the phosphate groups. Levene thought the chain was short and the bases repeated in a fixed order. In 1937, William Astbury produced the first X-ray diffraction patterns that showed that DNA had a regular structure.
In 1927, Nikolai Koltsov proposed that inherited traits would be inherited via a "giant hereditary molecule '' made up of "two mirror strands that would replicate in a semi-conservative fashion using each strand as a template ''. In 1928, Frederick Griffith in his experiment discovered that traits of the "smooth '' form of Pneumococcus could be transferred to the "rough '' form of the same bacteria by mixing killed "smooth '' bacteria with the live "rough '' form. This system provided the first clear suggestion that DNA carries genetic information -- the Avery -- MacLeod -- McCarty experiment -- when Oswald Avery, along with coworkers Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty, identified DNA as the transforming principle in 1943. DNA 's role in heredity was confirmed in 1952 when Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase in the Hershey -- Chase experiment showed that DNA is the genetic material of the T2 phage.
Late in 1951, Francis Crick started working with James Watson at the Cavendish Laboratory within the University of Cambridge. In 1953, Watson and Crick suggested what is now accepted as the first correct double - helix model of DNA structure in the journal Nature. Their double - helix, molecular model of DNA was then based on one X-ray diffraction image (labeled as "Photo 51 '') taken by Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling in May 1952, and the information that the DNA bases are paired. On 28 February 1953 Crick interrupted patrons ' lunchtime at The Eagle pub in Cambridge to announce that he and Watson had "discovered the secret of life ''.
Experimental evidence supporting the Watson and Crick model was published in a series of five articles in the same issue of Nature. Of these, Franklin and Gosling 's paper was the first publication of their own X-ray diffraction data and original analysis method that partly supported the Watson and Crick model; this issue also contained an article on DNA structure by Maurice Wilkins and two of his colleagues, whose analysis and in vivo B - DNA X-ray patterns also supported the presence in vivo of the double - helical DNA configurations as proposed by Crick and Watson for their double - helix molecular model of DNA in the prior two pages of Nature. In 1962, after Franklin 's death, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Nobel Prizes are awarded only to living recipients. A debate continues about who should receive credit for the discovery.
In an influential presentation in 1957, Crick laid out the central dogma of molecular biology, which foretold the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins, and articulated the "adaptor hypothesis ''. Final confirmation of the replication mechanism that was implied by the double - helical structure followed in 1958 through the Meselson -- Stahl experiment. Further work by Crick and coworkers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of bases, called codons, allowing Har Gobind Khorana, Robert W. Holley, and Marshall Warren Nirenberg to decipher the genetic code. These findings represent the birth of molecular biology.
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when was the last line of the lord's prayer added | Lord 's Prayer - wikipedia
The Lord 's Prayer (also called the Our Father or Pater Noster, among other names) is a venerated Christian prayer that, according to the New Testament, Jesus taught as the way to pray. Two versions of this prayer are recorded: the long form in the Gospel of Matthew in the middle of the Sermon on the Mount, and the short form in the Gospel of Luke when "one of his disciples said to him, ' Lord, teach us to pray, as John (the Baptist) taught his disciples. ' ''
The first three of the seven petitions in Matthew address God; the other four are related to human needs and concerns. The Matthew account alone includes the "Your will be done '' and the "Rescue us from the evil one '' (or "Deliver us from evil '') petitions. Both original Greek texts contain the adjective epiousios, which does not appear in any other classical or Koine Greek literature; while controversial, "daily '' has been the most common English - language translation of this word. Some Christians, particularly Protestants, conclude the prayer with a doxology, a later addendum appearing in some manuscripts of Matthew.
Matthew 6: 9 -- 6: 13 (NRSV)
Luke 11: 2 -- 11: 4 (NRSV)
Initial words on the topic from the Catechism of the Catholic Church teach that it "is truly the summary of the whole gospel. '' The prayer is used by most Christian churches in their worship; with few exceptions, the liturgical form is the Matthean. Although theological differences and various modes of worship divide Christians, according to Fuller Seminary professor Clayton Schmit, "there is a sense of solidarity in knowing that Christians around the globe are praying together... and these words always unite us. ''
In biblical criticism, the prayer 's absence in the Gospel of Mark together with its occurrence in Matthew and Luke has caused scholars who accept the two - source hypothesis (against other document hypotheses) to conclude that it is probably a logion original to Q.
Standard edition of Greek text
Πάτερ ἡμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς ἁγιασθήτω τὸ ὄνομά σου ἐλθέτω ἡ βασιλεία σου γενηθήτω τὸ θέλημά σου, ὡς ἐν οὐρανῷ καὶ ἐπὶ γῆς τὸν ἄρτον ἡμῶν τὸν ἐπιούσιον δὸς ἡμῖν σήμερον καὶ ἄφες ἡμῖν τὰ ὀφειλήματα ἡμῶν, ὡς καὶ ἡμεῖς ἀφήκαμεν τοῖς ὀφειλέταις ἡμῶν καὶ μὴ εἰσενέγκῃς ἡμᾶς εἰς πειρασμόν, ἀλλὰ ῥῦσαι ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ τοῦ πονηροῦ.
Patriarchal Edition 1904
Πάτερ ἡμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς ἁγιασθήτω τὸ ὄνομά σου ἐλθέτω ἡ βασιλεία σου γενηθήτω τὸ θέλημά σου, ὡς ἐν οὐρανῷ, καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς τὸν ἄρτον ἡμῶν τὸν ἐπιούσιον δὸς ἡμῖν σήμερον καὶ ἄφες ἡμῖν τὰ ὀφειλήματα ἡμῶν, ὡς καὶ ἡμεῖς ἀφίεμεν τοῖς ὀφειλέταις ἡμῶν καὶ μὴ εἰσενέγκῃς ἡμᾶς εἰς πειρασμόν, ἀλλὰ ῥῦσαι ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ τοῦ πονηροῦ. ὅτι σοῦ ἐστιν ἡ βασιλεία καὶ ἡ δύναμις καὶ ἡ δόξα εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας ἀμήν.
Roman Missal
There are several different English translations of the Lord 's Prayer from Greek or Latin, beginning around AD 650 with the Northumbrian translation. Of those in current liturgical use, the three best - known are:
The square brackets in three of the texts below indicate the doxology often added at the end of the prayer by Protestants and, in a slightly different form, by the Byzantine Rite ("For thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory: of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, now and ever, and unto ages of ages. Amen. ''), among whom the prayer proper is usually recited by the cantors and congregation in unison, and the doxology by the priest as the conclusion of the prayer. The Anglican Book of Common Prayer adds it in some services but not in all. Older English translations of the Bible, based on late Byzantine Greek manuscripts, included it, but it is excluded in critical editions of the New Testament, such as that of the United Bible Societies. It is absent in the oldest manuscripts and is not considered to be part of the original text of Matthew 6: 9 -- 13. The Catholic Church has never attached it to the Lord 's Prayer, but has included it in the Roman Rite Mass as revised in 1969, not as part of the Our Father but separated from it by a prayer called the embolism spoken or sung by the priest (in the official ICEL English translation: "Deliver us, Lord, we pray, from every evil, graciously grant peace in our days, that, by the help of your mercy, we may be always free from sin and safe from all distress, as we await the blessed hope and the coming of our Saviour, Jesus Christ. '') that elaborates on the final petition, "Deliver us from evil. '' For more information on this doxology, see Doxology, below. When Reformers set out to translate the King James Bible, they assumed that a Greek manuscript they possessed was ancient and therefore adopted the phrase "For thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory forever '' into the Lord 's Prayer. Later scholarship demonstrated that the manuscript was actually a late addition based on Eastern liturgical tradition.
Other English translations are also used.
Though Matthew 6: 12 uses the term debts, the older English versions of the Lord 's Prayer uses the term trespasses, while ecumenical versions often use the term sins. The latter choice may be due to Luke 11: 4, which uses the word sins, while the former may be due to Matthew 6: 14 (immediately after the text of the prayer), where Jesus speaks of trespasses. As early as the third century, Origen of Alexandria used the word trespasses (παραπτώματα) in the prayer. Although the Latin form that was traditionally used in Western Europe has debita (debts), most English - speaking Christians (except Scottish Presbyterians and some others of the Reformed tradition) use trespasses. The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), the Established Presbyterian Church of Scotland as well as the Congregational denomination follow the version found in Matthew 6 in the Authorized Version (known also as the King James Version), which in the prayer uses the words "debts '' and "debtors ''.
All these versions are based on the text in Matthew, rather than Luke, of the prayer given by Jesus:
Matthew 6: 9 -- 13 (ESV)
Luke 11: 2 -- 4 (ESV)
Subheadings use 1662 Book of Common Prayer (BCP) (see above)
"Our Father, which art in heaven ''
This explains that God, the Father, rests in Heaven, and the plural word "Our '' indicates that there are a group of God 's children who call him Father.
Augustine interpreted "heaven '' (coelum, sky) in this context as meaning "in the hearts of the righteous, as it were in His holy temple ''.
"Hallowed be thy Name; ''
Former Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams explains this phrase as a petition that people may look upon God 's name as holy, as something that inspires awe and reverence, and that they may not trivialize it by making God a tool for their purposes, to "put other people down, or as a sort of magic to make themselves feel safe ''. He sums up the meaning of the phrase by saying: "Understand what you 're talking about when you 're talking about God, this is serious, this is the most wonderful and frightening reality that we could imagine, more wonderful and frightening than we can imagine. ''
"Thy kingdom come; ''
"This petition has its parallel in the Jewish prayer, ' May he establish his Kingdom during your life and during your days. ' In the gospels Jesus speaks frequently of God 's kingdom, but never defines the concept: "He assumed this was a concept so familiar that it did not require definition. '' Concerning how Jesus ' audience in the gospels would have understood him, G.E. Ladd turns to the concept 's Hebrew Biblical background: "The Hebrew word malkuth (...) refers first to a reign, dominion, or rule and only secondarily to the realm over which a reign is exercised. (...) When malkuth is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. '' This petition looks to the perfect establishment of God 's rule in the world in the future, an act of God resulting in the eschatological order of the new age.
The request for God 's kingdom to come is commonly interpreted at the most literal level: as a reference to the belief, common at the time, that a Messiah figure would bring about a kingdom of God. Traditionally, the coming of God 's kingdom is seen as a divine gift to be prayed for, not a human achievement. This idea is frequently challenged by groups who believe that the Kingdom will come by the hands of those faithful who work for a better world. These believe that Jesus ' commands to feed the hungry and clothe the needy are the kingdom to which he was referring.
Hilda C. Graef notes that the operative Greek word, basileia, means both kingdom and kingship (i.e., reign, dominion, governing, etc.), but that the English word kingdom loses this double meaning. Kingship adds a psychological meaning to the petition: one is also praying for the condition of soul where one follows God 's will.
"Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven: ''
John Ortberg interprets this phrase as follows: "Many people think our job is to get my afterlife destination taken care of, then tread water till we all get ejected and God comes back and torches this place. But Jesus never told anybody -- neither his disciples nor us -- to pray, ' Get me out of here so I can go up there. ' His prayer was, ' Make up there come down here. ' Make things down here run the way they do up there. '' The request that "thy will be done '' is God 's invitation to "join him in making things down here the way they are up there. ''
"Give us this day our daily (epiousios) bread; ''
As mentioned earlier in this article, the original word ἐπιούσιος (epiousios), commonly characterized as daily, is unique to the Lord 's Prayer in all of ancient Greek literature. The word is almost a hapax legomenon, occurring only in Luke and Matthew 's versions of the Lord 's Prayer, and nowhere else in any other extant Greek texts. While epiousios is often substituted by the word "daily, '' all other New Testament translations from the Greek into "daily '' otherwise reference hemeran (ἡμέραν, "the day ''), which does not appear in this usage.
Via linguistic parsing, Jerome translated "ἐπιούσιον '' (epiousios) as "supersubstantialem '' in the Gospel of Matthew, but chose "cotidianum '' ("daily '') in the Gospel of Luke. This wide - ranging difference with respect to meaning of epiousios is discussed in detail in the current Catechism of the Catholic Church by way of an inclusive approach toward tradition as well as a literal one for meaning: "Taken in a temporal sense, this word is a pedagogical repetition of "this day, '' to confirm us in trust "without reservation. '' Taken in the qualitative sense, it signifies what is necessary for life, and more broadly every good thing sufficient for subsistence. Taken literally (epi - ousios: "super-essential ''), it refers directly to the Bread of Life, the Body of Christ, the "medicine of immortality, '' without which we have no life within us. ''
Epiousios is translated as supersubstantialem in the Vulgate (Matthew 6: 11) and accordingly as supersubstantial in the Douay - Rheims Bible (Matthew 6: 11).
Barclay M. Newman 's A Concise Greek - English Dictionary of the New Testament, published in a revised edition in 2010 by the United Bible Societies has the following entry:
"And forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us; ''
Twenty - one out of 23 bible versions available at BibleHub.com use the word "debts '' and "debtors '', while none of the bible translations uses the word "trespass. '' The Presbyterian and other Reformed churches tend to use the rendering "forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors ''. Roman Catholics, Anglicans and Methodists are more likely to say "trespasses... those who trespass against us ''. The "debts '' form appears in the first English translation of the Bible, by John Wycliffe in 1395 (Wycliffe spelling "dettis ''). The "trespasses '' version appears in the 1526 translation by William Tyndale (Tyndale spelling "treaspases ''). In 1549 the first Book of Common Prayer in English used a version of the prayer with "trespasses ''. This became the "official '' version used in Anglican congregations.
After the request for bread, Matthew and Luke diverge slightly. Matthew continues with a request for debts to be forgiven in the same manner as people have forgiven those who have debts against them. Luke, on the other hand, makes a similar request about sins being forgiven in the manner of debts being forgiven between people. The word "debts '' (ὀφειλήματα) does not necessarily mean financial obligations, as shown by the use of the verbal form of the same word (ὀφείλετε) in passages such as Romans 13: 8. The Aramaic word ḥôbâ can mean "debt '' or "sin ''. This difference between Luke 's and Matthew 's wording could be explained by the original form of the prayer having been in Aramaic. The generally accepted interpretation is thus that the request is for forgiveness of sin, not of supposed loans granted by God. Asking for forgiveness from God was a staple of Jewish prayers. It was also considered proper for individuals to be forgiving of others, so the sentiment expressed in the prayer would have been a common one of the time.
Anthony C. Deane, Canon of Worcester Cathedral, suggests that the choice of the word "ὀφειλήματα '' (debts), rather than "ἁμαρτίας '' (sins), indicates a reference to failures to use opportunities of doing good. He links this with the parable of the sheep and the goats (also in Matthew 's Gospel), in which the grounds for condemnation are not wrongdoing in the ordinary sense but failure to do right, missing opportunities for showing love to others.
"As we forgive... ''. Divergence between Matthew 's "debts '' and Luke 's "sins '' is relatively trivial compared to the impact of the second half of this statement. The verses immediately following the Lord 's Prayer, show Jesus teaching that the forgiveness of our sin / debt (by God) is contingent on how we forgive others. Later, Matthew elaborates with Jesus ' parable of the unforgiving servant. In this parable, forgiveness from the king (God) is conditional on the servant 's forgiveness of a small debt owed to him.
"And lead us not into temptation, ''
Interpretations of the penultimate petition of the prayer -- not to be led by God into peirasmos -- vary considerably. The range of meanings of the Greek word "πειρασμός '' (peirasmos) is illustrated in The New Testament Greek Lexicon. In different contexts it can mean temptation, testing, trial, experiment. Although the traditional English translation uses the word "temptation '' and Carl Jung saw God as actually leading people astray, Christians generally interpret the petition as not contradicting James 1: 13 -- 14: "Let no one say when he is tempted, ' I am being tempted by God ', for God can not be tempted with evil, and he himself tempts no one. But each person is tempted when he is lured and enticed by his own desire. '' Some see the petition as an eschatological appeal against unfavourable Last Judgment, a theory supported by the use of the word "peirasmos '' in this sense in Revelation 3: 10. Others see it as a plea against hard tests described elsewhere in scripture, such as those of Job. It is also read as: "Do not let us be led (by ourselves, by others, by Satan) into temptations ''. Since it follows shortly after a plea for daily bread (i.e., material sustenance), it is also seen as referring to not being caught up in the material pleasures given. A similar phrase appears in Matthew 26: 41 and Luke 22: 40 in connection with the prayer of Jesus in Gethsemane. Joseph Smith, the founder of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints, in a translation of the Holy Bible that was n't completed before his death, used this wording: "And suffer us not to be led into temptation ''
"But deliver us from evil: ''
Translations and scholars are divided over whether the final word here refers to "evil '' in general or "the evil one '' (the devil) in particular. In the original Greek, as well as in the Latin translation, the word could be either of neuter (evil in general) or masculine (the evil one) gender. Matthew 's version of the prayer appears in the Sermon on the Mount, in earlier parts of which the term is used to refer to general evil. Later parts of Matthew refer to the devil when discussing similar issues. However, the devil is never referred to as the evil one in any known Aramaic sources. While John Calvin accepted the vagueness of the term 's meaning, he considered that there is little real difference between the two interpretations, and that therefore the question is of no real consequence. Similar phrases are found in John 17: 15 and 2 Thessalonians 3: 3.
"For thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory, For ever and ever. Amen. ''
The doxology of the prayer is not contained in Luke 's version, nor is it present in the earliest manuscripts of Matthew, representative of the Alexandrian text, although it is present in the manuscripts representative of the Byzantine text. Most scholars do not consider it part of the original text of Matthew. New translations generally omit it.
The first known use of the doxology, in a less lengthy form ("for yours is the power and the glory forever ''), as a conclusion for the Lord 's Prayer (in a version slightly different from that of Matthew) is in the Didache, 8: 2. It has similarities with 1 Chronicles -- "Yours, O LORD, is the greatness and the power and the glory and the victory and the majesty, for all that is in the heavens and in the earth is yours. Yours is the kingdom, O LORD, and you are exalted as head above all. '' In the Byzantine Rite, a similar doxology is sung within the context of the Divine Liturgy. Following the last line of the prayer, the priest sings "For thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory, of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages. ''
Latin Church Roman Catholics do not include the doxology when reciting the Lord 's Prayer; but it was added as an independent item, not as part of the Lord 's Prayer, in the Roman Rite Mass of 1970. The Anglican Book of Common Prayer sometimes gives the Lord 's Prayer with the doxology, sometimes without. Most Protestants append it to the Lord 's Prayer.
In the course of Christianization, one of the first texts to be translated between many languages has historically been the Lord 's Prayer, long before the full Bible would be translated into the respective languages. Since the 16th century, collections of translations of the prayer have often been used for a quick comparison of languages.
The first such collection, with 22 versions, was Mithridates de differentis linguis by Conrad Gessner (1555; the title refers to Mithridates VI of Pontus who according to Pliny the Elder was an exceptional polyglot).
Gessner 's idea of collecting translations of the prayer was taken up by authors of the 17th century, including Hieronymus Megiserus (1603) and Georg Pistorius (1621). Thomas Lüdeken in 1680 published an enlarged collection of 83 versions of the prayer, of which three were in fictional philosophical languages. Lüdeken quotes as a Barnum Hagius as his source for the exotic scripts used, while their true (anonymous) author was Andreas Müller. In 1700, Lübeck 's collection was re-edited by B. Mottus as Oratio dominica plus centum linguis versionibus aut characteribus reddita et expressa. This edition was comparatively inferior, but a second, revised edition was published in 1715 by John Chamberlain. This 1715 edition was used by Gottfried Hensel in his Synopsis Universae Philologiae (1741) to compile "geographico - polyglot maps '' where the beginning of the prayer was shown in the geographical area where the respective languages were spoken. Johann Ulrich Kraus also published a collection with more than 100 entries.
These collections continued to be improved and expanded well into the 19th century; Johann Christoph Adelung and Johann Severin Vater in 1806 -- 1817 published the prayer in "well - nigh five hundred languages and dialects ''.
Samples of scripture, including the Lord 's Prayer, were published in 52 oriental languages, most of them not previously found in such collections, translated by the brethren of the Serampore Mission and printed at the mission press there in 1818.
There are similarities between the Lord 's Prayer and both biblical and post-biblical material in Jewish prayer especially Kiddushin 81a (Babylonian). "Hallowed be thy name '' is reflected in the Kaddish. "Lead us not into sin '' is echoed in the "morning blessings '' of Jewish prayer. A blessing said by some Jewish communities after the evening Shema includes a phrase quite similar to the opening of the Lord 's Prayer: "Our God in heaven, hallow thy name, and establish thy kingdom forever, and rule over us for ever and ever. Amen. '' There are parallels also in 1 Chronicles 29: 10 -- 18.
Rabbi Aron Mendes Chumaceiro has said that nearly all the elements of the prayer have counterparts in the Jewish Bible and Deuterocanonical books: the first part in Isaiah 63: 15 -- 16 ("Look down from heaven and see, from your holy and beautiful habitation... For you are our Father... '') and Ezekiel 36: 23 ("I will vindicate the holiness of my great name... '') and Ezekiel 38: 23 ("I will show my greatness and my holiness and make myself known in the eyes of many nations... ''), the second part in Obadiah 1: 21 ("Saviours shall go up to Mount Zion to rule Mount Esau, and the kingdom shall be the LORD 's '') and 1 Samuel 3: 18 ("... It is the LORD. Let him do what seems good to him ''), the third part in Proverbs 30: 8 ("... feed me with my apportioned bread ''), the fourth part in Sirach 28: 2 ("Forgive your neighbour the wrong he has done, and then your sins will be pardoned when you pray ''). "Deliver us from evil '' can be compared with Psalm 119: 133 ("... let no iniquity get dominion over me. ''). Chumaceiro says that, because the idea of God leading a human into temptation contradicts the righteousness and love of God, "Lead us not into temptation '' has no counterpart in the Jewish Bible / Christian Old Testament.
The word "πειρασμός '', which is translated as "temptation '', could also be translated as "test '' or "trial '', making evident the attitude of someone 's heart. Well - known examples in the Old Testament are God 's test of Abraham (Genesis 22: 1), his "moving '' (the Hebrew word means basically "to prick, as by weeds, thorns '') David to do (numbering Israel) what David later acknowledged as sin (2 Samuel 24: 1 -- 10; see also 1 Chronicles 21: 1 -- 7), and the Book of Job.
In modern times, various composers have incorporated The Lord 's Prayer into a musical setting for utilization during liturgical services for a variety of religious traditions as well as interfaith ceremonies. Included among them are:
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who sings the song every rose has a thorn | Every Rose Has Its Thorn - wikipedia
"Every Rose Has Its Thorn '' is the title of a power ballad song by American glam metal band Poison. It was released in October 1988 as the third single from Poison 's second album Open Up and Say... Ahh!. It is the band 's only number - one hit in the U.S., reaching the top spot on December 18, 1988, for three weeks (carrying over into 1989) and it also charted at # 11 on the Mainstream Rock chart. It was a number 13 hit in the UK. "Every Rose Has Its Thorn '' was named number 34 on VH1 's "100 Greatest Songs of the 80s '', # 100 on their "100 Greatest Love Songs '' and # 7 on MTV and VH1 "Top 25 Power Ballads ''.
Musically, the song starts quietly and features two guitar solos, one mellow and one fast. During the writing of the song, Poison had been playing at a cowboy bar called "The Ritz '' in Dallas, Texas, accounting for the song 's recognizable references to cowboys in the chorus, along with the twang in Bret Michaels ' vocals, which give the song a country feel not often heard in power ballads composed by glam metal bands.
In an interview with VH1 's Behind the Music, Michaels said the inspiration for the song came from a night when he was in a laundromat waiting for his clothes to dry, and called his girlfriend on a pay phone. Michaels said he heard a male voice in the background and was devastated; he said he went into the laundromat and wrote "Every Rose Has Its Thorn '' as a result.
The music video to "Every Rose '' starts out with a forlorn Bret Michaels in bed with a young woman, they both look unhappy. He gets up, does the heavy sigh that is at the start of the song and walks away to play the acoustic guitar, the video then goes into video clips of the band 's tour. The same young woman is seen driving a Thunderbird in the rain, (two different times) listening to "Every Rose '' on the car 's radio. The rest of the video is interspersed with various clips from the band 's 1988 tour. The video ends with Bret Michaels playing the last of the song on his acoustic guitar and walking away.
"Every Rose Has Its Thorn '' became the group 's first (and only to date) number - one single on the Billboard Hot 100; it climbed to the top during the two last weeks of 1988 and the first week of 1989. Billboard ranked it as the No. 3 song for 1989.
The song originally appeared on the album Open Up and Say... Ahh!. It was later included in greatest hits compilations such as Poison 's Greatest Hits: 1986 -- 1996, The Best of Poison: 20 Years of Rock or Best of Ballads & Blues.
Live versions of the song appeared on the following albums:
An acoustic version appeared as a bonus track on Poison 's 2000 album Crack a Smile... and More!
Bret Michaels re-recorded the song in 2001 for his solo album Ballads, Blues & Stories.
A country version by Bret Michaels appears on
The song appeared in the films:
The song appeared in one or more episodes of the following TV shows:
The song was made available to download on February 12, 2012 for play in Rock Band 3 Basic and PRO mode utilizing real guitar / bass guitar, and MIDI compatible electronic drum kits / keyboards plus vocal harmonies. The song appeared in 2009 music game Band Hero.
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when was the last time you saw your father | And When Did You Last See Your Father? - Wikipedia
And When Did You Last See Your Father? is a 2007 British drama film directed by Anand Tucker. The screenplay by David Nicholls is based on the 1993 memoir of the same title by Blake Morrison.
The film is a series of flashbacks to various periods in the life of Blake Morrison as he remembers moments he shared with his father Arthur while he, his mother, and younger sister Gillian tend to him on his deathbed in his Yorkshire home. Despite Blake 's success as a writer, poet, and critic, his father -- a rural general practitioner -- never accepted his decision to pursue a literary career nor was he willing to acknowledge his achievements in his field. Bullying, blustery, and boorish, Arthur blunders his way through fatherhood, regularly calling his son a fathead and intruding into the boy 's private moments with a sense of entitlement. He has a penchant for exaggeration when he 's not telling outright lies, and he publicly humiliates his long - suffering but passively complacent wife Kim with his shameless flirting with various women and an affair with Beaty, a friend of the family. At other times, he seems genuinely interested in bonding with his son, taking him camping so they can test supposedly waterproof sleeping bags he has made or allowing him to drive in the family 's Alvis convertible on a wide expanse of deserted beach with reckless abandon. As a result, Blake is left with mixed feelings for the man, ranging from deeply rooted anger to compassionate acceptance. Only after Arthur 's death is he able to set aside his resentment and recognise him as a father whose flaws ultimately helped mould his son into the better man he is.
The film was shot on location in Brighton in East Sussex; Chichester, Goodwood, Petworth, and West Wittering in West Sussex; Bakewell, Cromford, Kedleston, and Snake Pass in Derbyshire; the National Liberal Club in Westminster, London; Sheffield in South Yorkshire; Flintham in Nottinghamshire; and Yorkshire Dales in North Yorkshire. Interiors were filmed at the Twickenham Film Studios in Middlesex.
The film premiered at the Galway Film Festival in July 2007 and was shown at the Edinburgh Film Festival, the Telluride Film Festival, the Toronto International Film Festival, the Edmonton International Film Festival, and the Dinard Festival of British Cinema before going into theatrical release in the UK, Ireland, and Malta on 5 October 2007. It then was shown at the Rome Film Festival, the Cairo International Film Festival, the Dubai International Film Festival, the Miami International Film Festival, and the Ashland Independent Film Festival before going into limited release in the US on 6 June 2008.
The film received generally favourable reviews. Rotten Tomatoes reported 78 % of critics gave the film positive reviews, based on 32 reviews, while Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 70 out of 100, based on 8 reviews.
Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian rated the film four out of five stars, calling it "an intelligent and heartfelt film '' and one that "deserves to be seen. ''
Philip French of The Observer said the film "touches movingly, enlighteningly on universal matters we can all identify with, and it does so without ever getting maudlin or sentimental. ''
Damon Smith of the Manchester Evening News called the film "a bittersweet and, at times, moving account of the strained family ties which define each and every one of us. ''
Manohla Dargis of The New York Times called the film "A gentle tale gently told '' and "grown - up, civilized fare '' and added, "If that sounds like a compliment, it is, even though the whole thing might have been improved with a bit of messiness, a little vulgarity to leaven its tastefulness and tact. This is n't a groundbreaking work; just a smartly played story, enlivened by drama and spiked with passion, the very thing that thinking audiences pine for, especially during the summer spectacle season when theaters are clogged with sticky kids ' stuff and television reruns. ''
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times observed, "It 's a sad movie, with a mournful score, romantic landscape photography and heartbreaking deathbed scenes... But it 's not very satisfying... The film did not provide me with fulfillment or a catharsis... This is a film of regret, and judging by what we see of the characters, it deserves to be. ''
Walter Addiego of the San Francisco Chronicle said, "This classy tearjerker is worth seeing more for its virtuoso acting than for its bare - bones tale of how a sensitive man copes with the death of his domineering father. The film is cleanly and intelligently made, and, excepting a few moments toward the end, it 's moving without being mawkish. While you might leave the theater feeling the picture finally does n't quite have the dramatic heft it should, it offers plenty of compensations along the way. ''
Derek Elley of Variety called the film "immaculately acted, professionally helmed and saturated in period British atmosphere, '' "an unashamed tearjerker that 's all wrapping and no center, '' and "undeniably effective at a gut level despite its dramatic shortcomings. '' He added, "(B) y never getting to the heart of the matter, nor having even one scene where father and son really talk, the movie has a big black hole at its core. In the smorgasbord of father - son relationship pics, this one is very low - cal. ''
The film was nominated for seven British Independent Film Awards, including Best British Independent Film, Best Actor (Jim Broadbent), Best Supporting Actor (Colin Firth), Most Promising Newcomer (Matthew Beard), Best Director, and Best Screenplay.
Jim Broadbent was nominated for the London Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor but lost to Daniel Day - Lewis in There Will Be Blood.
Elaine Cassidy was nominated for the Irish Film & Television Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Film Role but lost to Saoirse Ronan in Atonement.
The Region 1 DVD was released on 4 November 2008. The film is in anamorphic widescreen format with an audio track in English and subtitles in French and Spanish. Bonus features include commentary by director Anand Tucker, deleted scenes, and the original trailer.
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what is the story of field of dreams | Field of Dreams - wikipedia
Field of Dreams is a 1989 American fantasy - drama sports film directed by Phil Alden Robinson, who also wrote the screenplay, adapting W.P. Kinsella 's novel Shoeless Joe. It stars Kevin Costner, Amy Madigan, James Earl Jones, Ray Liotta and Burt Lancaster in his final role. It was nominated for three Academy Awards, including for Best Original Score, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Picture.
Ray Kinsella is a novice Iowa farmer who lives with his wife, Annie, and daughter, Karin. In the opening narration, he explains how he had a troubled relationship with his father, John Kinsella, who had been a devoted baseball fan. While walking through his cornfield one evening, he hears a voice whispering, "If you build it, he will come. '' He continues hearing this before finally seeing a vision of a baseball diamond in his field. Annie is skeptical, but she allows him to plow the corn under in order to build a baseball field. As he builds, he tells Karin the story of the 1919 Black Sox Scandal. Months pass and nothing happens; his family faces financial ruin until, one night, Karin spots a uniformed man on the field. Ray recognizes him as Shoeless Joe Jackson, a deceased baseball player idolized by John. Thrilled to be able to play baseball again, he asks to bring others to the field to play. He later returns with the seven other players banned as a result of the 1919 scandal.
Ray 's brother - in - law, Mark, ca n't see the players and warns him that he will go bankrupt unless he replants his corn. While in the field, Ray hears the voice again, this time urging him to "ease his pain. ''
Ray attends a PTA meeting at which the possible banning of books by radical author Terence Mann is discussed. He decides the voice was referring to Mann. He comes across a magazine interview dealing with Mann 's childhood dream of playing for the Brooklyn Dodgers. After Ray and Annie both dream about him and Mann attending a baseball game together at Fenway Park, he convinces her that he should seek out Mann. He heads to Boston and persuades a reluctant, embittered Mann to attend a game with him at Fenway Park. While there, he hears the voice again, this time urging him to "go the distance. '' At the same time, the scoreboard "shows '' statistics for a player named Archibald "Moonlight '' Graham, who played one game for the New York Giants in 1922, but never had a turn at bat. After the game, Mann eventually admits that he, too, saw it.
Ray and Mann then travel to Chisholm, Minnesota where they learn that Graham had become a doctor and had died sixteen years earlier. During a late night walk, Ray finds himself back in 1972 and encounters the then - living Graham, who states that he had moved on from his baseball career. He also says that the greater disappointment would have been not having a medical career. He declines Ray 's invitation to fulfill his dream; however, during the drive back home, Ray picks up a young hitchhiker who introduces himself as Archie Graham. While Archie sleeps, Ray reveals to Mann that John had wanted him to live out his dream of being a baseball star. He stopped playing catch with him after reading one of Mann 's books at 14. At 17, he had denounced Shoeless Joe as a criminal to John and that was the reason for the rift between them. Ray expresses regret that he did n't get a chance to make things right before John died. When they arrive back at Ray 's farm, they find that enough players have arrived to field two teams. A game is played and Archie finally gets his turn at bat.
The next morning, Mark returns and demands that Ray sell the farm. Karin says that they will not need to because people will pay to watch the ballgames. Mann agrees, saying that "people will come '' in order to relive their childhood innocence. Ray, after much thought, refuses and a frustrated Mark scuffles with him, during which Karin is accidentally knocked off the bleachers. The young Graham runs from the field to help, becoming old Graham, complete with Gladstone bag, the instant he steps off of it, and saves Karin from choking (she had been eating a hot dog when she fell). Ray realizes that Graham sacrificed his young self in order to save her. After reassuring Ray that his true calling was medicine and being commended by the other players, Graham leaves, disappearing into the corn. Suddenly, Mark is able to see the players and urges Ray not to sell the farm.
After the game, Shoeless Joe invites Mann to enter the corn; he accepts and disappears into it. Ray is angry at not being invited, but Shoeless Joe rebukes him: if he really wants a reward for having sacrificed so much, then he had better stay on the field. Shoeless Joe then glances towards a player at home plate, saying "If you build it, he will come. '' The player then removes his mask, and Ray recognizes him to be John as a young man. Shocked, Ray realizes that "ease his pain '' referred to John, and believes that Shoeless Joe was the voice all along; however, Joe implies that the voice was Ray himself. Joe then disappears into the corn.
Ray introduces John to Annie and Karin. As he heads towards the corn, Ray asks him if he wants to play a game of catch. They begin to play and Annie happily watches. Meanwhile, hundreds of cars can be seen approaching the baseball field, fulfilling Karin and Mann 's prophecy that people will come to watch baseball.
Phil Alden Robinson read Shoeless Joe in 1981 and liked it so much that he brought it to producers Lawrence Gordon and Charles Gordon. Lawrence Gordon worked for 20th Century Fox, part of the time as its president, and repeatedly mentioned that the book should be adapted into a film. The studio, however, always turned down the suggestion because they felt the project was too esoteric and noncommercial. Meanwhile, Robinson went ahead with his script, frequently consulting W.P. Kinsella, the book 's author, for advice on the adaptation. Lawrence Gordon left Fox in 1986 and started pitching the adaptation to other studios. Universal Studios accepted the project in 1987 and hired USC coach Rod Dedeaux as baseball advisor. Dedeaux brought along World Series champion and USC alumnus Don Buford to coach the actors.
The film was shot using the novel 's title; eventually, an executive decision was made to rename it Field of Dreams. Robinson did not like the idea saying he loved Shoeless Joe, and that the new title was better suited for one about dreams deferred. Later, Kinsella told Robinson that his originally chosen title for the book had been The Dream Field and that the title Shoeless Joe had been imposed by the publisher.
Robinson and the producers did not originally consider Kevin Costner for the part of Ray because they did not think that he would want to follow Bull Durham with another baseball film. He, however, did end up reading the script and became interested in the project, stating that he felt it would be "this generation 's It 's a Wonderful Life ''. Since Robinson 's directing debut In the Mood had been a commercial failure, Costner also said that he would help him with the production. Amy Madigan, a fan of the book, joined the cast as Ray 's wife, Annie. In the book, the writer Ray seeks out is real - life author J.D. Salinger. When Salinger threatened the production with a lawsuit if his name was used, Robinson decided to rewrite the character as reclusive Terence Mann. He wrote with James Earl Jones in mind because he thought it would be fun to see Ray trying to kidnap such a big man. Robinson had originally envisioned Shoeless Joe Jackson as being played by an actor in his 40s, someone who would be older than Costner and who could thereby act as a father surrogate. Ray Liotta did not fit that criterion, but Robinson thought he would be a better fit for the part because he had the "sense of danger '' and ambiguity which Robinson wanted in the character. Burt Lancaster had originally turned down the part of Moonlight Graham, but changed his mind after a friend, who was also a baseball fan, told him that he had to work on the film.
Filming began on May 25, 1988. The shooting schedule was built around Costner 's availability because he would be leaving in August to film Revenge. Except for some weather delays and other time constraints, production rolled six days a week. The interior scenes were the first ones shot because the cornfield planted by the filmmakers was taking too long to grow. Irrigation had to be used to quickly grow the corn to Costner 's height. Primary shot locations were in Dubuque County, Iowa; a farm near Dyersville was used for the Kinsella home; an empty warehouse in Dubuque was used to build various interior sets. Galena, Illinois served as Moonlight Graham 's Chisholm, Minnesota. One week was spent on location shots in Boston, most notably Fenway Park.
Robinson, despite having a sufficient budget as well as the cast and crew he wanted, constantly felt tense and depressed during filming. He felt that he was under too much pressure to create an outstanding film, and that he was not doing justice to the original novel. Lawrence Gordon convinced him that the end product would be effective.
During a lunch with the Iowa Chamber of Commerce, Robinson broached his idea of a final scene in which headlights could be seen for miles along the horizon. The Chamber folks replied that it could be done and the shooting of the final scene became a community event. The film crew was hidden on the farm to make sure the aerial shots did not reveal them. Dyersville was then blacked out and local extras drove their vehicles to the field. In order to give the illusion of movement, the drivers were instructed to continuously switch between their low and high beams.
Scenes of the Kinsella farm were taken on the property of Don Lansing; some of the baseball field scenes were shot on the neighboring farm of Al Ameskamp. Because the shooting schedule was too short for grass to naturally grow, the experts on sod laying responsible for Dodger Stadium and the Rose Bowl were hired to create the baseball field. Part of the process involved painting the turf green.
After shooting, Ameskamp again grew corn on his property; Lansing maintained his as a tourist destination. He did not charge for admission or parking, deriving revenue solely from the souvenir shop. By the film 's twentieth anniversary, approximately 65,000 people visited annually. In July, 2010, the farm containing the "Field '' was listed as for sale. It was sold on October 31, 2011, to Go The Distance Baseball, LLC, for an undisclosed fee, believed to be around $5.4 million.
At first, James Horner was unsure if he could work on the film due to scheduling restrictions. Then he watched a rough cut and was so moved that he accepted the job of scoring it. Robinson had created a temp track which was disliked by Universal executives. When the announcement of Horner as composer was made, they felt more positive because they expected a big orchestral score, similar to Horner 's work for An American Tail. Horner, in contrast, liked the temporary score, finding it "quiet and kind of ghostly. '' He decided to follow the idea of the temp track, creating an atmospheric soundtrack which would "focus on the emotions ''. In addition to Horner 's score, portions of several pop songs are heard during the film. They are listed in the following order in the closing credits:
The character played by Burt Lancaster and Frank Whaley, Archibald "Moonlight '' Graham, is based on an actual baseball player with the same name. His character is largely true to life except for a few factual liberties taken for artistic reasons. For instance, the real Graham 's lone major league game occurred in June 1905, rather than on the final day of the 1922 season. The real Graham also died in 1965, as opposed to 1972 as the film depicts. In the film, Terence Mann interviews a number of people about Graham. The DVD special points out that the facts they gave him were taken from articles written about the real one.
Universal scheduled the film to open in the U.S. on April 21, 1989.It debuted in just a few theaters and was gradually released to more screens so that it would have a spot among the summer blockbusters. It ended up playing until December.
As of June 2017, review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes rates the film 86 %, based on 57 reviews with an average score of 7.9 out of 10. The consensus states: "Field of Dreams is sentimental, but in the best way; it 's a mix of fairy tale, baseball, and family togetherness. ''
In June 2008, after having polled over 1,500 people in the creative community, AFI revealed its "Ten Top Ten '' -- the best ten films in ten "classic '' American film genres. The film was acknowledged as the sixth best one in the fantasy genre.
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when did the niners go to the super bowl | Super Bowl XLVII - wikipedia
Super Bowl XLVII was an American football game between the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Baltimore Ravens and the National Football Conference (NFC) champion San Francisco 49ers to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2012 season. The Ravens defeated the 49ers by the score of 34 -- 31, handing the 49ers their first Super Bowl loss in franchise history. The game was played on Sunday, February 3, 2013 at Mercedes - Benz Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana. This was the tenth Super Bowl to be played in New Orleans, equaling Miami 's record of ten in an individual city.
For the first time in Super Bowl history, the game featured two brothers coaching against each other -- Jim and John Harbaugh, head coaches of the San Francisco 49ers and Baltimore Ravens, respectively -- earning it the nickname Harbaugh Bowl. In addition, Super Bowl XLVII was the first to feature two teams that had undefeated records in previous Super Bowl games (Baltimore, 1 -- 0; San Francisco, 5 -- 0). The 49ers, who posted a regular - season record of 11 -- 4 -- 1, entered the game seeking their sixth Super Bowl win in team history (and first since Super Bowl XXIX at the end of the 1994 season), which would have tied the Pittsburgh Steelers for the most by a franchise. The Ravens, who posted a 10 -- 6 regular - season record, made their second Super Bowl appearance in 12 years, having previously won Super Bowl XXXV. Ray Lewis, the Most Valuable Player (MVP) from that game, as well as the last remaining member of the inaugural Ravens roster from 1996, also played in this game, his last before his retirement from professional football.
Baltimore built a 28 -- 6 lead early in the third quarter before a partial power outage in the Superdome suspended play for 34 minutes (earning the game the added nickname of the Blackout Bowl). After play resumed, San Francisco scored 17 unanswered third - quarter points to cut the Ravens ' lead to 28 -- 23, and continued to chip away in the fourth quarter. With the Ravens leading late in the game, 34 -- 29, the 49ers advanced to the Baltimore 7 - yard line just before the two - minute warning but turned the ball over on downs. The Ravens then took an intentional safety in the waning moments of the game to preserve the victory. Baltimore quarterback Joe Flacco, who completed 22 of 33 passes for 287 yards and three touchdowns, became the fourth quarterback in a row to be named Super Bowl MVP, after Drew Brees at Super Bowl XLIV, Aaron Rodgers at Super Bowl XLV, and Eli Manning at Super Bowl XLVI.
CBS broadcast the game in the U.S., and charged an average of $4 million for a 30 - second commercial during the game, the highest rate for any Super Bowl. According to Nielsen, Super Bowl XLVII was viewed by an estimated average of 108.69 million people in the United States, with a record 164.1 million tuning into at least six minutes of the game. Beyoncé performed in the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show, which featured a reunion with fellow Destiny 's Child alumnae Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams.
The game marked the first Super Bowl in which both of the teams had appeared in, but had not yet lost a previous Super Bowl; the 49ers came into the game having won all five of their previous Super Bowl appearances, while the Ravens had won in their lone previous Super Bowl appearance in Super Bowl XXXV against the New York Giants. Currently, this phenomenon can only be repeated if either the Ravens or the New York Jets play against either the Tampa Bay Buccaneers or the New Orleans Saints in a subsequent Super Bowl. Baltimore 's victory made them the only current NFL franchise to have appeared in at least two Super Bowls without ever losing any of their appearances.
Three cities presented bids for the game:
The league then selected the New Orleans bid during the NFL 's Spring Ownership Meetings in Fort Lauderdale, Florida on May 19, 2009. This was the tenth time that the city has hosted the Super Bowl, by far the most by an individual city and once again tying with the Miami area for the most Super Bowls hosted by a metropolitan area. It was the first Super Bowl to be held in New Orleans since the Superdome sustained damage from Hurricane Katrina in 2005, as well as since the naming rights of the Superdome were sold to Mercedes - Benz while it was undergoing a major renovation in 2011, including the addition of Champions Square. New Orleans artist Ally Burguieres was selected to design the official medallion for Super Bowl XLVII, which was included on beads to commemorate the Mardi Gras tradition.
Because of the February 3 date of Super Bowl XLVII, the 2013 Mardi Gras calendar in Orleans Parish was changed. Parades scheduled for February 3 and before were moved ahead one week. The same situation occurred in 2002 when the 9 / 11 attacks caused a one - week delay in the 2001 NFL season, resulting in the Super Bowl XXXVI falling within the Mardi Gras parade calendar.
This was the 49ers ' second Super Bowl played at the Superdome -- the first being Super Bowl XXIV when they beat the Denver Broncos 55 -- 10. The 49ers, Broncos and New England Patriots are the only teams so far to play two or more Super Bowls at the Superdome. The 49ers also joined the Broncos and the Colts in playing two Super Bowls at two different stadiums. The 49ers won Super Bowls XXIII and XXIX in Miami at what is now known as Hard Rock Stadium.
Super Bowl XLVII earned many nicknames, including the "Bro Bowl '', "Harbaugh Bowl '', "HarBowl '', "Super Baugh '', "Brother Bowl '', and "Superbro '', as this was the first Super Bowl featuring brothers as opposing head coaches: Baltimore 's John Harbaugh and San Francisco 's Jim Harbaugh, whose clubs previously met in a 2011 Thanksgiving Day game, which John Harbaugh 's Ravens won 16 -- 6, which was also the first time that two brothers had met as rival head coaches in the NFL. Due to a power outage affecting half the stadium during the third quarter, the game has also become known as the "Blackout Bowl ''.
After going 12 -- 4 and reaching the AFC Championship Game in 2011, only to lose to the New England Patriots when wide receiver Lee Evans dropped a game - winning catch in the end zone and Billy Cundiff missed a potential game - tying 32 - yard field goal, the Ravens advanced further in 2012 to the Super Bowl after recording a 10 -- 6 regular season record. Under head coach John Harbaugh, who was in his fifth season with the team, Baltimore upgraded their roster with players such as defensive backs Sean Considine and Corey Graham, and wide receiver Jacoby Jones. In December 2012, the Ravens fired offensive coordinator Cam Cameron and promoted quarterbacks coach Jim Caldwell, who was previously the head coach of the Indianapolis Colts from 2009 to 2011, as the successor. With personnel on both sides of the ball, they finished the season ranked 10th in points per game (24.9), and 12th in fewest points allowed (21.5)
In command of the offense was five - year veteran Joe Flacco, who finished the season with a career - high 3,817 passing yards and 22 touchdowns, with only 10 interceptions. (Super Bowl XLVII would be one of only two years the AFC team 's quarterback would not be either Tom Brady, Ben Roethlisberger or Peyton Manning between Super Bowls XXXVI and LI; the other was Super Bowl XXXVII ten years prior, when the 2002 Oakland Raiders were helmed by Rich Gannon.) His top targets were receivers Anquan Boldin (65 receptions, 921 yards, 4 touchdowns) and Torrey Smith (49 receptions, 855 yards, 8 touchdowns), along with tight end Dennis Pitta (61 receptions, 669 yards, 7 touchdowns). Their backfield featured two Pro Bowl selections: halfback Ray Rice and fullback Vonta Leach. Rice rushed for 1,143 yards and 9 touchdowns, while also hauling in 61 receptions for 478 yards and another score. Leach served effectively as his lead blocker and a receiver out of the backfield, catching 21 passes. The Ravens ' offensive line was led by Pro Bowl guard Marshal Yanda.
On special teams, Jones returned 38 kickoffs for 1,116 yards and two touchdowns, giving him a whopping 30.7 yards per return average. He also gained 341 yards and another touchdown returning punts, and caught 30 passes for 406 yards and a score. Rookie kicker Justin Tucker ranked 7th in the NFL in field goal percentage (90.9), kicking 30 / 33 field goals and making all 42 of his extra point attempts.
Baltimore 's defensive line was anchored by Pro Bowl defensive end Haloti Ngata, who compiled 51 tackles and 5 sacks, along with defensive tackle Arthur Jones (47 tackles, 4.5 sacks). The Ravens also had an excellent set of linebackers, such as Paul Kruger, Dannell Ellerbe, Jameel McClain, Terrell Suggs, and Ray Lewis. Kruger led the team in sacks with 9, while Ellerbe added 92 tackles and 4.5 sacks. McClain had 79 tackles. Suggs, a ten - year veteran and five - time Pro Bowl selection, who had missed the first half of the regular season with a partially torn Achilles tendon, made a speedy recovery and was key in the Ravens ' win over the Broncos in the divisional round of the playoffs with 2 sacks on Broncos quarterback Peyton Manning. Lewis, a 17 - year veteran and 13 - time Pro Bowl selection, had missed most of the season with an arm injury, but still managed to rack up 57 tackles in just 6 games. Then shortly before returning for the playoffs, he announced his plans to retire after the postseason, and promptly went on to amass 44 tackles in Baltimore 's four playoff games.
The Ravens secondary featured Pro Bowl safety Ed Reed, the NFL 's all - time leader in interception return yardage. Reed had another statistically successful season in 2012, recording 58 tackles and 4 interceptions. Cornerback Cary Williams was also a big contributor with 4 interceptions and 75 tackles.
The team dedicated their 2012 season to former owner and founder Art Modell, who died on September 6, 2012, four days before the first regular season game.
The 49ers had recently emerged as a dominant team after nearly a decade of ineptitude. During the ' 80s and ' 90s, they had been one of the NFL top contenders, playing in ten conference championship games and winning five Super Bowls. But after a strong 2002 season, San Francisco went into a dismal slump in which they failed to make the playoffs for eight consecutive seasons. Following the end of the 2010 season, the 49ers hired Jim Harbaugh as their head coach. Harbaugh, who played 14 years in the NFL, joined the team after an impressive 12 -- 1 season as the coach of Stanford, and in his first season with San Francisco he managed to turn their fortunes around, aided by breakout seasons from quarterback Alex Smith and receiver Michael Crabtree.
Smith entered the 2012 season as the starting quarterback, but missed two starts mid-season after suffering a concussion, and second - year backup Colin Kaepernick successfully filled in. A quarterback controversy then began because Smith was ranked third in the NFL in passer rating (104.1), led the league in completion percentage (70 %), and had been 19 -- 5 -- 1 as a starter under Harbaugh, while Kaepernick was considered more dynamic with his scrambling ability and arm strength. After Smith was fully recovered, Harbaugh chose Kaepernick as the starter for the 8 -- 2 -- 1 49ers, but also stated that the assignment was week - to - week and not necessarily permanent. Kaepernick ended up being the starter for the rest of the season and led the team to an 11 -- 4 -- 1 record, throwing for 1,814 yards and 10 touchdowns, with just 3 interceptions and a 98.4 passer rating, while also rushing for 415 yards and 5 touchdowns.
San Francisco 's top receiver was Crabtree, who caught 85 passes for a career - high 1,105 yards and 9 touchdowns. Other key contributors to the passing game included tight end Vernon Davis (41 receptions for 538 yards and 5 touchdowns) along with offseason acquired receivers Mario Manningham and Randy Moss. Manningham had been signed away from the defending Super Bowl champion New York Giants, while Moss, the NFL 's second all - time leader in receiving yards, had been signed out of retirement after missing the previous season. The 49ers ' backfield featured Pro Bowl running back Frank Gore, who rushed for 1,214 yards and 8 touchdowns, while also catching 28 passes for 234 yards and another score. The team also had a strong offensive line with two Pro Bowl linemen, left tackle Joe Staley and left guard Mike Iupati.
On special teams, punter Andy Lee led the NFL in net yards per punt (43.2) and ranked 5th in gross yards per punt (48.1). He planted 36 punts inside the 20 - yard line with just 5 touchbacks. Kicker David Akers had a relatively bad year overall, converting only 69 percent of his field goal attempts, but in the week 1 contest against the Green Bay Packers tied the NFL record for the longest field goal with a successful 63 - yard attempt.
The 49ers ' strongest unit was their defense, which ranked 2nd in fewest points allowed per game (17.1) and sent 6 of their 11 starters to the Pro Bowl. Pro Bowl defensive end Justin Smith led the line with 66 tackles and 3 sacks. Behind him, all four of the team 's starting linebackers -- Aldon Smith, NaVorro Bowman, Patrick Willis and Ahmad Brooks -- were named to the 2012 All - Pro Team, and all but Brooks made the Pro Bowl. Aldon Smith set a franchise record with 19.5 sacks, more than the rest of the team had combined. Willis ranked second on the team with 120 tackles and picked off two passes, while Bowman 's 149 tackles were second most in the NFL. The 49ers secondary featured Pro Bowl safeties Dashon Goldson and Donte Whitner.
Baltimore finished the season as the AFC North champion and the number 4 seed in the American Football Conference. The Ravens began their playoff run at home against the number 5 seed Indianapolis Colts in the Wild - Card round in what would turn out to be Ray Lewis 's final career home game. They defeated the Colts 24 -- 9, with Flacco throwing for 288 yards and two touchdowns, while their defense held the Colts to just 9 points, 13 below their regular season average.
In the divisional round, the Ravens would face the top - seeded Denver Broncos, who came into the game with an 11 - game winning streak. Baltimore fell behind late in the game, but with less than a minute left on the clock, Flacco 's 70 - yard touchdown pass to Jacoby Jones sent it into overtime, a play that is known as the Mile High Miracle. An interception by Corey Graham from Peyton Manning late in the first overtime period set up Tucker 's 47 - yard field goal to win the game 1: 42 into double overtime.
Finally, Baltimore advanced to the Super Bowl by overcoming a 13 - 7 halftime deficit and then beating the second - seeded New England Patriots in the AFC Championship Game 28 -- 13, vindicating the Ravens ' loss against New England in the 2011 AFC Championship game, forcing three turnovers total, intercepting two of Tom Brady 's passes, and keeping the Patriots scoreless in the second half. By winning the game, the Ravens handed Brady his first AFC Championship Game loss at home.
As the NFC West champion and the number 2 seed in the National Football Conference, San Francisco earned a first - round bye. The 49ers started their playoff run against the number 3 seed Green Bay Packers in the divisional round. Jim Harbaugh 's decision to start Kaepernick for the playoffs came into immediate question when he threw an interception that was returned for a touchdown by Sam Shields on their opening drive, but this turned out to be the only miscue he would make for the rest of the game, as well as the only interception he would throw until the Super Bowl. By the end of the game, Kaepernick racked up 444 total yards (more than the entire Packers team), including 181 rushing yards, the NFL single game record for rushing yards by a quarterback, as the 49ers went on to win easily, 45 -- 31.
They then faced the top - seeded Atlanta Falcons in the NFC Championship Game, where they quickly fell behind 17 -- 0 in the first half. No team in NFC Championship Game history had ever overcome a deficit that large, but the 49ers proved up to the challenge, cutting the score to 24 -- 21 going into the final quarter. Late in the game, their comeback hopes suffered a setback when Crabtree lost a fumble on the 1 - yard line as he was going in for the leading score. However, their defense forced a punt, and Ted Ginn Jr. 's 20 - yard return set up a touchdown run by Gore. The defense then held firm, forcing a turnover on downs at their 10 - yard line to secure the victory.
This was the first Super Bowl since Super Bowl XXXVII that did not feature the New England Patriots, Indianapolis Colts, or the Pittsburgh Steelers as the AFC representatives, and the only one as of the 2017 season, including the Denver Broncos, the team that Peyton Manning was brought to in the 2012 season. Baltimore defeated the Colts and Patriots during the playoffs while the Steelers failed to make the playoffs. By contrast, the NFC had a different member go to the Super Bowl almost every year during that same span, with the New York Giants (who won Super Bowls XLII and XLVI) being the only NFC team to make two appearances during that span. With the 49ers making their first Super Bowl appearance since Super Bowl XXIX, this left the Dallas Cowboys (last appeared in Super Bowl XXX), Detroit Lions (never appeared in a Super Bowl), Minnesota Vikings (last appeared in Super Bowl XI) and Washington Redskins (last appeared in Super Bowl XXVI) as the only NFC teams not to play in a Super Bowl since 1998, with only the Vikings (on three occasions) even advancing to the NFC Championship Game.
The 49ers attempted to follow the 2012 World Series championship victory of Major League Baseball 's San Francisco Giants. The last time a metropolitan area won the World Series and Super Bowl in the same season was when the Boston Red Sox won the 2004 World Series followed by the Patriots winning Super Bowl XXXIX (and the Patriots won Super Bowl XXXVIII earlier in 2004).
As the 49ers -- who were attempting to join the New York Giants and Green Bay Packers as the only teams to win a Super Bowl in three different decades -- were the designated home team in the annual rotation between AFC and NFC teams, San Francisco elected to wear their red jerseys, which they wore in Super Bowls XIX, XXIII, and XXIX (wearing an alternate throwback red jersey with three - dimensional numerals in XXIX), and gold pants (worn in their first four Super Bowl appearances) for the first time since Super Bowl XXIV (having worn white pants in XXIX along with the aforementioned throwback jerseys). The Ravens wore white jerseys as they did in Super Bowl XXXV, but with black pants this time instead of white. Due to the Ravens having their Art Modell memorial patch on the left side of their jerseys, the team wore their Super Bowl XLVII patch on the right side.
Much of the pregame media hype centered around the Harbaugh brothers, and how their father Jack, a former college football head coach, raised them. On January 24, Jack, along with his wife Jackie and daughter Joani, conducted a media conference call, answering questions about John and Jim. Jackie jokingly asked if the game could end in a tie, before stating that the family was staying neutral but remain excited that both John and Jim brought their respective teams to the Super Bowl. The Harbaugh brothers then conducted a joint press conference on the Friday before the game, which is unusual for opposing Super Bowl coaches, but it was done because of the historic nature of the game.
The game was carried by CBS in the United States, with Jim Nantz calling play - by - play and Phil Simms as color analyst. For the second consecutive year, a webcast was provided; this time on CBSSports.com. A special episode of Elementary would be the lead - out program of this Super Bowl. The network 's owned and operated stations in Baltimore and San Francisco, WJZ - TV (originally an ABC affiliate) and KPIX - TV respectively, were for many years owned by Westinghouse Broadcasting, which merged with CBS in 1995. Thus, this became the first CBS - aired Super Bowl to involve two former Westinghouse markets since the merger. Additionally, this Super Bowl gave CBS the distinction of televising both of the Ravens ' appearances (and victories) so far (after Super Bowl XXXV in 2001).
The game was later featured as one of the NFL 's Greatest Games under the title "Change of Momentum ''.
A feed designed for areas less familiar with American football was produced by NFL Network, with Bob Papa (the regular - season voice of the New York Giants) calling play - by - play and Joe Theismann as color analyst. The NFL claimed that their feed would go to 180 countries.
According to CBS, the price of a 30 - second advertisement hit a record high US $ 4,000,000. General Motors announced it would not advertise on the game, citing the advertising costs.
Adbowl had a special theme this year for the Super Bowl, called "Catbowl 2013 '', which pitted the best commercials by votes with cat videos to see which one is more popular.
The advertisers for Super Bowl XLVII included Mercedes - Benz, Gildan, Samsung, BlackBerry, Kraft Foods, Subway, Taco Bell, Procter & Gamble, Best Buy, Coca - Cola, Sodastream, PepsiCo (including entries in the Doritos Crash the Super Bowl contest), Axe, Audi, Kia Motors, Ford Motor Company, Wonderful Pistachios, GoDaddy, and perpetual Super Bowl advertiser Anheuser - Busch. Ram Trucks and the Future Farmers of America ran a two - minute commercial based on the Paul Harvey speech "So God Made a Farmer. '' Movie studios Paramount Pictures, Universal Studios and Walt Disney Studios paying for movie trailers to be aired during the Super Bowl. With Paramount paying for Star Trek Into Darkness and World War Z, Universal paying for the debut trailer for Fast & Furious 6 that followed Monsters vs. Aliens ' footsteps and Disney paying for Iron Man 3, The Lone Ranger and Oz the Great and Powerful.
In the United States, the game was carried nationwide over the Dial Global radio network, with Kevin Harlan as play - by - play announcer, Boomer Esiason as color analyst, and James Lofton and Mark Malone as sideline reporters. Univision Radio broadcast the game in Spanish.
Each team 's flagship station also carried the game: WIYY and WBAL broadcast the game in Baltimore, with Gerry Sandusky on play - by - play and Stan White and Qadry Ismail on color commentary. In San Francisco, the game was broadcast on KSAN - FM and KNBR, with Ted Robinson on play - by - play, Eric Davis on color commentary, and Rod Brooks reporting from the sidelines. Both WBAL and KNBR are clear - channel stations, which allowed the local commentaries to be heard throughout the Eastern and Western United States, respectively. Per contractual rules, the rest of the stations in the 49ers ' and Ravens ' radio networks carried the Dial Global feed.
Internationally, the game was carried on radio as follows:
Sirius XM Radio and NFL Audio Pass carried the local, Dial Global, and select international audio feeds.
On January 18, 2013, the league announced that Alicia Keys would sing the national anthem. Keys stated that she would not perform the song traditionally and instead would perform it as if it were "a brand new song. ''
Jennifer Hudson and a chorus of several students from Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, Connecticut, the site of the shooting on December 14, 2012, performed "America the Beautiful ''.
The coin toss ceremony featured the recent inductees to the Pro Football Hall of Fame: Larry Allen, Cris Carter, Curley Culp, Warren Sapp, Bill Parcells, Jonathan Ogden, and Dave Robinson.
On October 16, 2012, Beyoncé was chosen as the headline performer for the Super Bowl halftime show, with a reunited Destiny 's Child also appearing as part of the show. Despite initial reports that mentioned that Beyoncé 's husband, Jay Z, was a potential collaborator on the show, he did not make an appearance.
Beyoncé was the second most - watched halftime show in history with 104 million viewers.
San Francisco was hurt by penalties and turnovers early in the game as the Ravens built a 21 -- 6 first - half lead. On their first play of the opening drive, tight end Vernon Davis 's 20 - yard reception was called back by an illegal formation penalty. The team ended up punting after three more plays, and Jacoby Jones returned the ball 17 yards to the Ravens ' 49 - yard line. Baltimore then drove 51 yards, scoring on Joe Flacco 's 13 - yard touchdown pass to receiver Anquan Boldin. Flacco had previously thrown a third - down incompletion, but an offsides penalty against linebacker Ahmad Brooks gave him a second chance.
San Francisco responded on their next possession, moving the ball 62 yards in a 12 - play drive, with quarterback Colin Kaepernick completing a 19 - yard pass to Michael Crabtree and a 24 - yarder to Davis. David Akers finished the drive with a 36 - yard field goal to cut the score to 7 -- 3. Baltimore responded with a drive to the 49ers ' 37 - yard line, featuring a 30 - yard catch by Boldin, but came up empty after Flacco was sacked on third down for a 5 - yard loss by defensive tackle Ray McDonald, pushing the Ravens out of field goal range.
Five plays into the 49ers ' next drive, linebacker Courtney Upshaw forced a fumble from running back LaMichael James, and Baltimore 's Arthur Jones recovered it on the Ravens ' 25 - yard line. Baltimore drove 75 yards on 10 plays, 42 of those came from a 23 - yard and a 14 - yard pass to tight end Ed Dickson, the second followed by a 15 - yard facemask penalty on Donte Whitner. Dennis Pitta caught a 1 - yard touchdown catch on the final play of the drive and the extra point made the score 14 -- 3.
On the first play of the next drive, Ed Reed intercepted a pass by Kaepernick and returned the ball 6 yards to the 49ers ' 38 - yard line. This was the first interception thrown by San Francisco in any of their six Super Bowl appearances. Unnecessary roughness charges were called after the play on players from both teams so the charges offset. Baltimore reached the red zone on their next drive, but was unable to score. Following a one - yard run by Bernard Pierce and two incomplete passes, rookie kicker Justin Tucker was tackled 1 yard short of a first down while running the ball on a fake field goal play.
San Francisco was forced to a three - and - out on the drive. Jones muffed the punt, but recovered the ball and returned it 11 yards to the Ravens ' 44 - yard line. Two plays later, Jones made a falling catch deep down the field, then got back up and eluded two 49ers defensive backs en route to a 56 - yard touchdown reception, making the score 21 -- 3 with less than two minutes to go in the first half. On the second play of San Francisco 's next drive, tight end Delanie Walker caught a 14 - yard pass from Kaepernick, which was extended by a 15 - yard roughing the passer penalty against Haloti Ngata. After an incomplete first down attempt, Walker received another 28 - yard pass, putting San Francisco on the Baltimore 17 - yard line. San Francisco reached the 9 - yard line, but were unable to convert on three plays. On the last play of the half, Akers kicked his second field goal to cut their deficit to 21 -- 6.
On the second - half kickoff, Jacoby Jones fielded the kick and promptly returned it 108 yards for the longest play in Super Bowl history. It broke the previous 104 - yard record for the longest kickoff return in the playoffs (set by Trindon Holliday of the Denver Broncos in the divisional playoff game earlier that year against Baltimore), and it tied an NFL record already held by Jones and shared with Ellis Hobbs and Randall Cobb for the longest kickoff return. With the extra point, Baltimore was now leading 28 -- 6.
Shortly into the 49ers ' next drive, a power outage caused the lights to go out in half of the stadium, stopping play for 34 minutes. The outage was caused by equipment failure at the stadium.
After play resumed, both teams punted once. Then San Francisco drove 80 yards, with Kaepernick rushing for 15 yards and completing an 18 - yard pass to Davis before finishing the drive with a pass to Crabtree, who broke through two potential Ravens tacklers on the way to a 31 - yard touchdown reception. Then Baltimore was forced to punt from their own 9 - yard line following Brooks ' 8 - yard sack of Flacco on third down, and Ted Ginn Jr. returned the ball 32 yards to the 20 before being shoved out of bounds by punter Sam Koch. Kaepernick completed a 14 - yard pass to Davis on the next play, and Gore followed it up with a 6 - yard touchdown run, cutting the score to 28 -- 20.
On the second play of the fourth quarter, Baltimore committed their first turnover when defensive back Tarell Brown forced and recovered a fumble from Ray Rice on the Ravens ' 25 - yard line. Three plays later, Akers missed (went wide left) on a 39 - yard field goal attempt, but Baltimore 's Chykie Brown was penalized for running into the kicker, and Akers ' second attempt was good from 34 yards, trimming the lead to 28 -- 23.
The Ravens responded on their ensuing possession, moving the ball 77 yards and advancing to the San Francisco 1 - yard line, with Boldin catching two passes for 39 yards. But they were unable to reach the end zone and settled for Tucker 's 19 - yard field goal to put them back up by 8 points, 31 -- 23. San Francisco stormed back, scoring in just five plays. Following a 32 - yard reception by Randy Moss and a 21 - yard burst by Gore, Kaepernick took the ball across the goal line on a 15 - yard run, the longest touchdown run by a quarterback in Super Bowl history. However, the ensuing two - point conversion failed, so the 49ers were unable to break the deficit, still trailing at 31 -- 29.
On the Ravens ' ensuing drive, Boldin caught two passes for 22 yards and Rice rushed for 11 yards as the team moved the ball 55 yards and scored on Tucker 's 38 - yard field goal, making the score 34 -- 29 with 4: 19 left in regulation. San Francisco used up two timeouts on their next drive, but managed to move the ball to a first and goal on the Ravens ' 7 - yard line following a 24 - yard catch by Crabtree and a 33 - yard run by Gore.
With four chances to take the lead, San Francisco started out with a 2 - yard run by James to the 5 - yard line. Then Kaepernick threw two incompletions, bringing up fourth down. On their last chance, Kaepernick tried to throw the ball to Crabtree in the end zone, but it was too far ahead and the pass fell incomplete. Defensive back Jimmy Smith and Crabtree both made contact prior to the ball arriving, but no penalty was called and the 49ers turned the ball over on downs with 1: 46 left in the game.
San Francisco managed to force a three - and - out on the Ravens ' next drive, but as they had only one timeout remaining, the Ravens were able to run the clock down to twelve seconds. On fourth down, and after the Ravens then called a timeout of their own, punter Sam Koch fielded the snap in his own end zone. In an effort to kill as much of the twelve remaining seconds on the clock, Koch was instructed not to punt the ball but rather hang on to it and scramble around in the end zone. Koch was able to scramble for eight seconds before giving up an intentional safety by running out of the side of the end zone, leaving just four seconds remaining. On the ensuing free kick, Ginn returned the ball 31 yards, but was tackled at midfield by linebacker Josh Bynes as time expired.
Play was interrupted for 34 minutes because of a 22 - minute partial power outage. The power failed with 13: 22 remaining in the third quarter with the Ravens leading 28 - 6. Emergency generators provided backup lighting. The fire department (NOFD) rescued people from elevator seven, but other elevators were brought to the ground uneventfully. Attendees used double the usual amount of data for their cell phones. AT&T reported 78 gigabytes (GB) downloaded from 8 to 9 PM, about double from the peak the year before. NFL chief security officer Jeffrey Miller attributed fans ' calmness to their preoccupation with their electronics.
SMG, the Superdome 's management company, recently upgraded electrical systems at the facility. In an October 15, 2012 memo, Louisiana officials expressed concern that the equipment bringing electricity into the stadium from utility company Entergy had a "chance of failure ''. Authorities subsequently spent nearly $1 million on upgrades to the stadium, more than half of that paid to Allstar Electric to upgrade electrical feeder cables.
Entergy and SMG both said the problem was in interconnection equipment, and SMG has hired a third party to investigate. Investigations homed in on a newly installed switchgear. Entergy installed a pair of relays made by Rogers Park 's S&C Electric Company of Rogers Park, Chicago to ensure continued power supply in case one supply line failed. One of those relays tripped. Subsequent tests showed one of the relays functioned properly and the other did not. S&C Electric Co. claims the relay 's trip setting was too low, but Entergy claims that the two were set identically.
Electricity usage during the game was on par with a regular New Orleans Saints game. The halftime show was powered by a generator that did not impact the stadium 's power.
CBS - TV viewers were shown the half - lit Superdome interior. The main broadcast booth was off line; sideline reporter Steve Tasker informed the audience that "a click of the lights '' had occurred and play had been halted. Ray Lewis later stated in an interview that he believed the blackout was part of a conspiracy, saying "You 're a zillion dollar company and your lights go out? No. No way. '' 49ers CEO Jed York responded to the claim on Twitter in jest, tweeting "There is no conspiracy. I pulled the plug. ''
at Mercedes - Benz Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana
Both teams combined for 312 kickoff return yards, a Super Bowl record. The Ravens scored the same amount of points (34) in both of their Super Bowl appearances. Meanwhile, the 49ers became just the second team to lose the Super Bowl while scoring more than 30 points after the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowl XIII; in both cases, the losing team scored 31 points. As such, these two Super Bowls are the only two times in NFL history (including the pre-Super Bowl era) in which both teams scored over 30 points in a Championship game. Until Super Bowl 52, having the New England Patriots being upset by the upstart Philadelphia Eagles (Final Score 41 - 33).
For the Ravens, Anquan Boldin was the leading receiver with 6 receptions for 106 yards and a touchdown. Paul Kruger had three tackles and two sacks, while Ed Reed had five tackles and an interception. Reed 's interception gave him 9 career postseason picks, tying the NFL record. Dannell Ellerbe had nine tackles, while Ray Lewis had seven tackles in the final game of his 17 - season career.
Baltimore 's Jacoby Jones returned 5 kickoffs for 208 yards and a touchdown, two punts for 28 yards, and caught a 56 - yard touchdown pass. He tied an NFL league record and set a Super Bowl record for longest kickoff return in a Super Bowl with a 108 - yard return to open up the second half. Jones also set or tied the following records: the record for most combined yards in a Super Bowl game with 290, tied the record for most touchdown plays of 50 yards or more, with 2 and became the first player to score a receiving touchdown and return touchdown in a Super Bowl.
For San Francisco, Colin Kaepernick completed 16 of 28 passes for 302 yards and a touchdown, while also rushing for 62 yards and another score, but had 1 interception. His 62 rushing yards were the second highest total by a quarterback in the Super Bowl, behind Tennessee Titans quarterback Steve McNair 's record of 64 in Super Bowl XXXIV. Kaepernick also set a Super Bowl record for the longest rushing touchdown from a quarterback for his 15 - yard touchdown run in the fourth quarter. This beat the previous 6 - yard record held by the 49ers ' Joe Montana achieved in Super Bowl XIX.
Frank Gore rushed for 110 yards and a touchdown. Michael Crabtree caught 5 passes for 109 yards and a touchdown, while Davis caught 6 passes for 104 yards. His 104 receiving yards tied Dan Ross 's record for the most ever by a tight end in a Super Bowl. Patrick Willis was the top tackler of the game with 10, while Brooks had five tackles and a sack.
Because of the power outage in the third quarter, the game set a Super Bowl record long running time of 4 hours and 14 minutes. During the presentation of the Vince Lombardi Trophy, Hall of Fame defensive end Richard Dent brought the trophy to the stage. Twitter announced that a record 24.1 million tweets were sent the night of the game.
Sources: NFL.com Super Bowl XLVII, The Football Database Super Bowl XLVII
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions Times targeted
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where is the world cup taking place this year | 2018 FIFA World Cup - Wikipedia
The 2018 FIFA World Cup will be the 21st FIFA World Cup, a quadrennial international football tournament contested by the men 's national teams of the member associations of FIFA. It is scheduled to take place in Russia from 14 June to 15 July 2018, after the country was awarded the hosting rights on 2 December 2010. This will be the first World Cup held in Europe since the 2006 tournament in Germany; all but one of the stadium venues are in European Russia, west of the Ural Mountains, to keep travel time manageable.
The final tournament will involve 32 national teams, which include 31 teams determined through qualifying competitions and the automatically qualified host team. Of the 32 teams, 20 will be making back - to - back appearances following the last tournament in 2014, including defending champions Germany, while Iceland and Panama will both be making their first appearances at a FIFA World Cup. A total of 64 matches will be played in 12 venues located in 11 cities. The final will take place on 15 July at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow.
The winners of the World Cup will qualify for the 2021 FIFA Confederations Cup.
The bidding procedure to host the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cups began in January 2009, and national associations had until 2 February 2009 to register their interest. Initially, nine countries placed bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, but Mexico later withdrew from proceedings, and Indonesia 's bid was rejected by FIFA in February 2010 after the Indonesian government failed to submit a letter to support the bid. During the bidding process, the three remaining non-UEFA nations (Australia, Japan, and the United States) gradually withdrew from the 2018 bids, and the UEFA nations were thus ruled out of the 2022 bid. As such, there were eventually four bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, two of which were joint bids: England, Russia, Netherlands / Belgium, and Portugal / Spain.
The twenty - two - member FIFA Executive Committee convened in Zürich on 2 December 2010 to vote to select the hosts of both tournaments. Russia won the right to be the 2018 host in the second round of voting. The Portugal / Spain bid came second, and that from Belgium / Netherlands third. England 's bid to host its second tournament fell at the first hurdle.
The voting results were as follows:
The process was not without criticism: allegations of bribery on the part of the Russian team and corruption from FIFA members were made particularly by the English Football Association. It was alleged that four members of the executive committee had requested bribes to vote for England, and Sepp Blatter said that it had already been arranged before the vote that Russia would win. Although the 2014 Garcia Report absolved Russia of any blame, the FA refused to accept this, with Greg Dyke calling for a re-examination of the affair and David Bernstein calling for a boycott of the World Cup.
For the first time in the history of the FIFA World Cup, all eligible nations -- the 209 FIFA member associations minus automatically qualified hosts Russia -- entered the qualifying process. Zimbabwe and Indonesia were later disqualified before playing their first matches, while Gibraltar and Kosovo, who joined FIFA on 13 May 2016 after the qualifying draw but before European qualifying had begun, also entered the competition. Places in the tournament were allocated to continental confederations, with the allocation unchanged from the 2014 World Cup. The first qualification game began in Dili, Timor Leste, on 12 March 2015 as part of the AFC 's qualification, and the main qualifying draw took place at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg on 25 July 2015 at 18: 00 local time (UTC + 3).
Of the thirty - two nations qualified to play at the 2018 FIFA World Cup, twenty countries competed at the previous edition of the tournament in 2014. Both Iceland and Panama qualified for the first time, with the former becoming the smallest country in terms of population to reach the World Cup. Other teams returning after absences of at least three tournaments include: Egypt, returning to the finals after a 28 - year absence from their last appearance in 1990; Morocco, who last competed in 1998; Peru, returning after a 36 - year absence (since 1982); and Senegal, competing for the second time after reaching the quarter - finals in 2002. It is the first time three Nordic countries (Denmark, Iceland and Sweden) and four Arab nations (Egypt, Morocco, Saudi Arabia and Tunisia) have qualified for the World Cup.
Notable countries that failed to qualify include four - time champions Italy (for the first time since 1958) and three - time runner - up Netherlands. Four reigning continental champions failed to qualify: 2017 Africa Cup of Nations winner Cameroon, two - time Copa América champion and 2017 Confederations Cup runner - up Chile, 2016 OFC Nations Cup winner New Zealand, and 2017 CONCACAF Gold Cup champion United States (for the first time since 1986). The other notable qualifying streaks broken were for Ghana and Ivory Coast, who had both made the previous three tournaments.
The draw was held on 1 December 2017, at 18: 00 MSK, at the State Kremlin Palace in Moscow. The 32 teams were drawn into eight groups of four.
For the draw, the teams were allocated to four pots based on the FIFA World Rankings of October 2017. Pot 1 contained the hosts Russia (who were automatically assigned to Position A1) and the best seven teams, Pot 2 contained the next best eight teams, and so on for Pots 3 and 4. This was different from previous draws, where only Pot 1 was based on FIFA Rankings while the remaining pots were based on geographical considerations. However, still retained was the fact that teams from the same confederation were not drawn against each other for the group stage, except for UEFA where each group contained up to two teams.
Russia (65) (hosts) Germany (1) Brazil (2) Portugal (3) Argentina (4) Belgium (5) Poland (6) France (7)
Spain (8) Peru (10) Switzerland (11) England (12) Colombia (13) Mexico (16) Uruguay (17) Croatia (18)
Denmark (19) Iceland (21) Costa Rica (22) Sweden (25) Tunisia (28) Egypt (30) Senegal (32) Iran (34)
Serbia (38) Nigeria (41) Australia (43) Japan (44) Morocco (48) Panama (49) South Korea (62) Saudi Arabia (63)
Each team must first name a preliminary squad of 30 players. From the preliminary squad, the team must name a final squad of 23 players (three of whom must be goalkeepers) by the FIFA deadline. Players in the final squad may be replaced due to serious injury up to 24 hours prior to kickoff of the team 's first match, where the replacement players do not need to be in the preliminary squad.
For players named in the 30 - player preliminary squad, there is a mandatory rest period between 21 and 27 May 2018, except for those involved in the 2018 UEFA Champions League Final played on 26 May.
In February 2018, it was announced that the number of players to be named in the provisional squads would be increased from 30 to 35.
On 16 March 2018, the FIFA Council approved the use of video assistant referees (VAR) for the first time in a FIFA World Cup tournament.
On 29 March 2018, FIFA released the list of 36 referees and 63 assistant referees selected to oversee matches.
Russia proposed the following host cities: Kaliningrad, Kazan, Krasnodar, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Rostov - on - Don, Saint Petersburg, Samara, Saransk, Sochi, Volgograd, Yaroslavl, and Yekaterinburg. All the cities are in or just outside European Russia to reduce travel time for the teams in the huge country. The bid evaluation report stated: "The Russian bid proposes 13 host cities and 16 stadiums, thus exceeding FIFA 's minimum requirement. Three of the 16 stadiums would be renovated, and 13 would be newly constructed. ''
In October 2011, Russia decreased the number of stadiums from 16 to 14. Construction of the proposed Podolsk stadium in the Moscow region was cancelled by the regional government, and also in the capital, Otkrytiye Arena was competing with Dynamo Stadium over which would be constructed first.
The final choice of host cities was announced on 29 September 2012. The number of cities was further reduced to 11 and number of stadiums to 12 as Krasnodar and Yaroslavl were dropped from the final list.
Sepp Blatter stated in July 2014 that due to concerns over the completion of venues in Russia, the number of venues for the tournament may be reduced from 12 to 10. He also said, "We are not going to be in a situation, as is the case of one, two or even three stadiums in South Africa, where it is a problem of what you do with these stadiums ''.
In October 2014, on their first official visit to Russia, FIFA 's inspection committee and its head Chris Unger visited St Petersburg, Sochi, Kazan and both Moscow venues. They were satisfied with the progress.
On 8 October 2015, FIFA and the Local Organising Committee agreed on the official names of the stadiums used during the tournament.
Of the 12 venues used, the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow and the Saint Petersburg Stadium (the two largest stadiums in Russia) will be used most, with 7 matches being played at each of these stadiums. Sochi, Kazan, Nizhny Novogrod and Samara will host 6 matches including one quarter - final match apiece, and the Otkrytiye Stadium in Moscow and Rostov - on - Don will host 5 matches apiece including one round of 16 match each. Volgograd, Kaliningrad, Yekaterinburg and Saransk will host 4 matches each and none of these cities will host any knockout stage games.
Base camps will be used by the 32 national squads to stay and train before and during the World Cup tournament. On 9 February 2018, FIFA announced the base camps for each participating team.
The full schedule was announced by FIFA on 24 July 2015 (without kick - off times, which were confirmed later). On 1 December 2017, following the final draw, six kick - off times were adjusted by FIFA. Russia was placed in position A1 in the group stage and will play in the opening match at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow on 14 June against Saudi Arabia, the two lowest ranked teams of the tournament at the time of the final draw. The Luzhniki Stadium will also host the second semi-final on 11 July and the final on 15 July. The Krestovsky Stadium in Saint Petersburg will host the first semi-final on 10 July and the third place play - off on 14 July.
The top two teams of each group advance to the round of 16. Matches are played on a round - robin basis.
All times listed are local time.
The rankings of teams in each group are determined as follows (regulations Article 32.5):
If two or more teams are equal on the basis of the above three criteria, their rankings are determined as follows:
In the knockout stages, if a match is level at the end of normal playing time, extra time is played (two periods of 15 minutes each) and followed, if necessary, by a penalty shoot - out to determine the winners.
If a match goes into extra time, each team will be allowed to make a fourth substitution, the first time this has been allowed in a FIFA World Cup tournament.
Prize money amounts were announced in October 2017.
The tournament logo was unveiled on 28 October 2014 by cosmonauts at the International Space Station and then projected onto Moscow 's Bolshoi Theatre during an evening television programme. Russian Sports Minister Vitaly Mutko said that the logo was inspired by "Russia 's rich artistic tradition and its history of bold achievement and innovation '', and FIFA President Sepp Blatter stated that it reflected the "heart and soul '' of the country. For the branding, a typeface called Dusha (from Душа, Russian for soul) was created by Portuguese design agency Brandia Central in 2014.
The official FIFA World Cup mascot for the 2018 tournament, a wolf named Zabivaka ("the one who scores '' in Russian), was unveiled on 21 October 2016. Representing an anthropomorphic wolf with brown and white wool T - shirt with the words "RUSSIA 2018 '' and orange sport glasses. The combination of white, blue and red T - shirt and shorts are the national colors of the Russian team. The student designer is Ekaterina Bocharova, and the mascot was selected by Internet voting.
The election results were announced on 22 October 2016, in the Evening Urgant on Channel One Russia. Wolf, named Zabivaka, scored 53 % of the vote, ahead of Tiger (27 %). Cat, with 20 % of the vote, was third. More than 1 million people participated in the voting, which took place during September 2016 on the FIFA platforms, as well as during the live broadcast on Channel One, where the results of the creative competition were announced.
The first phase of ticket sales started on 14 September 2017, 12: 00 Moscow Time, and lasted until 12 October 2017. The general visa policy of Russia will not apply to the World Cup participants and fans, who will be able to visit Russia without a visa right before and during the competition regardless of their citizenship. Fans attending the matches will be required to avail of a FAN ID.
In April 6, 2018, the design of the ticket was unveiled. The ticket design contain security features such as a barcode, a hologram next to the stadium sector map, and the name of the ticketholder.
The Russian Government has earmarked a budget of around 20 billion dollars which was later slashed to 10 billion dollars for the preparations of the World Cup of which half is spent on transport infrastructure. A special emphasis was made on airports, with many of those in the host cities were renovated and modernised. In Samara, new tram lines were laid. The city of Saransk got two new hotels, Mercure Saransk Centre and Four Points by Sheraton Saransk as well as few other smaller accommodation facilities.
As with the 2014 Winter Olympics, the choice of Russia as host has been challenged. Controversial issues have included the level of racism in Russian football, and discrimination against LGBT people in wider Russian society. Russia 's involvement in the ongoing conflict in Ukraine has also caused calls for the tournament to be moved, particularly following the annexation of Crimea. In 2014, FIFA President Sepp Blatter stated that "The World Cup has been given and voted to Russia and we are going forward with our work ''.
Allegations of corruption in the bidding processes for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups caused threats from England 's FA to boycott the tournament. FIFA appointed Michael J. Garcia, a US attorney, to investigate and produce a report on the corruption allegations. Although the report was never published, FIFA released a 42 - page summary of its findings as determined by German judge Hans - Joachim Eckert. Eckert 's summary cleared Russia and Qatar of any wrongdoing, but was denounced by critics as a whitewash. Garcia criticised the summary as being "materially incomplete '' with "erroneous representations of the facts and conclusions '', and appealed to FIFA 's Appeal Committee. The committee declined to hear his appeal, so Garcia resigned in protest of FIFA 's conduct, citing a "lack of leadership '' and lack of confidence in the independence of Eckert.
On 3 June 2015, the FBI confirmed that the federal authorities were investigating the bidding and awarding processes for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups. In an interview published on 7 June 2015, Domenico Scala, the head of FIFA 's Audit And Compliance Committee, stated that "should there be evidence that the awards to Qatar and Russia came only because of bought votes, then the awards could be cancelled ''.
Due to the financial crisis in the Russian economy, the budget for the preparations was cut a few times. In June 2015, a government decree cut the budget by $560 million, to a total of $11.8 billion.
After Morocco qualified for the tournament with a 2 -- 0 victory over Ivory Coast, the celebrations by the Moroccan community in Brussels turned into a riot with cars burnt, shops looted by some 300 rioters and 20 police officers injured. Firefighters sent to put out the fires were also attacked by the rioters.
Russia has had the most (51) Olympic medals stripped for doping violations -- the most of any country, four times the number of the runner - up and nearly a third of the global total. From 2011 to 2015, more than a thousand Russian competitors in various sports, including summer, winter and Paralympic sports, benefited from a cover - up. 33 footballers who are alleged to be part of the steroid program are listed in the McLaren Report.
On 5 December 2017, the IOC announced that Russia is not allowed to participate in the 2018 Winter Olympics. Deputy Prime Minister and President of the Russian Football Union Vitaly Mutko was banned for life from future Olympic Games for his role in the doping conspiracy.
On 22 December 2017, it was reported that FIFA fired a doctor who had been investigating doping in Russian football.
In response to the March 2018 poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, British Prime Minister Theresa May announced that no British ministers or members of the royal family would attend the World Cup, and issued a warning to any travelling England fans. Furthermore, Iceland has decided to diplomatically boycott the Russia - held 2018 FIFA World Cup.
Russia responded to the comments from the UK Parliament claiming that "the west are trying to deny Russia the World Cup ''.
Late in March 2018, ISIS made a threat that they would bomb (primarily England) fans via drones. Information came to light after ISIS members posted video clips and photos on an encrypted app, Telegram. Though originally, threats started in October 2017, when a pro-ISIS page posted a picture of Argentina star, Lionel Messi, seemingly in a jail cell with blood on his face and a mock up of Nikes tagline "Just Do It '' replaced with "Just Terrorism ''.
FIFA, through several companies, sold the broadcasting rights for the 2018 FIFA World Cup to various local broadcasters.
In the United States, the 2018 World Cup will be the first men 's World Cup whose rights will be held by Fox Sports. The elimination of the U.S. national team in qualifying led to concerns that U.S. interest and viewership of this World Cup would be reduced (particularly "casual '' viewers interested in the U.S. team), especially noting how much Fox paid for the rights, and that U.S. games at the 2014 World Cup peaked at 16.5 million viewers. During a launch event prior to the elimination, Fox stated that it had planned to place a secondary focus on the Mexican team in its coverage to take advantage of their popularity in the U.S.; the network stated that it still committed to broadcasting a significant amount of coverage for the tournament.
In February 2018, Ukrainian rightsholder UA: PBC stated that it would not broadcast the World Cup. This came in the wake of growing boycotts of the tournament among the Ukraine Football Federation and sports minister Ihor Zhdanov.
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what school has the most ncaa basketball championships | NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball tournament - wikipedia
The NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament (known informally as March Madness or the Big Dance) is a single - elimination tournament played each spring in the United States, currently featuring 68 college basketball teams from the Division I level of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), to determine the national championship. The tournament was created in 1939 by the National Association of Basketball Coaches, and was the idea of Ohio State University coach Harold Olsen. Played mostly during March, it has become one of the most famous annual sporting events in the United States.
The tournament teams include champions from 32 Division I conferences (which receive automatic bids), and 36 teams which are awarded at - large berths. These "at - large '' teams are chosen by an NCAA selection committee, then announced in a nationally televised event on the Sunday preceding the "First Four '' play - in games, currently held in Dayton, Ohio, and dubbed Selection Sunday. The 68 teams are divided into four regions and organized into a single - elimination "bracket '', which pre-determines, when a team wins a game, which team it will face next. Each team is "seeded '', or ranked, within its region from 1 to 16. After the First Four, the tournament occurs during the course of three weekends, at pre-selected neutral sites across the United States. Teams, seeded by rank, proceed through a single - game elimination bracket beginning with a "first four '' consisting of 8 low - seeded teams playing in 4 games for a position in the first round the Tuesday and Wednesday before the first round begins, a first round consisting of 64 teams playing in 32 games over the course of a week, the "Sweet Sixteen '' and "Elite Eight '' rounds the next week and weekend, respectively, and -- for the last weekend of the tournament -- the "Final Four '' round. The Final Four is usually played during the first weekend of April. These four teams, one from each region (East, South, Midwest, and West), compete in a preselected location for the national championship.
The tournament has been at least partially televised since 1969. Currently, the games are broadcast by CBS, TBS, TNT, and truTV under the trade - name NCAA March Madness. Since 2011, all games are available for viewing nationwide and internationally, such as in the Philippines and Canada. As television coverage has grown, so too has the tournament 's popularity. Currently, millions of Americans fill out a bracket, attempting to correctly predict the outcome of all 67 games of the tournament.
With 11 national titles, UCLA has the record for the most NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championships; John Wooden coached UCLA to 10 of its 11 titles. The University of Kentucky (UK) is second, with eight national titles. The University of North Carolina is in third place, with six titles, Duke University and Indiana University are tied for fourth with five national titles. The University of Connecticut is sixth with four national titles. The University of Kansas (KU) and University of Louisville are tied with three championships. Since 1985, when the tournament expanded to 64 teams, North Carolina and Duke have each won five championships; Connecticut has four; Kentucky has three; Kansas, Louisville, Florida, and Villanova have two; UCLA, Indiana, and Michigan State have one. During that time Villanova, Michigan, UNLV, Duke, Arkansas, Arizona, Connecticut, Maryland, Syracuse, and Florida all won their first championships.
The NCAA has changed the tournament format several times since its inception, most often representing an increase of the number of teams. This section describes the tournament as it has operated since 2011. For changes during the course of its history, and to see how the tournament operated during past years, go to Format history, below.
A total of 68 teams qualify for the tournament played during March and April. Thirty - two teams earn automatic bids as their respective conference champions. Of the 32 Division I "all - sports '' conferences (defined as those that sponsor men 's and women 's basketball), all 32 currently hold championship tournaments to determine which team receives the automatic qualification. The Ivy League was the last Division I conference that did not conduct a tournament; through the 2015 -- 16 season, it awarded its tournament berth to the regular - season champion. If two or more Ivies shared a regular - season championship, a one - game playoff (or series of such playoffs) was used to decide the tournament participant. Since 2017, the league conducts their own postseason tournament.
The remaining 36 tournament slots are granted to at - large bids, which are determined by the Selection Committee in a nationally televised event on the Sunday preceding the First Four play - in tournament and dubbed Selection Sunday by the media and fans, by a group primarily of conference commissioners and school athletic directors who are appointed into service by the NCAA. The committee also determines where all sixty - eight teams are seeded and placed in the bracket.
The tournament is divided into four regions and each region has at least sixteen teams, but four additional teams are added per the decision of the Selection Committee. (See: First Four, below.) The committee is charged with making each of the four regions as close as possible in overall quality of teams from wherever they come from.
The names of the regions vary from year to year, and are broadly geographic (such as "West '', "South '', "East '', and "Midwest ''). From 1956 to 1984, the "Mideast '', roughly corresponding to the Southeastern region of the United States, designation was used. From 1985 to 1998, the Mideast region was known as "Southeast '' and again changed to "South '' starting from 1999. The selected names roughly correspond to the location of the four cities hosting the regional finals. From 2004 to 2006, the regions were named after their host cities, e.g. the Phoenix Regional in 2004, the Chicago Regional in 2005, and the Minneapolis Regional in 2006, but reverted to the traditional geographic designations beginning in 2007. For example, during 2012, the regions were named South (Atlanta, Georgia), East (Boston, Massachusetts), Midwest (St. Louis, Missouri), and West (Phoenix, Arizona).
The selection committee ranks the whole field of 68 teams from 1 to 68. (It did not make this information public until 2012.) The committee then divides the teams amongst the regions. The top four teams will be distributed among the four regions, and each will receive a No. 1 seed within that region. The next four ranked teams will then be distributed among the four regions, each receiving a No. 2 seed in their region, and the process continues down the line, with some exceptions (as is explained below). Carried to its logical conclusion, this would give each region seventeen teams -- seeded from No. 1 to No. 17 -- but, each region has only sixteen teams (from No. 1 to No. 16). As can be seen below, the actual seeding depends on (among other factors) the rankings of the eight teams that the committee selects for the "First Four '' opening round (see the next paragraph and the "First Four '' section below).
The selection committee is also instructed to place teams so that whenever possible, teams from the same conference can not meet until the regional finals. Additionally, it is also instructed to avoid any possible rematches of regular - season or previous year 's tournament games during the First and Second rounds. Further restrictions are listed in the Venues section below. To comply with these other requirements, the selection committee may move one or several teams up or down one seed from their respective original seed line. Thus, for example, the 40th overall ranked team, originally slated to be a No. 10 seed within a particular region, may instead be moved up to a No. 9 seed or moved down to a No. 11 seed. In addition, the rankings of the eight teams selected for the "First Four '' play - in round will likewise affect the final seedlings.
The bracket is thus established, and during the semifinals, the champion of the top - ranked number 1 seed 's region will play against the champion of the fourth - ranked number 1 seed 's region, and the champion of the second - ranked number 1 seed 's region will play against the champion of the third - ranked number 1 seed 's region.
In the men 's tournament, all sites are nominally neutral: teams are prohibited from playing tournament games on their home courts prior to the Final Four (though in some cases, a team may be fortunate enough to play in or near its home state or city). By current NCAA rules, any court on which a team hosts more than three regular - season games (in other words, not including conference tournament games) is considered a "home court ''. The exception to this rule is the University of Dayton, which would be allowed to play a game in the "First Four '' round in their home arena as they did in 2015.
However, while a team can be moved to a different region if its home court is being used during any of the first two weeks of the tournament, the Final Four venue is determined years in advance, and can not be changed regardless of participants. For this reason, in theory, a team could play in a Final Four on its home court; in reality, this would be unlikely, since the Final Four is usually staged at a venue larger than most college basketball arenas. (The most recent team to play the Final Four in its home city was Butler during 2010; its home court then seated only 10,000 and has since been reduced to a capacity of 9,100, as opposed to the 70,000 - plus seating capacity of Lucas Oil Stadium in its Final Four configuration.)
The tournament consists of several rounds. They are currently named, in order of first to last:
The tournament is single - elimination, which increases the chance of an underdog and lower - seeded "Cinderella team '' advancing to subsequent rounds. Although these lower - ranked teams are forced to play stronger teams, they need only one win to advance (instead of needing to win a majority of games in a series, as in professional basketball).
The "First Four '' refers to the number of games played, not the number of teams. First held during 2011, the First Four are games between the four lowest - ranked at - large teams and the four lowest - ranked automatic - bid (conference - champion) teams. They are not normally the eight lowest - ranked teams in the field; the four lowest - ranked at - large teams usually have higher rankings among the entire field of 68 than several of the automatic - bid teams coming from the smaller conferences. The four games are held to determine which teams will assume a place in the First Round. Unlike other early games in the tournament, the teams are not matched with disparity intended. Rather, equality governs match - ups (e.g., in one game, two teams -- usually two of the four lowest - ranked automatic - bid teams -- might play for a No. 16 seeding in the first round, while in another game, two teams -- usually two of the four lowest - ranked at - large teams -- are usually trying to advance as a No. 11 seed).
While other NCAA tournament games are played Thursday through Sunday (and the final game on a Monday), the First Four games are played earlier in the first week, between Selection Sunday and the First Round on Thursday and Friday. As of 2017, two games are played on the Tuesday following Selection Sunday, and the remaining two are played on Wednesday. Once the First Four games are played, the four winning teams assume their places in the bracket of 64 teams, and must play again later that week, with little rest. Typically, the two Tuesday winners are paired with their next opponent on Thursday; and, the Wednesday winners play on Friday. With the Second Round being played on Saturday and Sunday, this scheduling allows for six consecutive days of televised competition during the first week of the tournament.
Every year that the First Four has taken place, at least one of the teams that participated went on to win in the round of 64. In 2011, VCU was part of the First Four and advanced all the way to the Final Four. In 2012, South Florida advanced to the round of 32. In 2013, La Salle advanced to the Sweet 16 by defeating Boise State, Kansas State, and Ole Miss. In 2014, Tennessee advanced to the Sweet 16 by defeating Iowa, Massachusetts, and Mercer. The following year, Dayton won its First Four game on their home court and then defeated Providence to advance to the round of 32. In 2016, Wichita State advanced to the round of 32 by defeating Vanderbilt and Arizona. In 2017, USC won the first round against SMU but lost to Baylor in the round of 32.
Prior to expanding from 65 to 68 teams, the two lowest seeded teams played in the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Opening Round game. All of the previous - format single Opening Round games and current - format First Four games, have been played at the University of Dayton Arena in Dayton, Ohio.
During the First Round (the Round of 64), the No. 1 seed plays the No. 16 seed in all regions; the No. 2 team plays the No. 15, and so on. The effect of this seeding structure ensures that the better a team is ranked (and therefore seeded), the worse - ranked (and presumably weaker) their opponents will be. Sixteen first - round games are played on the Thursday following the "First Four '' round. The remaining sixteen first - round games are played Friday. At this point the contestants are reduced to 32 teams.
The Second Round (the Round of 32) is played on Saturday and Sunday immediately after the first round. The second round consists of Thursday 's winners playing in eight games on Saturday, followed by Friday 's winners playing in the remaining eight second - round games on Sunday. Thus, after the first weekend, 16 teams remain, commonly known as the "Sweet Sixteen. ''
The teams that are still competing after the first weekend advance to the regional semifinals (the Sweet Sixteen) and finals (the Elite Eight), which are played during the second weekend of the tournament (again, the games are split into Thursday / Saturday and Friday / Sunday). Four regional semi-final games are played Thursday and four are played Friday. After Friday 's games, 8 teams (the Elite Eight) remain. Saturday features two regional final games matching Thursday 's winners and Sunday 's two final games match Friday 's winners. After the second weekend of the tournament, the four regional champions are the "Final Four. ''
The winners of each region advance to the Final Four, where the national semifinals are played on Saturday and the national championship is played on Monday. As is noted above, which regional champion will play which, and in which semifinal they play, is determined by the overall rankings of the four No. 1 seeds in the original bracket, not on the ranks of the eventual Final Four teams themselves.
Mid-major teams -- which are (as of 2017) defined as teams from the America East Conference (America East), Atlantic Sun Conference (ASUN), Big Sky Conference (Big Sky), Big South Conference (Big South), Big West Conference (Big West), Colonial Athletic Conference (CAA), Conference USA (C - USA), Horizon League (Horizon), Ivy League (Ivy), Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference (MAAC), Mid-American Conference (MAC), Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference (MEAC), Missouri Valley Conference (MVC), Mountain West Conference (MW), Northeast Conference (NEC), Ohio Valley Conference (OVC), Patriot League (Patriot), Southern Conference (SoCon), Southland Conference (Southland), Southwest Athletic Conference (SWAC), Summit League (Summit), Sun Belt Conference (Sun Belt), West Coast Conference (WCC), and the Western Athletic Conference (WAC) -- have experienced periods of success in the tournament.
Below is a table that shows the performance of mid-major teams from the Sweet Sixteen round to the National Championship Game from 1939 -- the tournament 's first year -- to 2017, the most recent tournament.
This table shows mid-major teams that saw success in the tournament from now - defunct conferences or were independents.
List of schools with the longest time between NCAA Men 's Basketball Tournament appearances:
Through the 2017 NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament, four schools that have been Division I members since the distinction between "major college '' and "small college '' was first officially made, in 1948, have never reached the national tournament.
The NCAA tournament has changed its format many times over the years. Below are listed many of these changes.
For a list of all the cities and arenas that have hosted the Final Four, go to Host cities, below. Municipal Auditorium in Kansas City, Missouri hosted the Final Four nine times followed by the third Madison Square Garden in New York City which hosted seven times, and Louisville 's Freedom Hall which hosted six times. Additionally, Indianapolis has hosted the Final Four seven times, across three venues.
From 1997 to 2013, the NCAA required that all Final Four sessions take place in domed stadiums with a minimum capacity of 40,000, usually having only half of the dome in use. The Metrodome in Minneapolis, which usually hosted baseball and football, had one of the long ends of the court along the first base line with temporary stands surrounding the court so that much of the outfield is isolated from the action. The same was true of football stadiums like the Alamodome in San Antonio and the RCA Dome in Indianapolis. The last NBA arena to host the Final Four was the Meadowlands Arena, then known as Continental Airlines Arena, in 1996. As of 2009, the minimum was increased to 70,000, by adding additional seating on the floor of the dome, and raising the court on a platform three feet above the dome 's floor, which is usually crowned for football, like the setup at Ford Field in Detroit which hosted the 2009 Final Four.
In September 2012, the NCAA began preliminary discussions on the possibility of returning occasional Final Fours to basketball - specific arenas in major metropolitan areas. According to ESPN.com writer Andy Katz, when Mark Lewis was hired as NCAA executive vice president for championships during 2012, "he took out a United States map and saw that both coasts are largely left off from hosting the Final Four. '' Lewis added in an interview with Katz,
I do n't know where this will lead, if anywhere, but the right thing is to sit down and have these conversations and see if we want our championship in more than eight cities or do we like playing exclusively in domes. None of the cities where we play our championship is named New York, Boston, Los Angeles, Chicago or Miami. We do n't play on a campus. We play in professional football arenas.
Under then - current criteria, only nine stadiums, all but one of which are current NFL venues, could be considered as Final Four locations:
Two domed stadiums that have hosted past Final Fours -- the Alamodome (1998, 2004, 2008, 2018 (future)) and Tropicana Field in St. Petersburg, Florida (1999) -- were considered too small to be eligible to host, despite the Alamodome being a college football stadium and having a permanent seating capacity of 65,000. The basketball setup at the Alamodome uses only half of the stadium and has a capacity of 39,500.
The first instance of a domed stadium being used for a NCAA Tournament Final Four was the Houston Astrodome in 1971, but the Final Four would not return to a dome until 1982, when the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans hosted the event for the first time.
On June 12, 2013, Katz reported that the NCAA had changed its policy. In July 2013, the NCAA had a portal available on its website for venues to make Final Four proposals in the 2017 -- 2020 period, and there were no restrictions on proposals based on venue size. Also, the NCAA decided that future regionals will no longer be held in domes. In Katz ' report, Lewis indicated that the use of domes for regionals was intended as a dry run for future Final Four venues, but this particular policy was no longer necessary because all of the Final Four sites from 2014 to 2016 had already hosted regionals. At least one other report indicated that the new policy would still allow a completely new domed stadium, or an existing dome that has never hosted a Final Four (such as University of Phoenix Stadium), to receive a regional if it is awarded a future Final Four. In November 2014, reflecting the new policy 's effect, the NCAA announced that University of Phoenix Stadium would host the Final Four in 2017.
On several occasions NCAA tournament teams played their games in their home arena. In 1959, Louisville played at its regular home of Freedom Hall; however, the Cardinals lost to West Virginia in the semifinals. In 1984, Kentucky defeated Illinois, 54 - 51 in the Elite Eight on its home court of Rupp Arena. In 1985, Dayton played its first - round game against Villanova (it lost 51 - 49) on its home floor. In 1986 (beating Brown before losing to Navy) and ' 87 (beating Georgia Southern and Western Kentucky), Syracuse played the first 2 rounds of the NCAA tournament in the Carrier Dome. Also in 1986, LSU played in Baton Rouge on its home floor for the first 2 rounds despite being an 11th seed (beating Purdue and Memphis State). In 1987, Arizona lost to UTEP on its home floor in the first round. In 2015, Dayton played at its regular home of UD Arena, and the Flyers beat Boise State in the First Four.
Since the inception of the modern Final Four in 1952, only once has a team played a Final Four on its actual home court -- Louisville in 1959. But through the 2015 tournament, three other teams have played the Final Four in their home cities, one other team has played in its metropolitan area, and six additional teams have played the Final Four in their home states through the 2015 tournament. Kentucky (1958 in Louisville), UCLA (1968 and 1972 in Los Angeles, 1975 in San Diego), and North Carolina State (1974 in Greensboro) won the national title; Louisville (1959 at its home arena, Freedom Hall); Purdue (1980 in Indianapolis) lost in the Final Four; and California (1960 in suburban San Francisco), Duke (1994 in Charlotte), Michigan State (2009 in Detroit), and Butler (2010 in Indianapolis) lost in the final.
In 1960, Cal had nearly as large an edge as Louisville had the previous year, only having to cross the San Francisco Bay to play in the Final Four at the Cow Palace in Daly City; the Golden Bears lost in the championship game to Ohio State. UCLA had a similar advantage in 1968 and 1972 when it advanced to the Final Four at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena, not many miles from the Bruins ' homecourt of Pauley Pavilion (also UCLA 's home arena before the latter venue opened in 1965, and again during the 2011 - 12 season while Pauley was closed for renovations); unlike Louisville and Cal, the Bruins won the national title on both occasions. Butler lost the 2010 title 6 miles (9.7 km) from its Indianapolis campus and was regarded as the host school, as it is most times whenever the NCAA holds a tournament in Indianapolis (in the 2013 tournament, Butler 's former conference, the Horizon League, was considered the host for the Midwest Regional rather than Butler).
Before the Final Four was established, the East and West regionals were held at separate sites, with the winners advancing to the title game. During that era, three New York City teams, all from Manhattan, played in the East Regional at Madison Square Garden -- frequently used as a "big - game '' venue by each team -- and advanced at least to the national semifinals. NYU won the East Regional in 1945 but lost in the title game, also held at the Garden, to Oklahoma A&M. CCNY played in the East Regional in both 1947 and 1950; the Beavers lost in the 1947 East final to eventual champion Holy Cross but won the 1950 East Regional and national titles at the Garden.
In 1974, North Carolina State won the NCAA tournament without leaving its home state of North Carolina. The team was put in the East Region, and played its regional games at its home arena Reynolds Coliseum. NC State played the final four and national championship games at nearby Greensboro Coliseum.
While not its home state, Kansas has played in the championship game in Kansas City, Missouri, only 45 minutes from the campus in Lawrence, Kansas, not just once, but four times. In 1940, 1953, and 1957 the Jayhawks lost the championship game each time at Municipal Auditorium. In 1988, playing at Kansas City 's Kemper Arena, Kansas won the championship, over Big Eight -- rival Oklahoma. Similarly, in 2005, Illinois played in St. Louis, Missouri, where it enjoyed a noticeable homecourt advantage, yet still lost in the championship game to North Carolina.
The NCAA had banned the Bon Secours Wellness Arena, originally known as Bi-Lo Center, and Colonial Life Arena, originally Colonial Center, in South Carolina from hosting tournament games, despite their sizes (16,000 and 18,000 seats, respectively) because of an NAACP protest at the Bi-Lo Center during the 2002 first and second round tournament games over that state 's refusal to completely remove the Confederate Battle Flag from the state capitol grounds, although it had already been relocated from atop the capitol dome to a less prominent place in 2000. Following requests by the NAACP and Black Coaches Association, the Bi-Lo Center, and the newly built Colonial Center, which was built for purposes of hosting the tournament, were banned from hosting any future tournament events. As a result of the removal of the battle flag from the South Carolina State Capitol, the NCAA lifted its ban on South Carolina hosting games in 2015, and it was able to host in 2017 due to House Bill 2 (see next section).
On September 12, 2016, the NCAA stripped the State of North Carolina of hosting rights for seven upcoming college sports tournaments and championships held by the association, including early round games of the 2017 NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament scheduled for the Greensboro Coliseum. The NCAA argued that House Bill 2 made it "challenging to guarantee that host communities can help deliver (an inclusive atmosphere) ''. Bon Secours Wellness Arena was able to secure the bid to be the replacement site.
As a tournament ritual, the winning team cuts down the nets at the end of regional championship games as well as the national championship game. Starting with the seniors, and moving down by classes, players each cut a single strand off of each net; the head coach cuts the last strand connecting the net to the hoop, claiming the net itself. An exception to the head coach cutting the last strand came in 2013, when Louisville head coach Rick Pitino gave that honor to Kevin Ware, who had suffered a catastrophic leg injury during the tournament. This tradition is credited to Everett Case, the coach of North Carolina State, who stood on his players ' shoulders to accomplish the feat after the Wolfpack won the Southern Conference tournament in 1947. CBS, since 1987, in the odd - numbered years, and TBS, since 2016, the even - numbered years, close out the tournament with "One Shining Moment, '' performed by Luther Vandross.
Just as the Olympics awards gold, silver, and bronze medals for 1st, 2nd, and 3rd place, respectively, the NCAA awards the National Champions a gold - plated wooden NCAA National Championship trophy. The loser of the championship game receives a silver - plated National Runner - Up trophy for second place. Since 2006, all four Final Four teams receive a bronze plated NCAA Regional Championship trophy; prior to 2006, only the teams who did not make the title game received bronze plated trophies for third place.
The champions also receive a commemorative gold championship ring, and the other three Final Four teams receive Final Four rings.
The National Association of Basketball Coaches also presents a more elaborate marble / crystal trophy to the winning team. Ostensibly, this award is given for taking the top position in the NABC 's end - of - season poll, but this is invariably the same as the NCAA championship game winner. In 2005, Siemens AG acquired naming rights to the NABC trophy, which is now called the Siemens Trophy. Formerly, the NABC trophy was presented right after the standard NCAA championship trophy, but this caused some confusion. Since 2006, the Siemens / NABC Trophy has been presented separately at a press conference the day after the game.
After the championship trophy is awarded, one player is selected and then awarded the Most Outstanding Player award (which almost always comes from the championship team). It is not intended to be the same as a Most Valuable Player award although it is sometimes informally referred to as such.
Because the National Basketball Association Draft takes place just three months after the NCAA tournament, NBA executives have to decide how players ' performances in a maximum of seven games, from the First Four to the championship game, should affect their draft decisions. A 2012 study for the National Bureau of Economic Research explores how the March tournament affects the way that professional teams behave in the June draft. The study is based on data from 1997 to 2010 that looks at how college tournament standouts performed at the NBA level.
The researchers determined that a player who outperforms his regular season averages or who is on a team that wins more games than its seed would indicate will be drafted higher than he otherwise would have been. At the same time, the study indicated that professional teams do n't take college tournament performance into consideration as much as they should, as success in the tournament correlates with elite professional accomplishment, particularly top - level success, where a player makes the NBA All - Star Team three or more times. "If anything, NBA teams undervalue the signal provided by unexpected performance in the NCAA March Madness tournament as a predictor of future NBA success. ''
Since 2010, the NCAA has had a joint contract with CBS and Turner Sports, a division of Time Warner (which co-owns the CW Television Network with CBS). The coverage of the tournament is split between CBS, TNT, TBS, and truTV.
Broadcasters from CBS, TBS, and TNT 's sports coverage are shared across all four networks, with CBS ' college basketball teams supplemented with Turner 's NBA teams, while studio segments take place at the CBS Broadcast Center in New York City and Turner 's studios in Atlanta. In the New York - based studio shows, CBS ' Greg Gumbel and Clark Kellogg are joined by Ernie Johnson, Jr., Kenny Smith, and Charles Barkley of TNT 's Inside the NBA while Seth Davis of CBS assists with Matt Winer and various NBA TV personalities. While Turner 's primary NBA voices, Marv Albert and Kevin Harlan, are already employed by CBS in other capacities, they also lend analysts Chris Webber, Grant Hill, and Reggie Miller and secondary play - by - play man Brian Anderson to CBS. In turn, CBS announcers Jim Nantz, Brad Nessler, Spero Dedes, and Andrew Catalon appear on Turner network broadcasts along with analysts Len Elmore, Bill Raftery, Dan Bonner, Mike Gminski, and Doug Gottlieb.
The current contract runs through 2024 and, for the first time in history, provides for the nationwide broadcast each year of all games of the tournament. All First Four games air on truTV. A featured first - or second - round game in each time "window '' is broadcast on CBS, while all other games are shown either on TBS, TNT or truTV. The regional semifinals, better known as the Sweet Sixteen, are split between CBS and TBS. CBS had the exclusive rights to the regional finals, also known as the Elite Eight, through 2014. That exclusivity extended to the entire Final Four as well, but after the 2013 tournament Turner Sports elected to exercise a contractual option for 2014 and 2015 giving TBS broadcast rights to the national semifinal matchups. CBS kept its national championship game rights.
Since 2015, CBS and TBS split coverage of the Elite Eight. Since 2016 CBS and TBS alternate coverage of the Final Four and national championship game, with TBS getting the final two rounds in even - numbered years, and CBS getting the games in odd - numbered years. March Madness On Demand would remain unchanged, although Turner was allowed to develop their own service.
The CBS broadcast provides the NCAA with over $500 million annually, and makes up over 90 % of the NCAA 's annual revenue. The revenues from the multibillion - dollar television contract are divided among the Division I basketball playing schools and conferences as follows:
The Division I Men 's Basketball tournament is the only NCAA championship tournament where the NCAA does not keep the profits.
CBS has been the major partner of the NCAA in televising the tournament since 1982, but there have been many changes in coverage since the tournament was first broadcast in 1969.
From 1969 to 1981, the NCAA tournament aired on NBC, but not all games were televised. The early rounds, in particular, were not always seen on TV.
In 1982, CBS obtained broadcast television rights to the NCAA tournament.
The same year as CBS obtained rights to the Big Dance, ESPN began showing the opening rounds of the tournament. This was the network 's first contract signed with the NCAA for a major sport, and helped to establish ESPN 's following among college basketball fans. ESPN showed six first - round games on Thursday and again on Friday, with CBS then picking up a seventh game at 11: 30 pm ET. Thus, 14 of 32 first - round games were televised. ESPN also re-ran games overnight. At the time, there was only one ESPN network, with no ability to split its signal regionally, so ESPN showed only the most competitive games. During the 1980s, the tournament 's popularity on television soared.
However, ESPN became a victim of its own success, as CBS was awarded the rights to cover all games of the NCAA tournament, starting in 1991. Only with the introduction of the so - called "play - in '' game (between the 64 seed and the 65 seed) in the 2000s, did ESPN get back in the game (and actually, the first time this "play - in '' game was played in 2001, the game was aired on TNN, using CBS graphics and announcers. CBS and TNN were both owned by Viacom at the time).
Through 2010, CBS broadcast the remaining 63 games of the NCAA tournament proper. Most areas saw only eight of 32 first - round games, seven of 16 second - round games, and four of eight regional semifinal games (out of the possible 56 games during these rounds; there would be some exceptions to this rule in the 2000s). Coverage preempted regular programming on the network, except during a 2 - hour window from about 5 ET until 7 ET when the local affiliates could show programming. The CBS format resulted in far fewer hours of first - round coverage than under the old ESPN format but allowed the games to reach a much larger audience than ESPN was able to reach.
During this period of near - exclusivity by CBS, the network provided to its local affiliates three types of feeds from each venue: constant feed, swing feed, and flex feed. Constant feeds remained primarily on a given game, and were used primarily by stations with a clear local interest in a particular game. Despite its name, a constant feed occasionally veered away to other games for brief updates (as is typical in most American sports coverage), but coverage generally remained with the initial game. A swing feed tended to stay on games believed to be of natural interest to the locality, such as teams from local conferences, but may leave that game to go to other games that during their progress become close matches. On a flex feed, coverage bounced around from one venue to another, depending on action at the various games in progress. If one game was a blowout, coverage could switch to a more competitive game. A flex feed was provided when there were no games with a significant natural local interest for the stations carrying them, which allowed the flex game to be the best game in progress. Station feeds were planned in advance and stations had the option of requesting either constant or flex feed for various games.
In 1999, DirecTV began broadcasting all games otherwise not shown on local television with its Mega March Madness premium package. The DirecTV system used the subscriber 's ZIP code to black out games which could be seen on broadcast television. Prior to that, all games were available on C - Band satellite and were picked up by sports bars.
In 2003, CBS struck a deal with Yahoo! to offer live streaming of the first three rounds of games under its Yahoo! Platinum service, for $16.95 a month. In 2004, CBS began selling viewers access to March Madness On Demand, which provided games not otherwise shown on broadcast television; the service was free for AOL subscribers. In 2006, March Madness On Demand was made free, and continued to be so to online users through the 2011 tournament. For 2012, it once again became a pay service, with a single payment of $3.99 providing access to all 67 tournament games. In 2013, the service, now renamed March Madness Live, was again made free, but uses Turner 's rights and infrastructure for TV Everywhere, which requires sign - in though the password of a customer 's cable or satellite provider to watch games, both via PC / Mac and mobile devices. Those that do not have a cable or satellite service or one not participating in Turner 's TV Everywhere are restricted to games carried on the CBS national feed, the national semifinals and final (regardless of the broadcaster), and three hours (originally four) of other games without sign - in, or coverage via Westwood One 's radio coverage.
In addition, CBS Sports Network (formerly CBS College Sports Network) had broadcast two "late early '' games that would not otherwise be broadcast nationally. These were the second games in the daytime session in the Pacific Time Zone, to avoid starting games before 10 AM. These games are also available via March Madness Live and on CBS affiliates in the market areas of the team playing. In other markets, newscasts, local programming or preempted CBS morning programming are aired. CBSSN is scheduled to continue broadcasting the official pregame and postgame shows and press conferences from the teams involved, along with overnight replays.
The Final Four has been broadcast in HDTV since 1999. From 2000 to 2004, only one first / second round site and one regional site were designated as HDTV sites. In 2005, all regional games were broadcast in HDTV, and four first and second round sites were designated for HDTV coverage. Local stations broadcasting in both digital and analog had the option of airing separate games on their HD and SD channels, to take advantage of the available high definition coverage. Beginning in 2007, all games in the tournament (including all first and second - round games) were available in high definition, and local stations were required to air the same game on both their analog and digital channels. However, due to satellite limitations, first round "constant '' feeds were only available in standard definition. Moreover, some digital television stations, such as WRAL - TV in Raleigh, North Carolina, choose to not participate in HDTV broadcasts of the first and second rounds and the regional semifinals, and used their available bandwidth to split their signal into digital subchannels to show all games going on simultaneously. By 2008, upgrades at the CBS broadcast center allowed all feeds, flex and constant, to be in HD for the tournament.
As of 2011, ESPN International holds international broadcast rights to the tournament, distributing coverage to its co-owned networks and other broadcasters. ESPN produces the world feed for broadcasts of the Final Four and championship game, produced using ESPN College Basketball staff and commentators.
Best outcomes for low seeds since expansion to 64 teams in 1985:
numerous (20 teams)
numerous (20 teams)
numerous (23 teams)
numerous (25 teams)
No team as a No. 16 seed has ever defeated a No. 1 seed since the field was expanded to 64 or more teams, though on five occasions, a No. 16 seed has come within 4 or fewer points of winning:
As noted above, despite numerous instances of early - round tournament upsets, no No. 1 seed has ever lost in the first round to a No. 16 seed. However, while seeding is one way of measuring the impact of an upset, prior to the implementation of seeding, point spread was the better determinant of an upset, and a loss by a highly favored team remains for many the definition of "upset ''.
It has happened only once that all four No. 1 seeds made it to the Final Four:
Three times (twice since the field expanded to 64 teams) the Final Four has been without a No. 1 seed:
Since 1985, there have been 4 instances of three No. 1 seeds reaching the Final Four; 11 instances of two No. 1 seeds making it; and 14 instances of just one No. 1 seed reaching the Final Four.
It has happened eight times (seven times since the field expanded to 64) that the championship game has been played between two No. 1 seeds:
Since 1985, there have been 17 instances of one No. 1 seed reaching the Championship Game (No. 1 seeds are 13 - 4 against other seeds in the title game), and eight instances where no No. 1 seed made it to the title game. In total, since 1985, No. 1 seeds are 19 - 10 in the championship game.
The following teams entered the tournament ranked No. 1 in at least one of the AP, UPI, or USA Today polls and won the tournament:
The team 's record here refers to their record before the first game of the NCAA tournament.
The NCAA tournament has undergone dramatic expansion since 1975, and since the tournament was expanded to 48 teams in 1980, no unbeaten teams have failed to qualify. (As, by definition, a team would have to win its conference tournament, and thus secure an automatic bid to the tournament, to be undefeated in a season, the only way a team could finish undefeated and not reach the tournament is if the team is banned from postseason play; as of 2016, no team banned from postseason play has finished undefeated since 1980.) Before that, there were occasions on which a team achieved perfection in the regular season, yet did not appear in the NCAA tournament.
There have been nine times in which the tournament did not include the reigning champion (the previous year 's winner):
Rick Pitino is the only coach to have officially taken three different teams to the Final Four: Providence (1987), Kentucky (1993, 1996, 1997) and Louisville (2005, 2012, 2013).
There are 12 coaches who have officially coached two different schools to the Final Four -- Roy Williams, Eddie Sutton, Frank McGuire, Lon Kruger, Hugh Durham, Jack Gardner, Lute Olson, Gene Bartow, Forddy Anderson, Lee Rose, Bob Huggins, and Lou Henson.
Point differentials, or margin of victory, can be viewed either by the championship game, or by a team 's performance over the whole tournament.
30 points, by UNLV in 1990 (103 -- 73, over Duke)
Seven times the championship game has been tied at the end of regulation. On one of those occasions (1957) the game went into double and then triple overtime.
1 point, on six occasions
Teams that played 6 games
Teams that played 5 games
Teams that played 4 games
Teams that played 3 games
Achieved twelve times by nine different schools
Since the inception of the 64 - team tournament in 1985, through 2017 each seed - pairing has played 132 games in the Round of 64, with the following results:
This table lists all the cities that have hosted or will host the Final Four, as well as the venues in which the Final Four was or will be played. For additional information about a particular year 's tournament, click on the year to go directly to that year 's NCAA Men 's Basketball Tournament or go to the main article.
There are pools or private gambling - related contests as to who can predict the tournament most correctly. The filling out of a tournament bracket has been referred to as a "national pastime. '' Filling out a tournament bracket with predictions is called the practice of "bracketology '' and sports programming during the tournament is rife with commentators comparing the accuracy of their predictions. On The Dan Patrick Show, a wide variety of celebrities from various fields (such as Darius Rucker, Charlie Sheen, Neil Patrick Harris, Ellen DeGeneres, Dave Grohl, and Brooklyn Decker) have posted full brackets with predictions. Former President Barack Obama 's bracket, is posted on the White House website.
There are many different tournament prediction scoring systems. Most award points for correctly picking the winning team in a particular match up, with increasingly more points being given for correctly predicting later round winners. Some provide bonus points for correctly predicting upsets, the amount of the bonus varying based on the degree of upset. Some just provide points for wins by correctly picked teams in the brackets.
There are 2 ^ 63 or 9.2 quintillion possibilities for the possible winners in a 64 - team NCAA bracket, making the odds of randomly picking a perfect bracket (i.e. without weighting for seed number) 9.2 quintillion to 1. With the expansion of the tournament field to 68 teams in 2011, there are now 2 ^ 67 or 147.57 quintillion possibilities if one includes the first four opening round games.
There are numerous awards and prizes given by companies for anyone who can make the perfect bracket. One of the largest was done by a partnership between Quicken Loans and Berkshire Hathaway, which was backed by Warren Buffett, with a $1 billion prize to any person (s) who could correctly predict the outcome of the 2014 tournament. No one was able to complete the challenge and win the $1 billion prize.
As indicated below, none of these phrases are exclusively used in regard to the NCAA tournament. Nonetheless, they are associated widely with the tournament, sometimes for legal reasons, sometimes just because it 's become part of the American sports vernacular.
March Madness is a popular on - ending basketball tournaments played in March. March Madness is also a registered trademark currently owned exclusively by the NCAA.
H.V. Porter, an official with the Illinois High School Association (and later a member of the Basketball Hall of Fame), was the first person to use March Madness to describe a basketball tournament. Porter published an essay named March Madness during 1939, and during 1942, he used the phrase in a poem, Basketball Ides of March. Through the years the use of March Madness was increased, especially in Illinois, Indiana, and other parts of the Midwest. During this period the term was used almost exclusively in reference to state high school tournaments. During 1977, Jim Enright published a book about the Illinois tournament entitled March Madness.
Fans began associating the term with the NCAA tournament during the early 1980s. Evidence suggests that CBS sportscaster Brent Musburger, who had worked for many years in Chicago before joining CBS, popularized the term during the annual tournament broadcasts. The NCAA has credited Bob Walsh of the Seattle Organizing Committee for starting the March Madness celebration in 1984.
Only during the 1990s did either the IHSA or the NCAA think about trademarking the term, and by that time a small television production company named Intersport had already trademarked it. IHSA eventually bought the trademark rights from Intersport, and then went to court to establish its primacy. IHSA sued GTE Vantage, an NCAA licensee that used the name March Madness for a computer game based on the college tournament. During 1996, in a historic ruling, Illinois High School Association v. GTE Vantage, Inc., the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit created the concept of a "dual - use trademark '', granting both the IHSA and NCAA the right to trademark the term for their own purposes.
After the ruling, the NCAA and IHSA joined forces and created the March Madness Athletic Association to coordinate the licensing of the trademark and investigate possible trademark infringement. One such case involved a company that had obtained the internet domain name marchmadness.com and was using it to post information about the NCAA tournament. During 2003, by March Madness Athletic Association v. Netfire, Inc., the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit decided that March Madness was not a generic term, and ordered Netfire to relinquish the domain name to the NCAA.
Later during the 2000s, the IHSA relinquished its ownership share in the trademark, although it retained the right to use the term in association with high school championships. During October 2010, the NCAA reached a settlement with Intersport, paying $17.2 million for the latter company 's license to use the trademark.
This is a popular term for the regional semifinal round of the tournament, consisting of the final 16 teams. As in the case of "March Madness '', this was first used by a high school federation -- in this case, the Kentucky High School Athletic Association (KHSAA), which has used the term for decades to describe its own season - ending tournaments. It officially registered the trademark in 1988. Unlike the situation with "March Madness '', the KHSAA has retained sole ownership of the "Sweet Sixteen '' trademark; it licenses the term to the NCAA for use in collegiate tournaments.
The term Final Four refers to the last four teams remaining in the playoff tournament. These are the champions of the tournament 's four regional brackets, and are the only teams remaining on the tournament 's final weekend. (While the term "Final Four '' was not used during the early decades of the tournament, the term has been applied retroactively to include the last four teams in tournaments from earlier years, even when only two brackets existed.)
Some claim that the phrase Final Four was first used to describe the final games of Indiana 's annual high school basketball tournament. But the NCAA, which has a trademark on the term, says Final Four was originated by a Plain Dealer sportswriter, Ed Chay, in a 1975 article that appeared in the Official Collegiate Basketball Guide. The article stated that Marquette University "was one of the final four '' of the 1974 tournament. The NCAA started capitalizing the term during 1978 and converting it to a trademark several years later.
During recent years, the term Final Four has been used for other sports besides basketball. Tournaments which use Final Four include the Euroleague in basketball, national basketball competitions in several European countries, and the now - defunct European Hockey League. Together with the name Final Four, these tournaments have adopted an NCAA - style format in which the four surviving teams compete in a single - elimination tournament held in one place, typically, during one weekend. The derivative term "Frozen Four '' is used by the NCAA to refer to the final rounds of the Division I men 's and women 's ice hockey tournaments. Until 1999, it was just a popular nickname for the last two rounds of the hockey tournament; officially, it was also known as the Final Four.
Although there is not any official definition of what constitutes a Cinderella team, there does seem to be a consensus that such teams represent small schools, are usually low - seeded in the tournament, and achieves at least one unexpected win in the tournament. A recent example of this is Florida Gulf Coast University, a relatively new school that held its first classes in 1997 and became Division I postseason eligible in 2011. They made their first ever appearance in the 2013 tournament, winning two games to become the first ever # 15 seed to advance to the Sweet Sixteen. The term was popularized as a result of City College of New York 's successful run in the 1950 tournament.
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who is credited for the identification of operant conditioning | Operant conditioning - wikipedia
Operant conditioning (also called "instrumental conditioning '') is a learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment. It is also a procedure that is used to bring about such learning.
Although operant and classical conditioning both involve behaviors controlled by environmental stimuli, they differ in nature. In operant conditioning, stimuli present when a behavior is rewarded or punished come to control that behavior. For example, a child may learn to open a box to get the candy inside, or learn to avoid touching a hot stove; in operant terms, the box and the stove are "discriminative stimuli ''. However, in classical conditioning, stimuli that signal significant events produce reflexive behavior. For example, sight of candy may cause a child to salivate, or the sound of a door slam may signal an angry parent, causing a child to tremble. Salivation and trembling are not operants; they are not reinforced by their consequences.
The study of animal learning in the 20th century was dominated by the analysis of these two sorts of learning, and they are still at the core of behavior analysis.
Operant conditioning, sometimes called instrumental learning, was first extensively studied by Edward L. Thorndike (1874 -- 1949), who observed the behavior of cats trying to escape from home - made puzzle boxes. A cat could escape from the box by a simple response such as pulling a cord or pushing a pole, but when first constrained, the cats took a long time to get out. With repeated trials ineffective responses occurred less frequently and successful responses occurred more frequently, so the cats escaped more and more quickly. Thorndike generalized this finding in his law of effect, which states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences tend to be repeated and those that produce unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. In short, some consequences strengthen behavior and some consequences weaken behavior. By plotting escape time against trial number Thorndike produced the first known animal learning curves through this procedure.
Humans appear to learn many simple behaviors through the sort of process studied by Thorndike, now called operant conditioning. That is, responses are retained when they lead to a successful outcome and discarded when they do not, or when they produce aversive effects. This usually happens without being planned by any "teacher '', but operant conditioning has been used by parents in teaching their children for thousands of years.
B.F. Skinner (1904 -- 1990) is often referred to as the father of operant conditioning, and his work is frequently cited in connection with this topic. His book "The Behavior of Organisms '', published in 1938, initiated his lifelong study of operant conditioning and its application to human and animal behavior. Following the ideas of Ernst Mach, Skinner rejected Thorndike 's reference to unobservable mental states such as satisfaction, building his analysis on observable behavior and its equally observable consequences.
Skinner believed that classical conditioning was too simplistic to be used to describe something as complex as human behavior. Operant conditioning, in his opinion, better described human behavior since it examined causes and effects of intentional behavior.
To implement his empirical approach, Skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber, or "Skinner Box '', in which subjects such as pigeons and rats were isolated and could be exposed to carefully controlled stimuli. Unlike Thorndike 's puzzle box, this arrangement allowed the subject to make one or two simple, repeatable responses, and the rate of such responses became Skinner 's primary behavioral measure. Another invention, the cumulative recorder, produced a graphical record from which these response rates could be estimated. These records were the primary data that Skinner and his colleagues used to explore the effects on response rate of various reinforcement schedules. A reinforcement schedule may be defined as "any procedure that delivers reinforcement to an organism according to some well - defined rule ''. The effects of schedules became, in turn, the basic findings from which Skinner developed his account of operant conditioning. He also drew on many less formal observations of human and animal behavior.
Many of Skinner 's writings are devoted to the application of operant conditioning to human behavior. In 1948 he published Walden Two, a fictional account of a peaceful, happy, productive community organized around his conditioning principles. In 1957, Skinner published Verbal Behavior, which extended the principles of operant conditioning to language, a form of human behavior that had previously been analyzed quite differently by linguists and others. Skinner defined new functional relationships such as "mands '' and "tacts '' to capture some essentials of language, but he introduced no new principles, treating verbal behavior like any other behavior controlled by its consequences, which included the reactions of the speaker 's audience.
Operant behavior is said to be "emitted ''; that is, initially it is not elicited by any particular stimulus. Thus one may ask why it happens in the first place. The answer to this question is like Darwin 's answer to the question of the origin of a "new '' bodily structure, namely, variation and selection. Similarly, the behavior of an individual varies from moment to moment, in such aspects as the specific motions involved, the amount of force applied, or the timing of the response. Variations that lead to reinforcement are strengthened, and if reinforcement is consistent, the behavior tends to remain stable. However, behavioral variability can itself be altered through the manipulation of certain variables.
Reinforcement and punishment are the core tools through which operant behavior is modified. These terms are defined by their effect on behavior. Either may be positive or negative, as described below.
There is an additional procedure called "extinction ''
Thus there are a total of five basic consequences --
It is important to note that actors (e.g. rat) are not spoken of as being reinforced, punished, or extinguished; it is the actions (e.g. lever press) that are reinforced, punished, or extinguished. Also, reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are not terms whose use is restricted to the laboratory. Naturally occurring consequences can also reinforce, punish, or extinguish behavior and are not always planned or delivered by people.
Schedules of reinforcement are rules that control the delivery of reinforcement. The rules specify either the time that reinforcement is to be made available, or the number of responses to be made, or both. Many rules are possible, but the following are the most basic and commonly used
The effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment can be changed in various ways.
Most of these factors serve biological functions. For example, the process of satiation helps the organism maintain a stable internal environment (homeostasis). When an organism has been deprived of sugar, for example, the taste of sugar is a highly effective reinforcer. However, when the organism 's blood sugar reaches or exceeds an optimum level the taste of sugar becomes less effective, perhaps even aversive.
Shaping is a conditioning method much used in animal training and in teaching non-verbal humans. It depends on operant variability and reinforcement, as described above. The trainer starts by identifying the desired final (or "target '') behavior. Next, the trainer chooses a behavior that the animal or person already emits with some probability. The form of this behavior is then gradually changed across successive trials by reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior more and more closely. When the target behavior is finally emitted, it may be strengthened and maintained by the use of a schedule of reinforcement.
Noncontingent reinforcement is the delivery of reinforcing stimuli regardless of the organism 's behavior. Noncontingent reinforcement may be used in an attempt to reduce an undesired target behavior by reinforcing multiple alternative responses while extinguishing the target response. As no measured behavior is identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding the use of the term noncontingent "reinforcement ''.
Though initially operant behavior is emitted without an identified reference to a particular stimulus, during operant conditioning operants come under the control of stimuli that are present when behavior is reinforced. Such stimuli are called "discriminative stimuli. '' A so - called "three - term contingency '' is the result. That is, discriminative stimuli set the occasion for responses that produce reward or punishment. Thus, a rat may be trained to press a lever only when a light comes on; a dog rushes to the kitchen when it hears the rattle of its food bag; a child reaches for candy when she sees it on a table.
Most behavior is under stimulus control. Several aspects of this may be distinguished:
Most behavior can not easily be described in terms of individual responses reinforced one by one. The scope of operant analysis is expanded through the idea of behavioral chains, which are sequences of responses bound together by the three - term contingencies defined above. Chaining is based on the fact, experimentally demonstrated, that a discriminative stimulus not only sets the occasion for subsequent behavior, but it can also reinforce a behavior that precedes it. That is, a discriminative stimulus is also a "conditioned reinforcer ''. For example, the light that sets the occasion for lever pressing may be used to reinforce "turning around '' in the presence of a noise. This results in the sequence "noise -- turn - around -- light -- press lever -- food ''. Much longer chains can be built by adding more stimuli and responses.
In escape learning, a behavior terminates an (aversive) stimulus. For example, shielding one 's eyes from sunlight terminates the (aversive) stimulation of bright light in one 's eyes. (This is an example of negative reinforcement, defined above.) Behavior that is maintained by preventing a stimulus is called "avoidance, '' as, for example, putting on sun glasses before going outdoors. Avoidance behavior raises the so - called "avoidance paradox '', for, it may be asked, how can the non-occurrence of a stimulus serve as a reinforcer? This question is addressed by several theories of avoidance (see below).
Two kinds of experimental settings are commonly used: discriminated and free - operant avoidance learning.
A discriminated avoidance experiment involves a series of trials in which a neutral stimulus such as a light is followed by an aversive stimulus such as a shock. After the neutral stimulus appears an operant response such as a lever press prevents or terminate the aversive stimulus. In early trials the subject does not make the response until the aversive stimulus has come on, so these early trials are called "escape '' trials. As learning progresses, the subject begins to respond during the neutral stimulus and thus prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring. Such trials are called "avoidance trials. '' This experiment is said to involve classical conditioning, because a neutral CS is paired with an aversive US; this idea underlies the two - factor theory of avoidance learning described below.
In free - operant avoidance a subject periodically receives an aversive stimulus (often an electric shock) unless an operant response is made; the response delays the onset of the shock. In this situation, unlike discriminated avoidance, no prior stimulus signals the shock. Two crucial time intervals determine the rate of avoidance learning. This first is the S-S (shock - shock) interval. This is time between successive shocks in the absence of a response. The second interval is the R-S (response - shock) interval. This specifies the time by which an operant response delays the onset of the next shock. Note that each time the subject performs the operant response, the R-S interval without shock begins anew.
This theory was originally proposed in order to explain discriminated avoidance learning, in which an organism learns to avoid an aversive stimulus by escaping from a signal for that stimulus. Two processes are involved: classical conditioning of the signal followed by operant conditioning of the escape response: a) Classical conditioning of fear. Initially the organism experiences the pairing of a CS (conditioned stimulus) with an aversive US (unconditioned stimulus). The theory assumes that this pairing creates an association between the CS and the US through classical conditioning and, because of the aversive nature of the US, the CS comes to elicit a conditioned emotional reaction (CER) -- "fear. '' b) Reinforcement of the operant response by fear - reduction. As a result of the first process, the CS now signals fear; this unpleasant emotional reaction serves to motivate operant responses, and responses that terminate the CS are reinforced by fear termination. Note that the theory does not say that the organism "avoids '' the US in the sense of anticipating it, but rather that the organism "escapes '' an aversive internal state that is caused by the CS. Several experimental findings seem to run counter to two - factor theory. For example, avoidance behavior often extinguishes very slowly even when the initial CS - US pairing never occurs again, so the fear response might be expected to extinguish (see Classical conditioning). Further, animals that have learned to avoid often show little evidence of fear, suggesting that escape from fear is not necessary to maintain avoidance behavior.
Some theorists suggest that avoidance behavior may simply be a special case of operant behavior maintained by its consequences. In this view the idea of "consequences '' is expanded to include sensitivity to a pattern of events. Thus, in avoidance, the consequence of a response is a reduction in the rate of aversive stimulation. Indeed, experimental evidence suggests that a "missed shock '' is detected as a stimulus, and can act as a reinforcer. Cognitive theories of avoidance take this idea a step farther. For example, a rat comes to "expect '' shock if it fails to press a lever and to "expect no shock '' if it presses it, and avoidance behavior is strengthened if these expectancies are confirmed.
Operant hoarding refers to the observation that rats reinforced in a certain way may allow food pellets to accumulate in a food tray instead of retrieving those pellets. In this procedure, retrieval of the pellets always instituted a one - minute period of extinction during which no additional food pellets were available but those that had been accumulated earlier could be consumed. This finding appears to contradict the usual finding that rats behave impulsively in situations in which there is a choice between a smaller food object right away and a larger food object after some delay. See schedules of reinforcement.
The first scientific studies identifying neurons that responded in ways that suggested they encode for conditioned stimuli came from work by Mahlon deLong and by R.T. Richardson. They showed that nucleus basalis neurons, which release acetylcholine broadly throughout the cerebral cortex, are activated shortly after a conditioned stimulus, or after a primary reward if no conditioned stimulus exists. These neurons are equally active for positive and negative reinforcers, and have been shown to be related to neuroplasticity in many cortical regions. Evidence also exists that dopamine is activated at similar times. There is considerable evidence that dopamine participates in both reinforcement and aversive learning. Dopamine pathways project much more densely onto frontal cortex regions. Cholinergic projections, in contrast, are dense even in the posterior cortical regions like the primary visual cortex. A study of patients with Parkinson 's disease, a condition attributed to the insufficient action of dopamine, further illustrates the role of dopamine in positive reinforcement. It showed that while off their medication, patients learned more readily with aversive consequences than with positive reinforcement. Patients who were on their medication showed the opposite to be the case, positive reinforcement proving to be the more effective form of learning when dopamine activity is high.
A neurochemical process involving dopamine has been suggested to underlie reinforcement. When an organism experiences a reinforcing stimulus, dopamine pathways in the brain are activated. This network of pathways "releases a short pulse of dopamine onto many dendrites, thus broadcasting a rather global reinforcement signal to postsynaptic neurons. '' This allows recently activated synapses to increase their sensitivity to efferent (conducting outward) signals, thus increasing the probability of occurrence for the recent responses that preceded the reinforcement. These responses are, statistically, the most likely to have been the behavior responsible for successfully achieving reinforcement. But when the application of reinforcement is either less immediate or less contingent (less consistent), the ability of dopamine to act upon the appropriate synapses is reduced.
A number of observations seem to show that operant behavior can be established without reinforcement in the sense defined above. Most cited is the phenomenon of autoshaping (sometimes called "sign tracking ''), in which a stimulus is repeatedly followed by reinforcement, and in consequence the animal begins to respond to the stimulus. For example, a response key is lighted and then food is presented. When this is repeated a few times a pigeon subject begins to peck the key even though food comes whether the bird pecks or not. Similarly, rats begin to handle small objects, such as a lever, when food is presented nearby. Strikingly, pigeons and rats persist in this behavior even when pecking the key or pressing the lever leads to less food (omission training).
These observations and others appear to contradict the law of effect, and they have prompted some researchers to propose new conceptualizations of operant reinforcement (e.g.) A more general view is that autoshaping is an instance of classical conditioning; the autoshaping procedure has, in fact, become one of the most common ways to measure classical conditioning. In this view, many behaviors can be influenced by both classical contingencies (stimulus - response) and operant contingencies (response - reinforcement), and the experimenter 's task is to work out how these interact.
The example of someone having a positive experience with a drug is easy to see how drug dependence and the law of effect works. The tolerance for a drug goes down as one continues to use it after having a positive experience with a certain amount the first time. It will take more and more to get that same feeling. This is when the controlled substance in an experiment would have to be modified and the experiment would really begin. The law of work for psychologist B.F. Skinner almost half a century later on the principles of operant conditioning, "a learning process by which the effect, or consequence, of a response influences the future rate of production of that response.
Reinforcement and punishment are ubiquitous in human social interactions, and a great many applications of operant principles have been suggested and implemented. Following are a few examples.
Applied behavior analysis is the discipline initiated by B.F. Skinner that applies the principles of conditioning to the modification of socially significant human behavior. It uses the basic concepts of conditioning theory, including conditioned stimulus (S), discriminative stimulus (S), response (R), and reinforcing stimulus (S or S for reinforcers, sometimes S for aversive stimuli). A conditioned stimulus controls behaviors developed through respondent (classical) conditioning, such as emotional reactions. The other three terms combine to form Skinner 's "three - term contingency '': a discriminative stimulus sets the occasion for responses that lead to reinforcement. Researchers have found the following protocol to be effective when they use the tools of operant conditioning to modify human behavior:
Practitioners of applied behavior analysis (ABA) bring these procedures, and many variations and developments of them, to bear on a variety of socially significant behaviors and issues. In many cases, practitioners use operant techniques to develop constructive, socially acceptable behaviors to replace aberrant behaviors. The techniques of ABA have been effectively applied in to such things as early intensive behavioral interventions for children with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) research on the principles influencing criminal behavior, HIV prevention, conservation of natural resources, education, gerontology, health and exercise, industrial safety, language acquisition, littering, medical procedures, parenting, psychotherapy, seatbelt use, severe mental disorders, sports, substance abuse, phobias, pediatric feeding disorders, and zoo management and care of animals. Some of these applications are among those described below.
Positive and negative reinforcement play central roles in the development and maintenance of addiction and drug dependence. An addictive drug is intrinsically rewarding; that is, it functions as a primary positive reinforcer of drug use. The brain 's reward system assigns it incentive salience (i.e., it is "wanted '' or "desired ''), so as an addiction develops, deprivation of the drug leads to craving. In addition, stimuli associated with drug use -- e.g., the sight of a syringe, and the location of use -- become associated with the intense reinforcement induced by the drug. These previously neutral stimuli acquire several properties: their appearance can induce craving, and they can become conditioned positive reinforcers of continued use. Thus, if an addicted individual encounters one of these drug cues, a craving for the associated drug may reappear. For example, anti-drug agencies previously used posters with images of drug paraphernalia as an attempt to show the dangers of drug use. However, such posters are no longer used because of the effects of incentive salience in causing relapse upon sight of the stimuli illustrated in the posters.
In drug dependent individuals, negative reinforcement occurs when a drug is self - administered in order to alleviate or "escape '' the symptoms of physical dependence (e.g., tremors and sweating) and / or psychological dependence (e.g., anhedonia, restlessness, irritability, and anxiety) that arise during the state of drug withdrawal.
Animal trainers and pet owners were applying the principles and practices of operant conditioning long before these ideas were named and studied, and animal training still provides one of the clearest and most convincing examples of operant control. Of the concepts and procedures described in this article, a few of the most salient are the following: (a) availability of primary reinforcement (e.g. a bag of dog yummies); (b) the use of secondary reinforcement, (e.g. sounding a clicker immediately after a desired response, then giving yummy); (c) contingency, assuring that reinforcement (e.g. the clicker) follows the desired behavior and not something else; (d) shaping, as in gradually getting a dog to jump higher and higher; (e) intermittent reinforcement, as in gradually reducing the frequency of reinforcement to induce persistent behavior without satiation; (f) chaining, where a complex behavior is gradually constructed from smaller units.
Example of animal training from Seaworld related on Operant conditioning
Animal training has effects on positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Schedules of reinforcements may play a big role on the animal training case.
Providing positive reinforcement for appropriate child behaviors is a major focus of parent management training. Typically, parents learn to reward appropriate behavior through social rewards (such as praise, smiles, and hugs) as well as concrete rewards (such as stickers or points towards a larger reward as part of an incentive system created collaboratively with the child). In addition, parents learn to select simple behaviors as an initial focus and reward each of the small steps that their child achieves towards reaching a larger goal (this concept is called "successive approximations '').
Both psychologists and economists have become interested in applying operant concepts and findings to the behavior of humans in the marketplace. An example is the analysis of consumer demand, as indexed by the amount of a commodity that is purchased. In economics, the degree to which price influences consumption is called "the price elasticity of demand. '' Certain commodities are more elastic than others; for example, a change in price of certain foods may have a large effect on the amount bought, while gasoline and other essentials may be less affected by price changes. In terms of operant analysis, such effects may be interpreted in terms of motivations of consumers and the relative value of the commodities as reinforcers.
As stated earlier in this article, a variable ratio schedule yields reinforcement after the emission of an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule typically generates rapid, persistent responding. Slot machines pay off on a variable ratio schedule, and they produce just this sort of persistent lever - pulling behavior in gamblers. The variable ratio payoff from slot machines and other forms of gambling has often been cited as a factor underlying gambling addiction.
Nudge theory (or nudge) is a concept in behavioural science, political theory and economics which argues that positive reinforcement and indirect suggestions to try to achieve non-forced compliance can influence the motives, incentives and decision making of groups and individuals, at least as effectively -- if not more effectively -- than direct instruction, legislation, or enforcement.
The concept of praise as a means of behavioral reinforcement is rooted in B.F. Skinner 's model of operant conditioning. Through this lens, praise has been viewed as a means of positive reinforcement, wherein an observed behavior is made more likely to occur by contingently praising said behavior. Hundreds of studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of praise in promoting positive behaviors, notably in the study of teacher and parent use of praise on child in promoting improved behavior and academic performance, but also in the study of work performance. Praise has also been demonstrated to reinforce positive behaviors in non-praised adjacent individuals (such as a classmate of the praise recipient) through vicarious reinforcement. Praise may be more or less effective in changing behavior depending on its form, content and delivery. In order for praise to effect positive behavior change, it must be contingent on the positive behavior (i.e., only administered after the targeted behavior is enacted), must specify the particulars of the behavior that is to be reinforced, and must be delivered sincerely and credibly.
Acknowledging the effect of praise as a positive reinforcement strategy, numerous behavioral and cognitive behavioral interventions have incorporated the use of praise in their protocols. The strategic use of praise is recognized as an evidence - based practice in both classroom management and parenting training interventions, though praise is often subsumed in intervention research into a larger category of positive reinforcement, which includes strategies such as strategic attention and behavioral rewards.
Cognitive - Behavioral Therapy and Operant - Behavioral Therapy Several studies have been done on the effect Cognitive - Behavioral therapy and Operant - Behavioral therapy have on different medical conditions. When patients developed cognitive and behavioral techniques that changed their behaviors, attitudes, and emotions; their pain severity decreased. The results of these studies showed an influence of cognitions on pain perception and impact presented explained the general efficacy of Cognitive - Behavioral therapy (CBT) and Operant - Behavioral therapy (OBT).
Braiker identified the following ways that manipulators control their victims:
Traumatic bonding occurs as the result of ongoing cycles of abuse in which the intermittent reinforcement of reward and punishment creates powerful emotional bonds that are resistant to change.
The other source indicated that ' The necessary conditions for traumatic bonding are that one person must dominate the other and that the level of abuse chronically spikes and then subsides. The relationship is characterized by periods of permissive, compassionate, and even affectionate behavior from the dominant person, punctuated by intermittent episodes of intense abuse. To maintain the upper hand, the victimizer manipulates the behavior of the victim and limits the victim 's options so as to perpetuate the power imbalance. Any threat to the balance of dominance and submission may be met with an escalating cycle of punishment ranging from seething intimidation to intensely violent outbursts. The victimizer also isolates the victim from other sources of support, which reduces the likelihood of detection and intervention, impairs the victim 's ability to receive countervailing self - referent feedback, and strengthens the sense of unilateral dependency... The traumatic effects of these abusive relationships may include the impairment of the victim 's capacity for accurate self - appraisal, leading to a sense of personal inadequacy and a subordinate sense of dependence upon the dominating person. Victims also may encounter a variety of unpleasant social and legal consequences of their emotional and behavioral affiliation with someone who perpetrated aggressive acts, even if they themselves were the recipients of the aggression. '.
Most video games are designed around some type of compulsion loop, adding a type of positive reinforcement through a variable rate schedule to keep the player playing the game, though this can also lead to video game addiction.
As part of a trend in the monetization of video games in the 2010s, some games offered "loot boxes '' as rewards or purchasable by real - world funds that offered a random selection of in - game items, distributed by rarity. The practice has been tied to the same methods that slot machines and other gambling devices dole out rewards, as it follows a variable rate schedule. While the general perception that loot boxes are a form of gambling, the practice is only classified as such in a few countries as gambling and otherwise legal. However, methods to use those items as virtual currency for online gambling or trading for real - world money has created a skin gambling market that is under legal evaluation.
Ashforth discussed potentially destructive sides of leadership and identified what he referred to as petty tyrants: leaders who exercise a tyrannical style of management, resulting in a climate of fear in the workplace. Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. When employees get the sense that bullies are tolerated, a climate of fear may be the result.
Individual differences in sensitivity to reward, punishment, and motivation have been studied under the premises of reinforcement sensitivity theory and have also been applied to workplace performance.
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when did the united states stop paying tribute to the barbary states | First Barbary War - wikipedia
Tripolitania
The First Barbary War (1801 -- 1805), also known as the Tripolitanian War and the Barbary Coast War, was the first of two Barbary Wars, in which the United States and Sweden fought against the four North African states known collectively as the "Barbary States ''. Three of these were nominal provinces of the Ottoman Empire, but in practice autonomous: Tripoli, Algiers, and Tunis. The fourth was the independent Sultanate of Morocco.
The cause of the U.S. participation was pirates from the Barbary States seizing American merchant ships and holding the crews for ransom, demanding the U.S. pay tribute to the Barbary rulers. United States President Thomas Jefferson refused to pay this tribute. Sweden had been at war with the Tripolitans since 1800.
Barbary corsairs and crews from the North African Ottoman provinces of Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and the independent Sultanate of Morocco under the Alaouite dynasty (the Barbary Coast) were the scourge of the Mediterranean. Capturing merchant ships and enslaving or ransoming their crews provided the Muslim rulers of these nations with wealth and naval power. The Roman Catholic Trinitarian Order, or order of "Mathurins '', had operated from France for centuries with the special mission of collecting and disbursing funds for the relief and ransom of prisoners of Mediterranean pirates. According to Robert Davis, between 1 and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves between the 16th and 19th centuries.
Barbary corsairs led attacks upon American merchant shipping in an attempt to extort ransom for the lives of captured sailors, and ultimately tribute from the United States to avoid further attacks, as they did with the various European states. Before the Treaty of Paris, which formalized the United States ' independence from Great Britain, U.S. shipping was protected by France during the revolutionary years under the Treaty of Alliance (1778 -- 83). Although the treaty does not mention the Barbary States in name, it refers to common enemies between both the U.S. and France. As such, piracy against U.S. shipping only began to occur after the end of the American Revolution, when the U.S. government lost its protection under the Treaty of Alliance.
This lapse of protection by a European power led to the first American merchant ship being seized after the Treaty of Paris. On 11 October 1784, Moroccan pirates seized the brigantine Betsey. The Spanish government negotiated the freedom of the captured ship and crew; however, Spain offered advice to the United States on how to deal with the Barbary States. The advice was to offer tribute to prevent further attacks against merchant ships. The U.S. Minister to France, Thomas Jefferson, decided to send envoys to Morocco and Algeria to try to purchase treaties and the freedom of the captured sailors held by Algeria. Morocco was the first Barbary Coast State to sign a treaty with the U.S., on 23 June 1786. This treaty formally ended all Moroccan piracy against American shipping interests. Specifically, article six of the treaty states that if any Americans captured by Moroccans or other Barbary Coast States docked at a Moroccan city, they would be set free and come under the protection of the Moroccan State.
American diplomatic action with Algeria, the other major Barbary Coast State, was much less productive than with Morocco. Algeria began piracy against the U.S. on 25 July 1785 with the capture of the schooner Maria, and Dauphin a week later. All four Barbary Coast states demanded $660,000 each. However, the envoys were given only an allocated budget of $40,000 to achieve peace. Diplomatic talks to reach a reasonable sum for tribute or for the ransom of the captured sailors struggled to make any headway. The crews of Maria and Dauphin remained enslaved for over a decade, and soon were joined by crews of other ships captured by the Barbary States.
In 1795, Algeria came to an agreement that resulted in the release of 115 American sailors they held, at a cost of over $1 million. This amount totaled about one - sixth of the entire U.S. budget, and was demanded as tribute by the Barbary States to prevent further piracy. The continuing demand for tribute ultimately led to the formation of the United States Department of the Navy, founded in 1798 to prevent further attacks upon American shipping and to end the demands for extremely large tributes from the Barbary States.
Various letters and testimonies by captured sailors describe their captivity as a form of slavery, even though Barbary Coast imprisonment was different from that practiced by the U.S. and European powers of the time. Barbary Coast prisoners were able to obtain wealth and property, along with achieving status beyond that of a slave. One such example was James Leander Cathcart, who rose to the highest position a Christian slave could achieve in Algeria, becoming an adviser to the bey (governor). Even so, most captives were pressed into hard labor in the service of the Barbary pirates, and struggled under extremely poor conditions that exposed them to vermin and disease. As word of their treatment reached the U.S., through freed captives ' narratives and letters, Americans pushed for direct government action to stop the piracy against U.S. ships.
In March 1786, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams went to London to negotiate with Tripoli 's envoy, ambassador Sidi Haji Abdrahaman (or Sidi Haji Abdul Rahman Adja). When they enquired "concerning the ground of the pretensions to make war upon nations who had done them no injury '', the ambassador replied:
It was written in their Koran, that all nations which had not acknowledged the Prophet were sinners, whom it was the right and duty of the faithful to plunder and enslave; and that every mussulman who was slain in this warfare was sure to go to paradise. He said, also, that the man who was the first to board a vessel had one slave over and above his share, and that when they sprang to the deck of an enemy 's ship, every sailor held a dagger in each hand and a third in his mouth; which usually struck such terror into the foe that they cried out for quarter at once.
Jefferson reported the conversation to Secretary of Foreign Affairs John Jay, who submitted the ambassador 's comments and offer to Congress. Jefferson argued that paying tribute would encourage more attacks. Although John Adams agreed with Jefferson, he believed that circumstances forced the U.S. to pay tribute until an adequate navy could be built. The U.S. had just fought an exhausting war, which put the nation deep in debt. Federalist and Anti-Federalist forces argued over the needs of the country and the burden of taxation. Jefferson 's own Democratic - Republicans and anti-navalists believed that the future of the country lay in westward expansion, with Atlantic trade threatening to siphon money and energy away from the new nation, to be spent on wars in the Old World. The U.S. paid Algiers the ransom, and continued to pay up to $1 million per year over the next 15 years for the safe passage of American ships and the return of American hostages. A $1 million payment in ransom and tribute to the privateering states amounted to approximately 10 % of the U.S. government 's annual revenues in 1800.
Jefferson continued to argue for cessation of the tribute, with rising support from George Washington and others. With the recommissioning of the American Navy in 1794 and the resulting increased firepower on the seas, it became increasingly possible for America to refuse paying tribute, although by now the long - standing habit was hard to overturn.
Just before Jefferson 's inauguration in 1801, Congress passed naval legislation that, among other things, provided for six frigates that "' shall be officered and manned as the President of the United States may direct. '... In the event of a declaration of war on the United States by the Barbary powers, these ships were to ' protect our commerce and chastise their insolence -- by sinking, burning or destroying their ships and vessels wherever you shall find them. ' '' On Jefferson 's inauguration as president in 1801, Yusuf Karamanli, the Pasha (or Bashaw) of Tripoli, demanded $225,000 (equivalent to $3.31 million in 2017) from the new administration. (In 1800, federal revenues totaled a little over $10 million). Putting his long - held beliefs into practice, Jefferson refused the demand. Consequently, on 10 May 1801, the Pasha declared war on the U.S., not through any formal written documents but in the customary Barbary manner of cutting down the flagstaff in front of the U.S. Consulate. Algiers and Tunis did not follow their ally in Tripoli.
Before learning that Tripoli had declared war on the United States, Jefferson sent a small squadron, consisting of three frigates and one schooner, under the command of Commodore Richard Dale with gifts and letters to attempt to maintain peace with the Barbary powers. However, in the event that war had been declared, Dale was instructed "to protect American ships and citizens against potential aggression, '' but Jefferson "insisted that he was ' unauthorized by the constitution, without the sanction of Congress, to go beyond the line of defense. ' '' He told Congress: "I communicate (to you) all material information on this subject, that in the exercise of this important function confided by the constitution to the legislature exclusively their judgment may form itself on a knowledge and consideration of every circumstance of weight. '' Although Congress never voted on a formal declaration of war, they did authorize the President to instruct the commanders of armed American vessels to seize all vessels and goods of the Pasha of Tripoli "and also to cause to be done all such other acts of precaution or hostility as the state of war will justify. '' The American squadron joined a Swedish flotilla under Rudolf Cederström in blockading Tripoli, the Swedes having been at war with the Tripolitans since 1800.
On 31 May 1801, Commodore Edward Preble traveled to Messina, Sicily, to the court of King Ferdinand IV of the Kingdom of Naples. The kingdom was at war with Napoleon, but Ferdinand supplied the Americans with manpower, craftsmen, supplies, gunboats, mortar boats, and the ports of Messina, Syracuse and Palermo to be used as naval bases for launching operations against Tripoli, a port walled fortress city protected by 150 pieces of heavy artillery and manned by 25,000 soldiers, assisted by a fleet of 10 ten - gunned brigs, 2 eight - gun schooners, two large galleys, and 19 gunboats.
The schooner Enterprise (commanded by Lieutenant Andrew Sterret) defeated the 14 - gun Tripolitan corsair Tripoli after a one - sided battle on 1 August 1801.
In 1802, in response to Jefferson 's request for authority to deal with the pirates, Congress passed "An act for the protection of commerce and seamen of the United States against the Tripolitan cruisers '', authorizing the President to "... employ such of the armed vessels of the United States as may be judged requisite... for protecting effectually the commerce and seamen thereof on the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean and adjoining seas. '' "The statute authorized American ships to seize vessels belonging to the Bey of Tripoli, with the captured property distributed to those who brought the vessels into port. ''
The U.S Navy went unchallenged on the sea, but still the question remained undecided. Jefferson pressed the issue the following year, with an increase in military force and deployment of many of the navy 's best ships to the region throughout 1802. Argus, Chesapeake, Constellation, Constitution, Enterprise, Intrepid, Philadelphia and Syren all saw service during the war under the overall command of Preble. Throughout 1803, Preble set up and maintained a blockade of the Barbary ports and executed a campaign of raids and attacks against the cities ' fleets.
In October 1803, Tripoli 's fleet captured USS Philadelphia intact after the frigate ran aground on a reef while patrolling Tripoli harbor. Efforts by the Americans to float the ship while under fire from shore batteries and Tripolitan Naval units failed. The ship, her captain, William Bainbridge, and all officers and crew were taken ashore and held as hostages. Philadelphia was turned against the Americans and anchored in the harbor as a gun battery.
On the night of 16 February 1804, Lieutenant Stephen Decatur led a small detachment of U.S. Marines aboard the captured Tripolitan ketch rechristened USS Intrepid, thus deceiving the guards on Philadelphia to float close enough to board her. Decatur 's men stormed the ship and overpowered the Tripolitan sailors. With fire support from the American warships, the Marines set fire to Philadelphia, denying her use by the enemy.
Preble attacked Tripoli on 14 July 1804, in a series of inconclusive battles, including a courageous but unsuccessful attack attempting to use Intrepid under Captain Richard Somers as a fire ship, packed with explosives and sent to enter Tripoli harbor, where she would destroy herself and the enemy fleet. However, Intrepid was destroyed, possibly by enemy gunfire, before she achieved her goal, killing Somers and his entire crew.
The turning point in the war was the Battle of Derna (April -- May 1805). Ex-consul William Eaton, a former Army captain who used the title of "general '', and US Marine Corps 1st Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon led a force of eight U.S. Marines and five hundred mercenaries -- Greeks from Crete, Arabs, and Berbers on a march across the desert from Alexandria, Egypt, to capture the Tripolitan city of Derna. This was the first time the United States flag was raised in victory on foreign soil. The action is memorialized in a line of the Marines ' Hymn -- "the shores of Tripoli ''. The capturing of the city gave American negotiators leverage in securing the return of hostages and the end of the war.
Wearied of the blockade and raids, and now under threat of a continued advance on Tripoli proper and a scheme to restore his deposed older brother Hamet Karamanli as ruler, Yusuf Karamanli signed a treaty ending hostilities on 10 June 1805. Article 2 of the treaty reads:
The Bashaw of Tripoli shall deliver up to the American squadron now off Tripoli, all the Americans in his possession; and all the subjects of the Bashaw of Tripoli now in the power of the United States of America shall be delivered up to him; and as the number of Americans in possession of the Bashaw of Tripoli amounts to three hundred persons, more or less; and the number of Tripolino subjects in the power of the Americans to about, one hundred more or less; The Bashaw of Tripoli shall receive from the United States of America, the sum of sixty thousand dollars, as a payment for the difference between the prisoners herein mentioned.
In agreeing to pay a ransom of $60,000 for the American prisoners, the Jefferson administration drew a distinction between paying tribute and paying ransom. At the time, some argued that buying sailors out of slavery was a fair exchange to end the war. William Eaton, however, remained bitter for the rest of his life about the treaty, feeling that his efforts had been squandered by the American emissary from the U.S. Department of State, diplomat Tobias Lear. Eaton and others felt that the capture of Derna should have been used as a bargaining chip to obtain the release of all American prisoners without having to pay ransom. Furthermore, Eaton believed the honor of the United States had been compromised when it abandoned Hamet Karamanli after promising to restore him as leader of Tripoli. Eaton 's complaints generally went unheard, especially as attention turned to the strained international relations which would ultimately lead to the withdrawal of the U.S. Navy from the area in 1807 and to the War of 1812.
The First Barbary War was beneficial to the reputation of the United States ' military command and war mechanism, which had been up to that time relatively untested. The First Barbary War showed that America could execute a war far from home, and that American forces had the cohesion to fight together as Americans rather than separately as Georgians, New Yorkers, etc. The United States Navy and Marines became a permanent part of the American government and American history, and Decatur returned to the U.S. as its first post-revolutionary war hero.
However, the more immediate problem of Barbary piracy was not fully settled. By 1807, Algiers had gone back to taking American ships and seamen hostage. Distracted by the preludes to the War of 1812, the U.S. was unable to respond to the provocation until 1815, with the Second Barbary War, in which naval victories by Commodores William Bainbridge and Stephen Decatur led to treaties ending all tribute payments by the U.S.
The Tripoli Monument, the oldest military monument in the U.S., honors the American heroes of the First Barbary War: Master Commandant Richard Somers, Lieutenant James Caldwell, James Decatur (brother of Stephen Decatur), Henry Wadsworth, Joseph Israel and John Dorsey. Originally known as the Naval Monument, it was carved of Carrara marble in Italy in 1806 and brought to the U.S. on board Constitution ("Old Ironsides ''). From its original location in the Washington Navy Yard, it was moved to the west terrace of the national Capitol and finally, in 1860, to the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland.
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when did memphis state became university of memphis | University of Memphis - wikipedia
The University of Memphis, colloquially known as U of M, is an American public research university located in the Normal Station neighborhood of Memphis, Tennessee. Founded in 1912, the University has an enrollment of more than 21,000 students. The school has twenty - five Chairs of Excellence and five state - approved Centers of Excellence. Until 2017, the school was a flagship institution of The Tennessee Board of Regents system. In 2017, the six Universities that were part of the Tennessee Board of Regents system, including the University of Memphis, became locally governed, each with its own board.
The university maintains The Center for Earthquake Research and Information (CERI), The Cecil C. Humphreys School of Law, the former Lambuth University campus (now a branch campus of The University of Memphis), The Loewenberg College of Nursing, The School of Public Health, The College of Communication and Fine Arts, The FedEx Institute of Technology, The Advanced Distributed Learning Workforce Co-Lab, and The Institute of Egyptian Art and Archaeology.
A faculty of approximately 930 professors serves about 17,000 undergraduate and 4,000 graduate students.
The Daily Helmsman, the independent daily newspaper on the campus, in operation since 1925, remains a prominent student organization. In addition, many other student organizations and academic departments, such as the University of Memphis Institute for Egyptian Art and Archaeology, the Cecil C. Humphreys School of Law Moot Court Board, the University of Memphis Advertising Federation and the University of Memphis chapter of the Public Relations Student Society of America, play an active and involved role in the community, both nationally and internationally.
The University of Memphis attracts most of its undergraduate students from Memphis and West Tennessee, though many current undergraduate and graduate students have come from public and private schools across the southeastern United States as well as from all the other states and about 100 other nations.
Over its history, the University of Memphis has graduated many famous alumni, including U.S. Congressman Steve Cohen, actor and former U.S. Senator Fred D. Thompson, historian of the American South Joe Gray Taylor, and DeAngelo Williams, former All - American college football running back.
Among its most famous faculty members are Dr. Lorelei H. Corcoran, Professor of Egyptology; Dr. Peter J. Brand, Professor of Egyptology; Béla Bollobás, Jabie Hardin Chair Professor of Mathematics; and Dr. Donald R. Franceschetti, Professor of Physics.
The Division of Professional and Continuing Education at the University of Memphis provides non-credit instruction to people from all walks of life. Originally established in the 1970s, the non-credit programs include face - to - face short courses, customized training for businesses, and online courses.
The University of Memphis is associated with the Tennessee Board of Regents (TBR) system, consisting of 18 Board Members. However, as of May 2017, it is governed by an institutional Board of Trustees. Within this framework, the President of the University of Memphis is the day - to - day administrator of the university.
The University of Memphis today comprises a number of different colleges and schools:
The University of Memphis is host to several centers of advanced research:
The University of Memphis Foundation, founded in 1964, manages the university endowment and accepts, manages and disburses private support to the university.
In 1909, the Tennessee Legislature enacted the General Education Bill. This bill stated that three colleges be established, one within each grand division of the state and one additional school for African - American students. After much bidding and campaigning, the state had to choose between two sites to build the new college for West Tennessee: Jackson and Memphis. Memphis was chosen, one of the main reasons being the proximity of the rail line to the site proposed to build the new college for West Tennessee. This would allow professors and students to go home and visit their relatives. The other three schools established through the General Education Act evolved into East Tennessee State University (ETSU), Middle Tennessee State University (MTSU), and Tennessee State University (TSU).
Prior to the establishment of the West Tennessee Normal School pursuant to the General Education Bill, a number of higher education departments existed in Memphis under the banner of the University of Memphis. This earlier University of Memphis was formed in 1909 by adding to an already existing medical school departments of pharmacy, dentistry, and law.
On September 10, 1912, West Tennessee Normal School opened in Memphis; its first president was Seymour A. Mynders. By 1913 all departments of the earlier University of Memphis, except the law school, had been taken over by West Tennessee Normal School. After Mynders ' death in 1913, John Willard Brister was chosen to take his place. After Brister 's resignation in 1918, Andrew A. Kincannon became president. In 1924, Brister returned to his post as president of the school.
The name changed in 1925 to West Tennessee State Teachers College. In 1931, the campus ' first newspaper, The Tiger Rag, was established. In 1939, Richard C. Jones became president of WTSTC. In 1941, the name was changed to Memphis State College, when the college expanded its liberal arts curriculum. In 1943, Dr. Jennings B. Sanders succeeded Jones as president. Three years later, the first alumnus to become president, J. Millard (Jack) Smith, was appointed. In 1951 MSC awarded its first B.A. degrees. In 1957 the school received full University status and changed its name accordingly to Memphis State University.
In 1959, five years after Brown v. Board of Education the university admitted its first black students. Racial segregation was the norm throughout the South at the time. The Memphis State Eight, as they were known, were admitted to Memphis State University. Their presence on campus was the focus not only of intense media scrutiny, but severe criticism from much of the local public. Ostensibly for the black students ' safety and to maintain an air of calm on the campus, University administrators placed certain restrictions on where and when the black students could be on campus. They were to go only to their classes, not to any of the public places on campus, such as the cafeteria; and they were to leave the campus immediately after they had finished their last class. These limitations were lifted after the novelty of their presence on campus had subsided and the public 's focus on their presence there had lessened, and as more and more black students were admitted to the university. Today, black students make up more than one - third of the campus student body and they participate fully in all campus activities.
Cecil C. Humphreys became president of MSU, succeeding Smith, in 1960. In 1966, the school began awarding doctoral degrees. Humphreys resigned as MSU president to become the first chancellor of the newly formed State University and Community College System, later renamed the Tennessee Board of Regents. John Richardson was appointed interim president.
In 1973, Dr. Billy Mac Jones became president. Also that year, the Memphis State Tiger men 's basketball team reached the finals of the NCAA tournament, only to fall at the hands of a UCLA team led by future NBA superstar and Hall of Famer Bill Walton in The NCAA Basketball Championship Game in St. Louis, Missouri. In 1980, Thomas Carpenter became president of MSU; he was succeeded by V. Lane Rawlins in 1991. On July 1, 1994, Memphis State University changed its name again, to the University of Memphis.
V. Lane Rawlins served from 1991 to 2000; Dr. Ralph Faudree filled in as interim president for one year after V. Lane Rawlins ' departure. In 2001, The U of M installed its first female president, Shirley Raines, who retired in the summer of 2013. After a yearlong search, Dr. M. David Rudd was confirmed as the 12th president on May 1, 2014.
The University of Memphis campus is located approximately 5 miles (8.0 km) east of downtown in the University District neighborhood of east Memphis. It has an area of 1,160 acres (4.7 km), although this figure does not include the law school in the former United States federal customshouse in downtown Memphis, which opened in January 2010. The historical core of campus encompasses approximately 30 acres (120,000 m).
Campus planners have significantly increased the amount of green space and the number of walkways over the past several years, while maintaining a focus on the original historic architecture of the campus.
Surrounding the university 's main campus are several historic neighborhoods to the north and east, as well as the University District neighborhood and the commercial Highland Strip to the west. Many University of Memphis college students also reside in housing south of the main campus.
The University of Memphis campus is set out in a rectilinear format, planned as a geometric design similar to the Jeffersonian style of the University of Virginia.
Despite gradual expansion of the campus to the West and South, the campus is fairly compact and retains a park - like, tree - lined setting. The farthest distance on campus takes about twenty - five minutes to walk. According to the most recent master plan. The University of Memphis is projected to expand and redevelop additional areas one block west of the main campus ' current western boundary of Patterson St., making Highland Avenue the "de facto '' entrance to the university.
The center of the main campus comprises buildings that made up the original campus. The first college buildings, including Scates Hall, Manning Hall, and The Administration Building, were erected in the early 20th century. This section stretches from Deloach Ave. south to the end of the main campus at Walker Ave., with most buildings surrounding The Alumni Mall and Student Plaza. The majority of the buildings of the arts and humanities departments, as well as those of the Physics and Astronomy departments of the College of Arts and Science, are located in the original areas of campus.
Flanking the original area of campus to the east are the areas of major research for The Life Sciences and Engineering departments, including J.R. Smith Hall, The Life Sciences Building and The Herff College of Engineering Complex, as well as The Education Department, residing in E.C. Ball Hall, and the Art Museum of the University of Memphis, located in the Communication and Fine Arts building. The Ned R. McWherter Library, a state - of - the art library facility and one of the premier research libraries of the Mid-South United States, takes up the eastern part of the campus adjacent to Dunavant Plaza and Emeriti Grove.
The northwestern area of the main campus includes The Fogelman College of Business and Economics, The Fogelman Executive Center (a major conference center for regional executives visiting The University of Memphis), and The FedEx Institute of Technology, a major research contributor in the areas of Supply Chain Management, Nanotechnology, Robotics and Intelligent Systems. Originally, in the north end of the campus, Norriswood Ave. was the northern boundary and was an actual street that ran through the campus. The campus expanded into this area in the late 1960s & early 1970s.
The western edge and southwest corner include Johnson Hall (comprising the Geography and Geology Departments), Patterson Hall (housing the English department), Wilder Tower, Greek Row, and the bulk of The University of Memphis residence halls. As The University of Memphis presses ahead with its planned expansion, many more facilities, pedestrian access, and green space will also be created with the renovation and development of the currently residential block east of Patterson St. in the University District neighborhood.
On January 29, 2013, Governor Bill Haslam announced a $44.6 million state budget pledge for the Community Health Building, which will be the new home of The Loewenberg School of Nursing and The College of Communication Sciences and Disorders. The University of Memphis was required to raise $15 million from private funds to match the state funds.
In 2017, the University announced plans for a new Veterans Care Center on campus. Located in the Psychological Services Center on campus, the Veterans Care Center "will address the mental health needs of veterans, regardless of era, gender, discharge status or service connection. ''
Directly south of the main campus along the corner of Park Avenue and Getwell Road sits the Park Avenue Campus. The Park Avenue Campus is home not only to various intramural athletics programs and facilities, but also to various research facilities, classrooms and the Speech and Audiology Pathology Center. The Defense Contract Audit Agency also operates its main training facility on the Park Avenue Campus.
Future plans include a regulation indoor soccer stadium and track facility, capable of hosting large - scale NCAA Division I track - and - field meets.
The graduate and family housing units are located at Park Avenue, 1 mile (1.6 km) from the main university campus. The complex has 150 housing units. Residents are zoned to Memphis City Schools. The zoned schools are Sherwood Elementary School, Colonial Middle School, and White Station High School.
In 2010, the University of Memphis, School of Law was moved permanently from the main campus to a newly renovated downtown campus. The new University of Memphis, School of Law campus sits adjacent to downtown courts and the financial and administrative center of the city.
In 2011, the University of Memphis began offering undergraduate and graduate programs on the former Lambuth University campus in Jackson, Tennessee, located approximately 80 miles (130 km) east of Memphis. Now known as the University of Memphis Lambuth Campus, the historic campus includes classroom buildings, dormitories, library, planetarium, and athletic facilities. As of the fall of 2016, official enrollment had risen to 934 students.
The Edward J. Meeman Biological Station of the University of Memphis conducts research in ecology, environmental biology, and natural history. It is named for Edward J. Meeman, an editor of the former Memphis Press - Scimitar newspaper who later established a foundation to fund environmental studies.
In 2007, President Shirley Raines signed the American College and University President 's Climate Commitment (ACUPCC), which requires that the university become carbon neutral.
The Green Campus Initiative works to develop and implement a strategic plan to achieve the goals of the APUPCC. Successful events and projects include the May 2009 2nd Annual E-Recycling Day, resulting in 155 tons of electronic items collected, and the Tiger Initiative for Gardening in Urban Settings (TIGUrS), a fruit and vegetable gardening initiative across campus.
In April 2008, the student - run Environmental Action Club ran a Green Power Campaign to promote a student referendum to add a "Green Fee '' to tuition payments to fund clean, renewable energy and other campus sustainability projects. The referendum passed with a 69 % student approval rate. The university is now purchasing renewable energy through the TVA 's Green Power Switch program and offsetting 10 % of current energy use. It is now the 2nd largest green power purchaser in the entire TVA distribution region.
In February 2009, the TERRA (Technologically and Environmentally Responsive Residential Architecture) sustainable design demonstration house was completed. Designed by the Department of Architecture, the LEED Platinum TERRA house serves as a studio for which architecture and design students to design "green '' housing within urban areas, as well as serve as a demonstration house open for tours and serving as an educational tool for the community.
Memphis received a grade of "C '' on the 2009 Campus Sustainability Report Card published by the Sustainable Endowments Institute. Only 34 schools earned a higher grade.
The Daily Helmsman is the student newspaper of the University of Memphis. The editorially independent student newspaper of the university publishes 5,500 copies a day, four days a week, and employs a paid staff of more than 30, which includes an editorial team of six, more than 20 staff writers, photographers, copy editors, and other staff members during the Fall and Spring semesters.
The publication is part of a tradition which began in 1931 as The Tiger Rag, a protest newspaper. Since that time, the newspaper has been continuously published by University of Memphis students. Even during World War II when paper and other resources were scarce, the newspaper published as a newsletter posted on bulletin boards around campus.
The name of the newspaper was changed to The Helmsman in 1972, and became The Daily Helmsman in 1981, when the newspaper began publishing four days a week.
The Helmsman has won many honors over the years for reporting, photography and design, including awards given by the William Randolph Hearst Foundation, Columbia University and the Southeastern Journalism Conference. Helmsman alumni have gone on to jobs at many prestigious news organizations, such as The New York Times, Rolling Stone magazine, and Southern Living magazine, among others. In 2012, The Helmsman and then - Editor - in - Chief Chelsea Boozer were awarded the College Press Freedom Award for their efforts fighting "a retaliatory budget cut while enduring a campaign of harassment by campus police. '' The award is given annually by the Student Press Law Center and the Associated Collegiate Press. Boozer also won a national Investigative Reporters and Editors award for coverage of how student activity fees are spent, including how the Student Government Association writes its senior officers free tuition, parking and stipends out of the money collected from the student body.
Numerous religious centers are located on the campus, including the Wesley Foundation (a United Methodist student center), the Baptist Student Center, the University Catholic Center and Catholic Student Center, Ukirk (a PCUSA campus ministry) Barth House Episcopal Student Center, Reformed University Fellowship, the Soma Christian Student Center (a Church of Christ - supported center), and Memphis Hillel. Numerous other religious clubs of various faiths also exist on campus, which meet in various locations.
The University of Memphis has accumulated numerous traditions over its long history as the flagship public research university within the Tennessee Board of Regents system.
The Mighty Sound of the South Band is the university 's band. The band performs at Memphis Tigers football games as a marching band and at Tigers basketball games as a pep band. As one of the oldest institutions at the university, the Band partakes in many of the game day traditions. The MSS performs more than any other student ensemble on campus, and for approximately 350,000 fans each fall. The MSS is featured at nearly every campus - wide event, ranging from Freshman Convocation to the Homecoming Parade and Pep Rally. The band has been featured on the nationally syndicated "Mike & Mandy '' Radio Show, and is a star attraction at the Bandmaster 's Championship, a high school marching band contest administered by The University of Memphis Band Alumni Chapter. Members of the MSS represent all academic disciplines across campus, and historically has been open to all students via audition.
For over 30 years, the sideline mascot for The University of Memphis has been a live Bengal tiger named TOM. During this time, the university has hosted three successive tigers, known respectively as TOM I, TOM II, and TOM III. The university also has a costumed tiger mascot known as Pouncer.
TOM III, the current Tiger mascot, attends all Tiger football home games and other University events. TOM III travels in a climate - controlled trailer with a police escort. TOM III is housed and cared for by the Highland Hundred Tiger Guard, an alumni booster organization in a $300,000 facility. TOM II matured, eventually weighing more than 500 pounds (230 kg). The University of Memphis is one of only two universities in America with a live tiger mascot (the other being LSU in Baton Rouge). After being diagnosed with mouth cancer, TOM II was euthanized on October 15, 2008, at the age of 17. The team of veterinarians who oversaw TOM II decided this was necessary to ensure he did not suffer due to his illness.
The Highland Hundred football booster group found a replacement for the mascot in the tiger cub TOM III.
The university currently has fifty tiger statues located on campus and another fifty located around the Memphis area. The Alumni Association placed the life - sized tigers around the city in honor of the University 's Centennial in January 2012.
When the University of Memphis first fielded a football team in the fall of 1912, no one had selected a nickname for the squad. Early references to the football team tabbed them only as the Blue and Gray Warriors.
After the final game of the 1914 season, there was a student parade. During this event, several university students shouted, "We fight like Tigers! '' The nickname was born. As time passed, the nickname "Tigers '' was increasingly used, particularly in campus publications, but did not catch on with the newspapers downtown. They continued to use "the Blue and Gray '' when referring to the university.
Under Coach Lester Barnard in 1922, Memphis 's football team gave a ring of truth to that old student yell about Tigers. The team adopted a motto -- "Every Man a Tiger '' -- and went on to score 174 points while allowing its opponents just 29 points. The Tiger nickname continued with students and alumni, eventually being adopted as the official nickname for the University of Memphis in 1939.
Notable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement and convocation, and athletic games is "Go! Tigers! Go! '', the University of Memphis Tigers ' fight song. The fight song was written by Tom Ferguson, former Director of Bands at Memphis State University during the 1960s.
The Governor 's School for International Studies, abbreviated GSIS, is an academic summer program for gifted junior and senior high school students in Tennessee. It is a selective program located at the University of Memphis in which students study two Political Science, a foreign language, and an elective of their choice from the International Studies curriculum. The students, upon finishing the four - week term, gain six hours of college credit which may be transferred to any Tennessee Board of Regents School.
UofM also operates the Chucalissa Indian Village, an American Indian heritage site and museum. Officially known as the T.O. Fuller State Park, the location includes a museum and important archeological sites.
Media related to University of Memphis at Wikimedia Commons
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where is central city in the flash cw | Central City (DC comics) - wikipedia
Central City is a fictional American city appearing in comic books published by DC Comics. It is the home of the Silver Age version of the Flash (Barry Allen), and first appeared in Showcase # 4 in September -- October 1956.
Central City 's location has been vaguely defined over the years, similar to DC 's other fictional cities such as Gotham City and Metropolis. In the 1970s, Central City was stated as being located in Ohio, where the real - world city of Athens, Ohio, would be (as shown in Flash # 228 in 1974). Bob Rozakis ' Ask the Answer Man column also stated that Central City was located in Ohio in 1987 's Flash (volume 2) # 2, published just after the reality - altering storyline Crisis on Infinite Earths.
More recently, Central City has most often been located in the state of Kansas. Maps in Young Justice place Central City in Missouri across from Keystone City, Kansas. Additionally, the 2014 television series The Flash also places Central City in Missouri (although opening scenes show Portland, Oregon), most explicitly in a letter sent to S.T.A.R. Labs in the episode "The Man in the Yellow Suit. ''
In the episode "Bloodlines '' of the Young Justice cartoon, (a facsimile of) the St. Louis Gateway Arch can be seen in the background of scenes depicting Central City
Central City 's population has been depicted as dynamic over the years. In Flash v2, # 2 (1987) it was cited as being 290,000. In 1990, the Atlas of the DC Universe listed it as 750,000. As of Flash Secret Files and Origins 2010, the population stands as 1,395,600. In Flash v. 4 # 1, Central City Police Captain Darryl Frye is quoted as describing the population as having "tripled '' during Barry Allen 's years - long absence.
From 1956 until approximately 1985 (in publishing years), Central City was defended by the Flash (police scientist Barry Allen) against a myriad of foes, including Gorilla Grodd, Captain Cold, the Weather Wizard, the Mirror Master, Eobard Thawne (The "Reverse - Flash '').
After Barry 's death in Crisis on Infinite Earth, most of his foes, as well as Barry 's successor (and former sidekick) Wally West moved to Keystone City, which thanks to the reality - altering effects of Crisis on Infinite Earth, was now Central City 's twin city (pre-Crisis on Infinite Earth, Keystone City was located on the parallel Earth known as Earth - Two, in approximately the same space as Central City). Subsequently, Central City was treated as a relatively quiet venue that was not frequently depicted in DC comic book stories, but this situation has changed as a result of Barry Allen 's recent return as the Flash.
Not long after Allen 's death, in Crisis on Infinite Earths # 4 (August 1987), Central City was depicted as experiencing a wave of racial violence, caused or at least exacerbated by politician and white supremacist W. James Heller; in his costumed identity of supposed super-hero William Hell, Heller captured only non-white criminals (creating the false impression that non-whites were primarily responsible for Central City 's criminal activity) and recruited white criminals for his "Aryan Empire '' organization. When Heller attempted to incite further violence at a political rally, Suicide Squad member Deadshot impersonated William Hell to oppose Heller 's racist rhetoric, turning Heller 's own charade against him, since the costumed "hero '' proved more popular with the public than any politician. Heller quickly donned his costume to, as William Hell, denounce Deadshot / Hell as an impostor, and in the ensuing conflict, William Hell (Heller) was wounded and his injuries blamed on Heller 's followers, partially defusing Central City 's racial strife.
The robotic superhero and former Teen Titans member Cyborg has moved to Central City; part of this is hoping to establish himself as the town 's resident hero.
During the years in which the second Flash series was written by Cary Bates, Central City was apparently divided into Upper and Lower East and West Sides, as well as a "downtown '' region.
Central City is the home of the Flash Museum, a museum dedicated to the exploits and memorabilia of the city 's hero.
Central City 's main newspaper is the Central City Citizen (previously the Central City Picture - News), for which Barry 's wife Iris West Allen is currently once again a reporter after an absence of several years.
As seen in Flash Vol. 2 # 177, it has developed a thriving theatre district, second only to New York City.
Later, much of downtown was demolished by the Rogues, acting under the orders of the other - dimensional Crime Syndicate. Due to a miscommunication and the Rogues ' own decency, only property was damaged, they avoided taking lives.
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outline what qualities were needed to succeed as an early colonist in virginia | History of Virginia - wikipedia
The History of Virginia begins with documentation by the first Spanish explorers to reach the area in the 1500s, when it was occupied chiefly by Algonquian, Iroquoian, and Siouan peoples. After a failed English attempt to settle Virginia in the 1580s by Walter Raleigh, permanent English settlement began in Virginia with Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. The Virginia Company colony was looking for gold but failed and the colonists could barely feed themselves. The famine during the harsh winter of 1609 forced the colonists to eat leather from their clothes and boots and resort to cannibalism. The colony nearly failed until tobacco emerged as a profitable export. It was grown on plantations, using primarily indentured servants for the intensive hand labor involved. After 1662, the colony turned black slavery into a hereditary racial caste. By 1750, the primary cultivators of the cash crop were West African slaves. While the plantations thrived because of the high demand for tobacco, most white settlers raised their families on subsistence farms. Warfare with the Virginia Indian nations had been a factor in the 17th century; after 1700 there was continued conflict with natives east of the Alleghenies, especially in the French and Indian War (1754 - 1763), when the tribes were allied with the French. The westernmost counties including Wise and Washington only became safe with the death of Bob Benge in 1794.
The Virginia Colony became the wealthiest and most populated British colony in North America, with an elected General Assembly. The colony was dominated by rich planters who were also in control of the established Anglican Church. Baptist and Methodist preachers brought the Great Awakening, welcoming black members and leading to many evangelical and racially integrated churches. Virginia planters had a major role in gaining independence and in the development of democratic - republican ideals of the United States. They were important in the Declaration of Independence, writing the Constitutional Convention (and preserving protection for the slave trade), and establishing the Bill of Rights. The state of Kentucky separated from Virginia in 1792. Four of the first five presidents were Virginians: George Washington, the "Father of his country ''; and after 1800, "The Virginia Dynasty '' of presidents for 24 years: Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe.
During the first half of the 19th century, tobacco prices declined and tobacco lands lost much of their fertility. Planters adopted mixed farming, with an emphasis on wheat and livestock, which required less labor. The Constitutions of 1830 and 1850 expanded suffrage but did not equalize white male apportionment statewide. The population grew slowly from 700,000 in 1790, to 1 million in 1830, to 1.2 million in 1860. Virginia was the largest state joining the Confederate States of America in 1861. It became the major theater of war in the American Civil War. Unionists in western Virginia created the separate state of West Virginia. Virginia 's economy was devastated in the war and disrupted in Reconstruction, when it was administered as Military District Number One. The first signs of recovery were seen in tobacco cultivation and the related cigarette industry, followed by coal mining and increasing industrialization. In 1883 conservative white Democrats regained power in the state government, ending Reconstruction and implementing Jim Crow laws. The 1902 Constitution limited the number of white voters below 19th - century levels and effectively disfranchised blacks until federal civil rights legislation of the mid-1960s.
From the 1920s to the 1960s, the state was dominated by the Byrd Organization, with dominance by rural counties aligned in a Democratic party machine, but their hold was broken over their failed Massive Resistance to school integration. After World War II, the state 's economy thrived, with a new industrial and urban base. A statewide community college system was developed. The first U.S. African - American governor since Reconstruction was Virginia 's Douglas Wilder in 1990. Since the late 20th century, the contemporary economy has become more diversified in high - tech industries and defense - related businesses. Virginia 's changing demography makes for closely divided voting in national elections but it is still generally conservative in state politics.
For thousands of years before the arrival of the English, various societies of indigenous peoples inhabited the portion of the New World later designated by the English as "Virginia ''. Archaeological and historical research by anthropologist Helen C. Rountree and others has established 3,000 years of settlement in much of the Tidewater. Even so, a historical marker dedicated in 2015 states that recent archaeological work at Pocahontas Island has revealed prehistoric habitation dating to about 6500 BCE.
As of the 16th Century, what is now the state of Virginia was occupied by three main culture groups -- the Iroquoian, the Eastern Siouan & the Algonquian. The tip of the Delmarva Peninsula south of the Indian River was controlled by the Algonquian Nanticoke. Meanwhile, the Tidewater region along the Chesapeake Bay coastline appears to have been controlled by the Algonquian Piscataway (who lived around the Potomac River), the Powhatan & Chowanoke, or Roanoke (who lived between the James River & Neuse River.). Inland of them were two Iroquoian tribes known as the Nottoway, or Managog, & the Meherrin. The rest of Virginia was almost entirely Eastern Sioux, who held lands from the Bluestone River between West Virginia & Kentucky, all the way around through southwest Virginia and up to the Maryland border (the region of the Shenandoah River Valley was controlled by a different people). Also, the lands of Muskogean people connected to the Mississippian Culture may have just barely crossed over into the state into it 's southwestern corner. Later, these tribes merged to form the Yuchi.
Rountree has noted that "empire '' more accurately describes the political structure of the Powhatan. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, a chief named Wahunsunacock created this powerful empire by conquering or affiliating with approximately thirty tribes whose territories covered much of what is now eastern Virginia. Known as the Powhatan, or paramount chief, he called this area Tenakomakah ("densely inhabited Land ''). The empire was advantageous to some tribes, who were periodically threatened by other groups, such as the Monacan. The Powhatan fared the worst of all Virginia tribes, being pushed south into the Carolinas, being forcibly dissolved by English law, and forcing them to accept English intervention in selecting their chiefs. They disappeared as a distinct people by the Revolutionary War, but their descendants reformed in the 20th & 21st centuries.
One group of Powhatan, the Shawnee, broke away and moved northwest into territory that was being abandoned by the Iroquoian Susquehannock Recorded in the states of Maryland & Pennsylvania throughout the 17th century, they eventually made their way into the Ohio River Valley, where they are believed to have merged with a variety of other native peoples to form the powerful confederacy that controlled the area that is now West Virginia until the Shawnee Wars (1811 - 1813).
The Piscataway were pushed north on the Potomac River early in their history, coming to be cut off from the rest of their people. While some stayed, others chose to migrate west. Their movements are generally unrecorded in the historical record, but they reappear at Fort Detroit in modern day Michigan by the end of the 18th century. These Piscataways are said to have moved to Canada & probably merged with the Mississaugas, who had broken away from the Anishinaabeg & migrated southeast into that same region. Despite that, many Piscataway stayed in Virginia & Maryland until the modern day. Other members of the Piscataway also merged with the Nanticoke.
The Nanticoke seem to have been largely confined to Indian Towns, but were later relocated to New York in 1778. Afterwards, they dissolved, with groups joining the Iroquois & Lenape.
The Chowanoke were moved to reservation lands by the English in 1677, where they remained until the 19th century. By 1821, they had merged with other tribes and were generally dissolved, however the descendants of these peoples reformed in the 21st century and re-acquired much of their old reservation in 2014...
Many of the Siouan peoples of the state seem to have originally been a collection of smaller tribes with uncertain affiliation. Names recorded throughout the 17th century were the Monahassanough, Rassawek, Mowhemencho, Monassukapanough, Massinacack, Akenatsi, Mahoc, Nuntaneuck, Nutaly, Nahyssan, Sapon, Monakin, Toteros, Keyauwees, Shakori, Eno, Sissipahaw, Monetons & Mohetons living & migrating throughout what is now West Virginia, Virginia, North Carolina & South Carolina. It 's difficult to say how many of these names identify the same tribe (s) or how they were all related, but all were said to have spoken, more or less, the same language. John Smith was the first to label them collectively as the Monaghans, although they later came to be collectively called the Sappony or the Tutelo. They were also commonly referred to as the Eastern Blackfoot, which explains why some Saponi today identify as the Siouan - Blackfoot people.
Altogether, the Saponi were known as a major enemy to the Iroquoian Susquehannocks to the north, with whom they were in constant warfare. We also know they were involved in wars between the English & the Susquehannocks, (In which they sided with the English) the Yamasee War between the Yuchi & Yamasee tribes, & most likely dealt with major conflicts with the Tuscarora, the Westo & the Iroquois. By 1700, the Iroquois had claimed much of their tribal lands & shortly thereafter sold much of it to the English settlers. The Saponi, who had been driven further south, attempted to return but were unable to do so. In the 18th century, the Governor at the time gave them reservation land & opened Fort Christanna nearby. This fort offered economic & educational aid to the locals, but after the fort closed in 1718, the Saponi dispersed. A small group at this time migrated to New York and merged with the Iroquois Confederacy, although most of them remained in the vicinity of Virginia & West Virginia until the present. Before that point, many of the other Siouan peoples of Virginia were also noted to have merged with the Catawba & Yamasee tribes.
While mainly noted in Virginia, it appears that the Tuscarora migrated into the region from the Delmarva Peninsula early in the 17th century. John Smith noted them on an early map as the Kuskarawocks. (They may have also absorbed the Tockwoghs, who also appear on the map & were most likely Iroquoian.) After an extended war with the English, the Tuscarora began leaving for New York & began merging with the Iroquois in groups around 1720, continuing approximately until the Iroquois were banished to Canada following the American Revolution. If any remained, they probably merged with either the Meherrin or Nottoway.
The Meherrin aided the Tuscarora in that war, but did not follow them north. In 1717, the English gave them a reservation just south of the North Carolina border. The North Carolina government contested their land rights and tried to take them away due to a surveyor 's error that caused both Native & English settlers to claim parts of the reservation. However, they managed to, more or less, stay put well into the modern day. The Nottoway also managed to largely stay in the vicinity of Virginia until the modern day without much conflict or loss of heritage.
In the late 16th century, following the original events of the Beaver Wars in northeast Ohio and western Pennsylvania, the English pushed the Iroquois to conquer lands further west. This led to a major push down the Ohio River. (Which may have been aided by another Iroquoian tribe known as the Guyandotte (Also Tiontatacaga, or Little Mingo) who moved south in West Virginia, across from the southern reaches of this conquered territory.) For whatever reason, they also began conquering south, through what is now Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Maryland & Virginia. This eventually led them to taking land that had belonged to the Tutelo & Saponi. In the end, the French, who also claimed much of the land and saw this as a threat by the English, fought back and pushed the Iroquois back out of the Ohio River Valley, making peace with them in 1701. Unfortunately, the Iroquois were played by the English, who disrespected their land claims and, eventually, pushed them to sell much of their western & southern holdings back to them.
Close to the end of the 17th century, an Iroquoian group known as the Westo invaded Virginia. While many theories abounded as to their origins, they appear to have been the last of the Eries & Chonnontons who invaded Ohio at the start of the Beaver Wars. The Westo were destroyed by a coalition led by the Shawnee after conquering their way into the Carolinas. This may have been part of an effort by the Shawnees to halt Iroquoian expansion, as they had taken back a great deal of land in what is now West Virginia which had been conquered by them. Despite the fact that the Westo & Iroquois were not allies, the Shawnee most likely feared that an alliance which might have threatened them could have developed.
Generally, many tribes of Virginia who survived the 17th century began to fragment. A large variety of unknown names of native peoples who appear in Northern West Virginia & southwest Pennsylvania around the turn of the 18th century. It 's still largely unclear how they influenced the native history of the region. They are collectively referred to as the Kanawha, or Canaragay, peoples & may have included such groups as the Conoys, Ganawese, Ouabano, Tomahittans, Shattaras & Onassontke. Given their location, along the Kanawha River, they may have merged with the Shawnee or Guyandotte tribes, who entered the region later. A map from a French mapmaker of the period seems to believe that the Onassontke made it to Ohio before being destroyed. The Ouabano are also seen as being descended from the Mohicans of New York The Conoy were Piscataway.
The Yuchi were pushed all the way across Appalachia during the Yamasee War in 1715. Afterward, they became close allies with the Cherokee & the Chisca. Later, they would become part of the Creek Confederacy who conquered much of the American south, becoming the largest Native American nation ever recorded in what is now the United States. Later, the Creek fractured into the Muscogee & Seminole, with the Cherokee (The only non-Muskogean tribe in the Confederacy) returning to what they had been before. The Yuchi are still part of the Muscogee tribe.
After their discovery of the New World in the 15th century, European states began trying to establish New World colonies. England, the Dutch Republic, France, Portugal, and Spain were the most active.
In 1540, a party led by two Spaniards, Juan de Villalobos and Francisco de Silvera, sent by Hernando de Soto, entered what is now Lee County in search of gold. In the spring of 1567, Hernando Moyano de Morales, a sergeant of Spanish explorer Juan Pardo, led a group of soldiers northward from Fort San Juan in Joara, a native town in what is now western North Carolina, to attack and destroy the Chisca village of Maniatique near present - day Saltville. The attack near Saltville was the first recorded battle in Virginia history.
Another Spanish party, captained by Antonio Velázquez in the caravel Santa Catalina, explored to the lower Chesapeake Bay region of Virginia in mid-1561 under the orders of Ángel de Villafañe. During this voyage, two Kiskiack or Paspahegh youths, including Don Luis were taken back to Spain. In 1566, an expedition sent from Spanish Florida by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés reached the Delmarva Peninsula. The expedition consisted of two Dominican friars, thirty soldiers and Don Luis, in a failed effort to set up a Spanish colony in the Chesapeake, believing it to be an opening to the fabled Northwest Passage.
In 1570, Spanish Jesuits established the Ajacán Mission on the lower peninsula. However, in 1571 it was destroyed by Don Luis and a party of his indigenous allies. In August 1572, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés arrived from St. Augustine with thirty soldiers and sailors to take revenge for the massacre of the Jesuits, and hanged approximately 20 natives. In 1573, the governor of Spanish Florida, Pedro Menéndez de Márquez, conducted further exploration of the Chesapeake. In the 1580s, captain Vicente González led several voyages into the Chesapeake in search of English settlements in the area. In 1609, Spanish Florida governor Pedro de Ibarra sent Francisco Fernández de Écija from St. Augustine to survey the activities of the Jamestown colonists, yet Spain never attempted a colony after the failure of the Ajacán Mission.
The Roanoke Colony was the first English colony in the New World. It was founded at Roanoke Island in what was then Virginia, now part of Dare County, North Carolina. Between 1584 and 1587, there were two major groups of settlers sponsored by Sir Walter Raleigh who attempted to establish a permanent settlement at Roanoke Island, and each failed. The final group disappeared completely after supplies from England were delayed three years by a war with Spain. Because they disappeared, they were called "The Lost Colony. ''
The name Virginia came from information gathered by the Raleigh - sponsored English explorations along what is now the North Carolina coast. Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe reported that a regional "king '' named Wingina ruled a land of Wingandacoa. Queen Elizabeth modified the name to "Virginia '', perhaps in part noting her status as the "Virgin Queen. '' Though the word is latinate, it stands as the oldest English language place - name in the United States.
On the second voyage, Raleigh discovered that, while the chief of the Secotans was indeed called Wingina, the expression wingandacoa, heard by the English upon arrival, actually meant "You wear good clothes '' in Carolina Algonquian, and was not the native name of the country, as previously misunderstood.
After the death of Queen Elizabeth I, in 1603 King James I assumed the throne of England. After years of war, England was strapped for funds, so he granted responsibility for England 's New World colonization to the Virginia Company, which became incorporated as a joint stock company by a proprietary charter drawn up in 1606. There were two competing branches of the Virginia Company and each hoped to establish a colony in Virginia in order to exploit gold (which the region did not actually have), to establish a base of support for English privateering against Spanish ships, and to spread Protestantism to the New World in competition with Spain 's spread of Catholicism. Within the Virginia Company, the Plymouth Company branch was assigned a northern portion of the area known as Virginia, and the London Company area to the south.
In December 1606, the London Company dispatched a group of 104 colonists in three ships: the Susan Constant, Godspeed, and Discovery, under the command of Captain Christopher Newport. After a long, rough voyage of 144 days, the colonists finally arrived in Virginia on April 26, 1607 at the entrance to the Chesapeake Bay. At Cape Henry, they went ashore, erected a cross, and did a small amount of exploring, an event which came to be called the "First Landing. ''
Under orders from London to seek a more inland location safe from Spanish raids, they explored the Hampton Roads area and sailed up the newly christened James River to the Fall Line at what would later become the cities of Richmond and Manchester.
After weeks of exploration, the colonists selected a location and founded Jamestown on May 14, 1607. It was named in honor of King James I (as was the river). However, while the location at Jamestown Island was favorable for defense against foreign ships, the low and marshy terrain was harsh and inhospitable for a settlement. It lacked drinking water, access to game for hunting, or much space for farming. While it seemed favorable that it was not inhabited by the Native Americans, within a short time, the colonists were attacked by members of the local Paspahegh tribe.
The colonists arrived ill - prepared to become self - sufficient. They had planned on trading with the Native Americans for food, were dependent upon periodic supplies from England, and had planned to spend some of their time seeking gold. Leaving the Discovery behind for their use, Captain Newport returned to England with the Susan Constant and the Godspeed, and came back twice during 1608 with the First Supply and Second Supply missions. Trading and relations with the Native Americans was tenuous at best, and many of the colonists died from disease, starvation, and conflicts with the natives. After several failed leaders, Captain John Smith took charge of the settlement, and many credit him with sustaining the colony during its first years, as he had some success in trading for food and leading the discouraged colonists.
After Smith 's return to England in August 1609, there was a long delay in the scheduled arrival of supplies. During the winter of 1609 / 10 and continuing into the spring and early summer, no more ships arrived. The colonists faced what became known as the "starving time ''. When the new governor Sir Thomas Gates, finally arrived at Jamestown on May 23, 1610, along with other survivors of the wreck of the Sea Venture that resulted in Bermuda being added to the territory of Virginia, he discovered over 80 % of the 500 colonists had died; many of the survivors were sick.
Back in England, the Virginia Company was reorganized under its Second Charter, ratified on May 23, 1609, which gave most leadership authority of the colony to the governor, the newly appointed Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr. In June 1610, he arrived with 150 men and ample supplies. De La Warr began the First Anglo - Powhatan War, against the natives. Under his leadership, Samuel Argall kidnapped Pocahontas, daughter of the Powhatan chief, and held her at Henricus.
The economy of the Colony was another problem. Gold had never been found, and efforts to introduce profitable industries in the colony had all failed until John Rolfe introduced his two foreign types of tobacco: Orinoco and Sweet Scented. These produced a better crop than the local variety and with the first shipment to England in 1612, the customers enjoyed the flavor, thus making tobacco a cash crop that established Virginia 's economic viability.
The First Anglo - Powhatan War ended when Rolfe married Pocahontas in 1614.
George Yeardley took over as Governor of Virginia in 1619. He ended one - man rule and created a representative system of government with the General Assembly, the first elected legislative assembly in the New World.
Also in 1619, the Virginia Company sent 90 single women as potential wives for the male colonists to help populate the settlement. That same year the colony acquired a group of "twenty and odd '' Angolans, brought by two English privateers. They were probably the first Africans in the colony. They, along with many European indentured servants helped to expand the growing tobacco industry which was already the colony 's primary product. Although these black men were treated as indentured servants, this marked the beginning of America 's history of slavery. Major importation of enslaved Africans by European slave traders did not take place until much later in the century.
In some areas, individual rather than communal land ownership or leaseholds were established, providing families with motivation to increase production, improve standards of living, and gain wealth. Perhaps nowhere was this more progressive than at Sir Thomas Dale 's ill - fated Henricus, a westerly - lying development located along the south bank of the James River, where natives were also to be provided an education at the Colony 's first college.
About 6 miles (9.7 km) south of the falls at present - day Richmond, in Henrico Cittie, the Falling Creek Ironworks was established near the confluence of Falling Creek, using local ore deposits to make iron. It was the first in North America.
Virginians were intensely individualistic at this point, weakening the small new communities. According to Breen (1979) their horizon was limited by the present or near future. They believed that the environment could and should be forced to yield quick financial returns. Thus everyone was looking out for number one at the expense of the cooperative ventures. Farms were scattered and few villages or towns were formed. This extreme individualism led to the failure of the settlers to provide defense for themselves against the Indians, resulting in two massacres.
English settlers soon came into conflict with the natives. Despite some successful interaction, issues of ownership and control of land and other resources, and trust between the peoples, became areas of conflict. Virginia has drought conditions an average of every three years. The colonists did not understand that the natives were ill - prepared to feed them during hard times. In the years after 1612, the colonists cleared land to farm export tobacco, their crucial cash crop. As tobacco exhausted the soil, the settlers continually needed to clear more land for replacement. This reduced the wooded land which Native Americans depended on for hunting to supplement their food crops. As more colonists arrived, they wanted more land.
The tribes tried to fight the encroachment by the colonists. Major conflicts took place in the Indian massacre of 1622 and the Second Anglo - Powhatan war, both under the leadership of the late Chief Powhatan 's younger brother, Chief Opechancanough. By the mid-17th century, the Powhatan and allied tribes were in serious decline in population, due in large part to epidemics of newly introduced infectious diseases, such as smallpox and measles, to which they had no natural immunity. The European colonists had expanded territory so that they controlled virtually all the land east of the fall line on the James River. Fifty years earlier, this territory had been the empire of the mighty Powhatan Confederacy.
Surviving members of many tribes assimilated into the general population of the colony. Some retained small communities with more traditional identity and heritage. In the 21st century, the Pamunkey and Mattaponi are the only two tribes to maintain reservations originally assigned under the English. As of 2010, the state has recognized eleven Virginia Indian tribes. Others have renewed interest in seeking state and Federal recognition since the celebration of the 400th anniversary of Jamestown in 2007. State celebrations gave Native American tribes prominent formal roles to showcase their contributions to the state.
While the developments of 1619 and continued growth in the several following years were seen as favorable by the English, many aspects, especially the continued need for more land to grow tobacco, were the source of increasing concern to the Native Americans most affected, the Powhatan.
By this time, the remaining Powhatan Empire was led by Chief Opechancanough, chief of the Pamunkey, and brother of Chief Powhatan. He had earned a reputation as a fierce warrior under his brother 's chiefdom. Soon, he gave up on hopes of diplomacy, and resolved to eradicate the English colonists.
On March 22, 1622, the Powhatan killed about 400 colonists in the Indian Massacre of 1622. With coordinated attacks, they struck almost all the English settlements along the James River, on both shores, from Newport News Point on the east at Hampton Roads all the way west upriver to Falling Creek, a few miles above Henricus and John Rolfe 's plantation, Varina Farms.
At Jamestown, a warning by an Indian boy named Chanco to his employer, Richard Pace, helped reduce total deaths. Pace secured his plantation, and rowed across the river during the night to alert Jamestown, which allowed colonists some defensive preparation. They had no time to warn outposts, which suffered deaths and captives at almost every location. Several entire communities were essentially wiped out, including Henricus and Wolstenholme Towne at Martin 's Hundred. At the Falling Creek Ironworks, which had been seen as promising for the Colony, two women and three children were among the 27 killed, leaving only two colonists alive. The facilities were destroyed.
Despite the losses, two thirds of the colonists survived; after withdrawing to Jamestown, many returned to the outlying plantations, although some were abandoned. The English carried out reprisals against the Powhatan and there were skirmishes and attacks for about a year before the colonists and Powhatan struck a truce.
The colonists invited the chiefs and warriors to Jamestown, where they proposed a toast of liquor. Dr. John Potts and some of the Jamestown leadership had poisoned the natives ' share of the liquor, which killed about 200 men. Colonists killed another 50 Indians by hand.
The period between the coup of 1622 and another Powhatan attack on English colonists along the James River (see Jamestown) in 1644 marked a turning point in the relations between the Powhatan and the English. In the early period, each side believed it was operating from a position of power; by the Treaty of 1646, the colonists had taken the balance of power, and had established control between the York and Blackwater Rivers.
In 1624, the Virginia Company 's charter was revoked and the colony transferred to royal authority as a crown colony, but the elected representatives in Jamestown continued to exercise a fair amount of power. Under royal authority, the colony began to expand to the North and West with additional settlements.
In 1634, a new system of local government was created in the Virginia Colony by order of the King of England. Eight shires were designated, each with its own local officers; these shires were renamed as counties only a few years later.
The first significant attempts at exploring the Trans - Allegheny region occurred under the administration of Governor William Berkeley. Efforts to explore farther into Virginia were hampered in 1644 when about 500 colonists were killed in another Indian massacre led, once again, by Opechancanough. Berkeley is credited with efforts to develop others sources of income for the colony besides tobacco such as cultivation of mulberry trees for silkworms and other crops at his large Green Spring Plantation.
The colonists defined the 1644 coup as an "uprising ''. Chief Opechancanough expected the outcome would reflect what he considered the morally correct position: that the colonists were violating their pledges to the Powhatan. During the 1644 event, Chief Opechancanough was captured. While imprisoned, he was murdered by one of his guards. After the death of Opechancanough, and following the repeated colonial attacks in 1644 and 1645, the remaining Powhatan tribes had little alternative but to accede to the demands of the settlers.
Most Virginia colonists were loyal to the crown (Charles I) during the English Civil War, but in 1652, Oliver Cromwell sent a force to remove and replace Gov. Berkeley with Governor Richard Bennett, who was loyal to the Commonwealth of England. This governor was a moderate Puritan who allowed the local legislature to exercise most controlling authority, and spent much of his time directing affairs in neighboring Maryland Colony. Bennett was followed by two more "Cromwellian '' governors, Edward Digges and Samuel Matthews, although in fact all three of these men were not technically appointees, but were selected by the House of Burgesses, which was really in control of the colony during these years.
Many royalists fled to Virginia after their defeat in the English Civil War. Some intermarried with existing plantation families to establish influential families in Virginia such as the Washingtons, Randolphs, Carters and Lees. However, most 17th - century immigrants were indentured servants, merchants or artisans. After the Restoration, in recognition of Virginia 's loyalty to the crown, King Charles II of England bestowed Virginia with the nickname "The Old Dominion '', which it still bears today.
Governor Berkeley, who remained popular after his first administration, returned to the governorship at the end of Commonwealth rule. However, Berkeley 's second administration was characterized with many problems. Disease, hurricanes, Indian hostilities, and economic difficulties all plagued Virginia at this time. Berkeley established autocratic authority over the colony. To protect this power, he refused to have new legislative elections for 14 years in order to protect a House of Burgesses that supported him. He only agreed to new elections when rebellion became a serious threat.
Berkeley finally did face a rebellion in 1676. Indians had begun attacking encroaching settlers as they expanded to the north and west. Serious fighting broke out when settlers responded to violence with a counter-attack against the wrong tribe, which further extended the violence. Berkeley did not assist the settlers in their fight. Many settlers and historians believe Berkeley 's refusal to fight the Indians stemmed from his investments in the fur trade. Large scale fighting would have cut off the Indian suppliers Berkeley 's investment relied on. Nathaniel Bacon organized his own militia of settlers who retaliated against the Indians. Bacon became very popular as the primary opponent of Berkeley, not only on the issue of Indians, but on other issues as well. Berkeley condemned Bacon as a rebel, but pardoned him after Bacon won a seat in the House of Burgesses and accepted it peacefully. After a lack of reform, Bacon rebelled outright, captured Jamestown, and took control of the colony for several months. The incident became known as Bacon 's Rebellion. Berkeley returned himself to power with the help of the English militia. Bacon burned Jamestown before abandoning it and continued his rebellion, but died of disease. Berkeley severely crushed the remaining rebels.
In response to Berkeley 's harsh repression of the rebels, the English government removed him from office. After the burning of Jamestown, the capital was temporarily moved to Middle Plantation, located on the high ground of the Virginia Peninsula equidistant from the James and York Rivers.
Local leaders had long desired a school of higher education, for the sons of planters, and for educating the Indians. An earlier attempt to establish a permanent university at Henricus failed after the Indian Massacre of 1622 wiped out the entire settlement. Finally, seven decades later, with encouragement from the Colony 's House of Burgesses and other prominent individuals, Reverend Dr. James Blair, the colony 's top religious leader, prepared a plan. Blair went to England and in 1693, obtained a charter from Protestants King William and Queen Mary II of England who had just deposed Catholic James II of England in 1688 during the Glorious Revolution. The college was named the College of William and Mary in honor of the two monarchs.
The rebuilt statehouse in Jamestown burned again in 1698. After that fire, upon suggestion of college students, the colonial capital was permanently moved to nearby Middle Plantation again, and the town was renamed Williamsburg, in honor of the king. Plans were made to construct a capitol building and plan the new city according to the survey of Theodorick Bland.
As the English increasingly used tobacco products, tobacco in the American colonies became a significant economic force, especially in the tidewater region surrounding the Chesapeake Bay. Vast plantations were built along the rivers of Virginia, and social / economic systems developed to grow and distribute this cash crop. Some elements of this system included the importation and employment of slaves to grow crops. Planters would then fill large hogsheads with tobacco and convey them to inspection warehouses. In 1730, the Virginia House of Burgesses standardized and improved quality of tobacco exported by establishing the Tobacco Inspection Act of 1730, which required inspectors to grade tobacco at 40 specified locations.
In terms of the white population, the top five percent or so were planters who possessed growing wealth and increasing political power and social prestige. They controlled the local Anglican church, choosing ministers and handling church property and disbursing local charity. They sought elected and appointed offices. About 60 percent of white Virginians were part of a broad middle class that owned substantial farms; By the second generation, death rates from malaria and other local diseases had declined so much that a stable family structure was possible. The bottom third owned no land, and verged on poverty. Many were recent arrivals, or recently released from indentured servitude. Social stratification was most severe in the Northern Neck, where the Fairfax family had been given a proprietorship. In some districts there 70 percent of the land was owned by a handful of families, and three fourths of the whites had no land at all. In the frontier districts, large numbers of Irish and German Protestants had settled, often moving down from Pennsylvania. Tobacco was not important there; farmers focused on hemp, grain, cattle, and horses. Entrepreneurs had begun to mine and smelt the local iron ores.
Sports occupied a great deal of attention at every social level, starting at the top. In England hunting was sharply restricted to landowners, and enforced by armed gameskeepers. In America, game was more than plentiful. Everyone -- including servants and slaves -- could and did hunt. Poor men with a good rifle aim won praise; rich gentlemen who were off target won ridicule. In 1691 Sir Francis Nicholson, the governor, organized competitions for the "better sort of Virginians onely who are Batchelors, '' and he offered prizes "to be shot for, wrastled, played at backswords, & Run for by Horse and foott. '' Horse racing was the main event. The typical farmer did not own a horse in the first place, and racing was a matter for gentlemen only, but ordinary farmers were spectators and gamblers. Selected slaves often became skilled horse trainers. Horse racing was especially important for knitting the gentry together. The race was a major public event designed to demonstrate to the world the superior social status of the gentry through expensive breeding, training, boasting and gambling, and especially winning the races themselves. Historian Timothy Breen explains that horse racing and high - stakes gambling were essential to maintaining the status of the gentry. When they publicly bet a large sum on their favorite horse, it told the world that competitiveness, individualism, and materialism where the core elements of gentry values.
Historian Edmund Morgan (1975) argues that Virginians in the 1650s -- and for the next two centuries -- turned to slavery and a racial divide as an alternative to class conflict. "Racism made it possible for white Virginians to develop a devotion to the equality that English republicans had declared to be the soul of liberty. '' That is, white men became politically much more equal than was possible without a population of low - status slaves.
By 1700 the population reached 70,000 and continued to grow rapidly from a high birth rate, low death rate, importation of slaves from the Caribbean, and immigration from Britain and Germany, as well as from Pennsylvania. The climate was mild, the farm lands were cheap and fertile.
In 1716, Governor Alexander Spotswood led the Knights of the Golden Horseshoe Expedition, reaching the top ridge of the Blue Ridge Mountains at Swift Run Gap (elevation 2,365 feet (721 m)). Spotswood promoted Germanna, a settlement of German immigrants brought over for the purpose of iron production, in modern - day Orange County.
By the 1730s, the Three Notch 'd Road extended from the vicinity of the fall line of the James River at the future site of Richmond westerly to the Shenandoah Valley, crossing the Blue Ridge Mountains at Jarmans Gap. Around this time, Governor William Gooch promoted settlement of the Virginia backcountry as a means to insulate the Virginia colony from Native American and New France settlements in the Ohio Country In response, a wide variety of settlers traveled southward on the Indian Trail later known as the Great Wagon Road along the Shenandoah Valley from Pennsylvania. Many, including German Palatines and Scotch - Irish American immigrants, settled along former Indian camps. According to Encyclopedia Virginia, "By 1735 there were as many as 160 families in the backcountry region, and within ten years nearly 10,000 Europeans lived in the Shenandoah Valley. ''
As colonial settlement moved into the piedmont area from the Tidewater / Chesapeake area, There was some uncertainty as to the exact tax boundaries of Virginia land versus the Land patent quit - rent rights held by Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron in the Northern Neck Proprietary. When Robert "King '' Carter died in 1732, Lord Fairfax read about his vast wealth in The Gentleman 's Magazine and decided to settle the matter himself by coming to Virginia. Lord Fairfax travelled to Virginia for the first time between 1735 and 1737 to inspect and protect his lands. He employed a young George Washington (Washington 's first employment) to survey his lands lying west of the Blue Ridge. Once this legal battle was ironed out, Frederick County, Virginia was founded in 1743 and the "Frederick Town '' settlements there became a fourth city charter in Virginia, now known as Winchester, Virginia in February 1752.
In the late 1740s and the second half of the 18th century, the British angled for control of the Ohio Country. Virginians Thomas Lee and brothers Lawrence and Augustine Washington organized the Ohio Company to represent the prospecting and trading interests of Virginian investors. In 1749, the British Crown, via the colonial government of Virginia, granted the Ohio Company a great deal of this territory on the condition that it be settled by British colonists. Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia was an investor in the Ohio Company, which stood to lose money if the French held their claim. To counter the French military presence in Ohio, in October 1753 Dinwiddie ordered the 21 - year - old Major George Washington (whose brother was another Ohio Company investor) of the Virginia Regiment to warn the French to leave Virginia territory. Ultimately, many Virginians were caught up in the resulting French and Indian War that occurred 1754 -- 1763. At the completion of the war, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 forbade all British settlement past a line drawn along the Appalachian Mountains, with the land west of the Proclamation Line known as the Indian Reserve. British colonists and land speculators objected to the proclamation boundary since the British government had already assigned land grants to them. Many settlements already existed beyond the proclamation line, some of which had been temporarily evacuated during Pontiac 's War, and there were many already granted land claims yet to be settled. For example, George Washington and his Virginia soldiers had been granted lands past the boundary. Prominent American colonials joined with the land speculators in Britain to lobby the government to move the line further west. Their efforts were successful, and the boundary line was adjusted in a series of treaties with the Native Americans. In 1768 the Treaty of Fort Stanwix and the Treaty of Hard Labour, followed in 1770 by the Treaty of Lochaber, opened much of what is now Kentucky and West Virginia to British settlement within the Virginia Colony. However, the Northwest Territories north of the Ohio continued to be occupied by native tribes until US forces drove them out in the early decades of the 1800s.
The Church of England was legally established in the colony in 1619, and the Bishop of London sent in 22 Anglican clergyman by 1624. In practice, establishment meant that local taxes were funneled through the local parish to handle the needs of local government, such as roads and poor relief, in addition to the salary of the minister. There never was a bishop in colonial Virginia, and in practice the local vestry, consisting of gentry laymen controlled the parish. By the 1740s, the Anglicans had about 70 parish priests around the colony.
Missionaries were sent to the Indians but they had little success apart from the Nansemond tribe, which had converted in 1638. The other Powhatan tribes converted to Christianity around 1791.
The stress on personal piety opened the way for the First Great Awakening in the mid 18th century, which pulled people away from the formal rituals of the established church. Especially in the back country, most families had no religious affiliation whatsoever and their low moral standards were shocking to proper Englishmen The Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians and other evangelicals directly challenged these lax moral standards and refused to tolerate them in their ranks. Baptists, German Lutherans and Presbyterians, funded their own ministers, and favored disestablishment of the Anglican church.
The spellbinding preacher Samuel Davies led the Presbyterians, and converted hundreds of slaves. By the 1760s Baptists were drawing Virginians, especially poor white farmers, into a new, much more democratic religion. Slaves were welcome at the services and many became Baptists at this time. Methodist missionaries were also active in the late colonial period. Methodists encouraged an end to slavery, and welcomed free blacks and slaves into active roles in the congregations.
The Baptists and Presbyterians were subject to many legal constraints and faced growing persecution; between 1768 and 1774, about half of the Baptists ministers in Virginia were jailed for preaching, in defiance of England 's Act of Toleration of 1689 that guaranteed freedom of worship for Protestants. At the start of the Revolution, the Anglican Patriots realized that they needed dissenter support for effective wartime mobilization, so they met most of the dissenters ' demands in return for their support of the war effort.
Historians have debated the implications of the religious rivalries for the American Revolution. The struggle for religious toleration was played out during the American Revolution, as the Baptists, in alliance with Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, worked successfully to disestablish the Anglican church. After the American victory in the war, the Anglican establishment sought to reintroduce state support for religion. This effort failed when non-Anglicans gave their support to Jefferson 's "Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom '', which eventually became law in 1786 as the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. With freedom of religion the new watchword, the Church of England was dis - established in Virginia. It was rebuilt as the Episcopal Church in the United States, with no connection to Britain.
Revolutionary sentiments first began appearing in Virginia shortly after the French and Indian War ended in 1763. The Virginia legislature had passed the Two - Penny Act to stop clerical salaries from inflating. King George III vetoed the measure, and clergy sued for back salaries. Patrick Henry first came to prominence by arguing in the case of Parson 's Cause against the veto, which he declared tyrannical.
The British government had accumulated a great deal of debt through spending on its wars. To help payoff this debt, Parliament passed the Sugar Act in 1764 and the Stamp Act in 1765. The General Assembly opposed the passage of the Sugar Act on the grounds of no taxation without representation, and in turn passing the "Virginia Resolves '' opposing the tax. Governor Francis Fauquier responded by dismissing the Assembly. The Northampton County court overturned the Stamp Act February 8, 1766. Various political groups, including the Sons of Liberty met and issued protests against the act. Most notably, Richard Bland published a pamphlet entitled An Enquiry into the Rights of The British Colonies, setting forth the principle that Virginia was a part of the British Empire, not the Kingdom of Great Britain, so it only owed allegiance to the Crown, not Parliament.
The Stamp Act was repealed, but additional taxation from the Revenue Act and the 1769 attempt to transport Bostonian rioters to London for trial incited more protest from Virginia. The Assembly met to consider resolutions condemning on the transport of the rioters, but Governor Botetourt, while sympathetic, dissolved the legislature. The Burgesses reconvened in Raleigh Tavern and made an agreement to ban British imports. Britain gave up the attempt to extradite the prisoners and lifted all taxes except the tax on tea in 1770.
In 1773, because of a renewed attempt to extradite Americans to Britain, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry, George Mason, and others in the legislature created a committee of correspondence to deal with problems with Britain. This committee would serve as the foundation for Virginia 's role in the American Revolution.
After the House of Burgesses expressed solidarity with the actions in Massachusetts, the Governor, Lord Dunmore, again dissolved the legislature. The first Virginia Convention was held August 1 -- 6 to respond to the growing crisis. The convention approved a boycott of British goods and elected delegates to the Continental Congress.
On April 20, 1775, Dunmore ordered the gunpowder removed from the Williamsburg Magazine to a British ship. Patrick Henry led a group of Virginia militia from Hanover in response to Dunmore 's order. Carter Braxton negotiated a resolution to the Gunpowder Incident by transferring royal funds as payment for the powder. The incident exacerbated Dunmore 's declining popularity. He fled the Governor 's Palace to a British ship at Yorktown. On November 7, Dunmore issued a proclamation declaring Virginia was in a state of rebellion. By this time, George Washington had been appointed head of the American forces by the Continental Congress and Virginia was under the political leadership of a Committee of Safety formed by the Third Virginia Convention in the governor 's absence.
On December 9, 1775, Virginia militia moved on the governor 's forces at the Battle of Great Bridge, winning a victory in the small action there. Dunmore responded by bombarding Norfolk with his ships on January 1, 1776. After the Battle of Great Bridge, little military conflict took place on Virginia soil for the first part of the American Revolutionary War. Nevertheless, Virginia sent forces to help in the fighting to the North and South, as well as the frontier in the northwest.
The Fifth Virginia Convention met on May 6 and declared Virginia a free and independent state on May 15, 1776. The convention instructed its delegates to introduce a resolution for independence at the Continental Congress. Richard Henry Lee introduced the measure on June 7. While the Congress debated, the Virginia Convention adopted George Mason 's Bill of Rights (June 12) and a constitution (June 29) which established an independent commonwealth. Congress approved Lee 's proposal on July 2 and approved Jefferson 's Declaration of Independence on July 4. The constitution of the Fifth Virginia Convention created a system of government for the state that would last for 54 years, and converting House of Burgesses into a bicameral legislature with both a House of Delegates and a Senate. Patrick Henry serves as the first Governor of the Commonwealth (1776 - 1779).
The British briefly brought the war back to coastal Virginia in May 1779. Fearing the vulnerability of Williamsburg, Governor Thomas Jefferson moved the capital farther inland to Richmond in 1780. However, in December, Benedict Arnold, who had betrayed the Revolution and become a general for the British, attacked Richmond and burned part of the city before the Virginia Militia drove his army out of the city.
Arnold moved his base of operations to Portsmouth and was later joined by troops under General William Phillips. Phillips led an expedition that destroyed military and economic targets, against ineffectual militia resistance. The state 's defenses, led by General Baron von Steuben, put up resistance in the April 1781 Battle of Blandford, but were forced to retreat. The French General Lafayette and his forces arrived to help defend Virginia, and though outnumbered, engaged British forces under General Charles Cornwallis in a series of skirmishes to help reduce their effectiveness. Cornwallis dispatched two smaller missions under Colonel John Graves Simcoe and Colonel Banastre Tarleton to march on Charlottesville and capture Gov. Jefferson and the legislature, though was foiled when Jack Jouett rode to warn Virginia government.
Cornwallis moved down the Virginia Peninsula towards the Chesapeake Bay, where Clinton planned to extract part of the army for a siege of New York City. After surprising American forces at the Battle of Green Spring on July 6, 1781, Cornwallis received orders to move his troops to the port town of Yorktown and begin construction of fortifications and a naval yard, though when discovered American forces surrounded the town. Gen. Washington and his French ally Rochambeau moved their forces from New York to Virginia. The defeat of the Royal Navy by Admiral de Grasse at the Battle of the Virginia Capes ensured French dominance of the waters around Yorktown, thereby preventing Cornwallis from receiving troops or supplies and removing the possibility of evacuation. Following the two - week siege to Yorktown, Cornwallis decided to surrender. Papers for surrender were officially signed on October 19.
As a result of the defeat, the king lost control of Parliament and the new British government offered peace in April 1782. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 officially ended the war.
Victory in the Revolution brought peace and prosperity to the new state, as export markets in Europe reopened for its tobacco.
While the old local elites were content with the status quo, younger veterans of the war had developed a national identity. Led by George Washington and James Madison, Virginia played a major role in the Constitutional Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia. Madison proposed the Virginia Plan, which would give representation in Congress according to total population, including a proportion of slaves. Virginia was the most populous state, and it was allowed to count all of its white residents and 3 / 5 of the enslaved African Americans for its congressional representation and its electoral vote. (Only white men who owned a certain amount of property could vote.) Ratification was bitterly contested; the pro-Constitution forces prevailed only after promising to add a Bill of Rights. The Virginia Ratifying Convention approved the Constitution by a vote of 89 -- 79 on June 25, 1788, making it the tenth state to enter the Union.
Madison played a central role in the new Congress, while Washington was the unanimous choice as first president. He was followed by the Virginia Dynasty, including Thomas Jefferson, Madison, and James Monroe, giving the state four of the first five presidents.
The Revolution meant change and sometimes political freedom for enslaved African Americans, too. Tens of thousands of slaves from southern states, particularly in Georgia and South Carolina, escaped to British lines and freedom during the war. Thousands left with the British for resettlement in their colonies of Nova Scotia and Jamaica; others went to England; others disappeared into rural and frontier areas or the North.
Inspired by the Revolution and evangelical preachers, numerous slaveholders in the Chesapeake region manumitted some or all of their slaves, during their lifetimes or by will. From 1,800 persons in 1782, the total population of free blacks in Virginia increased to 12,766 (4.3 percent of blacks) in 1790, and to 30,570 in 1810; the percentage change was from free blacks ' comprising less than one percent of the total black population in Virginia, to 7.2 percent by 1810, even as the overall population increased. One planter, Robert Carter III freed more than 450 slaves in his lifetime, more than any other planter. George Washington freed all of his slaves at his death.
Many free blacks migrated from rural areas to towns such as Petersburg, Richmond, and Charlottesville for jobs and community; others migrated with their families to the frontier where social strictures were more relaxed. Among the oldest black Baptist congregations in the nation were two founded near Petersburg before the Revolution. Each congregation moved into the city and built churches by the early 19th century.
Twice slave rebellions broke out in Virginia: Gabriel 's Rebellion in 1800, and Nat Turner 's Rebellion in 1831. White reaction was swift and harsh, and militias killed many innocent free blacks and black slaves as well as those directly involved in the rebellions. After the second rebellion, the legislature passed laws restricting the rights of free people of color: they were excluded from bearing arms, serving in the militia, gaining education, and assembling in groups. As bearing arms and serving in the militia were considered obligations of free citizens, free blacks came under severe constraints after Nat Turner 's rebellion.
As the new nation of the United States of America experienced growing pains and began to speak of Manifest Destiny, Virginia, too, found its role in the young republic to be changing and challenging. For one, the vast lands of the Virginia Colony were subdivided into other US states and territories. In 1784 Virginia relinquished its claims to the Illinois County, Virginia, except for the Virginia Military District (Southern Indiana). In 1775, Daniel Boone blazed a trail for the Transylvania Company from Fort Chiswell in Virginia through the Cumberland Gap into central Kentucky. This Wilderness Road became the principal route used by settlers for more than fifty years to reach Kentucky from the East. The fledgling US government rewarded veterans of the Revolutionary War with plots of land along the Ohio River in the Northwest Territory. In 1792, three western counties split off to form Kentucky.
A second influence: the lands seemed to be more fertile in the west. Virginia 's heavy farming of tobacco for 200 years had depleted its soils.
The 1803 Louisiana Purchase only accelerated the westward movement of Virginians out of their native state. Many of the Virginians whose grandparents had created the Virginia Establishment began to emigrate and settle westward. Famous Virginian - born Americans affected not only the destiny of the state of Virginia, but the rapidly developing American Old West. Virginians Meriwether Lewis and William Clark were influential in their famous 1804 - 1806 expedition to explore the Missouri River and possible connections to the Pacific Ocean. Notable names such as Stephen F. Austin, Edwin Waller, Haden Harrison Edwards, and Dr. John Shackelford were famous Texan pioneers from Virginia. Even eventual Civil War general Robert E. Lee distinguished himself as a military leader in Texas during the 1846 -- 48 Mexican -- American War.
Historians estimate that one million Virginians left the commonwealth between the Revolution and the Civil War. With this exodus, Virginia experienced a decline in both population and political influence Prominent Virginians formed the Virginia Historical and Philosophical Society to preserve the legacy and memory of its past. At the same time, with Virginians settling so much of the west, they brought their cultural habits with them. Today, many cultural features of the American South can be attributed to Virginians who migrated west.
As the western reaches of Virginia were developed in the first half of the 19th century, the vast differences in the agricultural basis, cultural, and transportation needs of the area became a major issue for the Virginia General Assembly. In the older, eastern portion, slavery contributed to the economy. While planters were moving away from labor - intensive tobacco to mixed crops, they still held numerous slaves and their leasing out or sales was also part of their economic prospect. Slavery had become an economic institution upon which planters depended. Watersheds on most of this area eventually drained to the Atlantic Ocean. In the western reaches, families farmed smaller homesteads, mostly without enslaved or hired labor. Settlers were expanding the exploitation of resources: mining of minerals and harvesting of timber. The land drained into the Ohio River Valley, and trade followed the rivers.
Representation in the state legislature was heavily skewed in favor of the more populous eastern areas and the historic planter elite. This was compounded by the partial allowance for slaves when counting population; as neither the slaves nor women had the vote, this gave more power to white men. The legislature 's efforts to mediate the disparities ended without meaningful resolution, although the state held a constitutional convention on representation issues. Thus, at the outset of the American Civil War, Virginia was caught not only in national crisis, but in a long - standing controversy within its own boundaries. While other border states had similar regional differences, Virginia had a long history of east - west tensions which finally came to a head; it was the only state to divide into two separate states during the War.
After the Revolution, various infrastructure projects began to be developed, including the Dismal Swamp Canal, the James River and Kanawha Canal, and various turnpikes. Virginia was home to the first of all Federal infrastructure projects under the new Constitution, the Cape Henry Light of 1792, located at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. Following the War of 1812, several Federal national defense projects were undertaken in Virginia. Drydock Number One was constructed in Portsmouth in the 1827. Across the James River, Fort Monroe was built to defend Hampton Roads, completed in 1834.
In the 1830s, railroads began to be built in Virginia. In 1831, the Chesterfield Railroad began hauling coal from the mines in Midlothian to docks at Manchester (near Richmond), powered by gravity and draft animals. The first railroad in Virginia to be powered by locomotives was the Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad, chartered in 1834, with the intent to connect with steamboat lines at Aquia Landing running to Washington, D.C.. Soon after, others (with equally descriptive names) followed: the Richmond and Petersburg Railroad and Louisa Railroad in 1836, the Richmond and Danville Railroad in 1847, the Orange and Alexandria Railroad in 1848, and the Richmond and York River Railroad. In 1849, the Virginia Board of Public Works established the Blue Ridge Railroad. Under Engineer Claudius Crozet, the railroad successfully crossed the Blue Ridge Mountains via the Blue Ridge Tunnel at Afton Mountain.
Petersburg became a manufacturing center, as well as a city where free black artisans and craftsmen could make a living. In 1860 half its population was black and of that, one - third were free blacks, the largest such population in the state.
With extensive iron deposits, especially in the western counties, Virginia was a pioneer in the iron industry. The first ironworks in the new world was established at Falling Creek in 1619, though it was destroyed in 1622. There would eventually grow to be 80 ironworks, charcoal furnaces and forges with 7,000 hands at any one time, about 70 percent of them slaves. Ironmasters hired slaves from local slave owners because they were cheaper than white workers, easier to control, and could not switch to a better employer. But the work ethic was weak, because the wages went to the owner, not to the workers, who were forced to work hard, were poorly fed and clothed, and were separated from their families. Virginia 's industry increasingly fell behind Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Ohio, which relied on free labor. Bradford (1959) recounts the many complaints about slave laborers and argues the over-reliance upon slaves contributed to the failure of the ironmasters to adopt improved methods of production for fear the slaves would sabotage them. Most of the blacks were unskilled manual laborers, although Lewis (1977) reports that some were in skilled positions.
Virginia at first refused to join the Confederacy, but did so after President Lincoln on April 15 called for troops from all states; that meant Federal troops crossing Virginia on the way south to subdue South Carolina. On April 17, 1861 the convention voted to secede, and voters ratified the decision on May 23. Immediately the Union army moved into northern Virginia and captured Alexandria without a fight, and controlled it for the remainder of the war. The Wheeling area had opposed secession and remained strong for the Union.
Because of its strategic significance, the Confederacy relocated its capital to Richmond. Richmond was at the end of a long supply line and as the highly symbolic capital of the Confederacy became the main target of round after round of invasion attempts. A major center of iron production during the civil war was located in Richmond at Tredegar Iron Works, which produced most of the artillery for the war. The city was the site of numerous army hospitals. Libby Prison for captured Union officers gained an infamous reputation for the overcrowded and harsh conditions, with a high death rate. Richmond 's main defenses were trenches built surrounding it down towards the nearby city of Petersburg. Saltville was a primary source of Confederate salt (critical for food preservation) during the war, leading to the two Battles of Saltville.
The first major battle of the Civil War occurred on July 21, 1861. Union forces attempted to take control of the railroad junction at Manassas, but the Confederate Army reached it first and won the First Battle of Manassas (known as "Bull Run '' in Northern naming convention). Both sides mobilized for war; the year 1861 went on without another major fight.
Men from all economic and social levels, both slaveholders and nonslaveholders, as well as former Unionists, enlisted in great numbers on both sides. Areas, especially in the west and along the border, that sent few men to the Confederacy were characterized by few slaves, poor economies, and a history of reinal antagonism to the Tidewater.
The western counties could not tolerate the Confederacy. Breaking away, they first formed the Union state of Virginia (recognized by Washington); it is called the Restored government of Virginia and was based in Alexandria, across the river from Washington. The Restored government did little except give its permission for Congress to form the new state of West Virginia in 1862. From May to August 1861, a series of Unionist conventions met in Wheeling; the Second Wheeling Convention constituted itself as a legislative body called the Restored Government of Virginia. It declared Virginia was still in the Union but that the state offices were vacant and elected a new governor, Francis H. Pierpont; this body gained formal recognition by the Lincoln administration on July 4. On August 20 the Wheeling body passed an ordinance for the creation; it was put to public vote on Oct. 24. The vote was in favor of a new state -- West Virginia -- which was distinct from the Pierpont government, which persisted until the end of the war. Congress and Lincoln approved, and, after providing for gradual emancipation of slaves in the new state constitution, West Virginia became the 35th state on June 20, 1863. In effect there were now three states: the Confederate Virginia, the Union Restored Virginia, and West Virginia.
The state and national governments in Richmond did not recognize the new state, and Confederates did not vote there. The Confederate government in Richmond sent in Robert E. Lee. But Lee found little local support and was defeated by Union forces from Ohio. Union victories in 1861 drove the Confederate forces out of the Monongahela and Kanawha valleys, and throughout the remainder of the war the Union held the region west of the Alleghenies and controlled the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in the north. The new state was not subject to Reconstruction.
For the remainder of the war, many major battles were fought across Virginia, including the Seven Days Battles, the Battle of Fredericksburg, the Battle of Chancellorsville, the Battle of Brandy Station
Over the course of the War, despite occasional tactical victories and spectacular counter-stroke raids, Confederate control of many regions of Virginia was gradually lost to Federal advance. By October 1862 the northern 9th and 10th Congressional districts along the Potomac were under Union control. Eastern Shore, Northern, Middle and Lower Peninsula and the 2nd congressional district surrounding Norfolk west to Suffolk were permanently Union - occupied by May. Other regions, such as the Piedmont and Shenandoah Valley, regularly changed hands through numerous campaigns.
In 1864, the Union Army planned to attack Richmond by a direct overland approach through Overland Campaign and the Battle of the Wilderness, culminating in the Siege of Petersburg which lasted from the summer of 1864 to April 1865. By November 6, 1864, Confederate forces controlled only four of Virginia 's 16 congressional districts in the region of Richmond - Petersburg and their Southside counties.
In April 1865, Richmond was burned by a retreating Confederate Army; Lincoln walked the city streets to cheering crowds of newly freed blacks. The Confederate government fled south, pausing in Danville for a few days. The end came when Lee surrendered to Ulysses Grant at Appomattox on April 9, 1865.
Virginia had been devastated by the war, with the infrastructure (such as railroads) in ruins; many plantations burned out; and large numbers of refugees without jobs, food or supplies beyond rations provided by the Union Army, especially its Freedmen 's Bureau.
Historian Mary Farmer - Kaiser reports that white landowners complained to the Bureau about unwillingness of freedwomen to work in the fields as evidence of their laziness, and asked the Bureau to force them to sign labor contracts. In response, many Bureau officials "readily condemned the withdrawal of freedwomen from the work force as well as the ' hen pecked ' husbands who allowed it. '' While the Bureau did not force freedwomen to work, it did force freedmen to work or be arrested as vagrants. Furthermore, agents urged poor unmarried mothers to give their older children up as apprentices to work for white masters. Farmer - Kaiser concludes that "Freedwomen found both an ally and an enemy in the bureau. ''
There were three phases in Virginia 's Reconstruction era: wartime, presidential, and congressional. Immediately after the war President Andrew Johnson recognized the Francis Harrison Pierpont government as legitimate and restored local government. The Virginia legislature passed Black Codes that severely restricted Freedmen 's mobility and rights; they had only limited rights and were not considered citizens, nor could they vote. The state ratified the 13th amendment to abolish slavery and revoked the 1861 ordnance of secession. Johnson was satisfied that Reconstruction was complete.
Other Republicans in Congress refused to seat the newly elected state delegation; the Radicals wanted better evidence that slavery and similar methods of serfdom had been abolished, and the freedmen given rights of citizens. They also were concerned that Virginia leaders had not renounced Confederate nationalism. After winning large majorities in the 1866 national election, the Radical Republicans gained power in Congress. They put Virginia (and nine other ex-Confederate states) under military rule. Virginia was administered as the "First Military District '' in 1867 -- 69 under General John Schofield Meanwhile, the Freedmen became politically active by joining the pro-Republican Union League, holding conventions, and demanding universal male suffrage and equal treatment under the law, as well as demanding disfranchisement of ex-Confederates and the seizure of their plantations. McDonough, finding that Schofield was criticized by conservative whites for supporting the Radical cause on the one hand, and attacked on the other by Radicals for thinking black suffrage was premature on the other, concludes that "he performed admirably ' by following a middle course between extremes.
Increasingly a deep split opened up in the republican ranks. The moderate element had national support and called itself "True Republicans. '' The more radical element set out to disfranchise whites -- such as not allowing a man to hold office if he was a private in the Confederate army, or had sold food to the Confederate government, plus land reform. About 20,000 former Confederates were denied the right to vote in the 1867 election. In 1867 radical James Hunnicutt (1814 -- 1880), a white preacher, editor and Scalawag (white Southerners supporting Reconstruction) mobilized the black Republican vote by calling for the confiscation of all plantations and turning the land over to Freedmen and poor whites. The "True Republicans '' (the moderates), led by former Whigs, businessmen and planters, while supportive of black suffrage, drew the line at property confiscation. A compromise was reached calling for confiscation if the planters tried to intimidate black voters. Hunnicutt 's coalition took control of the Republican Party, and began to demand the permanent disfranchisement of all whites who had supported the Confederacy. The Virginia Republican party became permanently split, and many moderate Republicans switched to the opposition "Conservatives ''. The Radicals won the 1867 election for delegates to a constitutional convention.
The 1868 constitutional convention included 33 white Conservatives, and 72 Radicals (of whom 24 were Blacks, 23 Scalawag, and 21 Carpetbaggers. Called the "Underwood Constitution '' after the presiding officer, the main accomplishment was to reform the tax system, and create a system of free public schools for the first time in Virginia. After heated debates over disfranchising Confederates, the Virginia legislature approved a Constitution that excluded ex-Confederates from holding office, but allowed them to vote in state and federal elections.
Under pressure from national Republicans to be more moderate, General Schofield continued to administer the state through the Army. He appointed a personal friend, Henry H. Wells as provisional governor. Wells was a Carpetbagger and a former Union general. Schofield and Wells fought and defeated Hunnicutt and the Scalawag Republicans. They took away contracts for state printing orders from Hunnicutt 's newspaper. The national government ordered elections in 1869 that included a vote on the new Underwood constitution, a separate one on its two disfranchisement clauses that would have permanently stripped the vote from most former rebels, and a separate vote for state officials. The Army enrolled the Freedmen (ex-slaves) as voters but would not allow some 20,000 prominent whites to vote or hold office. The Republicans nominated Wells for governor, as Hunnicutt and most Scalawags went over to the opposition.
The leader of the moderate Republicans, calling themselves "True Republicans, '' was William Mahone (1826 -- 1895), a railroad president and former Confederate general. He formed a coalition of white Scalawag Republicans, some blacks, and ex-Democrats who formed the Conservative Party. Mahone recommended that whites had to accept the results of the war, including civil rights and the vote for Freedmen. Mahone convinced the Conservative Party to drop its own candidate and endorse Gilbert C. Walker, Mahone 's candidate for governor. In return, Mahone 's people endorsed Conservatives for the legislative races. Mahone 's plan worked, as the voters in 1869 elected Walker and defeated the proposed disfranchisement of ex-Confederates.
When the new legislature ratified the 14th and 15th amendments to the U.S. Constitution, Congress seated its delegation, and Virginia Reconstruction came to an end in January 1870. The Radical Republicans had been ousted in a non-violent election. Virginia was the only southern state that did not elect a civilian government that represented more Radical Republican principles. Suffering from widespread destruction and difficulties in adapting to free labor, white Virginians generally came to share the postwar bitterness typical of the southern attitudes. Historian Richard Lowe argues that the obstacles faced by the Radical Republican movement made their cause hopeless:
In addition to those that were rebuilt, new railroads developed after the Civil War. In 1868, under railroad baron Collis P. Huntington, the Virginia Central Railroad was merged and transformed into the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad. In 1870, several railroads were merged to form the Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio Railroad, later renamed Norfolk & Western. In 1880, the towpath of the now - defunct James River & Kanawha canal was transformed into the Richmond and Allegheny Railroad, which within a decade would merge into the Chesapeake & Ohio. Others would include the Southern Railroad, the Seaboard Air Line, and the Atlantic Coast Line; still others would eventually reach into Virginia, including the Baltimore & Ohio and the Pennsylvania Railroad. The rebuilt Richmond, Fredericksburg, and Potomac Railroad eventually was linked to Washington, D.C..
In the 1880s, the Pocahontas Coalfield opened up in far southwest Virginia, with others to follow, in turn providing more demand for railroads transportation. In 1909, the Virginian Railway opened, built for the express purpose of hauling coal from the mountains of West Virginia to the ports at Hampton Roads. The growth of railroads resulted in the creation of new towns and rapid growth of others, including Clifton Forge, Roanoke, Crewe and Victoria. The railroad boom was not without incident: the Wreck of the Old 97 occurred just north of Danville, Virginia in 1903, later immortalized by a popular ballad.
With the invention of the cigarette rolling machine, and the great increase in smoking in the early 20th century, cigarettes and other tobacco products became a major industry in Richmond and Petersburg. Tobacco magnates such as Lewis Ginter funded a number of public institutions.
A division among Virginia politicians occurred in the 1870s, when those who supported a reduction of Virginia 's pre-war debt ("Readjusters '') opposed those who felt Virginia should repay its entire debt plus interest ("Funders ''). Virginia 's pre-war debt was primarily for infrastructure improvements overseen by the Virginia Board of Public Works, much of which were destroyed during the war or in the new State of West Virginia.
After his unsuccessful bid for the Democratic nomination for governor in 1877, former confederate General and railroad executive William Mahone became the leader of the "Readjusters '', forming a coalition of conservative Democrats and white and black Republicans. The so - called Readjusters aspired "to break the power of wealth and established privilege '' and to promote public education. The party promised to "readjust '' the state debt in order to protect funding for newly established public education, and allocate a fair share to the new State of West Virginia. Its proposal to repeal the poll tax and increase funding for schools and other public facilities attracted biracial and cross-party support.
The Readjuster Party was successful in electing its candidate, William E. Cameron as governor, and he served from 1882 to 1886. Mahone served as a Senator in the U.S. Congress from 1881 to 1887, as well as fellow Readjustor Harrison H. Riddleberger, who served in the U.S. Senate from 1883 to 1889. Readjusters ' effective control of Virginia politics lasted until 1883, when they lost majority control in the state legislature, followed by the election of Democrat Fitzhugh Lee as governor in 1885. The Virginia legislature replaced both Mahone and Riddleberger in the U.S. Senate with Democrats.
In 1888 the exception to Readjustor and Democratic control was John Mercer Langston, who was elected to Congress from the Petersburg area on the Republican ticket. He was the first black elected to Congress from the state, and the last for nearly a century. He served one term. A talented and vigorous politician, he was an Oberlin College graduate. He had long been active in the abolitionist cause in Ohio before the Civil War, had been president of the National Equal Rights League from 1864 to 1868, and had headed and created the law department at Howard University, and acted as president of the college. When elected, he was president of what became Virginia State University.
While the Readjustor Party faded, the goal of public education remained strong, with institutions established for the education of schoolteachers. In 1884, the state acquired a bankrupt women 's college at Farmville and opened it as a normal school. Growth of public education led to the need for additional teachers. In 1908, two additional normal schools were established, one at Fredericksburg and one at Harrisonburg, and in 1910, one at Radford.
After the Readjuster Party disappeared, Virginia Democrats rapidly passed legislation and constitutional amendments that effectively disfranchised African Americans and many poor whites, through the use of poll taxes and literacy tests. They created white, one - party rule under the Democratic Party for the next 80 years. White state legislators passed statutes that restored white supremacy through imposition of Jim Crow segregation. In 1902 Virginia passed a new constitution that reduced voter registration.
The Progressive Era after 1900 brought numerous reforms, designed to modernize the state, increase efficiency, apply scientific methods, promote education and eliminate waste and corruption.
A key leader was Governor Claude Swanson (1906 -- 10), a Democrat who left machine politics behind to win office using the new primary law. Swanson 's coalition of reformers in the legislature, built schools and highways, raised teacher salaries and standards, promoted the state 's public health programs, and increased funding for prisons. Swanson fought against child labor, lowered railroad rates and raised corporate taxes, while systematizing state services and introducing modern management techniques. The state funded a growing network of roads, with much of the work done by black convicts in chain gangs. After Swanson moved to the U.S. Senate in 1910 he promoted Progressivism at the national level as a supporter of President Woodrow Wilson, who had been born in Virginia and was considered a native son. Swanson, as a power on naval affairs, promoted the Norfolk Navy Yard and Newport News Ship Building and Drydock Corporation. Swanson 's statewide organization evolved into the "Byrd Organization. ''
The State Corporation Commission (SCC) was formed as part of the 1902 Constitution, over the opposition of the railroads, to regulate railroad policies and rates. The SCC was independent of parties, courts, and big businesses, and was designed to maximize the public interest. It became an effective agency, which especially pleased local merchants by keeping rates low.
Virginia has a long history of agricultural reformers, and the Progressive Era stimulated their efforts. Rural areas suffered persistent problems, such as declining populations, widespread illiteracy, poor farming techniques, and debilitating diseases among both farm animals and farm families. Reformers emphasized the need to upgrade the quality of elementary education. With federal help, in they set up a county agent system (today the Virginia Cooperative Extension) that taught farmers the latest scientific methods for dealing with tobacco and other crops, and farm house wives how to maximize their efficiency in the kitchen and nursery.
Some upper - class women, typified by Lila Meade Valentine of Richmond, promoted numerous Progressive reforms, including kindergartens, teacher education, visiting nurses programs, and vocational education for both races. Middle - class white women were especially active in the Prohibition movement. The woman suffrage movement became entangled in racial issues -- whites were reluctant to allow black women the vote -- and was unable to broaden its base beyond middle - class whites. Virginia women got the vote in 1920, the result of a national constitutional amendment.
In higher education, the key leader was Edwin A. Alderman, president of the University of Virginia, 1904 -- 31. His goal was the transformation of the southern university into a force for state service and intellectual leadership. and educational utility. Alderman successfully professionalized and modernized the state 's system of higher education. He promoted international standards of scholarship, and a statewide network of extension services. Joined by other college presidents, he promoted the Virginia Education Commission, created in 1910. Alderman 's crusade encountered some resistance from traditionalists, and never challenged the Jim Crow system of segregated schooling.
While the progressives were modernizers, there was also a surge of interest in Virginia traditions and heritage, especially among the aristocratic First Families of Virginia (FFV). The Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities (APVA), founded in Williamsburg in 1889, emphasized patriotism in the name of Virginia 's 18th - century Founding Fathers. In 1907, the Jamestown Exposition was held near Norfolk to celebrate the tricentennial of the arrival of the first English colonists and the founding of Jamestown.
Attended by numerous federal dignitaries, and serving as the launch point for the Great White Fleet, the Jamestown Exposition also spurred interest in the military potential of the area. The site of the exposition would later become, in 1917, the location of the Norfolk Naval Station. The proximity to Washington, D.C., the moderate climate, and strategic location of a large harbor at the center of the Atlantic seaboard made Virginia a key location during World War I for new military installations. These included Fort Story, the Army Signal Corps station at Langley, Quantico Marine Base in Prince William County, Fort Belvoir in Fairfax County, Fort Lee near Petersburg and Fort Eustis, in Warwick County (now Newport News). At the same time, heavy shipping traffic made the area a target for U-boats, and a number of merchant vessels were attacked or sunk off the Virginia coast.
Temperance became an issue in the early 20th century. In 1916, a statewide referendum passed to outlaw the consumption of alcohol. This was overturned in 1933.
After 1930, tourism began to grow with the development of Colonial Williamsburg.
Shenandoah National Park was constructed from newly gathered land, as well as the Blue Ridge Parkway and Skyline Drive. The Civilian Conservation Corps played a major role in developing that National Park, as well as Pocahontas State Park. By 1940 new highway bridges crossed the lower Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James Rivers, bringing to an end the long - distance steamboat service which had long served as primary transportation throughout the Chesapeake Bay area. Ferryboats remain today in only a few places.
Blacks comprised a third of the population but lost nearly all their political power. The electorate was so small that from 1905 to 1948 government employees and officeholders cast a third of the votes in state elections. This small, controllable electorate facilitated the formation of a powerful statewide political machine by Harry Byrd (1887 -- 1966), which dominated from the 1920s to the 1960s. Most of the blacks who remained politically active supported the Byrd organization, which in turn protected their right to vote, making Virginia 's race relations the most harmonious in the South before the 1950s, according to V.O. Key. Not until Federal civil rights legislation was passed in 1964 and 1965 did African Americans recover the power to vote and the protection of other basic constitutional civil rights.
The economic stimulus of the World War brought full employment for workers, high wages, and high profits for farmers. It brought in many thousands of soldiers and sailors for training. Virginia sent 300,000 men and 4,000 women to the services. The buildup for the war greatly increased the state 's naval and industrial economic base, as did the growth of federal government jobs in Northern Virginia and adjacent Washington, DC. The Pentagon was built in Arlington as the largest office building in the world. Additional installations were added: in 1941, Fort A.P. Hill and Fort Pickett opened, and Fort Lee was reactivated. The Newport News shipyard expanded its labor force from 17,000 to 70,000 in 1943, while the Radford Arsenal had 22,000 workers making explosives. Turnover was very high -- in one three - month period the Newport News shipyard hired 8400 new workers as 8,300 others quit.
In addition to general postwar growth, the Cold War resulted in further growth in both Northern Virginia and Hampton Roads. With the Pentagon already established in Arlington, the newly formed Central Intelligence Agency located its headquarters further afield at Langley (unrelated to the Air Force Base). In the early 1960s, the new Dulles International Airport was built, straddling the Fairfax County - Loudoun County border. Other sites in Northern Virginia included the listening station at Vint Hill. Due to the presence of the U.S. Atlantic Fleet in Norfolk, in 1952 the Allied Command Atlantic of NATO was headquartered there, where it remained for the duration of the Cold War. Later in the 1950s and across the river, Newport News Shipbuilding would begin construction of the USS Enterprise -- the world 's first nuclear - powered aircraft carrier -- and the subsequent atomic carrier fleet.
Virginia also witnessed American efforts in the Space Race. When the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics was transformed into the National Aeronautics and Space Administration in 1958, the resulting Space Task Group headquartered at the laboratories of Langley Research Center. From there, it would initiate Project Mercury, and would remain the headquarters of the U.S. manned spaceflight program until its transfer to Houston in 1962. On the Eastern Shore, near Chincoteague, Wallops Flight Facility served as a rocket launch site, including the launch of Little Joe 2 on December 4, 1959, which sent a rhesus monkey, Sam, into suborbital spaceflight. Langley later oversaw the Viking program to Mars.
The new U.S. Interstate highway system begun in the 1950s and the new Hampton Roads Bridge - Tunnel in 1958 helped transform Virginia Beach from a tiny resort town into one of the state 's largest cities by 1963, and spurring the growth of the Hampton Roads region linked by the Hampton Roads Beltway. In the western portion of the state, completion of north - south Interstate 81 brought better access and new businesses to dozens of counties over a distance of 300 miles (480 km) as well as facilitating travel by students at the many Shenandoah area colleges and universities. The creation of Smith Mountain Lake, Lake Anna, Claytor Lake, Lake Gaston, and Buggs Island Lake, by damming rivers, attracted many retirees and vacationers to those rural areas. As the century drew to a close, Virginia tobacco growing gradually declined due to health concerns, although not at steeply as in Southern Maryland. A state community college system brought affordable higher education within commuting distance of most Virginians, including those in remote, underserved localities. Other new institutions were founded, most notably George Mason University and Liberty University. Localities such as Danville and Martinsville suffered greatly as their manufacturing industries closed.
In 1944, Irene Morgan refused to give up her seat on an interstate bus and was arrested in Middlesex County, Virginia pursuant to Virginia 's segregation laws. Morgan appealed her case up to the Supreme Court and, in 1946, won Irene Morgan v. Commonwealth of Virginia, which struck down segregation interstate buses. Virginia continued to enforce interstate bus segregation, and in 1947, activists organized a series of integrated rides, the Journey of Reconciliation, through Virginia and other states of the Upper South in an act of civil disobedience against Virginia 's defiance of the Supreme Court 's ruling. Another Supreme Court ruling involving Virginia, Boynton v. Virginia, desegregated interstate bus terminals. Morgan, Boynton, and the Journey of Reconciliation inspired the 1961 Freedom Rides that fought bus segregation in the Deep South. Along with the bus desegregation cases, Virginia was a contestant in the Supreme Court ruling that invalidated laws prohibiting interracial marriage, Loving v. Virginia.
The state government orchestrated systematic resistance to federal court orders requiring the end of segregation. The state legislature even enacted a package of laws, known as the Stanley plan, to try to evade racial integration in public schools. Prince Edward County even closed all its public schools in an attempt to avoid racial integration, but relented in the face of U.S. Supreme Court rulings. The first black students attended the University of Virginia School of Law in 1950, and Virginia Tech in 1953. In 2008, various actions of the Civil Rights Movement were commemorated by the Virginia Civil Rights Memorial in Richmond.
By the 1980s, Northern Virginia and the Hampton Roads region had achieved the greatest growth and prosperity, chiefly because of employment related to Federal government agencies and defense, as well as an increase in technology in Northern Virginia. Shipping through the Port of Hampton Roads began expansion which continued into the early 21st century as new container facilities were opened. Coal piers in Newport News and Norfolk had recorded major gains in export shipments by August 2008. The recent expansion of government programs in the areas near Washington has profoundly affected the economy of Northern Virginia whose population has experienced large growth and great ethnic / cultural diversification, exemplified by communities such as Tysons Corner, Reston and dense, urban Arlington. The subsequent growth of defense projects has also generated a local information technology industry. In recent years, intolerably heavy commuter traffic and the urgent need for both road and rail transportation improvements have been a major issue in Northern Virginia. The Hampton Roads region has also experienced much growth, as have the western suburbs of Richmond in both Henrico and Chesterfield Counties.
On January 13, 1990, Douglas Wilder became the first African American to be elected as Governor of a US state since Reconstruction when he was elected Governor of Virginia.
Virginia served as a major center for information technology during the early days of the Internet and network communication. Internet and other communications companies clustered in the Dulles Corridor. By 1993, the Washington area had the largest amount of Internet backbone and the highest concentration of Internet service providers. In 2000, more than half of all Internet traffic flowed along the Dulles Toll Road, and by 2016 70 % of the world 's internet traffic flowed through Loudoun County. Bill von Meister founded two Virginia companies that played major roles in the commercialization of the Internet: McLean, Virginia based The Source and Control Video Corporation, forerunner of America Online. While short - lived, The Source was one of the first online service providers alongside CompuServe. On hand for the launch of The Source, Isaac Asimov remarked "This is the beginning of the information age. '' The Source helped pave the way for future online service providers including another Virginia company founded by von Meister, America Online (AOL). AOL became the largest provider of Internet access during the Dial - up era of Internet access. AOL maintained a Virginia headquarters until the then - struggling company moved in 2007.
In 2006 former Governor of Virginia Mark Warner gave a speech and interview in the massively multiplayer online game Second Life, becoming the first politician to appear in a video game. In 2007 Virginia speedily passed the nation 's first spaceflight act by a vote of 99 -- 0 in the House of Delegates. Northern Virginia company Space Adventures is currently the only company in the world offering space tourism. In 2008 Virginia became the first state to pass legislation on Internet safety, with mandatory educational courses for 11 - to 16 - year - olds.
Virginia was targeted in the September 11, 2001 attacks, as American Airlines Flight 77 was hijacked and crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County.
In 2013, by a slight margin in the Virginia Governor 's race, the state of Virginia broke a long acclaimed streak of choosing a governor against the incumbent party within the White House. For the first time in more than thirty years will the Governor and the President be from the same party.
Stamps of Virginia events and landmarks include
Jamestown founding
Mount Vernon
Stratford Hall
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who are members of the joint chiefs of staff | Joint Chiefs of Staff - wikipedia
The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) is a body of senior uniformed leaders in the United States Department of Defense who advise the President of the United States, the Secretary of Defense, the Homeland Security Council and the National Security Council on military matters. The composition of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is defined by statute and consists of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS), Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (VCJCS), the Military Service Chiefs from the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force, and the Chief of the National Guard Bureau, all appointed by the President following Senate confirmation. Each of the individual Military Service Chiefs, outside their Joint Chiefs of Staff obligations, works directly for the Secretary of the Military Department concerned, i.e., Secretary of the Army, Secretary of the Navy, and the Secretary of the Air Force.
Following the Goldwater -- Nichols Act in 1986, the Joint Chiefs of Staff do not have operational command authority, either individually or collectively, as the chain of command goes from the President to the Secretary of Defense, and from the Secretary of Defense to the Commanders of the Combatant Commands. Goldwater -- Nichols also created the office of Vice Chairman, and the Chairman is now designated as the principal military adviser to the Secretary of Defense, the Homeland Security Council, the National Security Council and the President.
The Joint Staff (JS) is a headquarters staff in the Pentagon, composed of personnel from each of the five armed services, that assists the Chairman and the Vice Chairman in discharging their responsibilities and is managed by the Director of the Joint Staff (DJS), who is a lieutenant general or Navy vice admiral.
After the 1986 reorganization of the military undertaken by the Goldwater - Nichols Act, the Joint Chiefs of Staff does not have operational command of U.S. military forces. Responsibility for conducting military operations goes from the President to the Secretary of Defense directly to the commanders of the Unified Combatant Commands and thus bypasses the Joint Chiefs of Staff completely.
Today, their primary responsibility is to ensure the personnel readiness, policy, planning and training of their respective military services for the combatant commanders to utilize. The Joint Chiefs of Staff also act in a military advisory capacity for the President of the United States and the Secretary of Defense. In addition, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff acts as the chief military advisor to the President and the Secretary of Defense. In this strictly advisory role, the Joint Chiefs constitute the second - highest deliberatory body for military policy, after the National Security Council and the Homeland Security Council, which includes the President and other officials besides the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs.
While serving as chairman or Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Chief of Staff of the Army, Commandant of the Marine Corps, Chief of Naval Operations, Chief of Staff of the Air Force, or Commandant of the Coast Guard, the salary is $15,583.20 a month, regardless of cumulative years of service completed under section 205 of title 37, United States Code.
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As the military of the United States grew in size following the American Civil War, joint military action between the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy became increasingly difficult. The Army and Navy were unsupportive of each other at either the planning or operational level and were constrained by disagreements during the Spanish -- American War in the Caribbean campaigns. The Joint Army and Navy Board was established in 1903 by President Theodore Roosevelt, comprising representatives from the military heads and chief planners of both the Navy 's General Board and the Army 's General Staff. The Joint Board acting as an "advisory committee '' was created to plan joint operations and resolve problems of common rivalry between the two services.
Yet, the Joint Board accomplished little as its charter gave it no authority to enforce its decisions. The Joint Board also lacked the ability to originate its own opinions and was thus limited to commenting only on the problems submitted to it by the Secretaries of War and Navy. As a result, the Joint Board had little to no impact on the manner the United States conducted World War I.
After World War I, in 1919 the two Secretaries agreed to reestablish and revitalize the Joint Board. The mission of the General staff was to develop plans for mobilization for the next war; the US was always designated "Blue '' and potential enemies were assigned various other colors.
This time, the Joint Board 's membership would include the Chiefs of Staff, their deputies, and the Chief of War Plans Division for the Army and Director of Plans Division for the Navy. Under the Joint Board would be a staff called the Joint Planning Committee to serve the Board. Along with new membership, the Joint Board could initiate recommendations on its own initiative. However, the Joint Board still did not possess the legal authority to enforce its decisions.
President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill established the Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCS) during the 1942 Arcadia Conference. The CCS would serve as the supreme military body for strategic direction of the combined US - British Empire war effort.
The UK portion of the CCS would be composed of the British Chiefs of Staff Committee, but the United States had no equivalent body. The Joint Board 's lack of authority made it of little use to the CCS, although its 1935 publication, Joint Action of the Army and Navy, did give some guidance for the joint operations during World War II. The Joint Board had little influence during the war and was ultimately disbanded in 1947.
As a counterpart to the UK 's Chiefs of Staff Committee in the CCS, and to provide better coordinated effort and coordinated staff work for America 's military effort, Admiral William D. Leahy proposed a "unified high command '' in what would come to be called the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Modeled on the British Chiefs of Staff Committee, the JCS ' first formal meeting was held on 9 February 1942, to coordinate U.S. military operations between War and Navy Departments. The official history of the Army Air Forces noted that although there was "no official charter establishing this committee... by the end of February it had assumed responsibilities toward the American war effort comparable to the CCS on the combined level. '' On 20 July 1942, Admiral Leahy became the Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy ("Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States '' is the military title of the U.S. President, per Article II, § 2, of the Constitution), with the chiefs of staff of the services serving under his leadership.
The first members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff were:
As the table indicates, each of the members of the original Joint Chiefs was a four - star flag officer in his respective service branch. By the end of the war, however, each had been promoted: Leahy and King to Fleet Admiral; Marshall and Arnold to General of the Army. Arnold was later appointed to the grade of General of the Air Force.
One of the Joint Chiefs of Staff 's committees was the Joint Strategic Survey Committee (JSSC). The JSSC was an extraordinary JCS committee that existed from 1942 until 1947. It was "one of the most influential planning agencies in the wartime armed forces. '' Members included Lieutenant General Stanley D. Embick, U.S. Army, chairman, 1942 --, Vice Admiral Russell Willson, U.S. Navy, 1942 -- 1945, Vice Admiral Theodore Stark Wilkinson, U.S. Navy, 1946, and Major General Muir S. Fairchild, U.S. Army Air Force, 1942 --.
With the end of World War II, the Joint Chiefs of Staff was officially established under the National Security Act of 1947. Per the National Security Act, the JCS consisted of a chairman, the Chief of Staff of the Army, the Chief of Staff of the Air Force (which was established as a separate service by the same Act), and the Chief of Naval Operations. The Commandant of the Marine Corps was to be consulted on matters concerning the Corps, but was not a regular member; General Lemuel C. Shepherd, Jr., Commandant in 1952 -- 55, was the first to sit as an occasional member. The law was amended during the term of General Louis H. Wilson, Jr. (1975 -- 79), making the Commandant a full - time JCS member in parity with the other three DoD services.
The position of vice-chairman was created by the Goldwater -- Nichols Act of 1986 to complement the CJCS, as well as to delegate some of the chairman 's responsibilities, particularly resource allocation through the Joint Requirements Oversight Council (JROC).
General Colin L. Powell (1989 -- 93) was the first and, as of 2011, the only African American to serve on the Joint Chiefs of Staff. General Peter Pace (Vice chairman 2001 -- 05; Chairman, 2005 -- 07) was the first Marine to serve in either position. No woman has ever served on the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
A provision in the 2012 National Defense Authorization Act added the Chief of the National Guard Bureau to the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Guard historians called it the "most significant development '' for the National Guard since the Militia Act of 1903.
The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is, by law, the highest - ranking military officer of the United States Armed Forces, and the principal military adviser to the President of the United States. He leads the meetings and coordinates the efforts of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, comprising the chairman, the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, the Commandant of the United States Marine Corps, the Chief of Naval Operations, the Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force, and the Chief of the National Guard Bureau. The Joint Chiefs of Staff have offices in The Pentagon. The chairman outranks all respective heads of each service branch, but does not have command authority over them, their service branches or the Unified Combatant Commands. All combatant commanders receive operational orders directly from the Secretary of Defense.
The current chairman is General Joseph Dunford, USMC, who began his term on October 1, 2015.
On 20 July 1942, Navy Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy became the Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy (20 July 1942 -- 21 March 1949). He was not technically the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Leahy 's office was the precursor to the post of Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. That post was established and first held by General of the Army Omar Bradley in 1949.
The position of Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff was created by the Goldwater - Nichols Act of 1986. The vice-chairman is a four - star - general or admiral and, by law, is the second highest - ranking member of the U.S. Armed Forces (after the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff). In the absence of the chairman, the vice-chairman presides over the meetings of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. He may also perform such duties as the chairman may prescribe. It was not until the National Defense Authorization Act in 1992 that the position was made a full voting member of the JCS.
The current vice-chairman is General Paul J. Selva, USAF.
The Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (SEAC) advises on all matters concerning joint and combined total force integration, utilization, development, and helps develop noncommissioned officers related joint professional education, enhance utilization of senior NCOs on joint battle staffs, and support the chairman 's responsibilities as directed.
Command Sergeant Major William Gainey, USA, was the first SEAC, serving from October 1, 2005. The current SEAC is Command Sergeant Major John W. Troxell, US Army, who was sworn in by Joint Chiefs Chairman General Joseph Dunford on December 11, 2015, replacing Sergeant Major Bryan B. Battaglia, USMC.
The Joint Staff (JS) is a military headquarters staff based at the Pentagon, composed of personnel from all the five armed services, assisting the Chairman and the Vice Chairman in discharging their responsibilities. They work closely with the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD), the Military Department staffs, and the Combatant Command Staffs.
The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is assisted by the Director of the Joint Staff, a three - star officer who assists the chairman with the management of the Joint Staff, an organization composed of approximately equal numbers of officers contributed by the Army, the Navy and Marine Corps, the Air Force, and the Coast Guard, who have been assigned to assist the chairman in providing to the Secretary of Defense unified strategic direction, operation, and integration of the combatant land, naval, and air forces.
The Joint Staff includes the following departments where all the planning, policies, intelligence, manpower, communications and logistics functions are translated into action.
The Joint Chiefs may recognize private citizens, organizations or career civilian government employees for significant achievements provided to the joint community with one of the following decorations / awards.
Although the Coast Guard is one of the five armed services of the United States, the Commandant of the Coast Guard is not a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Commandant is, however, entitled to the same supplemental pay as the Joint Chiefs, per 37 U.S.C. § 414 (a) (5) ($4,000 per annum in 2009), and is accorded privilege of the floor under Senate Rule XXIII (1) as a de facto JCS member during Presidential addresses. In contrast to the Joint Chiefs -- who are not in the military 's operational chain of command, the Commandant of the Coast Guard commands his service. Coast Guard officers are legally eligible to be appointed as CJCS and VCJCS, per 10 U.S.C. 152 (a) (1) & 154 (a) (1) respectively -- which use the collective term "armed forces '' rather than listing the eligible services -- but none has been appointed to either position as of 2016. The Coast Guard does have one officer who was appointed in 2016 to the Joint Staff who currently serves as J6.
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who sings the theme song for the jeffersons | The Jeffersons - wikipedia
The Jeffersons is an American sitcom that was broadcast on CBS from January 18, 1975, through July 2, 1985, lasting 11 seasons and a total of 253 episodes. The Jeffersons is one of the longest - running sitcoms, the second - longest - running American series with a primarily African American cast (surpassed in 2012 by Tyler Perry 's House of Payne by one episode, though The Jeffersons ran for more seasons), and the first to prominently feature a married interracial couple.
The show focuses on George and Louise Jefferson, a prosperous African - American couple who have been able to move from Queens to Manhattan owing to the success of George 's dry - cleaner chain. The show was launched as the second spin - off of All in the Family, on which the Jeffersons had been the neighbors of Archie and Edith Bunker. The show was the creation of Norman Lear. The Jeffersons eventually evolved into more of a traditional sitcom but did reference such issues as alcoholism, racism, suicide, gun control, being transgender, and adult illiteracy. The epithets "nigger '' and "honky '' were used occasionally, especially during the earlier seasons.
The Jeffersons had one spin - off, titled Checking In. The series was centered on the Jeffersons ' housekeeper, Florence. Checking In only lasted four episodes, after which Florence returned to The Jeffersons. The Jeffersons also shared continuity with the show E / R, which featured Lynne Moody, who made a guest appearance in one episode of The Jeffersons. Sherman Hemsley guest - starred as George in two episodes of the series, which lasted for one season.
The Jeffersons ended in controversy after CBS abruptly canceled the series without allowing for a proper series finale. The cast was not informed until after the July 2, 1985, episode "Red Robins '', and actor Sherman Hemsley said he found out that the show was canceled by reading it in the newspaper. Sanford, who heard about the cancellation through her cousin who read about it in the tabloids, has publicly stated that she found the cancellation with no proper finale to be disrespectful on the network 's part.
The cast reunited in a stage play based on the sitcom. In the 1996 series finale of The Fresh Prince of Bel - Air, the Jeffersons made a guest appearance and bought the house from the Banks family. In an episode of Tyler Perry 's House of Payne in 2011, Sherman Hemsley and Marla Gibbs reprised their roles of George Jefferson and Florence Johnston.
In 1985, Hemsley and Sanford made a special joint guest appearance in the Canale 5 comedy show Grand Hotel, starring Italian actors Paolo Villaggio, Franco & Ciccio comic duo and Carmen Russo. They were guests in the fictional hotel, and appeared just twice during the show, for a total of five minutes. Their voices were dubbed by Italian actors Enzo Garinei (George) and Isa di Marzio (Louise), who also dubbed their characters for the full series.
Louise Jefferson, played by Isabel Sanford, first appeared in the All in the Family episode "Lionel Moves Into the Neighborhood '', which was broadcast on March 2, 1971. The episode, the eighth of the series, centers on Louise, her son Lionel, and her husband George 's moving next door to Archie and Edith Bunker in the working - class section of Queens. Lionel, played by Mike Evans, first appeared in "Meet the Bunkers '', the premiere episode of All in the Family.
Norman Lear created the character of George Jefferson specifically for Hemsley. Lear originally intended for George to appear in the first season of the series; however, Hemsley was starring in the Broadway musical Purlie at the time, and Lear decided to postpone introduction of the character until Hemsley was available. Lear created the character of Henry Jefferson, George 's younger brother, and replaced George with Henry in the series 's scripts until Purlie finished its run. Mel Stewart was cast as Henry. George was introduced in the episode "Henry 's Farewell '', and Hemsley and Stewart share their only scene together in its final minutes. The episode marked the final appearance of Henry.
George, Louise, and Lionel continued to appear on All in the Family until 1975, when the spin - off The Jeffersons, also created by Lear, premiered. The characters of Lionel 's biracial fiancée, Jenny, and her family, all of whom first appeared in the 1974 All in the Family episode "Lionel 's Engagement '', were also written into the new series. However, the roles were all recast, with Berlinda Tolbert taking over the role of Jenny, veteran actor Franklin Cover playing her father, Tom Willis, whose first name was changed from Louis, as it was in their first AITF appearance, and Roxie Roker as her mother, Helen.
During the January 11, 1975 episode of All in the Family, titled "The Jeffersons Move Up '', Edith Bunker gave a tearful good - bye to her neighbor Louise Jefferson, as her husband George, their son Lionel, and she moved from a working - class section of Queens, New York into a luxury apartment in Manhattan. The Jeffersons premiered the following week, on January 18, 1975.
George 's career as a dry - cleaner began in the first season of All in the Family, in the third episode, "Oh, My Aching Back '' (though the character himself did not appear on - camera). After his car was rear - ended by a bus, he filed a civil action and won $3200, enough to open his first store in Queens. At the beginning of The Jeffersons, he was operating five stores throughout New York City, with another two opening during the following seasons.
Louise made friends with Tom and Helen Willis, an interracial couple with two adult children of their own (whom George insultingly called "zebras ''): son Allan (played by Andrew Rubin in the first - season finale, and by Jay Hammer throughout season 5), a white - passing college drop - out; and daughter Jenny, an aspiring fashion designer. Jenny and Lionel became a couple, were married on December 24, 1976, and later became the parents of a daughter, Jessica (played in later seasons by Ebonie Smith). Lionel and Jenny experienced marital issues, and filed for divorce in 1985.
Marla Gibbs portrayed the role of Florence Johnston, the Jeffersons ' back - talking, wisecracking, and devoutly religious housekeeper. Florence often teased George, mostly about his short stature and receding hairline. Paul Benedict arrived as Harry Bentley, a loyal, kind, friendly yet somewhat dimwitted British next - door neighbor, who worked as an interpreter at the United Nations.
A common sight - gag of the show was George slamming the door in Bentley 's face mid-conversation. Bentley also had a bad back, and frequently needed George to walk on his back. He also became known for addressing the Jeffersons as "Mr. J '' and "Mrs. J ''. Zara Cully played George 's mother, Olivia "Mother '' Jefferson, who constantly disparaged her daughter - in - law. Cully, who had first appeared in the 1974 All in the Family episode, "Lionel 's Engagement '', reprised her role. She appeared regularly in the first two seasons, but made sporadic appearances over the next two years and was written out in the fifth season (Cully died in 1978, from lung cancer; no episode was centered on Mother Jefferson 's death, but it was mentioned that she had died in season 5). Ned Wertimer played the doorman, Ralph Hart, throughout the series, along with Danny Wells who played Charlie the bartender.
Mike Evans ("Lionel '') left the show after the first season; his replacement was Damon Evans (no relation), who took over the role until halfway through the fourth season. Damon Evans 's last episode was "Lionel Gets the Business ''.
Mike Evans and Tolbert returned in the 1979 -- 1980 season, with Tolbert 's character, Jenny, pregnant with a daughter named Jessica. However, Mike Evans appeared for only one more season, along with Tolbert. The Jeffersons ' sixth season peaked at # 8 in the summer of 1980. The characters of Lionel and Jenny were written out by stating that they had marital problems, the result of which became a two - part episode storyline as the series ' eighth - season premiere. The series ' eighth season was the first African - American sitcom in years (since Sanford and Son) to peak in the top 5 (the series ' eighth season debuted at # 3).
Evans and Tolbert appeared in the two - part episode together; Evans also appeared in one episode during the series ' ninth season in 1982, and made his final appearance in two episodes during the series ' eleventh and final season. Tolbert became a regular guest star throughout the rest of the series. In the spring of 1981, Paul Benedict left the show for a season and a half, returning in the final two seasons of the series. However, the ratings sank below the top 30, and The Jeffersons aired its last episode, "Red Robins '', on July 2, 1985.
Source
The Jeffersons had many two - part episodes, either over two consecutive weeks, or aired as an hour - long episode.
Ja'net Dubois (from Good Times) and Jeff Barry co-wrote The Jeffersons theme song, "Movin ' on Up '', which was sung by Dubois with a gospel choir. The song was covered by Sammy Davis, Jr., in 1978.
The Jeffersons changed time slots at least 15 different times during its 11 - year run, unusual for a popular long running series. The most common time slot was on Sunday night.
In its first season (1974 -- 75), the show ranked at number four, surpassed by its parent series All in the Family (which landed at number one for the fifth year in a row). The show 's ratings for the following two seasons placed it in the Top 30, but during the 1977 -- 78 and 1978 -- 79 seasons (the show 's fourth and fifth seasons), it fell out of the top 30.
It returned to the Top 10 in 1979 -- 80, and at the end of the 1981 -- 82 season, The Jeffersons finished third overall, only surpassed by fellow CBS series Dallas and 60 Minutes. As a result, the series remained among the Top 20 for the next two seasons.
The Jeffersons received 14 Emmy Award nominations during its time on the air. Marla Gibbs was nominated for Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series each year from 1981 - 85. Sherman Hemsley was nominated for Best Actor in 1984. Larry M. Harris won the Emmy for Outstanding Video Tape Editing for a Series in 1983.
Isabel Sanford was nominated for seven consecutive Best Actress Emmys, from 1979 until 1985. Her victory in 1981 made her the first African - American actress to win an Emmy for Best Actress in a Comedy Series, and the second to win any Emmy Award; Gail Fisher, who played Peggy on the TV show Mannix, preceded her in 1970. Sanford was also the recipient of five of the eight Golden Globe Awards nominations the program received.
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the first six seasons of The Jeffersons on DVD in Region 1 between 2002 and 2007. These releases have been discontinued and are now out of print.
On August 27, 2013, it was announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the rights to various television series from the Sony Pictures library including The Jeffersons. They subsequently re-released the first two seasons on DVD on May 20, 2014.
On August 8, 2014, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series; they subsequently released the complete series on DVD in a 33 - disc collection on December 9, 2014.
On April 28, 2015, Shout! released season 7 on DVD in Region 1. Season 8 was released on August 11, 2015.
As of 2016, all eleven seasons of The Jeffersons are available for online streaming on the STARZ network.
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different type of data used in cluster analysis | Cluster analysis - Wikipedia
Cluster analysis or clustering is the task of grouping a set of objects in such a way that objects in the same group (called a cluster) are more similar (in some sense or another) to each other than to those in other groups (clusters). It is a main task of exploratory data mining, and a common technique for statistical data analysis, used in many fields, including machine learning, pattern recognition, image analysis, information retrieval, bioinformatics, data compression, and computer graphics.
Cluster analysis itself is not one specific algorithm, but the general task to be solved. It can be achieved by various algorithms that differ significantly in their notion of what constitutes a cluster and how to efficiently find them. Popular notions of clusters include groups with small distances among the cluster members, dense areas of the data space, intervals or particular statistical distributions. Clustering can therefore be formulated as a multi-objective optimization problem. The appropriate clustering algorithm and parameter settings (including values such as the distance function to use, a density threshold or the number of expected clusters) depend on the individual data set and intended use of the results. Cluster analysis as such is not an automatic task, but an iterative process of knowledge discovery or interactive multi-objective optimization that involves trial and failure. It is often necessary to modify data preprocessing and model parameters until the result achieves the desired properties.
Besides the term clustering, there are a number of terms with similar meanings, including automatic classification, numerical taxonomy, botryology (from Greek βότρυς "grape '') and typological analysis. The subtle differences are often in the usage of the results: while in data mining, the resulting groups are the matter of interest, in automatic classification the resulting discriminative power is of interest.
Cluster analysis was originated in anthropology by Driver and Kroeber in 1932 and introduced to psychology by Zubin in 1938 and Robert Tryon in 1939 and famously used by Cattell beginning in 1943 for trait theory classification in personality psychology.
The notion of a "cluster '' can not be precisely defined, which is one of the reasons why there are so many clustering algorithms. There is a common denominator: a group of data objects. However, different researchers employ different cluster models, and for each of these cluster models again different algorithms can be given. The notion of a cluster, as found by different algorithms, varies significantly in its properties. Understanding these "cluster models '' is key to understanding the differences between the various algorithms. Typical cluster models include:
A "clustering '' is essentially a set of such clusters, usually containing all objects in the data set. Additionally, it may specify the relationship of the clusters to each other, for example, a hierarchy of clusters embedded in each other. Clusterings can be roughly distinguished as:
There are also finer distinctions possible, for example:
Clustering algorithms can be categorized based on their cluster model, as listed above. The following overview will only list the most prominent examples of clustering algorithms, as there are possibly over 100 published clustering algorithms. Not all provide models for their clusters and can thus not easily be categorized. An overview of algorithms explained in Wikipedia can be found in the list of statistics algorithms.
There is no objectively "correct '' clustering algorithm, but as it was noted, "clustering is in the eye of the beholder. '' The most appropriate clustering algorithm for a particular problem often needs to be chosen experimentally, unless there is a mathematical reason to prefer one cluster model over another. It should be noted that an algorithm that is designed for one kind of model will generally fail on a data set that contains a radically different kind of model. For example, k - means can not find non-convex clusters.
Connectivity based clustering, also known as hierarchical clustering, is based on the core idea of objects being more related to nearby objects than to objects farther away. These algorithms connect "objects '' to form "clusters '' based on their distance. A cluster can be described largely by the maximum distance needed to connect parts of the cluster. At different distances, different clusters will form, which can be represented using a dendrogram, which explains where the common name "hierarchical clustering '' comes from: these algorithms do not provide a single partitioning of the data set, but instead provide an extensive hierarchy of clusters that merge with each other at certain distances. In a dendrogram, the y - axis marks the distance at which the clusters merge, while the objects are placed along the x-axis such that the clusters do n't mix.
Connectivity based clustering is a whole family of methods that differ by the way distances are computed. Apart from the usual choice of distance functions, the user also needs to decide on the linkage criterion (since a cluster consists of multiple objects, there are multiple candidates to compute the distance) to use. Popular choices are known as single - linkage clustering (the minimum of object distances), complete linkage clustering (the maximum of object distances) or UPGMA ("Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean '', also known as average linkage clustering). Furthermore, hierarchical clustering can be agglomerative (starting with single elements and aggregating them into clusters) or divisive (starting with the complete data set and dividing it into partitions).
These methods will not produce a unique partitioning of the data set, but a hierarchy from which the user still needs to choose appropriate clusters. They are not very robust towards outliers, which will either show up as additional clusters or even cause other clusters to merge (known as "chaining phenomenon '', in particular with single - linkage clustering). In the general case, the complexity is O (n 3) (\ displaystyle (\ mathcal (O)) (n ^ (3))) for agglomerative clustering and O (2 n − 1) (\ displaystyle (\ mathcal (O)) (2 ^ (n - 1))) for divisive clustering, which makes them too slow for large data sets. For some special cases, optimal efficient methods (of complexity O (n 2) (\ displaystyle (\ mathcal (O)) (n ^ (2)))) are known: SLINK for single - linkage and CLINK for complete - linkage clustering. In the data mining community these methods are recognized as a theoretical foundation of cluster analysis, but often considered obsolete. They did however provide inspiration for many later methods such as density based clustering.
Single - linkage on Gaussian data. At 35 clusters, the biggest cluster starts fragmenting into smaller parts, while before it was still connected to the second largest due to the single - link effect.
Single - linkage on density - based clusters. 20 clusters extracted, most of which contain single elements, since linkage clustering does not have a notion of "noise ''.
In centroid - based clustering, clusters are represented by a central vector, which may not necessarily be a member of the data set. When the number of clusters is fixed to k, k - means clustering gives a formal definition as an optimization problem: find the k cluster centers and assign the objects to the nearest cluster center, such that the squared distances from the cluster are minimized.
The optimization problem itself is known to be NP - hard, and thus the common approach is to search only for approximate solutions. A particularly well known approximate method is Lloyd 's algorithm, often just referred to as "k - means algorithm '' (although another algorithm introduced this name). It does however only find a local optimum, and is commonly run multiple times with different random initializations. Variations of k - means often include such optimizations as choosing the best of multiple runs, but also restricting the centroids to members of the data set (k - medoids), choosing medians (k - medians clustering), choosing the initial centers less randomly (k - means++) or allowing a fuzzy cluster assignment (fuzzy c - means).
Most k - means - type algorithms require the number of clusters - k - to be specified in advance, which is considered to be one of the biggest drawbacks of these algorithms. Furthermore, the algorithms prefer clusters of approximately similar size, as they will always assign an object to the nearest centroid. This often leads to incorrectly cut borders of clusters (which is not surprising since the algorithm optimizes cluster centers, not cluster borders).
K - means has a number of interesting theoretical properties. First, it partitions the data space into a structure known as a Voronoi diagram. Second, it is conceptually close to nearest neighbor classification, and as such is popular in machine learning. Third, it can be seen as a variation of model based clustering, and Lloyd 's algorithm as a variation of the Expectation - maximization algorithm for this model discussed below.
K - means separates data into Voronoi - cells, which assumes equal - sized clusters (not adequate here)
K - means can not represent density - based clusters
The clustering model most closely related to statistics is based on distribution models. Clusters can then easily be defined as objects belonging most likely to the same distribution. A convenient property of this approach is that this closely resembles the way artificial data sets are generated: by sampling random objects from a distribution.
While the theoretical foundation of these methods is excellent, they suffer from one key problem known as overfitting, unless constraints are put on the model complexity. A more complex model will usually be able to explain the data better, which makes choosing the appropriate model complexity inherently difficult.
One prominent method is known as Gaussian mixture models (using the expectation - maximization algorithm). Here, the data set is usually modeled with a fixed (to avoid overfitting) number of Gaussian distributions that are initialized randomly and whose parameters are iteratively optimized to better fit the data set. This will converge to a local optimum, so multiple runs may produce different results. In order to obtain a hard clustering, objects are often then assigned to the Gaussian distribution they most likely belong to; for soft clusterings, this is not necessary.
Distribution - based clustering produces complex models for clusters that can capture correlation and dependence between attributes. However, these algorithms put an extra burden on the user: for many real data sets, there may be no concisely defined mathematical model (e.g. assuming Gaussian distributions is a rather strong assumption on the data).
On Gaussian - distributed data, EM works well, since it uses Gaussians for modelling clusters
Density - based clusters can not be modeled using Gaussian distributions
In density - based clustering, clusters are defined as areas of higher density than the remainder of the data set. Objects in these sparse areas - that are required to separate clusters - are usually considered to be noise and border points.
The most popular density based clustering method is DBSCAN. In contrast to many newer methods, it features a well - defined cluster model called "density - reachability ''. Similar to linkage based clustering, it is based on connecting points within certain distance thresholds. However, it only connects points that satisfy a density criterion, in the original variant defined as a minimum number of other objects within this radius. A cluster consists of all density - connected objects (which can form a cluster of an arbitrary shape, in contrast to many other methods) plus all objects that are within these objects ' range. Another interesting property of DBSCAN is that its complexity is fairly low - it requires a linear number of range queries on the database - and that it will discover essentially the same results (it is deterministic for core and noise points, but not for border points) in each run, therefore there is no need to run it multiple times. OPTICS is a generalization of DBSCAN that removes the need to choose an appropriate value for the range parameter ε (\ displaystyle \ varepsilon), and produces a hierarchical result related to that of linkage clustering. DeLi - Clu, Density - Link - Clustering combines ideas from single - linkage clustering and OPTICS, eliminating the ε (\ displaystyle \ varepsilon) parameter entirely and offering performance improvements over OPTICS by using an R - tree index.
The key drawback of DBSCAN and OPTICS is that they expect some kind of density drop to detect cluster borders. On data sets with, for example, overlapping Gaussian distributions - a common use case in artificial data - the cluster borders produced by these algorithms will often look arbitrary, because the cluster density decreases continuously. On a data set consisting of mixtures of Gaussians, these algorithms are nearly always outperformed by methods such as EM clustering that are able to precisely model this kind of data.
Mean - shift is a clustering approach where each object is moved to the densest area in its vicinity, based on kernel density estimation. Eventually, objects converge to local maxima of density. Similar to k - means clustering, these "density attractors '' can serve as representatives for the data set, but mean - shift can detect arbitrary - shaped clusters similar to DBSCAN. Due to the expensive iterative procedure and density estimation, mean - shift is usually slower than DBSCAN or k - Means. Besides that, the applicability of the mean - shift algorithm to multidimensional data is hindered by the unsmooth behaviour of the kernel density estimate, which results in over-fragmentation of cluster tails.
Density - based clustering with DBSCAN.
DBSCAN assumes clusters of similar density, and may have problems separating nearby clusters
OPTICS is a DBSCAN variant that handles different densities much better
In recent years considerable effort has been put into improving the performance of existing algorithms. Among them are CLARANS (Ng and Han, 1994), and BIRCH (Zhang et al., 1996). With the recent need to process larger and larger data sets (also known as big data), the willingness to trade semantic meaning of the generated clusters for performance has been increasing. This led to the development of pre-clustering methods such as canopy clustering, which can process huge data sets efficiently, but the resulting "clusters '' are merely a rough pre-partitioning of the data set to then analyze the partitions with existing slower methods such as k - means clustering. Various other approaches to clustering have been tried such as seed based clustering.
For high - dimensional data, many of the existing methods fail due to the curse of dimensionality, which renders particular distance functions problematic in high - dimensional spaces. This led to new clustering algorithms for high - dimensional data that focus on subspace clustering (where only some attributes are used, and cluster models include the relevant attributes for the cluster) and correlation clustering that also looks for arbitrary rotated ("correlated '') subspace clusters that can be modeled by giving a correlation of their attributes. Examples for such clustering algorithms are CLIQUE and SUBCLU.
Ideas from density - based clustering methods (in particular the DBSCAN / OPTICS family of algorithms) have been adopted to subspace clustering (HiSC, hierarchical subspace clustering and DiSH) and correlation clustering (HiCO, hierarchical correlation clustering, 4C using "correlation connectivity '' and ERiC exploring hierarchical density - based correlation clusters).
Several different clustering systems based on mutual information have been proposed. One is Marina Meilă 's variation of information metric; another provides hierarchical clustering. Using genetic algorithms, a wide range of different fit - functions can be optimized, including mutual information. Also message passing algorithms, a recent development in computer science and statistical physics, has led to the creation of new types of clustering algorithms.
Evaluation (or "validation '') of clustering results is as difficult as the clustering itself. Popular approaches involve "internal '' evaluation, where the clustering is summarized to a single quality score, "external '' evaluation, where the clustering is compared to an existing "ground truth '' classification, "manual '' evaluation by a human expert, and "indirect '' evaluation by evaluating the utility of the clustering in its intended application.
Internal evaluation measures suffer from the problem that they represent functions that themselves can be seen as a clustering objective. For example, one could cluster the data set by the Silhouette coefficient; except that there is no known efficient algorithm for this. By using such an internal measure for evaluation, we rather compare the similarity of the optimization problems, and not necessarily how useful the clustering is.
External evaluation has similar problems: if we have such "ground truth '' labels, then we would not need to cluster; and in practical applications we usually do not have such labels. On the other hand, the labels only reflect one possible partitioning of the data set, which does not imply that there does not exist a different, and maybe even better, clustering.
Neither of these approaches can therefore ultimately judge the actual quality of a clustering, but this needs human evaluation, which is highly subjective. Nevertheless, such statistics can be quite informative in identifying bad clusterings, but one should not dismiss subjective human evaluation.
When a clustering result is evaluated based on the data that was clustered itself, this is called internal evaluation. Those that use a gold standard are called external measures and are discussed in the next section - although when they are symmetric they may also be used as measures between two clusters for internal evaluation. These methods usually assign the best score to the algorithm that produces clusters with high similarity within a cluster and low similarity between clusters. One drawback of using internal criteria in cluster evaluation is that high scores on an internal measure do not necessarily result in effective information retrieval applications. Additionally, this evaluation is biased towards algorithms that use the same cluster model. For example, k - means clustering naturally optimizes object distances, and a distance - based internal criterion will likely overrate the resulting clustering.
Therefore, the internal evaluation measures are best suited to get some insight into situations where one algorithm performs better than another, but this shall not imply that one algorithm produces more valid results than another. Validity as measured by such an index depends on the claim that this kind of structure exists in the data set. An algorithm designed for some kind of models has no chance if the data set contains a radically different set of models, or if the evaluation measures a radically different criterion. For example, k - means clustering can only find convex clusters, and many evaluation indexes assume convex clusters. On a data set with non-convex clusters neither the use of k - means, nor of an evaluation criterion that assumes convexity, is sound.
The following methods can be used to assess the quality of clustering algorithms based on internal criterion:
In external evaluation, clustering results are evaluated based on data that was not used for clustering, such as known class labels and external benchmarks. Such benchmarks consist of a set of pre-classified items, and these sets are often created by (expert) humans. Thus, the benchmark sets can be thought of as a gold standard for evaluation. These types of evaluation methods measure how close the clustering is to the predetermined benchmark classes. However, it has recently been discussed whether this is adequate for real data, or only on synthetic data sets with a factual ground truth, since classes can contain internal structure, the attributes present may not allow separation of clusters or the classes may contain anomalies. Additionally, from a knowledge discovery point of view, the reproduction of known knowledge may not necessarily be the intended result. In the special scenario of constrained clustering, where meta information (such as class labels) is used already in the clustering process, the hold - out of information for evaluation purposes is non-trivial.
A number of measures are adapted from variants used to evaluate classification tasks. In place of counting the number of times a class was correctly assigned to a single data point (known as true positives), such pair counting metrics assess whether each pair of data points that is truly in the same cluster is predicted to be in the same cluster.
Some of the measures of quality of a cluster algorithm using external criterion include:
To measure cluster tendency is to measure to what degree clusters exist in the data to be clustered, and may be performed as an initial test, before attempting clustering. One way to do this is to compare the data against random data. On average, random data should not have clusters.
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who sings let it go at the end of the movie | Let It Go (Disney song) - Wikipedia
"Let It Go '' is a song from Disney 's 2013 animated feature film Frozen, whose music and lyrics were composed by husband - and - wife songwriting team Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez. The song was performed in its original show - tune version in the film by American actress and singer Idina Menzel in her vocal role as Queen Elsa. Anderson - Lopez and Lopez also composed a simplified pop version (with shorter lyrics and background chorus) which was performed by actress and singer Demi Lovato over the start of the film 's closing credits. A music video was separately released for the pop version.
The song presents the ostracized Queen Elsa, who abandons her kingdom when her uncontrollable ability to generate ice is discovered by the public. Up in the mountains, away from the perplexed townspeople, Elsa realizes that she no longer needs to hide her sole ability, and so declares herself free from the restrictions she has had to endure since childhood. She rejoices in being able to use her power freely, to let her past go. Without this hindrance she appears to have more control over her powers and creates a living snowman and a magnificent ice castle for herself. The song also includes discarding items, most notably her glove which her parents gave her to hold back her powers, and taking her tiara off her head and throwing it over her shoulder, afterwards unraveling her braided hairstyle.
"Let It Go '' reached the top five on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, and won both the Academy Award for Best Original Song in 2014 and the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media in 2015. The song gained international recognition, becoming one of the most globally recorded Disney songs, with numerous covers being recorded in different languages.
According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry, "Let It Go '' sold 10.9 million copies in 2014, becoming the year 's fifth best - selling song.
The Daily Telegraph explained that instead of the villain originally envisioned by the producers, the songwriters saw Elsa as "a scared girl struggling to control and come to terms with her gift. '' When interviewed in January 2014 by John August and Aline Brosh McKenna, Frozen director Jennifer Lee gave her recollection of the song 's conception: "Bobby and Kristen said they were walking in Prospect Park and they just started talking about what would it feel like (to be Elsa). Forget villain. Just what it would feel like. And this concept of letting out who she is (,) that she 's kept to herself for so long (,) and she 's alone and free, but then the sadness of the fact (sic) that the last moment is she 's alone. It 's not a perfect thing, but it 's powerful. ''
"Let It Go '' was the first song written by Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez for the film that made it in, since songs composed earlier were eventually cut. The story outline they were given had a place reserved for "Elsa 's Badass Song '', which was what they were trying to write. The duo took inspiration from the songs of the Disney Renaissance such as The Little Mermaid and Beauty and the Beast and various artists including Adele, Aimee Mann, Avril Lavigne (whose 2002 debut album was titled Let Go), Lady Gaga, and Carole King. The song finally began to gel one day as the couple walked together from their home in Park Slope to nearby Prospect Park while they were "thinking from an emo kind of place. '' Anderson - Lopez explained what happened next: "We went for a walk in Prospect Park and threw phrases at each other. What does it feel like to be the perfect exalted person, but only because you 've held back this secret? Bobby came up with ' kingdom of isolation, ' and it worked. '' Lopez was able to improvise the song 's first four lines on the spot. Back at their home studio, they composed the rest of the song by alternating between improvising melodies on a piano and brainstorming lyrics on a whiteboard, and finished it within a single day.
"Let It Go '' is a power ballad in the key of A-flat major overall, but begins in the relative minor (F minor). The song is in quadruple meter, and has a fast tempo of around 137 beats per minute (allegro). The song 's vocal range spans from F to E ♭. Anderson - Lopez and Lopez specifically wrote the song for Idina Menzel, referring to her as "one of the most glorious voices of Broadway and an icon in musical theater. '' Menzel 's vocal range was taken under consideration during the music 's composition.
For each song they created, including "Let It Go '', Anderson - Lopez and Lopez recorded a demo in their studio, then emailed it to the Disney Animation production team in Burbank for discussion at their next videoconference. After the film 's release, Anderson - Lopez was shown an "explicitly honest '' fan version of the song with very colorful lyrics, and in response, she noted that in the videoconferences she herself had used similarly candid language to describe Elsa 's mindset at that point in the plot: "After a while, Chris Montan, the head of music at Disney, would be like, ' Whoa, language! ' '' She also disclosed that Disney Animation 's Chief Creative Officer John Lasseter (who served as executive producer for Frozen) was so taken with "Let It Go '' that he played her original demo of the song in his car for months.
Once approved, the song 's piano - vocal score, along with the rest of their work for Frozen, was eventually forwarded to arranger Dave Metzger at his home studio in Salem, Oregon, who orchestrated their work into a lush sound suitable for recording by a full orchestra at the Eastwood Scoring Stage on the Warner Bros. studio lot in Burbank at the end of July 2013. The song 's vocal track was recorded separately prior to orchestration at Sunset Sound in Hollywood, with the piano track from the demo playing into Menzel 's headphones. That piano track, played by Lopez himself, was not re-recorded by a session musician at the orchestral recording session; it is the same piano track heard in the final mix of the song.
Although unintentional, the song 's composition was pivotal in the film 's characterization of Elsa. Although Elsa was originally written as a villain, co-directors Chris Buck and Lee gradually rewrote Elsa into one of the film 's protagonists after "Let It Go '' was composed. About that, Lee later explained, "the minute we heard the song the first time, I knew that I had to rewrite the whole movie. '' Buck further clarified: "Jen had to go back and rewrite some pages in the first act to build up to that scene... You have to set it up well enough in advance so that when the song comes, the audience is ready for it and there 's an emotional payoff. ''
When it came to animating Elsa 's scenes for the song, Lopez and Anderson - Lopez insisted on the particular detail that Elsa should slam the palace doors on the audience at the song 's end, which they acknowledged was similar to the ending of the Broadway musical Sweeney Todd. Lopez explained that they wanted that feeling of how "this character does n't need us anymore, '' because he had always loved that feeling "when a character just kind of malevolently looks at you and slams a door in your face, '' although in the final version, Elsa 's facial expression ended up as more of a "sly smile ''. According to Lopez, it was the last line at the end, "the cold never bothered me anyway, '' that was "our little Avril Lavigne line ''.
On December 6, 2013, Walt Disney Animation Studios released a video of the entire "Let It Go '' sequence as seen in the movie, which has over 620 million views as of August 2018 on YouTube. On January 30, 2014, a sing - along version of the sequence was released and has received more than 1.5 billion views on YouTube as of August 2018, and is the site 's 40th most - viewed video.
Besides the original English version, Disney Character Voices International arranged for Frozen to be dubbed into another 47 languages and dialects worldwide. A major challenge was to find sopranos capable of matching Menzel 's warm vocal tone and vocal range in their native languages. Rick Dempsey, senior executive at Disney Character Voices International regarded the process as "exceptionally challenging '', explaining, "It 's a difficult juggling act to get the right intent of the lyrics and also have it match rhythmically to the music. And then you have to go back and adjust for lip sync! (It)... requires a lot of patience and precision. ''
On January 22, 2014, Disney released a multi-language version of the "Let It Go '' musical sequence, which featured vocal performances of 25 different voice actresses who portrayed Elsa in their respective dubbing versions of the film. At the annual meeting of the shareholders of the Walt Disney Company on March 18, 2014 in Portland, Oregon, chairman and chief executive officer Bob Iger praised the team who did "an incredible job casting fantastic international talent so that Frozen truly belongs to the world, '' then showed the entire multi-language video clip of "Let It Go '' to the assembled shareholders. On March 31, 2014, an in - studio multi-language video of the song was released, showing singers of 25 different languages recording their versions of "Let It Go ''. On April 15, 2014 a studio recording of the multi-language version was released via digital download.
In 2015, a Hindi and an Indonesian version of the movie were aired on Disney Channel. The Indonesian version features a translated pop version of "Let It Go '', sung by the ensemble of Indonesian singers Anggun, Chilla Kiana (id), Regina Ivanova (id), Nowela and Cindy Bernadette (id). The pop version was released as leading single of We Love Disney, Indonesia (id).
On April 15, 2014, Walt Disney Records released a compilation album titled Let It Go: The Complete Set, with all 42 foreign - language film versions of "Let It Go '' and nine end credit versions.
In South Korea, the pop version of the song by Hyolyn reached number six on the Gaon Music Chart in February, followed by the film version performed by Hye Na Park (ko) charting at number 80 in March. The Japanese versions of the song, performed in the film by Takako Matsu and in the end roll by May J., reached number 2 and 8 respectively on the Japan Hot 100 after the film 's Japanese release in March 2014. Matsu 's version was certified million for digital downloads in Japan in May 2014, and May J. 's version platinum for 250,000 downloads. May J. recorded a rearranged version of the song on her album Heartful Song Covers, which was released on March 26, 2014.
Since 2013, some local TV stations have been dubbing the movie in their local languages. Namely: Albanian, Arabic, Karachay - Balkar, Persian and Tagalog.
"Let It Go '' received widespread acclaim from film critics, music critics, and audiences, with some comparing it favorably to "Defying Gravity '' (also performed by Idina Menzel) from the Broadway musical Wicked. The Rochester City Newspaper called it the best song of the film 's soundtrack, writing; "Performed with belty gusto by Idina Menzel, it 's got every element needed to be a lasting favorite. (...) Menzel should be credited for providing as much power and passion to this performance as she did in her most famous role. '' Entertainment Weekly 's Marc Snetiker described the song as "an incredible anthem of liberation '' while Joe Dziemianowicz of New York Daily News called it "a stirring tribute to girl power and the need to ' let go ' of fear and shame ''.
On the other hand, Jim DeRogatis and Greg Kot of the radio show Sound Opinions criticized the song; DeRogatis labeled it "schlock '', and Kot described it as a "clichéd piece of fluff that you would have heard on a Broadway soundtrack from maybe the fifties or the sixties ''.
By spring 2014, many journalists had observed that after watching Frozen, numerous young children in the United States were becoming unusually obsessed with the film 's music, and with "Let It Go '' in particular. Columnist Yvonne Abraham of The Boston Globe called the song "musical crack '' which "sends kids into altered states. '' A similar phenomenon was described in the United Kingdom, where Lorraine Candy, editor - in - chief of Elle UK, wrote of a "musical epidemic sweeping the nation, relentlessly gathering up every child... in its cult - like grip ''.
Passenger, the singer - songwriter who rose to fame with the 2012 hit single "Let Her Go '', admitted in an August 2016 interview on The Project that his single is frequently confused with "Let It Go. '' As a result, he "always '' receives song requests for the latter, even though it is not his song.
In November 2017, Chilean pop singer Jaime Ciero sued Disney, Idina Menzel, and Demi Lovato, claiming that "Let It Go '' was extremely similar to his 2008 song "Volar ''.
Some viewers outside the film industry, including one evangelical pastor and commentators, believe that the film is a promotion for the normalization of homosexuality, while others have argued that the character of Elsa is a representation of positive LGBT youth and the song is a metaphor for coming out. The LGBT community, however, had a mixed reaction to these claims. When Frozen co-director Jennifer Lee was asked about the purported gay undertones, she stated that the film 's meaning was open to interpretation "I feel like once we hand the film over, it belongs to the world, so I do n't like to say anything, and let the fans talk. I think it 's up to them. '' Lee added that the film 's meaning was also inevitably going to be interpreted within the cultural context of being made in the year 2013.
Another interpretation for the song and the movie is that they promote self - affirmation for people on the autism spectrum. Co-writer Kristen Andersen - Lopez has stated that her younger brother has autistic traits and that inspired the song insofar as it deals with the concept of having a "special sibling. ''
"Let It Go '' won the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 86th Academy Awards, where a shortened rendition of the show - tune version was performed live by Menzel; with the award, Robert Lopez became the 12th person, and by far the quickest (10 years), to win an Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, and Tony.
The decision to release a single for "Let It Go '' was made after the song was written and was presented to Disney. Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez selected American singer and former Disney Channel star Demi Lovato, who also appears on Disney 's Hollywood Records roster, to cover the song on the soundtrack album. It was included in the deluxe edition of Demi. Lovato 's version was officially covered in nine other languages, eight of which are included into "Let It Go the Complete Set '': French, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Malaysian, Mandarin Chinese (China 's version), Spanish (Latin American version) and Russian. The Indonesian pop version was released as leading single of We Love Disney, Indonesia.
Anderson - Lopez said that Lovato was chosen because of the singer 's own personal life; "She had a past that she 's pretty open about that is similar to Elsa 's journey of letting a dark past and fear behind and moving forward with your power. '' Lovato indeed identified herself with the song 's context, stating "It 's so relatable. Elsa is finding her identity; she 's growing into who she is and she 's finally accepting her own strength and magical powers. Instead of hiding it, like she 's done all her life, she 's letting it go and embracing it. ''
Lovato 's cover version was released as a single by Walt Disney Records on October 21, 2013. While Menzel 's version is performed in the key of A-flat major and a tempo of 137 beats per minute, Lovato 's version is performed in the key of G major and a tempo of 140 beats per minute, with her vocal range spanning between G and E. In this version, the line "Let the storm rage on '' is omitted from the chorus, along with its unusual accompanying chord progression, and an extra "Let it go '' is substituted in its place.
The music video was released on November 1, 2013. It was directed by Declan Whitebloom. The video opens with Lovato sitting on the floor of an abandoned mansion lined with marble floors and dotted with furniture covered with white sheets. During the video she is wearing a black period - inspired cloak dress. She can then be seen playing a grand piano. The scenes inside the mansion are interwoven with images and clips from Frozen. Towards the end of the song, Lovato re-emerges wearing a cream - colored gown and the room seems to be new again, with the sheets thrown away revealing brightly embellished furniture.
Lovato performed the song on several occasions. Lovato first performed the track at the 2013 Disney Parks Christmas Day Parade. On November 13, 2014, she performed the song at the 2014 Royal Variety Performance. The song was also a part of Lovato 's setlist for The Neon Lights Tour and the Demi World Tour. On May 2015, she performed the song for 2nd Indonesian Choice Awards.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Menzel 's version was a single release, being promoted to adult contemporary radio by Walt Disney Records in January 2014. Disney 's music division planned to release Lovato 's version of the song before Menzel 's, as they did not consider Menzel 's version a traditional pop song.
It is the first song from a Disney animated musical to reach the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100 since 1995, when Vanessa L. Williams ' "Colors of the Wind '' from Pocahontas peaked at number four on the chart. The song is also Menzel 's first single to reach the top 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, making her the first Tony Award winner for acting to ever reach the top 10. The song was the ninth best - selling song of 2014 in the United States with 3.37 million copies sold in that year. As of December 2014, the song has sold 3.5 million copies in the US. It is now the biggest - selling foreign song from any original soundtrack in South Korea as of March 12, 2014.
A remix EP was released digitally by Walt Disney Records on May 19, 2014. The EP features four remixes by Dave Audé, Papercha $ er, DJ Escape & Tony Coluccio and Corbin Hayes. Armin van Buuren produced another remix of the song for the remix album, Dconstructed.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Many cover versions have been recorded internationally. In February 2014, Alex Boyé recorded a light Africanized tribal cover of the song, featuring the One Voice Children 's Choir and Lexi Walker as Elsa.
The Piano Guys ' cover version mixes parts of Antonio Vivaldi 's Concerto No. 4 in F minor, Op. 8, RV 297, "L'inverno '' (Winter) from The Four Seasons into the original. The music videos of both covers were filmed in the ice castles in Midway, Utah.
In March 2014, Brian Hull recorded a cover of the song while impersonating various Disney characters such as Winnie the Pooh, Tigger, Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse and Goofy.
Norwegian YouTube singer Per Fredrik Pellek Asly or "PelleK '', covered a power metal version of the Lovato version of the song on December 16, 2013, collecting more than 4 million views.
In February 2014, a parody YouTuber by the name of Malinda Kathleen Reese used Google Translate to translate the song 's lyrics from multiple languages to English, revealing expected humorous mistranslations, with lines such as "Let us very angry '' and "Give up, tune in, slam the door. ''
It has been alleged by some commentators that one of the promotional songs for the 2022 Winter Olympics, "The Snow and Ice Dance, '' has suspicious similarities with "Let It Go. '' A Chinese media outlet cited technical analysis of the two songs: Both songs employ a piano as the major instrument, have similar prelude chords and an eight - beat introduction, and they run at almost exactly the same tempo.
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test for tuberculosis involves the intracutaneous injection of purified protein derivative (ppd) | Mantoux test - wikipedia
The Mantoux test or Mendel - Mantoux test (also known as the Mantoux screening test, tuberculin sensitivity test, Pirquet test, or PPD test for purified protein derivative) is a tool for screening for tuberculosis (TB) and for tuberculosis diagnosis. It is one of the major tuberculin skin tests used around the world, largely replacing multiple - puncture tests such as the tine test. The Heaf test, a form of tine test, was used until 2005 in the UK, when it was replaced by the Mantoux test. The Mantoux test is endorsed by the American Thoracic Society and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. It was also used in the USSR and is now prevalent in most of the post-Soviet states.
Tuberculin is a glycerol extract of the tubercle bacillus. Purified protein derivative (PPD) tuberculin is a precipitate of species - nonspecific molecules obtained from filtrates of sterilized, concentrated cultures. The tuberculin reaction was first described by Robert Koch in 1890. The test was first developed and described by the German physician Felix Mendel in 1908 It is named after Charles Mantoux, a French physician who built on the work of Koch and Clemens von Pirquet to create his test in 1907. However, the test was unreliable due to impurities in tuberculin which tended to cause false results.
Esmond R. Long and Florence B. Seibert identified the active agent in tuberculin as a protein. Seibert then spent a number of years developing methods for separating and purifying the protein from Mycobacterium tuberculosis, obtaining purified protein derivative (PPD) and enabling the creation of a reliable test for tuberculosis. Her first publication on the purification of tuberculin appeared in 1934. By the 1940s, Seibert 's PPD was the international standard for tuberculin tests. In 1939, M.A. Linnikova in the USSR created a modified version of PPD. In 1954, the Soviet Union started mass production of PPD - L, named after Linnikova.
A standard dose of 5 tuberculin units (TU - 0.1 ml), according to the CDC, or 2 TU of Statens Serum Institute (SSI) tuberculin RT23 in 0.1 ml solution, according to the NHS, is injected intradermally (between the layers of dermis) and read 48 to 72 hours later. This intradermal injection is termed the Mantoux technique. A person who has been exposed to the bacteria is expected to mount an immune response in the skin containing the bacterial proteins.
The reaction is read by measuring the diameter of induration (palpable raised, hardened area) across the forearm (perpendicular to the long axis) in millimeters. If there is no induration, the result should be recorded as "0 mm ''. Erythema (redness) should not be measured.
The results of this test must be interpreted carefully. The person 's medical risk factors determine at which increment (5 mm, 10 mm, or 15 mm) of induration the result is considered positive. A positive result indicates TB exposure.
(Note: Targeted skin testing programs should be conducted only among high - risk groups)
A tuberculin test conversion is defined as an increase of 10 mm or more within a two - day period, regardless of age. Alternative criteria include increases of 6, 12, 15 or 18 mm.
TST (tuberculin skin test) positive is measured by size of induration. The size of the induration considered to be a positive result depends on risk factors. For example, a low - risk patient must have a larger induration for a positive result than a high - risk patient. High - risk groups include recent contacts, those with HIV, those with chest radiograph with fibrotic changes, organ transplant recipients, and those with immunosuppression.
According to the Ohio Department of Health and US Department of Health, the Bacillus Calmette -- Guérin (BCG) vaccine does not protect against TB infection. It does, though, give 80 % of children protection against tuberculous meningitis and miliary tuberculosis. Therefore, a positive TST / PPD in a person who has received BCG vaccine is interpreted as latent TB infection (LTBI). Due to the test 's low specificity, most positive reactions in low - risk individuals are false positives. A false positive result may be caused by nontuberculous mycobacteria or previous administration of BCG vaccine. Vaccination with BCG may result in a false - positive result for many years after vacination.
False positives can also occur when the injected area is touched, causing swelling and itching. If the swelling is less than 5 mm, it is possibly due to error by the healthcare personnel causing inflammation to the area.
Another source of false positive results can be allergic reaction or hypersensitivity. Although rare, (about 0.08 reported reactions per million doses of tuberculin), these reactions can be dangerous and precautions should be taken by having epinephrin available.
Reaction to the PPD or tuberculin test is suppressed by the following conditions:
This is because the immune system needs to be functional to mount a response to the protein derivative injected under the skin. A false negative result may occur in a person who has been recently infected with TB, but whose immune system has n't yet reacted to the bacteria.
In case a second tuberculin test is necessary it should be carried out in the other arm to avoid hypersensitising the skin.
The role of Mantoux testing in people who have been vaccinated is disputed. The US recommends that tuberculin skin testing is not contraindicated for BCG - vaccinated persons, and prior BCG vaccination should not influence the interpretation of the test. The UK recommends that interferon - γ testing should be used to help interpret positive Mantoux tests, and repeated tuberculin skin testing must not be done in people who have had BCG vaccinations. In general, the US recommendation results in a much larger number of people being falsely diagnosed with latent tuberculosis, while the UK approach probably misses patients with latent tuberculosis who should be treated.
According to the US guidelines, latent tuberculosis infection diagnosis and treatment is considered for any BCG - vaccinated person whose skin test is 10 mm or greater, if any of these circumstances are present:
In cases of anergy, a lack of reaction by the body 's defence mechanisms when it comes into contact with foreign substances, the tuberculin reaction will occur weakly, thus compromising the value of Mantoux testing. For example, anergy is present in AIDS, a disease which strongly depresses the immune system. Therefore, anergy testing is advised in cases where there is suspicion that anergy is present. However, routine anergy skin testing is not recommended.
Some people who have been infected with TB may have a negative reaction when tested years after infection, as the immune system response may gradually wane. This initial skin test, though negative, may stimulate (boost) the body 's ability to react to tuberculin in future tests. Thus, a positive reaction to a subsequent test may be misinterpreted as a new infection, when in fact it is the result of the boosted reaction to an old infection.
Use of two - step testing is recommended for initial skin testing of adults who will be retested periodically (e.g., health care workers). This ensures any future positive tests can be interpreted as being caused by a new infection, rather than simply a reaction to an old infection.
A person who is diagnosed as "exposed '' on two - step testing is called a "tuberculin reactor ''.
The US recommendation that prior BCG vaccination be ignored results in almost universal false diagnosis of tuberculosis infection in people who have had BCG (mostly foreign nationals).
In addition to tuberculin skin tests such as (principally) the Mantoux test, interferon gamma release assays (IGRAs) have become common in clinical use in the 2010s. In some contexts they are used instead of TSTs, whereas in other contexts TSTs and IGRAs both continue to be useful.
The QuantiFERON - TB Gold blood test measures the patient 's immune reactivity to the TB bacterium, and is useful for initial and serial testing of persons with an increased risk of latent or active tuberculosis infection. Guidelines for its use were released by the CDC in December 2005. QuantiFERON - TB Gold is FDA - approved in the United States, has CE Mark approval in Europe and has been approved by the MHLW in Japan. The QuantiFERON - TB Gold blood test give 2 % false results in contrast to about 30 % of Mantoux test.
T - SPOT. TB is another IGRA; it uses the ELISPOT method.
The Heaf tuberculin skin test was used in the United Kingdom, but discontinued in 2005.
The equivalent Mantoux test positive levels done with 10 TU (0.1 ml at 100 TU / ml, 1: 1000) are
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when does stephen kings it come out on blu ray | It (miniseries) - wikipedia
It (also known as Stephen King 's It) is a 1990 American supernatural horror drama miniseries directed by Tommy Lee Wallace and adapted by Lawrence D. Cohen from the Stephen King novel of the same name. It is the first of two adaptations of the novel; the second being the 2017 film adaptation and its upcoming 2019 sequel.
The story revolves around a predatory shapeshifter which has the ability to transform itself into its prey 's worst fears, allowing it to exploit the phobias of its victims. It mostly takes the form of a sadistic, wisecracking clown called Pennywise. The protagonists are The Lucky Seven, or The Losers Club, a group of outcast kids who discover Pennywise and vow to destroy him by any means necessary. The series takes place over two different time periods, the first when the Losers first confront Pennywise as children in 1960, and the second when they return as adults in 1990 to defeat him a second time after he resurfaces.
It features an ensemble cast, starring Richard Thomas, John Ritter, Annette O'Toole, Harry Anderson, Dennis Christopher, Tim Reid and Richard Masur as the seven members of the Losers Club, and Tim Curry as Pennywise. The child counterparts of the Losers that appear in part one are played by Jonathan Brandis, Seth Green, Emily Perkins, Brandon Crane, Adam Faraizl, Marlon Taylor and Ben Heller. Michael Cole, Jarred Blancard, Gabe Khouth, Chris Eastman, Olivia Hussey, Frank C. Turner, Tony Dakota, Ryan Michael, Tom Heaton and Chelan Simmons also play supporting roles.
Originally conceived as a four - part eight - hour series, ABC enlisted writer Lawrence D. Cohen to adapt the 1,138 - page King novel. Cohen 's script condensed the source work into a two - part, three - hour mini-series that retained the core elements of the novel, but Cohen was forced to abandon numerous subplots by virtue of the novel 's length and the network 's time - slot restrictions. Production on It began in early 1990, and the series was filmed over a period of three months in New Westminster, British Columbia in mid-1990.
It aired on ABC over two nights on November 18 and 20, 1990, attracting 30 million viewers in its premiere. Critics praised Tim Curry 's performance as Pennywise. For his work on the miniseries, Richard Bellis received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Music Composition for a mini-series or a Special (Dramatic Underscore).
In Derry, Maine, in 1960, Bill Denbrough gives his younger brother Georgie a paper sailboat to take out onto the street to sail in the gutter. Georgie is unable to stop the boat from sailing down the storm drain, but encounters a strange clown in the drain who introduces himself as Pennywise. Pennywise then entices Georgie to reach into the drain to retrieve his boat, killing the boy by ripping his arm off offscreen. Months later, during the spring semester at their school, Bill befriends the overweight new kid Ben Hanscom. He introduces Ben to asthmatic Eddie Kaspbrak who lives with his overbearing mother, Beverly Marsh who lives with her abusive father who is also the school janitor, wise - cracking Richie Tozier, and Jewish Boy Scout, Stanley Uris. Besides being tormented by a gang of local bullies led by Henry Bowers, the group each experiences disturbing encounters with Pennywise. During one afternoon when he was going to practice his band instrument for the town parade, Bill and his friends encounter African - American Mike Hanlon being pursued by Henry 's gang. They chase the bullies off with rocks and befriend Mike, with Henry vowing to kill them all. The group, calling themselves "The Losers Club '', come to realize that they are each being terrorized by the same entity. While looking through Mike 's history scrapbook, they deduce Pennywise is a monster that surfaces every 30 years in Derry to feed on the town 's children before returning to hibernation again. They also deduce that the creature, which they dub "It '' since it is not human and has no gender, assumes the appearance of what they fear. Suddenly the book starts flipping pages by itself and the pictures start to move with Pennywise doing a cartwheel he then climbs a lamppost saying he was going to "kill them all '' he then reaches through the book in attempt to grab one of the members of "The losers club '' they throw the book on the ground and it returns to normal.
After discovering that It killed his brother, Bill leads the Losers into the sewers under Derry to kill It. They are followed by Henry and his friends, Victor Criss and Belch Huggins, who are intent on killing them. It kills Victor, who had separated to set an ambush on the Losers, and Belch, who helps Henry separate Stan from the others, sparing a horrified Henry while chasing Stan as he regroups with the Losers. Pennywise grabs Stan, only for the Losers to use It 's ability to access their imaginations against him; Eddie imagines his inhaler is full of battery acid and uses it to melt the clown 's face while Beverly uses a slingshot and a silver projectile, which the Losers imagine will kill It, to smash a hole in the clown 's head. Pennywise evades the second projectile and escapes down a drain, seemingly dying. Bill makes the others promise to return and kill It should the creature ever come back. Henry, his hair whitened from fright and driven insane from seeing It 's "Deadlights '', later emerges from the sewers and is institutionalized when he takes credit for murdering his friends, as well as It 's previous victims.
In 1990, Mike, now the town librarian, is investigating a string of missing children and killings and arrives at the crime scene of a murdered girl named Laurie Anne Winterbarger. Finding Georgie 's picture and convinced that It is back, Mike proceeds to contact the others to fulfill their vow. Bill has become a bestselling horror novelist married to British actress Audra Phillips, Ben is an architect who has lost weight due to joining his high school track team, Beverly is a fashion designer abused by her husband Tom Rogan, Richie is a late night television comedian, Eddie runs a limousine service but still lives with his mother, and Stan is a married real estate broker. Prior to Mike 's phone calls, the other Losers had completely forgotten each other along with their childhood traumas and memories of It. While the other five reluctantly agree to come, a fear - stricken Stan slits his wrists in his bathtub and writes "IT '' on the wall in his own blood.
The remaining six find themselves harassed by Pennywise once reaching Derry. They eventually meet at dinner, learning of Stan 's suicide shortly after Mike calls his wife. Two other people also converge on the town: an older Henry, whom Pennywise frees to help him kill the Losers, and a worried Audra who ends up being abducted by It while exposed to the creature 's Deadlights. Mike is hospitalized by Henry, who in turn is killed by his own knife during a scuffle with the other Losers. After Mike gives Bill the two pieces of silver he retrieved from the sewers, the five remaining Losers decide to destroy It for good. They descend into the sewers once again, with Pennywise informing them that they will never see It, just what their "tiny human minds '' can comprehend. Bill learns Audra is being held while overcoming It 's attempt to induce further guilt. The Losers eventually reach It 's inner sanctum, finding both a catatonic Audra and It 's true form as a giant spider. Bill, Ben and Richie nearly get lost in It 's Deadlights and Eddie is killed attempting to save his friends. Beverly mortally wounds It with her slingshot, and as It limps away the surviving Losers pursue and knock the creature down and rip its heart out, finally killing It. They remove the comatose Audra and Eddie 's body from the sewers.
The Losers go their separate ways and move on with their lives as their memories of It fade away. A recovered Mike also has his memories begin to fade as he considers starting a new life elsewhere. Richie is cast in a film with an actor resembling Eddie, while Beverly and Ben are finally married and expect their first child. Bill is the last to leave Derry, using his last hour in town to coax Audra out of her catatonia by giving her a ride down the street on his childhood bicycle, Silver, which he had once used as a child to escape from It, and Audra finally recovers. The film ends with Bill and Audra kissing as a crowd looks on Pennywise 's laugh is heard one last time.
ABC had acquired the rights to a television mini-series of It, for what would be the first made - for - television film based on a Stephen King work since Salem 's Lot (1979), directed by Tobe Hooper. Lawrence D. Cohen, who had previously written the film adaptation of Carrie in 1976, was hired to write It. According to both Stephen King and Cohen, King had little to no involvement in the writing of the miniseries. George A. Romero had originally been signed on to direct the project, which at the time ABC had planned for an eight - to - ten - hour series that would run over four two - hour blocks. Romero left the project due to scheduling conflicts, after which ABC condensed it to a three - part series. Shortly after, Tommy Lee Wallace was brought in to direct. After Wallace signed on to the project, ABC had ultimately decided to condense the series to two parts.
According to writer Cohen: "Speaking candidly, ABC was always nervous about It, primarily the fact that it was in the horror genre, but also the eight - to - ten hour commitment. They loved the piece, but lost their nerve in terms of how many hours they were willing to commit. Eventually, they agreed to a two - night, four - hour commitment. '' Given the length of the King novel, which runs 1,138 pages, a great deal of material was left out of Cohen 's adaptation, including subplots concerning the personal lives of the adult characters, one of which had the main male characters each losing their virginity to Beverly. "I ca n't even begin to enumerate my favorite scenes from the book that we had to cut, because there are so many of them, '' Cohen reflected. "I look at it as a glass half full situation. There are scenes in both nights that were created by Steve (King) on the page, and I 'm delighted that they survived, like the fortune cookie scene and adult Beverly going to her childhood house. The way I see it, the best moments from the book made the cut and the rest are casualties of war. ''
However, Wallace and Cohen retained the centrality of Pennywise in the source novel; as noted by film scholar Tony Magistrale in Hollywood 's Stephen King, the miniseries retains the "association between the adult world of Derry and It (which) is further established in the masterful choice of a carnival clown as a unifying symbol for the various creatures representing the monster. ''
The majority of the adult actors in the film, including John Ritter, Dennis Christopher, Tim Reid and Harry Anderson, were hand - chosen by Wallace and Cohen for their roles. Annette O'Toole was cast in the film at the suggestion of Ritter, with whom she had recently shot The Dreamer of Oz: The L. Frank Baum Story (1990): "I think (John) may have talked to somebody, because I got an offer (to play Beverly), '' O'Toole recalled. "It happened really fast; I do n't think I even went in for a reading. I was living in Oregon at the time, and the next thing I knew, I was in Vancouver hanging out with the coolest, most fun guys of all time. ''
Emily Perkins and Marlon Taylor, who played the young Beverly Marsh and Mike Hanlon, were cast out of Vancouver, while Seth Green and Jonathan Brandis were cast out of Los Angeles for the parts of young Richie and Bill.
According to Cohen, he had written the script for the series without a specific actor in mind for the role of Pennywise. According to director Tommy Lee Wallace, before he was attached to the project, Malcolm McDowell and Roddy McDowall were in consideration to play Pennywise, but Wallace wanted Tim Curry for the role; Wallace had previously worked with the latter in Fright Night Part 2 (1988).
It was shot over a period of three months in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada on a budget of $12 million. Given that the shooting entailed an adult cast with child counterparts, Wallace sought to have the adult actors meet with the children playing the younger versions of their characters: "We made a point of bringing the adult and children actors together for a couple of days, even though it was costly, since the adults and the kids have no scenes together. '' Filming locations in Vancouver included Stanley Park, Beaver Lake and Saint Thomas Aquinas High School Convent in North Vancouver. Wallace told The Hollywood Reporter that his job as a director "was to give Tim the stage and not get in his way too much. He was like Robin Williams in the way he brought a spontaneous improvisation to the part. '' Curry gave Pennywise a Bronx accent in order to sound like "an old - time Catskills comic ''. "I just let it happen, '' Curry said. "Clowns are your worst fear realized. I think I scared a lot of children. ''
Original storyboards for Pennywise featured exaggerated cheekbones, a sharp chin, and bulbous forehead. According to director Wallace, "Tim (Curry) objected strongly to all the rubber. He had recently been in several movies which covered him in prosthetics and I 'm sure he felt all the glue and latex would just get in his way. He was right, of course. With those eyes, and that mouth, and his crazy, sardonic sense of humor, less turned out to be more in the makeup department. ''
Special effects coordinator Bart Mixon began working on a head cast for the Pennywise character after Curry was cast in the role; he also designed three clay molds for testing. According to Mixon, he based the shape of Pennywise 's head on Lon Chaney in The Phantom of the Opera (1925), "stylized into a clown. '' Three different versions of the clown 's face were created, one of which resembled a hobo clown, another that was "a little meaner, '' and the final one seen in the series. To achieve the white complexion, Curry wore prosthetic make - up cream to make him appear "almost like a living cartoon. ''
The majority of the special effects in the film were done practically without digital alteration, aside from the shower scene in which Pennywise comes out of the drain; this scene was done with replacement animation, an animation technique similar to stop motion animation.
The spider figure in the conclusion of the series was hand - constructed by Mixon and his art department team. Wallace recalled of the spider:
We labored long and hard designing a spider that was very beefy and muscular, almost reptilian in appearance. It looked great in the drawings, and I even recall a little clay model Bart did, which sealed the deal and won my enthusiastic approval. Bart and team went back to Hollywood to work the whole thing up full - size, and shooting started. When the SVFX team returned to Vancouver and unpacked the full - size spider, what I expected to see was the big version of that original model, the beefy, reptilian thing that was scary on sight. What they assembled on set was very, very different. Not chunky at all, very lean and mean. ''
It originally aired on ABC in 1990 on the nights of November 18 and November 20. Part 1 was the fifth highest rated program of the week with an 18.5 / 29 rating / share, and being watched in 17.5 million households. Part 2 was the second highest rated program of the week with a 20.6 / 33 rating / share, and watched in 19.2 million households. According to writer Cohen, It was considered a major success for ABC, garnering nearly 30 million viewers over its two - night premiere.
As of December 2017, the film has a 57 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 14 reviews, with audience reception being slightly more positive with a 63 %.
Matt Roush of USA Today gave the series a positive review, writing: "If Twin Peaks is a midnight movie for prime - time live, It is the mini-series equivalent of those Saturday matinee shockers that merrily warped a generation before Freddie and Jason began stalking their more graphic turf... Accept It on its own popcorn - munching terms, and keep the lights on high. '' Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly praised the performances in the film, but had a negative response to its special effects and pacing, noting: "It features a high level of ensemble acting rare for any horror film... in addition to It 's slow pace, I found the ending a big letdown -- unimaginative special effects animate the monster in its final incarnation. But the cast is terrific, Curry 's cackle is chilling, and King 's usual buried theme -- about the pain adults inflict on children without even realizing it (It?) -- is always worth pondering. '' The Hollywood Reporter called It "one big kicky ride thanks to the charismatic acting of Curry as savage, sneering malevolence. ''
Sandra Harris of Movie Pilot gave the film a positive review, noting: "There 's some gorgeous scenery too and a nice interweaving of flashbacks with the regular scenes. For Stephen King fans, this film is a must for your collection. For fans of horror in general, I 'd say you could do a lot worse. Take the phone off the hook and burrow under the duvet for three hours with the popcorn and the remote control. '' Ian Jane of DVD Talk highlighted the mini-series ' combination of childhood nostalgia with horror elements and praised Curry 's performance as Pennywise. Bloody Disgusting 's John Campopiano commended director Tommy Lee Wallace for "relying less on jump scares and more on creating an unsettling atmosphere to contrast against the kids and their stories. '' In 2017, Rolling Stone writer Sean T. Collins called the miniseries "legendary '' and commented that it had become a cult classic. He said although the miniseries "largely bungles Pennywise 's powers '', Curry 's portrayal of Pennywise is "the stuff sleepless nights are made of. He gloats, he giggles, he taunts, he devours the scenery like the monster himself devours middle - schoolers -- and he generally sears his way right into the brain of the viewer. '' Dan Stephens from the UK website Top 10 Films awarded the film four out of five stars. In his review Stephens praised the film 's story, character development, and suspense during the first half. But criticized the second half as disappointing and criticizing the lack of "friendship and togetherness '' of the main characters that was present during the first half, and clichéd ending.
Stephen King commented on the miniseries in a 2015 interview, and was appreciative of it: "You have to remember, my expectations were in the basement. Here was a book that sprawled over 1,000 pages, and they were going to cram it into four hours, with commercials. But the series really surprised me by how good it was. It 's a really ambitious adaptation of a really long book. ''
It was released on VHS and Laserdisc in 1991. The original VHS release was on two cassette tapes, one for each part. The VHS and Laserdisc releases feature It as originally aired. In 1998, It was re-released on VHS, this time, on one cassette tape (in EP format). The film was later released on DVD in 2002 and on Blu - ray on October 4, 2016. Both the DVD and the Blu - ray feature an edited version of the film, which presents It as one "movie ''. The suicide scene at the end of Part 1 is shortened, the hotel scene from Part 2 is missing, and the graveyard scene toward the beginning of Part 2 is also slightly shortened to remove the on - screen credits that originally appeared.
A 2 - CD release of the mini-series ' complete score by Richard Bellis was released on November 15, 2011. The music of the film ranges from orchestral music to trumpet - heavy music that accompanies the setting of Derry to unsteady electronic instrument arrangements for the film 's scarier moments. Bellis won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Music Composition for a mini-series or a Special (Dramatic Underscore) for his work on the film.
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describe the structure of ionic solids such as nacl | Ionic compound - wikipedia
In chemistry, an ionic compound is a chemical compound composed of ions held together by electrostatic forces termed ionic bonding. The compound is neutral overall, but consists of positively charged ions called cations and negatively charged ions called anions. These can be simple ions such as the sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl) in sodium chloride, or polyatomic species such as the ammonium (NH) and carbonate (CO) ions in ammonium carbonate. Individual ions within an ionic compound usually have multiple nearest neighbours, so are not considered to be part of molecules, but instead part of a continuous three - dimensional network, usually in a crystalline structure.
Ionic compounds containing hydrogen ions (H) are classified as acids, and those containing basic ions hydroxide (OH) or oxide (O) are classified as bases. Ionic compounds without these ions are also known as salts and can be formed by acid -- base reactions. Ionic compounds can also be produced from their constituent ions by evaporation of their solvent, precipitation, freezing, a solid - state reaction, or the electron transfer reaction of reactive metals with reactive non-metals, such as halogen gases.
Ionic compounds typically have high melting and boiling points, and are hard and brittle. As solids they are almost always electrically insulating, but when melted or dissolved they become highly conductive, because the ions are mobilized.
The word ion is the Greek ἰόν, ion, "going '', the present participle of ἰέναι, ienai, "to go ''. This term was introduced by English physicist and chemist Michael Faraday in 1834 for the then - unknown species that goes from one electrode to the other through an aqueous medium.
In 1913 the crystal structure of sodium chloride was determined by William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg. This revealed that there were six equidistant nearest - neighbours for each atom, demonstrating that the constituents were not arranged in molecules or finite aggregates, but instead as a network with long - range crystalline order. Many other inorganic compounds were also found to have similar structural features. These compounds were soon described as being constituted of ions rather than neutral atoms, but proof of this hypothesis was not found until the mid-1920s, when X-ray reflection experiments (which detect the density of electrons), were performed.
Principal contributors to the development of a theoretical treatment of ionic crystal structures were Max Born, Fritz Haber, Alfred Landé, Erwin Madelung, Paul Peter Ewald, and Kazimierz Fajans. Born predicted crystal energies based on the assumption of ionic constituents, which showed good correspondence to thermochemical measurements, further supporting the assumption.
Ionic compounds can be produced from their constituent ions by evaporation, precipitation, or freezing. Reactive metals such as the alkali metals can react directly with the highly electronegative halogen gases to form an ionic product. They can also be synthesized as the product of a high temperature reaction between solids.
If the ionic compound is soluble in a solvent, it can be obtained as a solid compound by evaporating the solvent from this electrolyte solution. As the solvent is evaporated, the ions do not go into the vapour, but stay in the remaining solution, and when they become sufficiently concentrated, nucleation occurs, and they crystallize into an ionic compound. This process occurs widely in nature, and is the means of formation of the evaporite minerals. Another method of recovering the compound from solution involves saturating a solution at high temperature and then reducing the solubility by reducing the temperature until the solution is supersaturated and the solid compound nucleates.
Insoluble ionic compounds can be precipitated by mixing two solutions, one with the cation and one with the anion in it. Because all solutions are electrically neutral, the two solutions mixed must also contain counterions of the opposite charges. To ensure that these do not contaminate the precipitated ionic compound, it is important to ensure they do not also precipitate. If the two solutions have hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions as the counterions, they will react with one another in what is called an acid -- base reaction or a neutralization reaction to form water. Alternately the counterions can be chosen to ensure that even when combined into a single solution they will remain soluble as spectator ions.
If the solvent is water in either the evaporation or precipitation method of formation, in many cases the ionic crystal formed also includes water of crystallization, so the product is known as a hydrate, and can have very different chemical properties.
Molten salts will solidify on cooling to below their freezing point. This is sometimes used for the solid - state synthesis of complex ionic compounds from solid reactants, which are first melted together. In other cases, the solid reactants do not need to be melted, but instead can react through a solid - state reaction route. In this method the reactants are repeatedly finely ground into a paste, and then heated to a temperature where the ions in neighbouring reactants can diffuse together during the time the reactant mixture remains in the oven. Other synthetic routes use a solid precursor with the correct stoichiometric ratio of non-volatile ions, which is heated to drive off other species.
In some reactions between highly reactive metals (usually from Group 1 or Group 2) and highly electronegative halogen gases, or water, the atoms can be ionized by electron transfer, a process thermodynamically understood using the Born -- Haber cycle.
Ions in ionic compounds are primarily held together by the electrostatic forces between the charge distribution of these bodies, and in particular the ionic bond resulting from the long - ranged Coulomb attraction between the net negative charge of the anions and net positive charge of the cations. There is also a small additional attractive force from van der Waals interactions which contributes only around 1 -- 2 % of the cohesive energy for small ions. When a pair of ions comes close enough for their outer electron shells (most simple ions have closed shells) to overlap, a short - ranged repulsive force occurs, due to the Pauli exclusion principle. The balance between these forces leads to a potential energy well with a minimum energy when the nuclei are separated by a specific equilibrium distance.
If the electronic structure of the two interacting bodies is affected by the presence of one another, covalent interactions (non-ionic) also contribute to the overall energy of the compound formed. Ionic compounds are rarely purely ionic, i.e. held together only by electrostatic forces. The bonds between even the most electronegative / electropositive pairs such as those in caesium fluoride exhibit a small degree of covalency. Conversely, covalent bonds between unlike atoms often exhibit some charge separation and can be considered to have a partial ionic character. The circumstances under which a compound will have ionic or covalent character can typically be understood using Fajans ' rules, which use only charges and the sizes of each ion. According to these rules, compounds with the most ionic character will have large positive ions with a low charge, bonded to a small negative ion with a high charge. More generally HSAB theory can be applied, whereby the compounds with the most ionic character are those consisting of hard acids and hard bases: small, highly charged ions with a high difference in electronegativities between the anion and cation. This difference in electronegativities means that the charge separation, and resulting dipole moment, is maintained even when the ions are in contact (the excess electrons on the anions are not transferred or polarized to neutralize the cations).
Ions typically pack into extremely regular crystalline structures, in an arrangement that minimizes the lattice energy (maximizing attractions and minimizing repulsions). The lattice energy is the summation of the interaction of all sites with all other sites. For unpolarizable spherical ions only the charges and distances are required to determine the electrostatic interaction energy. For any particular ideal crystal structure, all distances are geometrically related to the smallest internuclear distance. So for each possible crystal structure, the total electrostatic energy can be related to the electrostatic energy of unit charges at the nearest neighbour distance by a multiplicative constant called the Madelung constant that can be efficiently computed using an Ewald sum. When a reasonable form is assumed for the additional repulsive energy, the total lattice energy can be modelled using the Born -- Landé equation, the Born -- Mayer equation, or in the absence of structural information, the Kapustinskii equation.
Using an even simpler approximation of the ions as impenetrable hard spheres, the arrangement of anions in these systems are often related to close - packed arrangements of spheres, with the cations occupying tetrahedral or octahedral interstices. Depending on the stoichiometry of the ionic compound, and the coordination (principally determined by the radius ratio) of cations and anions, a variety of structures are commonly observed, and theoretically rationalized by Pauling 's rules.
In some cases the anions take on a simple cubic packing, and the resulting common structures observed are:
Some ionic liquids, particularly with mixtures of anions or cations, can be cooled rapidly enough that there is not enough time for crystal nucleation to occur, so an ionic glass is formed (with no long - range order).
Within an ionic crystal, there will usually be some point defects, but to maintain electroneutrality, these defects come in pairs. Frenkel defects consist of a cation vacancy paired with a cation interstitial and can be generated anywhere in the bulk of the crystal, occurring most commonly in compounds with a low coordination number and cations that are much smaller than the anions. Schottky defects consist of one vacancy of each type, and are generated at the surfaces of a crystal, occurring most commonly in compounds with a high coordination number and when the anions and cations are of similar size. If the cations have multiple possible oxidation states, then it is possible for cation vacancies to compensate for electron deficiencies on cation sites with higher oxidation numbers, resulting in a non-stoichiometric compound. Another non-stoichiometric possibility is the formation of an F - center, a free electron occupying an anion vacancy. When the compound has three or more ionic components, even more defect types are possible. All of these point defects can be generated via thermal vibrations and have an equilibrium concentration. Because they are energetically costly, but entropically beneficial, they occur in greater concentration at higher temperatures. Once generated, these pairs of defects can diffuse mostly independently of one another, by hopping between lattice sites. This defect mobility is the source of most transport phenomena within an ionic crystal, including diffusion and solid state ionic conductivity. When vacancies collide with interstitials (Frenkel), they can recombine and annihilate one another. Similarly vacancies are removed when they reach the surface of the crystal (Schottky). Defects in the crystal structure generally expand the lattice parameters, reducing the overall density of the crystal. Defects also result in ions in distinctly different local environments, which causes them to experience a different crystal - field symmetry, especially in the case of different cations exchanging lattice sites. This results in a different splitting of d - electron orbitals, so that the optical absorption (and hence colour) can change with defect concentration.
Ionic compounds containing hydrogen ions (H) are classified as acids, and those containing electropositive cations and basic anions ions hydroxide (OH) or oxide (O) are classified as bases. Other ionic compounds are known as salts and can be formed by acid -- base reactions. If the compound is the result of a reaction between a strong acid and a weak base, the result is an acidic salt. If it is the result of a reaction between a strong base and a weak acid, the result is a basic salt. If it is the result of a reaction between a strong acid and a strong base, the result is a neutral salt. Weak acids reacted with weak bases can produce ionic compounds with both the conjugate base ion and conjugate acid ion, such as ammonium acetate.
Some ions are classed as amphoteric, being able to react with either an acid or a base. This is also true of some compounds with ionic character, typically oxides or hydroxides of less - electropositive metals (so the compound also has significant covalent character), such as zinc oxide, aluminium hydroxide, aluminium oxide and lead (II) oxide.
Electrostatic forces between particles are strongest when the charges are high, and the distance between the nuclei of the ions is small. In such cases, the compounds generally have very high melting and boiling points and a low vapour pressure. Trends in melting points can be even better explained when the structure and ionic size ratio is taken into account. Above their melting point ionic solids melt and become molten salts (although some ionic compounds such as aluminium chloride and iron (III) chloride show molecule - like structures in the liquid phase). Inorganic compounds with simple ions typically have small ions, and thus have high melting points, so are solids at room temperature. Some substances with larger ions, however, have a melting point below or near room temperature (often defined as up to 100 ° C), and are termed ionic liquids. Ions in ionic liquids often have uneven charge distributions, or bulky substituents like hydrocarbon chains, which also play a role in determining the strength of the interactions and propensity to melt.
Even when the local structure and bonding of an ionic solid is disrupted sufficiently to melt it, there are still strong long - range electrostatic forces of attraction holding the liquid together and preventing ions boiling to form a gas phase. This means that even room temperature ionic liquids have low vapour pressures, and require substantially higher temperatures to boil. Boiling points exhibit similar trends to melting points in terms of the size of ions and strength of other interactions. When vapourized, the ions are still not freed of one another. For example, in the vapour phase sodium chloride exists as diatomic "molecules ''.
Most ionic compounds are very brittle. Once they reach the limit of their strength, they can not deform malleably, because the strict alignment of positive and negative ions must be maintained. Instead the material undergoes fracture via cleavage. As the temperature is elevated (usually close to the melting point) a ductile -- brittle transition occurs, and plastic flow becomes possible by the motion of dislocations.
The compressibility of an ionic compound is strongly determined by its structure, and in particular the coordination number. For example, halides with the caesium chloride structure (coordination number 8) are less compressible than those with the sodium chloride structure (coordination number 6), and less again than those with a coordination number of 4.
When ionic compounds dissolve, the individual ions dissociate and are solvated by the solvent and dispersed throughout the resulting solution. Because the ions are released into solution when dissolved, and can conduct charge, soluble ionic compounds are the most common class of strong electrolytes, and their solutions have a high electrical conductivity.
The solubility is highest in polar solvents (such as water) or ionic liquids, but tends to be low in nonpolar solvents (such as petrol / gasoline). This is principally because the resulting ion -- dipole interactions are significantly stronger than ion - induced dipole interactions, so the heat of solution is higher. When the oppositely charged ions in the solid ionic lattice are surrounded by the opposite pole of a polar molecule, the solid ions are pulled out of the lattice and into the liquid. If the solvation energy exceeds the lattice energy, the negative net enthalpy change of solution provides a thermodynamic drive to remove ions from their positions in the crystal and dissolve in the liquid. In addition, the entropy change of solution is usually positive for most solid solutes like ionic compounds, which means that their solubility increases when the temperature increases. There are some unusual ionic compounds such as cerium (III) sulfate, where this entropy change is negative, due to extra order induced in the water upon solution, and the solubility decreases with temperature.
Although ionic compounds contain charged atoms or clusters, these materials do not typically conduct electricity to any significant extent when the substance is solid. In order to conduct, the charged particles must be mobile rather than stationary in a crystal lattice. This is achieved to some degree at high temperatures when the defect concentration increases the ionic mobility and solid state ionic conductivity is observed. When the ionic compounds are dissolved in a liquid or are melted into a liquid, they can conduct electricity because the ions become completely mobile. This conductivity gain upon dissolving or melting is sometimes used as a defining characteristic of ionic compounds.
In some unusual ionic compounds: fast ion conductors, and ionic glasses, one or more of the ionic components has a significant mobility, allowing conductivity even while the material as a whole remains solid. This is often highly temperature dependant, and may be the result of either a phase change or a high defect concentration. These materials are used in all solid - state supercapacitors, batteries, and fuel cells, and in various kinds of chemical sensors.
The colour of an ionic compound is often different to the colour of an aqueous solution containing the constituent ions, or the hydrated form of the same compound.
The anions in compounds with bonds with the most ionic character tend to be colourless (with an absorption band in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum). In compounds with less ionic character, their colour deepens through yellow, orange, red and black (as the absorption band shifts to longer wavelengths into the visible spectrum).
The absorption band of simple cations shift toward shorter wavelength when they are involved in more covalent interactions. This occurs during hydration of metal ions, so colourless anhydrous ionic compounds with an anion absorbing in the infrared can become colourful in solution.
Ionic compounds have long had a wide variety of uses and applications. Many minerals are ionic. Humans have processed common salt (sodium chloride) for over 8000 years, using it first as a food seasoning and preservative, and now also in manufacturing, agriculture, water conditioning, for de-icing roads, and many other uses. Many ionic compounds are so widely used in society that they go by common names unrelated to their chemical identity. Examples of this include borax, calomel, milk of magnesia, muriatic acid, oil of vitriol, saltpeter, and slaked lime.
Soluble ionic compounds like salt can easily be dissolved to provide electrolyte solutions. This is a simple way to control the concentration and ionic strength. The concentration of solutes affects many colligative properties, including increasing the osmotic pressure, and causing freezing - point depression and boiling - point elevation. Because the solutes are charged ions they also increase the electrical conductivity of the solution. The increased ionic strength reduces the thickness of the electrical double layer around colloidal particles, and therefore the stability of emulsions and suspensions.
The chemical identity of the ions added is also important in many uses. For example, fluoride containing compounds are dissolved to supply fluoride ions for water fluoridation.
Solid ionic compounds have long been used as paint pigments, and are resistant to organic solvents, but are sensitive to acidity or basicity. Since 1801 pyrotechnicians have described and widely used metal - containing ionic compounds as sources of colour in fireworks. Under intense heat, the electrons in the metal ions or small molecules can be excited. These electrons later return to lower energy states, and release light with a colour spectrum characteristic of the species present.
In chemistry, ionic compounds are often used as precursors for high - temperature solid - state synthesis.
Many metals are geologically most abundant as ionic compounds within ores. To obtain the elemental materials, these ores are processed by smelting or electrolysis, in which redox reactions occur (often with a reducing agent such as carbon) such that the metal ions gain electrons to become neutral atoms.
According to the nomenclature recommended by IUPAC, ionic compounds are named according to their composition, not their structure. In the most simple case of a binary ionic compound with no possible ambiguity about the charges and thus the stoichiometry, the common name is written using two words. The name of the cation (the unmodified element name for monatomic cations) comes first, followed by the name of the anion. For example, MgCl is named magnesium chloride, and Na SO is named sodium sulfate (SO, sulfate, is an example of a polyatomic ion). To obtain the empirical formula from these names, the stoichiometry can be deduced from the charges on the ions, and the requirement of overall charge neutrality.
If there are multiple different cations and / or anions, multiplicative prefixes (di -, tri -, tetra -,...) are often required to indicate the relative compositions, and cations then anions are listed in alphabetical order. For example, KMgCl is named magnesium potassium trichloride to distinguish it from K MgCl, magnesium dipotassium tetrachloride (note that in both the empirical formula and the written name, the cations appear in alphabetical order, but the order varies between them because the symbol for potassium is K). When one of the ions already has a multiplicative prefix within its name, the alternate multiplicative prefixes (bis -, tris -, tetrakis -,...) are used. For example, Ba (BrF) is named barium bis (tetrafluoridobromate).
Compounds containing one or more elements which can exist in a variety of charge / oxidation states will have a stoichiometry that depends on which oxidation states are present, to ensure overall neutrality. This can be indicated in the name by specifying either the oxidation state of the elements present, or the charge on the ions. Because of the risk of ambiguity in allocating oxidation states, IUPAC prefers direct indication of the ionic charge numbers. These are written as an arabic integer followed by the sign (..., 2 −, 1 −, 1 +, 2 +,...) in parentheses directly after the name of the cation (without a space separating them). For example, FeSO is named iron (2 +) sulfate (with the 2 + charge on the Fe ions balancing the 2 − charge on the sulfate ion), whereas Fe (SO) is named iron (3 +) sulfate (because the two iron ions in each formula unit each have a charge of 3 +, to balance the 2 − on each of the three sulfate ions). Stock nomenclature, still in common use, writes the oxidation number in Roman numerals (..., − II, − I, 0, I, II,...). So the examples given above would be named iron (II) sulfate and iron (III) sulfate respectively. For simple ions the ionic charge and the oxidation number are identical, but for polyatomic ions they often differ. For example, the uranyl (2 +) ion, UO, has uranium in an oxidation state of + 6, so would be called a dioxouranium (VI) ion in Stock nomenclature. An even older naming system for metal cations, also still widely used, appended the suffixes - ous and - ic to the Latin root of the name, to give special names for the low and high oxidation states. For example, this scheme uses "ferrous '' and "ferric '', for iron (II) and iron (III) respectively, so the examples given above were classically named ferrous sulfate and ferric sulfate.
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who was brought in to put down the homestead strike in 1892 | Homestead strike - wikipedia
The Homestead strike, also known as the Homestead Steel strike, Pinkerton rebellion, or Homestead massacre, was an industrial lockout and strike which began on July 1, 1892, culminating in a battle between strikers and private security agents on July 6, 1892. The battle was one of the most violent disputes in U.S. labor history, third behind the Ludlow Massacre and the Battle of Blair Mountain. The dispute occurred at the Homestead Steel Works in the Pittsburgh area town of Homestead, Pennsylvania, between the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (the AA) and the Carnegie Steel Company. The final result was a major defeat for the union of strikers and a setback for their efforts to unionize steelworkers.
Carnegie Steel made major technological innovations in the 1880s, especially the installation of the open - hearth system at Homestead in 1886. It now became possible to make steel suitable for structural beams and for armor plate for the United States Navy, which paid far higher prices for the premium product. In addition, the plant moved increasingly toward the continuous system of production. Carnegie installed vastly improved systems of material - handling, like overhead cranes, hoists, charging machines, and buggies. All of this greatly sped up the process of steelmaking, and allowed the production of vastly larger quantities of the product. As the mills expanded, the labor force grew rapidly, especially with less skilled workers. In response, the more - skilled union members reacted with a strike designed to protect their historic position. The bitterness grew between workers.
The Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (AA) was an American labor union formed in 1876. It was a craft union representing skilled iron and steel workers.
The AA 's membership was concentrated in ironworks west of the Allegheny Mountains. The union negotiated national uniform wage scales on an annual basis; helped regulate working hours, workload levels and work speeds; and helped improve working conditions. It also acted as a hiring hall, helping employers find scarce puddlers and rollers.
The AA organized the independently - owned Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works in Homestead in 1881. The AA engaged in a bitter strike at the Homestead works on January 1, 1882 in an effort to prevent management from including a non-union clause in the workers ' contracts, known as a "yellow - dog contract ''. Violence occurred on both sides, and the plant brought in numerous strikebreakers. The strike ended on March 20 in a complete victory for the union.
The AA struck the steel plant again on July 1, 1889, when negotiations for a new three - year collective bargaining agreement failed. The strikers seized the town and once again made common cause with various immigrant groups. Backed by 2,000 townspeople, the strikers drove off a trainload of strikebreakers on July 10. When the sheriff returned with 125 newly deputized agents two days later, the strikers rallied 5,000 townspeople to their cause. Although victorious, the union agreed to significant wage cuts that left tonnage rates less than half those at the nearby Jones and Laughlin works, where technological improvements had not been made.
Carnegie officials conceded that the AA essentially ran the Homestead plant after the 1889 strike. The union contract contained 58 pages of footnotes defining work - rules at the plant and strictly limited management 's ability to maximize output.
For its part, the AA saw substantial gains after the 1889 strike. Membership doubled, and the local union treasury had a balance of $146,000. The Homestead union grew belligerent, and relationships between workers and managers grew tense.
The Homestead strike was organized and purposeful, a harbinger of the type of strike which marked the modern age of labor relations in the United States. The AA strike at the Homestead steel mill in 1892 was different from previous large - scale strikes in American history such as the Great railroad strike of 1877 or the Great Southwest Railroad Strike of 1886. Earlier strikes had been largely leaderless and disorganized mass uprisings of workers.
Andrew Carnegie placed industrialist Henry Clay Frick in charge of his company 's operations in 1881. Frick resolved to break the union at Homestead. "The mills have never been able to turn out the product they should, owing to being held back by the Amalgamated men, '' he complained in a letter to Carnegie.
Carnegie was publicly in favor of labor unions. He condemned the use of strikebreakers and told associates that no steel mill was worth a single drop of blood. But Carnegie agreed with Frick 's desire to break the union and "reorganize the whole affair, and... exact good reasons for employing every man. Far too many men required by Amalgamated rules. '' Carnegie ordered the Homestead plant to manufacture large amounts of inventory so the plant could weather a strike. He also drafted a notice (which Frick never released) withdrawing recognition of the union.
With the collective bargaining agreement due to expire on June 30, 1892, Frick and the leaders of the local AA union entered into negotiations in February. With the steel industry doing well and prices higher, the AA asked for a wage increase; the AA represented about 800 of the 3,800 workers at the plant. Frick immediately countered with a 22 % wage decrease that would affect nearly half the union 's membership and remove a number of positions from the bargaining unit. Carnegie encouraged Frick to use the negotiations to break the union: "... the Firm has decided that the minority must give way to the majority. These works, therefore, will be necessarily non-union after the expiration of the present agreement. '' Carnegie believed that the Amalgamated was a hindrance to efficiency; furthermore it was not representative of the workers. It admitted only a small group of skilled workers. It was in its own way an elitist, discriminatory organization that was not worthy of the Republic, Carnegie felt.
Frick announced on April 30, 1892 that he would bargain for 29 more days. If no contract was reached, Carnegie Steel would cease to recognize the union. Carnegie formally approved Frick 's tactics on May 4. Then Frick offered a slightly better wage scale and advised the Superintendent to tell the workers, "We do not care whether a man belongs to a union or not, nor do we wish to interfere. He may belong to as many unions or organizations as he chooses, but we think our employees at Homestead Steel Works would fare much better working under the system in vogue at Edgar Thomson and Duquesne. ''
Frick locked workers out of the plate mill and one of the open hearth furnaces on the evening of June 28. When no collective bargaining agreement was reached on June 29, Frick locked the union out of the rest of the plant. A high fence topped with barbed wire, begun in January, was completed and the plant sealed to the workers. Sniper towers with searchlights were constructed near each mill building, and high - pressure water cannons (some capable of spraying boiling - hot liquid) were placed at each entrance. Various aspects of the plant were protected, reinforced, or shielded.
At a mass meeting on June 30, local AA leaders reviewed the final negotiating sessions and announced that the company had broken the contract by locking out workers a day before the contract expired. The Knights of Labor, which had organized the mechanics and transportation workers at Homestead, agreed to walk out alongside the skilled workers of the AA. Workers at Carnegie plants in Pittsburgh, Duquesne, Union Mills and Beaver Falls struck in sympathy the same day.
The Declaration of the Strike Committee, dated July 20, 1892 reads in part,
The employees in the mill of Messrs. Carnegie, Phipps & Co., at Homestead, Pa., have built there a town with its homes, its schools and its churches; have for many years been faithful co-workers with the company in the business of the mill; have invested thousands of dollars of their savings in said mill in the expectation of spending their lives in Homestead and of working in the mill during the period of their efficiency... "Therefore, the committee desires to express to the public as its firm belief that both the public and the employees aforesaid have equitable rights and interests in the said mill which can not be modified or diverted without due process of law; that the employees have the right to continuous employment in the said mill during efficiency and good behavior without regard to religious, political or economic opinions or associations; that it is against public policy and subversive of the fundamental principles of American liberty that a whole community of workers should be denied employment or suffer any other social detriment on account of membership in a church, a political party or a trade union; that it is our duty as American citizens to resist by every legal and ordinary means the unconstitutional, anarchic and revolutionary policy of the Carnegie Company, which seems to evince a contempt (for) public and private interests and a disdain (for) the public conscience...
The strikers were determined to keep the plant closed. They secured a steam - powered river launch and several rowboats to patrol the Monongahela River, which ran alongside the plant. Men also divided themselves into units along military lines. Picket lines were thrown up around the plant and the town, and 24 - hour shifts established. Ferries and trains were watched. Strangers were challenged to give explanations for their presence in town; if one was not forthcoming, they were escorted outside the city limits. Telegraph communications with AA locals in other cities were established to keep tabs on the company 's attempts to hire replacement workers. Reporters were issued special badges which gave them safe passage through the town, but the badges were withdrawn if it was felt misleading or false information made it into the news. Tavern owners were even asked to prevent excessive drinking.
Frick was also busy. The company placed ads for replacement workers in newspapers as far away as Boston, St. Louis and even Europe.
But unprotected strikebreakers would be driven off. On July 4, Frick formally requested that Sheriff William H. McCleary intervene to allow supervisors access to the plant. Carnegie corporation attorney Philander Knox gave the go - ahead to the sheriff on July 5, and McCleary dispatched 11 deputies to the town to post handbills ordering the strikers to stop interfering with the plant 's operation. The strikers tore down the handbills and told the deputies that they would not turn over the plant to nonunion workers. Then they herded the deputies onto a boat and sent them downriver to Pittsburgh.
Frick had ordered the construction of a solid board fence topped with barbed wire around mill property. The workers dubbed the newly fortified mill "Fort Frick. ''
Frick 's intent was to open the works with nonunion men on July 6. Knox devised a plan to get the Pinkertons onto the mill property. With the mill ringed by striking workers, the agents would access the plant grounds from the river. Three hundred Pinkerton agents assembled on the Davis Island Dam on the Ohio River about five miles below Pittsburgh at 10: 30 p.m. on the night of July 5, 1892. They were given Winchester rifles, placed on two specially - equipped barges and towed upriver.
The strikers were prepared for them; the AA had learned of the Pinkertons as soon as they had left Boston for the embarkation point. The small flotilla of union boats went downriver to meet the barges. Strikers on the steam launch fired a few random shots at the barges, then withdrew -- blowing the launch whistle to alert the plant. The strikers blew the plant whistle at 2: 30 a.m., drawing thousands of men, women and children to the plant.
The Pinkertons attempted to land under cover of darkness about 4 a.m. A large crowd of families had kept pace with the boats as they were towed by a tug into the town. A few shots were fired at the tug and barges, but no one was injured. The crowd tore down the barbed - wire fence and strikers and their families surged onto the Homestead plant grounds. Some in the crowd threw stones at the barges, but strike leaders shouted for restraint.
The Pinkerton agents attempted to disembark, and shots were fired. Conflicting testimony exists as to which side fired the first shot. John T. McCurry, a boatman on the steamboat Little Bill (which had been hired by the Pinkerton Detective Agency to ferry its agents to the steel mill) and one of the men wounded by the strikers, said: "The armed Pinkerton men commenced to climb up the banks. Then the workmen opened fire on the detectives. The men shot first, and not until three of the Pinkerton men had fallen did they respond to the fire. I am willing to take an oath that the workmen fired first, and that the Pinkerton men did not shoot until some of their number had been wounded. '' But according to The New York Times, the Pinkertons shot first. The newspaper reported that the Pinkertons opened fire and wounded William Foy, a worker. Regardless of which side opened fire first, the first two individuals wounded were Frederick Heinde, captain of the Pinkertons, and Foy. The Pinkerton agents aboard the barges then fired into the crowd, killing two and wounding 11. The crowd responded in kind, killing two and wounding 12. The firefight continued for about 10 minutes.
The strikers then huddled behind the pig and scrap iron in the mill yard, while the Pinkertons cut holes in the side of the barges so they could fire on any who approached. The Pinkerton tug departed with the wounded agents, leaving the barges stranded. The strikers soon set to work building a rampart of steel beams further up the riverbank from which they could fire down on the barges. Hundreds of women continued to crowd on the riverbank between the strikers and the agents, calling on the strikers to ' kill the Pinkertons '.
The strikers continued to sporadically fire on the barges. Union members took potshots at the ships from their rowboats and the steam - powered launch. The burgess of Homestead, John McLuckie, issued a proclamation at 6: 00 a.m. asking for townspeople to help defend the peace; more than 5,000 people congregated on the hills overlooking the steelworks. A 20 - pounder brass cannon was set up on the shore opposite the steel mill, and an attempt was made to sink the barges. Six miles away in Pittsburgh, thousands of steelworkers gathered in the streets, listening to accounts of the attacks at Homestead; hundreds, many of them armed, began to move toward the town to assist the strikers.
The Pinkertons attempted to disembark again at 8: 00 a.m. A striker high up the riverbank fired a shot. The Pinkertons returned fire, and four more strikers were killed (one by shrapnel sent flying when cannon fire hit one of the barges). Many of the Pinkerton agents refused to participate in the firefight any longer; the agents crowded onto the barge farthest from the shore. More experienced agents were barely able to stop the new recruits from abandoning the ships and swimming away. Intermittent gunfire from both sides continued throughout the morning. When the tug attempted to retrieve the barges at 10: 50 a.m., gunfire drove it off. More than 300 riflemen positioned themselves on the high ground and kept a steady stream of fire on the barges. Just before noon, a sniper shot and killed another Pinkerton agent.
After a few more hours, the strikers attempted to burn the barges. They seized a raft, loaded it with oil - soaked timber and floated it toward the barges. The Pinkertons nearly panicked, and a Pinkerton captain had to threaten to shoot anyone who fled. But the fire burned itself out before it reached the barges. The strikers then loaded a railroad flatcar with drums of oil and set it afire. The flatcar hurtled down the rails toward the mill 's wharf where the barges were docked. But the car stopped at the water 's edge and burned itself out. Dynamite was thrown at the barges, but it only hit the mark once (causing a little damage to one barge). At 2: 00 p.m., the workers poured oil onto the river, hoping the oil slick would burn the barges; attempts to light the slick failed.
The AA worked behind the scenes to avoid further bloodshed and defuse the tense situation. At 9: 00 a.m., outgoing AA international president William Weihe rushed to the sheriff 's office and asked McCleary to convey a request to Frick to meet. McCleary did so, but Frick refused. He knew that the more chaotic the situation became, the more likely it was that Governor Robert E. Pattison would call out the state militia.
Sheriff McCleary resisted attempts to call for state intervention until 10 a.m. on July 7. In a telegram to Gov. Pattison, he described how his deputies and the Carnegie men had been driven off, and noted that the workers and their supporters actively resisting the landing numbered nearly 5,000. Pattison responded by requiring McCleary to exhaust every effort to restore the peace. McCleary asked again for help at noon, and Pattison responded by asking how many deputies the sheriff had. A third telegram, sent at 3: 00 p.m., again elicited a response from the governor exhorting McCleary to raise his own troops.
At 4: 00 p.m., events at the mill quickly began to wind down. More than 5,000 men -- most of them armed mill hands from the nearby South Side, Braddock and Duquesne works -- arrived at the Homestead plant. Weihe wanted to prevent further trouble at Homestead, so he pleaded with Frick to confer with representatives of the Amalgamated to return to Homestead and stop the riot. Weihe urged the strikers to let the Pinkertons surrender, but he was shouted down. Weihe tried to speak again, but this time his pleas were drowned out as the strikers bombarded the barges with fireworks left over from the recent Independence Day celebration. Hugh O'Donnell, a heater in the plant and head of the union 's strike committee, then spoke to the crowd. He demanded that each Pinkerton be charged with murder, forced to turn over his arms and then be removed from the town. The crowd shouted their approval.
The Pinkertons, too, wished to surrender. At 5: 00 p.m., they raised a white flag and two agents asked to speak with the strikers. O'Donnell guaranteed them safe passage out of town. Upon arrival, their arms were stripped from them. With heads uncovered, to distinguish them from the mill hands, they passed along between two rows of guards armed with Winchesters. As the Pinkertons crossed the grounds of the mill, the crowd formed a gauntlet through which the agents passed. Men and women threw sand and stones at the Pinkerton agents, spat on them and beat them. Several Pinkertons were clubbed into unconsciousness. Members of the crowd ransacked the barges, then burned them to the waterline.
As the Pinkertons were marched through town to the Opera House (which served as a temporary jail), the townspeople continued to assault the agents. Two agents were beaten as horrified town officials looked on. The press expressed shock at the treatment of the Pinkerton agents, and the torrent of abuse helped turn media sympathies away from the strikers.
The strike committee met with the town council to discuss the handover of the agents to McCleary. But the real talks were taking place between McCleary and Weihe in McCleary 's office. At 10: 15 p.m., the two sides agreed to a transfer process. A special train arrived at 12: 30 a.m. on July 7. McCleary, the international AA 's lawyer and several town officials accompanied the Pinkerton agents to Pittsburgh.
But when the Pinkerton agents arrived at their final destination in Pittsburgh, state officials declared that they would not be charged with murder (per the agreement with the strikers) but rather simply released. The announcement was made with the full concurrence of the AA attorney. A special train whisked the Pinkerton agents out of the city at 10: 00 a.m. on July 7.
On July 7, the strike committee sent a telegram to Gov. Pattison to attempt to persuade him that law and order had been restored in the town. Pattison replied that he had heard differently. Union officials traveled to Harrisburg and met with Pattison on July 9. Their discussions revolved not around law and order, but the safety of the Carnegie plant.
Pattison, however, remained unconvinced by the strikers ' arguments. Although Pattison had ordered the Pennsylvania militia to muster on July 6, he had not formally charged it with doing anything. Pattison 's refusal to act rested largely on his concern that the union controlled the entire city of Homestead and commanded the allegiance of its citizens. Pattison refused to order the town taken by force, for fear a massacre would occur. But once emotions had died down, Pattison felt the need to act. He had been elected with the backing of a Carnegie - supported political machine, and he could no longer refuse to protect Carnegie interests.
The steelworkers resolved to meet the militia with open arms, hoping to establish good relations with the troops. But the militia managed to keep its arrival in the town a secret almost to the last moment. At 9: 00 a.m. on July 12, the Pennsylvania state militia arrived at the small Munhall train station near the Homestead mill (rather than the downtown train station as expected). Their commander, Major General George R. Snowden, made it clear to local officials that he sided with the owners. When Hugh O'Donnell, the head of the union 's strike committee attempted to welcome Snowden and pledge the cooperation of the strikers, Snowden told him that the strikers had not been law abiding, and that "I want you to distinctly understand that I am the master of this situation. '' More than 4,000 soldiers surrounded the plant. Within 20 minutes they had displaced the picketers; by 10: 00 a.m., company officials were back in their offices. Another 2,000 troops camped on the high ground overlooking the city.
The company quickly brought in strikebreakers and restarted production under the protection of the militia. Despite the presence of AFL pickets in front of several recruitment offices across the nation, Frick easily found employees to work the mill. The company quickly built bunk houses, dining halls and kitchens on the mill grounds to accommodate the strikebreakers. New employees, many of them black, arrived on July 13, and the mill furnaces relit on July 15. When a few workers attempted to storm into the plant to stop the relighting of the furnaces, militiamen fought them off and wounded six with bayonets. But all was not well inside the plant. A race war between nonunion black and white workers in the Homestead plant broke out on July 22, 1892.
Desperate to find a way to continue the strike, the AA appealed to Whitelaw Reid, the Republican candidate for vice president, on July 16. The AA offered to make no demands or set any preconditions; the union merely asked that Carnegie Steel reopen the negotiations. Reid wrote to Frick, warning him that the strike was hurting the Republican ticket and pleading with him to reopen talks. Frick refused.
Frick, too, needed a way out of the strike. The company could not operate for long with strikebreakers living on the mill grounds, and permanent replacements had to be found.
On July 18, the town was placed under martial law, further disheartening many of the strikers.
National attention became riveted on Homestead when, on July 23, Alexander Berkman, a New York anarchist with no connection to steel or to organized labor, plotted with his lover Emma Goldman to assassinate Frick. He came in from New York, gained entrance to Frick 's office, then shot and stabbed the executive. Frick survived and continued his role; Berkman was sentenced to 22 years in prison.
The Berkman assassination attempt undermined public support for the union and prompted the final collapse of the strike. Hugh O'Donnell was removed as chair of the strike committee when he proposed to return to work at the lower wage scale if the unionists could get their jobs back. On August 12, the company announced that 1,700 men were working at the mill and production had resumed at full capacity. The national AFL refused to intervene, the East European workers ignored the union and it had no strategy left. The union voted to go back to work on Carnegie 's terms; the strike had failed and the union had collapsed.
The company had waged a second front in state court, and was winning. On July 18, 16 of the strike leaders were charged with conspiracy, riot and murder. Each man was jailed for one night and forced to post a $10,000 bond.
The union retaliated by charging company executives with murder as well. The company men, too, had to post a $10,000 bond, but they were not forced to spend any time in jail. One judge issued treason charges against the Advisory Committee on August 30 for making itself the law. Most of the men could not raise the bail bond, and went to jail or into hiding. A compromise was reached whereby both sides dropped their charges.
Support for the strikers evaporated. The AFL refused to call for a boycott of Carnegie products in September 1892. Wholesale crossing of the picket line occurred, first among Eastern European immigrants and then among all workers. The strike had collapsed so much that the state militia pulled out on October 13, ending the 95 - day occupation. The AA was nearly bankrupted by the job action. Weekly Union relief for a member averaged $6.25 but totalled a staggering $10,000 per week when including 1,600 strikers. With only 192 out of more than 3,800 strikers in attendance, the Homestead chapter of the AA voted, 101 to 91, to return to work on November 20, 1892.
In the end, only four workers were ever tried on the actual charges filed on July 18. Three AA members were found innocent of all charges. Hugh Dempsey, the leader of the local Knights of Labor District Assembly, was found guilty of conspiring to poison nonunion workers at the plant -- despite the state 's star witness recanting his testimony on the stand. Dempsey served a seven - year prison term. In February 1893, Knox and the union agreed to drop the charges filed against one another, and no further prosecutions emerged from the events at Homestead.
The striking AA affiliate in Beaver Falls gave in the same day as the Homestead lodge. The AA affiliate at Union Mills held out until August 14, 1893. But by then the union had only 53 members. The union had been broken; the company had been operating the plant at full capacity for almost a year, since September 1892.
The Homestead strike broke the AA as a force in the American labor movement. Many employers refused to sign contracts with their AA unions while the strike lasted. A deepening in 1889 of the Long Depression led most steel companies to seek wage decreases similar to those imposed at Homestead.
An organizing drive at the Homestead plant in 1896 was crushed by Frick. In May 1899, 300 Homestead workers actually formed an AA lodge, but Frick ordered the Homestead works shut down and the unionization effort collapsed.
De-unionization efforts throughout the Midwest began against the AA in 1897 when Jones and Laughlin Steel refused to sign a contract. By 1900, not a single steel plant in Pennsylvania remained unionized. The AA presence in Ohio and Illinois continued for a few more years, but the union continued to collapse. Many lodges disbanded, their members disillusioned. Others were easily broken in short battles. Carnegie Steel 's Mingo Junction, Ohio, plant was the last major unionized steel mill in the country. But it, too, successfully withdrew recognition without a fight in 1903.
AA membership sagged to 10,000 in 1894 from its high of over 24,000 in 1891. A year later, it was down to 8,000. A 1901 strike against Carnegie 's successor company, U.S. Steel collapsed. By 1909, membership in the AA had sunk to 6,300. A nationwide steel strike of 1919 also was unsuccessful.
The AA maintained a rump membership in the steel industry until its takeover by the Steel Workers Organizing Committee in 1936. The two organizations officially disbanded and formed the United Steelworkers May 22, 1942.
In 1999 the Bost Building in downtown Homestead, AA headquarters throughout the strike, was designated a National Historic Landmark. It is used as a museum devoted not only to the strike, but also the steel industry in the Pittsburgh area.
A railroad bridge over the Monongahela River near the site of the battle is named Pinkerton 's Landing Bridge in honor of the dead.
Two sites were each designated with a Pennsylvania state historical marker: the site where Pinkerton attempted to land, and the two adjoining cemeteries of St. Mary 's and Homestead where are buried the remains of six of the seven Carnegie Steel Company workers that were killed. The Pinkerton landing site was also named a Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation Historic Landmark.
The pumphouse where the gunfight occurred remains as a museum and meeting hall. There are several historical markers as well as a metal commemorative sign with the US Steel logo that reads "In Honor Of The Workers. ''
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when did the chinese pull out of the olympics | China at the Olympics - wikipedia
Originally having participated in Olympics as the delegation of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1932 to 1948, China competed at the Olympic Games under the name of the People 's Republic of China (PRC) for the first time in 1952, at the Summer Games in Helsinki, Finland, although they only arrived in time to participate in one event. That year, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) allowed both the PRC and the Republic of China (which recently relocated to Taiwan after the Chinese Civil War) to compete, although the latter withdrew in protest. Due to the dispute over the political status of China, the PRC did not participate in the Olympics again until the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, United States. Their first appearance at the Summer Olympic Games after 1952 was the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, United States.
The Chinese Olympic Committee in its current form was recognized in 1979. Before the Chinese Civil War, athletes competed as the Republic of China (ROC) at the Olympics. The ROC continued to compete from 1952 to 1976 (Winter), but only representing athletes from the island of Taiwan (although the football team members of ROC in the 1960 Olympic Games were overwhelmingly Hong Kongers). The dispute over use of the name China resulted in the PRC boycotting the Games completely during these years. In 1979, the International Olympic Committee passed a resolution for the ROC team to be designated Chinese Taipei, and this opened the door for the PRC to finally join the Olympic movement.
Hong Kong has had a distinct National Olympic Committee since 1950 and has competed at the Games since 1952. After the territory was returned to the PRC and the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region was created in 1997, this arrangement has continued, with Hong Kong competing independently from the rest of the nation under the name Hong Kong, China.
The People 's Republic of China has hosted the Games on one occasion, with a second Games scheduled for 2022. Beijing will be the first city to host both Summer and Winter Olympics.
Chinese athletes have won medals in most of the current Summer Olympics sports. The exceptions are triathlon, equestrian, rugby and water polo.
Chinese athletes have won medals in 6 out of 15 current Winter Olympics sports. Most of the golds and half of the medals come from the sport of short track speed skating.
After the establishment of the People 's Republic of China in 1949, PRC sent a delegation to the Olympic Games for the first time at the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki, Finland. The Chinese delegation (including athletes and officials) consisted of 38 men and 2 women, including the men 's football team, the men 's basketball team, and one swimmer. Only the swimmer arrived in time to take part in the official competition, and the football team played two friendly matches. The Chinese stayed ten days in Helsinki and participated in the closing ceremony. The Republic of China 's (ROC) team withdrew from the Games on July 17 in response to the IOC 's decision to allow both PRC and ROC sportsmen and women to compete. This marked the beginning of the "two Chinas '' conflict in the Olympic Movement, which resulted in the Chinese Olympic Committee 's withdrawal from the IOC in August 1958.
In the 1970s, China normalized her relations with the United States through Ping Pong Diplomacy, and established diplomatic relations with the United States on January 1, 1979. The normalization finally led to the Chinese Olympic Committee 's return to the IOC on October 25, 1979. Just three months later, China participated in the 1980 Winter Olympics at Lake Placid, USA, its first appearance in 28 years since the 1952 Summer Olympics. China boycotted the 1980 Summer Olympics at Moscow, USSR. Since the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo, Yugoslavia, China has participated in all subsequent Summer Olympics and Winter Olympics.
Till 2012, China won three - quarters of all gold medals (152 out of 201) and two - thirds of all medals (311 out of 473) in six sports: table tennis, badminton, diving, gymnastics, weightlifting, and shooting.
China recently dominated the gold medals in three of them, table tennis, badminton and diving. China won all golds four times in table tennis and one time in badminton, and won three - quarters of all diving golds since 1992.
The total dominance in table tennis and badminton also leads to negative consequences. Due to the low participations among non-Asian countries, these two sports may lose their positions in the Summer Olympics just like baseball and softball did after 2008.
While through the years, Chinese athletes got many breakthroughs in other sports that are traditionally China 's weak sports. Among them, swimming is the potential one that may get into top five sports of China in the near future.
China won 15 golds and ranked 4th at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. The good result was partly due to the boycott of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc countries.
Xu Haifeng won the first - ever gold medal for China in the shooting event of 50 m Pistol. It was called "a break through zero '' - an event that brought great joy to the whole Chinese nation.
Li Ning won six medals in gymnastics, 3 golds, 2 silvers, and 1 bronze, earning him the nickname "Prince of Gymnasts '' in China. Six medals in a single Olympics is still the record for any Chinese athlete.
Chinese women 's volleyball team defeated USA women 's team in the final and won China 's first ball - game gold medal.
China won 5 golds and ranked 11th at the 1988 Summer Olympics at Seoul, South Korea. The drop from 1984 was due to the return of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc countries.
Li Meisu won China 's first medal in athletics.
China also won first medals in rowing. A silver in women 's coxed fours and a bronze in women 's eights
China won 16 golds and ranked 4th at the 1992 Summer Olympics at Barcelona, Spain.
Chen Yueling won China 's first athletics gold medal in women 's 10 km walk.
Chinese female swimmers glittered with 4 golds and 5 silvers. But the success was later shadowed by the doping incident of Chinese swimmers just two years later at the 1994 Asian Games, although none of the medalists in 1992 was involved in the 1994 incident.
Deng Yaping won two table tennis golds in women 's singles and women 's doubles. IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch presented the gold medal to her after a promise made a year ago at 1991 World Table Tennis Championships.
Zhuang Xiaoyan won China 's first judo gold medal in women 's + 72kg.
Zhang Xiaodong won silver medal in women 's board (lechner), China 's first medal in sailing.
Chinese women 's basketball team lost final to Unified team, winning silver medal, China 's best result in basketball.
China won 16 golds and ranked 4th again at the 1996 Summer Olympics at Atlanta, USA.
Fu Mingxia won two diving golds in women 's 3 m springboard and women 's 10 m platform, becoming the first female diver to accomplish this feat since 1960.
Deng Yaping won two golds in table tennis again, making her the first Chinese athlete to defend two events and win four Olympic gold medals. IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch presented the gold medal to her again after a promise made four years ago at 1992 Olympics.
Liu Guoliang also won two table tennis golds in men 's events. China won all four golds in table tennis for the first time.
Wang Junxia won gold in women 's 5000 m and silver in women 's 10000 m.
Chinese women 's football team lost final to the USA team, winning silver medal, China 's first medal in football.
China won 28 golds and ranked 3rd at the 2000 Summer Olympics at Sydney, Australia.
Wang Nan won two golds in table tennis, China again won all four golds in table tennis.
Chen Zhong won China 's first taekwondo gold medal in women 's + 67kg.
Jiang Cuihua won bronze in women 's track time trial, China 's first medal in cycling. No ball - games team entered the final four, the worst performance China 's since Olympic history.
China won 32 golds and ranked 2nd at the 2004 Summer Olympics at Athens, Greece.
Liu Xiang became the first Chinese male athlete to win gold medal in an Olympic track event, 110 m hurdles, equaling the world record of 12.91 seconds. He became the China 's flag bearer at the closing ceremony. Liu broke the world record with 12.88 seconds two years later in Lausanne, Switzerland.
Wang Yifu participated the Olympics for the record six consecutive times. He won gold in 10 m air pistol, his second gold and fourth medal in the event.
Meng Guanliang and Yang Wenjun won China 's first canoeing gold medal in men 's C - 2 500 m.
Li Ting and Sun Tiantian won China 's first tennis gold medal in women 's doubles.
Wang Xu won China 's first wrestling gold medal in women 's freestyle 72 kg.
Chinese women 's volleyball team come back from 0 - 2 deficit to defeat Russia women 's team 3 - 2 in the final, winning China 's second ball - game gold medal after 20 years.
As host country, China won 48 golds, 22 silvers and 30 bronze, total 100 medals, ranked 1st at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing.
Guo Jingjing won two golds in diving, becoming the first Chinese diver to defend two events successfully.
Zhang Yining won two golds in table tennis, becoming the second Chinese table tennis player to defend two events successfully after Deng Yaping.
Ma Lin also won two table tennis golds in men 's events. China won all four golds in table tennis for the third time.
Zhong Man won China 's first men 's fencing gold in men 's sabre, 24 years after Luan Jujie won China 's first women 's fencing gold in 1984.
Zhang Juanjuan won China 's first archery gold in women 's individual, breaking the long - time Korean dominance in the sport.
Zou Shiming and Zhang Xiaoping won China 's first boxing golds in men 's events.
Yin Jian won China 's first sailing gold in sailboard event in women 's sailboard.
China won first rowing gold in women 's quadruple sculls.
Chinese gymnasts won 11 golds, the best in history. Zou Kai won 3 golds in one team event and two individual events.
China 's top star Liu Xiang pulled out of the first round of 110 m hurdles due to injury.
China won 38 golds and finished 2nd at the 2012 Summer Olympics at London, Great Britain.
Sun Yang, the men 's 1500 m freestyle world - record - holder before the Olympics, became the first Chinese male swimmer to win gold in Olympics. He won two golds in men 's 400 m freestyle and men 's 1500 m freestyle, breaking the Olympic record and his own world record respectively.
Ye Shiwen became the first Chinese female swimmer to win two golds in a single Olympics. She won golds in women 's 200 m medley and women 's 400 m medley, breaking the Olympic record and world record respectively.
Chen Ding won gold in men 's 20 km walk, becoming the second Chinese male athlete to win Olympic athletics gold medal after Liu Xiang did in 2004.
Chen Ruolin won two golds in diving, becoming the second Chinese diver to defend two events successfully after Guo Jingjing.
Wu Mingxia won diving gold in women 's sync 3m springboard, becoming the only Chinese athlete to win three gold medals in a single event. She also won gold in women 's 3m springboard, giving her all three medals in three participations in this event after silver in 2004 and bronze in 2008.
Zou Kai won two golds in gymnastics, becoming the only Chinese athlete to win five gold medals in Olympics.
Xu Lijia won gold in women 's laser radial class, China 's first gold medal in the sailboat event of sailing. She later became the China 's flag bearer at the closing ceremony.
Lin Dan won badminton gold in men 's singles, becoming the first athlete to defend the men 's singles title in Olympic badminton history.
Zhao Yunlei won two golds in two badminton double events, becoming the only athlete to win two badminton gold medals in a single Olympics.
Cao Zhongrong won silver in men 's event of modern pentathlon, China 's first medal in the sport.
Chinese table tennis team won all four golds for the fourth time. Chinese badminton team won all five golds for the first time, but was a little shadowed by the disqualification of China 's top seed women 's double duo for not using best efforts.
China 's top star Liu Xiang pulled out of the first round of 110 m hurdles due to injury again. Two of his three pull - outs in 12 years ' career came from two Olympics first round heats.
No Chinese ball - game teams entered the final four, the worst performance in Chinese Summer Olympics history.
China won 26 golds and ranked 3rd at the 2016 Summer Olympics at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Sun Yang won a gold medal in men 's 200 m freestyle, becoming the only Chinese male swimmer to have won gold in 2 olympic games.
Gong Jinjie and Zhong Tianshi won China 's first cycling gold medal in women 's team sprint.
Feng Shanshan won China 's first golf medal.
Chinese women 's volleyball team won a third gold medal after 12 years.
China won medals in only 6 of the 15 Winter Olympics sports. Most of the golds and half of the medals come from short track speed skating.
No medals
Ye Qiaobo won China 's first Winter Olympics medal in speed skating.
Chen Lu won consecutive bronze medals in 1994 and 1998, becoming the first Chinese figure skater to medal at the Winter Olympic Games.
Yang Yang (A) won first Winter Olympics gold medal in short track speed skating.
Han Xiaopeng, first male athlete to win Winter Olympics gold medal in freestyle skiing.
Wang Meng shined in short track speed skating with three golds.
Shen Xue and Zhao Hongbo finally won figure skating gold in the event of pair skating after four participations.
Wang Bingyu and her team created history by winning the first curling Olympic medal for China in the women 's tournament.
Zhang Hong won first Chinese gold medal in speed skating.
Liu Jiayu won first ever Olympic medal in snowboarding for China.
Wu Dajing became the first Chinese male short track speed skating Olympic champion by breaking the world record at the 500 metre event.
Since Chinese athletes are more likely to compete in more than one event in the sport of diving, gymnastics, table tennis, swimming, and more likely to compete in several Olympic games in the sport of shooting, most multiple medalists listed in the following three tables come from these five sports.
Among other six sports that may produce top multiple medalists, China may have breakthroughs in fencing and cycling, while chances are slim in athletics, canoeing, rowing and equestrian.
This is a list of Chinese athletes who have won at least three gold medals or five medals at the Summer Olympics. Still active athletes are marked in bold.
This is a list of Chinese athletes who have won at least two gold medals at a single Summer Olympics. Order first by golds, then by sports, then by year.
This is a list of Chinese athletes who have won at least three medals in a single event at Summer Olympics. Order first by medals, then by sport, then by golds.
This is a list of Chinese athletes who competed in at least four Summer Olympics. Still active athletes are marked in bold. Age 15 - and 40 + are marked in bold.
This is a list of Chinese athletes who have won at least two gold medals or three medals at the Winter Olympics. Still active athletes are marked in bold.
This is a list of Chinese athletes who have won at least two gold medals at a single Winter Olympics. Order first by golds, then by sports, then by year.
This is a list of Chinese athletes who have won at least three medals in a single event at Winter Olympics. Order first by medals, then by sport, then by golds.
This is a list of Chinese athletes who competed in at least four Winter Olympics. Still active athletes are marked in bold.
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where is the uterus located in relation to the urinary system | Uterus - wikipedia
The uterus (from Latin "uterus '', plural uteri) or womb is a major female hormone - responsive reproductive sex organ of humans and most other mammals. In the human, the lower end of the uterus, the cervix, opens into the vagina, while the other end, the fundus, is connected to the fallopian tubes. It is within the uterus that the fetus develops during gestation. In the embryo the uterus develops from the paramesonephric ducts which fuse into the single organ known as a simplex uterus. The uterus has different forms in many other animals and in some it exists as two separate uteri known as a duplex uterus.
In English, the term uterus is used consistently within the medical and related professions, while the Germanic - derived term womb is also commonly used in everyday contexts.
The uterus is located within the pelvic region immediately behind and almost overlying the bladder, and in front of the sigmoid colon. The human uterus is pear - shaped and about 7.6 cm (3 in.) long, 4.5 cm broad (side to side) and 3.0 cm thick. A typical adult uterus weighs about 60 grams. The uterus can be divided anatomically into four regions: The fundus, corpus (body), cervix and the internal os. The cervix protrudes into the vagina. The uterus is held in position within the pelvis by condensations of endopelvic fascia, which are called ligaments. These ligaments include the pubocervical, transverse cervical ligaments or cardinal ligaments, and the uterosacral ligaments. It is covered by a sheet - like fold of peritoneum, the broad ligament.
From outside to inside, regions of the uterus include:
The uterus has three layers, which together form the uterine wall. From innermost to outermost, these layers are as follows:
Vertical section of mucous membrane of human uterus.
The uterus is primarily supported by the pelvic diaphragm, perineal body and the urogenital diaphragm. Secondarily, it is supported by ligaments and the peritoneal ligament the broad ligament of uterus.
It is held in place by several peritoneal ligaments, of which the following are the most important (there are two of each):
Normally the uterus lies in anteversion & anteflexion. In most women, the long axis of the uterus is bent forward on the long axis of the vagina, against the urinary bladder. This position is referred to as anteversion of the uterus. Furthermore, the long axis of the body of the uterus is bent forward at the level of the internal os with the long axis of the cervix. This position is termed anteflexion of the uterus. Uterus assumes anteverted position in 50 % women, retroverted position in 25 % women and rest have midposed uterus.
The uterus is in the middle of the pelvic cavity in frontal plane (due to ligamentum latum uteri). The fundus does not surpass the linea terminalis, while the vaginal part of the cervix does not extend below interspinal line. The uterus is mobile and moves posteriorly under the pressure of a full bladder, or anteriorly under the pressure of a full rectum. If both are full, it moves upwards. Increased intraabdominal pressure pushes it downwards. The mobility is conferred to it by musculo - fibrous apparatus that consists of suspensory and sustentacular part. Under normal circumstances the suspensory part keeps the uterus in anteflexion and anteversion (in 90 % of women) and keeps it "floating '' in the pelvis. The meaning of these terms are described below:
Sustentacular part supports the pelvic organs and comprises the larger pelvic diaphragm in the back and the smaller urogenital diaphragm in the front.
The pathological changes of the position of the uterus are:
In cases where the uterus is "tipped '', also known as retroverted uterus, women may have symptoms of pain during sexual intercourse, pelvic pain during menstruation, minor incontinence, urinary tract infections, fertility difficulties, and difficulty using tampons. A pelvic examination by a doctor can determine if a uterus is tipped.
The uterus is supplied by arterial blood both from the uterine artery and the ovarian artery. Another anastomotic branch may also supply the uterus from anastomosis of these two arteries.
Afferent nerves supplying uterus are T11 and T12. Sympathetic supply is from hypogastric plexus and ovarian plexus. Parasympathetic supply is from second, third and fourth sacral nerves.
Bilateral Müllerian ducts form during early fetal life. In males, MIF secreted from the testes leads to their regression. In females, these ducts give rise to the Fallopian tubes and the uterus. In humans the lower segments of the two ducts fuse to form a single uterus, however, in cases of uterine malformations this development may be disturbed. The different uterine forms in various mammals are due to various degrees of fusion of the two Müllerian ducts.
The reproductive function of the uterus is to accept a fertilized ovum which passes through the utero - tubal junction from the fallopian tube (uterine tube). The fertilized ovum divides to become a blastocyst, which implants into the endometrium, and derives nourishment from blood vessels which develop exclusively for this purpose. The fertilized ovum becomes an embryo, attaches to a wall of the uterus, creates a placenta, and develops into a fetus (gestates) until childbirth. Due to anatomical barriers such as the pelvis, the uterus is pushed partially into the abdomen due to its expansion during pregnancy. Even during pregnancy the mass of a human uterus amounts to only about a kilogram (2.2 pounds).
The uterus also plays a role in sexual response, by directing blood flow to the pelvis and ovaries, and to the external genitals, including the vagina, labia, and clitoris.
A hysterectomy is the surgical removal of the uterus which may be carried out for a number of reasons including the ridding of tumours both benign and malignant. A complete hysterectomy involves the removal of the body, fundus, and cervix of the uterus. A partial hysterectomy may just involve the removal of the uterine body while leaving the cervix intact. It is the most commonly performed gynecological surgical procedure.
Some pathological states include:
In 2012, the world 's first womb transplant from a dead donor was performed on a Turkish woman who was born without a womb, but has her own ovaries. She is in good condition and the womb is functional. In the year 2000 in Saudi Arabia a similar transplant was performed, but from a live donor. Although womb transplants have been successful in animals such as mice, rats and sheep, the prevailing opinion in the field is that the risks are too great. Apart from risks of rejection of the new womb, there is concern that the drugs necessary for prevention of rejection of the donated womb might harm the fetus.
Most animals that lay eggs, such as birds and reptiles, including most ovoviviparous species, have an oviduct instead of a uterus. However, recent research into the biology of the viviparous (not merely ovoviviparous) skink Trachylepis ivensi has revealed development of a very close analogue to eutherian mammalian placental development.
In monotremes, mammals which lay eggs, namely the platypus and the echidnas, either the term uterus or oviduct is used to describe the same organ, but the egg does not develop a placenta within the mother and thus does not receive further nourishment after formation and fertilization.
Marsupials have two uteri, each of which connect to a lateral vagina and which both use a third, middle "vagina '' which functions as the birth canal. Marsupial embryos form a choriovitelline placenta (which can be thought of as something between a monotreme egg and a "true '' placenta), in which the egg 's yolk sac supplies a large part of the embryo 's nutrition but also attaches to the uterine wall and takes nutrients from the mother 's bloodstream. However, bandicoots also have a rudimentary chorioallantoic placenta, similar to those of placental mammals.
The fetus usually develops fully in placental mammals and only partially in marsupials including kangaroos and opossums. In marsupials the uterus forms as a duplex organ of two uteri. In monotremes (egg - laying mammals) such as the platypus, the uterus is duplex and rather than nurturing the embryo, secretes the shell around the egg. It is essentially identical with the shell gland of birds and reptiles, with which the uterus is homologous.
In mammals, the four main forms of the uterus are: duplex, bipartite, bicornuate and simplex.
Two uteri usually form initially in a female and usually male fetus, and in placental mammals they may partially or completely fuse into a single uterus depending on the species. In many species with two uteri, only one is functional. Humans and other higher primates such as chimpanzees, usually have a single completely fused uterus, although in some individuals the uteri may not have completely fused.
Schematic frontal view of female anatomy
Uterus and uterine tubes.
Sectional plan of the gravid uterus in the third and fourth month.
Fetus in utero, between fifth and sixth months.
Female pelvis and its contents, seen from above and in front.
The arteries of the internal organs of generation of the female, seen from behind.
Median sagittal section of female pelvis.
(Description located on image page)
Uterus
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when does 47 meters down cone out on dvd | 47 Meters Down - wikipedia
47 Meters Down is a 2017 British survival horror film directed by Johannes Roberts, written by Roberts and Ernest Riera, and starring Claire Holt and Mandy Moore.
The plot follows two sisters who go on holiday in Mexico, and are invited to cage dive and see sharks up close. When the cable holding the cage breaks and it plummets to the ocean floor with the two girls trapped inside, they must find a way to escape, with their air supplies running low and great white sharks stalking nearby. It was released in the United States on 16 June 2017 and in the United Kingdom on 26 July 2017. The film received mixed reviews but was a box office success, grossing over $53 million worldwide against a budget of $5.5 million.
Lisa (Mandy Moore) and Kate (Claire Holt) are sisters on holiday in Mexico. Lisa 's boyfriend has broken up with her because "she made the relationship boring ''. Kate attempts to cheer Lisa up by taking her out drinking and dancing at 1: 00 am. The sisters meet a pair of local men at a bar and the two men convince them to go out with them on a boat to watch sharks from a diving cage. Lisa is hesitant but Kate persuades her by saying it would show Lisa 's boyfriend that she is n't boring and make him regret breaking up with her.
The sisters arrive to the location where they were told to meet the locals. At first sight, the boat is lackluster and Lisa is immediately wary of it and its owner, Captain Taylor. Upon meeting the girls, the captain questions if the pair are experienced divers. Kate has been certified though Lisa knows nothing and has never been, so they lie and say they are both experienced. The dive cage is old and rusted, held up by thin chains and an old crane, adding further to Lisa 's apprehensions.
As they journey out to the cage diving spot, Captain Taylor baits the sharks. Lisa is skeptical about the entire dive, but Captain Taylor dismisses her concerns. The locals dive first in the cage. Unbeknownst to everyone on the boat, the cable supporting the cage starts to fray. The men return to the surface unharmed and Captain Taylor prepares to send Lisa and Kate down. While Lisa and Kate are in the cage, it breaks off of the boat, sending them to the sea floor -- 47 meters down (154 ft.). This also takes them out of communication range. Kate swims up to forty meters to resume communications with Captain Taylor, who tells her Javier (Chris J. Johnson) will be coming down with a spare winch to pull them up. He also advises them to stay in the cage as the sharks are all around. Both women are quickly running out of air, but they wait in the cage until they see a torch in the distance. Thinking that Javier can not see them, Lisa swims out to get him, as Kate 's air is lower due to the previous swim. Lisa swims towards the light, low to the sea floor to avoid shark attacks from the bottom. A shark tries to attack Lisa but she swims into a small grotto to avoid it. Continuing to go towards the light, she comes to a crevasse with no bottom in sight.
Swimming over the cliff towards the light she finds the torch but no Javier. While looking around, she gets confused about her distance from the cage and Kate. Just as Javier appears and attempts to usher her back towards safety he is attacked and killed by a shark. Lisa takes Javier 's spear gun and the spare winch, and swims back towards the cage. With the newly acquired torch as well as the spear gun Lisa swims up and notifies Taylor to pull them up. Disaster strikes as they are being winched to safety -- the replacement winch line snaps and the cage descends back to the sea floor. This time, the cage lands on Lisa 's leg, pinning her down. Lisa and Kate panic as they realise they are now both low on options as well as air.
Kate decides to swim up to communication range so that she can tell Taylor about their low air as well as Lisa 's predicament. She succeeds and Captain Taylor tells her he is sending down some air tanks and the Mexican coast guard is an hour out. He also warns her that the second tank may cause nitrogen narcosis which can lead to hallucinations. Kate finds the air tanks just as her original tank goes empty. She also finds the three flares for them to use to signal the coast guard.
As she returns to the cage, Kate is attacked and dragged away by a shark. Lisa, still pinned and running low on air, uses the spear from the spear gun to pull the tank towards her. In the process, she is cut by the spear on her hand. She attaches the new tank, and shortly after doing so, she hears Kate communicating with her over their radio; Kate is injured and low on air, and the blood is attracting more sharks. Lisa states she will find her, and uses her BCD to lift up the cage, freeing her leg. After Lisa finds Kate, Taylor informs them the coast guard is still some time out and they need to get back in the cage. Lisa adamantly refuses due to the nature of Kate 's wounds, and they decide to swim to the surface. As they begin to swim up, they use one of the three flares to scare the sharks. At the 20 - meter mark, they are reminded by Taylor they must wait five minutes for their blood levels to acclimate. During this time, the first flare burns out. Reaching for the second flare, Kate drops it. Lisa lights the third flare, which reveals the face of a shark. The sisters are now surrounded by them and must rush to the surface.
Taylor yells for them to drop their gear and make a break for the surface. They swim as fast as they can to the surface near the boat. As they cling to a life ring to get to the boat, one of the sharks bites Lisa 's leg and pulls her back down to the water. Lisa fights the shark by hitting it and gouging its eye out, which causes the shark to release her. Captain Taylor and the other men are able to pull Lisa and Kate onto the boat and begin administering first aid. However, as Lisa stares at her hand on the deck of the boat, it is revealed that she has been hallucinating for some time due to the excess nitrogen in her blood from the air tanks. Her leg is still trapped under the cage on the ocean floor as she laughs and imagines that she is talking to Kate on the boat deck. The coast guard comes to rescue her and carries Lisa to the surface without Kate. Lisa, as she is slowly and cautiously being brought to the surface, comes out of her hallucination, and also notices her sister is not with her. She starts to cry and call out to Kate, realising that Kate was killed.
Original distributor Dimension Films had initially set a North American DVD and VOD release date for 2 August 2016. However, on 25 July 2016, Variety reported that Dimension had sold the rights to Entertainment Studios. Entertainment Studios cancelled the 2 August home release and instead committed to a theatrical release in the United States in summer 2017. The working title for the film was 47 Meters Down, which Dimension had changed to In the Deep for their home release, but upon acquiring the film Entertainment Studios reverted to the original title. Dimension had already sent out screeners and shipped DVDs to retailers before the deal took place. The DVDs, under the title In the Deep, were recalled; however, several retailers broke the street date, and a handful of physical copies were sold and have since turned up on eBay as collectors ' items. After the purchase, Entertainment Studios reverted to the original title 47 Meters Down. The film was released theatrically in the United States on 16 June 2017.
As of September 10, 2017, 47 Meters Down has grossed $44.2 million in the United States and Canada and $9 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $53.2 million, against a production budget of $5.5 million.
In North America, 47 Meters Down was released alongside All Eyez on Me, Rough Night and Cars 3, and was initially projected to gross around $5 million from 2,300 theatres in its opening weekend. It made $4.5 million on its first day (including $735,000 from Thursday night previews), increasing weekend estimates to $11 million. It went on to debut to $11.5 million, finishing 5th at the box office. In its second weekend, the film dropped 34 %, grossing $7.4 million and finishing 4th at the box office. As of September 2017, the film was the highest - grossing indie film of 2017.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 54 % based on 107 reviews, with an average rating of 5.4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "47 Meters Down does n't take its terrifying premise quite as far as it should, but its toothy antagonists still offer a few thrills for less demanding genre enthusiasts. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating, the film has a score of 52 out of 100, based on 24 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C '' on an A+ to F scale.
On September 8, 2017, it was announced that production studio, The Fyzz Facility, is working on a sequel titled 48 Meters Down. Roberts, Riera, and Harris will both return as director / writer, co-writer, and producer, respectively. The sequel will take place in Brazil and center around a group of young women who decide to explore some hidden underwater ruins located off - the - beaten trail. Production will be overseen by Altitude Film Sales, with potential buyers currently being sought in Toronto. Entertainment Studios will once again handle distribution for the film, with a planned release of June 28, 2019.
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which of the following institutions is least connected to juvenile delinquency | Juvenile delinquency - Wikipedia
Juvenile delinquency, also known as "juvenile offending '', is participation in illegal behavior by minors (juveniles, i.e. individuals younger than the statutory age of majority). Most legal systems prescribe specific procedures for dealing with juveniles, such as juvenile detention centers, and courts. A juvenile delinquent in the United States is a person who is typically below 18 (17 in Georgia, New York, Michigan, Missouri, North Carolina, New Hampshire, Texas, and Wisconsin) years of age and commits an act that otherwise would have been charged as a crime if they were an adult. Depending on the type and severity of the offense committed, it is possible for people under 18 to be charged and treated as adults.
In recent years a higher proportion of youth have experienced arrests by their early 20s than in the past, although some scholars have concluded this may reflect more aggressive criminal justice and zero - tolerance policies rather than changes in youth behavior. Juvenile crimes can range from status offenses (such as underage smoking), to property crimes and violent crimes. Youth violence rates in the United States have dropped to approximately 12 % of peak rates in 1993 according to official US government statistics, suggesting that most juvenile offending is non-violent.
However, juvenile offending can be considered to be normative adolescent behavior. This is because most teens tend to offend by committing non-violent crimes, only once or a few times, and only during adolescence. Repeated and / or violent offending is likely to lead to later and more violent offenses. When this happens, the offender often displayed antisocial behavior even before reaching adolescence.
Juvenile delinquency, or offending, can be separated into three categories:
According to the developmental research of Moffitt (2006), there are two different types of offenders that emerge in adolescence. One is the repeat offender, referred to as the life - course - persistent offender, who begins offending or showing antisocial / aggressive behavior in adolescence (or even in childhood) and continues into adulthood; and the age specific offender, referred to as the adolescence - limited offender, for whom juvenile offending or delinquency begins and ends during their period of adolescence. Because most teenagers tend to show some form of antisocial or delinquent behavior during adolescence, it is important to account for these behaviors in childhood in order to determine whether they will be life - course - persistent offenders or adolescence - limited offenders. Although adolescence - limited offenders tend to drop all criminal activity once they enter adulthood and show less pathology than life - course - persistent offenders, they still show more mental health, substance abuse, and financial problems, both in adolescence and adulthood, than those who were never delinquent.
The two largest predictors of juvenile delinquency are
Other factors that may lead a teenager into juvenile delinquency include poor or low socioeconomic status, poor school readiness / performance and / or failure, peer rejection, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). There may also be biological factors, such as high levels of serotonin, giving them a difficult temper and poor self - regulation, and a lower resting heart rate, which may lead to fearlessness. Delinquent activity, particularly the involvement in youth gangs, may also be caused by a desire for protection against violence or financial hardship, as the offenders view delinquent activity as a means of surrounding themselves with resources to protect against these threats. Most of these influences tend to be caused by a mix of both genetic and environmental factors.
Individual psychological or behavioural risk factors that may make offending more likely include low intelligence, impulsiveness or the inability to delay gratification, aggression, lack of empathy, and restlessness. Other risk factors that may be evident during childhood and adolescence include, aggressive or troublesome behavior, language delays or impairments, lack of emotional control (learning to control one 's anger), and cruelty to animals.
Children with low intelligence are more likely to do badly in school. This may increase the chances of offending because low educational attainment, a low attachment to school, and low educational aspirations are all risk factors for offending in themselves. Children who perform poorly at school are also more likely to be truant, and the status offense of truancy is linked to further offending. Impulsiveness is seen by some as the key aspect of a child 's personality that predicts offending. However, it is not clear whether these aspects of personality are a result of "deficits in the executive functions of the brain '' or a result of parental influences or other social factors. In any event, studies of adolescent development show that teenagers are more prone to risk - taking, which may explain the high disproportionate rate of offending among adolescents.
Family factors that may have an influence on offending include: the level of parental supervision, the way parents discipline a child, particularly harsh punishment, parental conflict or separation, criminal parents or siblings, parental abuse or neglect, and the quality of the parent - child relationship. Children who develop behavioral problems early in life are at greater risk for continual life long antisocial behavior, criminal activity and violence. Some have suggested that having a lifelong partner leads to less offending.
Juvenile Delinquency, which basically is the rebellious or unlawful activities by kids in their teens or pre-teens, is caused by four main risk factors namely; personality, background, state of mind and drugs. These factors may lead to the child having low IQ and may increase the rate of illiteracy.
Children brought up by lone parents are more likely to start offending than those who live with two natural parents. It is also more likely that children of single parents may live in poverty, which is strongly associated with juvenile delinquency. However once the attachment a child feels towards their parent (s) and the level of parental supervision are taken into account, children in single parent families are no more likely to offend than others. Conflict between a child 's parents is also much more closely linked to offending than being raised by a lone parent.
If a child has low parental supervision they are much more likely to offend. Many studies have found a strong correlation between a lack of supervision and offending, and it appears to be the most important family influence on offending. When parents commonly do not know where their children are, what their activities are, or who their friends are, children are more likely to truant from school and have delinquent friends, each of which are linked to offending. A lack of supervision is also connected to poor relationships between children and parents. Children who are often in conflict with their parents may be less willing to discuss their activities with them.
Adolescents with criminal siblings are only more likely to be influenced by their siblings, and also become delinquent; the sibling is older, of the same sex / gender, and warm. Cases where a younger criminal sibling influences an older one are rare. An aggressive, non-loving / warm sibling is less likely to influence a younger sibling in the direction of delinquency, if anything, the more strained the relationship between the siblings, the less they will want to be like, and / or influence each other.
Peer rejection in childhood is also a large predictor of juvenile delinquency. Although children are rejected by peers for many reasons, it is often the case that they are rejected due to violent or aggressive behavior. This rejections affects the child 's ability to be socialized properly, which can reduce their aggressive tendencies, and often leads them to gravitate towards anti-social peer groups. This association often leads to the promotion of violent, aggressive and deviant behavior. "The impact of deviant peer group influences on the crystallization of an antisocial developmental trajectory has been solidly documented. '' Aggressive adolescents who have been rejected by peers are also more likely to have a "hostile attribution bias '', which leads people to interpret the actions of others (whether they be hostile or not) as purposefully hostile and aggressive towards them. This often leads to an impulsive and aggressive reaction. Hostile attribution bias however, can appear at any age during development and often lasts throughout a persons life.
Children resulting from unintended pregnancies are more likely to exhibit delinquent behavior. They also have lower mother - child relationship quality.
There are a multitude of different theories on the causes of crime; most, if not all, of are applicable to the causes of juvenile delinquency.
Classical criminology stresses that causes of crime lie within the individual offender, rather than in their external environment. For classicists, offenders are motivated by rational self - interest, and the importance of free will and personal responsibility is emphasized. Rational choice theory is the clearest example of this idea. Delinquency is one of the major factors motivated by rational choice.
Current positivist approaches generally focus on the culture. A type of criminological theory attributing variation in crime and delinquency over time and among territories to the absence or breakdown of communal institutions (e.g. family, school, church and social groups.) and communal relationships that traditionally encouraged cooperative relationships among people.
Strain theory is associated mainly with the work of Robert Merton. He felt that there are institutionalized paths to success in society. Strain theory holds that crime is caused by the difficulty those in poverty have in achieving socially valued goals by legitimate means. As those with, for instance, poor educational attainment have difficulty achieving wealth and status by securing well paid employment, they are more likely to use criminal means to obtain these goals. Merton 's suggests five adaptations to this dilemma:
A difficulty with strain theory is that it does not explore why children of low - income families would have poor educational attainment in the first place. More importantly is the fact that much youth crime does not have an economic motivation. Strain theory fails to explain violent crime, the type of youth crime that causes most anxiety to the public.
The theory of Differential association also deals with young people in a group context, and looks at how peer pressure and the existence of gangs could lead them into crime. It suggests young people are motivated to commit crimes by delinquent peers, and learn criminal skills from them. The diminished influence of peers after men marry has also been cited as a factor in desisting from offending. There is strong evidence that young people with criminal friends are more likely to commit crimes themselves. However it may be the case that offenders prefer to associate with one another, rather than delinquent peers causing someone to start offending. Furthermore there is the question of how the delinquent peer group became delinquent initially.
Labeling theory is a concept within Criminology that aims to explain deviant behavior from the social context rather than looking at the individual themselves. It is part of Interactionism criminology that states that once young people have been labeled as criminal they are more likely to offend. The idea is that once labelled as deviant a young person may accept that role, and be more likely to associate with others who have been similarly labelled. Labelling theorists say that male children from poor families are more likely to be labelled deviant, and that this may partially explain why there are more working class young male offenders.
Social control theory proposes that exploiting the process of socialization and social learning builds self - control and can reduce the inclination to indulge in behavior recognized as antisocial. The four types of control can help prevent juvenile delinquency are:
Direct: by which punishment is threatened or applied for wrongful behavior, and compliance is rewarded by parents, family, and authority figures. Internal: by which a youth refrains from delinquency through the conscience or superego. Indirect: by identification with those who influence behavior, say because his or her delinquent act might cause pain and disappointment to parents and others with whom he or she has close relationships. Control through needs satisfaction, i.e. if all an individual 's needs are met, there is no point in criminal activity.
Juvenile delinquents are often diagnosed with different disorders. Around six to sixteen percent of male teens and two to nine percent of female teens have a conduct disorder. These can vary from oppositional - defiant disorder, which is not necessarily aggressive, to antisocial personality disorder, often diagnosed among psychopaths. A conduct disorder can develop during childhood and then manifest itself during adolescence.
Juvenile delinquents who have recurring encounters with the criminal justice system, or in other words those who are life - course - persistent offenders, are sometimes diagnosed with conduct disorders because they show a continuous disregard for their own and others safety and / or property. Once the juvenile continues to exhibit the same behavioral patterns and turns eighteen he is then at risk of being diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder and much more prone to become a serious criminal offender. One of the main components used in diagnosing an adult with antisocial personality disorder consists of presenting documented history of conduct disorder before the age of 15. These two personality disorders are analogous in their erratic and aggressive behavior. This is why habitual juvenile offenders diagnosed with conduct disorder are likely to exhibit signs of antisocial personality disorder early in life and then as they mature. Some times these juveniles reach maturation and they develop into career criminals, or life - course - persistent offenders. "Career criminals begin committing antisocial behavior before entering grade school and are versatile in that they engage in an array of destructive behaviors, offend at exceedingly high rates, and are less likely to quit committing crime as they age. ''
Quantitative research was completed on 9,945 juvenile male offenders between the ages of 10 and 18 in the 1970s. The longitudinal birth cohort was used to examine a trend among a small percentage of career criminals who accounted for the largest percentage of crime activity. The trend exhibited a new phenomenon among habitual offenders. The phenomenon indicated that only 6 % of the youth qualified under their definition of a habitual offender (known today as life - course persistent offenders, or career criminals) and yet were responsible for 52 % of the delinquency within the entire study. The same 6 % of chronic offenders accounted for 71 % of the murders and 69 % of the aggravated assaults. This phenomenon was later researched among an adult population in 1977 and resulted in similar findings. S.A. Mednick did a birth cohort of 30,000 males and found that 1 % of the males were responsible for more than half of the criminal activity. The habitual crime behavior found among juveniles is similar to that of adults. As stated before most life - course persistent offenders begin exhibiting antisocial, violent, and / or delinquent behavior, prior to adolescence. Therefore, while there is a high rate of juvenile delinquency, it is the small percentage of life - course persistent, career criminals that are responsible for most of the violent crimes.
Delinquency prevention is the broad term for all efforts aimed at preventing youth from becoming involved in criminal, or other antisocial, activity.
Because the development of delinquency in youth is influenced by numerous factors, prevention efforts need to be comprehensive in scope. Prevention services may include activities such as substance abuse education and treatment, family counseling, youth mentoring, parenting education, educational support, and youth sheltering. Increasing availability and use of family planning services, including education and contraceptives helps to reduce unintended pregnancy and unwanted births, which are risk factors for delinquency. Education is the great equalizer, opening doors to lift themselves out of poverty... Education also promotes economic growth, national productivity and innovation, and values of democracy and social cohesion. Prevention through education aides the young people to interact more effectively in social contexts, therefore diminishing need for delinquency.
It has been noted that often interventions may leave at - risk children worse off then if there had never been an intervention. This is due primarily to the fact that placing large groups of at risk children together only propagates delinquent or violent behavior. "Bad '' teens get together to talk about the "bad '' things they 've done, and it is received by their peers in a positive reinforcing light, promoting the behavior among them. A well - known intervention treatment that has not increased the prevention of juvenile delinquency is the Scared Straight Treatment. "The harmful effects of Scared Straight and boot - camp programs may be attributable to juvenile offenders ' vicarious exposure to criminal role models, to the increased resentment engendered in them by confrontational interactions, or both '' This suggests that exposure to criminals could create a sense of idealization and defeat the entire purpose of scared straight treatment. Also, this treatment does n't acknowledge the psychological troubles that the teenager may be experiencing. As mentioned before, peer groups, particularly an association with antisocial peer groups, is one of the biggest predictors of delinquency, and of life - course - persistent delinquency. The most efficient interventions are those that not only separate at - risk teens from anti-social peers, and place them instead with pro-social ones, but also simultaneously improve their home environment by training parents with appropriate parenting styles, parenting style being the other large predictor of juvenile delinquency.
Two UK academics, Stephen Case and Kevin Haines, among others, criticized risk factor research in their academic papers and a comprehensive polemic text, Understanding Youth Offending: Risk Factor Research, Policy and Practice.
The robustness and validity of much risk factor research is criticized for:
Juveniles who commit sexual crimes refer to individuals adjudicated in a criminal court for a sexual crime. Sex crimes are defined as sexually abusive behavior committed by a person under the age of 18 that is perpetrated "against the victim 's will, without consent, and in an aggressive, exploitative, manipulative, and / or threatening manner ''. It is important to utilize appropriate terminology for juvenile sex offenders. Harsh and inappropriate expressions include terms such as "pedophile, child molester, predator, perpetrator, and mini-perp '' These terms have often been associated with this group, regardless of the youth 's age, diagnosis, cognitive abilities, or developmental stage. Using appropriate expressions can facilitate a more accurate depiction of juvenile sex offenders and may decrease the subsequent aversive psychological affects from using such labels. In the Arab Gulf states (sic), homosexual acts are classified as an offense, and constitute one of the primary crimes for which juvenile males are charged.
Examining prevalence data and the characteristics of juvenile sex offenders is a fundamental component to obtain a precise understanding of this heterogeneous group. With mandatory reporting laws in place, it became a necessity for providers to report any incidents of disclosed sexual abuse. Longo and Prescott indicate that juveniles commit approximately 30 - 60 % of all child sexual abuse. The Federal Bureau of Investigation Uniform Crime Reports indicate that in 2008 youth under the age of 18 accounted for 16.7 % of forcible rapes and 20.61 % of other sexual offenses. Center for Sex Offender Management indicates that approximately one - fifth of all rapes and one - half of all sexual child molestation can be accounted for by juveniles.
The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention indicates that 15 % of juvenile arrests occurred for rape in 2006, and 12 % were clearance (resolved by an arrest). The total number of juvenile arrests in 2006 for forcible rape was 3,610 with 2 % being female and 36 % being under the age of 15 years. This trend has declined throughout the years with forcible rape from 1997 -- 2006 being − 30 % and from 2005 to 2006 being − 10 %. The OJJDP reports that the juvenile arrest rate for forcible rape increased from the early 1980s through the 1990s and at that time it fell again. All types of crime rates fell in the 1990s. The OJJDP also reported that the total number of juvenile arrests in 2006 for sex offenses (other than forcible rape) was 15,900 with 10 % being female and 47 % being under the age of 15. There was again a decrease with the trend throughout the years with sex offenses from 1997 to 2006 being − 16 % and from 2005 to 2006 being − 9 %.
Barbaree and Marshall indicate that juvenile males contribute to the majority of sex crimes, with 2 -- 4 % of adolescent males having reported committing sexually assaultive behavior, and 20 % of all rapes and 30 -- 50 % of all child molestation are perpetrated by adolescent males. It is clear that males are over-represented in this population. This is consistent with Ryan and Lane 's research indicating that males account for 91 - 93 % of the reported juvenile sex offenses. Righthand and Welch reported that females account for an estimated 2 -- 11 % of incidents of sexual offending. In addition, it reported by The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention that in the juvenile arrests during 2006, African American male youth were disproportionately arrested (34 %) for forcible rape. In one case in a foster home a 13 - year - old boy raped a 9 - year - old boy by having forced anal sex with him, in a court hearing the 9 - year - old boy said he has done this multiple times, that the 13 - year - old boy was charged for sexual assault.
Sexual crimes committed by juveniles are not just an issue in the United States. Studies from the Netherlands show that out of 3200 sex offenders recorded by police in 2009, 672 of those were juveniles, approximately 21 percent of sexual offenders. The study also points out the male to female ratio of sexual predators.
In 2009, a U.S. congressman proposed legislature that would create an International Sex Offender Registry. The bill was introduced due to the fact that because laws differ in different countries someone who is on the sex offender registry in the U.S. who may be barred from living certain places and doing certain activities has free range in other less developed countries. This can lead to child sex tourism, when a sexual predator will go to less developed countries and prey on young boys and girls. Karne Newburn in his article, The Prospect of an International Sex Offender Registry, pointed out some serious flaws in the proposed bill, such as creating safety issues within the communities for the sex offenders placed on the registry. Newburn suggested instead of creating an International Sex Offender Registry from the U.S. model the U.S. join other countries in a dialogue on creating an effective model. As of now no registry exists. Despite this there is still interest in creating some sort of international registry.
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who played the jackass guy in happy gilmore | Joe Flaherty - Wikipedia
Joe Flaherty (born June 21, 1941) is an American actor, comedian and voice artist. He is best known for his work on the Canadian sketch comedy SCTV from 1976 to 1984 (on which he also served as a writer), and as Harold Weir on Freaks and Geeks.
Joseph O'Flaherty was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, but moved to Chicago, where he started his comedy career with the Second City Theater as Joe O'Flaherty. Along with several other Second City performers, he began appearing on the National Lampoon Radio Hour from 1973 to 1974. After seven years in Chicago, he moved to Toronto to help establish the Toronto Second City theatre troupe. During those years, he was one of the original writer / performers on SCTV, where he spent eight years on the show, playing such characters as Big Jim McBob (of Farm Film Report fame), Count Floyd / Floyd Robertson, and station owner / manager Guy Caballero who goes around in a wheelchair only for respect.
Other memorable Flaherty characterizations included emotional talk show host Sammy Maudlin, seedy saxophonist - private eye Vic Arpeggio, aggressive elocution lecturer Norman Gorman, myopic public television host Hugh Betcha, and "crazy as a snake '' ex-convict Rocco.
SCTV ceased production in 1984.
Flaherty has appeared in a number of cult favorites, for example, playing the part of the Western Union postal worker who delivers Doc Brown 's 70 - year - old letter to Marty McFly in Back to the Future Part II (1989), as well as the crazed fan yelling "jackass! '' in Happy Gilmore. In season eight of Family Guy, Joe once again played the Western Union man in "Something, Something, Something, Dark Side ''. He likewise satirizes his Back to the Future Part II character in "The Big Bang Theory '', this time playing a Vatican worker whose role is essentially identical to that of his Western Union character.
In 1989, Flaherty played a guest role in Married... with Children in season - four episode "Tooth or Consequences '', as a recently divorced dentist who must repair Al Bundy 's teeth.
During 1997 -- 1998, Flaherty starred in the television adaptation of Police Academy (Police Academy: The Series) as Cmdt. Stuart Hefilfinger. The series lasted for only one season.
In 1999, Flaherty joined the cast of Freaks and Geeks, an NBC hour - long dramedy set in the 1980 -- 1981 academic year, in which he played Harold Weir, the irascible father of two teens. Despite a dedicated cult following, the show only lasted one season. In the third episode, "Tricks and Treats '', he dons a cheap vampire costume reminiscent of his "Count Floyd '' character of the depicted era.
He made appearances on the CBS sitcom The King of Queens as Father McAndrew, priest at the Heffernans ' church. He currently stars on the Bite TV original program called Uncle Joe 's Cartoon Playhouse, and serves as a judge on the CBC program Second City 's: Next Comedy Legend.
As of 2004, Flaherty is a member of the faculty at Humber College, where he teaches a comedy - writing course. He is also on the program 's advisory committee. He is an accomplished pianist.
Flaherty 's brothers are comedy writers David and Paul Flaherty (the latter being a writer on SCTV).
He currently resides in Los Angeles, California. He has a daughter and a son: Gudrun Flaherty and Gabriel Flaherty.
Celebrities impersonated by Flaherty on SCTV include: Kirk Douglas, Charlton Heston, William F. Buckley, Jack Klugman, Robert Mitchum, Bing Crosby, Don Knotts, Yassir Arafat, Richard Nixon, Alistair Cooke, Slim Whitman, the corpse of Albert Schweitzer, Gregory Peck, Eddie Anderson (as ' Rochester '), Alan Alda, Elvis Presley, Hugh Beaumont, John Huston, Larry Fine, Pope Paul VI, Geraldo Rivera, Art Garfunkel, Broderick Crawford, Jacques Cousteau, Lowell Thomas, Henry Fonda, Marcello Mastroianni, Sylvester Stallone, Shoo Boxx, Paul Bradley, Aaron Copland, Dom DiMaggio, Dick Beddoes, Gavin MacLeod, Prince Philip, Tom Wolfe, Peter O'Toole, Salvador Dalí, Gene Siskel, Hugh Hefner, and musician Paul Revere.
Flaherty appeared in a cameo in the deleted scenes from Anchorman as the salacious News Director who first employs Rita Genkin after her graduation from Syracuse University. He encourages her to wear a swimsuit to do the weather.
Flaherty appeared as an immigration Royal Canadian Mounted Police officer in the "Canadian Road Trip '' episode of That ' 70s Show alongside fellow SCTV member Dave Thomas.
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office of the divisional commissioner south chotanagpur division ranchi | South Chotanagpur division - Wikipedia
South Chotanagpur division (Hindi: दक्षिणी छोटानागपुर प्रमण्डल) is one of the five divisions in the Indian state of Jharkhand. The division comprises the following districts: Gumla district, Khunti district, Lohardaga district, Ranchi district and Simdega district.
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how to dial india toll free number from thailand | Toll - free telephone number - wikipedia
A toll - free telephone number or freephone number is a telephone number that is billed for all arriving calls instead of incurring charges to the originating telephone subscriber. For the calling party, a call to a toll - free number from a landline is free of charge.
A toll - free, Freecall, Freephone, 800, 0800 or 1 - 800 number is identified by a dialing prefix similar to a geographic area code, such as 800. The specific service access numbers vary by country.
The features of toll - free services have evolved as telephone networks have moved from electro - mechanical call switching to fully computerized stored program controlled networks.
Originally, a call billed to the called party had to be placed through a telephone company operator as a collect call. The operator had to secure acceptance of the charges at the remote number before manually completing the call.
A few large businesses and government offices received large numbers of collect calls, which proved time consuming for operators.
Prior to the development of automated toll - free service many telephone companies provided a manual version of caller free service.
Examples of operator - assisted toll - free calling include the Zenith number introduced in the 1950s in the U.S. and Canada, as well as the original manual ' Freephone ' service introduced by the British Post Office in 1960.
Both systems were similar in concept. The calling party would ring the operator (now ' 100 ' in the UK, ' 0 ' in Canada / U.S.) and ask for a specific free number. In the U.S., the caller would ask for a number like "Zenith 1 - 2345 '' (some areas used "Enterprise '' or "WX '' instead of "Zenith '', but in the same pattern of a free service name and a five - digit number). In the UK, the caller would ask the operator to ring "Freephone '' and a name or number (such as "Freephone Crimebusters '' to pass on tips about a crime to the constabulary).
In either case, the operator would look up the corresponding geographic number from a list and place the call with charges reversed.
A Zenith number was typically available from a predefined area, anything from a few nearby cities to a province or state, and was listed in local directories in each community from which the subscriber was willing to accept the charges for inbound calls.
Until the introduction of InWATS toll - free service by the Bell System on May 2, 1967 and the Linkline (later "Freefone '') 0800 services by British Telecom on 12 November 1985, manually ringing the operator was the standard means to place a toll - free call. More than a few established manual "Freephone '' or "Zenith '' numbers remained in use for many years after competing automated systems (0800 in UK, 1 - 800 in U.S.) were deployed in parallel for new toll - free numbers.
An automated toll - free service was introduced by AT&T in 1966 (US intrastate) and 1967 (US interstate) as an alternative to operator - assisted collect calling and manual "Zenith '' or "Enterprise '' numbers. This Inward Wide Area Telephone Service (InWATS) allowed calls to be made directly from anywhere in a predefined area by dialling the prefix 1 - 800 - and a seven - digit number.
The system was primitive by modern standards. It initially provided no support for Automatic Number Identification and no itemised record of calls, instead requiring subscribers to obtain expensive fixed - rate lines which included some number of hours of inbound calling from a "band '' of one or several U.S. states or Canadian provinces. Early InWATS 800 calling lacked the complex routing features offered with modern toll - free service. After competitive carriers were allowed to compete with AT&T in establishing toll - free service, the three digit exchange following the 800 prefix was linked to a specific destination carrier and area code; the number itself corresponded to specific telephone switching offices and trunk groups. All calls went to one central destination; there was no means to place a toll - free call to another country.
Despite its limitations (and the relatively high cost of long distance in that era), the system was adequate for the needs of large volume users such as hotel chains, airlines and hire car firms which used it to build a truly national presence.
For small regional businesses who received few long - distance calls, the original InWATS was prohibitively expensive. As a fixed - rate bulk service requiring special trunks, it was suited only to large volume users.
Modern toll - free service became possible when telephone companies replaced their electro - mechanical switching systems with computerized switching systems. This allowed toll - free calls to be routed based on instructions located in central databases.
In the United States, AT&T engineer Roy P. Weber from Bridgewater, New Jersey patented a ' Data Base Communication Call Processing Method ' which was deployed by AT&T in 1982. The called number was an index into a database, allowing a ' Toll - Free Call ' or ' 800 Call ' to be directed anywhere. This feature and other advances that made it possible were what led to AT&T marketing analyst Dodge Cepeda from Bedminster, New Jersey to propose the introduction of providing 800 Toll - Free Service to small and medium size business customers on a nationwide basis. Once this service was implemented, it became possible for the very smallest of business operations to have potential customers contact them free of charge at a time when long distance calling was expensive. Until this time, 800 Service was only available to major Fortune 500 companies.
In the United Kingdom, BT introduced "Linkline '' on 12 November 1985. No more need to manually ring the operator, two new prefixes 0800 (an automated toll - free service which became "Freefone '') and 0345 (a shared - cost service marketed as "Lo - Call '' because initially its rates resembled those of local calls) could be reached by direct dial. Cable and Wireless used 0500 and 0645, in much the same way, just a few years later.
A toll - free vanity number, custom toll - free number, or mnemonic is easy to remember; it spells and means something or it contains an easily recognized numeric pattern. An easily remembered number is valued as a branding and direct response tool in business advertising.
In the United States, Federal Communications Commission regulations mandate that numbers be allocated on a first come, first served basis; this gives vanity number operators who register as RespOrgs a strong advantage in obtaining the most valuable phonewords, as they have first access to newly disconnected numbers and to newly introduced toll - free area codes. In Australia, premium numbers, such as the 13 - series or the vanity phone words, are distributed by auction separately from the administrative procedure to assign random, generic numbers from the available pool.
In toll - free telephony, a shared - use number is a vanity number (usually a valuable generic phone word), which is rented to multiple local companies in the same line of business in different cities. These appear in Australia (1300 and 1800) and North America (1 - 800 - and its overlays); in the U.S., the RespOrg infrastructure is used to direct calls for the same number to different vendors based on the area code of the calling number.
As one example, a taxi company could rent shared use of 1 - 800 - TAXICAB in one city. The number belongs to a company in Van Nuys, California, but is redirected to local cab companies on a city - by - city basis and promoted by being printed on everything from individual taxi cab hub caps to campaigns against drunk driving. Another example is Mark Russell 's 1 - 800 - GREATRATE, a shared - use number rented to lenders in various cities nationwide for a monthly fee.
One former Mercedes dealer obtained 1 - 800 - MERCEDES, charging other dealers to receive calls to that number from their local areas. The automaker unsuccessfully sued MBZ Communications of Owatonna, Minnesota, operated by former Mercedes dealer Donald Bloom, alleging deception and trademark infringement. Mercedes was ultimately forced to obtain a different number, 1 - 800 - FOR - MERCEDES.
A company renting 1 - 800 - RED - CROSS at a premium price to individual local Red Cross chapters as "shared use '' was less fortunate; the Federal Communications Commission reassigned that number to the Red Cross as an emergency response to Hurricane Katrina in 2005.
Shared use can be used as a means to circumvent FCC regulations against "warehousing, hoarding and brokering '' toll - free numbers as technically the number is not being sold, only rented one city or region at a time. The practice is nonetheless potentially problematic as it leaves local businesses advertising numbers which they do not own and for which they therefore have no number portability. The cost per minute and per month is typically far higher for a shared - use number than for a standard toll - free vanity number which a local business controls outright, and there is little protection if the shared use company fails to meet its obligations or ceases operation.
There are also technical limitations; voice over IP users in particular are difficult to geolocate as their calls may be gated to the public switched telephone network at a point hundreds or thousands of miles away from their actual location. A roaming mobile or Internet telephone user is effectively (like the user of a foreign exchange line) attached to a distant rate centre far from their physical address.
If a program like Crime Stoppers is inherently regional or local, but its national 1 - 800 - 222 - TIPS number is shared between multiple exchanges, the exchange accepting the call must determine whether the call belongs to some other region.
Countries around the world use various dialing prefixes to denote toll - free services in their telephone networks.
Toll - free numbers in the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) are commonly called "800 numbers '' after the original area code which was used to dial them. They include the area code 800 (since January 1, 1966), 888 (since March 1, 1996), 877 (since April 4, 1998), 866 (since July 29, 2000), 855 (since October 9, 2010), 844 (since December 7, 2013), and 833 (since April 22, 2017). Area codes reserved for future expansion include 822, 880 through 887, and 889.
The original Wide Area Telephone Service is obsolete. North American toll - free numbers are controlled by an intelligent network database (SMS / 800) in which any toll - free number may be directed to a local or long - distance geographic telephone number, a T - carrier or primary rate interface line under the control of any of various RespOrgs. Direct inward dialing and toll - free number portability are supported; various providers offer gateways which receive free phone calls on PRI lines and deliver them to voice over IP or pager users.
Toll free numbers usually capture the telephone number of the caller for billing purposes through automatic number identification, which is independent of caller ID data and functions even if caller ID is blocked.
In addition to NANP toll - free numbers, carriers Bell Canada and Telus offer 310 - numbers that can be accessed at local - call prices as shared - cost service (free from landlines, incurs local airtime charge from mobiles and local price from payphones). There are a few special mobile - only numbers (like * CAA to call the Canadian Automobile Association) which are free from cell phones.
A system similar to 1800 numbering exists where 6 or 10 digit numbers prefixed with 13 (one - three), 1300 or 1301 (colloquially one - three - hundred) can be called at local call rates regardless of location.
The introduction of 0800 / 0900 numbers in the Netherlands in 1986 has led to significant growth of call centres and an increase in outsourcing.
Originally, free telephone numbers in the Netherlands started with either the 06 - 0, 06 - 4 or 06 - 3000 prefix. Most 0800 - numbers can not be called from abroad, and only few can be called from the Caribbean Netherlands (by dialing 0031800). 088 - numbers are shared - cost; from landlines, the caller pays only the costs for a local call, whereas the receiver pays the rest.
In the United Kingdom, toll - free telephone numbers are generally known as "freephone '' numbers (British Telecom numbers are officially Freefone) and begin with the prefixes 0800, 0808 or the Cable & Wireless Freecall prefix 0500. The most commonly used prefix is 0800, first used in November 1985. Additionally, numbers in the range 0808 80x xxxx are reserved for not - for - profit helplines.
Since 1 July 2015, all 0800 and 0808 numbers have been free to call from landlines and mobile phones alike. Most mobile phone operators had charged for such calls previously, with Orange being the final major network to introduce such charges during December 2005. Certain helplines, such as those in the 0808 80x xxxx series had remained free from most networks on a voluntary basis and some niche operators, such as Giffgaff always offered freephone calls at no charge.
The UK mobile operators offer an alternative product to organisations who wish to provide toll - free services - 5 - digit voice short codes which are sold through mobile aggregators.
0500 numbers, introduced by Mercury Communications in 1982 (and later Cable and Wireless, now Virgin Media), will be withdrawn by Ofcom on 3 June 2017. A three - year transition will allow existing subscribers to migrate to 080 85 numbers with the same final 6 digits. While the numbers are portable, 0500 has been closed to new allocations since 1997 / 98.
Universal International Freephone Service is an international service, assigned the country code 800 by the International Telecommunication Union. The intention is that any customer in the world can dial the same number to reach a business subscribing to a number, and at no charge to the calling party. However, only a limited number of countries yet participate. In order to participate, countries must agree on the amount of revenue they will retain (to cover their costs of network transport) while still forwarding sufficient revenue to cover the recipient 's costs of subscribing.
A Universal International Freephone Number (UIFN) is a worldwide toll - free "800 number '' issued by the ITU. Like the 800 area code issued for the NANP in the U.S. and Canada and 0800 numbers in many other countries, the call is free for the caller, and the receiver pays the charges. UIFN uses ITU country code 800, so that no matter where the caller is, only the international access code (IAC), the UIFN country code (800) and the 8 - digit UIFN need to be dialed. A few carriers in about 65 countries participate in the UIFN program; free access to the numbers (as international calls) from mobile and coin telephones is not universal. Registration of a + 800 number incurs a 200 Swiss franc ITU fee (as of 2013) in addition to any charges levied by the individual carrier. The number must be activated for inbound calls from at least two telephone country codes within 180 days.
UIFS is analogous to intra-national toll free numbers such as 800 service in Canada and the United States, and Freephone services in most other countries. The + 800 UIFN service is one of three ITU - administered non-geographic codes with a similar numbering scheme. The + 808 Universal International Shared Cost Number (UISCN), billed at the price of a domestic call, shares the same eight - digit format; the + 979 Universal International Premium Rate Number (UIPRN), billed at a high premium cost, carries one extra digit to indicate price range.
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where is the biggest library of india located | National Library of India - Wikipedia
The National Library on the Belvedere Estate in Alipore, Kolkata, is the largest library in India by volume, 14th in the list of largest libraries, and India 's library of public record. It is under the Department of Culture, Ministry of Tourism & Culture, Government of India. The library is designated to collect, disseminate and preserve printed material produced in India. The library is situated on the scenic 30 - acre (12 ha) Belvedere Estate. It is the largest in India with a collection in excess of 2.2 million books. Before independence, it was the official residence of Lt. Governor of Bengal.
The National Library of India is the county 's largest library and the library of public record. The library "operates under the national government 's Department of Culture and is designated to collect, disseminate, and preserve all printed material produced in India, and all foreign works published about the country -- where ' every work about India... can be seen and read ' '' (Murray, 2009). The National Library is a result of the merging of the public library with the Imperial Library -- several government libraries. The National Library (1953), then the Imperial Library housed several foreign (British) and Indian titles and was open to the public. Of further note, the National Library of India collects book, periodicals, and titles in "virtually all the Indian languages, with Hindi, Kashmiri, Punjab, Sindhi, Telugu, and Urdu '' maintaining the largest stacks (Murray, 2009). The Special Collections in the National Library of India house at least fifteen languages including "Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati... and Tamil with many rare works (Murray, 2009). The Hindi department has books that date back all the way to the nineteenth century and the first ever books printed in that language. The collections break down and consist of 86,000 maps and 3,200 manuscripts.
The history of the National Library began with the formation of the Calcutta Public Library in 1836.
That was a non-governmental institution and was run on a proprietary basis. People contributing ₹ 300 (US $4.60) in subscription became the proprietors. Prince Dwarkanath Tagore was the first proprietor of that Library. ₹ 300 at that time was a significant amount, so poor students and others were allowed free use of the library for some period of time.
Lord Metcalfe, the Governor General at that time, transferred 4,675 volumes from the library of the College of Fort William, Kolkata to the Calcutta Public Library. This and donations of books from individuals formed the nucleus of the library.
Both Indian and foreign books, especially British, were purchased for the library. Donations were regularly made by individuals as well as by the government.
The Calcutta Public Library had a unique position as the first public library in this part of the world. Such a well - organized and efficiently run library was rare even in Europe during the first half of the 19th century.
Due to the efforts of the Calcutta Public Library, the present National Library has many extremely rare books and journals in its collection.
The Imperial Library was formed in 1891 by combining a number of Secretariat libraries in Calcutta. Of those, the most important and interesting was the library of the Home Department, which contained many books formerly belonging to the library of East India College, Fort William and the library of the East India Board in London. But the use of the library was restricted to the superior officers of the Government. Sir Ashutosh Mukherjee was appointed as the president of imperial library council (1910) to which he donated his personal collection of 80,000 books arranged in a separate section.
In 1903, Lord Curzon of Kedleston, the Viceroy of India, conceived the idea of opening a library for the use of the public.
He noticed both the libraries -- Imperial Library and Calcutta Public Library -- were under - utilized for the want of facilities or restrictions. He decided to amalgamate the rich collection of both of these libraries.
The new amalgamated library, called Imperial Library, was formally opened to the public on 30 January 1903 at Metcalfe Hall, Kolkata. Metcalfe Hall had earlier been the home of the Governor - General; Wellington, Cornwallis and Warren Hastings had lived in the building, and the last - named had fought a duel with a member of his governing committee on its grounds.
The Gazette of London reported, "It is intended that it should be a library of reference, a working place for students and a repository of material for the future historians of India, in which, so far as possible, every work written about India, at any time, can be seen and read. ''
After the independence the Government of India changed the name of the Imperial Library as the National Library, and the collection was shifted from The Esplanade to the present Belvedere Estate. On 1 February 1953 the National Library was opened to the public.
In 2010, the Ministry of Culture, the owner of the library, decided to get the library building restored by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). While taking stock of the library building, the conservation engineers discovered a previously unknown room. The ground - floor room, about 1000 sq. ft. in size, seems to have no opening of any kind.
The ASI archaeologists tried to search the first floor area (that forms the ceiling of the room) for a trap door, but found nothing. Since the building is of historical and cultural importance, ASI has decided to bore a hole through the wall instead of breaking it. There are speculations about the room being a punishment room used by Warren Hastings and other British officials, or a place to store treasure.
In 2011, the researchers announced that the room was filled entirely with mud, probably in an effort to stabilize the building.
The National Library is located on Belvedere Road in Alipore, Calcutta. It is open between 9 am and 8 pm on all working days and between 9.30 am and 6.00 pm on Saturdays, Sundays and Government of India holidays.It remains closed on three national holidays, 26 January * (Republic Day), 15 August (Independence Day) and 2 October (Birthday of Mahatma Gandhi).
Access to the National Library main reading room (Bhasha Bhavan) is strictly controlled. The visitors need to have an approved Reader 's pass to reading hall. For that they need to fill in an application form (available on the National Library website) and get it attested by a Government Gazetted officer. The reader 's passes are issued only between 11.00 am and 1.00 pm, and between 3.00 pm and 4.00 pm, from Monday to Friday, excluding a string of National and State holiday.
Coordinates: 22 ° 31 ′ 59 '' N 88 ° 20 ′ 00 '' E / 22.53306 ° N 88.33333 ° E / 22.53306; 88.33333
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is all of australia on the same time zone | Time in Australia - wikipedia
Australia uses three main time zones: Australian Western Standard Time (AWST; UTC + 08: 00), Australian Central Standard Time (ACST; UTC + 09: 30), and Australian Eastern Standard Time (AEST; UTC + 10: 00). Time is regulated by the individual state governments, some of which observe daylight saving time (DST). Australia 's external territories observe different time zones.
Standard time was introduced in the 1890s when all of the Australian colonies adopted it. Before the switch to standard time zones, each local city or town was free to determine its local time, called local mean time. Now, Western Australia uses Western Standard Time; South Australia and the Northern Territory use Central Standard Time; while New South Wales, Queensland, Tasmania, Victoria, and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) use Eastern Standard Time.
Daylight saving time is used in South Australia, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, and the ACT. It is not currently used in Western Australia, Queensland or the Northern Territory.
The standardization of time in Australia began in 1892, when surveyors from the six colonies in Australia met in Melbourne for the Intercolonial Conference of Surveyors. The delegates accepted the recommendation of the 1884 International Meridian Conference to adopt Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) as the basis for standard time.
The colonies enacted time zone legislation, which took effect in February 1895. The clocks were set ahead of GMT by eight hours in Western Australia; by nine hours in South Australia (and the Northern Territory, which it governed); and by 10 hours in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania. The three time zones became known as Western Standard Time, Central Standard Time, and Eastern Standard Time. Broken Hill in the far west of New South Wales also adopted Central Standard Time due to it being connected by rail to Adelaide but not Sydney at the time.
In May 1899, South Australia advanced Central Standard Time by thirty minutes (see above) after lobbying by businesses who wanted to be closer to Melbourne time and cricketers and footballers who wanted more daylight to practice in the evenings disregarding the common international practice of setting one - hour intervals between adjacent time zones.In doing so, South Australia also adopted a time meridian located outside its boundaries -- another departure from international convention. Attempts to correct these oddities in 1986 and 1994 were rejected.
When the Northern Territory was separated from South Australia and placed under the jurisdiction of the Federal Government, that Territory kept Central Standard Time. Likewise, when the ACT was broken off from New South Wales, it retained Eastern Standard Time.
Since 1899, the only major changes in Australian time zones have been the setting of clocks to one - half hour earlier than Eastern time (GMT plus 10: 30) on the territory of Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk Island changing from UTC + 11: 30 to UTC + 11: 00 on 4 October 2015.
When abbreviating "Australian Central Time '' and "Australian Eastern Time '', in domestic contexts the leading "Australian '' may be omitted; however, the prefix "A '' is often used to avoid ambiguity with the time zone abbreviations "CST '' and "EST '' referring to the Central and Eastern Time Zones in North America.
Though the governments of the states and territories have the power to legislate variations in time, the standard time within each of these is set related to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) as determined by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and set by section 8AA of the National Measurement Act of 1960 of the Commonwealth.
Australia has kept a version of the UTC atomic time scale since the 1990s, but Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) remained the formal basis for the standard times of all of the states through 2005. In November 2004, the state and territory attorneys - general endorsed a proposal from the Australian National Measurement Institute to adopt UTC as the standard of all Australian standard times, thereby eliminating the effects of slight variations in the rate of rotation of the Earth that are inherent in mean solar time. All states have adopted the UTC standard, starting on 1 September 2005.
In Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania and the ACT, the starting and ending dates of daylight saving times are officially determined by proclamations, declarations, or regulation made by the State Governor or by the responsible minister. Such instruments may be valid for only the current year, and so this section generally only refers to the legislation. In New South Wales and Western Australia, the starting and ending dates, if any, are to be set by legislation.
Western Standard Time (WST) -- UTC + 08: 00
Central Standard Time (ACST) -- UTC + 09: 30
Eastern Standard Time (AEST) -- UTC + 10: 00
The choice of whether to use DST is a matter for the governments of the individual states and territories. However, during World War I and World War II all states and territories used daylight saving time (DST). In 1968 Tasmania became the first state in peacetime to use DST, followed in 1971 by New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, and the Australian Capital Territory. Western Australia and the Northern Territory did not adopt it. Queensland abandoned DST in 1972. Queensland and Western Australia have occasionally used DST during the past 40 years during trial periods.
The main DST zones are the following:
During the usual periods of DST, the three standard time zones in Australia become five zones. This includes the areas that do not observe DST: Western Australia (UTC plus 8: 00), the Northern Territory (UTC plus 9: 30), and Queensland (UTC plus 10: 00).
The change to and from DST takes place at 2: 00 am local standard time the appropriate Sunday. Until 2008, DST usually began on the last Sunday in October, and ended on the last Sunday in March. However, Tasmania, given its latitude further south, began DST earlier, on the first Sunday in October, and ended it later, on the first Sunday of April.
On 12 April 2007, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, and the ACT agreed to common beginning and ending dates for DST from 2008. DST in these states and South Australia began on the first Sunday in October and ended on the first Sunday in April. Western Australia was then the only state to use DST from the last Sunday in October to the last Sunday in March, but it abolished DST in 2009.
The town of Broken Hill (specified as Yancowinna County), is in far western New South Wales. Unlike the rest of New South Wales, Broken Hill (and the surrounding region) observes Australian Central Standard Time (UTC + 9: 30), a time zone it shares with South Australia and the Northern Territory. As mentioned above, when standard time was adopted, Broken Hill was linked by rail to Adelaide, not Sydney.
Lord Howe Island, part of the state of New South Wales but 600 kilometres (370 mi) east of the Australian mainland in the Pacific Ocean, uses UTC + 10: 30 during the winter months (30 minutes ahead of the eastern states), but advances to UTC + 11: 00 in summer (the same time as the rest of New South Wales).
A compromise between Western and Central time (UTC + 8: 45, without DST), unofficially known as Central Western Standard Time, is used in one area in the southeastern corner of Western Australia and one roadhouse in South Australia. Towns east of Caiguna on the Eyre Highway (including Eucla, Madura, Mundrabilla and Border Village, just over the border into South Australia), follow "CWST '' instead of Western Australian time. The total population of that area is estimated at 200 people. This area did not change when South Australia introduced DST. During the Western Australian trial of DST from 2006 to 2009, this area also sets its clocks ahead one hour during summer. This time zone is not officially recognised.
The Indian Pacific train has its own time zone -- a so - called "train time '' when travelling between Kalgoorlie, Western Australia and Port Augusta, South Australia -- which was at UTC plus 9: 00 hours during November 2005 when DST was observed in the eastern and southern states.
Australia 's external territories follow different time zones.
In 2000, all of the eastern jurisdictions that normally observe DST -- New South Wales, Victoria, the ACT, and Tasmania -- began DST early because of the Summer Olympic Games held in Sydney. These jurisdictions moved to DST on 27 August 2000. South Australians did not change their clocks until the usual date, which was 29 October 2000.
In 2006, all of the states that followed DST (the above states and South Australia) delayed their return to Standard Times by one week, because of the Commonwealth Games held in Melbourne. DST ended on 2 April 2006.
There are situations in which a nationwide time is in effect. In the case of business activities, a national time can be used. For example, a prospectus for the issue of stock in a company would usually set the closing time for offers at some location (e.g. Sydney) as the time when offers must be received, regardless of the source of the offer. Similarly, tenders for their sale of stock usually set out the time at a given location by which they must be received to be considered. Another example is the Australian Stock Exchange which operates on Eastern Standard Time.
On the other hand, Federal legislation yields to state - regulated standard times in many diverse situations. For example, it yields in setting the normal working times of Federal employees, the recognition of public holidays, etc. The Federal government also relies on local times for Federal elections, so that the polls in Western Australia close two or three hours after those in the eastern states. Also, documents to be filed in a Federal Court may be filed based on the local time. The effect of this is that if there had been a failure to file a legal document on time in an eastern State, that document can sometimes still be filed (within two hours) in Western Australia.
The 13 zones for Australia as given by zone. tab of the IANA time zone database. Columns marked * are from the zone. tab.
Queensland has had a particularly involved debate over daylight saving time, with public opinion geographically divided. A referendum on DST in 1992, following a three - year trial (1989 / 90 -- 1991 / 92), and was defeated with a 54.5 percent negative vote. The referendum result displayed a distinct trend -- that public opinion on DST in Queensland is geographically divided, with the negative vote being strongest in northern and western districts, while the positive vote being strongest in the southeastern region (e.g. in Brisbane).
Since the late 1900s, there have been a number of petitions submitted to Legislative Assembly of Queensland, lobbying for the introduction of daylight saving time or for another referendum to be held. A petition in 2006 was signed by 62,232 people. In response to these petitions, then Queensland Premier Peter Beattie commissioned research to find out if it should be re-introduced into Queensland. Around this time, Premier Peter Beattie predicted that daylight saving in Queensland would increase the rate of skin cancer in the state, an assertion for which there is no evidence, according to the Queensland Cancer Fund.
In October 2007, the government - commissioned research was presented to the new Premier Anna Bligh, who ruled out holding a new referendum, despite the report indicating that 59 percent of the residents of Queensland and 69 percent of those in southeastern Queensland to be in favour of adopting daylight saving.
In December 2008, the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland (DS4SEQ) political Party was officially registered, to advocate for the use of a two - time - zone system for DST in Queensland, with most of the state (in land area) using standard time. This party contested the March 2009 Queensland State election with 32 candidates, and it received about one percent of the statewide primary vote.
In early 2010, the DS4SEQ political party approached the independent member, Peter Wellington, to introduce a private member 's bill for DST. Since Mr. Wellington agreed with the principles of the DS4SEQ proposal, specifically the dual - time - zone system, he drafted the DST for southeastern Queensland Referendum Bill of 2010 and he submitted this bill to Queensland Parliament on 14 April 2010. Wellington has called for a referendum to be held at the next state election on the introduction of DST into southeastern Queensland under the dual - time - zone system.
In response to this bill, the Premier of Queensland, Anna Bligh, announced a community consultation process, which resulted in over 74,000 respondents participating, 64 percent of whom voted in favour of a trial, and 63 percent of whom were in favour of holding a referendum. The decision announced by the Premier on 7 June 2010 was that her Government would not support the bill because rural Queenslanders were overwhelmingly opposed to DST. The Bill was defeated in Queensland Parliament on 15 June 2011.
Western Australia has also had a particularly involved debate over DST, with the issue being put to a referendum four times: in 1975, 1984, 1992, and 2009. All of these proposals to adopt DST were defeated. Voters registered a negative vote of 54.6 percent in the 2009 referendum, the highest percentage for all four of these referendums. Each referendum followed a trial period during which the state observed DST. The first three followed a one - year trial, while the 2006 Western Australian Daylight Saving Bill (No. 2) 2006 instituted a trial of DST beginning on 3 December 2006, and lasting for three years.
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music from harry potter and the half blood prince | Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince (soundtrack) - wikipedia
Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince is the soundtrack to the 2009 film of the same name, written and composed by Nicholas Hooper. The score was conducted by Hooper alongside Alastair King. It is the second Harry Potter film to be scored by Hooper, who also composed the score for the previous film in the series, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. The soundtrack was released on 14 July 2009, a day before the film 's release, and was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture. The soundtrack is critically acclaimed and the most successful album of the series.
On the Harry Potter website a preview of one of the tracks (Ginny) is played in the background. On 17 June, a preview for three tracks was played in the background of film 's updated official site. A 15 - second audio preview for 13 tracks from the soundtrack was released on 19 June via Virgin Mobile 's website. The soundtrack runs over 60 minutes in length.
On 30 June, AOL Radio previewed the whole soundtrack online.
On the Billboard issue dated 1 August 2009, the album debuted at number twenty - nine on the Billboard 200 chart, thus making it the highest charting soundtrack among all the six movie soundtracks released. The soundtrack also charted at three on the Top Soundtracks Chart.
The complete track listing of the soundtrack was released on 5 June on Amazon.com.
Not included on the soundtrack were "Friends and Love '' (a compilation of "When Ginny Kissed Harry '' and "Harry and Hermione '' that came with purchasing a ticket for the movie on Fandango), "Big Beat Repeat '' (heard in the Gryffindor common room after the Quidditch match) by Josh Powell, and a track that could be named "Murder & Escape '' (the music that can be heard when Dumbledore falls from the Astronomy Tower and Harry pursues Snape).
The orchestral ensemble for Hooper in Half - Blood Prince is the same as in the previous score, but a more significant role for light choir is a prominent addition. Thematically, the composer references his own ideas from the previous score and several elements from Williams 's work.
Hooper stated that "Placing John Williams 's themes became obvious as we went along. The beginning of the film has to have at least a hint of ' Hedwig 's Theme '. ''
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what are the four types of greek love | Greek words for love - wikipedia
The Greek language distinguishes at least four different ways as to how the word love is used. Ancient Greek has four distinct words for love: agápe, éros, philía, and storgē. However, as with other languages, it has been difficult to separate the meanings of these words when used outside their respective contexts. Nonetheless, the senses in which these words were generally used are as follows:
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who influenced kingdoms below the sub saharan area of africa | Sub-Saharan Africa - wikipedia
Sub-Saharan Africa is, geographically, the area of the continent of Africa that lies south of the Sahara. According to the UN, it consists of all African countries that are fully or partially located south of the Sahara. It contrasts with North Africa, whose territories are part of the League of Arab states within the Arab world. Somalia, Djibouti, Comoros and Mauritania are geographically in Sub-Saharan Africa, but are likewise Arab states and part of the Arab world.
The Sahel is the transitional zone in between the Sahara and the tropical savanna of the Sudan region and farther south the forest - savanna mosaic of tropical Africa.
Since probably 3500 BCE, the Saharan and Sub-Saharan regions of Africa have been separated by the extremely harsh climate of the sparsely populated Sahara, forming an effective barrier interrupted by only the Nile in Sudan, though the Nile was blocked by the river 's cataracts. The Sahara pump theory explains how flora and fauna (including Homo sapiens) left Africa to penetrate the Middle East and beyond. African pluvial periods are associated with a "wet Sahara '' phase during which larger lakes and more rivers existed.
The use of the term has been criticized because it refers to the South only by cartography conventions and projects a connotation of inferiority; a vestige of colonialism, which some say, divided Africa into European terms of homogeneity.
Geographers historically divided the region into several distinct ethnographic sections based on each area 's respective inhabitants.
Commentators in Arabic in the medieval period used the general term bilâd as - sûdân ("Land of the Blacks '') for the vast Sudan region (an expression denoting West and Central Africa), or sometimes extending from the coast of West Africa to Western Sudan. Its equivalent in Southeast Africa was Zanj ("Country of the Blacks ''), which was situated in the vicinity of the Great Lakes region.
The geographers drew an explicit ethnographic distinction between the Sudan region and its analogue Zanj, from the area to their extreme east on the Red Sea coast in the Horn of Africa. In modern - day Ethiopia and Eritrea was Al - Habash or Abyssinia, which was inhabited by the Habash or Abyssinians, who were the forebears of the Habesha. In northern Somalia was Barbara or the Bilad al - Barbar ("Land of the Berbers ''), which was inhabited by the Eastern Baribah or Barbaroi, as the ancestors of the Somalis were referred to by medieval Arab and ancient Greek geographers, respectively.
Sub-Saharan Africa has a wide variety of climate zones or biomes. South Africa and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in particular are considered Megadiverse countries.
According to paleontology, early hominid skull anatomy was similar to that of their close cousins, the great African forest apes, gorilla and chimpanzee, but they had adopted a bipedal locomotion and freed hands, giving them a crucial advantage enabling them to live in both forested areas and on the open savanna at a time when Africa was drying up, with savanna encroaching on forested areas. This occurred 10 million to 5 million years ago.
By 3 million years ago several australopithecine hominid species had developed throughout southern, eastern and central Africa. They were tool users rather than tool manufacturers. The next major evolutionary step occurred around 2.3 million BCE, when primitive stone tools were used to scavenge the carcasses of animals killed by other predators, both for their meat and their marrow. In hunting, H. habilis was most likely not capable of competing with large predators and was more prey than hunter, although H. habilis probably did steal eggs from nests and may have been able to catch small game and weakened larger prey such as cubs and older animals. The tools were classed as Oldowan.
Roughly 1.8 million years ago, Homo ergaster first appeared in the fossil record in Africa. From Homo ergaster, Homo erectus (upright man) evolved 1.5 million years ago. Some of the earlier representatives of this species were small - brained and used primitive stone tools, much like H. habilis. The brain later grew in size, and H. erectus eventually developed a more complex stone tool technology called the Acheulean. Potentially the first hominid to engage in hunting, H. erectus mastered the art of making fire. They were the first hominids to leave Africa, going on to colonize the entire Old World, and perhaps later on giving rise to Homo floresiensis. Although some recent writers suggest that H. georgicus, a H. habilis descendant, was the first and most primitive hominid to ever live outside Africa, many scientists consider H. georgicus to be an early and primitive member of the H. erectus species.
The fossil record shows Homo sapiens living in southern and eastern Africa anywhere from 100,000 to 150,000 years ago. Between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago, their expansion out of Africa launched the colonization of the planet by modern humans. By 10,000 BCE, Homo sapiens had spread to all corners of the world. This dispersal of the human species is suggested by linguistic, cultural and genetic evidence.
After the Sahara became a desert, it did not present a totally impenetrable barrier for travelers between north and south because of the application of animal husbandry towards carrying water, food, and supplies across the desert. Prior to the introduction of the camel, the use of oxen, mule, and horses for desert crossing was common, and trade routes followed chains of oases that were strung across the desert. The trans - saharan trade was in full motion by 500 BCE with Carthage being a major economic force for its establishment. It is thought that the camel was first brought to Egypt after the Persian Empire conquered Egypt in 525 BCE, although large herds did not become common enough in North Africa for camels to be the pack animal of choice for the trans - saharan trade.
Archaeological finds in Central Africa provide evidence of human settlement that may date back over 10 000 years. According to Zangato and Holl, there is evidence of iron - smelting in the Central African Republic and Cameroon that may date back to 3000 to 2500 BCE. Extensive walled sites and settlements have recently been found in Zilum, Chad. The area is located approximately 60 km (37 mi) southwest of Lake Chad, and has been radiocarbon dated to the first millennium BCE.
Trade and improved agricultural techniques supported more sophisticated societies, leading to the early civilizations of Sao, Kanem, Bornu, Shilluk, Baguirmi, and Wadai.
Following the Bantu Migration into Central Africa, during the 14th century, the Luba Kingdom in southeast Congo came about under a king whose political authority derived from religious, spiritual legitimacy. The kingdom controlled agriculture and regional trade of salt and iron from the north and copper from the Zambian / Congo copper belt.
Rival kingship factions which split from the Luba Kingdom later moved among the Lunda people, marrying into its elite and laying the foundation of the Lunda Empire in the 16th century. The ruling dynasty centralised authority among the Lunda under the Mwata Yamyo or Mwaant Yaav. The Mwata Yamyo 's legitimacy, like the Luba king, came from being viewed as a spiritual religious guardian. This imperial cult or system of divine kings was spread to most of central Africa by rivals in kingship migrating and forming new states. Many new states received legitimacy by claiming descent from the Lunda dynasties.
The Kingdom of Kongo existed from the Atlantic west to the Kwango river to the east. During the 15th century, the Bakongo farming community was united with its capital at M'banza - Kongo, under the king title, Manikongo. Other significant states and peoples included the Kuba Kingdom, producers of the famous raffia cloth, the Eastern Lunda, Bemba, Burundi, Rwanda, and the Kingdom of Ndongo.
The Axumite Empire spanned the southern Sahara, south Arabia and the Sahel along the western shore of the Red Sea. Located in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, Aksum was deeply involved in the trade network between India and the Mediterranean. Growing from the proto - Aksumite Iron Age period circa the 4th century BCE, it rose to prominence by the 1st century CE. The Aksumites constructed monolithic stelae to cover the graves of their kings, such as King Ezana 's Stele. The later Zagwe dynasty, established in the 12th century, built churches out of solid rock. These rock - hewn structures include the Church of St. George at Lalibela.
In ancient Somalia, city - states flourished such as Opone, Mosyllon and Malao that competed with the Sabaeans, Parthians and Axumites for the wealthy Indo -- Greco -- Roman trade.
In the Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade including the Ajuran Sultanate, which excelled in hydraulic engineering and fortress building, the Sultanate of Adal, whose General Ahmed Gurey was the first African commander in history to use cannon warfare on the continent during Adal 's conquest of the Ethiopian Empire, and the Geledi Sultanate, whose military dominance forced governors of the Omani empire north of the city of Lamu to pay tribute to the Somali Sultan Ahmed Yusuf. In the late 19th century after the Berlin conference had ended, European empires sailed with their armies to the Horn of Africa. The imperial armies in Somalia alarmed the Dervish leader Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, who gathered Somali soldiers from across the Horn of Africa and began one of the longest anti-colonial wars known as the Somaliland Campaign.
Settlements of Bantu - speaking peoples, who were iron - using agriculturists and herdsmen, were already present south of the Limpopo River by the 4th or 5th century displacing and absorbing the original Khoisan speakers. They slowly moved south, and the earliest ironworks in modern - day KwaZulu - Natal Province are believed to date from around 1050. The southernmost group was the Xhosa people, whose language incorporates certain linguistic traits from the earlier Khoisan inhabitants. They reached the Fish River in today 's Eastern Cape Province.
Monomotapa was a medieval kingdom (c. 1250 -- 1629), which existed between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers of Southern Africa in the territory of modern - day Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Its old capital was located at Great Zimbabwe.
In 1487, Bartolomeu Dias became the first European to reach the southernmost tip of Africa. In 1652, a victualling station was established at the Cape of Good Hope by Jan van Riebeeck on behalf of the Dutch East India Company. For most of the 17th and 18th centuries, the slowly expanding settlement was a Dutch possession.
Great Britain seized the Cape of Good Hope area in 1795, ostensibly to prevent it from falling into the hands of the French but also to use Cape Town in particular as a stop on the route to Australia and India. It was later returned to the Dutch in 1803, but soon afterwards the Dutch East India Company declared bankruptcy, and the British annexed the Cape Colony in 1806.
The Zulu Kingdom was a Southern African tribal state in what is now KwaZulu - Natal in southeastern South Africa. The small kingdom gained world fame during and after the Anglo - Zulu War.
During the 1950s and early 1960s, most Sub-Saharan African nations achieved independence from colonial rule.
According to the theory of recent African origin of modern humans, the mainstream position held within the scientific community, all humans originate from either Southeast Africa or the Horn of Africa. During the first millennium CE, Nilotic and Bantu - speaking peoples moved into the region, and the latter now account for three - quarters of Kenya 's population.
On the coastal section of Southeast Africa, a mixed Bantu community developed through contact with Muslim Arab and Persian traders, leading to the development of the mixed Arab, Persian and African Swahili City States. The Swahili culture that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do the many Afro - Arab members of the Bantu Swahili people. With its original speech community centered on the coastal parts of Tanzania (particularly Zanzibar) and Kenya -- a seaboard referred to as the Swahili Coast -- the Bantu Swahili language contains many Arabic loan - words as a consequence of these interactions.
The earliest Bantu inhabitants of the Southeast coast of Kenya and Tanzania encountered by these later Arab and Persian settlers have been variously identified with the trading settlements of Rhapta, Azania and Menouthias referenced in early Greek and Chinese writings from 50 CE to 500 CE, ultimately giving rise to the name for Tanzania. These early writings perhaps document the first wave of Bantu settlers to reach Southeast Africa during their migration.
Between the 14th and 15th centuries, large medieval Southeast African kingdoms and states emerged, such as the Buganda and Karagwe kingdoms of Uganda and Tanzania.
During the early 1960s, the Southeast African nations achieved independence from colonial rule.
Nubia in present - day Northern Sudan and Southern Egypt, was referred to as "Aethiopia '' ("land of the burnt face '') by the Greeks.
Nubia at her greatest phase is considered Sub-Saharan Africa 's oldest urban civilisation. Nubia was a major source of gold for the ancient world. Nubians built famous structures and numerous pyramids. Sudan, the site of ancient Nubia, has more pyramids than anywhere in the world.
The Bantu expansion is a major migration movement originating in West Africa around 2500 BCE, reaching East and Central Africa by 1000 BCE and Southern Africa by the early centuries CE.
The Djenné - Djenno city - state flourished from 250 BCE to 900 CE and was influential to the development of the Ghana Empire.
The Nok culture is known from a type of terracotta figure found in Nigeria, dating to between 500 BCE and 200 CE.
There were a number of medieval empires of the southern Sahara and the Sahel, based on trans - Saharan trade, including the Ghana Empire and the Mali Empire, Songhai Empire, the Kanem Empire and the subsequent Bornu Empire. They built stone structures like in Tichit, but mainly constructed in adobe. The Great Mosque of Djenne is most reflective of Sahelian architecture and is the largest adobe building in the world.
In the forest zone, several states and empires emerged. The Ashanti Empire arose in the 16th century in modern - day Ghana and Ivory Coast. The Kingdom of Nri, was established by the Igbo in the 11th century. Nri was famous for having a priest - king who wielded no military power. Nri was a rare African state which was a haven for freed slaves and outcasts who sought refuge in their territory. Other major states included the kingdoms of Ifẹ and Oyo in the western block of Nigeria which became prominent about 700 -- 900 and 1400 respectively, and center of Yoruba culture. The Yoruba 's built massive mud walls around their cities, the most famous being Sungbo 's Eredo. Another prominent kingdom in southwestern Nigeria was the Kingdom of Benin 9th -- 11th century whose power lasted between the 15th and 19th century and was one of the greatest Empires of African history documented all over the world. Their dominance reached as far as the well - known city of Eko which was named Lagos by the Portuguese traders and other early European settlers. The Edo speaking people of Benin are known for their famous bronze casting and rich coral, wealth, ancient science and technology and the Walls of Benin, which is the largest man - made structure in the world.
In the 18th century, the Oyo and the Aro confederacy were responsible for most of the slaves exported from Nigeria, with Great Britain, France and Portugal shipping the majority of the slaves. Following the Napoleonic Wars, the British expanded trade with the Nigerian interior. In 1885, British claims to a West African sphere of influence received international recognition, and in the following year the Royal Niger Company was chartered under the leadership of Sir George Taubman Goldie. In 1900, the company 's territory came under the control of the British Government, which moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria. On 1 January 1901, Nigeria became a British protectorate, part of the British Empire, the foremost world power at the time.
By 1960, most of the region achieved independence from colonial rule.
According to the 2017 revision of the World Population Prospects, the population of sub-Saharan Africa was 995,694,907 in 2016. The current growth rate is 2.3 %. The UN predicts for the region a population between 1.5 and 2 billion by 2050 with a population density of 80 per km compared to 170 for Western Europe, 140 for Asia and 30 for the Americas.
Sub-Saharan African countries top the list of countries and territories by fertility rate with 40 of the highest 50, all with TFR greater than 4 in 2008. All are above the world average except South Africa and Seychelles. More than 40 % of the population in sub-Saharan countries is younger than 15 years old, as well as in Sudan, with the exception of South Africa.
GDP per Capita (2006 in dollars (US $)), Life (Exp.) (Life Expectancy 2006), Literacy (Male / Female 2006), Trans (Transparency 2009), HDI (Human Development Index), EODBR (Ease of Doing Business Rank June 2008 through May 2009), SAB (Starting a Business June 2008 through May 2009), PFI (Press Freedom Index 2009)
Sub-Saharan Africa displays the most linguistic diversity of any region in the world. This is apparent from the number of languages spoken. The region contains over 1,000 languages, which is around 1 / 6 of the world 's total.
With the exception of the extinct Sumerian (a language isolate) of Mesopotamia, Afro - Asiatic has the oldest documented history of any language family in the world. Egyptian was recorded as early as 3200 BCE. The Semitic branch was recorded as early as 2900 BCE in the form of the Akkadian language of Mesopotamia (Assyria and Babylonia) and circa 2500 BCE in the form of the Eblaite language of north eastern Syria.
The distribution of the Afroasiatic languages within Africa is principally concentrated in North Africa and the Horn of Africa. Languages belonging to the family 's Berber branch are mainly spoken in the north, with its speech area extending into the Sahel (northern Mauritania, northern Mali, northern Niger). The Cushitic branch of Afroasiatic is centered in the Horn, and is also spoken in the Nile Valley and parts of the African Great Lakes region. Additionally, the Semitic branch of the family, in the form of Arabic, is widely spoken in the parts of Africa that are within the Arab world. South Semitic languages are also spoken in parts of the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea). The Chadic branch is distributed in Central and West Africa. Hausa, its most widely spoken language, serves as a lingua franca in West Africa (Niger, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Cameroon, and Chad).
The several families lumped under the term Khoi - San include languages indigenous to Southern Africa and Tanzania, though some, such as the Khoi languages, appear to have moved to their current locations not long before the Bantu expansion. In Southern Africa, their speakers are the Khoikhoi and San (Bushmen), in Southeast Africa, the Sandawe and Hadza.
The Niger -- Congo family is the largest in the world in terms of the number of languages (1,436) it contains. The vast majority of languages of this family are tonal such as Yoruba, and Igbo, However, others such as Fulani and Wolof are not. A major branch of Niger -- Congo languages is the Bantu family, which covers a greater geographic area than the rest of the family put together. Bantu speakers represent the majority of inhabitants in southern, central and southeastern Africa, though San, Pygmy, and Nilotic groups, respectively, can also be found in those regions. Bantu - speakers can also be found in parts of Central Africa such as the Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and southern Cameroon. Swahili, a Bantu language with many Arabic, Persian and other Middle Eastern and South Asian loan words, developed as a lingua franca for trade between the different peoples in southeastern Africa. In the Kalahari Desert of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as Bushmen (also "San '', closely related to, but distinct from "Hottentots '') have long been present. The San evince unique physical traits, and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of Central Africa.
The Nilo - Saharan languages are concentrated in the upper parts of the Chari and Nile rivers of Central Africa and Southeast Africa. They are principally spoken by Nilotic peoples and are also spoken in Sudan among the Fur, Masalit, Nubian and Zaghawa peoples and in West and Central Africa among the Songhai, Zarma and Kanuri. The Old Nubian language is also a member of this family.
Major languages of Africa by region, family and number of primary language speakers in millions:
In the mid-2010s, private capital flows to Sub-Saharan Africa -- primarily from the BRICs, private - sector investment portfolios, and remittances -- began to exceed official development assistance.
As of 2011, Africa is one of the fastest developing regions in the world. Six of the world 's ten fastest - growing economies over the previous decade were situated below the Sahara, with the remaining four in East and Central Asia. Between 2011 and 2015, the economic growth rate of the average nation in Africa is expected to surpass that of the average nation in Asia. Sub-Saharan Africa is by then projected to contribute seven out of the ten fastest growing economies in the world. According to the World Bank, the economic growth rate in the region had risen to 4.7 % in 2013, with a rate of 5.2 % forecasted for 2014. This continued rise was attributed to increasing investment in infrastructure and resources as well as steady expenditure per household.
As of 2009, fifty percent of Africa is rural with no access to electricity. Africa generates 47 GW of electricity, less than 0.6 % of the global market share. Many countries are affected by power shortages.
Because of rising prices in commodities such as coal and oil, thermal sources of energy are proving to be too expensive for power generation. Sub-Saharan Africa is expected to build additional hydropower generation capacity of at least 20,165 MW by 2014. The region has the potential to generate 1,750 TWh of energy, of which only 7 % has been explored. The failure to exploit its full energy potential is largely due to significant underinvestment, as at least four times as much (approximately $23 billion a year) and what is currently spent is invested in operating high cost power systems and not on expanding the infrastructure.
African governments are taking advantage of the readily available water resources to broaden their energy mix. Hydro Turbine Markets in Sub-Saharan Africa generated revenues of $120.0 million in 2007 and is estimated to reach $425.0 million. Asian countries, notably China, India, and Japan, are playing an active role in power projects across the African continent. The majority of these power projects are hydro - based because of China 's vast experience in the construction of hydro - power projects and part of the Energy & Power Growth Partnership Services programme.
With electrification numbers, Sub-Saharan Africa with access to the Sahara and being in the tropical zones has massive potential for solar photovoltaic electrical potential. Six hundred million people could be served with electricity based on its photovoltaic potential. China is promising to train 10,000 technicians from Africa and other developing countries in the use of solar energy technologies over the next five years. Training African technicians to use solar power is part of the China - Africa science and technology cooperation agreement signed by Chinese science minister Xu Guanhua and African counterparts during premier Wen Jiabao 's visit to Ethiopia in December 2003.
The New Partnership for Africa 's Development (NEPAD) is developing an integrated, continent - wide energy strategy. This has been funded by, amongst others, the African Development Bank (AfDB) and the EU - Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund. These projects must be sustainable, involve a cross-border dimension and / or have a regional impact, involve public and private capital, contribute to poverty alleviation and economic development, involve at least one country in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Radio is the major source of information in Sub-Saharan Africa. Average coverage stands at more than a third of the population. Countries such as Gabon, Seychelles, and South Africa boast almost 100 % penetration. Only five countries -- Burundi, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia -- still have a penetration of less than 10 %. Broadband penetration outside of South Africa has been limited where it is exorbitantly expensive. Access to the internet via cell phones is on the rise.
Television is the second major source of information. Because of power shortages, the spread of television viewing has been limited. Eight percent have television, a total of 62 million. But those in the television industry view the region as an untapped green market. Digital television and pay for service are on the rise.
According to researchers at the Overseas Development Institute, the lack of infrastructure in many developing countries represents one of the most significant limitations to economic growth and achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Less than 40 % of rural Africans live within two kilometers of an all - season road, the lowest level of rural accessibility in the developing world. Spending on roads averages just below 2 % of GDP with varying degree among countries. This compares with 1 % of GDP that is typical in industrialised countries, and 2 -- 3 % of GDP found in fast - growing emerging economies. Although the level of effort is high relative to the size of Africa 's economies, it remains little in absolute terms, with low - income countries spending an average of about US $7 per capita per year. Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very expensive, especially in such as areas as landlocked, rural and sparsely populated countries in Africa.
Infrastructure investments contributed to Africa 's growth, and increased investment is necessary to maintain growth and tackle poverty. The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average 30 -- 40 % returns for telecommunications (ICT) investments, over 40 % for electricity generation and 80 % for roads.
In Africa, it is argued that in order to meet the MDGs by 2015 infrastructure investments would need to reach about 15 % of GDP (around $93 billion a year). Currently, the source of financing varies significantly across sectors. Some sectors are dominated by state spending, others by overseas development aid (ODA) and yet others by private investors. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the state spends around $9.4 billion out of a total of $24.9 billion. In irrigation, SSA states represent almost all spending; in transport and energy a majority of investment is state spending; in ICT and water supply and sanitation, the private sector represents the majority of capital expenditure. Overall, aid, the private sector and non-OECD financiers between them exceed state spending. The private sector spending alone equals state capital expenditure, though the majority is focused on ICT infrastructure investments. External financing increased from $7 billion (2002) to $27 billion (2009). China, in particular, has emerged as an important investor.
The region is a major exporter to the world of gold, uranium, chrome, vanadium, antimony, coltan, bauxite, iron ore, copper and manganese. South Africa is a major exporter of manganese as well as Chromium. A 2001 estimate is that 42 % of the world 's reserves of chromium may be found in South Africa. South Africa is the largest producer of platinum, with 80 % of the total world 's annual mine production and 88 % of the world 's platinum reserve. Sub-Saharan Africa produces 33 % of the world 's bauxite with Guinea as the major supplier. Zambia is a major producer of copper. Democratic Republic of Congo is a major source of coltan. Production from Congo is very small but has 80 % of proven reserves. Sub-saharan Africa is a major producer of gold, producing up to 30 % of global production. Major suppliers are South Africa, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Guinea, and Mali. South Africa had been first in the world in terms of gold production since 1905, but in 2007 it moved to second place, according to GFMS, the precious metals consultancy. Uranium is major commodity from the region. Significant suppliers are Niger, Namibia, and South Africa. Namibia was the number one supplier from Sub-Saharan Africa in 2008. The region produces 49 % of the world 's diamonds.
By 2015, it is estimated that 25 % of North American oil will be from Sub-Saharan Africa, ahead of the Middle East. Sub-Saharan Africa has been the focus of an intense race for oil by the West, China, India, and other emerging economies, even though it holds only 10 % of proven oil reserves, less than the Middle East. This race has been referred to as the second Scramble for Africa. All reasons for this global scramble come from the reserves ' economic benefits. Transportation cost is low and no pipelines have to be laid as in Central Asia. Almost all reserves are offshore, so political turmoil within the host country will not directly interfere with operations. Sub-Saharan oil is viscous, with a very low sulfur content. This quickens the refining process and effectively reduces costs. New sources of oil are being located in Sub-Saharan Africa more frequently than anywhere else. Of all new sources of oil, 1⁄3 are in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Sub-Saharan Africa has more variety of grains than anywhere in the world. Between 13,000 and 11,000 BCE wild grains began to be collected as a source of food in the cataract region of the Nile, south of Egypt. The collecting of wild grains as source of food spread to Syria, parts of Turkey, and Iran by the eleventh millennium BCE. By the tenth and ninth millennia southwest Asians domesticated their wild grains, wheat, and barley after the notion of collecting wild grains spread from the Nile.
Numerous crops have been domesticated in the region and spread to other parts of the world. These crops included sorghum, castor beans, coffee, cotton okra, black - eyed peas, watermelon, gourd, and pearl millet. Other domesticated crops included teff, enset, African rice, yams, kola nuts, oil palm, and raffia palm.
Domesticated animals include the guinea fowl and the donkey.
Agriculture represents 20 % to 30 % of GDP and 50 % of exports. In some cases, 60 % to 90 % of the labor force are employed in agriculture. Most agricultural activity is subsistence farming. This has made agricultural activity vulnerable to climate change and global warming. Biotechnology has been advocated to create high yield, pest and environmentally resistant crops in the hands of small farmers. The Bill and Melinda Gates foundation is a strong advocate and donor to this cause. Biotechnology and GM crops have met resistance both by natives and environmental groups.
Cash crops include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar, and tobacco.
The OECD says Africa has the potential to become an agricultural superbloc if it can unlock the wealth of the savannahs by allowing farmers to use their land as collateral for credit. There is such international interest in Sub-Saharan agriculture, that the World Bank increased its financing of African agricultural programs to $1.3 billion in the 2011 fiscal year. Recently, there has been a trend to purchase large tracts of land in Sub-Sahara for agricultural use by developing countries. Early in 2009, George Soros highlighted a new farmland buying frenzy caused by growing population, scarce water supplies and climate change. Chinese interests bought up large swathes of Senegal to supply it with sesame. Aggressive moves by China, South Korea and Gulf states to buy vast tracts of agricultural land in Sub-Saharan Africa could soon be limited by a new global international protocol.
Forty percent of African scientists live in OECD countries, predominantly in Europe, the United States and Canada. This has been described as an African brain drain. According to Naledi Pandor, the South African Minister of Science and Technology, even with the drain enrollments in Sub-Saharan African universities tripled between 1991 and 2005, expanding at an annual rate of 8.7 %, which is one of the highest regional growth rates in the world. In the last 10 to 15 years interest in pursuing university level degrees abroad has increased. In some OECD countries, like the United States, Sub-Saharan Africans are the most educated immigrant group.
According to the CIA, low global literacy rates are concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa, West Asia and South Asia. However, the literacy rates in Sub-Saharan Africa vary significantly between countries. The highest registered literacy rate in the region is in Zimbabwe (90.7 %; 2003 est.), while the lowest literacy rate is in South Sudan (27 %).
Sub-Saharan African countries spent an average of 0.3 % of their GDP on science and technology on in 2007. This represents an increase from US $1.8 billion in 2002 to US $2.8 billion in 2007, a 50 % increase in spending.
In 1987, the Bamako Initiative conference organised by the World Health Organization was held in Bamako, the capital of Mali, and helped reshape the health policy of Sub-Saharan Africa. The new strategy dramatically increased accessibility through community - based healthcare reform, resulting in more efficient and equitable provision of services. A comprehensive approach strategy was extended to all areas of health care, with subsequent improvement in the health care indicators and improvement in health care efficiency and cost.
In 2011, Sub-Saharan Africa was home to 69 % of all people living with HIV / AIDS worldwide. In response, a number of initiatives have been launched to educate the public on HIV / AIDS. Among these are combination prevention programmes, considered to be the most effective initiative, the abstinence, be faithful, use a condom campaign, and the Desmond Tutu HIV Foundation 's outreach programs. According to a 2013 special report issued by the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV / AIDS (UNAIDS), the number of HIV positive people in Africa receiving anti-retroviral treatment in 2012 was over seven times the number receiving treatment in 2005, with an almost 1 million added in the last year alone. The number of AIDS - related deaths in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2011 was 33 percent less than the number in 2005. The number of new HIV infections in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2011 was 25 percent less than the number in 2001.
Malaria is an endemic illness in Sub-Saharan Africa, where the majority of malaria cases and deaths worldwide occur. Routine immunization has been introduced in order to prevent measles. Onchocerciasis ("river blindness ''), a common cause of blindness, is also endemic to parts of the region. More than 99 % of people affected by the illness worldwide live in 31 countries therein. In response, the African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control (APOC) was launched in 1995 with the aim of controlling the disease. Maternal mortality is another challenge, with more than half of maternal deaths in the world occurring in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, there has generally been progress here as well, as a number of countries in the region have halved their levels of maternal mortality since 1990. Additionally, the African Union in July 2003 ratified the Maputo Protocol, which pledges to prohibit female genital mutilation (FGM).
National health systems vary between countries. In Ghana, most health care is provided by the government and largely administered by the Ministry of Health and Ghana Health Services. The healthcare system has five levels of providers: health posts which are first level primary care for rural areas, health centers and clinics, district hospitals, regional hospitals and tertiary hospitals. These programs are funded by the government of Ghana, financial credits, Internally Generated Fund (IGF), and Donors - pooled Health Fund.
African countries below the Sahara are largely Christian, while those above the Sahara, in North Africa, are predominantly Islamic. There are also Muslim majorities in parts of the Horn of Africa (Djibouti and Somalia) and in the Sahel and Sudan regions (the Gambia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Mali, Niger and Senegal), as well as significant Muslim communities in Ethiopia and Eritrea, and on the Swahili Coast (Tanzania and Kenya). Mauritius is the only country in Africa to have a Hindu majority.
Traditional African religions can be broken down into linguistic cultural groups, with common themes. Among Niger -- Congo - speakers is a belief in a creator God; ancestor spirits; territorial spirits; evil caused by human ill will and neglecting ancestor spirits; priest of territorial spirits. New world religions such as Santería, Vodun, and Candomblé, would be derived from this world view. Among Nilo - Saharan speakers is the belief in Divinity; evil is caused by divine judgement and retribution; prophets as middlemen between Divinity and man. Among Afro - Asiatic - speakers is henotheism, the belief in one 's own gods but accepting the existence of other gods; evil here is caused by malevolent spirits. The Semitic Abrahamic religion of Judaism is comparable to the latter world view. San religion is non-theistic but a belief in a Spirit or Power of existence which can be tapped in a trance - dance; trance - healers.
Traditional religions in Sub-Saharan Africa often display complex ontology, cosmology and metaphysics. Mythologies, for example, demonstrated the difficulty fathers of creation had in bringing about order from chaos. Order is what is right and natural and any deviation is chaos. Cosmology and ontology is also neither simple or linear. It defines duality, the material and immaterial, male and female, heaven and earth. Common principles of being and becoming are widespread: Among the Dogon, the principle of Amma (being) and Nummo (becoming), and among the Bambara, Pemba (being) and Faro (becoming).
Sub-Saharan traditional divination systems display great sophistication. For example, the bamana sand divination uses well established symbolic codes that can be reproduced using four bits or marks. A binary system of one or two marks are combined. Random outcomes are generated using a fractal recursive process. It is analogous to a digital circuit but can be reproduced on any surface with one or two marks. This system is widespread in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Sub-Saharan Africa is diverse, with many communities and villages, each with their own beliefs and traditions. Traditional African Societies are communal, they believe that the needs of the many far out weigh an individual needs and achievements. Basically, an individual 's keep must be shared with other extended family members. Extended families are made up of various individuals and families who have shared responsibilities within the community. This extended family is one of the core aspects of every African community. "An African will refer to an older person as auntie or uncle. Siblings of parents will be called father or mother rather than uncle and aunt. Cousins will be called brother or sister ''. This system can be very difficult for outsiders to understand; however, it is no less important. "Also reflecting their communal ethic, Africans are reluctant to stand out in a crowd or to appear different from their neighbors or colleagues, a result of social pressure to avoid offense to group standards and traditions. '' Women also have a very important role in African culture because they take care of the house and children. Traditionally "men do the heavy work of clearing and plowing the land, women sow the seeds, tend the fields, harvest the crops, haul the water, and bear the major burden for growing the family 's food ''. Despite their work in the fields women are expected to be subservient to men in some African cultures. "When young women migrate to cities, this imbalance between the sexes, as well as financial need, often causes young women of lower economic status, who lack education and job training, to have sexual relationships with older men who are established in their work or profession and can afford to support a girlfriend or two ''.
Traditional Sub-Saharan African music is as diverse as the region 's various populations. The common perception of Sub-Saharan African music is that it is rhythmic music centered around the drums. It is partially true. A large part of Sub-Saharan music, mainly among speakers of Niger -- Congo and Nilo - Saharan languages, is rhythmic and centered around the drum. Sub-Saharan music is polyrhythmic, usually consisting of multiple rhythms in one composition. Dance involves moving multiple body parts. These aspect of Sub-Saharan music has been transferred to the new world by enslaved Sub-Saharan Africans and can be seen in its influence on music forms as Samba, Jazz, Rhythm and Blues, Rock & Roll, Salsa, Reggae and Rap music.
But Sub-Saharan music involves a lot of music with strings, horns, and very little poly - rhythms. Music from the eastern sahel and along the nile, among the Nilo - Saharan, made extensive use of strings and horns in ancient times. Among the Afro - Asiatics, we see extensive use of string instruments. Dancing involve swaying body movements and footwork. Among the San is extensive use of string instruments with emphasis on footwork.
Modern Sub-Saharan African music has been influence by music from the New World (Jazz, Salsa, Rhythm and Blues etc.) vice versa being influenced by enslaved Sub-Saharan Africans. Popular styles are Mbalax in Senegal and Gambia, Highlife in Ghana, Zoblazo in Ivory Coast, Makossa in Cameroon, Soukous in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kizomba in Angola, and Mbaqanga in South Africa. New World styles like Salsa, R&B / Rap, Reggae, and Zouk also have widespread popularity.
The oldest abstract art in the world is a shell necklace, dated to 82,000 years in the Cave of Pigeons in Taforalt, eastern Morocco. The second oldest abstract form of art and the oldest rock art is found in the Blombos Cave at the Cape in South Africa, dated 77,000 years. Sub-Saharan Africa has some of the oldest and most varied style of rock art in the world.
Although Sub-Saharan African art is very diverse there are some common themes. One is the use of the human figure. Second, there is a preference for sculpture. Sub-Saharan African art is meant to be experienced in three dimensions, not two. A house is meant to be experienced from all angles. Third, art is meant to be performed. Sub-Saharan Africans have specific name for masks. The name incorporates the sculpture, the dance, and the spirit that incorporates the mask. The name denotes all three elements. Fourth, art that serves a practical function, utilitarian. The artist and craftsman are not separate. A sculpture shaped like a hand can be used as a stool. Fifth, the use of fractals or non-linear scaling. The shape of the whole is the shape of the parts at different scales. Before the discovery of fractal geometry), Leopold Sedar Senghor, Senegal 's first president, referred to this as "dynamic symmetry. '' William Fagg, the British art historian, compared it to the logarithmic mapping of natural growth by biologist D'Arcy Thompson. Lastly, Sub-Saharan African art is visually abstract, instead of naturalistic. Sub-Saharan African art represents spiritual notions, social norms, ideas, values, etc. An artist might exaggerated the head of a sculpture in relations to the body not because he does not know anatomy but because he wants to illustrate that the head is the seat of knowledge and wisdom. The visual abstraction of African art was very influential in the works of modernist artist like Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and Jacques Lipchitz.
Sub-Saharan African cuisine like everything about Africa is very diverse. A lot of regional overlapping occurs, but there are dominant elements region by region.
West African cuisine can be described as starchy, flavorfully spicey. Dishes include fufu, kenkey, couscous, garri, foutou, and banku. Ingredients are of native starchy tubers, yams, cocoyams, and cassava. Grains include millet, sorghum, and rice, usually in the sahel, are incorporated. Oils include palm oil and shea butter (sahel). One finds recipes that mixes fish and meat. Beverages are palm wine (sweet or sour) and millet beer. Roasting, baking, boiling, frying, mashing, and spicing are all cooking techniques.
Southeast African cuisine especially those of the Swahilis reflects its Islamic, geographical Indian Ocean cultural links. Dishes include ugali, sukumi wiki, and halva. Spices such as curry, saffron, cloves, cinnamon, pomegranate juice, cardamon, ghee, and sage are used, especially among Muslims. Meat includes cattle, sheep, and goats, but is rarely eaten since its viewed as currency and wealth.
In the Horn of Africa, pork and non-fish seafood is avoided by Christians and Muslims. Dairy products and all meats are avoided during lent by Ethiopians. Maize (corn) is a major staple. Cornmeal is used to make ugali, a popular dish with different names. Teff is used to make injera or canjeero (Somali) bread. Other important foods include enset, noog, lentils, rice, banana, leafy greens, chiles, peppers, coconut milk and tomatoes. Beverages are coffee (domesticated in Ethiopia), chai tea, fermented beer from banana or millet. Cooking techniques include roasting and marinating.
Central African cuisine connects with all major regions of Sub-Saharan Africa: Its cuisine reflects that. Ugali and fufu are eaten in the region. Central African cuisine is very starchy and spicy hot. Dominant crops include plantains, cassava, peanuts, chillis, and okra. Meats include beef, chicken, and sometimes exotic meats called bush meat (antelope, warthog, crocodile). Widespread spicy hot fish cuisine is one of the differentiating aspects. Mushroom is sometimes used as a meat substitute.
Traditional Southern African cuisine surrounds meat. Traditional society typically focused on raising, sheep, goats, and especially cattle. Dishes include braai (barbecue meat), sadza, bogobe, pap (fermented cornmeal), milk products (buttermilk, yoghurt). Crops utilised are sorghum, maize (corn), pumpkin beans, leafy greens, and cabbage. Beverages include ting (fermented sorghum or maize), milk, chibuku (milky beer). Influences from the Indian and Malay community can be seen its use of curries, sambals, pickled fish, fish stews, chutney, and samosa. European influences can be seen in cuisines like biltong (dried beef strips), potjies (stews of maize, onions, tomatoes), French wines, and crueler or koeksister (sugar syrup cookie).
Like most of the world, Sub-Saharan Africans have adopted Western - style clothing. In some country like Zambia, used Western clothing has flooded markets, causing great angst in the retail community. Sub-Saharan Africa boasts its own traditional clothing style. Cotton seems to be the dominant material.
In East Africa, one finds extensive use of cotton clothing. Shemma, shama, and kuta are types of Ethiopian clothing. Kanga are Swahili cloth that comes in rectangular shapes, made of pure cotton, and put together to make clothing. Kitenges are similar to kangas and kikoy, but are of a thicker cloth, and have an edging only on a long side. Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and South Sudan are some of the African countries where kitenge is worn. In Malawi, Namibia and Zambia, kitenge is known as Chitenge. One of the unique materials, which is not a fiber and is used to make clothing is barkcloth, an innovation of the Baganda people of Uganda. It came from the Mutuba tree (Ficus natalensis). On Madagascar a type of draped cloth called lamba is worn.
In West Africa, again cotton is the material of choice. In the Sahel and other parts of West Africa the boubou and kaftan style of clothing are featured. Kente cloth is created by the Akan people of Ghana and Ivory Coast, from silk of the various moth species in West Africa. Kente comes from the Ashanti twi word kenten which means basket. It is sometimes used to make dashiki and kufi. Adire is a type of Yoruba cloth that is starch resistant. Raffia cloth and barkcloth are also utilised in the region.
In Central Africa, the Kuba people developed raffia cloth from the raffia plant fibers. It was widely used in the region. Barkcloth was also extensively used.
In Southern Africa one finds numerous uses of animal hide and skins for clothing. The Ndau in central Mozambique and the Shona mix hide with barkcloth and cotton cloth. Cotton cloth is referred to as machira. Xhosa, Tswana, Sotho, and Swazi also made extensive use of hides. Hides come from cattle, sheep, goat, and elephant. Leopard skins were coveted and were a symbol of kingship in Zulu society. Skins were tanned to form leather, dyed, and embedded with beads.
Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sub-Saharan men are its main patrons. Major competitions include the African Champions League, a competition for the best clubs on the continent and the Confederation Cup, a competition primarily for the national cup winner of each African country. The Africa Cup of Nations is a competition of 16 national teams from various African countries held every two years. South Africa hosted the 2010 FIFA World Cup, a first for a Sub-Saharan country. In 2010, Cameroon played in the World Cup for the sixth time, which is the current record for a Sub-Saharan team. In 1996 Nigeria won the Olympic gold for football. In 2000 Cameroon maintained the continent 's supremacy by winning the title too. Momentous achievements for Sub-Saharan African football. Famous Sub-Saharan football stars include Abedi Pele, Emmanuel Adebayor, George Weah, Michael Essien, Didier Drogba, Roger Milla, Nwankwo Kanu, Jay - Jay Okocha, Bruce Grobbelaar, Samuel Eto'o, Kolo Touré, Yaya Touré, Sadio Mané and Pierre - Emerick Aubameyang. The most talented Sub-Saharan African football players find themselves courted and sought after by European leagues. There are currently more than 1000 Africans playing for European clubs. Sub-Saharan Africans have found themselves the target of racism by European fans. FIFA has been trying hard to crack down on racist outburst during games.
Rugby is also popular in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Confederation of African Rugby governs rugby games in the region. South Africa is a major force in the game and won the Rugby World Cup in 1995 and in 2007. Africa is also allotted one guaranteed qualifying place in the Rugby World Cup.
Boxing is also a popular sport. Battling Siki the first world champion to come out of Sub-Saharan Africa. Countries such as Nigeria, Ghana and South Africa have produced numerous professional world champions such as Dick Tiger, Hogan Bassey, Gerrie Coetzee, Samuel Peter, Azumah Nelson and Jake Matlala.
Cricket has a following. The African Cricket Association is an international body which oversees cricket in African countries. South Africa and Zimbabwe have their own governing bodies. In 2003 the Cricket World Cup was held in South Africa, first time it was held in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Over the years, Ethiopia and Kenya have produced many notable long - distance athletes. Each country has federations that identify and cultivate top talent. Athletes from Ethiopia and Kenya hold, save for two exceptions, all the men 's outdoor records for Olympic distance events from 800m to the marathon. Famous runners include Haile Gebrselassie, Kenenisa Bekele, Paul Tergat, and John Cheruiyot Korir.
The development of tourism in this region has been identified as having the ability to create jobs and improve the economy. South Africa, Namibia, Mauritius, Botswana, Ghana, Cape Verde, Tanzania, and Kenya have been identified as having well developed tourism industries. Cape Town and the surrounding area is very popular with tourists.
Only seven African countries are not geopolitically a part of Sub-Saharan Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, Western Sahara (claimed by Morocco) and Sudan; they form the UN subregion of Northern Africa, which also makes up the largest bloc of the Arab World. Nevertheless, some international organisations include Sudan as part of Sub-Saharan Africa. Although a long - standing member of the Arab League, Sudan has around 30 % non-Arab populations in the west (Darfur, Masalit, Zaghawa), far north (Nubian) and south (Kordofan, Nuba). Mauritania and Niger only include a band of the Sahel along their southern borders. All other African countries have at least significant portions of their territory within Sub-Saharan Africa.
Depending on classification Sudan is often not considered part of Sub-Saharan Africa, as it is considered part of North Africa.
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"Sahara 's Abrupt Desertification Started By Changes In Earth 's Orbit, Accelerated By Atmospheric And Vegetation Feedbacks ''. Science Daily. Science Daily. 12 July 1999.
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where does the term lucky duck come from | Lucky duckies - Wikipedia
Lucky duckies is a term that was used in Wall Street Journal editorials starting on 20 November 2002 to refer to Americans who pay no federal income tax because they are at an income level that is below the tax line (after deductions and credits). The term has outlived its original use to become a part of the informal terminology used in the tax reform and income inequality debates in the United States.
The term 's meaning has split depending on political persuasion. For many conservatives, the term has become part of a political theory that the USA is developing an increasingly large ' moocher ' class who depend on government benefits paid for by taxes from richer or harder - working citizens, pay no taxes themselves and vote themselves higher benefits paid for from the taxes of others. This has led prominent conservative politicians such as Rick Perry and Michele Bachmann to propose that poorer citizens should have their taxes increased to make them more aware of the problems of excessive taxation and so - called big government. 2012 Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney commented that "There are 47 percent of the people who will vote liberal no matter what... believe that they are entitled to health care, to food, to housing, to you - name - it. That 's an entitlement. The government should give it to them. And they will vote for this president no matter what... 47 % of Americans pay no income tax. So our message of low taxes does n't connect... I 'll never convince them they should take personal responsibility and care for their lives. '' Perry, announcing his presidential campaign, commented "Spreading the wealth punishes success... we 're dismayed at the injustice that nearly half of all Americans do n't even pay any income tax. ''
The term was, meanwhile immediately criticised by liberals and some conservatives for suggesting that people are ' lucky ' to be so poor that they are not eligible to pay tax. It has also been used to suggest that the WSJ and, by proxy, conservatives lack real awareness of poverty or intend to raise taxes on poor people for the benefit of richer taxpayers, a suggestion that has been described as ' reverse class warfare '. It has also been argued that as many red states are particularly poor, many individuals who pay no income tax are in fact generally conservative voters, while many rich residents of blue states consistently vote liberal.
The Journal defined the term in this way:
Who are these lucky duckies? They are the beneficiaries of tax policies that have expanded the personal exemption and standard deduction and targeted certain voter groups by introducing a welter of tax credits for things like child care and education. When these escape hatches are figured against income, the result is either a zero liability or a liability that represents a tiny percentage of income.
The worry of the Journal 's editorialist was that "as fewer and fewer people are responsible for paying more and more of all taxes, the constituency for tax cutting, much less for tax reform, is eroding. Workers who pay little or no taxes can hardly be expected to care about tax relief for everybody else. They are also that much more detached from recognizing the costs of government. ''
For example, according to the editorial:
Say a person earns $12,000. After subtracting the personal exemption, the standard deduction and assuming no tax credits, then applying the 10 % rate of the lowest bracket, the person ends up paying a little less than 4 % of income in taxes. It ai n't peanuts, but not enough to get his or her blood boiling with tax rage.
The Journal published three articles using the phrase "lucky duckies '': "The Non-Taxpaying Class '', the original article, on 20 November 2002; "Lucky Duckies Again '' (20 January 2003); and "Even Luckier Duckies '' (3 June 2003).
In recent years, the number and percentage of Americans who pay no federal income tax has increased. According to a 2007 report by the Statistics of Income division of the Internal Revenue Service, in 2006 the Internal Revenue Service received 134,372,678 individual income tax returns, of which 90,593,081 (67.42 %) showed that they paid or owed federal income tax for 2005. That is, 32.58 % of those Americans who filed income tax returns did not owe any federal income tax at all for 2005. This percentage increased substantially in 2008, and for 2009 was 47 %.
The federal income tax is only one of several taxes Americans pay. Americans who pay zero federal income taxes do pay other taxes, such as payroll taxes (a.k.a. FICA), excise taxes, sales taxes, tariffs, gift taxes, unemployment taxes, state income taxes, property taxes, and self - employment taxes.
Federal payroll taxes are imposed on nearly every American with income from employment (there are exceptions for certain students, certain religious objectors, and certain state / local government employees who participate in a state / local pension). Federal self - employment taxes are imposed on nearly every American with net income from self - employment above $400 (again with exceptions for certain religious objectors). So almost all Americans with some earned income do pay some federal taxes. However, the US also allows earned income tax credits to certain individuals, which can lower their income taxes below zero. When these refundable tax credits equal or exceed other federal taxes, the individual is said to pay "no net federal taxes. ''
As of 2006, according to New York Times columnist David Leonhardt, approximately 10 % of Americans paid no net federal taxes. Leonhardt did not have figures for 2010, and there were several refundable tax credits which were created or expanded between 2006 and 2010.
According to Congressional Budget Office estimates, the lowest earning 20 % of Americans (24.1 million households earning an average of $15,900 in 2005) paid an "effective '' federal tax rate of 3.9 %, when taking into account income tax, social insurance tax, and excise tax. For comparison, the same study found that the highest earning 1 % of Americans (1.1 million households earning an average of $1,558,500 in 2005) paid an "effective '' federal tax rate of 21.9 %, when including the same three types of taxes.
In 2011, British financial journalist Ian Cowie argued that people who do not earn enough to pay tax should be stripped of the right to vote as they should not have the right to control how others ' money is taxed and spent: "Their contribution is not just negative in financial terms -- they take out more than they put in -- but likely to be damaging to the decisions taken by democracies. '' His colleague Benedict Brogan described the idea as ' intriguing ' and ' worth checking out '.
In 2001, U.S. Representative Jim DeMint (R - S.C.) told The New Yorker:
I think we 've got a major crisis in democracy... We assume that voters will restrain the growth of government because it becomes burdensome to them personally. But today fewer and fewer people pay taxes, and more and more are dependent on government, so the politician who promises the most from government is likely to win. Every day, the Republican Party is losing constituents, because every day more people can vote themselves more benefits without paying for it. The tax code will destroy democracy, by putting us in a position where most voters do n't pay for government.
The Journal was frequently mocked for its use of the term "lucky duckies '' to refer to people whose lack of a federal income tax burden is the direct result of their lower income. This attitude was satirized as "let them eat cake '' - style myopia.
Ruben Bolling 's Tom the Dancing Bug comic in Salon magazine, for instance, periodically features a poor duck who keeps "outwitting '' a fat, top - hatted oligarch by cleverly submitting to the misfortunes of his economic class.
Jonathan Chait, in The New Republic, reacted to the Journal editorial by writing:
One of the things that has fascinated me about The Wall Street Journal editorial page is its occasional capacity to rise above the routine moral callousness of hack conservative punditry and attain a level of exquisite depravity normally reserved for villains in James Bond movies.
And one "lucky ducky '' wrote to the Journal editor, offering to share his luck (in a form of logical argument sometimes known as a modest proposal):
I will spend a year as a Wall Street Journal editor, while one lucky editor will spend a year in my underpaid shoes. I will receive an editor 's salary, and suffer the outrage of paying federal income tax on that salary. The fortunate editor, on the other hand, will enjoy a relatively small federal income tax burden, as well as these other perks of near poverty: the gustatory delights of a diet rich in black beans, pinto beans, navy beans, chickpeas and, for a little variety, lentils; the thrill of scrambling to pay the rent or make the mortgage; the salutary effects of having no paid sick days; the slow satisfaction of saving up for months for a trip to the dentist; and the civic pride of knowing that, even as a lucky ducky, you still pay a third or more of your gross income in income taxes, payroll taxes, sales taxes and property taxes.
Conservatives have also criticised the argument. Writing in 2011, Ramesh Ponnuru commented that "conservatives should seek to remedy the problem by cutting benefits rather than by raising taxes in the hope it will make people more eager to cut benefits. To seek to raise taxes on poor and middle - class people would be a terrible mistake. The idea is bound to be unpopular. And it would alter the character of conservatism for the worse (into a) creed openly focused on helping one group at the expense of another, a kind of mirror image of egalitarian liberalism ''.
Writer W. James Antle said of the thresholds enabling poorer individuals to pay no income tax: "Conservatives supported all of these policies... (and the poor) are not exactly ' lucky duckies '... it seems to me that a conservative vision of personal responsibility would entail having people living on subsistence - level incomes support themselves and their families before they support the government. ''
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when was last time philadelphia eagles won super bowl | Philadelphia Eagles - Wikipedia
National Football League (1933 -- present)
Midnight green, Silver, Black, White
League championships (4)
Conference championships (4)
Division championships (13)
The Philadelphia Eagles are a professional American football franchise based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The Eagles compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference (NFC) East division. They are Super Bowl champions, having won Super Bowl LII, their fourth NFL title, after winning in 1948, 1949, and 1960.
The franchise was established in 1933 as a replacement for the bankrupt Frankford Yellow Jackets, when a group led by Bert Bell secured the rights to an NFL franchise in Philadelphia. Bell, Chuck Bednarik, Bob Brown, Brian Dawkins, Reggie White, Steve Van Buren, Tommy McDonald, Greasy Neale, Pete Pihos, Sonny Jurgensen, and Norm Van Brocklin have been inducted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
The team has an intense rivalry with the New York Giants. This rivalry is the oldest in the NFC East and is among the oldest in the NFL. It was ranked by NFL Network as the number one rivalry of all - time and Sports Illustrated ranks it amongst the Top 10 NFL rivalries of all - time at number four, and according to ESPN, it is one of the fiercest and most well - known rivalries in the American football community. They also have a bitter rivalry with the Dallas Cowboys, which has become more high - profile since the 1960s, as well as a historic rivalry with the Washington Redskins. Their rivalry with the Pittsburgh Steelers is another bitter rivalry, roughly dating back to 1933, that mostly arises from the two teams ' statuses as being from opposite ends of the same state.
The team consistently ranks in the top three in attendance and has sold out every game since the 1999 season. In a Sports Illustrated poll of 321 NFL players, Eagles fans were selected the most intimidating fans in the NFL.
Midway through the 1931 season, the Frankford Yellow Jackets went bankrupt and ceased operations. After more than a year of searching for a suitable replacement, the NFL granted an expansion franchise to a syndicate headed by Bert Bell and Lud Wray and awarded them the franchise rights of the failed Yellow Jackets organization. The Bell - Wray group had to pay an entry fee of $3,500 (equal to $40,230 today) and assumed a total debt of $11,000 that was owed to three other NFL franchises. Drawing inspiration from the Blue Eagle insignia of the National Recovery Administration -- the centerpiece of President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal -- Bell and Wray named the new franchise the Philadelphia Eagles. Neither the Eagles nor the NFL officially regard the two franchises as the same, citing the aforementioned period of dormancy. Furthermore, almost no Yellow Jackets players were on the Eagles ' first roster. The Eagles, along with the Pittsburgh Steelers and the now - defunct Cincinnati Reds, joined the NFL as expansion teams.
In 1937, the Eagles moved to Shibe Park (renamed Connie Mack Stadium in 1954) and played their home games at the stadium through 1957, except for the 1941 season, which was played at Municipal Stadium, where they had played from 1936 to 1939.
To accommodate football at Shibe Park during the winter, management set up stands in right field, parallel to 20th Street. Some 20 feet high, these "east stands '' had 22 rows of seats. The goalposts stood along the first base line and in left field. The uncovered east stands enlarged capacity of Shibe Park to over 39,000, but the Eagles rarely drew more than 25 to 30,000.
The Eagles struggled over the course of their first decade, enduring repeated losing seasons. In December 1940, Pittsburgh Steelers owner Art Rooney sold his franchise to Alexis Thompson for $160,000 and then used half of the proceeds to buy a half interest in the Eagles from Bell, his longtime friend. Soon after, Bell and Rooney traded the Eagles franchise to Thompson and moved it to Pittsburgh (as the "Steelers ''), while Thompson moved the Steelers franchise to Philadelphia (as the "Eagles '').
In 1943, when manpower shortages stemming from World War II made it impossible to fill the roster, the team merged with the Pittsburgh Steelers forming the "Phil - Pitt Eagles '' and were known as the "Steagles. '' (The merger, never intended as a permanent arrangement, was dissolved at the end of the 1943 season.) By the late 1940s, head coach Earle "Greasy '' Neale and running back Steve Van Buren led the team to three consecutive NFL Championship Games, winning two of them in 1948 and 1949. Those two championships mark the Eagles as the only NFL team ever to win back - to - back championships by shutouts, defeating the Chicago Cardinals, 7 -- 0, in 1948 -- in a blizzard -- and the Los Angeles Rams, 14 -- 0, in 1949.
After the 1957 season, the Eagles moved from Connie Mack Stadium to Franklin Field at the University of Pennsylvania. Franklin Field would seat over 60,000 for the Eagles, whereas Connie Mack had a capacity of 39,000. The stadium switched from grass to AstroTurf in 1969. It was the first NFL stadium to use artificial turf.
In 1960, the Eagles won their third NFL championship, under the leadership of future Pro Football Hall of Famers Norm Van Brocklin and Chuck Bednarik; the head coach was Buck Shaw. The 1960 Eagles, by a score of 17 -- 13, became the only team to defeat Vince Lombardi and his Green Bay Packers in the playoffs.
The Eagles had a decent 1961 season and then fell on hard times in 1962. Jerry Wolman, after consulting his longtime friend Brandon Sturrock, bought the franchise in 1963 from the "Happy Hundred '', a group of investors who owned the team from 1949 -- 1963, for $5,505,000 (equal to $44,004,098 today).
In 1969, Leonard Tose bought the Eagles from Wolman for $16,155,000 (equal to $107,807,505 today), then a record for a professional sports franchise. Tose 's first official act was to fire Coach Joe Kuharich after a disappointing 24 -- 41 -- 1 record during his five - year reign. He followed this by naming former Eagles receiving great Pete Retzlaff as General Manager and Jerry Williams as coach.
With the merger of the NFL and AFL in 1970, the Eagles were placed in the NFC East Division with their archrivals the New York Giants, the Washington Redskins, and the Dallas Cowboys. Their heated rivalry with the Giants is the oldest of the NFC East rivalries, dating all the way back to 1933 and is often named as one of the best rivalries in the NFL.
In 1976, Dick Vermeil was hired from UCLA to coach the Eagles, who had only one winning season from 1962 -- 1975. Starting in 1978, head coach Dick Vermeil and quarterback Ron Jaworski led the team to four consecutive playoff appearances.
Vermeil 's 1980 team won their first NFC East title. They were matched up against their hated rival the Dallas Cowboys in the NFC Championship game, which they won 20 -- 7. However, the Eagles lost to the Oakland Raiders in Super Bowl XV in 1981. The following year, the Eagles were eliminated in the wildcard round at home against the New York Giants. In the aftermath of the disappointing and strike - shortened season of 1982, head coach Dick Vermeil resigned, claiming that he was "burned out ''. Vermeil was replaced by defensive coordinator Marion Campbell.
In January 1983, Tose announced that his daughter, Susan Fletcher, the Eagles ' vice president and legal counsel, would eventually succeed him as primary owner of the Eagles. Then in 1984, rumors were circulating that Leonard Tose was thinking about moving the team to Phoenix, Arizona due to financial reasons.
In 1985, Tose was forced to sell the Eagles to Norman Braman and Ed Leibowitz, highly successful automobile dealers from Florida, for a reported $65 million (equal to $147,899,134 today) to pay off his more than $25 million (equal to $56,884,282 today) in gambling debts at Atlantic City casinos.
Philadelphia football struggled through the Marion Campbell years of the mid-1980s and was marked by a malaise in fan participation. However, in the 1985 Supplemental draft, the Eagles acquired the rights to Memphis Showboats ' elite pass rusher Reggie White. In 1986, the arrival of head coach Buddy Ryan and his fiery attitude rejuvenated team performance and ignited the fan base, but the Eagles failed to win a playoff game during Ryan 's tenure. Possibly the worst of these losses was the so - called Fog Bowl in 1988 against the Chicago Bears, which happened to be Ryan 's former team that he helped lead to a Super Bowl XX victory as defensive coordinator. Ryan was fired on January 7, 1991, after an upset home playoff loss to the Redskins. Offensive coordinator Rich Kotite was promoted to head coach three days later.
After All Pro defensive tackle Jerome Brown was killed in an automobile accident, the team and fanbase became dedicated to "bring it home for Jerome '' in the 1992 season. Kotite did lead the Eagles to a playoff victory against the New Orleans Saints during the 1992 season, but they lost all - time sacks leader Reggie White to free agency in the offseason. Kotie 's contract was not renewed after a disappointing 1994 season in which the Eagles went 7 -- 9, losing their last seven games after starting the season 7 -- 2. From 1988 to 1996, the Eagles qualified for the playoffs during six out of those nine seasons, but they won the NFC East only once, in 1988. Among the team 's offensive stars during that period were quarterback Randall Cunningham, tight end Keith Jackson, and running back Herschel Walker. But the "Gang Green '' defense is possibly what defined the team, led by Reggie White, Jerome Brown, Clyde Simmons, Seth Joyner, Wes Hopkins, Mike Golic, Byron Evans, Eric Allen, Andre Waters and Mark McMillian.
Jeffrey Lurie bought the Eagles on May 6, 1994 from then - owner Norman Braman for an estimated $185 million. The club is now estimated to be the 17th most valuable sports team, worth $1.314 billion, as valuated in 2014 by Forbes.
In Lurie 's first season as owner, the team only had 7 wins, but that was followed by a 10 win season in 1995. Besides the 10 wins and a playoff berth, 1996 was an eventful year. The uniforms changed from the classic shade of Kelly Green to a darker midnight green, quarterback Randall Cunningham left after 11 seasons, and future fan favorite 13 - year starter Brian Dawkins was drafted in the 2nd round. After slipping to 6 -- 9 -- 1, and then to 3 -- 13, head coach Ray Rhodes was fired after four seasons.
In 1999, the Eagles hired head coach Andy Reid and drafted quarterback Donovan McNabb. From 1999 until 2004, the team continually improved, going from 5 -- 11 in 1999, returning to the playoffs in with an 11 -- 5 record in 2000, surpassing the Buccaneers in the Wild Card round before losing in the divisional. Moreover, the Eagles played in four straight NFC Championship Games between 2001 and 2004. In 2001, the Eagles stayed at 11 -- 5, beating the Buccaneers and Bears to advance to the NFC championship, where they lost to the St. Louis Rams. In 2002, the Eagles drafted running back Brian Westbrook, got the 1st round bye with the 2nd seed in the NFC with a 12 -- 4 record, but the Tampa Bay Buccaneers got their revenge in the Championship and eliminated the Eagles. In 2003, they won the NFC first seed, but Westbrook went down in Week 17, culminating in a loss to the Carolina Panthers in their 3rd straight NFC Championship.
In 2004, the Philadelphia Eagles had their best season since 1960, going 13 -- 1 before resting their starters and losing their next 2, clinching the 1st seed for the second year in a row. McNabb set career highs, completing 64 % of his passes for 3,875 yards, though he did n't play all 16 games. McNabb became the first quarterback ever to throw more than 30 touchdowns and fewer than 10 interceptions in a season. His success could be attributed to the fact that he had a reliable receiver, Terrell Owens, who got 1,200 yards and 14 touchdowns in 14 games. After beating the Vikings and Falcons the Eagles advanced to Super Bowl XXXIX, where they dueled the New England Patriots. Although McNabb threw 3 touchdown passes and 357 yards in the game, and the score was tied 14 -- 14 going into the fourth quarter, the Patriots outscored the Eagles and scored ten straight points. McNabb completed a 30 - yard touchdown pass, and the Eagles defense held the Patriots to a 3 and out, but a crucial interception with 46 seconds left on the clock secured their fate.
The team took a step back in 2005 with a 6 -- 10 record. McNabb had played with a sports hernia and a broken thumb, starting 4 -- 2 but losing three in a row, before McNabb finally succumbs to injury and is out for the rest of the season. For obnoxious behavior and a feud with McNabb, Owens was suspended after 7 games, eventually being cut. In 2006, the team lost McNabb 10 games in and went into turmoil, but Westbrook stepped up, and the Eagles earned their fifth NFC East title under Coach Reid, with a 10 -- 6 record and a win in the wild card round, but they had an 8 -- 8 2007 season. In 2008, the team won their 500th game, and they also drafted DeSean Jackson, a receiving threat when paired with McNabb.
On January 11, 2009, the team defeated the defending Super Bowl champion and 1st seed New York Giants 23 -- 11 en route to their 5th NFC Championship Game in 8 years and 5th in the 10 years the Eagles have been coached by Andy Reid. In the 2008 NFC Championship Game, the Eagles made a rally, going from 24 -- 6 at halftime to 25 -- 24 with three minutes left in the 4th, but they lost to the Arizona Cardinals by a score of 32 -- 25 after quarterback Kurt Warner scored a last minute touchdown. As of the conclusion of the 2016 season, during the Lurie era, the Eagles are 1 -- 4 in conference championship games and 0 -- 1 in Super Bowls.
On August 13, 2009, the Eagles signed quarterback Michael Vick. On December 6, 2009, Andy Reid became only the 5th coach in NFL history to win 100 or more games with a single team in a single decade. The other four are Tom Landry, Don Shula, Tony Dungy, and Bill Belichick, all Super Bowl winners. McNabb finally had a complete receiving corps, between first round draft pick Jeremy Maclin, DeSean Jackson 's 1,000 yard season, and Brent Celek ranking among the top 5 tight ends in the league. Without Brian Dawkins, defensive end Trent Cole stepped up and became the dominant force on defense with 12 sacks, earning him his second trip to the Pro Bowl and All - Pro honors. In 2009, the Eagles started 5 -- 4, but moved up to 11 -- 4, and could clinch the NFC 2nd seed if they won their next game. After a shutout at the hands of the Dallas Cowboys in week 17, the Eagles missed the 1st round bye. but with a record of 11 -- 5, but they were the NFC 6th seed and they narrowly made the playoffs. In the 2009 NFC Wild Card Game, the Eagles played against the Cowboys for the second consecutive week and lost 34 -- 14. Despite many errors from many players, and a great season before the breakdown in Dallas, McNabb took the brunt of the blow and was heavily criticized. Coach Andy Reid said up until April 1, 2010, that McNabb would remain the starter.
On March 5, 2010, Brian Westbrook was cut from the Eagles after eight seasons with the team. On April 4, 2010, the team traded long - time starting quarterback Donovan McNabb to the Washington Redskins in exchange for a second round draft pick. Kevin Kolb was immediately named the starter, but after suffering a concussion in week 1 against the Packers, Vick took over as the starter. Vick led the Eagles to its sixth NFC East division title in ten seasons. With a record of 10 -- 6 the Eagles clinched the 3rd seed and had to play a Wild Card Playoff Game. During the 2010 NFC Wild Card Game, the Eagles faced off against the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers and lost 21 -- 16.
The 2011 season for the Eagles was a major disappointment, as they only managed to finish 8 -- 8 and did not qualify for the playoffs, although they did win the last 4 games of the season. Because of several free agent acquisitions, Vince Young, a back up quarterback, stated that the Eagles were a Dream Team. The Philadelphia fan base and faithful never did concur with the comment as some national outlets may comment. Many Eagles fans believe that Vince Young saying that the Eagles were a ' Dream Team ' is the reason that the Eagles had such a horrible season.
Eagles fans had high expectations going into the 2012 season. The Eagles started off winning three out of their four first games, but that changed when they lost the next eight games, and were eliminated from the playoff hunt. They only won one out of their last four games. After a loss to the New York Giants on December 30, 2012, longtime head coach Andy Reid was fired after fourteen seasons with the team.
On January 16, 2013, the Eagles brought in University of Oregon head coach Chip Kelly to succeed Reid as head coach after a 4 -- 12 season. The Philadelphia Eagles named Michael Vick starting quarterback going into the 2013 season with much promise running Chip Kelly 's fast - paced spread offense.
The 2013 season proved to be more successful for the Eagles. A hamstring injury took Michael Vick out after a 1 -- 3 start, but his backup, Nick Foles, led the team to a 10 -- 6 regular season record, and its seventh NFC East title in 13 seasons. Before throwing his first interception in Week 14, Foles threw 19 touchdowns, which was just one shy of the all - time NFL record of consecutive touchdowns without an interception to start a season, set earlier in the season by Peyton Manning. Foles also tied Manning for most touchdown passes in a single - game with seven against the Oakland Raiders which also made him the youngest player in NFL history to throw that many touchdowns in a game. Foles finished the regular season with 27 touchdown passes and only 2 interceptions, giving him the then - best TD - INT ratio in NFL history. (That record was later broken by Tom Brady, in the 2016 season.) He also finished with a 119.0 passer rating, third highest in league history behind only Aaron Rodgers in 2011 and Peyton Manning in 2004. He was also only the second quarterback in NFL history to have a game in which he topped 400 passing yards and a perfect passer rating. LeSean McCoy finished his Pro Bowl season as the league 's top rusher with 1,607 rushing yards (also a franchise record) and 2,146 total yards from scrimmage, also best in the NFL. As a whole, the Eagles offense scored 51 touchdowns, most in franchise history passing the previous season high set back in 1948.
The Eagles opened the 2014 season winning their first three games and making NFL history as the only team ever to trail by ten or more points in their first three games and come back to win. Nick Foles struggled with turnovers, but ultimately did well and led the Eagles to a 6 -- 2 record, before breaking his collarbone, resulting in his job getting taken over by Mark Sanchez, who outplayed Foles despite facing more playoff teams. The Eagles held the divisional title from week one to week 15 against the Cowboys. After going 9 -- 3 with their crucial win over the Cowboys, the Eagles lost their next 3, and a week after losing the NFC East title, they lost an upset against the 3 -- 11 Redskins and were eliminated from playoff contention with the Cowboys ' win over the Colts.
Following the 2014 season, Chip Kelly was given total control and made some controversial moves. He traded LeSean McCoy, who had become the team 's all - time leading rusher after the 2014 season, for linebacker Kiko Alonso, a player Kelly coached at Oregon who had missed the entire 2014 season. He also cut ten - year veteran and starter, Trent Cole, who was still a consistent threat on defense and was second only to legend Reggie White on the Eagles all - time sack list. He also made a trade where the highly successful Nick Foles was traded for Sam Bradford, who had missed the entire 2014 season with an ACL tear. Kelly tried to re-sign Jeremy Maclin, who had stepped up as the team 's leading wide receiver, but he signed with the Kansas City Chiefs instead. However, the Eagles also acquired league leading rusher DeMarco Murray, which not only helped the Eagles, but hurt their rivals, the Dallas Cowboys. They also obtained Super Bowl champion Byron Maxwell, who left the Seattle Seahawks in free agency to sign a six - year, $63 million contract. The first two games of the season were disastrous, as they started 0 -- 2. Bradford had a 2 -- 4 TD - INT ratio, Maxwell was constantly beaten by Falcons receiver Julio Jones, and Murray was held to 11 yards on 21 carries. After Murray was injured, Ryan Mathews rushed for over 100 yards in a Week 3 win against the New York Jets. Kelly made Murray the unquestioned starter and although Murray 's play improved over the season, he never regained his dominant form and was held to a career low 3.6 yards per carry average.
On December 29, 2015, with one game left in the season, head coach Chip Kelly was released by the Eagles. Offensive Coordinator Pat Shurmur was named Interim Coach for the final game against the rival New York Giants, which Shurmur won 35 -- 30. Former player and current running backs coach Duce Staley was the first coach to be interviewed for the opening head coaching job on January 2, 2016.
The Eagles hired Chiefs offensive coordinator Doug Pederson as their next head coach. The team made the official announcement on January 18, 2016. Eagles owner Jeffrey Lurie said in a statement:
"Doug is a strategic thinker, a compelling leader and communicator, and someone who truly knows how to get the best out of his players. All of these factors were what initially attracted us to Doug and we believe that he is the right man to help us achieve our ultimate goal. ''
Pederson had been with the Chiefs for the preceding three years after spending the four seasons previous to those with the Eagles. He served as a quality control assistant for the Eagles in 2009 and 2010 before being promoted to quarterbacks coach for the 2011 and 2012 seasons. He was praised for his work with Chiefs quarterback Alex Smith over the preceding few seasons, particularly 2015, as the Chiefs moved into the top 10 in scoring offense.
At the end of the 2015 season, the Eagles had the 13th pick in the 2016 NFL Draft. They traded Byron Maxwell, Kiko Alonso, and their pick to the Miami Dolphins for the # 8 pick. Later, they traded the # 8 pick, their third - round pick, their fourth - round pick, a 2017 first - round pick, and a 2018 second - round pick to the Cleveland Browns for the # 2 pick and a 2017 fourth - round pick. They used the # 2 pick to draft North Dakota State quarterback Carson Wentz. On September 3, 2016, the Eagles traded starting quarterback Sam Bradford to the Minnesota Vikings, who had lost Teddy Bridgewater for the season, for a 2017 first - round pick and a 2018 fourth - round pick. Following the trade, the Eagles named Wentz the starting quarterback for Week 1 of the 2016 season. First - time head coach Pederson led the Eagles to a 3 -- 0 start to the season. His rookie quarterback started with 5 touchdowns, no interceptions and over 255 yards per game. The Week 4 bye took a toll on the Eagles, and they lost four out of the next five games, including a loss to every rival team in their division. They also lost right tackle Lane Johnson to a 10 - game suspension following the Week 5 loss againist the Lions which damaged Carson Wentz 's hot start. In those four games, their average margin of loss was just under 5 points. Pederson and the Eagles won just 3 of their last 7 games. Those included gruesome road losses against the Seattle Seahawks, the Cincinnati Bengals, and the Baltimore Ravens. Although Wentz started off the season well, the 6 -- 5 quarterback finished with a TD -- INT ratio of 16: 14. The rookie head coach and rookie quarterback tandem led the Eagles to a disappointing year, finishing with a 7 -- 9 record and coming in last in the division.
During the following offseason, the team made several acquisitions on the offensive side of the ball. The Eagles either traded or released notable players from the Chip Kelly era like Ryan Mathews, Matt Tobin, Allen Barbre, Jordan Matthews and Marcus Smith II. They signed more notable players to improve its wide receiver corps that have struggled the last two seasons like Alshon Jeffery, and Torrey Smith as well as 2016 Super Bowl champion, Legarrette Blount. They also added veterans on defense such as Patrick Robinson, Chris Long, Corey Graham, Tim Jernigan and Ronald Darby. The team addressed its defense mostly in the draft, using its top three picks on defensive players. The Eagles drafted Derek Barnett with the 14th overall pick. The Eagles had completely revamped their offense and strengthened their defense heading into the 2017 season. They opened the season on the road versus the Washington Redskins and won the game 30 -- 17. The team lost to the Kansas City Chiefs the following week, 27 -- 20, in Pederson 's return to face Andy Reid. The Eagles then won six consecutive games, including signature wins at the Carolina Panthers, 28 -- 23, and versus the Washington Redskins, 34 -- 24, in a Monday Night contest. On the morning of October 31, 2017, just before the NFL trade deadline, the Eagles made a blockbuster move sending a fourth - round pick to the Miami Dolphins for star running back Jay Ajayi. The move immediately paid dividends for the Eagles heading into their next game versus the Denver Broncos as Ajayi rushed for 77 yards on just eight attempts including a 46 - yard TD near the end of the second quarter. Ajayi and Wentz led the Eagles to a 51 -- 23 rout of the top defense in the NFL.
The Eagles headed into their bye week with the best record in the NFL (8 -- 1), and with Wentz leading the NFL MVP discussion with an NFL - leading 23 touchdowns to 5 interceptions. During their bye, the Eagles signed former Giants offensive tackle Will Beatty and former Saints linebacker Dannell Ellerbe to not only add depth but also players with Super Bowl experiences. Coming off of the bye week, the Philadelphia Eagles entered a Sunday night showdown with the defending NFC East champion Dallas Cowboys. The Eagles came out sluggish and trailed 9 -- 7 at the half. The team exploded in the second half though, rattling off 30 unanswered points to soundly defeat their rival by a final score of 37 -- 9. The Eagles were rolling on a nine - game winning streak after a huge blowout win over the Chicago Bears. The Eagles traveled to Seattle in Week 13 in a huge Sunday Night showdown against Russell Wilson and the Seattle Seahawks. The Eagles struggled throughout the whole game, blowing many scoring opportunities and allowing Wilson to throw 3 touchdowns. The Eagles lost 24 -- 10, ending their win streak. However, the Eagles bounced back in Week 14 win over the Los Angeles Rams in a tough 43 -- 35 win. However, Carson Wentz left the game in the third quarter with a knee injury. It was later found out that Wentz tore his ACL, ending his MVP caliber season. Backup Nick Foles would once again take over as starting quarterback. In Foles 's first start against the New York Giants, he would lead them back from a 20 -- 7 deficit and score 4 touchdowns and win the game 34 -- 29. Foles struggled in the last two games of the season against the Oakland Raiders and the Dallas Cowboys, and threw a touchdown and 2 interceptions in that span. Despite this, the Eagles finished 13 -- 3 and secured the top seed in the NFC. The Eagles opened as the underdogs, the first time in history that a No. 1 seed has opened up the postseason as an underdog. Despite this, Foles would lead the Eagles past the Atlanta Falcons in the Divisional Round 15 -- 10. In the next game Foles and the Eagles annihilated the Minnesota Vikings 38 -- 7 in the NFC Championship nicknamed the Minneapolis Massacre, mocking the Minneapolis Miracle from their previous playoff victory. Foles had his best game since week 15 and threw for 352 passing yards and 3 touchdowns including an impressive flea flicker touchdown pass. This win marked the franchise 's third Super Bowl appearance and a berth in Super Bowl LII for a 2005 rematch against Tom Brady and the New England Patriots.
With Foles at the helm, the Eagles started off the game strong, leading the Patriots 22 -- 12 at halftime. In the second half the Patriots gained momentum and for the first time took the lead in the 4th quarter 33 -- 32. The Eagles rallied back and scored an 11 - yard Touchdown to tight end Zach Ertz. Later the Eagles converted on a 46 - yard field goal by Jake Elliott to lead 41 -- 33. On the final play of the game with 9 seconds left, Brady threw a hail - mary pass directed toward tight end Rob Gronkowski which was bobbled by Patrick Robinson before being dropped in the end - zone as time expired, securing the win for the Eagles 41 -- 33, and ending the 58 - year long championship drought. This would be Philadelphia 's first Super Bowl win and their fourth league championship (their first championship since 1960). Foles won Super Bowl MVP going 28 -- 43 with 373 passing yards, 3 touchdowns, and an interception. Nick Foles became the first backup quarterback to start and win a Super Bowl since his opponent Tom Brady won as the backup for Drew Bledsoe in 2001.
One of the NFL 's oldest, this rivalry began on October 15, 1933 when the Giants defeated the newly founded Eagles 56 -- 0. The Giants lead the all - time series 84 -- 82 -- 2. Three of the best known comebacks against the Giants are labeled as "Miracle In The Meadowlands -- Herm Edwards '', "Miracle In The Meadowlands II -- Brian Westbrook '' and "Miracle In The New Meadowlands -- DeSean Jackson ''.
The Cowboys have been one of the Eagles ' biggest rivals. The Eagles won the first game in this rivalry 27 -- 25 on September 30, 1960. Dallas leads the all - time series 63 -- 51 -- 0. They have been close in recent years, with Dallas winning 12 games from 2006 to the present while the Eagles have also won 12. There is much hostility between the two teams ' fan bases, with incidents such as the 1989 Bounty Bowl.
Not as big as the rivalries between the Giants and Cowboys, that with division rivals Washington Redskins is still fierce. It started in 1934 when the Washington Redskins were first known as the Boston Redskin; the Redskins defeated the Eagles 6 -- 0, and lead the all - time series 85 -- 76 -- 6. The rivalry has been very even since 2010 overall. However, the Eagles swept the Redskins during the 2017 season for the first time since the 2013 season.
The Eagles and Pittsburgh Steelers are both located in Pennsylvania and began play in 1933. From that season, through 1966, this was a major rivalry for both teams as both were part of the same division. In 1967, they were placed in separate divisions but remained in the same conference for three years. Finally, in 1970, the Steelers (along with the Cleveland Browns and Baltimore Colts) moved to the American Football Conference while the Eagles stayed with the rest of the old - line NFL teams in the National Football Conference. As a result, the Eagles and Steelers no longer played each other every year. Currently they are scheduled to meet once every four years in the regular season, the most recent meeting being in 2016 at Philadelphia, with the Eagles winning 34 - 3. The Steelers have lost nine straight games on the road against the Eagles dating back to 1966, which was also the start of the Super Bowl era. The Eagles lead the all - time series 47 -- 28 -- 3.
For several decades, the Eagles ' colors were kelly green, silver, and white. In 1954, the Eagles, along with the Baltimore Colts, became the second team ever in the NFL to put a logo on their helmets, with silver wings on a kelly green helmet. In 1969, the team wore two helmet versions: Kelly green with white wings in road games, and white with kelly green wings at home. From 1970 to ' 73, they wore the white helmets with Kelly green wings exclusively before switching back to Kelly green helmets with silver wings. By 1974, Joseph A. Scirrotto Jr. designed the silver wings took on a white outline, and this style on a kelly green helmet became standard for over two decades.
From 1948 -- 95, the team logo was an eagle in flight carrying a football in its claws, although from ' 69 -- 72, the eagle took on a more stylized look. As the design was similar to the Apollo 11 emblem, and its moon - landing craft was dubbed Eagle, players wore the flight 's mission patch on their jerseys during 1969.
In 1973, the team 's name was added below the eagle, which returned to its pre - ' 69 look.
However, both the logo and uniforms were radically altered in 1996. The primary kelly green color was changed to a darker shade, officially described as "midnight green. '' Silver was practically abandoned, as uniform pants moved to either white or midnight green. The traditional helmet wings were changed to a primarily white color, with silver and black accents. The team 's logo combination (the eagle and club name lettering) also changed in 1996, with the eagle itself limited to a white (bald eagle) head, drawn in a less realistic, more cartoon - based style, and the lettering changing from calligraphic to block letters.
Since the 1996 alterations, the team has made only minor alterations, mostly relating to jersey / pant combinations worn during specific games. For example, in 1997, against the San Francisco 49ers, the team wore midnight green jerseys and pants for the first of only two occasions in team history. The second occasion was in 2002, during the final regular season game at Veterans Stadium, a win over the division - rival Washington Redskins. A year later, in the first two games of the 2003 season (both home losses to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and New England Patriots), the Eagles wore white jerseys with white pants. Since 2003, the white jerseys along with white pants have been worn during preseason games.
The 2003 season also saw the first (though only subtle) change to the 1996 - style uniform. On both white and green jerseys, black shadows and silver trim were added to both the green and white numbering. The stripe on the pants changed from black - green - black to black - silver - green on the white pants, and from a solid black stripe to one stripe of black, another of silver, with one small white stripe in between for the midnight blue pants. The 2003 season also saw the team debut black alternate jerseys, with a green (instead of black) shadow on white numbers, and silver trim. These black jerseys have been worn for two selected home games each season (usually the first home game after bye week and the season finale). In the 2003 and 2004 regular season home finales, the team wore the green road pants with the black alternate jerseys, but lost each game. Since then, the Eagles have only worn the black jerseys with the white pants. However, due to the special 75th anniversary uniforms serving as the "alternates '' for one game in 2007, the Eagles could not wear the alternate black jersey that season per league rules (alternate uniforms are permitted twice per season but only one can be used). The black jerseys with white pants, however, re-appeared for the 2008 Thanksgiving night game against the Arizona Cardinals. The black jerseys were most recently used in a December 21, 2016 game against the New York Giants, in which they won 24 - 19. From 2006 -- 2013, the Eagles have only worn the alternate black jerseys once a season and for the last November home game, but did not use them in 2007, 2010, and 2011. For the 2007 and 2010 seasons, the Eagles used throwback uniforms in place of the black alternates for their anniversary to commemorate past teams. The team also started wearing black shoes exclusively in 2004. Since 2014, the Eagles have worn the black jersey twice per season. In 2016, they wore the black jersey three times.
To celebrate the team 's 75th anniversary, the 2007 uniforms featured a 75th - season logo patch on the left shoulder. In addition, the team wore "throwback '' jerseys in a 2007 game against the Detroit Lions. The yellow and blue jerseys, the same colors found on Philadelphia 's city flag, are based on those worn by the Philadelphia Eagles in the team 's inaugural season, and were the same colors used by the former Frankford Yellow Jackets franchise prior to their suspension of operations in 1931. The Eagles beat Detroit, 56 -- 21.
The Philadelphia Eagles wear their white jerseys at home for preseason games and daytime games in the first half of the regular season from September to mid-October when the temperature is warmer. In night contests in the first half of the regular season, the Eagles do not need to wear white at home since the temperature is cooler. However, there have been exceptions, such as the home opener against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in 2003 and the Washington Redskins in 2007 that were played at night. In late October or beginning in November, the Eagles start to wear their colors at home (although they have done it earlier before), be it the midnight green jerseys or a third jersey. On one occasion the Eagles wore white at home after October in a meeting against the Dallas Cowboys on November 4, 2007 to make the Cowboys wear their road blue jerseys. Since moving to Lincoln Financial Field in 2003, the Eagles have worn white at home for at least their home opener, with the exceptions for the 2010 home opener (see next paragraph), the 2011 home opener against the New York Giants, the 2016 home opener against the Cleveland Browns, and the 2017 home opener against the Giants.
In the 2010 season against the Green Bay Packers, on September 12, 2010, the Eagles wore uniforms similar to the ones that were worn by the 1960 championship team in honor the 50th anniversary of that team. In weeks 4 and 6 of the 2010 season, the Eagles wore their white jerseys in a match - up against the Washington Redskins and Atlanta Falcons respectively before reverting to their midnight green jerseys for the rest of their home games. For the 2011 season, the Eagles did not wear white for any of their home games.
For the 2012 season Nike took over from Reebok as the NFL 's official apparel licensee but the Eagles decided that they would not be adopting Nike 's "Elite 51 '' uniform technology. Aside from the Nike logo replacing the Reebok logo, the only other change is the league - wide revision of the NFL shield on the uniform (replacing the NFL Equipment logo), other than that the uniforms essentially remain unchanged. The Eagles also revived their black alternate jersey.
For the 2013 season, the Eagles started to wear white pants, as an alternate to their green pants, with their white jerseys, in the regular season.
For the 2014 season the Eagles have officially adopted the "Elite 51 '' style uniform from Nike. Recently the team has discussed bringing back the "Kelly Green '' uniforms similar to the uniforms worn in the 1960 NFL Championship season and which were last worn in the 2010 season opener vs. Green Bay. Traditionally kelly green, silver and white had been the official team color until 1996 season when it switched to the current "Midnight Green '' uniforms. But due to the NFL rules and restrictions having a team go through a waiting period before any major uniform changes and alterations can be made, it would most likely be quite some time before any uniform changes are officially made.
In Week 6 of 2014 against the New York Giants, the team introduced black pants to complement their black jerseys, giving them a blackout uniform set, the Eagles won the game 27 -- 0. The victory was their first shutout in 18 years. The blackout uniform was most recently worn in a Week 16 victory, 19 - 10, against the Raiders in 2017. The Eagles are 6 -- 3 in their blackout uniforms: winning three times against the Giants and once against each of the Minnesota Vikings, Denver Broncos, and Oakland Raiders, and losing against the Seattle Seahawks, Arizona Cardinals, and Green Bay Packers.
The Eagles previously held their preseason training camp from the end of July through mid-August each year at Lehigh University in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania in the Lehigh Valley. With the addition of new head coach Chip Kelly, the Eagles recently moved their training camp to the NovaCare Complex in Philadelphia. Training camps were previously held at Chestnut Hill Academy in 1935, Saint Joseph 's University in 1939 and 1943, Saranac Lake from 1946 -- 1948, Hershey from 1951 -- 1967, Albright College from 1968 -- 1972, Widener University from 1973 -- 1979, and West Chester University from 1980 -- 1995.
This fight song is heard during Eagles ' home games after touchdowns and before the team is introduced prior to kickoff.
Although the method may vary, studies that attempt to rank the 32 fan bases in the NFL consistently place Eagles fans among the best in the league, noting their "unmatched fervor. '' Eagles fans have numerous dedicated web communities, ranking the Eagles just behind the Phillies as the dominant Philadelphia sports presence on the web.
The American City Business Journals, which conducts a regular study to determine the most loyal fans in the NFL, evaluates fans based primarily on attendance - related factors, and ranked Eagles fans third in both 1999 and 2006. The 2006 study called the fans "incredibly loyal '', noting that they filled 99.8 % of the seats in the stadium over the previous decade. Forbes placed the Eagles fans first in its 2008 survey, which was based on the correlation between team performance and fan attendance. ESPN.com placed Eagles fans fourth in the league in its 2008 survey, citing the connection between the team 's performance and the mood of the city. The last home game which was blacked out on television in the Philadelphia market as a result of not being sold out was against the Arizona Cardinals on Sunday, September 12, 1999, which was Andy Reid 's first home game as new head coach of the Eagles.
The studies note that -- win or lose -- Eagles fans can be counted on to pack their stadium. As of August 2008, the team had sold out 71 consecutive games, and 70,000 were on the team 's waiting list for season tickets. Despite finishing with a 6 -- 10 record in the 2005 season, the Eagles ranked second in the NFL in merchandise sales, and single - game tickets for the next season were sold out minutes after phone and Internet lines opened.
Eagles fans have also been known to chant the famous, "E-A-G-L-E-S -- Eagles!! '' at Flyers, Phillies, and 76ers games when the team is getting blown out late in a game and a loss is inevitable, signifying their displeasure with the given team 's performance, and that they are instead putting their hope into the Eagles.
Along with their fierce devotion, Eagles fans have a reputation for bad behavior and sports - related violence, especially when the team plays its rivals. In If Football 's a Religion, Why Do n't We Have a Prayer?, Jereé Longman described the fans of the 700 Level of Veterans Stadium as having a reputation for "hostile taunting, fighting, public urination and general strangeness. '' So many incidents occurred at a 1997 game against the 49ers that at the following home game, Judge Seamus McCaffery began presiding over a temporary courtroom at the stadium; 20 suspects came before him that day. Fan behavior improved after the team 's move to Lincoln Financial Field, and "Eagles Court '' ended in December 2003.
The team also has its own cheerleading squad, which performs a variety of dance moves for the fans and the Eagles on the sideline. The squad also releases a swimsuit calendar each year, and is the first squad in the league to release the calendar on the Android and iOS mobile systems.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Roster updated April 16, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 68 Active, Inactive
Notes:
In 1987, the Eagles Honor Roll was established. Every Eagles player who had by then been elected into the Pro Football Hall of Fame was among the inaugural induction class. By 2012, the Honor Roll had been retitled as the Eagles Hall of Fame. Players are considered for induction three years after their retirement from the NFL, and there have been 41 inductees into the Eagles Hall of Fame as of 2015.
Source: pro-football-reference.com Eagles Franchise Page
+ = min. 500 attempts, # = min. 100 attempts, ∗ = minimum 15 attempts,
∗ = minimum 15 attempts, # = min. 100 attempts, + = min. 500 attempts
∗ = minimum 4 receptions, # = min. 20 receptions, + = min. 200 receptions
Jake Elliott
2017 - 09 - 24
→ Coaching Staff → Management → More NFL staffs
From 2008 through 2010, Eagles games were broadcast on both rock - formatted WYSP and sports - talk Sports Radio 610 WIP, as both stations are owned and operated by CBS Radio. In 2011, CBS dropped the music on WYSP, renaming it WIP - FM and making it a full simulcast of WIP. Later, 610 AM became a CBS Sports Radio national broadcast, and 94 WIP was broadcast on WIP FM. The Eagles extended their broadcasting contract with WIP - FM through 2024.
Merrill Reese, who joined the Eagles in 1976, is the play - by - play announcer, and former Eagles wide receiver Mike Quick, who replaced the offense lineman Stan Walters beginning in 1998, is the color analyst. The post game show, which has consisted of many Philadelphia sports personalities, as of the 2014 season is hosted by Kevin Riley, a former Eagles linebacker and special - teamer, and Rob Ellis. Riley was the former post-game host for the show on 94 WYSP before the WIP change over; Rob Ellis hosts a weekly show nightly from 6 -- 10 on 94.1 WIP - FM. No announcement was made prior to the start of preseason regarding who would be the host (s) for 2015.
In 2015, the preseason games are being televised on WCAU, the local NBC owned and operated station. Television announcers for these preseason games were not announced prior to the start of preseason. During the regular season, games are governed by the NFL 's master broadcasting contract with FOX, CBS, NBC, and ESPN. Most games can be seen on FOX - owned WTXF - TV. When hosting an AFC team, those games can be seen on CBS - owned KYW - TV.
In the book MASH: A Novel About Three Army Doctors, the character Captain Oliver Wendell "Spearchucker '' Jones fictionally played for the Philadelphia Eagles, though in the movie this was changed to San Francisco.
The 1976 draw was the subject of the movie Invincible. The movie stars Mark Wahlberg as Vince Papale, a 30 - year - old bartender and part - time school teacher, and also a diehard Eagles fan who became an Eagles player. The film differs slightly from true events as the selection process was invitation only, and Papale had at least some previous playing experience. The film Silver Linings Playbook highlights the 2008 Philadelphia Eagles season. The film was critically acclaimed and nominated for several awards including 8 Academy Awards.
In the 1978 Academy Award - winning movie The Deer Hunter, the Eagles are referenced when Nick talks to Stan in the bar, saying: "Hey, I got a hundred bucks says the Eagles never cross the fifty in the next half and Oakland wins by 20! '' Stan responds; "And I got an extra twenty says the Eagles ' quarterback wears a dress! ''
The award - winning comedy series It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia starring Danny DeVito makes several references to the Philadelphia Eagles, most notably Season 3, Episode 2 -- "The Gang Gets Invincible, '' the title being a reference to the Wahlberg film.
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alte nationalgalerie (old national gallery) berlin | Alte Nationalgalerie - Wikipedia
The Alte Nationalgalerie (Old National Gallery) in Berlin is an art gallery showing a collection of Neoclassical, Romantic, Biedermeier, Impressionist and early Modernist artwork, part of the Berlin National Gallery, which in turn is part of the Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. It is the original building of the National Gallery, whose holdings are now housed in several additional buildings. It is situated on Museum Island, a UNESCO - designated World Heritage site.
The first impetus to founding a national gallery came in 1815. The idea gained momentum during the 1830s, but without an actual building. In 1841 the first real plans were created. These plans never made it out of the planning stages, but finally in 1861 the National Gallery was founded, after banker Johann Heinrich Wagener donated 262 paintings by both German and foreign artists. This donation formed the basis of the current collection. The collection was first known as Wagenersche und Nationalgalerie (Wagener and National Gallery) and was housed in the buildings of the Akademie der Künste. The current building, shaped like a Roman temple with an appended apse, was designed by Friedrich August Stüler and after his death, realised in detail under Carl Busse.
Friedrich August Stüler began working on a design for the building in 1863, based on a sketch by King Frederick William IV of Prussia. Two years and two failed plans later, his third proposal was finally accepted. Stüler died before planning was completed and Carl Busse handled the remaining details in 1865. In 1866, by order of the king and his cabinet, the Kommission für den Bau der Nationalgalerie (Commission for the construction of the national gallery) was created. Ground was broken in 1867 under the supervision of Heinrich Strack. In 1872 the structure was completed and interior work began. The opening took place on March 22, 1876 in the presence of the Kaiser.
Because of the building 's modern construction using brick and iron, it was widely believed to be fireproof. The exterior and outer staircase were constructed of Triassic sandstone from Nebra. At the opening the collection was still relatively small. Next to Wagener 's collection, originally, was a display of cartoons by Peter von Cornelius that had been bequeathed to the Prussian government. The initial objective of the gallery was to collect contemporary, primarily Prussian art, as Berlin did not then have any repository of modern art.
In 1874 Max Jordan became the first director of the National Gallery. In 1896 he was succeeded by Hugo von Tschudi, who acquired Impressionist works, risking conflict with the Kaiser because this ended the collection 's focus on German art. The German National Gallery thus became the most important museum for modern French Art at the turn of the century.
In 1909, Ludwig Justi assumed the post of director, and added Expressionist works to the collection. Following the German Revolution of 1918 -- 19 that ended Imperial rule, he moved the modern art to the Kronprinzenpalais at the end of Unter den Linden, which became known as National Gallery II.
In 1933, the new Nazi authorities dismissed Justi, who was followed by Eberhard Hanfstaengl. He remained until 1937, when he too was dismissed. His successor, Paul Ortwin Rave, remained until 1950, although because of World War II the building was closed during much of that time. It was heavily damaged in Allied air raids. It was partly reopened in 1949, but reconstruction continued until 1969. Between 1998 and 2001, the museum was renovated thoroughly by German architect HG Merz. Some extra halls were added on the uppermost floor and now contain the Romantic works. The three - year, $62 million renovation of the Alte Nationalgalerie was part of a refurbishment of Museum Island and the energetic effort by government and private institutions to re-establish Berlin as Germany 's political and cultural heart.
The collection contains works of the Neoclassical and Romantic movements (by artists such as Caspar David Friedrich, Karl Friedrich Schinkel, and Karl Blechen), of the Biedermeier, French Impressionism (such as Édouard Manet and Claude Monet) and early Modernism (including Adolph von Menzel, Max Liebermann and Lovis Corinth). Among the most important exhibits are Friedrich 's Der Mönch am Meer (The Monk by the Sea), von Menzel 's Eisenwalzwerk (The Iron Rolling Mill) and sculptor Johann Gottfried Schadow 's Prinzessinnengruppe, a double statue of princesses Louise of Mecklenburg - Strelitz and Frederica of Prussia. The Alte Nationalgalerie houses one of the largest collections of 19th - century sculptures and paintings in Germany.
The Alte Nationalgalerie, together with the Altes Museum, the Neues Museum, the Bode Museum, the Pergamon Museum, the Berlin Cathedral and the Lustgarten, make up the Museum Island complex in Berlin. It is situated in the middle of the island, between the rails of the Berlin Stadtbahn and Bode Street on the eastern banks.
It is connected to the Pergamon Museum to the north, and to the Neues Museum, the Altes Museum, and the Berlin Cathedral to the south. The building was designed by Friedrich August Stüler with details by Carl Busse, in an architectural style that is a mix between late Classicism and early Neo-Renaissance, and realised by Heinrich Strack. It was intended to express "the unity of art, nation, and history '', and therefore has aspects reminiscent of a church (an apse) and a theatre (the grand staircase) as well as a temple. An equestrian statue of Frederick William IV tops the stairs, and the inside stairs have a frieze by Otto Geyer depicting German history from prehistoric times to the 19th century. The exterior of the building still retains its original appearance, whereas the interior has been renovated many times in order to suit the exhibits.
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what is the salary range for a gs 12 | General Schedule (U.S. civil service pay scale) - wikipedia
The general schedule (GS) is the predominant pay scale within the United States civil service. The GS includes the majority of white collar personnel (professional, technical, administrative, and clerical) positions. As of September 2004, 71 percent of federal civilian employees were paid under the GS.
The remaining 29 percent were paid under other systems such as the Federal Wage System (WG, for federal blue - collar civilian employees), the Senior Executive Service and the Executive Schedule for high - ranking federal employees, and other unique pay schedules used by some agencies such as the United States Securities and Exchange Commission and the Foreign Service. Starting in 2009, some federal employees were also paid under Pay Bands.
The GS was enacted into law by the Classification Act of 1949, which replaced a similar act of the same name (except for the 1949 part) enacted in 1923. The GS is now codified as part of Chapter 53 of Title 5 of the United States Code sections 5331 to 5338 (5 U.S.C. § § 5331 -- 5338). The pay scale was originally created with the purpose of keeping federal salaries in line with equivalent private sector jobs. Although never the intent, the GS schedule does do a good job of ensuring equal pay for equal work by reducing pay gaps between men, women, and minorities, in accordance with another, separate law, the Equal Pay Act of 1963.
Prior to January 1994, GS personnel were generally paid the same amount (for a given grade and step) regardless of where they worked. This system ignored the growing reality of regional differences in salaries and wages across the United States, and this led to a perception that in many locations federal civil service salaries were increasingly uncompetitive with those in the private sector, thus affecting recruiting and retention efforts by federal agencies. In January 1994, the Federal Employees Pay Comparability Act of 1990 (FEPCA) introduced a "locality pay adjustment '' component to the GS salary structure. Both Republican and Democratic administrations have complained about the methodology used to compute locality adjustments and the projected cost of closing the pay gap (as determined by FEPCA) between federal salaries and those in the private sector. In December 2007, the President 's Pay Agent reported that an average locality pay adjustment of 36.89 per cent would be required to reach the target set by FEPCA (to close the computed pay gap between federal and non-federal pay to a disparity of five per cent). By comparison, in calendar year 2007, the average locality pay adjustment actually authorized was 16.88 per cent. As a result, FEPCA has never been fully implemented.
The Office of Personnel Management administers the GS pay schedule on behalf of other federal agencies.
Changes to the GS must normally be authorized by either the president (via Executive Order) or by Congress (via legislation). Normally, the President directs annual across - the - board pay adjustments at the beginning of a calendar year after Congress has passed the annual appropriations legislation for the federal government.
Under FEPCA, the Bureau of Labor Statistics conducts annual surveys of wages and salaries paid to non-federal workers in designated locality pay areas. Surveys are used to determine the disparity, if any, between federal and non-federal pay in a given locality pay area. The Federal Salary Council (created by FEPCA) prepares recommendations concerning the composition of the designated locality pay areas and the annual comparability adjustment for each area, as well as an adjustment for all other workers outside these areas, referred to as "Rest of U.S. ''. The council 's recommendations are transmitted to the President 's Pay Agent (also created by FEPCA), which then establishes, modifies, or disestablishes individual locality pay areas and makes the final recommendation on pay adjustments to the president, who may either accept the agent 's recommendations or (in effect) reject them through the submission of an alternative pay plan.
FEPCA also provides for an automatic annual across - the - board adjustment of GS pay rates. A common misconception is that the annual federal pay adjustments are determined according to cost of living fluctuations and other regional considerations. In fact, the across - the - board adjustments to the GS (but not locality pay) are determined according to the rise in the cost of employment as measured by the Department of Labor 's Employment Cost Index, which does not necessarily correlate to the better - known Consumer Price Index, which tracks consumer prices.
The GS is separated into 15 grades (GS - 1, GS - 2, etc. up to GS - 15); each grade is separated into 10 steps. At one time, there were also three GS "supergrades '' (GS - 16, GS - 17 and GS - 18); these were eliminated under the provisions of the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 and replaced by the Senior Executive Service and the more recent Senior Level (non-supervisory) pay scale.
Most positions in the competitive service are paid according to the GS. In addition, many positions in the excepted service use the GS as a basis for setting pay rates. Some positions in the excepted service use the grade designator "GG '' -- for example, "GG - 12 '' or "GG - 13 ''. The GG pay rates are generally identical to published GS pay rates.
The GS - 1 through GS - 7 range generally marks entry - level positions, while mid-level positions are in the GS - 8 to GS - 12 range and top - level positions (senior managers, high - level technical specialists, or physicians) are in the GS - 13 to GS - 15 range. A new GS employee is normally employed in the first step of their assigned GS grade, although the employer has discretion to, as a recruiting incentive, authorize initial appointment at a higher step (other agencies may place the employee at a higher grade). In most professional occupations, entry to mid-level positions are classified at two - grade intervals -- that is, an employee would advance from GS - 5 to GS - 7, then to GS - 9 and finally to GS - 11, skipping grades 6, 8 and 10.
Permanent employees below step 10 in their grade normally earn step increases after serving a prescribed period of service in at least a satisfactory manner. The normal progression is 52 weeks (one year) between steps 1 -- 2, 2 -- 3, and 3 -- 4, then 104 weeks (two years) between steps 4 -- 5, 5 -- 6, and 6 -- 7, and finally 156 weeks (three years) between steps 7 -- 8, 8 -- 9, and 9 -- 10. However, an employee can be rewarded for outstanding work performance via a "quality step increase '' ("QSI ''), which advances the employee one step within grade regardless of time at the previous step. (When a QSI is awarded, the date of the QSI becomes the starting date for the next step increase, which (if future step increases are awarded on the normal progression) will shorten the overall time for an employee to reach the final step within a grade.)
Depending on the agency and the work description, a GS position may provide for advancement within a "career ladder, '' meaning that an employee performing satisfactorily will advance between GS grades, normally on an annual basis, until he (she) has reached the top GS grade for that job (which represents full performance). Advancement beyond the top grade (to either a specialized technical position or to a managerial position) would be subject to competitive selection.
Not all positions, however, provide for such a "career ladder, '' thus requiring employees who seek advancement to consider other career paths, either within their agency or outside it.
An example is the "career ladder '' for auditors within the Defense Contract Audit Agency (DCAA). The "entry level '' grade within DCAA is the GS - 7 level (though the GS - 9 level can also be used) and the "career ladder '' is GS - 7 to GS - 9 to GS - 11 and finally to GS - 12, with the employee expected to advance between grades after one year and to reach the GS - 12 level after three years. Beyond the GS - 12 level, advancements to the higher levels (GS - 13, GS - 14, and GS - 15, most of which are managerial positions) are based on competitive selections.
Furthermore, if an employee is promoted to a grade which is not part of the career ladder (such as a promotion to a supervisory position), the employee 's salary is set at the step within the higher grade nearest the employee 's current salary (but never below the current salary), plus additional steps to reward the employee for the promotion and to account for the increased responsibilities that go along with the new position. As an example (and not including locality adjustments), an employee at GS - 12 Step 10 (base salary $79,936) being promoted to a GS - 13 position would initially have his / her salary set at GS - 13 Step 4 (base salary $80,426, as it is the nearest salary to GS - 12 Step 10 but not lower than it), and then have his / her salary adjusted to a higher step (such as GS - 13 Step 6, having a base salary of $85,300).
Salaries under the GS have two components: a base salary and a "locality pay adjustment ''.
The base salary is based on a table compiled by Office of Personnel Management (the 2017 table is shown below), and is used as the baseline for the locality pay adjustment. The increases between steps for Grades GS - 1 and GS - 2 varies between the steps; for Grades GS - 3 through GS - 15 the increases between the steps are the same within the grade, but increase as the grade increases. The table is revised effective January of each year to reflect the basic cost of living adjustment (known as the General Schedule Increase).
Some positions have their own unique GS scales, with one notable example being patent examiners. For example, as of 2017, a newly hired examiner at the lowest possible pay for that position (GS - 5, Step 1) currently earns $43,674, whether based at the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) headquarters in Alexandria, Virginia or the agency 's satellite offices in Dallas, Denver, Detroit, and Silicon Valley. Under the laws governing special GS scales, employees whose positions are covered by those scales earn either the special scale salary, or the standard GS scale salary plus a locality adjustment (see below), whichever is higher. GS - 5 examiners receive a 53 % supplement from the standard GS scale; this supplement drops until reaching a final value of 33 % at GS - 12 and up. Of the metropolitan areas that have USPTO offices, only the San Francisco Bay Area has a locality adjustment higher than 33 % (more precisely, 38.17 %); this means that the only examiners who would be paid on the standard scale are GS - 12 and higher employees based in Silicon Valley. The high end of the examiner scale is also elevated with respect to the normal GS scale; a GS - 15 examiner at Step 7 or higher earns a salary of $161,900.
Another notable exception is the United States Secret Service Uniformed Division. The pay scales for Uniformed Division employees replace grade numbers with ranks, and the lowest starting salary a new officer can receive, with the locality adjustment for basic training, is $56,681 as of January 2017.
The second component of the GS salary, the locality pay adjustment, was introduced in 1994 as part of the Federal Employees Pay Comparability Act of 1990 (FEPCA). Prior to FEPCA, all GS employees received the same salary regardless of location, which failed to reflect both the disparity between public sector and private sector pay as well as differences in cost of living in major metropolitan areas. As noted earlier, an employee in a position with a special GS scale does not receive a locality adjustment unless the standard scale plus the adjustment elevates the employee 's salary to a higher level than that called for in the special scale of that position.
Under FEPCA, specified metropolitan areas, plus Alaska and Hawaii, are designated to receive pay adjustments in excess of the general adjustment provided to the "Rest of U.S. ''. Salary adjustments in other U.S. Territories and for overseas employees are separate from this adjustment. As of 2017, 44 metropolitan areas, plus the entire states of Alaska and Hawaii, have been designated to receive this excess adjustment. The designated areas (shown by major city, except for Alaska and Hawaii) and their 2017 pay adjustments (plus the "Rest of U.S. '' adjustment) are as follows:
As an example of the overall calculation, in 2016 a GS employee, Grade GS - 12, Step 10 in Dallas would have received a base salary of $80,731 plus a locality pay adjustment of 21.04 percent (an additional $16,986) for a total salary of $97,717. By comparison, a similar employee in San Antonio (which then, as now, was not one of the 47 designated areas for an increased adjustment) would have received only the standard "Rest of U.S. '' 14.35 percent increase (an additional $11,585) over the same $80,731 base salary, for a total salary of $92,316. (A patent examiner at the same grade and step level would have received $107,372 at any location except the Silicon Valley office, where the salary would be $109,592 ($80,731 plus $28,861 locality adjustment).)
However, FEPCA places a cap on the total salary of highly paid employees (mainly those at the higher GS - 15 Grade steps) -- the total base pay plus locality adjustment can not exceed the salary for employees under Level IV of the Executive Schedule, which as of January 2017 was $161,900.
The locality pay adjustment is counted as part of the "high - 3 '' salary in calculating Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS) and Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS) annuities, as well as the baseline for individuals having a percentage of salary deducted for deposit into the Thrift Savings Plan.
Personnel based outside the United States (e.g. U.S. territories, foreign overseas areas) receive a lower locality adjustment (4.76 percent for 2010). However, they may also receive certain non-taxable allowances such as cost - of - living allowances, post allowances and housing allowances in accordance with other laws, such as the Foreign Service Act. Federal civilian workers based in CONUS do not normally receive housing allowances or government - furnished housing. Also, some civilian personnel stationed overseas do not receive housing allowances; this may include military dependents working in federal civilian positions overseas, military members that left the service while overseas and were hired into an overseas position, and U.S. citizens hired into overseas positions while traveling abroad.
In contrast, the tax - free allowances paid during overseas assignments (especially the housing allowances) are generally considered to be an incentive to serve overseas, as they can be quite generous. While this situation may be advantageous to some personnel during their assignment overseas, these tax - free allowances are not considered to be part of one 's salary, therefore they are not counted when computing a civil service annuity at retirement. CONUS locality adjustments, however, are counted when computing annuities.
Employees stationed in Alaska and Hawaii were formerly considered OCONUS and received a cost of living adjustment, but are being phased into the domestic locality pay system.
NOTE: "Employees of the U.S. Government are not entitled to the foreign earned income exclusion or the foreign housing exclusion / deduction under section 911 because "foreign earned income '' does not include amounts paid by the U.S. Government as an employee. But see Other Employment, later ''
Protocol Precedence Lists for civilian and military personnel have been developed by each of the Department of Defense organizations to establish the order of government, military, and civic leaders for diplomatic, ceremonial, and social events. Protocol is a code of established guidelines on proper etiquette. Precedence is defined as priority in place, time, or rank. In the government, military and diplomatic corps, precedence among individuals ' positions plays a substantial role. Equivalency between civilian pay grades and military rank is only for protocol purposes and informally for delegated supervisory responsibilities. While the authority of military rank extends across services and within each service, the same does not exist for civilian employees and therefore, there is no equivalency of command or supervisory authority between civilian and military personnel external to the local organization. The "Department of the Army Protocol Precedence List '' is developed by the Army Protocol Directorate. Another form of the Army "Precedence List '' can be found in Appendix D of DA PAM 600 - 60: A Guide to Protocol and Etiquette for Official Entertainment. The Department of the Navy "Civilian and Military Pay Grades '' list can be found in Annex D of OPNAVINST 1710.7 A: Social Usage and Protocol. The Department of the Air Force "Military and Civilian Rank Equivalents '' can be found in Attachment 10 of AFI 34 - 1201. Consolidated DOD lists have been compiled by JMAR.
O - 4
The comparison of GS and military ranks with respect to financial accounting has different rules than those treating protocol. According to DoD 7000.14 - R Financial Management Regulation Volume 11A, Chapter 6 Appendix B (January 2011):
In recent years, there have been several attempts to eliminate the GS and replace it with various pay systems emphasizing "pay for performance '' (i.e., a system in which pay increases are awarded based more on merit and work performance and less on seniority and length of service). The pay structure which enables this is typically known as pay banding. The best known efforts in this area are the pay systems created for the Departments of Homeland Security and Defense (the National Security Personnel System) in 2002 and 2003, respectively. These efforts were challenged by federal labor unions and other employee groups. Many supervisory and non-bargaining - unit employees, however, were converted from their GS positions into equitable NSPS positions. As part of his fiscal 2007 and 2008 budget proposals, President George W. Bush proposed the eventual elimination of the GS to be replaced by a pay - for - performance concept throughout the Executive Branch of the government. The Office of Management and Budget prepared draft legislation, known as the "Working for America Act '', but as of January 2008 Congress has not implemented the proposal. President Barack Obama signed the legislation repealing the NSPS system on October 29, 2009. Under the terms of the 2010 Defense Authorization Act, Public Law 111 - 84, all employees under NSPS must be converted back to their previous pay system not later than January 1, 2012. The law also mandates that no employees lose pay as a result of this conversion. In order to ensure this, a set of conversion rules has been developed. In most cases, if an employee 's current NSPS salary falls between two step levels of the GS grade to which their position is classified, their salary will be increased to the higher step. Employees whose salary was increased beyond the GS step 10 amount while under NSPS will be placed on retained pay, meaning they will receive 50 % of the annual cost of living increase until the GS table catches up to the level of salary they are earning.
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book of the history of the times of the kings of israel | Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel - Wikipedia
The Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel is one of the lost books of the Old Testament. The book is described at 2 Chronicles 16: 11. The passage reads: "And, behold, the acts of Asa, first and last, lo, they are written in the book of the kings of Judah and Israel. '' It is also referenced at 2 Chronicles 24: 27; "The account of his sons, the many prophecies about him, and the record of the restoration of the temple of God are written in the annotations on the book of the kings. And Amaziah his son succeeded him as king. ''
It is referenced again at 2 Chronicles 27: 7, which reads: "Now the rest of the acts of Jotham, and all his wars, and his ways, lo, they are written in the book of the kings of Israel and Judah. ''
Another reference is found at 2 Chronicles 32: 32, which reads: "Now the rest of the acts of Hezekiah, and his goodness, behold, they are written in the vision of Isaiah the prophet, the son of Amoz, and in the book of the kings of Judah and Israel. ''
This name is sometimes written The Book of the Kings of Israel and Judah.
The book may be identical with the Books of Kings in the Old Testament, or it may have been lost or removed from the earlier texts.
The Book of the Kings, which is also called the Book of the Chronicles of the Kings, is referenced 45 times in the King James Bible, and the 46th reference to the Book appears at Ezra 4: 15.
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when did the ps3 come out in america | PlayStation 3 - wikipedia
The PlayStation 3 (PS3) is a home video game console developed by Sony Computer Entertainment. It is the successor to PlayStation 2, and is part of the PlayStation brand of consoles. It was first released on November 11, 2006, in Japan, November 17, 2006, in North America, and March 23, 2007, in Europe and Australia. The PlayStation 3 mainly competes against consoles such as Microsoft 's Xbox 360 and Nintendo 's Wii as part of the seventh generation of video game consoles.
The console was first officially announced at E3 2005, and was released at the end of 2006. It was the first console to use Blu - ray Disc as its primary storage medium. The console was the first PlayStation to integrate social gaming services, including being the first to introduce Sony 's social gaming service, PlayStation Network, and its remote connectivity with PlayStation Portable and PlayStation Vita, being able to remote control the console from the devices. In September 2009, the Slim model of the PlayStation 3 was released. It no longer provided the hardware ability to run PS2 games. It was lighter and thinner than the original version, and featured a redesigned logo and marketing design, as well as a minor start - up change in software. A Super Slim variation was then released in late 2012, further refining and redesigning the console.
The system had a slow start in the market but managed to recover, particularly after the introduction of the Slim model. Its successor, the PlayStation 4, was released later in November 2013. On September 29, 2015, Sony confirmed that sales of the PlayStation 3 were to be discontinued in New Zealand, but the system remained in production in other markets. Shipments of new units to the United States ended in October 2016. Heading into 2017, Japan was the last territory where new units were still being produced until May 29, 2017 when Sony confirmed the PlayStation 3 was discontinued in Japan.
Sony officially unveiled PlayStation 3 to the public on May 16, 2005, at E3 2005, along with a boomerang - shaped prototype design of the Sixaxis controller. A functional version of the system was not present there, nor at the Tokyo Game Show in September 2005, although demonstrations (such as Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots) were held at both events on software development kits and comparable personal computer hardware. Video footage based on the predicted PlayStation 3 specifications was also shown (notably a Final Fantasy VII tech demo).
The initial prototype shown in May 2005 featured two HDMI ports, three Ethernet ports and six USB ports; however, when the system was shown again a year later at E3 2006, these were reduced to one HDMI port, one Ethernet port and four USB ports, presumably to cut costs. Two hardware configurations were also announced for the console: a 20 GB model and a 60 GB model, priced at US $499 (€ 499) and US $599 (€ 599), respectively. The 60 GB model was to be the only configuration to feature an HDMI port, Wi - Fi internet, flash card readers and a chrome trim with the logo in silver. Both models were announced for a simultaneous worldwide release: November 11, 2006, for Japan and November 17, 2006, for North America and Europe.
On September 6, 2006, Sony announced that PAL region PlayStation 3 launch would be delayed until March 2007, because of a shortage of materials used in the Blu - ray drive. At the Tokyo Game Show on September 22, 2006, Sony announced that it would include an HDMI port on the 20 GB system, but a chrome trim, flash card readers, silver logo and Wi - Fi would not be included. Also, the launch price of the Japanese 20 GB model was reduced by over 20 %, and the 60 GB model was announced for an open pricing scheme in Japan. During the event, Sony showed 27 playable PS3 games running on final hardware.
PlayStation 3 was first released in Japan on November 11, 2006, at 07: 00. According to Media Create, 81,639 PS3 systems were sold within 24 hours of its introduction in Japan. Soon after its release in Japan, PS3 was released in North America on November 17, 2006. Reports of violence surrounded the release of PS3. A customer was shot, campers were robbed at gunpoint, customers were shot in a drive - by shooting with BB guns, and 60 campers fought over 10 systems.
The console was originally planned for a global release through November, but at the start of September the release in Europe and the rest of the world was delayed until March. With it being a somewhat last - minute delay, some companies had taken deposits for pre-orders, at which Sony informed customers that they were eligible for full refunds or could continue the pre-order. On January 24, 2007, Sony announced that PlayStation 3 would go on sale on March 23, 2007, in Europe, Australia, the Middle East, Africa and New Zealand. The system sold about 600,000 units in its first two days. On March 7, 2007, the 60 GB PlayStation 3 launched in Singapore with a price of S $ 799. The console was launched in South Korea on June 16, 2007, as a single version equipped with an 80 GB hard drive and IPTV.
Following speculation that Sony was working on a ' slim ' model, Sony officially announced the PS3 CECH - 2000 model on August 18, 2009, at the Sony Gamescom press conference. New features included a slimmer form factor, decreased power consumption, and a quieter cooling system. It was released in major territories by September 2009. At the same time, a new logo was introduced for the console to replace the previous "Spider - Man '' wordmarks (named due to their use of the same font as the logos of Sony 's then - current Spider - Man films), with a new "PS3 '' wordmark evoking the design of the PlayStation 2 wordmark replacing the capitalized PlayStation 3 lettering.
In September 2012 at the Tokyo Game Show, Sony announced that a new, slimmer PS3 redesign (CECH - 4000) was due for release in late 2012 and that it would be available with either a 250 GB or 500 GB hard drive. Three versions of the Super Slim model were revealed: one with a 500 GB hard drive, a second with a 250 GB hard drive which is not available in PAL regions, and a third with a 12 GB flash storage that was available in PAL regions, and in Canada. The storage of 12 GB model is upgradable with an official standalone 250 GB hard drive. A vertical stand was also released for the model. In the United Kingdom, the 500 GB model was released on September 28, 2012; and the 12 GB model was released on October 12, 2012. In the United States, the PS3 Super Slim was first released as a bundled console. The 250 GB model was bundled with the Game of the Year edition of Uncharted 3: Drake 's Deception and released on September 25, 2012; and the 500 GB model was bundled with Assassin 's Creed III and released on October 30, 2012. In Japan, the black colored Super Slim model was released on October 4, 2012; and the white colored Super Slim model was released on November 22, 2012. The Super Slim model is 20 percent smaller and 25 percent lighter than the Slim model and features a manual sliding disc cover instead of a motorized slot - loading disc cover of the Slim model. The white colored Super Slim model was released in the United States on January 27, 2013 as part of the Instant Game Collection Bundle. The Garnet Red and Azurite Blue colored models were launched in Japan on February 28, 2013. The Garnet Red version was released in North America on March 12, 2013 as part of the God of War: Ascension bundle with 500 GB storage and contained God of War: Ascension as well as the God of War Saga. The Azurite Blue model was released as a GameStop exclusive with 250GB storage.
PlayStation 3 launched in North America with 14 titles, with another three being released before the end of 2006. After the first week of sales it was confirmed that Resistance: Fall of Man from Insomniac Games was the top - selling launch game in North America. The game was heavily praised by numerous video game websites, including GameSpot and IGN, both of whom awarded it their PlayStation 3 Game of the Year award for 2006. Some titles missed the launch window and were delayed until early 2007, such as The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, F.E.A.R. and Sonic the Hedgehog. During the Japanese launch, Ridge Racer 7 was the top - selling game, while Mobile Suit Gundam: Crossfire also fared well in sales, both of which were offerings from Namco Bandai Games. PlayStation 3 launched in Europe with 24 titles, including ones that were not offered in North American and Japanese launches, such as Formula One Championship Edition, MotorStorm and Virtua Fighter 5. Resistance: Fall of Man and MotorStorm were the most successful titles of 2007, and both games subsequently received sequels in the form of Resistance 2 and MotorStorm: Pacific Rift.
At E3 2007, Sony was able to show a number of their upcoming video games for PlayStation 3, including Heavenly Sword, Lair, Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction, Warhawk and Uncharted: Drake 's Fortune; all of which were released in the third and fourth quarters of 2007. It also showed off a number of titles that were set for release in 2008 and 2009; most notably Killzone 2, Infamous, Gran Turismo 5 Prologue, LittleBigPlanet and SOCOM: U.S. Navy SEALs Confrontation. A number of third - party exclusives were also shown, including the highly anticipated Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots, alongside other high - profile third - party titles such as Grand Theft Auto IV, Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare, Assassin 's Creed, Devil May Cry 4 and Resident Evil 5. Two other important titles for PlayStation 3, Final Fantasy XIII and Final Fantasy Versus XIII, were shown at TGS 2007 in order to appease the Japanese market.
Sony have since launched their budget range of PlayStation 3 titles, known as the Greatest Hits range in North America, the Platinum range in Europe and Australia and The Best range in Japan. Among the titles available in the budget range include Resistance: Fall of Man, MotorStorm, Uncharted: Drakes Fortune, Rainbow Six: Vegas, Call Of Duty 3, Assassin 's Creed and Ninja Gaiden Sigma. As of October 2009 Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots, Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction, Devil May Cry 4, Army of Two, Battlefield: Bad Company and Midnight Club: Los Angeles have also joined the list.
As of March 31, 2012, there have been 595 million games sold for PlayStation 3. The best selling PS3 games are Grand Theft Auto V, Gran Turismo 5, The Last Of Us, Uncharted 3: Drake 's Deception and Uncharted 2: Among Thieves
In December 2008, the CTO of Blitz Games announced that it would bring stereoscopic 3D gaming and movie viewing to Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 with its own technology. This was first demonstrated publicly on PS3 using Sony 's own technology in January 2009 at the Consumer Electronics Show. Journalists were shown Wipeout HD and Gran Turismo 5 Prologue in 3D as a demonstration of how the technology might work if it is implemented in the future. Firmware update 3.30 officially allowed PS3 titles to be played in 3D, requiring a compatible display for use. System software update 3.50 prepared it for 3D films. While the game itself must be programmed to take advantage of the 3D technology, titles may be patched to add in the functionality retroactively. Titles with such patches include Wipeout HD, Pain, and Super Stardust HD.
PlayStation 3 is convex on its left side, with the PlayStation logo upright, when vertical (the top side is convex when horizontal) and has a glossy black finish. PlayStation designer Teiyu Goto stated that the Spider - Man - font - inspired logo "was one of the first elements SCEI president Ken Kutaragi decided on and the logo may have been the motivating force behind the shape of PS3 ''.
On March 22, 2007, SCE and Stanford University released the Folding@home software for PlayStation 3. This program allows PS3 owners to lend the computing power of their consoles to help study the process of protein folding for disease research.
PS3 's hardware has also been used to build supercomputers for high - performance computing. Fixstars Solutions sells a version of Yellow Dog Linux for PlayStation 3 (originally sold by Terra Soft Solutions). RapidMind produced a stream programming package for PS3, but were acquired by Intel in 2009. Also, on January 3, 2007, Dr. Frank Mueller, Associate Professor of Computer science at NCSU, clustered 8 PS3s. Mueller commented that the 256 MB of system RAM is a limitation for this particular application and is considering attempting to retrofit more RAM. Software includes: Fedora Core 5 Linux ppc64, MPICH2, OpenMP v 2.5, GNU Compiler Collection and CellSDK 1.1. As a more cost - effective alternative to conventional supercomputers, the U.S. military has purchased clusters of PS3 units for research purposes. Retail PS3 Slim units can not be used for supercomputing, because PS3 Slim lacks the ability to boot into a third - party OS.
In November 2010 the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) created a powerful supercomputer by connecting together 1,760 Sony PS3s which include 168 separate graphical processing units and 84 coordinating servers in a parallel array capable of performing 500 trillion floating - point operations per second (500 TFLOPS). As built the Condor Cluster was the 33rd largest supercomputer in the world and would be used to analyze high definition satellite imagery.
In December 2008, a group of hackers used a cluster of 200 PlayStation 3 computers to crack SSL authentication.
PlayStation 3 features a slot - loading 2x speed Blu - ray Disc drive for games, Blu - ray movies, DVDs, CDs and other optical media. It was originally available with hard drives of 20 and 60 GB (20 GB model was not available in PAL regions) but various sizes up to 500 GB have been made available since then (see: model comparison). All PS3 models have user - upgradeable 2.5 '' SATA hard drives.
PlayStation 3 uses the Cell microprocessor, designed by Sony, Toshiba and IBM, as its CPU, which is made up of one 3.2 GHz PowerPC - based "Power Processing Element '' (PPE) and eight Synergistic Processing Elements (SPEs). The eighth SPE is disabled to improve chip yields. Only six of the seven SPEs are accessible to developers as the seventh SPE is reserved by the console 's operating system. Graphics processing is handled by the NVIDIA RSX ' Reality Synthesizer ', which can produce resolutions from 480i / 576i SD up to 1080p HD. PlayStation 3 has 256 MB of XDR DRAM main memory and 256 MB of GDDR3 video memory for the RSX.
The system has Bluetooth 2.0 (with support for up to seven Bluetooth devices), Gigabit Ethernet, USB 2.0 and HDMI 1.4 built in on all currently shipping models. Wi - Fi networking is also built - in on all but the 20 GB models, while a flash card reader (compatible with Memory Stick, SD / MMC and CompactFlash / Microdrive media) is built - in on 60 GB and CECHExx 80 GB models.
PlayStation 3 has been produced in various models: the original, the Slim, and the Super Slim. Successive models have added or removed various features.
Numerous accessories for the console have been developed. These accessories include the wireless Sixaxis and DualShock 3 controllers, the Logitech Driving Force GT, the Logitech Cordless Precision Controller, the BD Remote, the PlayStation Eye camera, and the PlayTV DVB - T tuner / digital video recorder accessory.
At Sony 's E3 press conference in 2006, the then standard wireless Sixaxis controller was announced. The controller was based on the same basic design as the PlayStation 2 's DualShock 2 controller but was wireless, lacked vibration capabilities, had a built - in accelerometer (that could detect motion in three directional and three rotational axes; six in total, hence the name Sixaxis) and had a few cosmetic tweaks.
At its press conference at the 2007 Tokyo Game Show, Sony announced DualShock 3 (trademarked DUALSHOCK 3), a PlayStation 3 controller with the same function and design as Sixaxis, but with vibration capability included. Hands - on accounts describe the controller as being noticeably heavier than the standard Sixaxis controller and capable of vibration forces comparable to DualShock 2. It was released in Japan on November 11, 2007; in North America on April 5, 2008; in Australia on April 24, 2008; in New Zealand on May 9, 2008; in mainland Europe on July 2, 2008, and in the United Kingdom and Ireland on July 4, 2008.
During E3 2009, Sony unveiled plans to release a motion controller later to be named PlayStation Move at GDC 2010. It was released on September 15, 2010, in Europe; September 19, 2010, in North America and October 21, 2010, in Japan.
On October 13, 2010, Sony announced an official surround sound system for PS3 through the official PlayStation YouTube channel.
The PlayStation 3 can also use DualShock 4 controller initially via USB cable, but Firmware update 4.60 enabled wireless connection.
According to Ars Technica, the number of PlayStation 3 consoles that have experienced failure is well within the normal failure rates in the consumer electronics industry; a 2009 study by SquareTrade, a warranty provider, found a two - year failure rate of 10 % for PlayStation 3s.
In September 2009, BBC 's Watchdog television program aired a report investigating the issue, calling it the "yellow light of death '' (YLOD). Among the consoles that experienced the failure, they found that it usually occurred 18 -- 24 months after purchase, while the standard Sony warranty covers one year after purchase. After this time period, PlayStation 3 owners can pay Sony a fixed fee for a refurbished console.
Sony claimed that, according to its statistics of returned consoles, approximately 0.5 % of consoles were reported as showing the YLOD. In response to the televised report, Sony issued a document criticizing the program 's accuracy and conclusions; specifically that the faults were evidence of a manufacturing defect. The document also complained that the report had been inappropriate in tone and might damage Sony 's brand name.
Sony has included the ability for the operating system, referred to as System Software, to be updated. The updates can be acquired in several ways:
The original PlayStation 3 also included the ability to install other operating systems, such as Linux. This was not included in the newer slim models and was removed from all older PlayStation 3 consoles with the release of firmware update 3.21 in April 2010. The functionality is now only available to users of original consoles who choose not to update their system software beyond version 3.15 or who have installed third - party, modified and unofficial versions of the firmware instead.
The standard PlayStation 3 version of the XrossMediaBar (pronounced Cross Media Bar, or abbreviated XMB) includes nine categories of options. These are: Users, Settings, Photo, Music, Video, TV / Video Services, Game, Network, PlayStation Network and Friends (similar to the PlayStation Portable media bar). TheTV / Video Services category is for services like Netflix and / or if PlayTV or torne is installed; the first category in this section is "My Channels '', which lets users download various streaming services, including Sony 's own streaming services Crackle and PlayStation Vue. By default, the What 's New section of PlayStation Network is displayed when the system starts up. PS3 includes the ability to store various master and secondary user profiles, manage and explore photos with or without a musical slide show, play music and copy audio CD tracks to an attached data storage device, play movies and video files from the hard disk drive, an optical disc (Blu - ray Disc or DVD - Video) or an optional USB mass storage or Flash card, compatibility for a USB keyboard and mouse and a web browser supporting compatible - file download function. Additionally, UPnP media will appear in the respective audio / video / photo categories if a compatible media server or DLNA server is detected on the local network. The Friends menu allows mail with emoticon and attached picture features and video chat which requires an optional PlayStation Eye or EyeToy webcam. The Network menu allows online shopping through the PlayStation Store and connectivity to PlayStation Portable via Remote Play.
PlayStation 3 console protects certain types of data and uses digital rights management to limit the data 's use. Purchased games and content from the PlayStation Network store are governed by PlayStation 's Network Digital Rights Management (NDRM). The NDRM allows users to access the data from up to 2 different PlayStation 3 's that have been activated using a user 's PlayStation Network ID. PlayStation 3 also limits the transfer of copy protected videos downloaded from its store to other machines and states that copy protected video "may not restore correctly '' following certain actions after making a backup such as downloading a new copy protected movie.
Photo Gallery is an optional application to view, create and group photos from PS3, which is installed separately from the system software at 105 MB. It was introduced in system software version 2.60 and provides a range of tools for sorting through and displaying the system 's pictures. The key feature of this application is that it can organize photos into groups according to various criteria. Notable categorizations are colors, ages, or facial expressions of the people in the photos. Slideshows can be viewed with the application, along with music and playlists. The software was updated with the release of system software version 3.40 allowing users to upload and browse photos on Facebook and Picasa.
PlayMemories is an optional stereoscopic 3D (and also standard) photo viewing application, which is installed from the PlayStation Store at 956 MB. The application is dedicated specifically to 3D photos and features the ability to zoom into 3D environments and change the angle and perspective of panoramas. It requires system software 3.40 or higher; 3D photos; a 3D HDTV, and an HDMI cable for the 3D images to be viewed properly.
A new application was released as part of system software version 3.40 which allows users to edit videos on PlayStation 3 and upload them to the Internet. The software features basic video editing tools including the ability to cut videos and add music and captions. Videos can then be rendered and uploaded to video sharing websites such as Facebook and YouTube.
In addition to the video service provided by the Sony Entertainment Network, the PlayStation 3 console has access to a variety of third party video services, dependent on region:
Since June 2009, VidZone has offered a free music video streaming service in Europe, Australia and New Zealand. In October 2009, Sony Computer Entertainment and Netflix announced that the Netflix streaming service would also be available on PlayStation 3 in the United States. A paid Netflix subscription was required for the service. The service became available in November 2009. Initially users had to use a free Blu - ray disc to access the service; however, in October 2010 the requirement to use a disc to gain access was removed.
In April 2010, support for MLB.tv was added, allowing MLB.tv subscribers to watch regular season games live in HD and access new interactive features designed exclusively for PSN.
In November 2010, access to the video and social networking site MUBI was enabled for European, New Zealand, and Australian users; the service integrates elements of social networking with rental or subscription video streaming, allowing users to watch and discuss films with other users. Also in November 2010 the video rental service VUDU, NHL GameCenter Live, and subscription service Hulu Plus launched on PlayStation 3 in the United States.
In August 2011, Sony, in partnership with DirecTV, added NFL Sunday Ticket. Then in October 2011, Best Buy launched an app for its CinemaNow service. In April 2012, Amazon.com launched an Amazon Video app, accessible to Amazon Prime subscribers (in the US).
Upon reviewing the PlayStation and Netflix collaboration, Pocket - Lint said "We 've used the Netflix app on Xbox too and, as good as it is, we think the PS3 version might have the edge here. '' and stated that having Netflix and LoveFilm on PlayStation is "mind - blowingly good. ''
In July 2013, YuppTV OTT player launched its branded application on the PS3 computer entertainment system in the United States.
PlayStation 3 initially shipped with the ability to install an alternative operating system alongside the main system software; Linux and other Unix - based operating systems were available. The hardware allowed access to six of the seven Synergistic Processing Elements of the Cell microprocessor, but not the RSX ' Reality Synthesizer ' graphics chip.
The ' OtherOS ' functionality was not present in the updated PS Slim models, and the feature was subsequently removed from previous versions of the PS3 as part of the machine 's firmware update version 3.21 which was released on April 1, 2010; Sony cited security concerns as the rationale. The firmware update 3.21 was mandatory for access to the PlayStation Network. The removal caused some controversy; as the update removed officially advertised features from already sold products, and gave rise to several class action lawsuits aimed at making Sony return the feature or provide compensation.
On December 8, 2011, U.S. District Judge Richard Seeborg dismissed the last remaining count of the class action lawsuit (other claims in the suit had previously been dismissed), stating: "As a legal matter, (...) plaintiffs have failed to allege facts or articulate a theory on which Sony may be held liable. ''
As of January 2014 the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit partially reversed the dismissal and have sent the case back to the district court.
On March 1, 2010 (UTC), many of the original "fat '' PlayStation 3 models worldwide were experiencing errors related to their internal system clock. The error had many symptoms. Initially, the main problem seemed to be the inability to connect to the PlayStation Network. However, the root cause of the problem was unrelated to the PlayStation Network, since even users who had never been online also had problems playing installed offline games (which queried the system timer as part of startup) and using system themes. At the same time many users noted that the console 's clock had gone back to December 31, 1999. The event was nicknamed the ApocalyPS3, a play on the word apocalypse and PS3, the abbreviation for the PlayStation 3 console.
The error code displayed was typically 8001050F and affected users were unable to sign in, play games, use dynamic themes and view / sync trophies. The problem only resided within the 1st through to the 3rd generation original PS3 units while the newer "Slim '' models were unaffected because of different internal hardware for the clock.
Sony confirmed that there was an error and stated that it was narrowing down the issue and were continuing to work to restore service. By March 2 (UTC), 2010, owners of original PS3 models could connect to PSN successfully and the clock no longer showed December 31, 1999. Sony stated that the affected models incorrectly identified 2010 as a leap year, because of a bug in the BCD method of storing the date. However, for some users, the hardware 's operating system clock (mainly updated from the internet and not associated with the internal clock) needed to be updated manually or by re-syncing it via the internet.
On June 29, 2010, Sony released PS3 system software update 3.40, which improved the functionality of the internal clock to properly account for leap years.
PlayStation Portable can connect with PlayStation 3 in many ways, including in - game connectivity. For example, Formula One Championship Edition, a racing game, was shown at E3 2006 using a PSP as a real - time rear - view mirror. In addition, users are able to download original PlayStation format games from the PlayStation Store, transfer and play them on PSP as well as PS3 itself. It is also possible to use the Remote Play feature to play these and some PlayStation Network games, remotely on PSP over a network or internet connection.
Sony has also demonstrated PSP playing back video content from PlayStation 3 hard disk across an ad hoc wireless network. This feature is referred to as Remote Play located under the browser icon on both PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable. Remote play has since expanded to allow remote access to PS3 via PSP from any wireless access point in the world.
PlayStation Network is the unified online multiplayer gaming and digital media delivery service provided by Sony Computer Entertainment for PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable, announced during the 2006 PlayStation Business Briefing meeting in Tokyo. The service is always connected, free, and includes multiplayer support. The network enables online gaming, the PlayStation Store, PlayStation Home and other services. PlayStation Network uses real currency and PlayStation Network Cards as seen with the PlayStation Store and PlayStation Home.
PlayStation Plus (commonly abbreviated PS+ and occasionally referred to as PSN Plus) is a premium PlayStation Network subscription service that was officially unveiled at E3 2010 by Jack Tretton, President and CEO of SCEA. Rumors of such service had been in speculation since Kaz Hirai 's announcement at TGS 2009 of a possible paid service for PSN but with the current PSN service still available. Launched alongside PS3 firmware 3.40 and PSP firmware 6.30 on June 29, 2010, the paid - for subscription service provides users with enhanced services on the PlayStation Network, on top of the current PSN service which is still available with all of its features. These enhancements include the ability to have demos and game updates download automatically to PlayStation 3. Subscribers also get early or exclusive access to some betas, game demos, premium downloadable content and other PlayStation Store items. North American users also get a free subscription to Qore. Users may choose to purchase either a one - year or a three - month subscription to PlayStation Plus.
The PlayStation Store is an online virtual market available to users of Sony 's PlayStation 3 (PS3) and PlayStation Portable (PSP) game consoles via the PlayStation Network. The Store offers a range of downloadable content both for purchase and available free of charge. Available content includes full games, add - on content, playable demos, themes and game and movie trailers. The service is accessible through an icon on the XMB on PS3 and PSP. The PS3 store can also be accessed on PSP via a Remote Play connection to PS3. The PSP store is also available via the PC application, Media Go. As of September 24, 2009, there have been over 600 million downloads from the PlayStation Store worldwide.
The PlayStation Store is updated with new content each Tuesday in North America, and each Wednesday in PAL regions. In May 2010 this was changed from Thursdays to allow PSP games to be released digitally, closer to the time they are released on UMD.
What 's New was announced at Gamescom 2009 and was released on September 1, 2009, with PlayStation 3 system software 3.0. The feature was to replace the existing (Information Board), which displayed news from the PlayStation website associated with the user 's region. The concept was developed further into a major PlayStation Network feature, which interacts with the (Status Indicator) to display a ticker of all content, excluding recently played content (currently in North America and Japan only).
The system displays the What 's New screen by default instead of the (Games) menu (or (Video) menu, if a movie was inserted) when starting up. What 's New has four sections: "Our Pick '', "Recently Played '', latest information and new content available in PlayStation Store. There are four kinds of content the What 's New screen displays and links to, on the sections. "Recently Played '' displays the user 's recently played games and online services only, whereas, the other sections can contain website links, links to play videos and access to selected sections of the PlayStation Store.
The PlayStation Store icons in the (Game) and (Video) section act similarly to the What 's New screen, except that they only display and link to games and videos in the PlayStation Store, respectively.
PlayStation Home was a virtual 3D social networking service for the PlayStation Network. Home allowed users to create a custom avatar, which could be groomed realistically. Users could edit and decorate their personal apartments, avatars, or club houses with free, premium, or won content. Users could shop for new items or win prizes from PS3 games, or Home activities. Users could interact and connect with friends and customize content in a virtual world. Home also acted as a meeting place for users that wanted to play multiplayer games with others.
A closed beta began in Europe from May 2007 and expanded to other territories soon after. Home was delayed and expanded several times before initially releasing. The Open Beta test was started on December 11, 2008. It remained as a perpetual beta until its closure on March 31, 2015. Home was available directly from the PlayStation 3 XrossMediaBar. Membership was free, but required a PSN account.
Home featured places to meet and interact, dedicated game spaces, developer spaces, company spaces, and events. The service underwent a weekly maintenance and frequent updates. At the time of its closure in March 2015, Home had been downloaded by 41 million users.
Life with PlayStation, released on September 18, 2008 to succeed Folding@home, was retired November 6, 2012. Life with PlayStation used virtual globe data to display news and information by city. Along with Folding@home functionality, the application provided access to three other information "channels '', the first being the Live Channel offering news headlines and weather which were provided by Google News, The Weather Channel, the University of Wisconsin -- Madison Space Science and Engineering Center, among other sources. The second channel was the World Heritage channel which offered historical information about historical sites. The third channel was the United Village channel. United Village was designed to share information about communities and cultures worldwide. An update allowed video and photo viewing in the application. The fourth channel was the U.S. exclusive PlayStation Network Game Trailers Channel for direct streaming of game trailers.
On April 20, 2011, Sony shut down the PlayStation Network and Qriocity for a prolonged interval, revealing on April 23 that this was due to "an external intrusion on our system ''. Sony later revealed that the personal information of 77 million users might have been taken, including: names; addresses; countries; email addresses; birthdates; PSN / Qriocity logins, passwords and handles / PSN online IDs. It also stated that it was possible that users ' profile data, including purchase history and billing address, and PlayStation Network / Qriocity password security answers may have been obtained. There was no evidence that any credit card data had been taken, but the possibility could not be ruled out, and Sony advised customers that their credit card data may have been obtained. Additionally, the credit card numbers were encrypted and Sony never collected the three digit CVC or CSC number from the back of the credit cards which is required for authenticating some transactions. In response to the incident, Sony announced a "Welcome Back '' program, 30 days free membership of PlayStation Plus for all PSN members, two free downloadable PS3 games, and a free one - year enrollment in an identity theft protection program.
Although its PlayStation predecessors had been very dominant against the competition and were hugely profitable for Sony, PlayStation 3 had an inauspicious start, and Sony chairman and CEO Sir Howard Stringer initially could not convince investors of a turnaround in its fortunes. The PS3 lacked the unique gameplay of the more affordable Wii which became that generation 's most successful console in terms of units sold. Furthermore, PS3 had to compete directly with Xbox 360 which had a market head start, and as a result the platform no longer had exclusive titles that the PS2 enjoyed such as the Grand Theft Auto and Final Fantasy series (regarding cross-platform games, Xbox 360 versions were generally considered superior in 2006, although by 2008 the PS3 versions had reached parity or surpassed), and it took longer than expected for PS3 to enjoy strong sales and close the gap with Xbox 360. Sony also continued to lose money on each PS3 sold through 2010, although the redesigned "slim '' PS3 has cut these losses since then.
PlayStation 3 's initial production cost is estimated by iSuppli to have been US $ 805.85 for the 20 GB model and US $840.35 for the 60 GB model. However, they were priced at US $499 and US $599 respectively, meaning that units may have been sold at an estimated loss of $306 or $241 depending on model, if the cost estimates were correct, and thus may have contributed to Sony 's games division posting an operating loss of ¥ 232.3 billion (US $1.97 billion) in the fiscal year ending March 2007. In April 2007, soon after these results were published, Ken Kutaragi, President of Sony Computer Entertainment, announced plans to retire. Various news agencies, including The Times and The Wall Street Journal reported that this was due to poor sales, while SCEI maintains that Kutaragi had been planning his retirement for six months prior to the announcement.
In January 2008, Kaz Hirai, CEO of Sony Computer Entertainment, suggested that the console may start making a profit by early 2009, stating that, "the next fiscal year starts in April and if we can try to achieve that in the next fiscal year that would be a great thing '' and that "(profitability) is not a definite commitment, but that is what I would like to try to shoot for ''. However, market analysts Nikko Citigroup have predicted that PlayStation 3 could be profitable by August 2008. In a July 2008 interview, Hirai stated that his objective is for PlayStation 3 to sell 150 million units by its ninth year, surpassing PlayStation 2 's sales of 140 million in its nine years on the market. In January 2009 Sony announced that their gaming division was profitable in Q3 2008.
Since the system 's launch, production costs have been reduced significantly as a result of phasing out the Emotion Engine chip and falling hardware costs. The cost of manufacturing Cell microprocessors has fallen dramatically as a result of moving to the 65 nm production process, and Blu - ray Disc diodes have become cheaper to manufacture. As of January 2008, each unit cost around $400 to manufacture; by August 2009, Sony had reduced costs by a total of 70 %, meaning it only costs Sony around $240 per unit.
Early PlayStation 3 reviews after launch were critical of its high price and lack of quality games. Game developers regarded the architecture as difficult to program for. PS3 was, however, commended for its hardware including its Blu - ray home theater capabilities and graphics potential.
Critical and commercial reception to PS3 improved over time, after a series of price revisions, Blu - ray 's victory over HD DVD, and the release of several well received titles. Ars Technica 's original launch review gave PS3 only a 6 / 10, but second review of the console in June 2008 rated it a 9 / 10. In September 2009, IGN named PlayStation 3 the 15th best gaming console of all time, behind both of its competitors: Wii (10th) and Xbox 360 (6th). However, PS3 has won IGN 's "Console Showdown '' -- based on which console offers the best selection of games released during each year -- in three of the four years since it began (2008, 2009 and 2011, with Xbox winning in 2010). IGN judged PlayStation 3 to have the best game line - up of 2008, based on their review scores in comparison to those of Wii and Xbox 360. In a comparison piece by PC Magazine 's Will Greenwald in June 2012, PS3 was selected as an overall better console compared to Xbox 360. Pocket - lint said of the console "The PS3 has always been a brilliant games console, '' and that "For now, this is just about the best media device for the money. ''
PS3 was given the number - eight spot on PC World magazine 's list of "The Top 21 Tech Screwups of 2006 '', where it was criticized for being "Late, Expensive and Incompatible ''. GamesRadar ranked PS3 as the top item in a feature on game - related PR disasters, asking how Sony managed to "take one of the most anticipated game systems of all time and -- within the space of a year -- turn it into a hate object reviled by the entire internet '', but added that despite its problems the system has "untapped potential ''. Business Week summed up the general opinion by stating that it was "more impressed with what (the PlayStation 3) could do than with what it currently does ''.
Developers also found the machine difficult to program for. In 2007, Gabe Newell of Valve said "The PS3 is a total disaster on so many levels, I think it 's really clear that Sony lost track of what customers and what developers wanted ''. He continued "I 'd say, even at this late date, they should just cancel it and do a do over. Just say, ' This was a horrible disaster and we 're sorry and we 're going to stop selling this and stop trying to convince people to develop for it ' ''. Doug Lombardi VP of Marketing for Valve has since stated that Valve is interested in developing for the console and is looking to hire talented PS3 programmers for future projects. He later restated Valve 's position, "Until we have the ability to get a PS3 team together, until we find the people who want to come to Valve or who are at Valve who want to work on that, I do n't really see us moving to that platform ''. At Sony 's E3 2010 press conference, Newell made a live appearance to recant his previous statements, citing Sony 's move to make the system more developer friendly, and to announce that Valve would be developing Portal 2 for the system. He also claimed that the inclusion of Steamworks (Valve 's system to automatically update their software independently) would help to make the PS3 version of Portal 2 the best console version on the market.
Activision Blizzard CEO Bobby Kotick has criticized PS3 's high development costs and inferior attach rate and return to that of Xbox 360 and Wii. He believes these factors are pushing developers away from working on the console. In an interview with The Times Kotick stated "I 'm getting concerned about Sony; the PlayStation 3 is losing a bit of momentum and they do n't make it easy for me to support the platform. '' He continued, "It 's expensive to develop for the console, and the Wii and the Xbox are just selling better. Games generate a better return on invested capital (ROIC) on the Xbox than on the PlayStation. '' Kotick also claimed that Activision Blizzard may stop supporting the system if the situation is not addressed. "(Sony has) to cut the (PS3 's retail) price, because if they do n't, the attach rates are likely to slow. If we are being realistic, we might have to stop supporting Sony. '' Kotick received heavy criticism for the statement, notably from developer BioWare who questioned the wisdom of the threatened move, and referred to the statement as "silly. ''
Despite the initial negative press, several websites have given the system very good reviews mostly regarding its hardware. CNET United Kingdom praised the system saying, "the PS3 is a versatile and impressive piece of home - entertainment equipment that lives up to the hype (...) the PS3 is well worth its hefty price tag. '' CNET awarded it a score of 8.8 out of 10 and voted it as its number one "must - have '' gadget, praising its robust graphical capabilities and stylish exterior design while criticizing its limited selection of available games. In addition, both Home Theater Magazine and Ultimate AV have given the system 's Blu - ray playback very favorable reviews, stating that the quality of playback exceeds that of many current standalone Blu - ray Disc players.
In an interview, Kazuo Hirai, chairman of Sony Computer Entertainment argued for the choice of a complex architecture. Hexus Gaming reviewed the PAL version and summed the review up by saying, "as the PlayStation 3 matures and developers start really pushing it, we 'll see the PlayStation 3 emerge as the console of choice for gaming. '' At GDC 2007, Shiny Entertainment founder Dave Perry stated, "I think that Sony has made the best machine. It 's the best piece of hardware, without question ''.
The PlayStation 3 Slim received extremely positive reviews as well as a boost in sales; less than 24 hours after its announcement, PS3 Slim took the number - one bestseller spot on Amazon.com in the video games section for fifteen consecutive days. It regained the number - one position again one day later. PS3 Slim also received praise from PC World giving it a 90 out of 100 praising its new repackaging and the new value it brings at a lower price as well as praising its quietness and the reduction in its power consumption. This is in stark contrast to the original PS3 's launch in which it was given position number - eight on their "The Top 21 Tech Screwups of 2006 '' list.
CNET awarded PS3 Slim four out of five stars praising its Blu - ray capabilities, 120 GB hard drive, free online gaming service and more affordable pricing point, but complained about the lack of backward compatibility for PlayStation 2 games. TechRadar gave PS3 Slim four and a half stars out of five praising its new smaller size and summed up its review stating "Over all, the PS3 Slim is a phenomenal piece of kit. It 's amazing that something so small can do so much ''. However, they criticized the exterior design and the build quality in relation to the original model.
Eurogamer called it "a product where the cost - cutting has -- by and large -- been tastefully done '' and said "It 's nothing short of a massive win for Sony. ''
The Super Slim model of PS3 has received positive reviews. Gaming website Spong praised the new Super Slim 's quietness, stating "The most noticeable noise comes when the drive seeks a new area of the disc, such as when starting to load a game, and this occurs infrequently. '' They added that the fans are quieter than that of Slim, and went on to praise the new smaller, lighter size. Criticism was placed on the new disc loader, stating: "The cover can be moved by hand if you wish, there 's also an eject button to do the work for you, but there is no software eject from the triangle button menus in the Xross Media Bar (XMB) interface. In addition, you have to close the cover by hand, which can be a bit fiddly if it 's upright, and the PS3 wo n't start reading a disc unless you do (close the cover). '' They also said there is no real drop in retail price.
Tech media website CNET gave new Super Slim 4 out of 5 stars ("Excellent ''), saying "The Super Slim PlayStation 3 shrinks a powerful gaming machine into an even tinier package while maintaining the same features as its predecessors: a great gaming library and a strong array of streaming services (...) '', whilst also criticising the "cheap '' design and disc - loader, stating: "Sometimes (the cover) does n't catch and you feel like you 're using one of those old credit card imprinter machines. In short, it feels cheap. You do n't realize how convenient autoloading disc trays are until they 're gone. Whether it was to cut costs or save space, this move is ultimately a step back. '' The criticism also was due to price, stating the cheapest Super Slim model was still more expensive than the cheapest Slim model, and that the smaller size and bigger hard drive should n't be considered an upgrade when the hard drive on a Slim model is easily removed and replaced. They did praise that the hard drive of the Super Slim model is "the easiest yet. Simply sliding off the side panel reveals the drive bay, which can quickly be unscrewed. '' They also stated that whilst the Super Slim model is not in any way an upgrade, it could be an indicator as to what 's to come. "It may not be revolutionary, but the Super Slim PS3 is the same impressive machine in a much smaller package. There does n't seem to be any reason for existing PS3 owners to upgrade, but for the prospective PS3 buyer, the Super Slim is probably the way to go if you can deal with not having a slot - loading disc drive. ''
Pocket - Lint gave Super Slim a very positive review saying "It 's much more affordable, brilliant gaming, second - to - none video and media player. '' They think it is "A blinding good console and one that will serve you for years to come with second - hand games and even new releases. Without doubt, if you do n't have a PS3, this is the time to buy. '' They gave Super Slim 4 and a half stars out of 5.
Technology magazine T3 gave the Super Slim model a positive review, stating the console is almost "nostalgic '' in the design similarities to the original "fat '' model, "While we do n't know whether it will play PS3 games or Blu - ray discs any differently yet, the look and feel of the new PS3 Slim is an obvious homage to the original PS3, minus the considerable excess weight. Immediately we would be concerned about the durability of the top loading tray that feels like it could be yanked straight out off the console, but ultimately it all feels like Sony 's nostalgic way of signing off the current generation console in anticipation for the PS4. ''
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what is considered the first great work of greek literature | Ancient Greek literature - wikipedia
Ancient Greek literature refers to literature written in the Ancient Greek language from the earliest texts until roughly the rise of the Byzantine Empire. The earliest surviving works of ancient Greek literature are the two epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey. These two epics, along with the Homeric Hymns and the two poems of Hesiod, Theogony and Works and Days, comprised the major foundational works of the Greek literary tradition.
The lyric poets Sappho, Alcaeus, and Pindar were highly influential during the early development of the Greek poetic tradition. Aeschylus is the earliest Greek tragic playwright for whom any plays have survived complete. Sophocles is famous for his tragedies about Oedipus, particularly Oedipus the King and Antigone. Euripides is known for his plays which often pushed the boundaries of the tragic genre. The comedic playwright Aristophanes wrote in the genre of Old Comedy, while the later playwright Menander was an early pioneer of New Comedy.
The historians Herodotus of Halicarnassus and Thucydides, who both lived during the fifth century BC, wrote accounts of events that happened shortly before and during their own lifetimes. The philosopher Plato wrote dialogues, usually centered around his teacher Socrates, dealing with various philosophical subjects, whereas his student Aristotle wrote numerous treatises, which later became highly influential.
Important later writers included Apollonius of Rhodes, who wrote The Argonautica, an epic poem about the voyage of the Argonauts, Archimedes, who wrote groundbreaking mathematical treatises, and Plutarch, who wrote mainly biographies and essays. The second - century AD writer Lucian of Samosata was a Hellenized Syrian, who wrote primarily works of satire.
Ancient Greek literature has had a profound impact on later Greek literature and also western literature at large. In particular, many ancient Roman authors drew inspiration from their Greek predecessors. Ever since the Renaissance, European authors in general, including Dante Alighieri, William Shakespeare, John Milton, and James Joyce, have all drawn heavily on classical themes and motifs.
This period of Greek literature stretches from Homer until the 4th century BC and the rise of Alexander the Great. The earliest known Greek writings are Mycenaean, written in the Linear B syllabary on clay tablets. These documents contain prosaic records largely concerned with trade (lists, inventories, receipts, etc.); no real literature has been discovered. Several theories have been advanced to explain this curious absence. One is that Mycenaean literature, like the works of Homer and other epic poems, was passed on orally, since the Linear B syllabary is not well - suited to recording the sounds of Greek (see phonemic principle).
Greek literature was divided in well - defined literary genres, each one having a compulsory formal structure, about both dialect and metrics. The first division was between prose and poetry. Within poetry there were three super-genres: epic, lyric and drama. The common European terminology about literary genres is directly derived from the ancient Greek terminology. Lyric and drama were further divided into more genres: lyric in four (elegiac, iambic, monodic lyric and choral lyric); drama in three (tragedy, comedy and pastoral drama). In prose literature, there was more freedom; the main areas were historiography, philosophy, and political rhetoric.
At the beginning of Greek literature stand the two monumental works of Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey. The figure of Homer is shrouded in mystery. Although the works as they now stand are credited to him, it is certain that their roots reach far back before his time (see Homeric Question). The Iliad is a narrative of a single episode spanning over the course of a ten - day - period from near the end of the ten years of the Trojan War. It centers on the person of Achilles, who embodied the Greek heroic ideal.
The Odyssey is an account of the adventures of Odysseus, one of the warriors at Troy. After ten years fighting the war, he spends another ten years sailing back home to his wife and family. Penelope was considered the ideal female, Homer depicted her as the ideal female based on her commitment, modesty, purity, and respect during her marriage with Odysseus. During his ten - year voyage, he loses all of his comrades and ships and makes his way home to Ithaca disguised as a beggar. Both of these works were based on ancient legends. The stories are told in language that is simple, and direct. The Homeric dialect was an archaic language based on Ionic dialect mixed with some element of Aeolic dialect and Attic dialect, the latter due to the Athenian edition of the 6th century BC. The epic verse was the hexameter.
The other great poet of the preclassical period was Hesiod. Unlike Homer, Hesiod speaks of himself in his poetry. Nonetheless, nothing is known about him from any external source. He was a native of Boeotia in central Greece, and is thought to have lived and worked around 700 BC. Hesiod 's two extant poems are Works and Days and Theogony. Works and Days is a faithful depiction of the poverty - stricken country life he knew so well, and it sets forth principles and rules for farmers. Theogony is a systematic account of creation and of the gods. It vividly describes the ages of mankind, beginning with a long - past Golden Age.
The writings of Homer and Hesiod were held in extremely high regard throughout antiquity and were viewed by many ancient authors as the foundational texts behind ancient Greek religion; Homer told the story of a heroic past, which Hesiod bracketed with a creation narrative and an account of the practical realities of contemporary daily life.
Lyric poetry received its name from the fact that it was originally sung by individuals or a chorus accompanied by the instrument called the lyre. Despite the name, however, the lyric poetry in this general meaning was divided in four genres, two of which were not accompanied by cithara, but by flute. These two latter genres were elegiac poetry and iambic poetry. Both were written in the Ionic dialect. Elegiac poems were written in elegiac couplets and iambic poems were written in iambic trimeter. The first of the lyric poets was probably Archilochus of Paros, circa 700 BC, the most important iambic poet. Only fragments remain of his work, as is the case with most of the poets. The few remnants suggest that he was an embittered adventurer who led a very turbulent life.
Many lyric poems were written in the Aeolic Dialect. Lyric poems often employed highly varied poetic meters. The most famous of all lyric poets were the so - called "Nine Lyric Poets. '' Of all the lyric poets, Sappho of Lesbos (c. 630 - c. 570 BC) was by far the most widely revered. In antiquity, her poems were regarded with the same degree of respect as the poems of Homer. Only one of her poems, "Ode to Aphrodite, '' has survived to the present day in its original, completed form. In addition to Sappho, her contemporary Alcaeus of Lesbos was also notable for monodic lyric poetry. The poetry written by Alcman was considered beautiful, even though he wrote exclusively in the Doric dialect, which was normally considered unpleasant to hear. The later poet Pindar of Thebes was renowned for his choral lyric poetry.
All surviving works of Greek drama were composed by playwrights from Athens and are written exclusively in the Attic dialect. Choral performances were a common tradition in all Greek city - states. The Athenians credited a man named Thespis with having invented drama by introducing the first actor, whose primary purpose was to interact with the leader of the chorus. Later playwrights expanded the number of actors to three, allowing for greater freedom in storytelling.
In the age that followed the Greco - Persian Wars, the awakened national spirit of Athens was expressed in hundreds of tragedies based on heroic and legendary themes of the past. The tragic plays grew out of simple choral songs and dialogues performed at festivals of the god Dionysus. In the classical period, performances included three tragedies and one pastoral drama, depicting four different episodes of the same myth. Wealthy citizens were chosen to bear the expense of costuming and training the chorus as a public and religious duty. Attendance at the festival performances was regarded as an act of worship. Performances were held in the great open - air theater of Dionysus in Athens. The poets competed for the prizes offered for the best plays.
All fully surviving Greek tragedies are conventionally attributed to Aeschylus, Sophocles or Euripides. The authorship of Prometheus Bound, which is traditionally attributed to Aeschylus, and Rhesus, which is traditionally attributed to Euripides, are still questioned. There are seven surviving tragedies attributed to Aeschylus. Three of these plays, Agamemnon, The Libation - Bearers, and The Eumenides, form a trilogy known as The Oresteia. One of these plays, Prometheus Bound, however, may actually be the work of Aeschylus 's son Euphorion.
Seven works of Sophocles have survived, the most acclaimed of which are the three Theban plays, which center around the story of Oedipus and his offspring. The Theban Trilogy consists of Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone. Although the plays are often called a "trilogy, '' they were actually written many years apart. Antigone, the last of the three plays sequentially, was actually first to be written, having been composed in 441 BC, towards the beginning of Sophocles 's career. Oedipus the King, the most famous of the three, was written around 429 BC at the midpoint of Sophocles 's career. Oedipus at Colonus, the second of the three plays chronologically, was actually Sophocles 's last play and was performed in 401 BC, after Sophocles 's death.
There are nineteen surviving plays attributed to Euripides. The most well - known of these plays are Medea, Hippolytus, and Bacchae. Rhesus is sometimes thought to have been written by Euripides ' son, or to have been a posthumous reproduction of a play by Euripides. Euripides pushed the limits of the tragic genre and many of the elements in his plays were more typical of comedy than tragedy. His play Alcestis, for instance, has often been categorized as a "problem play '' or perhaps even as a work of tragicomedy rather than a true tragedy due to its comedic elements and the fact that it has a happy ending.
Like tragedy, comedy arose from a ritual in honor of Dionysus, but in this case the plays were full of frank obscenity, abuse, and insult. At Athens, the comedies became an official part of the festival celebration in 486 BC, and prizes were offered for the best productions. As with the tragedians, few works still remain of the great comedic writers. The only complete surviving works of classical comedy are eleven plays written by the playwright Aristophanes. These are a treasure trove of comic presentation. He poked fun at everyone and every institution. In The Birds, he ridicules Athenian democracy. In The Clouds, he attacks the philosopher Socrates. In Lysistrata, he denounces war. Aristophanes has been praised highly for his dramatic skill and artistry. John Lemprière 's Bibliotheca Classica describes him as, quite simply, "the greatest comic dramatist in world literature: by his side Molière seems dull and Shakespeare clownish. '' Of all Aristophanes 's plays, however, the one that has received the most lasting recognition is The Frogs, which simultaneously satirizes and immortalizes the two giants of Athenian tragedy: Aeschylus and Euripides. When it was performed for the first time at the Lenaia Festival in 405 BC, just one year after the death of Euripides, the Athenians awarded it first prize. It was the only Greek play that was ever given an encore performance, which took place two months later at the City Dionysia. Even today, The Frogs still appeals to modern audiences. A commercially successful modern musical adaptation of it was performed on Broadway in 2004.
The third dramatic genre was the satyr play. Although the genre was popular, only one complete example of a satyr play has survived: Cyclops by Euripides. Large portions of a second satyr play, Ichneutae by Sophocles, have been recovered from the site of Oxyrhynchus in Egypt among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri.
Two notable historians who lived during the Classical Era were Herodotus of Halicarnassus and Thucydides. Herodotus is commonly called "The Father of History. '' His book The Histories is among the oldest works of prose literature in existence. Thucydides 's book History of the Peloponnesian War greatly influenced later writers and historians, including the author of the book of Acts of the Apostles and the Byzantine Era historian Procopius of Caesarea.
A third historian of ancient Greece, Xenophon of Athens, began his Hellenica where Thucydides ended his work about 411 BC and carried his history to 362 BC. Xenophon 's most famous work is his book The Anabasis, a detailed, first - hand account of his participation in a Greek mercenary army that tried to help the Persian Cyrus expel his brother from the throne. Xenophon also wrote three works in praise of the philosopher Socrates: The Apology of Socrates to the Jury, The Symposium, and Memorabilia. Although both Xenophon and Plato knew Socrates, their accounts are very different. Many comparisons have been made between the account of the military historian and the account of the poet - philosopher.
Many important and influential philosophers lived during the fifth and fourth centuries BC. Among the earliest Greek philosophers were the three so - called "Milesian philosophers '': Thales of Miletus, Anaximander, and Anaximenes. Of these philosophers ' writings, however, only one fragment from Anaximander preserved by Simplicius of Cilicia has survived.
Very little is known for certain about the life of the philosopher Pythagoras of Samos and no writings by him have survived to the present day, but an impressive corpus of poetic writings written by his pupil Empedocles of Acragas has survived, making Empedocles one of the most widely attested Pre-Socratic philosophers. A large number of fragments written by the philosophers Heraclitus of Ephesus and Democritus of Abdera have also survived.
Of all the classical philosophers, however, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are generally considered the most important and influential. Socrates did not write any books himself and modern scholars debate whether or not Plato 's portrayal of him is accurate. Some scholars contend that many of his ideas, or at least a vague approximation of them, are expressed in Plato 's early socratic dialogues. Meanwhile, other scholars have argued that Plato 's portrayal of Socrates is merely a fictional representation intended to expound Plato 's own opinions who has very little to do with the historical figure of the same name. The debate over the extent to which Plato 's portrayal of Socrates represents the actual Socrates 's ideas is known as the Socratic problem.
Plato expressed his ideas through dialogues, that is, written works purporting to describe conversations between different individuals. Some of the best - known of these include: The Apology of Socrates, a purported record of the speech Socrates gave at his trial; Phaedo, a description of the last conversation between Socrates and his disciples before his execution; The Symposium, a dialogue over the nature of love; and The Republic, widely regarded as Plato 's most important work, a long dialogue describing the ideal government.
Aristotle of Stagira is widely considered to be one of the most important and influential philosophical thinkers of all time. The first sentence of his Metaphysics reads: "All men by nature desire to know. '' He has, therefore, been called the "Father of those who know. '' His medieval disciple Thomas Aquinas referred to him simply as "the Philosopher ''. Aristotle was a student at Plato 's Academy, and like his teacher, he wrote dialogues, or conversations. However, none of these exist today. The body of writings that has come down to the present probably represents lectures that he delivered at his own school in Athens, the Lyceum. Even from these books, the enormous range of his interests is evident: He explored matters other than those that are today considered philosophical; the extant treatises cover logic, the physical and biological sciences, ethics, politics, and constitutional government. Among Aristotle 's most notable works are Politics, Nicomachean Ethics, Poetics, On the Soul, and Rhetoric.
By 338 BC all of the Greek city - states except Sparta had been united by Philip II of Macedon. Philip 's son Alexander the Great extended his father 's conquests greatly. Athens lost its preeminent status as the leader of Greek culture, and it was replaced temporarily by Alexandria, Egypt.
The city of Alexandria in northern Egypt became, from the 3rd century BC, the outstanding center of Greek culture. It also soon attracted a large Jewish population, making it the largest center for Jewish scholarship in the ancient world. In addition, it later became a major focal point for the development of Christian thought. The Musaeum, or Shrine to the Muses, which included the library and school, was founded by Ptolemy I. The institution was from the beginning intended as a great international school and library. The library, eventually containing more than a half million volumes, was mostly in Greek. It was intended to serve as a repository for every work of classical Greek literature that could be found.
Poetry flourished in Alexandria in the third century BC. The chief Alexandrian poets were Theocritus, Callimachus, and Apollonius of Rhodes. Theocritus, who lived from about 310 to 250 BC, invented a new genre of poetry -- bucolic, a genre that the Roman Virgil would later imitate in his Eclogues.
Callimachus, who lived at the same time as Theocritus, worked his entire adult life at Alexandria and compiled a prose treatise entitled the Pinakes which catalogued the great works held in the library. Aside from a collection of hymns, only fragments of his poetry survive. The most famous work was Aetia (Causes). In four books of elegiac couplets it explained the legendary origin of obscure customs, festivals, and names. Its structure became a model for the work of the Roman poet Ovid. Of his elegies for special occasions, the best known is the Lock of Berenice, a piece of court poetry which formed part of the Aetia and was later adapted by the Roman Catullus. Callimachus also wrote short poems for special occasions and at least one short epic, the Ibis, which was directed against his former pupil Apollonius.
Apollonius of Rhodes was born about 295 BC. He is best remembered for his epic poem The Argonautica, about Jason and his shipmates, the Argonauts, in search of the Golden Fleece. Apollonius studied under Callimachus, with whom he later quarreled. He also served as librarian at Alexandria for about 13 years. Apart from the Argonautica, he wrote poems on the foundation of cities as well as a number of epigrams. The Roman poet Virgil was strongly influenced by the Argonautica in writing his Aeneid. Lesser 3rd - century poets include Aratus of Soli and Herodas. Aratus wrote the Phaenomena, a poetic version of a treatise on the stars by Eudoxus of Cnidus, who had lived in the 4th century. Herodas wrote mimes reminiscent of those of Theocritus. His works give a hint of the popular entertainment of the times. Mime and pantomime were a major form of entertainment during the early Roman Empire.
During the Hellenistic Era, the Old Comedy of the Classical Era was replaced by New Comedy. The most notable writer of New Comedy was the Athenian playwright Menander. None of Menander 's plays have survived to the present day in their complete form, but one play, The Bad - Tempered Man, has survived to the present day in a near - complete form. Large portions of another play entitled The Girl from Samos have also survived.
The historian Timaeus was born in Sicily but spent most of his life in Athens. His History, though lost, is significant because of its influence on Polybius. In 38 books it covered the history of Sicily and Italy to the year 264 BC, which is where Polybius begins his work. Timaeus also wrote the Olympionikai, a valuable chronological study of the Olympic Games.
Eratosthenes of Alexandria, who died about 194 BC, wrote on astronomy and geography, but his work is known mainly from later summaries. He is credited with being the first person to measure the Earth 's circumference. Much that was written by the mathematicians Euclid and Archimedes has been preserved. Euclid is known for his Elements, much of which was drawn from his predecessor Eudoxus of Cnidus. The Elements is a treatise on geometry, and it has exerted a continuing influence on mathematics. From Archimedes several treatises have come down to the present. Among them are Measurement of the Circle, in which he worked out the value of pi; The Method of Mechanical Theorems, on his work in mechanics; The Sand Reckoner; and On Floating Bodies. A manuscript of his works is currently being studied.
Very little has survived of prose fiction from the Hellenistic Era. The Milesiaka by Aristides of Miletos was probably written during the second century BC. The Milesiaka itself has not survived to the present day in its complete form, but various references to it have survived. The book established a whole new genre of so - called "Milesian tales, '' of which The Golden Ass by the later Roman writer Apuleius is a prime example.
The ancient Greek novels Chaereas and Callirhoe by Chariton and Metiochus and Parthenope were probably both written during the late first century BC or early first century AD, during the latter part of the Hellenistic Era. The discovery of several fragments of Lollianos 's Phoenician Tale reveal the existence of a genre of ancient Greek picaresque novel.
While the transition from city - state to empire affected philosophy a great deal, shifting the emphasis from political theory to personal ethics, Greek letters continued to flourish both under the Successors (especially the Ptolemies) and under Roman rule. Romans of literary or rhetorical inclination looked to Greek models, and Greek literature of all types continued to be read and produced both by native speakers of Greek and later by Roman authors as well. A notable characteristic of this period was the expansion of literary criticism as a genre, particularly as exemplified by Demetrius, Pseudo-Longinus and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. The New Testament, written by various authors in varying qualities of Koine Greek also hails from this period, the most important works being the Gospels and the Epistles of Saint Paul.
The poet Quintus of Smyrna, who probably lived during the late fourth century AD, wrote Posthomerica, an epic poem narrating the story of the fall of Troy, beginning where The Iliad left off.
The poet Nonnus of Panopolis wrote The Dionysiaca, the longest surviving epic poem from antiquity. He also wrote a poetic paraphrase of The Gospel of John. Nonnus probably lived sometime during the late fourth century AD or early fifth century AD.
The historian Polybius was born about 200 BC. He was brought to Rome as a hostage in 168. In Rome he became a friend of the general Scipio Aemilianus. He probably accompanied the general to Spain and North Africa in the wars against Carthage. He was with Scipio at the destruction of Carthage in 146. The history on which his reputation rests consisted of 40 books, five of which have been preserved along with various excerpts. They are a vivid recreation of Rome 's rise to world power. A lost book, Tactics, was on military matters.
Diodorus Siculus was a Greek historian who lived in the 1st century BC, around the time of Julius Caesar and Augustus. He wrote a universal history, Bibliotheca Historica, in 40 books. Of these, the first five and the 11th through the 20th remain. The first two parts covered history through the early Hellenistic era. The third part takes the story to the beginning of Caesar 's wars in Gaul, now France. Dionysius of Halicarnassus lived late in the first century BC. His history of Rome from its origins to the First Punic War (264 to 241 BC) is written from a Roman point of view, but it is carefully researched. He also wrote a number of other treatises, including On Imitation, Commentaries on the Ancient Orators, and On the Arrangement of Words.
The historians Appian of Alexandria and Arrian of Nicomedia both lived in the second century AD. Appian wrote on Rome and its conquests, while Arrian is remembered for his work on the campaigns of Alexander the Great. Arrian served in the Roman army. His book therefore concentrates heavily on the military aspects of Alexander 's life. Arrian also wrote a philosophical treatise, the Diatribai, based on the teachings of his mentor Epictetus.
Best known of the late Greek historians to modern readers is Plutarch of Chaeronea, who died about AD 119. His Parallel Lives of great Greek and Roman leaders has been read by every generation since the work was first published. His other surviving work is the Moralia, a collection of essays on ethical, religious, political, physical, and literary topics.
During later times, so - called "commonplace books, '' usually describing historical anecdotes, became quite popular. Surviving examples of this popular genre include works such as Aulus Gellius 's Attic Nights, Athenaeus of Naucratis 's Deipnosophistae, and Claudius Aelianus 's De Natura Animalium and Varia Historia.
The physician Galen lived during the 2nd century AD. He was a careful student of anatomy, and his works exerted a powerful influence on medicine for the next 1,400 years. Strabo, who died about AD 23, was a geographer and historian. His Historical Sketches in 47 volumes has nearly all been lost. His Geographical Sketches remain as the only existing ancient book covering the whole range of people and countries known to the Greeks and Romans through the time of Augustus. Pausanias, who lived in the 2nd century AD, was also a geographer. His Description of Greece is a travel guide describing the geography and mythic history of Greece during the second century. The book takes the form of a tour of Greece, starting in Athens and ending in Naupactus.
The scientist of the Roman period who had the greatest influence on later generations was undoubtedly the astronomer Ptolemy. He lived during the 2nd century AD, though little is known of his life. His masterpiece, originally entitled The Mathematical Collection, has come to the present under the title Almagest, as it was translated by Arab astronomers with that title. It was Ptolemy who devised a detailed description of an Earth - centered universe, a notion that dominated astronomical thinking for more than 1,300 years. The Ptolemaic view of the universe endured until Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and other early modern astronomers replaced it with heliocentrism.
Epictetus, who died about 135 AD, was associated with the moral philosophy of the Stoics. His teachings were collected by his pupil Arrian in the Discourses and the Encheiridion (Manual of Study).
Diogenes Laertius, who lived in the third century AD, wrote Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, a voluminous collection of biographies of nearly every Greek philosopher who ever lived. Unfortunately, Diogenes Laertius often fails to cite his sources and many modern historians consider his testimony unreliable. Nonetheless, in spite of this, he remains the only available source on the lives of many early Greek philosophers. His book is not entirely without merit; it does preserve a tremendous wealth of information that otherwise would not have been preserved. His biography of Epicurus, for instance, is of particularly high quality and contains three lengthy letters attributed to Epicurus himself, at least two of which are generally agreed to be authentic.
Another major philosopher of his period was Plotinus. He transformed Plato 's philosophy into a school called Neoplatonism. His Enneads had a wide - ranging influence on European thought until at least the 17th century. Plotinus 's philosophy mainly revolved around the concepts of nous, psyche, and the "One. ''
After the rise of Christianity, many of the most important philosophers were Christians. The second - century Christian apologist Justin Martyr, who wrote exclusively in Greek, made extensive use of ideas from Greek philosophy, especially Platonism. Origen of Alexandria, the founder of Christian theology, also made extensive use of ideas from Greek philosophy and was even able to hold his own against the pagan philosopher Celsus in his apologetic treatise Contra Celsum.
The Roman Period was the time when the majority of extant works of Greek prose fiction were composed. The ancient Greek novels Leucippe and Clitophon by Achilles Tatius and Daphnis and Chloe by Longus were both probably written during the early second century AD. Daphnis and Chloe, by far the most famous of the five surviving ancient Greek romance novels, is a nostalgic tale of two young lovers growing up in an idealized pastoral environment on the Greek island of Lesbos. The Wonders Beyond Thule by Antonius Diogenes may have also been written during the early second century AD, although scholars are unsure of its exact date. The Wonders Beyond Thule has not survived in its complete form, but a very lengthy summary of it written by Photios I of Constantinople has survived. The Ephesian Tale by Xenophon of Ephesus was probably written during the late second century AD.
The satirist Lucian of Samosata lived during the late second century AD. Lucian 's works were incredibly popular during antiquity. Over eighty different writings attributed to Lucian have survived to the present day. Almost all of Lucian 's works are written in the heavily Atticized dialect of ancient Greek language prevalent among the well - educated at the time. His book The Syrian Goddess, however, was written in a faux - Ionic dialect, deliberately imitating the dialect and style of Herodotus. Lucian 's most famous work is the novel A True Story, which some authors have described as the earliest surviving work of science fiction. His dialogue The Lover of Lies contains several of the earliest known ghost stories as well as the earliest known version of "The Sorcerer 's Apprentice. '' His letter The Passing of Peregrinus, a ruthless satire against Christians, contains the earliest undisputed reference to Jesus Christ by a Greek author.
The Aethiopica by Heliodorus of Emesa was probably written during the third century AD. It tells the story of a young Ethiopian princess named Chariclea, who is estranged from her family and goes on many misadventures across the known world. Of all the ancient Greek novels, the one that attained the greatest level of popularity was the Alexander Romance, a fictionalized account of the exploits of Alexander the Great written in the third century AD. Eighty versions of it have survived in twenty - four different languages, attesting that, during the Middle Ages, the novel was nearly as popular as the Bible. Versions of the Alexander Romance were so commonplace in the fourteenth century that Geoffrey Chaucer wrote that "... every wight that hath discrecioun / Hath herd somwhat or al of (Alexander 's) fortune. ''
Ancient Greek literature has had an enormous impact on western literature as a whole. Ancient Roman authors adopted various styles and motifs from ancient Greek literature. These ideas were later, in turn, adopted by other western European writers and literary critics.
Ancient Greek literature especially influenced later Greek literature. For instance, the Greek novels influenced the later work Hero and Leander, written by Musaeus Grammaticus. Ancient Roman writers were acutely aware of the ancient Greek literary legacy and many deliberately emulated the style and formula of Greek classics in their own works. The Roman poet Vergil, for instance, modeled his epic poem The Aeneid off The Iliad and The Odyssey.
During the Middle Ages, ancient Greek literature was largely forgotten in Western Europe. The medieval writer Roger Bacon wrote that "there are not four men in Latin Christendom who are acquainted with the Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic grammars. ''
It was not until the Renaissance that Greek writings were rediscovered by western European scholars. During the Renaissance, Greek began to be taught in western European colleges and universities for the first time, which resulted in western European scholars rediscovering the literature of ancient Greece. The Textus Receptus, the first New Testament printed in the original Greek, was published in 1512 by the Italian humanist scholar Desiderius Erasmus. Erasmus also published Latin translations of classical Greek texts, including a Latin translation of Hesiod 's Works and Days.
The influence of classical Greek literature on modern literature is also evident. Numerous figures from classical literature and mythology appear throughout The Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri. Plutarch 's Lives were a major influence on William Shakespeare and served as the main source behind his tragedies Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra, and Coriolanus. Shakespeare 's comedies A Comedy of Errors and The Twelfth Night drew heavily on themes from Graeco - Roman New Comedy. Meanwhile, Shakespeare 's tragedy Timon of Athens was inspired by a story written by Lucian and his comedy Pericles, Prince of Tyre was based off an adaptation of the ancient Greek novel Apollonius of Tyre found in John Gower 's Confessio Amantis.
John Milton 's epic poem Paradise Lost makes frequent allusions to figures from classical literature and mythology, using them as symbols to convey a Christian message. Lucian 's A True Story was part of the inspiration for Jonathan Swift 's novel Gulliver 's Travels. Bulfinch 's Mythology, a book on Greek mythology published in 1867 and aimed at a popular audience, was described by Carl J. Richard as "one of the most popular books ever published in the United States ''.
George Bernard Shaw 's play Pygmalion is a modern, rationalized retelling of the ancient Greek legend of Pygmalion. James Joyce 's novel Ulysses, heralded by critics as one of the greatest works of modern literature, is a retelling of Homer 's Odyssey set in modern - day Dublin. The mid-twentieth - century British author Mary Renault wrote a number of critically acclaimed novels inspired by ancient Greek literature and mythology, including The Last of the Wine and The King Must Die.
Even in works that do not consciously draw on Graeco - Roman literature, authors often employ concepts and themes originating in ancient Greece. The ideas expressed in Aristotle 's Poetics, in particular, have influenced generations of Western writers and literary critics. A Latin translation of an Arabic version of the Poetics by Averroes was available during the Middle Ages. Common Greek literary terms still used today include: catharsis, ethos, anagnorisis, hamartia, hubris, mimesis, mythos, nemesis, and peripeteia.
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what is the difference between xcopy and robocopy | Robocopy - wikipedia
Robocopy, or "Robust File Copy '', is a command - line directory and / or file replication command. Robocopy functionally replaces Xcopy, with more options. It has been available as part of the Windows Resource Kit starting with Windows NT 4.0, and was first introduced as a standard feature in Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008. The command is robocopy.
Robocopy is noted for capabilities above and beyond the built - in Windows copy and xcopy commands, including the following:
Robocopy does not copy open files. Any process may open files for exclusive read access by withholding the FILE_SHARE_READ flag during opening. Even Robocopy 's Backup mode will not touch those files. (Backup mode instead runs Robocopy as a "Backup Operator ''. This allows Robocopy to override permissions settings, specifically, NTFS ACLs.) Normally Volume Shadow Copy Service is used for such situations, but Robocopy does not use it. Therefore, Robocopy is not useful for backing up live operating system volumes. However, one can use a separate utility, such as ShadowSpawn (Free, Open Sourced, and MIT Licensed) or GSCopyPro ($30 - $50) or DiskShadow. exe (included with Windows Server 2008), to create a shadow copy of a given volume, which Robocopy can then be directed to back up.
Robocopy versions on systems older than Windows Vista do not mirror properly. They ignore changed security attributes of previously mirrored files.
When specifying the / MT (: n) option to enable multithreaded copying, the / NP option to disable reporting of the progress percentage for files is ignored. By default the MT switch provides 8 threads. The n is the amount of threads you specify if you do not want to use the default.
Here are some examples of usage. If more than one option is specified, they must be separated by spaces.
If directory names have non-standard characters, such as spaces, they can be put in double quotes (as usual in command - line commands).
For the full reference, see the Microsoft TechNet Robocopy page.
Robocopy syntax is markedly different from standard copy commands, as it accepts only folder names as its source and destination arguments. File names and wild - card characters (such as "*. * '') are not valid source or destination arguments.
However, files may be selected or excluded using the optional "file '' filtering argument (which may include wildcards) along with various other options. File specifications can refer only to the filenames relative to the folders already selected for copying. Fully qualified path names are not supported.
For example, to copy the file foo. txt from directory c: \ bar to c: \ baz, one could use the following syntax:
And to copy only PDF files -- with file extension. pdf -- from directory c: \ bar to c: \ baz, one could use the following syntax:
By default Robocopy outputs to the screen (or optionally to a log file) all the directories it encounters (in alphabetical order). Each directory is preceded by the number of files in that directory that fulfill the criteria for being copied. If the directory does not yet exist in the target, it is marked "New Dir ''. But if the directory is empty and the / E option is not used, or it contains no files meeting the criteria, a new directory should not actually be created.
If the / NFL (no file names in log) option is not used, the files being copied will be listed after the name of the directory they are in.
At the end of the output is a table giving numbers of directories, files, and bytes. For each of these, the table gives the total number found in the source, the number "copied '' (but this includes directories marked "New Dir '' even if they are not copied), the number "skipped '' (because they already exist in the target), and the number of "mismatches '', "FAILED '', and "extras ''. "Failed '' can mean that there was an I / O error that prevented a file being copied, or that access was denied. There is also a row of time taken (in which the time spent on failed files seems to be in the wrong column).
Robocopy 's "inter-packet gap '' (IPG) option allows some control over the network bandwidth used in a session. In theory, the following formula expresses the delay (D, in milliseconds) required to simulate a desired bandwidth (B, in kilobits per second), over a network link with an available bandwidth of B kbps:
D = B A − B D B A × B D × 512 × 1000 (\ displaystyle D = (B_ (A) - B_ (D) \ over B_ (A) \ times B_ (D)) \ times 512 \ times 1000)
In practice however, some experimentation is usually required to find a suitable delay, due to factors such as the nature and volume of other traffic on the network. The methodology employed by the IPG option may not offer the same level of control provided by some other bandwidth throttling technologies, such as BITS (which is used by Windows Update and BranchCache).
Although Robocopy itself is a command - line tool, Microsoft TechNet provides a GUI front - end called Robocopy GUI. It was developed by Derk Benisch, a systems engineer with the MSN Search group at Microsoft, and required. NET Framework 2.0. It includes a copy of Robocopy version XP026.
There are other non-Microsoft GUIs for Robocopy:
Ken Tamaru of Microsoft has also developed a copying program similar to Robocopy, called RichCopy, which is available on Microsoft TechNet. While it is not based on Robocopy, it offers similar features, and it does not require. NET Framework.
Note: Several versions of Robocopy do not show the version number when executing robocopy /? on the command line. But their version is stored inside the executable itself and can be queried with PowerShell for example (gcm robocopy fl *) or inside Windows Explorer by right - clicking on Robocopy. exe, selecting Properties, then clicking on the Details tab.
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which area of technology might be associated with these items music recorders and players | Music technology (electronic and digital) - wikipedia
Electronic and digital music technology is the use of electronic or digital instruments, computers, electronic effects units, software or digital audio equipment by a musician, composer, sound engineer, DJ or record producer to make, perform or record music. The term usually refers to the use of electronic devices, electronic and digital instruments, computer hardware and computer software that is used in the performance, playback, recording, composition, sound recording and reproduction, mixing, analysis and editing of music.
Music technology is connected to both artistic and technological creativity. Musicians and music technology experts are constantly striving to devise new forms of expression through music, and they are physically creating new devices and software to enable them to do so. Although in the 2010s, the term is most commonly used in reference to modern electronic devices and computer software such as digital audio workstations and Protools digital sound recording software, electronic and digital musical technologies have precursors in the electric music technologies of the early 20th century, such as the electromechanical Hammond organ, which was invented in 1929. In the 2010s, the ontological range of music technology has greatly increased, and it may now be electronic, digital, software - based or indeed even purely conceptual.
Music technology is taught at many different educational levels, including college diplomas and university degrees at the undergraduate and graduate level. The study of music technology is usually concerned with the creative use of technology for creating new sounds, performing, recording, programming sequencers or other music - related electronic devices, and manipulating, mixing and reproducing music. Music technology programs train students for careers in "... sound engineering, computer music, audio - visual production and post-production, mastering, scoring for film and multimedia, audio for games, software development, and multimedia production. '' Those wishing to develop new music technologies often train to become an audio engineer working in R&D. Due to the increasing role of interdisciplinary work in music technology, individuals developing new music technologies may also have backgrounds or training in computer programming, computer hardware design, acoustics, record producing or other fields.
In the 2010s, electronic and digital music technologies are widely used to assist in music education for training students in high school, college and university music programs. Electronic keyboard labs are used for cost - effective beginner group piano instruction in colleges and universities.
Early pioneers included Luigi Russolo, Halim El - Dabh, Pierre Schaeffer, Pierre Henry, Edgard Varèse, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Ikutaro Kakehashi, and King Tubby. Music technology has been and is being used in many modernist and contemporary experimental music situations to create new sound possibilities.
A synthesizer is an electronic musical instrument that generates electric signals that are converted to sound through instrument amplifiers and loudspeakers or headphones. Synthesizers may either imitate existing sounds (instruments, vocal, natural sounds, etc.), or generate new electronic timbres or sounds that did not exist before. They are often played with an electronic musical keyboard, but they can be controlled via a variety of other input devices, including music sequencers, instrument controllers, fingerboards, guitar synthesizers, wind controllers, and electronic drums. Synthesizers without built - in controllers are often called sound modules, and are controlled using a controller device.
Synthesizers use various methods to generate a signal. Among the most popular waveform synthesis techniques are subtractive synthesis, additive synthesis, wavetable synthesis, frequency modulation synthesis, phase distortion synthesis, physical modeling synthesis and sample - based synthesis. Other less common synthesis types include subharmonic synthesis, a form of additive synthesis via subharmonics (used by mixture trautonium), and granular synthesis, sample - based synthesis based on grains of sound, generally resulting in soundscapes or clouds. In the 2010s, synthesizers are used in many genres of pop, rock and dance music. Contemporary classical music composers from the 20th and 21st century write compositions for synthesizer.
The development of the modern synthesizer was spurred on by the invention of the miniaturized transistor in 1947. The lightweight transistors made it was possible to make synthesizers much more portable and complex. A new breed of synthesizers appeared, mainly in America. American inventor Robert Moog 's synthesizer designs in the 1960s were a significant advancement in the field over its predecessors. This was partially owed to new technologies that became available, such as the newly developed semiconductors. These new instruments were less expensive and became available worldwide. These were capable of producing a vast range of complex sounds. Later versions often incorporated automatic rhythm units, called drum machines. They had more popularity than any synthesizer from the past. The release of Wendy Carlos ' album Switched - On Bach in 1968 brought Moog 's synthesizer to the general public 's attention. The album demonstrated that besides creating strange sounds, the synthesizer could be used to make beautiful music.
In the 1970s, the American domination of the synthesizer market was relinquished to the Japanese, with synthesizers made by Yamaha Corporation, Roland Corporation, Korg, Kawai and other companies. Yamaha 's DX7 was one of the first mass - market, relatively inexpensive synthesizer keyboards. The DX7 is an FM synthesis based digital synthesizer manufactured from 1983 to 1989. It was the first commercially successful digital synthesizer. Its distinctive sound can be heard on many recordings, especially pop music from the 1980s. The monotimbral, 16 - note polyphonic DX7 was the moderately priced model of the DX series keyboard synthesizers. Over 200,000 of the original DX7 were made, and it remains one of the best - selling synthesizers of all time. The most iconic bass synthesizer is the Roland TB - 303, widely used in acid house music. Other classic synthesizers include the Moog Minimoog, ARP Odyssey, Yamaha CS - 80, Korg MS - 20, Sequential Circuits Prophet - 5, Fairlight CMI, PPG Wave, Roland TB - 303, Roland Alpha Juno, Nord Modular and Korg M1.
A drum machine is an electronic musical instrument designed to imitate the sound of drums, cymbals, other percussion instruments, and often basslines. Drum machines either play back prerecorded samples of drums and cymbals or synthesized re-creations of drum / cymbal sounds in a rhythm and tempo that is programmed by a musician. Drum machines are most commonly associated with electronic dance music genres such as house music, but are also used in many other genres. They are also used when session drummers are not available or if the production can not afford the cost of a professional drummer. In the 2010s, most modern drum machines are sequencers with a sample playback (rompler) or synthesizer component that specializes in the reproduction of drum timbres. Though features vary from model to model, many modern drum machines can also produce unique sounds, and allow the user to compose unique drum beats and patterns.
Electro - mechanical drum machines were first developed in 1949, with the invention of the Chamberlin Rhythmate. Transistorized electronic drum machines later appeared in the 1960s. The Ace Tone Rhythm Ace, created by Ikutaro Kakehashi, began appearing in popular music from the late 1960s, followed by drum machines from Korg and Ikutaro 's later Roland Corporation also appearing in popular music from the early 1970s. Sly and the Family Stone 's 1971 album There 's a Riot Goin ' On helped to popularize the sound of early drum machines, along with Timmy Thomas ' 1972 R&B hit "Why Ca n't We Live Together '' and George McCrae 's 1974 disco hit "Rock Your Baby '' which used early Roland rhythm machines.
Early drum machines sounded drastically different than the drum machines that gained their peak popularity in the 1980s and defined an entire decade of pop music. The most iconic drum machine was the Roland TR - 808, widely used in hip hop and dance music. Other classic drum machines include the Alesis HR - 16, Korg Mini Pops 120, E-MU SP - 12, Elektron SPS1 Machinedrum, Roland CR - 78, PAiA Programmable Drum Set, LinnDrum, Roland TR - 909 and Oberheim DMX.
Digital sampling technology, introduced in the 1980s, has become a staple of music production in the 2000s. Devices that use sampling, record a sound digitally (often a musical instrument, such as a piano or flute being played), and replay it when a key or pad on a controller device (e.g., an electronic keyboard, electronic drum pad, etc.) is pressed or triggered. Samplers can alter the sound using various audio effects and audio processing. Sampling has its roots in France with the sound experiments carried out by Musique Concrete practitioners.
In the 1980s, when the technology was still in its infancy, digital samplers cost tens of thousands of dollars and they were only used by the top recording studios and musicians. These were out of the price range of most musicians. Early samplers include the 12 - bit Toshiba LMD - 649 and the 8 - bit Emulator I in 1981. The latter 's successor, the Emulator II (released in 1984), listed for $8,000. Samplers were released during this period with high price tags, such as the K2000 and K2500.
The first affordable sampler, the AKAI S612, became available in the mid-1980s and retailed for US $895. Other companies soon released affordable samplers, including the Mirage Sampler, Oberheim DPX - 1, and more by Korg, Casio, Yamaha, and Roland. Some important hardware samplers include the Akai Z4 / Z8, Ensoniq ASR - 10, Roland V - Synth, Casio FZ - 1, Kurzweil K250, Akai MPC60, Ensoniq Mirage, Akai S1000, E-mu Emulator, and Fairlight CMI.
One of the biggest uses of sampling technology was by hip - hop music DJs and performers in the 1980s. Before affordable sampling technology was readily available, DJs would use a technique pioneered by Grandmaster Flash to manually repeat certain parts in a song by juggling between two separate turntables. This can be considered as an early precursor of sampling. In turn, this turntablism technique originates from Jamaican dub music in the 1960s, and was introduced to American hip hop in the 1970s.
In the 2000s, most professional recording studios use digital technologies. In the 2010s, many samplers exist in the digital - only realm. This new generation of digital samplers are capable of reproducing and manipulating sounds. New genres of music have formed which would be impossible without sampling. Advanced sample libraries have made complete performances of orchestral compositions possible that sound similar to a live performance. Modern sound libraries allow musicians to have the ability to use the sounds of almost any instrument in their productions.
MIDI has been the musical instrument industry standard interface since the 1980s through to the present day. It dates back to June 1981, when Roland Corporation founder Ikutaro Kakehashi proposed the concept of standardization between different manufacturers ' instruments as well as computers, to Oberheim Electronics founder Tom Oberheim and Sequential Circuits president Dave Smith. In October 1981, Kakehashi, Oberheim and Smith discussed the concept with representatives from Yamaha, Korg and Kawai. In 1983, the MIDI standard was unveiled by Kakehashi and Smith.
At the NAMM show in Los Angeles of 1983, MIDI was released. A demonstration at the convention showed two previously incompatible analog synthesizers, the Prophet 600 and Roland Jupiter - 6, communicating with each other, enabling a player to play one keyboard while getting the output from both of them. This was a massive breakthrough in the 1980s, as it allowed synths to be accurately layered in live shows and studio recordings. MIDI enables different electronic instruments and electronic music devices to communicate with each other and with computers. The advent of MIDI spurred a rapid expansion of the sales and production of electronic instruments and music software.
In 1985, several of the top keyboard manufacturers created the MIDI Manufacturers Association (MMA). This newly founded association standardized the MIDI protocol by generating and disseminating all the documents about it. With the development of the MIDI File Format Specification by Opcode, every music software company 's MIDI sequencer software could read and write each other 's files.
Since the 1980s, personal computers developed and became the ideal system for utilizing the vast potential of MIDI. This has created a large consumer market for software such as MIDI - equipped electronic keyboards, MIDI sequencers and Digital Audio Workstations. With universal MIDI protocols, electronic keyboards, sequencers, and drum machines can all be connected together.
Some universally accepted varieties of MIDI software applications include music instruction software, MIDI sequencing software, music notation software, hard disk recording / editing software, patch editor / sound library software, computer - assisted composition software, and virtual instruments. Current developments in computer hardware and specialized software continue to expand MIDI applications.
Computer and synthesizer technology joining together changed the way music is made, and is one of the fastest changing aspects of music technology today. Dr. Max Matthews, a telecommunications engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories ' Acoustic and Behavioural Research Department, is responsible for some of the first digital music technology in the 50s. Dr. Matthews also pioneered a cornerstone of music technology; analog to digital conversion.
The first generation of professional commercially available computer music instruments, or workstations as some companies later called them, were very sophisticated elaborate systems that cost a great deal of money when they first appeared. They ranged from $25,000 to $200,000. The two most popular were the Fairlight, and the Synclavier.
It was not until the advent of MIDI that general - purpose computers started to play a role in music production. Following the widespread adoption of MIDI, computer - based MIDI editors and sequencers were developed. MIDI - to - CV / Gate converters were then used to enable analogue synthesizers to be controlled by a MIDI sequencer.
Reduced prices in personal computers caused the masses to turn away from the more expensive workstations. Advancements in technology have increased the speed of hardware processing and the capacity of memory units. Software developers write new, more powerful programs for sequencing, recording, notating, and mastering music.
Music sequencer software, such as Pro Tools, Logic Audio and many others, are the most widely used form of contemporary music technology in the 2000s. Such programs allow the user to record acoustic sounds with a microphone, mix tracks record or MIDI musical sequences, which may then be organized along a timeline and edited on a flat - panel display of a computer or Digital Audio Workstation. Musical segments recorded on can be copied and duplicated ad infinitum, without any loss of fidelity or added noise (a major contrast from analog recording, in which every copy leads to a loss of fidelity and added noise). Digital music can be edited and processed using a multitude of audio effects. Contemporary classical music sometimes uses computer - generated sounds, either pre-recorded or generated / manipulated live, in conjunction or wikt: juxtaposition with classical acoustic instruments like the cello or violin. Classical and other notated types of music are frequently written on scorewriter software.
Many musicians and artists use ' patcher ' type programmes, such as Pd, Bidule, Max / MSP, Kyma (sound design language) and Audiomulch as well as (or instead of) digital audio workstations or sequencers and there are still a significant number of people using more "traditional '' software only approaches such as CSound or the Composers Desktop Project. Music technology includes many forms of music reproduction. Music and sound technology refer to the use of sound engineering in a commercial, experimental or amateur hobbyist manner. Music technology and sound technology may sometimes be classed as the same thing, but they actually refer to different fields of work. Sound engineering refers primarily to the use of sound technology for sound recording or in sound reinforcement systems used in concerts and live shows.
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who was ariel the little mermaid based on | Ariel (Disney) - wikipedia
Triton (father) Athena (mother; deceased) Aquata, Andrina, Arista, Attina, Adella and Alana (older sisters) Poseidon (paternal grandfather) Crustacea (paternal great - aunt)
Ariel is a fictional character and the title character of Walt Disney Pictures ' 28th animated film The Little Mermaid (1989). She subsequently appears in the film 's prequel television series (1992 -- 1994), direct - to - video sequel The Little Mermaid II: Return to the Sea (2000), and direct - to - video prequel The Little Mermaid: Ariel 's Beginning (2008). Ariel is voiced by Jodi Benson in all official animated appearances and merchandise. She is fourth in the Disney Princess lineup, the first nonhuman princess, and the only princess to become a mother to her own child.
Ariel has a distinctive appearance, with her long, flowing, bright red hair, blue eyes, green mermaid tail and purple seashell bikini top. In the films and television series, she is the seventh - born daughter of King Triton and Queen Athena of an underwater kingdom of Merfolk called Atlantica. She is often rebellious, and in the first film, she longs to be a part of the human world. She marries Prince Eric, whom she rescued from a shipwreck, and together they have a daughter, Melody.
The character is based on the title character of Hans Christian Andersen 's "The Little Mermaid '' story but was developed into a different personality for the 1989 animated film adaptation. Ariel has received a mixed reception from critics; some publications such as Time criticize her for being too devoted to Eric whereas others, such as Empire, praise the character for her rebellious personality, a departure from previous Disney Princesses.
Ariel was based on the title character of Hans Christian Andersen 's "The Little Mermaid '', but co-director and writer Ron Clements felt that the mermaid in the original story was too tragic and rewrote the character, resulting in Ariel.
Jodi Benson, who was predominantly a stage actress, was chosen to voice Ariel because the directors felt "it was really important to have the same person doing the singing and speaking voice ''. Clements stated that Benson 's voice had a unique "sweetness '' and "youthfulness ''. When recording the vocals for "Part of Your World '', Benson asked that the lights in the studio be dimmed, to create the feeling of being deep under the sea. "Part of Your World '', which was referred to by songwriter Howard Ashman as the "I Want '' song, was originally going to be cut from the final film, owing to Jeffrey Katzenberg 's belief that it slowed the story down, but Ashman and Keane fought to keep it in.
Ariel 's original design was developed by animator Glen Keane. Her appearance was based on a number of inspirational sources, including Glen Kleane 's wife, actress Alyssa Milano (who was 16 at the time in addition to hosting the making of the special on Disney Channel,) and model - comedian Sherri Stoner, who provided live - action references for the animators during the development of the film. The movement of Ariel 's hair underwater was based on footage of astronaut Sally Ride while she was in space. Extra reference was given by filming Stoner swimming in a pool, which also helped guide Ariel 's aquatic movement.
A challenge in animating Ariel for the 1989 film was the color required to show Ariel in the changing environments, both under the sea and on land, for which the animators required thirty - two color models, not including costume changes. The bluish - green color of Ariel 's fin was a hue specially mixed by the Disney paint lab; the color was named "Ariel '' after the character. The choice of red as Ariel 's hair color was the subject of dispute between the filmmakers and studio executives who wanted the character to have blonde hair. It was noted that red hair contrasted better with Ariel 's green tail, red was easier to darken than yellow, and Disney 's live - action branch Touchstone Pictures had recently released Splash that had a blonde mermaid; Ariel 's red hair was ultimately kept.
In an interview, Jodi Benson stated that for Ariel 's Beginning, the writers revised the script multiple times to make sure Ariel retained her relevance in a more modern context. Benson complained to them that they wrote Ariel out of character and suggested they bring her back to her roots.
Ariel is the youngest of King Triton and Queen Athena 's seven daughters. She is often seen in the company of Flounder, her best friend, and Sebastian, her father 's advisor who is often assigned to keep an eye on her. In the television series and first film, Ariel has a fascination with the human world and often goes off to find human artifacts that she displays in a secret grotto. Ariel is often rebellious, wandering off on her own to explore her surroundings, and frequently disobeys the orders of her father or Sebastian, causing conflict between the characters. In The Little Mermaid, she is depicted as being willing to do anything to be with Prince Eric, even giving up her voice to become human. Clements described her as a typical teenager, prone to errors of judgment. She also is incredibly curious, and her curiosity often leads her into dangerous situations.
Ariel is kind and caring to others no matter what their circumstances, as depicted in the television series. In an early episode, Ariel helps an orphaned merboy who had fallen in with a bad crowd. In another episode, Ariel befriends a supposed bad luck creature and protects it from Ursula and other merfolk who wish it harm. Ariel appears as an adult in Return to the Sea and gives birth to a daughter named Melody, becoming the first, and currently, only, Disney princess to become a mother. Ariel is protective of her daughter, as Triton was of Ariel in the first film. After Morgana threatens Ariel and King Triton, Prince Eric and Ariel build a wall around the palace to protect Melody from Morgana and other terrors of the ocean. Although it protected her, it could not protect her curiosity. Ariel 's Beginning depicts her personality as it was in the original film after Jodi Benson had advocated returning the character to her roots. Ariel is once again rebellious, and after her father decrees music to be banned in Atlantica she runs away with Sebastian and his band.
Ariel first appears in The Little Mermaid (1989), in which she is shown as being adventurous and curious about the world of humans, a fascination which angers both her father King Triton and his court composer Sebastian, as merfolk are not allowed to make contact with the human world. She and Flounder go in search of human objects, which they take to a seagull named Scuttle for appraisal. Ariel falls in love with a human prince named Prince Eric after saving him from drowning, and visits the sea witch, Ursula, who agrees to turn her into a human in exchange for her voice. Ariel must make Prince Eric fall in love with her and romantically kiss her within three days, lest she belong to Ursula forever.
Unknown to Ariel, this agreement is part of Ursula 's bigger plan to trap Ariel 's father, King Triton and steal his magical trident. After being transformed, she is soon found by Eric and is taken back to his castle. Ariel almost manages to obtain the "kiss of true love '', but is stopped by Ursula 's underhanded tactics. On the third day, Ursula transforms herself into a human, calling herself "Vanessa '' and using Ariel 's voice, and bewitches Eric to make him marry her. After learning from Scuttle that the woman is Ursula in disguise, Ariel disrupts the wedding and regains her voice but the sun sets as Ariel and Prince Eric are about to kiss, transforming Ariel back into a mermaid. After transforming herself back into her true witch form, Ursula takes Ariel back into the ocean, where she is met by King Triton and Sebastian.
Triton trades himself for Ariel, enabling Ursula to steal his crown and enabling her to claim his trident, a fascination which angers Ariel, who will not allow Ursula to destroy merfolk and humans. In the battle that follows, Ariel is trapped at the bottom of a whirlpool. Before Ursula can destroy her, Eric kills Ursula by ramming a derelict ship 's splintered prow through her. After Ursula dies, her spell is broken, and King Triton and the merfolk are transformed back to normal merpeople. At the end of the film, after King Triton uses his magical trident to transform her into a human, Ariel leaves the sea to live in the human world, and she and Eric marry and live happily ever after.
A prequel television series that originally aired from 1992 to 1994, depicts Ariel 's life as a mermaid under the sea with Sebastian, Flounder, and her father. Ariel appears in all 31 episodes of the series, which is set an unspecified time before the first film. The series follows Ariel 's adventures with her friends and family and sometimes has Ariel foiling the attempts of enemies that are intent on harming her or the kingdom of Atlantica.
Ariel 's relationships with various characters from the film are highlighted and expanded, such as the love and occasional conflict between Ariel and her father, how Ariel met Flounder and Scuttle, the relationships between Ariel and her sisters, and Ariel 's early fear and avoidance of Ursula the sea witch. Other recurring new characters are also introduced, such as merboy Urchin and mermaid Gabriella that become Ariel 's friends, as well as the Evil Manta, Lobster Mobster and Da Shrimp, who are Ariel 's enemies. Ariel 's mother is absent from the series, having already died prior to the events of the series, though she is occasionally mentioned in vague terms. In one episode Ariel comes across Hans Christian Andersen, author of "The Little Mermaid ''. In the fictionalized encounter she saves Andersen 's life, inspiring him to write the story.
Some episodes of the series are musical and feature original songs performed by the characters. A soundtrack containing some of these songs was released in 1992 under the title "Splash Hits ''.
In The Little Mermaid II: Return to the Sea (2000), Ariel, now the new queen of Prince Eric 's kingdom has given birth to a daughter named Melody. When Melody 's safety is threatened by Ursula 's sister Morgana after using her as a hostage to get King Triton 's Trident, Ariel and her husband Eric decide they must keep Melody away from the sea. So they build a large wall to separate it from the castle.
But Melody 's love of the sea proves too strong and she visits Morgana, who turns her into a mermaid temporarily. King Triton uses his trident to transform Ariel back into her own mermaid form to find and rescue Melody. Morgana tricks Melody into taking part in a plot to steal her grandfather King Triton 's trident. Together with Tip the Penguin and Dash the Walrus she goes to Atlantica and succeeds in acquiring the trident. Ariel arrives as they return with it to Morgana, and tries to persuade Melody to give back the trident. Morgana captures Ariel, tightly wrapping her tentacle around Ariel 's mouth and body. She then seals Melody behind a block wall. Tip and Dash rescue Melody and Ariel manages to free themselves. Morgana then uses the trident 's magic to force everyone to bow before her.
Melody manages to grab the trident and returns it to King Triton, who then punishes Morgana by sending her to the bottom of the ocean frozen in a block of ice. Triton returns Ariel to human form, the wall separating Eric 's castle from the sea is torn down, and contact between humans and merfolk is restored.
The prologue of The Little Mermaid: Ariel 's Beginning (2008) shows Ariel as a young mermaid, living happily with her father, King Triton, her mother, Queen Athena, and her six older sisters. As Ariel and her family relax in a lagoon, a pirate ship approaches and everyone flees except Athena, who returns to recover a music box Triton had given her and is killed when the ship crushes her. Afterwards, a devastated King Triton bans all music from Atlantica and throws the music box deep into the ocean. Ariel and her sisters grow up forgetting music and living under their father 's strict rules, enforced by Marina del Rey, their governess.
Ariel meets Flounder and follows him to a secret underground club where Sebastian and his band play music. There she sings the song "I Remember '', which reminds her of her distant past surrounded by love and music, and of her mother. Ariel introduces her sisters to the club, but eventually they are caught thanks to Marina, who had followed them. Sebastian and his band are imprisoned and the club is closed under Triton 's orders. After arguing with Triton, Ariel breaks the band out of prison and escapes with them.
With Sebastian 's assistance, Ariel finds her mother 's music box, and they decide to return it to Triton. On their way back to Atlantica, they encounter Marina, and a struggle ensues in which Ariel is knocked unconscious, witnessed by Triton. Ariel makes a full recovery, and a remorseful Triton allows music back into Atlantica.
In addition to the film 's official soundtrack, two original music albums were released by Walt Disney Records for the franchise: Sebastian from The Little Mermaid (1990) and The Little Mermaid: Songs from the Sea (1992). The former is a cover album mainly focusing on Samuel E. Wright as Sebastian, with Ariel providing supporting vocals, while the latter is a concept album of original songs that depict a day in Ariel 's life under the sea. Ariel also appears in Songs and Story: Ariel 's Christmas Under the Sea, a Christmas - themed mini-album with a read - along story and two original songs. Jodi Benson performs in - character as Ariel in all these albums.
Ariel appears in a number of printed media that have been released as part of the franchise.
A series of twelve prequel novels were published in 1994 by Disney Press, following young Ariel 's adventures living under the sea with her sisters and father. The titles are: Green - Eyed Pearl and Nefazia Visits the Palace by Suzanne Weyn; Reflections of Arsulu and The Same Old Song by Marilyn Kaye; Arista 's New Boyfriend and Ariel the Spy by M.J. Carr; King Triton, Beware!, The Haunted Palace and The Boyfriend Mix - Up by Katherine Applegate; The Practical - Joke War by Stephanie St. Pierre; The Dolphins of Coral Cove by K.S. Rodriguez; and Alana 's Secret Friend by Jess Christopher. The novels mostly focus on the domestic setting of Ariel and her sisters living together.
In 1992 Disney Comics released a four - issue The Little Mermaid Limited Series comic book series. In 1994 Marvel Comics released its own title, Disney 's The Little Mermaid, which ran for twelve issues. All these comics are prequels to the film, and feature Ariel a mermaid living under the sea having adventures with Flounder and Sebastian, and thwarting villains that wish to take over or destroy Atlantica.
In 2000, Ariel became an official member of the newly launched Disney Princess line, an umbrella franchise that includes various Disney princesses under its banner. Ariel is one of the original 8 characters that were included at the franchise 's launch. The franchise is directed at young girls and covers a wide variety of merchandise, including but not limited to magazines, music albums, toys, video games, clothes, and stationery.
This franchise includes illustrated novels starring the various princesses, two of which are about Ariel: The Birthday Surprise and The Shimmering Star Necklace. Both novels are written by Gail Herman, and contain original stories about Ariel 's life as a human and Eric 's wife, but still maintaining close relationships with her father and sisters under the sea. The franchise also includes illustrated short stories about Ariel 's life as a human, such as Ariel and the Aquamarine Jewel, Ariel 's Dolphin Adventure, and Ariel 's Royal Wedding. Ariel also appears as a supporting character in one volume of the Japanese manga Kilala Princess, where she is seen in her pre-movie mermaid form.
Jodi Benson provides Ariel 's voice for her appearances in the Disney Princess music albums, DVDs, and video games. The first original song released for this franchise is "If You Can Dream '', which featured Cinderella, Aurora, Ariel, Belle, Pocahontas, Jasmine and Mulan singing together. Other original songs that feature Ariel are "I Just Love Getting Dressed for Tea '', "Manners and Etiquette '', "The Princess Dance '' and "Happy Birthday, Princess '' from Disney Princess Tea Party (2005); "Christmas Is Coming! '', "Christmas in the Ocean '', "Ariel 's Christmas Island '' and "The Twelve Days of Christmas '' from Disney Princess Christmas Album (2009); and "Ariel 's Sing - Along Sea Song: the Crab Song '' from Disney Princess Party (2010). Ariel also appears in the franchise video games Disney Princess: Enchanted Journey (2007), Disney Princess: Magical Jewels (2007) and Disney Princess: My Fairytale Adventure (2012).
Ariel appears in the Broadway adaptation of the 1989 film, which ran at the Lunt - Fontanne Theatre with previews from November 3, 2007, leading to opening night on January 10, 2008. This original production closed on August 30, 2009, but other US and international productions have followed since. The character of Ariel for the stage adaptation was originated by Sierra Boggess, with the role also portrayed later by actresses Chelsea Morgan Stock and Michelle Lookadoo. Jodi Benson, the original voice actress for Ariel, attended the musical 's opening night.
In order to portray the characters underwater, the actors wore Heelys wheeled footwear, which simulate the gliding action of swimming creatures. The actors playing Ariel and the other merfolk had wire - frame tails attached to their hips. Subsequent productions feature different designs for Ariel and the merfolk; the Dutch and Japanese productions use wirework and aerial stunts to create the illusion of underwater swimming.
The stage musical follows the basic structure of the film, but there are some differences between the two. In this version, Ursula is Triton 's sister and Ariel 's aunt. In a new subplot, Grimsby holds a contest inviting all the princesses in the land for a singing competition for Eric to choose his bride; Ariel can not sing, but she dances for Eric, and he chooses her. Ariel also has a more active role in the final battle, where she is the one who defeats Ursula by destroying her Nautilus shell that contains her power.
In addition to the songs in the film, Ariel has new songs by Alan Menken and lyrics by Glenn Slater. "The World Above '' is Ariel 's introductory song, where she expresses her admiration and curiosity with the human world, "Beyond My Wildest Dreams '' is performed after Ariel has become human and given up her voice, and is used to express her thoughts about the human world and Eric, and "If Only (quartet) '' is a quartet between Ariel, Eric, King Triton and Sebastian where all four express longing and sadness for their current situation: Ariel saddened that she only has one day left to get Eric to kiss her, Eric 's confusion of falling for Ariel despite longing for the mysterious girl who saved his life, King Triton 's regret at driving Ariel away, and Sebastian for his inability to help Ariel achieve her dreams.
Ariel makes regular appearances in the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, having a special location called Ariel 's Grotto at most of them. Ariel 's Grotto was torn down at Walt Disney World 's Magic Kingdom owing to the Fantasyland expansion. "The Little Mermaid '' mini-land can be found in the Magic Kingdom 's New Fantasyland. It includes a replica of Prince Eric 's Castle, a dark ride called Ariel 's Undersea Adventure, a market called "Prince Eric 's Village Market '', and Ariel 's meeting grotto. She has a major role in Mickey 's PhilharMagic and stars in her own live stage shows at Disney 's Hollywood Studios and Tokyo DisneySea. A dark ride based on the movie was designed for Disneyland Paris but never built. A re-designed version of the attraction, called Ariel 's Undersea Adventure, was built as part of the major expansion for Disney California Adventure Park. She also has her own hotel at the Disney 's Art of Animation Resort. There is a land in Tokyo DisneySea titled "Mermaid Lagoon ''. It features many rides and attractions themed around the Little Mermaid. A clone of the dark ride found in Disney California Adventure Park and Magic Kingdom was to be a part of Fantasyland in Hong Kong Disneyland but was never built. A clone of the dark ride was also supposed to be in Tokyo DisneySea but was canceled due to budget reasons. A Little Mermaid dark ride is or was planned in every Disney resort worldwide.
Not long after the film was released, late Muppet creator Jim Henson proposed a live - action show based on the film, titled Little Mermaid 's Island. Ariel was to be portrayed by Marietta DePrima, and she would interact with various puppet characters created by Jim Henson 's Creature Shop. Two episodes of this series were filmed but not aired due to complications after Henson 's death.
Ariel appears in various video games based on the films, including the two adaptations of the first film (one for NES and Game Boy, known as The Little Mermaid, and one for Sega consoles called Ariel the Little Mermaid) and the popular Kingdom Hearts series. In the first Kingdom Hearts, Ariel 's story has an unrelated plot to that of the movie. Ariel also makes an appearance in the sequel, Kingdom Hearts II, where its storyline loosely follows the plotline of the 1989 film. They 're also was an appearance card in the video game Mickey 's Memory Challenge on 1993. Other video games based on the character include a pinball adaption of the second movie and three children 's titles for personal computers: Ariel 's Story Studio, The Little Mermaid Activity Center and Disney 's The Little Mermaid Print Studio. In addition, Ariel appears in multiple games within the Disney Princess line of games, including Disney Princess: Enchanted Journey and Disney Princess: My Fairytale Adventure.
In 2001, Ariel appeared occasionally in the animated television series Disney 's House of Mouse as one of Mickey 's guests at the nightclub. She is seen in both her mermaid and human forms.
On November 24, 2013, Ariel made a brief appearance in a TV special Sofia the First: The Floating Palace, which is part of the computer - animated television series Sofia the First. In the special, Sofia is trying to help her mermaid friend, Oona, whose underwater kingdom is under threat. Sofia wishes for help, and the magical amulet of Avalor summons Ariel in her mermaid form, who gives Sofia advice on what to do. Ariel performs the song "The Love We Share '' with Sofia.
A live - action version of Ariel appeared in the ABC television series Once Upon a Time, where she was played by JoAnna Garcia. Showrunners Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz had wanted to introduce the character for a while but saved her for season three when the show 's setting temporarily moved to the fictional Neverland, a land with mermaids. Ariel 's highly anticipated appearance was announced with a teaser trailer at the show 's panel at the San Diego Comic - con on July 20, 2013, during the hiatus between the second and third seasons. The showrunners provided their own "spin '' on the character of Ariel for the show, but maintained her spirit as someone "who wants to see the world and who wants to experience things outside of what they know ''. In portraying the role, García had to film scenes swimming in the cold ocean water of Vancouver with her legs bound, which was additionally challenging since it was her first role after giving birth. Ariel 's main arc took place over several episodes of the 2013 - 2014 third season, and she later appeared in one episode each of the fourth and sixth seasons.
Ariel first appears in the sixth episode of season three, "Ariel ''. In the Enchanted Forest flashbacks of the episode, Ariel meets Snow White (Ginnifer Goodwin) by saving her from drowning. Snow and Ariel become friends, during which Snow advises Ariel to pursue her love interest Prince Eric (Gil McKinney), whom she 'd rescued from drowning earlier. Ursula, the sea goddess, has given merfolk the ability to gain legs once a year; Ariel uses this gift to turn human and attend Prince Eric 's ball with Snow. At the ball, Ariel and Eric dance, with Eric commenting that Ariel seems familiar to him. Eric invites Ariel to join him on an expedition around the world that is leaving the following morning. As Ariel contemplates her dilemma she is approached by the Evil Queen Regina (Lana Parrilla), who has disguised herself as Ursula and pretends to want to help her. Regina 's true agenda is to capture Snow, but Ariel thwarts Regina 's plan and manages to escape with Snow. As an act of revenge, Regina takes Ariel 's voice so she can not call out to Eric before he leaves on his voyage.
Years later Regina calls to Ariel for help. Regina is trapped on Neverland and needs Ariel to use her merfolk ability to travel between realms and collect something from Storybrooke. In return, Regina restores Ariel 's voice and gives her a bracelet that can give her legs for 24 hours and tells her that Prince Eric is in Storybrooke. In the following episode, "Dark Hollow '', Ariel travels to Storybrooke to meet Belle (Emilie de Ravin), and they work together to find Pandora 's box. Ariel manages to bring the box back to Regina in Neverland, and in return, Regina casts a spell on the bracelet so Ariel can use it to gain legs whenever and for however long she wishes. At the beginning of the tenth episode of the season, "The New Neverland '', Ariel and Eric are reunited in Storybrooke.
In the seventeenth episode, "The Jolly Roger '', Ariel has been separated from Eric again due to the events of "The New Neverland ''. In the Enchanted Forest, she learns that Eric has been kidnapped by Blackbeard the pirate, and teams up with Hook to help save him. Faced with an ultimatum, Hook chooses the Jolly Roger over information on Eric 's whereabouts; Ariel is angered at Hook but leaves to find Eric on her own. In Storybrooke a year later, Zelena (Rebecca Mader) disguises herself as Ariel, pretending that she 's still searching for Eric in order to torment Hook with his guilt. It is later revealed that Ariel successfully found Eric on her own and they have been living happily together.
Ariel returns briefly in season four episode "Poor Unfortunate Soul ''. She rescues Captain Hook from drowning when he falls off the Jolly Roger after altercation with the sea witch Ursula (Merrin Dungey). Queen Elsa of Arendelle cast a spell to shrink the Jolly Roger into a bottle in order to punish its previous owner, Blackbeard; Ariel was unknowingly trapped in the spell as well. Although Ariel is still mildly angry with Hook after their last encounter, she is grateful for his freeing her from the ship 's spell. Ariel then helps bring Ursula 's father, King Poseidon (Ernie Hudson), to Storybrooke so that the father - daughter pair can reconcile. Ariel also appears in season 6 episode "A Wondrous Place ''. Flashbacks depict Ariel 's travels to Agrabah in search of Prince Eric; although she is unsuccessful, she meets and befriends Princess Jasmine (Karen David). In the episode 's present time, Ariel reunites with Jasmine and helps her defeat the sorcerer Jafar (Oded Fehr).
Reception for the role has been received positively, with Amy Ratcliffe of IGN saying "The mermaid was endearing, and Garcia could n't have done a better job with her. She had terrific chemistry with everyone, too ''.
In 2016 a stripped - down concert version of The Little Mermaid was staged at the Hollywood Bowl, featuring the songs from the film and four songs from the Broadway musical. Sara Bareilles performed the role of Ariel for the first two nights of the concert (June 4 and 5), while Jodi Benson, the original voice actress for Ariel, reprised her role for the June 6 performance.
Ariel, alongside other Disney Princesses, is set to cameo in the film, as was announced at the 2017 D23 Expo.
Ariel has received a mixed reception from critics. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times praised the character, writing that "Ariel is a fully realized female character who thinks and acts independently, even rebelliously, instead of hanging around passively while the fates decide her destiny ''. James Bernardelli of Reelviews wrote that Ariel can be viewed as a template for future Disney heroes and heroines. He also praised Jodi Benson 's vocal performance for the character. In an article for Empire, Levi Buchanan stated that Ariel is "powerful and self - reliant ''. Janet Maslin of The New York Times complimented Ariel, stating that "teenagers will appreciate the story 's rebellious heroine '' and went on to praise Ariel 's wit. Josh Tyler of Cinema Blend wrote favorably about Ariel although he believed that the character was eroticized, stating, "The scene where Ursula rips out her throat and gives her extremely naked parts below the waist is almost titillating, though I 'm sure to little kids it seems entirely innocent ''. Similarly, reviewer John Puccio said that "Ariel is perhaps the sexiest - looking animated character the Disney artists have ever drawn ''. In his review of Ariel 's Beginning, James Plath of DVD Town wrote, "For little girls, Ariel is one of the most beloved of Disney princesses, and she holds a warm place in the hearts of parents as well ''. Rory Aronsky of Film Threat praised Jodi Benson 's vocal performance in Ariel 's Beginning, writing that "Benson adds more to the appeal of Ariel for older fans, and younger girls just learning about her, as well as generations not born yet who will undoubtedly become attached to her, ensuring the continued existence of the franchise ''.
In their review of The Little Mermaid, the staff of TV Guide wrote that Ariel resembled "a big - haired, denatured Barbie doll, despite her hourglass figure and skimpy seashell brassiere ''. Tamara Weston of Time wrote that while Ariel is less passive and more strong - willed than her predecessors, she still "gives up her voice to be with a man '' who comes to her rescue at the film 's climax. Hal Hinson of The Washington Post wrote that it would be difficult for children to relate to Ariel 's "feelings of disenchantment and longing for another world '' and that she "does n't have much personality ''. However, Hinson also wrote a positive statement about Ariel, saying it was "refreshing... to see a heroine who has some sense of what she wants and the resources to go after it ''. Nell Minow of Common Sense Media had a mixed view of Ariel, praising her for being "adventuresome, rebellious, and brave '' but also criticizing that she "gives up everything -- her family, her home, her voice -- for love, even though her trust in the sea witch puts everyone she loves in danger ''. Daphne Lee of The Star called Ariel "annoying '' and went on to state that Ariel "is a silly girl who gives up her voice and her family for a man she knows next to nothing about ''.
Despite her mixed critical reception, Ariel remains popular with audiences and is considered one of Disney 's most iconic animated characters, with her specific color combination of red hair, lavender seashells and green tail making her distinctly identifiable. A poll in the Internet Movie Database showed Ariel to be the second most alluring animated character after Jessica Rabbit. In August 2011, Jodi Benson was honored with a Disney Legend for her work as Ariel and her other projects at Disney.
A bi-annual convention called ArielCon is dedicated to the character. Ariel is an official "ambassador '' for the "Keep Our Oceans Clean '' campaign by Environmental Defense, The National Maritime Sanctuary, and The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. From 2007 onwards, Disney launched an advertising campaign called Disney Dreams Portraits featuring celebrities dressed up as various Disney characters and photographed Annie Leibovitz; Julianne Moore was photographed as Ariel for this campaign. "Hipster Ariel '' has become a popular internet meme, utilizing a screenshot of Ariel with photoshopped glasses accompanied by a humorous caption. Ariel 's distinct appearance makes her the subject of "look - alike '' events and competitions. In the reality TV show and dancing competition Dancing With the Stars, Candace Cameron Bure, Peta Murgatroyd, and Marla Maples dressed up as Ariel in their performances in seasons 18, 20, and 22 respectively.
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what's the turtles name from finding nemo | Finding Nemo - Wikipedia
Finding Nemo is a 2003 American computer - animated adventure film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. Written and directed by Andrew Stanton with co-direction by Lee Unkrich, the film stars the voices of Albert Brooks, Ellen DeGeneres, Alexander Gould, and Willem Dafoe. It tells the story of the overprotective ocellaris clownfish named Marlin who, along with a regal blue tang named Dory, searches for his abducted son Nemo all the way to Sydney Harbour. Along the way, Marlin learns to take risks and comes to terms with Nemo taking care of himself.
Finding Nemo was released on May 30, 2003; the film won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, and was nominated in three more categories, including Best Original Screenplay. Finding Nemo became the highest - grossing animated film at the time and was the second - highest - grossing film of 2003, earning a total of $871 million worldwide by the end of its initial theatrical run.
The film is the best - selling DVD title of all time, with over 40 million copies sold as of 2006, and was the highest - grossing G - rated film of all time before Pixar 's own Toy Story 3 overtook it. The film was re-released in 3D in 2012. In 2008, the American Film Institute named it the 10th greatest animated film ever made as part of their 10 Top 10 lists. In a 2016 poll of international critics conducted by BBC, Finding Nemo was voted one of the 100 greatest motion pictures since 2000. A sequel, Finding Dory, was released on June 17, 2016 in the United States.
Two clownfish, Marlin and Coral, are admiring their new home in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, and their clutch of hundreds of eggs, when a barracuda attacks. Marlin is knocked unconscious, and wakes up to find Coral and all but one of the eggs gone. He names this last egg Nemo, a name that Coral had chosen.
On the first day of school, Marlin embarrasses Nemo during a field trip. While Marlin talks to the teacher, Mr. Ray, Nemo sneaks away from the reef toward a boat and is captured by a scuba diver. As the boat departs, one of the divers accidentally knocks his diving mask overboard. Marlin chases after the boat and meets Dory, a blue tang who suffers from short - term memory loss. The two encounter Bruce, Anchor, and Chum, three reformed sharks who have renounced eating other fish. While at their meeting, Marlin discovers the diver 's mask and notices an address written on it. However, Dory and Marlin fight over the mask, giving Dory a bloody nose. The blood sends Bruce into a feeding frenzy, and he attacks Marlin and Dory, who narrowly escape.
Nemo is placed in a fish tank in a dentist 's office, where he meets the Tank Gang, led by Gill. The gang learn Nemo is to be given to the dentist 's niece Darla, who has killed previous fish given to her. Gill devises a plan to escape: jam the tank 's filter with a pebble so the dentist will put the fish in plastic bags to clean the tank, then roll out the window and into the harbor. Nemo attempts to jam the filter but fails, nearly dying in the process.
The mask falls into a trench in the deep sea, where, while battling an anglerfish, Dory reads the address as 42 Wallaby Way, Sydney. To her own disbelief, Dory remembers the address despite her short - term memory loss. Dory and Marlin receive directions to Sydney from a school of moonfish. On the way, they encounter a bloom of jellyfish that traps and nearly stings them to death. Marlin loses consciousness and awakens on the back of a sea turtle named Crush, who shuttles Marlin and Dory on the East Australian Current. Marlin tells the story of his journey to a group of young sea turtles led by Crush 's son Squirt. News of his quest spreads across the ocean. Near the harbor, a pelican named Nigel flies to the dentist 's office and brings news of Marlin 's efforts. Inspired, Nemo makes a second attempt to jam the filter. He succeeds, but the dentist installs a new high - tech filter before the Tank Gang can escape.
Marlin and Dory exit the East Australian Current and are engulfed by a blue whale. Dory communicates with the whale, which carries them to Sydney Harbour and expels them through his blowhole. They meet Nigel, who helps the pair escape from a flock of seagulls and takes them to the dentist 's office. Darla has just arrived, and the dentist is handing Nemo to her. Nemo plays dead to save himself as Nigel arrives, terrifying Darla and throwing the office into chaos. After Nigel is violently thrown out by the dentist, Gill helps Nemo escape into a drain that leads to the ocean.
Having mistaken Nemo for dead, Marlin thanks Dory and starts his return journey. Dory meets Nemo when he reaches the ocean, but she has lost her memory. Eventually, Dory 's memory returns when she reads the word Sydney on a drainpipe. She reunites Nemo with Marlin, but she is caught in a fishing net with a school of grouper. Nemo enters the net and orders the grouper to swim downward to break the net and escape. Later, having returned home, Marlin and Dory proudly watch Mr. Ray carry Nemo and his friends to school.
The inspiration for Nemo sprang from multiple experiences, going back to director Andrew Stanton 's childhood, when he loved going to the dentist to see the fish tank, assuming that the fish were from the ocean and wanted to go home. In 1992, shortly after his son was born, he and his family took a trip to Six Flags Discovery Kingdom (which was called Marine World at the time). There, after seeing the shark tube and various exhibits, he felt that the underwater world could be done beautifully in computer animation. Later, in 1997, he took his son for a walk in the park, but realized that he was overprotecting him and lost an opportunity to have a father - son experience that day.
In an interview with National Geographic magazine, Stanton said that the idea for the characters of Marlin and Nemo came from a photograph of two clownfish peeking out of an anemone:
In addition, clownfish are colourful, but do not tend to come out of an anemone often. For a character who has to go on a dangerous journey, Stanton felt a clownfish was the perfect type of fish for the character. Pre-production of the film began in early 1997. Stanton began writing the screenplay during the post-production of A Bug 's Life. As a result, Finding Nemo began production with a complete screenplay, something that co-director Lee Unkrich called "very unusual for an animated film ''. The artists took scuba diving lessons to study the coral reef.
The idea for the initiation sequence came from a story conference between Andrew Stanton and Bob Peterson while they were driving to record the actors. Stanton was inspired to cast Ellen DeGeneres when he watched an episode of Ellen in which he saw her "change the subject five times before finishing one sentence ''. The pelican character named Gerald (who in the final film ends up swallowing and choking on Marlin and Dory) was originally a friend of Nigel. They were going to play against each other with Nigel being neat and fastidious and Gerald being scruffy and sloppy. The filmmakers could not find an appropriate scene for them that did not slow the pace of the picture, so Gerald 's character was minimized.
Stanton himself provided the voice of Crush the sea turtle. He originally did the voice for the film 's story reel, and assumed they would find an actor later. When Stanton 's performance became popular in test screenings, he decided to keep his performance in the film. He recorded all his dialogue while lying on a sofa in Unkrich 's office. Crush 's son Squirt was voiced by Nicholas Bird, the young son of fellow Pixar director Brad Bird. According to Stanton, the elder Bird was playing a tape recording of his young son around the Pixar studios one day. Stanton felt the voice was "this generation 's Thumper '' and immediately cast Nicholas.
Megan Mullally was originally going to provide a voice in the film. According to Mullally, the producers were dissatisfied to learn that the voice of her character Karen Walker on the television show Will & Grace was not her natural speaking voice. The producers hired her anyway, and then strongly encouraged her to use her Karen Walker voice for the role. When Mullally refused, she was dismissed.
To ensure that the movements of the fish in the film were believable, the animators took a crash course in fish biology and oceanography. They visited aquariums, went diving in Hawaii and received in - house lectures from an ichthyologist. As a result, Pixar 's animator for Dory, Gini Cruz Santos, integrated "the fish movement, human movement, and facial expressions to make them look and feel like real characters. ''
The film was dedicated to Glenn McQueen, a Pixar animator who died of melanoma in October 2002. Finding Nemo shares many plot elements with Pierrot the Clownfish, a children 's book published in 2002, but allegedly conceived in 1995. The author, Franck Le Calvez, sued Disney for infringement of his intellectual rights and to bar Finding Nemo merchandise in France. The judge ruled against him, citing the color differences between Pierrot and Nemo.
A video game based on the film was released in 2003, for PC, Xbox, PlayStation 2, Nintendo GameCube, and Game Boy Advance. The goal of the game is to complete different levels under the roles of Nemo, Marlin or Dory. It includes cut scenes from the movie, and each clip is based on a level. It was also the last Pixar game developed by Traveller 's Tales. Upon release, the game received mixed reviews. A Game Boy Advance sequel, titled Finding Nemo: The Continuing Adventures, was released in 2004.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 99 % approval rating, with a rating average of 8.7 / 10, based on 260 reviews. The site 's consensus reads: "Breathtakingly lovely and grounded by the stellar efforts of a well - chosen cast, Finding Nemo adds another beautifully crafted gem to Pixar 's crown. '' Another review aggregation website, Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics, calculated a score of 90 out of 100, based on 38 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim. ''
Roger Ebert gave the film four out of four stars, calling it "one of those rare movies where I wanted to sit in the front row and let the images wash out to the edges of my field of vision ''. Broadway star Nathan Lane, who was the voice of Timon the meerkat in The Lion King, has said Finding Nemo was his favorite animated film. Ed Park of The Village Voice gave the film a positive review, saying "It 's an ocean of eye candy that tastes fresh even in this ADD - addled era of SpongeBob SquarePants. '' Mark Caro of the Chicago Tribune gave the film four out of four stars, saying "You connect to these sea creatures as you rarely do with humans in big - screen adventures. The result: a true sunken treasure. '' Hazel - Dawn Dumpert of LA Weekly gave the film a positive review, saying "As gorgeous a film as Disney 's ever put out, with astonishing qualities of light, movement, surface and color at the service of the best professional imaginations money can buy. '' Jeff Strickler of the Star Tribune gave the film a positive review, saying it "proves that even when Pixar is not at the top of its game, it still produces better animation than some of its competitors on their best days. '' Gene Seymour of Newsday gave the film three - and - a-half stars out of four, saying "The underwater backdrops take your breath away. No, really. They 're so lifelike, you almost feel like holding your breath while watching. '' Rene Rodriguez of the Miami Herald gave the film four out of four stars, saying "Parental anxiety may not be the kind of stuff children 's films are usually made of, but this perfectly enchanting movie knows how to cater to its kiddie audience without condescending to them. ''
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times gave the film three - and - a-half out of five, saying "The best break of all is that Pixar 's traditionally untethered imagination ca n't be kept under wraps forever, and "Nemo '' erupts with sea creatures that showcase Stanton and company 's gift for character and peerless eye for skewering contemporary culture. '' Stephen Holden of The New York Times gave the film four out of five stars, saying "Visual imagination and sophisticated wit raise Finding Nemo to a level just below the peaks of Pixar 's Toy Story movies and Monsters, Inc... '' Terry Lawson of the Detroit Free Press gave the film three out of four, saying "As we now expect from Pixar, even the supporting fish in "Finding Nemo '' are more developed as characters than any human in the Mission: Impossible movies. '' Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film three and half out of four, saying "Finding Nemo is an undersea treasure. The most gorgeous of all the Pixar films -- which include Toy Story 1 and 2, A Bug 's Life and Monsters, Inc. -- Nemo treats family audiences to a sweet, resonant story and breathtaking visuals. It may lack Monsters, Inc. 's clever humor, but kids will identify with the spunky sea fish Nemo, and adults will relate to Marlin, Nemo 's devoted dad. '' Bruce Westbrook of the Houston Chronicle gave the film an A -, saying "Finding Nemo lives up to Pixar 's high standards for wildly creative visuals, clever comedy, solid characters and an involving story. '' Tom Long of The Detroit News gave the film an A -, saying "A simple test of humanity: If you do n't laugh aloud while watching it, you 've got a battery not a heart. ''
Lou Lumenick of the New York Post gave the film four out of four, saying "A dazzling, computer - animated fish tale with a funny, touching script and wonderful voice performances that make it an unqualified treat for all ages. '' Moira MacDonald of The Seattle Times gave the film four out of four, saying "Enchanting; written with an effortless blend of sweetness and silliness, and animated with such rainbow - hued beauty, you may find yourself wanting to freeze - frame it. '' Daphne Gordon of the Toronto Star gave the film four out of five, saying "One of the strongest releases from Disney in years, thanks to the work of Andrew Stanton, possibly one of the most successful directors you 've never heard of. '' Ty Burr of The Boston Globe gave the film three and a half out of four, saying "Finding Nemo is n't quite up there with the company 's finest work -- there 's finally a sense of formula setting in -- but it 's hands down the best family film since Monsters, Inc. '' C.W. Nevius of The San Francisco Chronicle gave the film four out of four, saying "The visuals pop, the fish emote and the ocean comes alive. That 's in the first two minutes. After that, they do some really cool stuff. '' Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post gave the film a positive review, saying "Finding Nemo will engross kids with its absorbing story, brightly drawn characters and lively action, and grown - ups will be equally entertained by the film 's subtle humor and the sophistication of its visuals. '' David Ansen of Newsweek gave the film a positive review, saying "A visual marvel, every frame packed to the gills with clever details, Finding Nemo is the best big - studio release so far this year. ''
Richard Corliss of Time gave the film a positive review, saying "Nemo, with its ravishing underwater fantasia, manages to trump the design glamour of earlier Pixar films. '' Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave the film an A, saying "In this seamless blending of technical brilliance and storytelling verve, the Pixar team has made something as marvelously soulful and innately, fluidly American as jazz. '' Carrie Rickey of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film three out of four, saying "As eye - popping as Nemo 's peepers and as eccentric as this little fish with asymmetrical fins. '' David Germain of the Associated Press gave the film a positive review, saying "Finding Nemo is laced with smart humor and clever gags, and buoyed by another cheery story of mismatched buddies: a pair of fish voiced by Albert Brooks and Ellen DeGeneres. '' Anthony Lane of The New Yorker gave the film a positive review, saying "The latest flood of wizardry from Pixar, whose productions, from Toy Story onward, have lent an indispensable vigor and wit to the sagging art of mainstream animation. '' The 3D re-release prompted a retrospective on the film nine years after its initial release. Stephen Whitty of The Star - Ledger described it as "a genuinely funny and touching film that, in less than a decade, has established itself as a timeless classic. '' On the 3D re-release, Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly wrote that its emotional power was deepened by "the dimensionality of the oceanic deep '' where "the spatial mysteries of watery currents and floating worlds are exactly where 3D explorers were born to boldly go ''.
During its original theatrical run, Finding Nemo grossed $339,714,978 in North America, and $559,492,275 in other countries, for a worldwide total of $940,335,536. It is currently the forty - third - highest - grossing film, the ninth highest - grossing animated film, and the second - highest - grossing film of 2003, behind The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King. Worldwide, it was the highest - grossing Pixar film, up until 2010, when Toy Story 3 surpassed it. The film sold an estimated 56,337,500 tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run.
In North America, Finding Nemo set an opening weekend record for an animated feature, making $70,251,710 (first surpassed by Shrek 2) and ended up spending 11 weeks in the top 10 domestically (including 7 weeks in the top 5), remaining there until August 14. It became the highest - grossing animated film in North America ($339.7 million), outside North America ($528.2 million), and worldwide ($867.9 million), in all three occasions out - grossing The Lion King. In North America, it was surpassed by both Shrek 2 in 2004 and Toy Story 3 in 2010. After the re-release of The Lion King in 2011, and then Despicable Me 2 and Frozen in 2013, Minions in 2015, Zootopia, its sequel Finding Dory in 2016, Despicable Me 3 in 2017, and Incredibles 2 in 2018, passed it, it stands as the tenth highest - grossing animated film in these regions. Outside North America, it stands as the fifth - highest - grossing animated film. Worldwide, it now ranks fourth among animated films.
The film had impressive box office runs in many international markets. In Japan, its highest - grossing market after North America, it grossed ¥ 11.2 billion ($102.4 million), becoming the highest - grossing foreign animated film in local currency (yen). It has only been surpassed by Frozen (¥ 12.1 billion). Following in biggest grosses are the U.K., Ireland and Malta, where it grossed £ 37.2 million ($67.1 million), France and the Maghreb region ($64.8 million), Germany ($53.9 million), and Spain ($29.5 million).
After the success of the 3D re-release of The Lion King, Disney re-released Finding Nemo in 3D on September 14, 2012, with a conversion cost estimated to be below $5 million. For the opening weekend of its 3D re-release in North America, Finding Nemo grossed $16.7 million, debuting at the No. 2 spot behind Resident Evil: Retribution. The film earned $41.1 million in North America and $31.0 million internationally, for a combined total of $72.1 million, and a cumulative worldwide total of $940.3 million.
Finding Nemo won the Academy Award and Saturn Award for Best Animated Film. It also won the award for Best Animated Film at the Kansas City Film Critics Circle Awards, the Las Vegas Film Critics Society Awards, the National Board of Review Awards, the Online Film Critics Society Awards, and the Toronto Film Critics Association Awards. The film received many other awards, including: Kids Choice Awards for Favorite Movie and Favorite Voice from an Animated Movie (Ellen DeGeneres), and the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress (Ellen DeGeneres).
The film was also nominated for two Chicago Film Critics Association Awards, for Best Picture and Best Supporting Actress (Ellen DeGeneres), a Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy, and two MTV Movie Awards, for Best Movie and Best Comedic Performance (Ellen DeGeneres).
In June 2008, the American Film Institute revealed its "Ten Top Ten '', the best 10 films in 10 "classic '' American film genres, after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. Finding Nemo was acknowledged as the 10th best film in the animation genre. It was the most recently released film among all 10 lists, and one of only three movies made after the year 2000 (the others being The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring and Shrek).
American Film Institute recognition:
The film 's use of clownfish prompted mass purchase of the fish breed as pets in the United States, even though the story portrayed the use of fish as pets negatively and suggested that saltwater aquariums are notably tricky and expensive to maintain. The demand for clownfish was supplied by large - scale harvesting of tropical fish in regions like Vanuatu. The Australian Tourism Commission (ATC) launched several marketing campaigns in China and the United States to improve tourism in Australia, many of them utilizing Finding Nemo clips. Queensland used Finding Nemo to draw tourists to promote its state for vacationers. According to National Geographic, "Ironically, Finding Nemo, a movie about the anguish of a captured clownfish, caused home - aquarium demand for them to triple. ''
The reaction to the film by the general public has led to environmental devastation for the clownfish, and has provoked an outcry from several environmental protection agencies, including the Marine Aquarium Council, Australia. The demand for tropical fish skyrocketed after the film 's release, causing reef species decimation in Vanuatu and many other reef areas. After seeing the film, some aquarium owners released their pet fish into the ocean, but failed to release them into the correct oceanic habitat, which introduced species that are harmful to the indigenous environment, a practice that is harming reefs worldwide.
Finding Nemo was released on VHS and DVD on November 4, 2003. The DVD release included an original short film, Exploring the Reef, and the short animated film, Knick Knack (1989). It would go on to become the best - selling DVD of its time, selling over 2 million units in its first two weeks of release.
The film was then released on both Blu - ray and Blu - ray 3D on December 4, 2012, with both a 3 - disc and a 5 - disc set.
Finding Nemo was the first Pixar film not to be scored by Randy Newman. The original soundtrack album, Finding Nemo, was scored by Thomas Newman, his cousin, and released on May 20, 2003. The album was nominated for the Academy Award for Original Music Score, losing to The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King.
Finding Nemo has inspired numerous attractions and properties at Disney Parks around the world, including: Turtle Talk with Crush, which opened in 2004 at Epcot, 2005 in Disney California Adventure Park, 2008 in Hong Kong Disneyland, and 2009 in Tokyo DisneySea; Finding Nemo Submarine Voyage, which opened in 2007 in Disneyland Park; The Seas with Nemo & Friends, which opened in 2007 at Epcot; Finding Nemo -- The Musical, which opened in 2007 in Disney 's Animal Kingdom; and Crush 's Coaster, which opened in 2007 at Walt Disney Studios Park.
In 2005, after disagreements between Disney 's Michael Eisner and Pixar 's Steve Jobs over the distribution of Pixar 's films, Disney announced that they would be creating a new animation studio, Circle 7 Animation, to make sequels to the seven Disney - owned Pixar films (which consisted of the films released between 1995 and 2006). The studio had put Toy Story 3 and Monsters University into development, and had hired screenwriter Laurie Craig to write a draft for Finding Dory. Circle 7 was subsequently shut down after Robert Iger replaced Eisner as CEO of Disney and arranged the acquisition of Pixar.
In July 2012, it was reported that Andrew Stanton was developing a sequel to Finding Nemo, to be titled Finding Dory, with Victoria Strouse writing the script, and the film scheduled to be released in 2016. The same day the news of a potential sequel broke, Stanton called into question the accuracy of the reports. The message said, "Did n't you all learn from Chicken Little? Everyone calm down. Do n't believe everything you read. Nothing to see here now. # skyisnotfalling ''. According to the report by The Hollywood Reporter published in August 2012, Ellen DeGeneres was in negotiations to reprise her role of Dory. In September 2012, Stanton confirmed, saying, "What was immediately on the list was writing a second Carter movie. When that went away, everything slid up. I know I 'll be accused by more sarcastic people that it 's a reaction to Carter not doing well, but only in its timing, but not in its conceit ''. In February 2013, it was confirmed by the press that Albert Brooks would reprise the role of Marlin in the sequel.
In April 2013, Disney announced the sequel Finding Dory, confirming that DeGeneres and Brooks would be reprising their roles as Dory and Marlin, respectively. It was scheduled to be released on November 25, 2015, but the film 's ending was revised after Pixar executives viewed Blackfish. On September 18, 2013, it was announced that the film would be pushed back to a UK July 29, 2016 release. Pixar 's The Good Dinosaur was moved to the November 25, 2015 slot to allow more time for production of the film.
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where did the wendy's logo come from | Wendy 's - Wikipedia
Wendy 's is an American international fast food restaurant chain founded by Dave Thomas on November 15, 1969, in Columbus, Ohio, United States. The company moved its headquarters to Dublin, Ohio, on January 29, 2006. As of 2016, Wendy 's was the world 's third largest hamburger fast food chain with 6,500 + locations, following Burger King and McDonald 's. On April 24, 2008, the company announced a merger with Triarc Companies Inc., a publicly traded company and the parent company of Arby 's. Despite the new ownership, Wendy 's headquarters remained in Dublin. Previously, Wendy 's had rejected more than two buyout offers from Triarc. Following the merger, Triarc became known as Wendy 's / Arby 's Group, and later as The Wendy 's Company.
As of January 2, 2017, there were a total of 6,537 locations, including 330 that are company - owned. 6,207 restaurants are franchised, and 77 % of them are located in North America. While Wendy 's sets standards for exterior store appearance, food quality, and menu, individual owners have control over hours of operations, interior decor, pricing and staff uniforms and wages.
Wendy 's menu consists primarily of hamburgers, chicken sandwiches, French fries and beverages, including the signature Frosty, which is a soft - serve frozen dairy dessert. Since phasing out their famous "Big Classic '', the company does not have a signature sandwich, such as the Burger King Whopper or the McDonald 's Big Mac - although, by default, the "signature sandwich '' spot seems to have been filled by Dave 's 1 / 4 lb. Single (introduced in 2011 as Dave 's Hot ' N Juicy as a reworking of the longstanding Wendy 's Single, shortened to simply Dave 's in 2016), a square - pattied burger made with fresh ground beef rather than round frozen patties. Wendy 's uses square hamburger patties -- which hang over the edge of a circular bun -- as its signature item.
The chain is known for its square hamburgers, sea salt fries and the Frosty, a form of soft serve ice cream mixed with frozen starches. The idea for Wendy 's "old fashioned '' hamburgers was inspired by Dave Thomas 's trips to Kewpee Hamburgers in his home town of Kalamazoo, Michigan. The Kewpee sold square hamburgers and thick malt shakes, much like the well - known restaurant that Thomas eventually founded in Columbus, Ohio, in 1969. Square patties had corners that stuck out so that customers could easily see the quality of the meat. The Columbus location later added a Tim Hortons and was closed on March 2, 2007, after 38 years of business due to declining sales. Thomas named the restaurant after his fourth child Melinda Lou "Wendy '' Thomas. Photographs of her were on display at the original Wendy 's restaurant until it closed. In August 1972, the first Wendy 's franchisee, L.S. Hartzog, signed an agreement for Indianapolis, Indiana. Also, in 1972, Wendy 's aired its first TV commercials that were only broadcast locally in Ohio. This series of commercials was titled "C'mon to Wendy 's '' because they stressed Wendy 's superiority through the "Quality Is Our Recipe '' slogan and featured an animated Wendy similar to the one from the corporate logo along with dancing hamburgers.
The first Canadian restaurant also opened in Hamilton, ON in 1976. In December 1976, Wendy 's opened its 500th restaurant, located in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Wendy 's founded the fried chicken chain Sisters Chicken in 1978 and sold it to its largest franchiser in 1987.
In 1979, the first European Wendy 's opened in Munich. The same year Wendy 's became the first fast - food chain to introduce the salad bar.
Wendy 's entered the Asian market by opening its first restaurants in Japan in 1980, in Hong Kong in 1982 and in the Philippines and Singapore in 1983. In 1984, Wendy 's opened its first restaurant in South Korea.
In response to a 1986 slowdown in the chain 's performance, Wendy 's restructured its cleanliness standards, menu, and other operational details to ensure that stores met the goals and standards of the parent company so that its franchises were competitive in the market. Wendy 's closed all its outlets in Hong Kong in 1986 and in Singapore in the following year.
From 1988 to 1990, Wendy 's expanded operations globally to Mexico, New Zealand, Indonesia, Greece, Turkey, Guatemala, as well as the U.S. Naval Base in Naples, Italy. In 1988, Wendy 's expanded its bar to a full - blown buffet called the Superbar for $2.99. The Superbar had various stations: "Mexican Fiesta '', the Italian "Pasta Pasta, '' and the "Garden Spot '', salad and fruit. The Superbar was popular but difficult to maintain thus was discontinued in 1998.
In 1989, Wendy 's opened its first restaurant in Greece at Syntagma Square being the first foreign fast - food chain in the country. After opened 12 restaurants in 3 cities the company finally abandoned the Greek market in 2002.
In 1996, the chain expanded in Argentina by opening 18 local restaurants. However, all of them closed only four years later due to the economic crisis in the country.
In 1998, Wendy 's pulled out of South Korea by closing all its 15 restaurants and in 2000 exited from the UK, Argentina, and Hong Kong.
Garden Sensations salads were added in 2002.
Wendy 's signed a franchise agreement to re-enter the Singapore market in 2009 though that agreement was short - lived; in April 2015, Wendy 's ceased operation in the country and closed all the restaurants.
In 2011, Wendy 's returned to Japan and Argentina announcing a development agreement for 50 restaurants in the country. It also entered the Russian market for first time with plans to open 180 restaurants over a 10 - year period.
In 2013, Wendy 's opened the first restaurant in Georgia and made a deal to open 25 restaurants in Georgia and the Republic of Azerbaijan.
In 2014, Wendy 's closed all its restaurants in Russia. In September 2014, several pork based products were introduced to be on sale until early November. These included a standard pulled pork sandwich with slaw and three sauce options, a BBQ Pulled Pork Cheeseburger and cheese fries with pulled pork, cheddar cheese sauce, onions, and barbecue sauce.
In May 2015, Wendy 's announced they would be expanding into India, with its first outlet located in Gurgaon.
Wendy 's is planning to sell 540 of its restaurants. The divesture is the second step in a three - step action plan to improve the brand. Other steps include new openings and remodeling of existing stores. In 2015, the brand expects to open 80 new restaurants. It will remodel 450 of its existing locations. The brand 's goal is to remodel at least 60 % of its North American locations by 2020 year - end. In September 2016, it was announced that JAE Restaurant Group had acquired 97 Wendy 's restaurants throughout the South Florida region. JAE Restaurant Group is one of the country 's largest franchisee owners. The Group owns 177 Wendy 's Restaurants. Wendy 's Co. has been looking to remodel existing stores and upgrade the curb appeal of its locations. They have been doing this by adding fireplaces, more seating options, adding WiFi and flat screen TVs, and digital menus. Wendy 's Co expects to sell 258 more restaurants during the rest of 2016. In total, they will be looking to sell $435 million of its restaurants.
Wendy 's offers two different hamburger patties, a "Junior '' 1.78 ounce (50.4 gram) patty and its "Single '' 4 ounce (113.4 gram) patty. 4 - ounce patties are sold in single, double and triple sizes whereas the junior patties sell in single and double patties. The previous size of 2 ounces per junior patty was altered to its current size in 2007 to save on expenses from rising food costs. Originally Wendy 's had only two kinds of chicken sandwiches, fried and grilled. The spicy chicken sandwich started out as a promotional sandwich. It was later put on the menu full - time in 1996 due to its popularity and the fact that, compared to most promotional sandwiches, it was much simpler to make (it used the same condiments as the standard breaded chicken sandwich).
The Frescata line of sandwiches also went from being promotional items to main menu items. After going through several revisions, the Turkey and Swiss and the Ham and Swiss were put on the menu full - time. However, the Frescata sandwiches were discontinued in mid-December 2007.
Occasionally, some Wendy 's restaurants would offer a fried fish sandwich for some of its customers who desire fish instead of beef or chicken.
In 1988, Wendy 's was the first fast - food chain to create a single price - point value menu where all items listed on that menu were priced exclusively at 99 ¢. The menu was restructured in 2007 due to rising costs as the Super Value Menu with prices ranging from 99 ¢ to $2.00 USD.
In mid-2007, Wendy 's began a national debut of its new breakfast menu in its U.S. and Canadian stores. Wendy 's experimented with serving breakfast for a short time in 1985, but the endeavor was unsuccessful due to many issues. While approximately 12 Wendy 's restaurants in the U.S. and its territories have been serving breakfast since then, Wendy 's has not had a company - wide breakfast offering.
The newer breakfast menu differs slightly from the ones featured in 1985, and it is structured similarly to its lunch / dinner menu, with value meals and various sides like blended fruit. Menu items include several breakfast sandwiches served on biscuits, frescuit and Kaiser rolls, breakfast burritos and side orders of hash browns, muffins, and cinnamon sticks. In order to avoid the same issues the original 1985 breakfast offerings faced, the new menu was designed for ease of operation, lower costs, and reduced preparation time.
In January 2016, Wendy 's announced a transition plan to source only cage - free eggs by the year 2020 in all U.S. and Canadian locations that serve breakfast.
After successful early growth of the chain, sales flattened as the company struggled to achieve brand differentiation in the highly competitive fast - food market. This situation would turn around in the mid-1980s. Starting on January 9, 1984, elderly actress Clara Peller was featured in the successful "Where 's the Beef? '' North American commercial campaign written by Cliff Freeman. Her famous line quickly entered the American pop culture (it was even used by Walter Mondale in a debate with Gary Hart in the Democratic primary election) and served to promote Wendy 's hamburgers. Peller, age 83, was dropped from the campaign in 1985 because she performed in a commercial for Prego spaghetti sauce, saying she "finally found '' the beef.
Peller was soon after replaced by Wendy 's founder Dave Thomas himself. Soft - spoken and bashful, the "Dave '' ads generally focused on Thomas praising his products and offering a commitment to quality service, although there would occasionally be "wackier '' ads as well. Thomas ultimately appeared in more than 800 commercials, more than any other company founder in television history.
After Dave Thomas ' death in 2002, Wendy 's struggled to find a new advertising campaign. After a round of conventional ads describing the food they serve, in 2004 they tried using a character they made called "Mr. Wendy '' who claimed to be the unofficial spokesperson for the chain. These proved to be extremely unsuccessful. After seven months, Wendy 's returned to an animated campaign focusing on the difference between Wendy 's square hamburgers and the round hamburgers of competitors.
Wendy 's marketing arm engages in product placement in films and television and is sometimes seen on ABC 's reality show Extreme Makeover: Home Edition, serving food to the more than 100 construction workers.
A 2007 Wendy 's commercial featured the tune from the Violent Femmes song "Blister in the Sun. '' The inclusion of the song in the commercial provoked an internal conflict between members of the Violent Femmes, which resulted in a lawsuit between bassist Brian Ritchie and lead singer Gordon Gano that ultimately led to the band disbanding in 2009.
With their "That 's right '' ad campaign not a success, Wendy 's unveiled a new ad campaign, featuring the animated version of their mascot voiced by Luci Christian highlighting certain menu items. The new ad campaign made its debut in late January 2008, with slogans: in the USA: "It 's waaaay better than fast food. It 's Wendy 's. '' and in Canada, "It 's waaaay delicious. It 's Wendy 's. '' The company 's slogan, "you know when it 's real, '' was introduced in 2010.
In November 2010, a series of commercials aired featuring the company 's namesake, Wendy Thomas, which marked the first time she had appeared in a Wendy 's advertisement.
In April 2012, Morgan Smith Goodwin began appearing as the redhead in ads with the slogan "Now that 's better. '' In 2013, social media advertising featuring Nick Lachey directed at millennials promoted the Pretzel Bacon Cheeseburger.
A 2014 campaign to promote the Tuscan Chicken on Ciabatta sandwich entitled "L'Estrella de la Toscana, '' or "Star of Tuscany '' in English was launched on television and social media. A 2014 campaign to promote the Pretzel Bacon Cheeseburger was run until November 2014 was shown to many people watching TV starting on March 18, 2014
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when is pseudomonas aeruginosum identified as an infectious agent | Pseudomonas aeruginosa - wikipedia
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a common Gram - negative, rod - shaped bacterium that can cause disease in plants and animals, including humans. A species of considerable medical importance, P. aeruginosa is a multidrug resistant pathogen recognized for its ubiquity, its intrinsically advanced antibiotic resistance mechanisms, and its association with serious illnesses -- hospital - acquired infections such as ventilator - associated pneumonia and various sepsis syndromes.
The organism is considered opportunistic insofar as serious infection often occurs during existing diseases or conditions -- most notably cystic fibrosis and traumatic burns. It is also found generally in the immunocompromised but can infect the immunocompetent as in hot tub folliculitis. Treatment of P. aeruginosa infections can be difficult due to its natural resistance to antibiotics. When more advanced antibiotic drug regimens are needed adverse effects may result.
It is citrate, catalase, and oxidase positive. It is found in soil, water, skin flora, and most man - made environments throughout the world. It thrives not only in normal atmospheres, but also in low - oxygen atmospheres, thus has colonized many natural and artificial environments. It uses a wide range of organic material for food; in animals, its versatility enables the organism to infect damaged tissues or those with reduced immunity. The symptoms of such infections are generalized inflammation and sepsis. If such colonizations occur in critical body organs, such as the lungs, the urinary tract, and kidneys, the results can be fatal. Because it thrives on moist surfaces, this bacterium is also found on and in medical equipment, including catheters, causing cross-infections in hospitals and clinics. It is also able to decompose hydrocarbons and has been used to break down tarballs and oil from oil spills. P. aeruginosa is not extremely virulent in comparison with other major pathogenic bacterial species -- for example Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes -- though P. aeruginosa is capable of extensive colonization, and can aggregate into enduring biofilms.
The word Pseudomonas means "false unit '', from the Greek pseudēs (Greek: ψευδής, false) and (Latin: monas, from Greek: μονάς, a single unit). The stem word mon was used early in the history of microbiology to refer to germs, e.g., kingdom Monera.
The species name aeruginosa is a Latin word meaning verdigris ("copper rust ''), referring to the blue - green color of laboratory cultures of the species. This blue - green pigment is a combination of two metabolites of P. aeruginosa, pyocyanin (blue) and pyoverdine (green), which impart the blue - green characteristic color of cultures. Another assertion is that the word may be derived from the Greek prefix ae - meaning "old or aged '', and the suffix ruginosa means wrinkled or bumpy.
The names pyocyanin and pyoverdine are from the Greek, with pyo -, meaning "pus '', cyanin, meaning "blue '', and verdine, meaning "green ''. Pyoverdine in the absence of pyocyanin is a fluorescent - yellow color.
The genome of P. aeruginosa is relatively large (5.5 -- 6.8 Mb) and encodes between 5,500 and 6,000 open reading frames, depending on the strain; Comparison of 389 genomes from different P. aeruginosa strains showed that just 17.5 % is shared. This part of the genome is the P. aeruginosa core genome.
P. aeruginosa is a facultative anaerobe, as it is well adapted to proliferate in conditions of partial or total oxygen depletion. This organism can achieve anaerobic growth with nitrate or nitrite as a terminal electron acceptor. When oxygen, nitrate, and nitrite are absent, it is able to ferment arginine and pyruvate by substrate - level phosphorylation. Adaptation to microaerobic or anaerobic environments is essential for certain lifestyles of P. aeruginosa, for example, during lung infection in cystic fibrosis and primary ciliary dyskinesia, where thick layers of lung mucus and alginate surrounding mucoid bacterial cells can limit the diffusion of oxygen. P. aeruginosa growth within the human body can be asymptomatic until the bacteria form a biofilm, which overwhelms the immune system. These biofilms are found in the lungs of people with cystic fibrosis and primary ciliary dyskinesia, and can prove fatal.
P. aeruginosa relies on iron as a nutrient source to grow. However, iron is not easily accessible because it is not commonly found in the environment. Iron is usually found in a largely insoluble ferric form. Furthermore, excessively high levels of iron can be toxic to P. aeruginosa. To overcome this and regulate proper intake of iron, P. aeruginosa uses siderophores, which are secreted molecules that bind and transport iron. These iron - siderophore complexes, however, are not specific. The bacterium that produced the siderophores does not necessarily receive the direct benefit of iron intake. Rather, all members of the cellular population are equally likely to access the iron - siderophore complexes. Members of the cellular population that can efficiently produce these siderophores are commonly referred to as cooperators; members that produce little to no siderophores are often referred to as cheaters. Research has shown when cooperators and cheaters are grown together, cooperators have a decrease in fitness, while cheaters have an increase in fitness. The magnitude of change in fitness increases with increasing iron limitation. With an increase in fitness, the cheaters can outcompete the cooperators; this leads to an overall decrease in fitness of the group, due to lack of sufficient siderophore production. These observations suggest that having a mix of cooperators and cheaters can reduce the virulent nature of P. aeruginosa.
An opportunistic, nosocomial pathogen of immunocompromised individuals, P. aeruginosa typically infects the airway, urinary tract, burns, and wounds, and also causes other blood infections.
It is the most common cause of infections of burn injuries and of the outer ear (otitis externa), and is the most frequent colonizer of medical devices (e.g., catheters). Pseudomonas can be spread by equipment that gets contaminated and is not properly cleaned or on the hands of healthcare workers. Pseudomonas can, in rare circumstances, cause community - acquired pneumonias, as well as ventilator - associated pneumonias, being one of the most common agents isolated in several studies. Pyocyanin is a virulence factor of the bacteria and has been known to cause death in C. elegans by oxidative stress. However, salicylic acid can inhibit pyocyanin production. One in ten hospital - acquired infections is from Pseudomonas. Cystic fibrosis patients are also predisposed to P. aeruginosa infection of the lungs. P. aeruginosa may also be a common cause of "hot - tub rash '' (dermatitis), caused by lack of proper, periodic attention to water quality. Since these bacteria like moist environments, such as hot tubs and swimming pools, they can cause skin rash or swimmer 's ear. Pseudomonas is also a common cause of postoperative infection in radial keratotomy surgery patients. The organism is also associated with the skin lesion ecthyma gangrenosum. P. aeruginosa is frequently associated with osteomyelitis involving puncture wounds of the foot, believed to result from direct inoculation with P. aeruginosa via the foam padding found in tennis shoes, with diabetic patients at a higher risk.
P. aeruginosa uses the virulence factor exotoxin A to inactivate eukaryotic elongation factor 2 via ADP - ribosylation in the host cell, much as the diphtheria toxin does. Without elongation factor 2, eukaryotic cells can not synthesize proteins and necrotise. The release of intracellular contents induces an immunologic response in immunocompetent patients. In addition P. aeruginosa uses an exoenzyme, ExoU, which degrades the plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells, leading to lysis. Increasingly, it is becoming recognized that the iron - acquiring siderophore, pyoverdine, also functions as a toxin by removing iron from mitochondria, inflicting damage on this organelle.
Phenazines are redox - active pigments produced by P. aeruginosa. These pigments are involved in quorum sensing, virulence, and iron acquisition. P. aeruginosa produces several pigments all produced by a biosynthetic pathway: pyocyanin, 1 - hydroxyphenazine, phenazine - 1 - carboxamide, 5 - methylphenazine - 1 - carboxylic acid betaine, and aeruginosin A. Two operons are involved in phenazine biosynthesis: phzA1B1C1D1E1F1G1 and phzA2B2C2D2E2F2G2. These operons convert a chorismic acid to the phenazines mentioned above. Three key genes, phzH, phzM, and phzS convert phenazine - 1 - carboxylic acid to the phenazines mentioned above. Though phenazine biosynthesis is well studied, questions remain as to the final structure of the brown phenazine pyomelanin.
When pyocyanin biosynthesis is inhibited, a decrease in P. aeruginosa pathogenicity is observed in vitro. This suggests that pyocyanin is most responsible for the initial colonization of P. aeruginosa in vivo.
With low phosphate levels, P. aeruginosa has been found to activate from benign symbiont to express lethal toxins inside the intestinal tract and severely damage or kill the host, which can be mitigated by providing excess phosphate instead of antibiotics.
In higher plants, P. aeruginosa induces soft rot, for example in Arabidopsis thaliana (Thale cress) and Lactuca sativa (lettuce). It is also pathogenic to invertebrate animals, including the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, the fruit fly Drosophila and the moth Galleria mellonella. The associations of virulence factors are the same for plant and animal infections.
Regulation of gene expression can occur through cell - cell communication or quorum sensing (QS) via the production of small molecules called autoinducers. The extracellular accumulation of these molecules signals to bacteria to alter gene expression and coordinate behavior. P. aeruginosa employs three interconnected QS systems -- lasRl, rhlRl, and PQS -- that each produce unique signaling molecules. Detection of these molecules indicates P. aeruginosa is growing as biofilm within the lungs of cystic fibrosis patients. QS is known to control expression of a number of virulence factors, including the pigment pyocyanin. Another form of gene regulation that allows the bacteria to rapidly adapt to surrounding changes is through environmental signaling. Recent studies have discovered anaerobiosis can significantly impact the major regulatory circuit of QS. This important link between QS and anaerobiosis has a significant impact on production of virulence factors of this organism. Garlic experimentally blocks quorum sensing in P. aeruginosa.
Biofilms of P. aeruginosa can cause chronic opportunistic infections, which are a serious problem for medical care in industrialized societies, especially for immunocompromised patients and the elderly. They often can not be treated effectively with traditional antibiotic therapy. Biofilms seem to protect these bacteria from adverse environmental factors. P. aeruginosa can cause nosocomial infections and is considered a model organism for the study of antibiotic - resistant bacteria. Researchers consider it important to learn more about the molecular mechanisms that cause the switch from planktonic growth to a biofilm phenotype and about the role of QS in treatment - resistant bacteria such as P. aeruginosa. This should contribute to better clinical management of chronically infected patients, and should lead to the development of new drugs.
Many genes and factors affect biofilm formation in P. aeruginosa. One of the main gene operons responsible for the initiation and maintaining the biofilm is the PSL operon. This 15 - gene operon is responsible for the cell - cell and cell - surface interactions required for cell communication. It is also responsible for the sequestering of the extracellular polymeric substance matrix. This matrix is composed of nucleic acids, amino acids, carbohydrates, and various ions. This matrix is one of the main resistance mechanisms in the biofilms of P. aeruginosa.
Cyclic di - GMP is a major contributor to biofilm adherent properties. This signalling molecule in high quantities makes superadherent biofilms. When suppressed, the biofilms are less adherent and easier to treat. Polysaccharide synthesis locus (PSL) and cdi - GMP form a positive feedback loop. PSL stimulates cdi - GMP production, while high cd - GMP turns on the operon and increases activity of the operon.
Recent studies have shown that the dispersed cells from P. aeruginosa biofilms have lower c - di - GMP levels and different physiologies from those of planktonic and biofilm cells. Such dispersed cells are found to be highly virulent against macrophages and C. elegans, but highly sensitive towards iron stress, as compared with planktonic cells.
Recently, scientists have been examining the possible genetic basis for P. aeruginosa resistance to antibiotics such as tobramycin. One locus identified as being an important genetic determinant of the resistance in this species is ndvB, which encodes periplasmic glucans that may interact with antibiotics and cause them to become sequestered into the periplasm. These results suggest a genetic basis exists behind bacterial antibiotic resistance, rather than the biofilm simply acting as a diffusion barrier to the antibiotic.
Depending on the nature of infection, an appropriate specimen is collected and sent to a bacteriology laboratory for identification. As with most bacteriological specimens, a Gram stain is performed, which may show Gram - negative rods and / or white blood cells. P. aeruginosa produces colonies with a characteristic "grape - like '' or "fresh - tortilla '' odor on bacteriological media. In mixed cultures, it can be isolated as clear colonies on MacConkey agar (as it does not ferment lactose) which will test positive for oxidase. Confirmatory tests include production of the blue - green pigment pyocyanin on cetrimide agar and growth at 42 ° C. A TSI slant is often used to distinguish nonfermenting Pseudomonas species from enteric pathogens in faecal specimens.
When P. aeruginosa is isolated from a normally sterile site (blood, bone, deep collections), it is generally considered dangerous, and almost always requires treatment. However, P. aeruginosa is frequently isolated from nonsterile sites (mouth swabs, sputum, etc.), and, under these circumstances, it may represent colonization and not infection. The isolation of P. aeruginosa from nonsterile specimens should, therefore, be interpreted cautiously, and the advice of a microbiologist or infectious diseases physician / pharmacist should be sought prior to starting treatment. Often, no treatment is needed.
P. aeruginosa is a Gram - negative, aerobic (and at times facultatively anaerobic), bacillus with unipolar motility. It has been identified as an opportunistic pathogen of both humans and plants. P. aeruginosa is the type species of the genus Pseudomonas.
In certain conditions, P. aeruginosa can secrete a variety of pigments, including pyocyanin (blue), pyoverdine (yellow and fluorescent), pyorubin (red), and pyomelanin (brown). These can be used to identify the organism.
P. aeruginosa is often preliminarily identified by its pearlescent appearance. Clinical identification of P. aeruginosa may include identifying the production of both pyocyanin and fluorescein, as well as its ability to grow at 42 ° C. P. aeruginosa is capable of growth in diesel and jet fuels, where it is known as a hydrocarbon - using microorganism, causing microbial corrosion. It creates dark, gellish mats sometimes improperly called "algae '' because of their appearance.
Many P. aeruginosa isolates are resistant to a large range of antibiotics and may demonstrate additional resistance after unsuccessful treatment. It should usually be possible to guide treatment according to laboratory sensitivities, rather than choosing an antibiotic empirically. If antibiotics are started empirically, then every effort should be made to obtain cultures (before administering first dose of antibiotic), and the choice of antibiotic used should be reviewed when the culture results are available.
Due to widespread resistance to many common first - line antibiotics, carbapenems, polymyxins, and more recently tigecycline were considered to be the drugs of choice; however, resistance to these drugs has also been reported. Despite this, they are still being used in areas where resistance has not yet been reported. Use of β - lactamase inhibitors such as sulbactam has been advised in combination with antibiotics to enhance antimicrobial action even in the presence of a certain level of resistance. Combination therapy after rigorous antimicrobial susceptibility testing has been found to be the best course of action in the treatment of multidrug - resistant P. aeruginosa. Some next - generation antibiotics that are reported as being active against P. aeruginosa include doripenem, ceftobiprole, and ceftaroline. However, these require more clinical trials for standardization. Therefore, research for the discovery of new antibiotics and drugs against P. aeruginosa is very much needed. Antibiotics that may have activity against P. aeruginosa include:
As fluoroquinolone is one of the few antibiotics widely effective against P. aeruginosa, in some hospitals, its use is severely restricted to avoid the development of resistant strains. On the rare occasions where infection is superficial and limited (for example, ear infections or nail infections), topical gentamicin or colistin may be used.
For pseudomonal wound infections, acetic acid with concentrations from 0.5 % to 5 % can be an effective bacteriostatic agent in eliminating the bacteria from the wound. Usually a sterile gauze soaked with acetic acid is placed on the wound after irrigation with normal saline. Dressing would be done once per day. Pseudomonas is usually eliminated in 90 % of the cases after 10 to 14 days of treatment.
One of the most worrisome characteristics of P. aeruginosa is its low antibiotic susceptibility, which is attributable to a concerted action of multidrug efflux pumps with chromosomally encoded antibiotic resistance genes (e.g., mexAB, mexXY, etc.) and the low permeability of the bacterial cellular envelopes. In addition to this intrinsic resistance, P. aeruginosa easily develops acquired resistance either by mutation in chromosomally encoded genes or by the horizontal gene transfer of antibiotic resistance determinants. Development of multidrug resistance by P. aeruginosa isolates requires several different genetic events, including acquisition of different mutations and / or horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes. Hypermutation favours the selection of mutation - driven antibiotic resistance in P. aeruginosa strains producing chronic infections, whereas the clustering of several different antibiotic resistance genes in integrons favors the concerted acquisition of antibiotic resistance determinants. Some recent studies have shown phenotypic resistance associated to biofilm formation or to the emergence of small - colony variants may be important in the response of P. aeruginosa populations to antibiotics treatment.
Mechanisms underlying antibiotic resistance have been found to include production of antibiotic - degrading or antibiotic - inactivating enzymes, outer membrane proteins to evict the antibiotics and mutations to change antibiotic targets. Presence of antibiotic - degrading enzymes such as extended - spectrum β - lactamases like PER - 1, PER - 2, VEB - 1, AmpC cephalosporinases, carbapenemases like serine oxacillinases, metallo - b - lactamases, OXA - type carbapenemases, aminoglycoside - modifying enzymes, among others have been reported. P. aeruginosa can also modify the targets of antibiotic action, for example methylation of 16S rRNA to prevent aminoglycoside binding and modification of DNA, or topoisomerase to protect it from the action of quinolones. P. aeruginosa has also been reported to possess multidrug efflux pumps like AdeABC and AdeDE efflux systems that confer resistance against number of antibiotic classes. An important factor found to be associated with antibiotic resistance is the decrease in the virulence capabilities of the resistant strain. Such findings have been reported in the case of rifampicin - resistant and colistin - resistant strains, in which decrease in infective ability, quorum sensing and motility have been documented.
Mutations in DNA gyrase are commonly associated with antibiotic resistance in P. aeruginosa. These mutations, when combined with others, confer high resistance without hindering survival. Additionally, genes involved in cyclic - di - GMP signaling may contribute to resistance. When grown in vitro conditions designed to mimic a cystic fibrosis patient 's lungs, these genes mutate repeatedly.
Two small RNA s: Sr0161 and ErsA were shown to interact with mRNA encoding the major porin OprD responsible for the uptake of carbapenem antibiotics into the periplasm. The sRNAs bind to the 5'UTR of oprD causing increase in bacterial resistance to meropenem. Another sRNA: Sr006 was suggested to positively regulate (post-transcriptionally) the expression of PagL, an enzyme responsible for deacylation of lipid A. This reduces the pro-inflammatory property of lipid A. Furthermore, similarly to study in Salmonella Sr006 regulation of PagL expression was suggested to aid in polymyxin B resistance.
Probiotic prophylaxis may prevent colonization and delay onset of Pseudomonas infection in an ICU setting. Immunoprophylaxis against Pseudomonas is being investigated. The risk of contracting P. aeruginosa can be reduced by avoiding pools, hot tubs, and other bodies of standing water; regularly disinfecting and / or replacing equipment that regularly encounters moisture (such as contact lens equipment and solutions); and washing one 's hands often (which is protective against many other pathogens as well). However, even the best hygiene practices can not totally protect an individual against P. aeruginosa, given how common P. aeruginosa is in the environment.
Phage therapy against P. aeruginosa has been investigated as a possible effective treatment, which can be combined with antibiotics, has no contraindications and minimal adverse effects. Phages are produced as sterile liquid, suitable for intake, applications etc. Phage therapy against ear infections caused by P. aeruginosa was reported in the journal Clinical Otolaryngology in August 2009.
Last 2013, João Xavier described an experiment in which P. aeruginosa, when subjected to repeated rounds of conditions in which it needed to swarm to acquire food, developed the ability to "hyperswarm '' at speeds 25 % faster than baseline organisms, by developing multiple flagella, whereas the baseline organism has a single flagellum. This result was notable in the field of experimental evolution in that it was highly repeatable.
P. aeruginosa has been studied for use in bioremediation and use in processing polyethylene in municipal solid waste.
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when was the last time mount konocti erupted | Mount Konocti - wikipedia
Mount Konocti / koʊˈnɒktaɪ / is a volcano in Lake County, California on the south shore of Clear Lake. At 4,305 feet (1,312 m), it is the second highest peak in the Clear Lake Volcanic Field, which consists of numerous volcanic domes and cones ranging from 10,000 to 2.1 million years old. Although it is often described as extinct, it is actually classified as High Threat Potential. Clear Lake Volcanic Field 's alert level is currently classified as Normal.
The volcano is the most visible landmark in Lake County other than the lake. The mountain is located between the towns of Lakeport and Clearlake. It lies directly south of Soda Bay and Riviera Heights and east of Kelseyville. Konocti Harbor and Soda Bay sit at the base of the mountain. From the summit of Mount Konocti, the taller peaks and ridges around Snow Mountain can be seen to the northeast.
Mount Konocti has five distinctive peaks: Wright Peak (4,299 feet or 1,310 meters), Howard Peak (4,286 ft or 1,306 m), South Peak (4,286 ft or 1,306 m), Buckingham Peak (3,967 ft or 1,209 m) and Clark Peak (2,880 ft or 880 m). Wright Peak, Howard Peak, and South Peak make up the main part of the mountain, while Buckingham Peak and Clark Peak are located off to the side. Konocti Road runs about 4 miles (6.4 km) west from the Taylor Planetarium & Observatory in the town of Kelseyville, snaking between Howard and South Peaks and ending at the mountain 's summit, Wright Peak.
Benson Ridge lies to the south of Clark Peak and west of South Peak. Buckingham Peak lies north of Howard and Wright Peaks and northeast of Clark Peak. South Peak is directly south of Howard Peak and southwest of Wright Peak. Wright Peak lies east and a little north of Howard Peak.
Mount Konocti probably first erupted some 350,000 years ago and last erupted 11,000 years ago. Mount Konocti has an explosive, eruptive history with devastating lava flows ending about 13,000 years ago that formed the mountains from Clearlake Oaks to Ukiah, all of which now are covered by trees so the ancient flows are really hard to find. Clear Lake is much older and is possibly the oldest securely dated lake in North America. Core samples taken by U.S. Geological Survey geologists in 1973 and 1980 have been dated to 480,000 years.
Archaeologists have found evidence that native people, principally Pomo people and Wappo, have inhabited the area around Konocti for as much as 11,000 years. The name "Konocti '' is derived from the Pomo "kno '', mountain, and "htai '', woman.
The mountain is covered with heavy concentrations of chaparral similar to the European maquis shrubland. Oak, Pacific madrone, manzanita, western white pine and other plant species of the California coastal mountains dominate the area. On the northeast slope of Mount Konocti is a steep, heavily forested area known locally as the "Black Forest '', because it never gets direct sunshine. The Black Forest contains heavy stands of Douglas fir.
Local people have long known that Konocti is riddled with natural caves. Although most of the natural caves collapsed or were filled in for safety in the early 20th century, persistent local belief holds that Konocti 's central magma chamber is a vast, empty vertical cavern, partly filled with Clear Lake water and connecting with the lake via an underground seep. This cavern might be the largest on Earth, though its existence is difficult to prove due to the unstable and eroding structure of the volcano 's cone. Heavy vegetation also conceals cave entrances. No accurate map or survey of the caves has been created due to the heavy underbrush and unstable hillsides. The majority of Konocti is owned by private parties, who have discouraged exploration and study of the mountain in recent years. The County of Lake recently purchased 1,520 acres on top of the mountain. As a result, Mt. Konocti County Park opened to the public on September 24, 2011.
Pomo legend has it that around the year 1818, after a long drought, the level of Clear Lake dropped so low that a previously unknown cave on the eastern flank of Konocti was exposed. A group of Pomo men entered the cave, and discovered a vast underground lake, containing "blind fish ''. Repeated attempts by divers to locate this cave have been unsuccessful.
Although the peak of Konocti was owned privately for a long time, it was acquired by Lake County in 2009. It is now called the Mount Konocti County Park, and is open to the public.
The U.S. Geological Survey classifies the Clear Lake Volcanic Field, of which Mount Konocti is the most prominent volcano, as High Threat Potential.
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who sang i should have been a cowboy | Should 've Been a cowboy - wikipedia
"Should 've Been a Cowboy '' is a song written and recorded by American country music artist Toby Keith. It was released on February 8, 1993 as his debut single and the first from his self - titled debut album. On June 5, 1993, the song reached number one on the US Billboard Hot Country Songs and the Canadian RPM Country Tracks charts. It also peaked at number 93 on the Billboard Hot 100, making it a minor crossover hit.
It has received more than three million spins on country radio, making it the most - played country song of the 1990s.
The song was formerly a staple following sporting events at Oklahoma State University (home of the Cowboys), often played over the venue 's PA system several times in succession as fans emptied the stadium or arena.
The lyrics romanticize the cowboy lifestyle through references to old Westerns. The first verse references Gunsmoke, in which cowboy hero Marshall Dillon never settled down with love interest Miss Kitty. The second verse tells of his own adventures if the narrator were a cowboy: having "a sidekick with a funny name '' (possibly a reference to sidekicks like Tonto or Festus or Gordito), travelling west to California (including the historical quote "Go West, young man ''), hunting down Western outlaw Jesse James, joining up with the Texas Rangers, and so on. The chorus refers to famous singing cowboys Gene Autry and Roy Rogers, and lists common patterns depicted in Westerns such as six shooters (revolvers) and cattle drives.
"Should 've Been a Cowboy '' was Keith 's first music video. It was filmed in Las Cruces, New Mexico and was directed by Marc Ball and premiered on CMT in March 1993. A second version of the video was made featuring clips of the 1992 Dallas Cowboys.
The song is available as downloadable content on the music video game, Rock Band.
"Should 've Been a Cowboy '' debuted at number 69 on the Hot Country Songs chart for the week of March 6, 1993. It became Keith 's first number one single on the chart dated June 5, 1993, remaining there for two weeks. It was certified Gold by the RIAA on November 28, 2012, almost twenty years after its release.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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what country has the most medals in the olympics | All - time Olympic Games medal table - wikipedia
An all - time medal table for all Olympic Games from 1896 to 2016, including Summer Olympic Games, Winter Olympic Games, and a combined total of both, is tabulated below. These Olympic medal counts do not include the 1906 Intercalated Games which are no longer recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) as official Games. The IOC itself does not publish all - time tables, and publishes unofficial tables only per single Games. This table was thus compiled by adding up single entries from the IOC database.
The results are attributed to the IOC country code as currently displayed by the IOC database. Usually, a single code corresponds to a single National Olympic Committee (NOC). When different codes are displayed for different years, medal counts are combined in the case of a simple change of IOC code (such as from HOL to NED for the Netherlands) or simple change of country name (such as from Ceylon to Sri Lanka). As the medals are attributed to each NOC, not all totals include medals won by athletes from that country for another NOC, such as before independence of that country (see individual footnotes for special cases such as combined teams). Names in italic are national entities that no longer exist. The totals of NOCs are not combined with those of their predecessors and successors.
The table is pre-sorted by the name of each Olympic Committee, but can be displayed as sorted by any other column, such as the total number of gold medals or total number of overall medals. To sort by gold, silver, and then bronze, sort first by the bronze column, then the silver, and then the gold. The table does not include the medals revoked (e.g., due to doping, etc.).
Medal totals in this table are current as of the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and all changes in medal standings due to doping cases up to and including 24 April 2017 are taken into account.
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After the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio, 71 of the current 206 National Olympic Committees, 6 historic National Olympic Committees, and the Refugee Olympic Team have not yet won an Olympic medal.
The sections above are based on information published by the International Olympic Committee. Various sources deal with some of the entries in the preceding sections differently.
For the 1900 Summer Olympics several countries are credited with appearances that are not considered official by the IOC. Only one of these cases concerns a medal. A gold medal that is officially added to France 's total is given to Luxembourg.
Similar cases of disputed nationality affect the 1904 Summer Olympics. France is credited with a silver medal and Norway with two gold medals. In the table above these medals are listed under the United States. Furthermore, Newfoundland is occasionally listed as a separate country at the 1904 Olympics, and would be listed as a historical NOC without medals.
Other differences from the official table are based on disagreements about which events were Olympic. This affects several of the events in the 1900 and 1904 Olympics. In addition, some sources include the 1906 Intercalated Games when compiling their medal tables.
Germany has competed under five different designations, including as two separate teams at several Games. Sources vary in how they present the medals won by these teams. The table below shows sourced combinations of these teams, when applied to the updated medal totals from the main table.
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The Russian Federation and the Russian Empire are often combined outside of IOC sources. The Soviet Union is combined with the post-union team that competed in 1992. Some sources combine the Soviet Union and Russia.
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All - time medal counts are compiled by various sources, often adding up related results for Russia, Germany, Serbia, Czech Republic etc.
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who sponsored the first english colony in the americas | European colonization of the Americas - wikipedia
The European colonization of the Americas describes the history of the settlement and establishment of control of the continents of the Americas by various European powers. Starting in either the 10th or 11th century, West Norse sailors explored and briefly settled on the shores of present - day Canada, according to Icelandic Sagas and archeological evidence, but violent conflicts with the indigenous population ultimately led to the Norse abandoning those settlements.
European colonization began in 1492, when a Spanish expedition headed by the Genoese explorer Christopher Columbus sailed west to find a new trade route to the Far East but inadvertently landed in what came to be known to Europeans as the "New World ''. Running aground on the northern part of Hispaniola on 5 December 1492, which the Taino people had inhabited since the 7th century, the site became the first European settlement in the Americas after the Norse. European conquest, large - scale exploration and colonization soon followed. Columbus 's first two voyages (1492 -- 93) reached the Bahamas and various Caribbean islands, including Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Cuba. In 1498, sailing from Bristol on behalf of England, John Cabot landed on the North American coast, and a year later, Columbus 's third voyage reached the South American coast. As the sponsor of Christopher Columbus 's voyages, Spain was the first European power to settle and colonize the largest areas, from North America and the Caribbean to the southern tip of South America.
Other powers such as France also founded colonies in the Americas: in eastern North America, a number of Caribbean islands and small coastal parts of South America. Portugal colonized Brazil, tried colonizing the eastern coasts of present - day Canada and settled for extended periods northwest (on the east bank) of the River Plate. The Age of Exploration was the beginning of territorial expansion for several European countries. Europe had been preoccupied with internal wars and was slowly recovering from the loss of population caused by the Black Death; thus the rapid rate at which it grew in wealth and power was unforeseeable in the early 15th century.
Eventually, most of the Western Hemisphere came under the control of European governments, leading to changes to its landscape, population, and plant and animal life. In the 19th century over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas. The post-1492 era is known as the period of the Columbian Exchange, a dramatically widespread exchange of animals, plants, culture, human populations (including slaves), ideas and communicable disease between the American and Afro - Eurasian hemispheres following Columbus 's voyages to the Americas.
Norse journeys to Greenland and Canada are supported by historical and archaeological evidence. A Norse colony in Greenland was established in the late 10th century, and lasted until the mid 15th century, with court and parliament assemblies (þing) taking place at Brattahlíð and a bishop located at Garðar. The remains of a Norse settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada, were discovered in 1960 and were dated to around the year 1000 (carbon dating estimate 990 -- 1050 CE). L'Anse aux Meadows is the only site widely accepted as evidence of pre-Columbian trans - oceanic contact. It was named a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1978. It is also notable for its possible connection with the attempted colony of Vinland, established by Leif Erikson around the same period or, more broadly, with the West Norse colonization of the Americas.
Early explorations and conquests were made by the Spanish and the Portuguese immediately following their own final reconquest of Iberia in 1492. In the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, ratified by the Pope, these two kingdoms divided the entire non-European world into two areas of exploration and colonization, with a north to south boundary that cut through the Atlantic Ocean and the eastern part of present - day Brazil. Based on this treaty and on early claims by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa, discoverer of the Pacific Ocean in 1513, the Spanish conquered large territories in North, Central and South America.
Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés took over the Aztec Kingdom and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire. As a result, by the mid-16th century, the Spanish Crown had gained control of much of western South America, Central America and southern North America, in addition to its earlier Caribbean territories. Over this same timeframe, Portugal claimed lands in North America (Canada) and colonized much of eastern South America, naming it Santa Cruz and Brazil.
Other European nations soon disputed the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas. England and France attempted to plant colonies in the Americas in the 16th century, but these failed. England and France succeeded in establishing permanent colonies in the following century, along with the Dutch Republic. Some of these were on Caribbean islands, which had often already been conquered by the Spanish or depopulated by disease, while others were in eastern North America, which had not been colonized by Spain north of Florida.
Early European possessions in North America included Spanish Florida, Spanish New Mexico, the English colonies of Virginia (with its North Atlantic offshoot, Bermuda) and New England, the French colonies of Acadia and Canada, the Swedish colony of New Sweden, and the Dutch New Netherland. In the 18th century, Denmark -- Norway revived its former colonies in Greenland, while the Russian Empire gained a foothold in Alaska. Denmark - Norway would later make several claims in the Caribbean, starting in the 1600s.
As more nations gained an interest in the colonization of the Americas, competition for territory became increasingly fierce. Colonists often faced the threat of attacks from neighboring colonies, as well as from indigenous tribes and pirates.
The first phase of well - financed European activity in the Americas began with the Atlantic Ocean crossings of Christopher Columbus (1492 -- 1504), sponsored by Spain, whose original attempt was to find a new route to India and China, known as "the Indies ''. He was followed by other explorers such as John Cabot, who was sponsored by England and reached Newfoundland. Pedro Álvares Cabral reached Brazil and claimed it for Portugal.
Amerigo Vespucci, working for Portugal in voyages from 1497 to 1513, established that Columbus had reached a new set of continents. Cartographers still use a Latinized version of his first name, America, for the two continents. Other explorers included Giovanni da Verrazzano, sponsored by France in 1524; the Portuguese João Vaz Corte - Real in Newfoundland; João Fernandes Lavrador, Gaspar and Miguel Corte - Real and João Álvares Fagundes, in Newfoundland, Greenland, Labrador, and Nova Scotia (from 1498 to 1502, and in 1520); Jacques Cartier (1491 -- 1557), Henry Hudson (1560s -- 1611), and Samuel de Champlain (1567 -- 1635), who explored the region of Canada he reestablished as New France.
In 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and led the first European expedition to see the Pacific Ocean from the west coast of the New World. In an action with enduring historical import, Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean and all the lands adjoining it for the Spanish Crown. It was 1517 before another expedition, from Cuba, visited Central America, landing on the coast of Yucatán in search of slaves.
These explorations were followed, notably in the case of Spain, by a phase of conquest: The Spaniards, having just finished the Reconquista of Spain from Muslim rule, were the first to colonize the Americas, applying the same model of governing their European holdings to their territories of the New World.
Ten years after Columbus 's discovery, the administration of Hispaniola was given to Nicolás de Ovando of the Order of Alcántara, founded during the Reconquista. As in the Iberian Peninsula, the inhabitants of Hispaniola were given new landmasters, while religious orders handled the local administration. Progressively the encomienda system, which granted tribute (access to indigenous labor and taxation) to European settlers, was set in place.
A relatively common misconception is that a small number of conquistadores conquered vast territories, aided only by disease epidemics and their powerful caballeros. In fact, recent archaeological excavations have suggested a vast Spanish - Indian alliance numbering in the hundreds of thousands. Hernán Cortés eventually conquered Mexico with the help of Tlaxcala in 1519 -- 1521, while the conquest of the Incas was carried out by some 40,000 Incan renegades led by Francisco Pizarro in between 1532 and 1535.
Over the 1st century and a half after Columbus 's voyages, the native population of the Americas plummeted by an estimated 80 % (from around 50 million in 1492 to eight million in 1650), mostly by outbreaks of Old World diseases.
In 1532, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor sent a vice-king to Mexico, Antonio de Mendoza, in order to prevent Cortes ' independentist drives, who definitively returned to Spain in 1540. Two years later, Charles V signed the New Laws (which replaced the Laws of Burgos of 1512) prohibiting slavery and the repartimientos, but also claiming as his own all the American lands and all of the indigenous people as his own subjects.
When in May 1493, the Pope Alexander VI issued the Inter caetera bull granting the new lands to the Kingdom of Spain, he requested in exchange an evangelization of the people. Thus, during Columbus 's second voyage, Benedictine friars accompanied him, along with twelve other priests. As slavery was prohibited between Christians, and could only be imposed in non-Christian prisoners of war or on men already sold as slaves, the debate on Christianization was particularly acute during the 16th century. In 1537, the papal bull Sublimis Deus definitively recognized that Native Americans possessed souls, thus prohibiting their enslavement, without putting an end to the debate. Some claimed that a native who had rebelled and then been captured could be enslaved nonetheless.
Later, the Valladolid debate between the Dominican priest Bartolomé de Las Casas and another Dominican philosopher Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda was held, with the former arguing that Native Americans were beings doted with souls, as all other human beings, while the latter argued to the contrary and justified their enslavement.
The process of Christianization was at first violent: when the first Franciscans arrived in Mexico in 1524, they burned the places dedicated to pagan cult, alienating much of the local population. In the 1530s, they began to adapt Christian practices to local customs, including the building of new churches on the sites of ancient places of worship, leading to a mix of Old World Christianity with local religions. The Spanish Roman Catholic Church, needing the natives ' labor and cooperation, evangelized in Quechua, Nahuatl, Guaraní and other Native American languages, contributing to the expansion of these indigenous languages and equipping some of them with writing systems. One of the first primitive schools for Native Americans was founded by Fray Pedro de Gante in 1523.
To reward their troops, the Conquistadores often allotted Indian towns to their troops and officers. Black African slaves were introduced to substitute for Native American labor in some locations -- including the West Indies, where the indigenous population was nearing extinction on many islands.
During this time, the Portuguese gradually switched from an initial plan of establishing trading posts to extensive colonization of what is now Brazil. They imported millions of slaves to run their plantations. The Portuguese and Spanish royal governments expected to rule these settlements and collect at least 20 % of all treasure found (the quinto real collected by the Casa de Contratación), in addition to collecting all the taxes they could. By the late 16th century American silver accounted for one - fifth of Spain 's total budget. In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered American ports.
Inspired by the Spanish riches from colonies founded upon the conquest of the Aztecs, Incas, and other large Native American populations in the 16th century, the first Englishmen to settle permanently in America hoped for some of the same rich discoveries when they established their first permanent settlement in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. They were sponsored by common stock companies such as the chartered Virginia Company financed by wealthy Englishmen who exaggerated the economic potential of this new land. The main purpose of this colony was the hope of finding gold.
It took strong leaders, like John Smith, to convince the colonists of Jamestown that searching for gold was not taking care of their immediate needs for food and shelter and the biblical principle that "he who will not work shall not eat '' (see 2 Thessalonians 3). The lack of food security leading to extremely high mortality rate was quite distressing and cause for despair among the colonists. To support the Colony, numerous supply missions were organized. Tobacco later became a cash crop, with the work of John Rolfe and others, for export and the sustaining economic driver of Virginia and the neighboring colony of Maryland.
From the beginning of Virginia 's settlements in 1587 until the 1680s, the main source of labor and a large portion of the immigrants were indentured servants looking for new life in the overseas colonies. During the 17th century, indentured servants constituted three - quarters of all European immigrants to the Chesapeake region. Most of the indentured servants were teenagers from England with poor economic prospects at home. Their fathers signed the papers that gave them free passage to America and an unpaid job until they became of age. They were given food, clothing, housing and taught farming or household skills. American landowners were in need of laborers and were willing to pay for a laborer 's passage to America if they served them for several years. By selling passage for five to seven years worth of work they could then start out on their own in America. Many of the migrants from England died in the first few years.
Economic advantage also prompted the Darien Scheme, an ill - fated venture by the Kingdom of Scotland to settle the Isthmus of Panama in the late 1690s. The Darien Scheme aimed to control trade through that part of the world and thereby promote Scotland into a world trading power. However, it was doomed by poor planning, short provisions, weak leadership, lack of demand for trade goods, and devastating disease. The failure of the Darien Scheme was one of the factors that led the Kingdom of Scotland into the Act of Union 1707 with the Kingdom of England creating the united Kingdom of Great Britain and giving Scotland commercial access to English, now British, colonies.
In the French colonial regions, the focus of economy was on sugar plantations in Caribbean. In Canada the fur trade with the natives was important. About 16,000 French men and women became colonizers. The great majority became subsistence farmers along the St. Lawrence River. With a favorable disease environment and plenty of land and food, their numbers grew exponentially to 65,000 by 1760. Their colony was taken over by Britain in 1760, but social, religious, legal, cultural and economic changes were few in a society that clung tightly to its recently formed traditions.
Roman Catholics were the first major religious group to immigrate to the New World, as settlers in the colonies of Portugal and Spain (and later, France) belonged to that faith. English and Dutch colonies, on the other hand, tended to be more religiously diverse. Settlers to these colonies included Anglicans, Dutch Calvinists, English Puritans and other nonconformists, English Catholics, Scottish Presbyterians, French Huguenots, German and Swedish Lutherans, as well as Quakers, Mennonites, Amish, Moravians and Jews of various nationalities.
Many groups of colonists went to the Americas searching for the right to practice their religion without persecution. The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century broke the unity of Western Christendom and led to the formation of numerous new religious sects, which often faced persecution by governmental authorities. In England, many people came to question the organization of the Church of England by the end of the 16th century. One of the primary manifestations of this was the Puritan movement, which sought to "purify '' the existing Church of England of its many residual Catholic rites that they believed had no mention in the Bible.
A strong believer in the notion of rule by divine right, Charles I, King of England and Scotland, persecuted religious dissenters. Waves of repression led to the migration of about 20,000 Puritans to New England between 1629 and 1642, where they founded multiple colonies. Later in the century, the new Pennsylvania colony was given to William Penn in settlement of a debt the king owed his father. Its government was set up by William Penn in about 1682 to become primarily a refuge for persecuted English Quakers; but others were welcomed. Baptists, Quakers, German and Swiss Protestants and Anabaptists flocked to Pennsylvania. The lure of cheap land, religious freedom and the right to improve themselves with their own hand was very attractive.
Slavery was a common practice in the Americas prior to the arrival of Europeans, as different American Indian groups captured and held other tribes ' members as slaves. Many of these captives were forced to undergo human sacrifice in Amerindian civilizations such as the Aztecs. In response to some enslavement of natives in the Caribbean during the early years, the Spanish Crown passed a series of laws prohibiting slavery as early as 1512. A new stricter set of laws was passed in 1542, called the New Laws of the Indies for the Good Treatment and Preservation of Indians, or simply New Laws. These were created to prevent the exploitation of the indigenous peoples by the encomenderos or landowners, by strictly limiting their power and dominion. This helped curb Indian slavery considerably, though not completely. Later, with the arrival of other European colonial powers in the New World, the enslavement of native populations increased, as these empires lacked legislation against slavery until decades later. The population of indigenous peoples declined (mostly from European diseases, but also from forced exploitation and atrocities). Later, native workers were replaced by Africans imported through a large commercial slave trade.
By the 18th century, the overwhelming number of black slaves was such that Amerindian slavery was less commonly used. Africans, who were taken aboard slave ships to the Americas, were primarily obtained from their African homelands by coastal tribes who captured and sold them. Europeans traded for slaves with the slave capturers of the local native African tribes in exchange for rum, guns, gunpowder, and other manufactures.
The total slave trade to islands in the Caribbean, Brazil, Mexico and to the United States is estimated to have involved 12 million Africans. The vast majority of these slaves went to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil, where life expectancy was short and the numbers had to be continually replenished. At most about 600,000 African slaves were imported into the U.S., or 5 % of the 12 million slaves brought across from Africa. Life expectancy was much higher in the U.S. (because of better food, less disease, lighter work loads, and better medical care) so the numbers grew rapidly by excesses of births over deaths, reaching 4 million by the 1860 Census. Slaves were a valuable commodity both for work and for sale in slave markets and so the policy of actively encouraging or forcing slaves to breed developed, especially after the ending of the Atlantic slave trade. From 1770 until 1860, the rate of growth of North American slaves was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe, and was nearly twice as rapid as that of England.
Slaves imported to the Thirteen colonies / United States by time period:
The European lifestyle included a long history of sharing close quarters with domesticated animals such as cows, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, dogs and various domesticated fowl, from which many diseases originally stemmed. Thus, in contrast to the indigenous people, Europeans had developed a richer endowment of antibodies. The large - scale contact with Europeans after 1492 introduced novel germs to the indigenous people of the Americas.
Epidemics of smallpox (1518, 1521, 1525, 1558, 1589), typhus (1546), influenza (1558), diphtheria (1614) and measles (1618) swept the Americas subsequent to European contact, killing between 10 million and 100 million people, up to 95 % of the indigenous population of the Americas. The cultural and political instability attending these losses appears to have been of substantial aid in the efforts of various colonists in New England and Massachusetts to acquire control over the great wealth in land and resources of which indigenous societies had customarily made use.
Such diseases yielded human mortality of an unquestionably enormous gravity and scale -- and this has profoundly confused efforts to determine its full extent with any true precision. Estimates of the pre-Columbian population of the Americas vary tremendously.
Others have argued that significant variations in population size over pre-Columbian history are reason to view higher - end estimates with caution. Such estimates may reflect historical population maxima, while indigenous populations may have been at a level somewhat below these maxima or in a moment of decline in the period just prior to contact with Europeans. Indigenous populations hit their ultimate lows in most areas of the Americas in the early 20th century; in a number of cases, growth has returned.
Geographic differences between the colonies played a large determinant in the types of political and economic systems that later developed. In their paper on institutions and long - run growth, economists Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson argue that certain natural endowments gave rise to distinct colonial policies promoting either smallholder or coerced labor production. Densely settled populations, for example, were more easily exploitable and profitable as slave labor. In these regions, landowning elites were economically incentivized to develop forced labor arrangements such as the Peru mit'a system or Argentinian latifundias without regard for democratic norms. French and British colonial leaders, conversely, were incentivized to develop capitalist markets, property rights, and democratic institutions in response to natural environments that supported smallholder production over forced labor.
James Mahoney, a professor at Northwestern University, proposes that colonial policy choices made at critical junctures regarding land ownership in coffee - rich Central America fostered enduring path dependent institutions. Coffee economies in Guatemala and El Salvador, for example, were centralized around large plantations that operated under coercive labor systems. By the 19th century, their political structures were largely authoritarian and militarized. In Colombia and Costa Rica, conversely, liberal reforms were enacted at critical junctures to expand commercial agriculture, and they ultimately raised the bargaining power of the middle class. Both nations eventually developed more democratic and egalitarian institutions than their highly concentrated landowning counterparts.
In 2007, the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History and the Virginia Historical Society (VHS) co-organized a traveling exhibition to recount the strategic alliances and violent conflict between European empires (English, Spanish, French) and the Native people living in North America. The exhibition was presented in three languages and with multiple perspectives. Artifacts on display included rare surviving Native and European artifacts, maps, documents, and ceremonial objects from museums and royal collections on both sides of the Atlantic. The exhibition opened in Richmond, Virginia on March 17, 2007, and closed at the Smithsonian International Gallery on October 31, 2009.
The related online exhibition explores the international origins of the societies of Canada and the United States and commemorates the 400th anniversary of three lasting settlements in Jamestown (1607), Québec (1608), and Santa Fe (1609). The site is accessible in three languages.
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rock steady crew the rock steady crew (hey you) lyrics | (Hey You) The Rock Steady Crew - Wikipedia
"(Hey You) The Rock Steady Crew '' is the first and most popular single by the American breakdancing and hip hop group Rock Steady Crew. Released in 1983, the song (from the group 's first studio album Ready For Battle) peaked at number six on its fourth week on the UK Singles Chart and reached the top 10 in many European countries.
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when did air conditioning get put in cars | Automobile air conditioning - wikipedia
Automobile air conditioning (also called A / C) systems use air conditioning to cool the air in a vehicle.
A company in New York City in the United States first offered installation of air conditioning for cars in 1933. Most of their customers operated limousines and luxury cars.
In 1939, Packard became the first automobile manufacturer to offer an air conditioning unit in its cars. These were manufactured by Bishop and Babcock Co, of Cleveland, Ohio. The "Bishop and Babcock Weather Conditioner '' also incorporated a heater. Cars ordered with the new "Weather Conditioner '' were shipped from Packard 's East Grand Boulevard facility to the B&B factory where the conversion was performed. Once complete, the car was shipped to a local dealer where the customer would take delivery.
Packard fully warranted and supported this conversion, and marketed it well. However, it was not commercially successful for a number of reasons:
The option was discontinued after 1941.
The 1953 Chrysler Imperial was one of the first production cars in twelve years to offer modern automobile air conditioning as an option, following tentative experiments by Packard in 1940 and Cadillac in 1941. Walter Chrysler had seen to the invention of Airtemp air conditioning in the 1930s for the Chrysler Building, and had offered it on cars in 1941 - 42, and again in 1951 - 52.
The Airtemp was more advanced than rival automobile air conditioners by 1953. It was operated by a single switch on the dashboard marked with low, medium, and high positions. As the highest capacity unit available at that time, the system was capable of quickly cooling the passenger compartment and also reducing humidity, dust, pollen, and tobacco smoke. The system drew in more outside air than contemporary systems; thus, reducing the staleness associated with automotive air conditioning at the time. Instead of plastic tubes mounted on the rear window package shelf as on GM cars, small ducts directed cool air toward the ceiling of the car where it filtered down around the passengers instead of blowing directly on them, a feature that modern cars have lost.
Cadillac, Buick, and Oldsmobile added air conditioning as an option on some of their models in the 1953 model year. All of these Frigidaire systems used separate engine and trunk mounted components.
In 1954, the Nash Ambassador was the first American automobile to have a front - end, fully integrated heating, ventilating, and air - conditioning system. The Nash - Kelvinator corporation used its experience in refrigeration to introduce the automobile industry 's first compact and affordable, single - unit heating and air conditioning system optional for its Nash models. This was the first mass market system with controls on the dash and an electric clutch. This system was also compact and serviceable with all of its components installed under the hood or in the cowl area.
Combining heating, cooling, and ventilating, the new air conditioning system for the Nash cars was called the "All - Weather Eye ''. This followed the marketing name of "Weather Eye '' for Nash 's fresh - air automotive heating and ventilating system that was first used in 1938. With a single thermostatic control, the Nash passenger compartment air cooling option was "a good and remarkably inexpensive '' system. The system had cold air for passengers enter through dash - mounted vents. Nash 's exclusive "remarkable advance '' was not only the "sophisticated '' unified system, but also its $345 price that beat all other systems.
Most competing systems used a separate heating system and an engine - mounted compressor, driven by the engine crankshaft via a belt, with an evaporator in the car 's trunk to deliver cold air through the rear parcel shelf and overhead vents. General Motors made a front - mounted air conditioning system optional in 1954 on Pontiacs with a straight - eight engine that added separate controls and air distribution. The alternative layout pioneered by Nash "became established practice and continues to form the basis of the modern and more sophisticated automatic climate control systems. ''
Air - conditioning for automobiles came into wide use from the late twentieth century. Although air conditioners use significant power; the drag of a car with closed windows is less than if the windows are open to cool the occupants. There has been much debate on the effect of air conditioning on the fuel efficiency of a vehicle. Factors such as wind resistance, aerodynamics and engine power and weight must be considered, to find the true difference between using the air conditioning system and not using it, when estimating the actual fuel mileage. Other factors can affect the engine, and an overall engine heat increase can affect the cooling system of the vehicle.
The innovation was adopted quickly and new features to air conditioning like the Cadillac Comfort Control which was a completely automatic heating and cooling system set by dial thermostat was introduced as an industry first in the 1964 model year. By 1960 about 20 % of all cars in the U.S. had air - conditioning, with the percentage increasing to 80 % in the warm areas of the Southwest. American Motors made air conditioning standard equipment on all AMC Ambassadors starting with the 1968 model year, a first in the mass market, with a base price starting at $2,671. By 1969, 54 % of domestic automobiles were equipped with air conditioning, with the feature needed not only for passenger comfort, but also to increase the car 's resale value.
A car cooler is an automobile evaporative cooler, sometimes referred to as a swamp cooler. Most are aftermarket relatively inexpensive accessories consisting of an external window - mounted metal cylinder without moving parts, but internal under dashboard or center floor units with an electric fan are available. It was an early type of automobile air conditioner and is not used in modern cars relying on refrigerative systems to cool the interior.
To cool the air it used latent heat (in other words, cooling by water evaporation). Water inside the device evaporates and in the process transfers heat from the surrounding air. The cool moisture - laden air is then directed to the inside of the car. The evaporate "cooling '' effect decreases with humidity because the air already saturated with water. Therefore, the lower humidity, such as in dry desert regions, the better the system works. Car coolers were popular, especially among summer tourists visiting or crossing the southwestern United States states of California, Arizona, Texas, New Mexico, and Nevada.
In the refrigeration cycle, heat is transported from the passenger compartment to the environment. A refrigerator is an example of such a system, as it transports the heat out of the interior and into its environment (i.e. the great outdoors).
Circulating refrigerant gas vapor (which also carries the compressor lubricant oil across the system along with it) from the evaporator enters the gas compressor in the engine bay, usually an axial piston pump compressor, and is compressed to a higher pressure, resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed refrigerant vapor is now at a temperature and pressure at which it can be condensed and is routed through a condenser, usually in front of the car 's radiator. Here the refrigerant is cooled by air flowing across the condenser coils (originating from the vehicle 's movement or from a fan, often the same fan of the cooling radiator if the condenser is mounted on it, automatically turned on when the vehicle is stationary or moving at low speeds) and condensed into a liquid. Thus, the circulating refrigerant rejects heat from the system and the heat is carried away by the air.
The condensed and pressurized liquid refrigerant is next routed through the receiver - drier, that is, a one way desiccant and filter cartridge that both dehydrates the refrigerant and compressor lubricant oil mixture in order to remove any residual water content (which would become ice inside the expansion valve and therefore clog it) that the vacuum done prior to the charging process did n't manage to remove from the system, and filters it in order to remove any solid particles carried by the mixture, and then through a thermal expansion valve where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in flash evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant, lowering its temperature. The cold refrigerant is then routed through the evaporator coil in the passenger compartment.
The air, often after being filtered by a cabin air filter, is blowed by an adjustable speed electric powered centrifugal fan across the evaporator, causing the liquid part of the cold refrigerant mixture to evaporate as well, further lowering the temperature. The warm air is therefore cooled, and also deprived of any humidity (which condenses on the evaporator coils and is drained outside of the vehicle) in the process. It is then passed through an heater matrix, inside of which the engine 's coolant circulates, where it can be reheated to a certain degree or even a certain temperature selected by the user and then delivered inside the vehicle 's cabin through a set of adjustable vents. Another way of adjusting the desired air temperature, this time by working on the system 's cooling capacity, is precisely regulating the centrifugal fan speed so that only the strictly required volumetric flow rate of air is cooled by the evaporator. The user is also given the option to close the vehicle 's external air flaps, in order to achieve even faster and stronger cooling by recirculating the already cooled air inside the cabin to the evaporator.
To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor is routed back into the compressor.
The warmer is the air that reaches the evaporator, the higher is the pressure of the vapor mixture discharged from it and therefore the higher is the load placed on the compressor and therefore on the engine to keep the refrigerant flowing through the system.
The compressor can be driven by the car 's engine (e.g. via a belt, often the serpentine belt, and an electromagnetically actuated clutch; an electronically actuated variable displacement compressor can also be always directly driven by a belt without the need of any clutch and magnet at all) or by an electric motor.
In a modern automobile, the A / C system will use around 4 horsepower (3 kW) of the engine 's power, thus increasing fuel consumption of the vehicle.
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the have and have nots season 2 episode 6 | List of the Haves and the Have Nots episodes - Wikipedia
The Haves and the Have Nots is an American primetime television soap opera created, executive produced, written and directed by Tyler Perry. The premise of the series is loosely based on Perry 's 2011 play The Haves and the Have Nots.
The series follows three families and their lifestyles as they intersect with one another in Savannah, Georgia: the rich and powerful Cryer and Harrington families (dubbed "The Haves '') and the poor and destitute Young family (dubbed "The Have Nots '').
The fifth episode in Season 2 of The Haves and the Have Nots, "Why Did n't You Tell Me? '' was not only a series high episode in ratings, but the most watched television program in all of cable for the night. The episode brought in 3.4 million viewers. Among all OWN programming since the network 's January 2011 debut, only a March 2012 Oprah 's Next Chapter interview with Bobbi Kristina has drawn more viewers (3.5 million) than the February - 4 - 2014 episode of The Haves and the Have Nots. On Tuesday, March 11, 2014, however, a season 2 episode of The Haves and the Have Nots -- following a hiatus within the season -- set a record for all of OWN programming, scoring the highest ratings in the station 's history. The record - breaking episode brought in 3.6 million viewers. Additionally, the episode came in at number 1 among all of cable television and number 4 among all shows on television for its airing night.
Candace and Jeffrey disagree on what to do with Quincy 's body when interrupted by a knock on the door. The Cryer and Harrington clan face repercussions.
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list of all theme parks in orlando florida | List of amusement parks in Greater Orlando - wikipedia
This is a list of amusement parks operating around the Greater Orlando Area, in Central Florida, United States.
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san antonio independent school district v. rodriguez facts | San Antonio Independent school District v. Rodriguez - wikipedia
San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 1 (1973), was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that San Antonio Independent School District 's financing system, which was based on local property taxes, was not an unconstitutional violation of the Fourteenth Amendment 's equal protection clause.
The majority opinion, reversing the District Court, stated that the appellees did not sufficiently prove a textual basis, within the US Constitution, supporting the principle that education is a fundamental right. Urging that the school financing system led to wealth - based discrimination, the plaintiffs had argued that the fundamental right to education should be applied to the States, through the Fourteenth Amendment. The Court found that there was no such fundamental right and that the unequal school financing system was not subject to strict scrutiny.
The lawsuit was brought by members of the Edgewood Concerned Parent Association representing their children and similarly situated students. The suit was filed on June 30, 1968 in the District Court for the Western District of Texas. In the initial complaint, the parents sued San Antonio ISD, Alamo Heights ISD, and five other school districts; the Bexar County School Trustees; and the State of Texas. They contended that the "Texas method of school financing violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. '' The lawsuit alleged that education was a fundamental right and that wealth - based discrimination in the provision of education (such as a fundamental right), created in the poor, or those of lesser wealth, a constitutionally suspect class, who were to be protected from the discrimination.
Eventually, the school districts were dropped from the case, leaving only the State of Texas as the defendant. The case advanced through the courts system, providing victory to the Edgewood parents until it reached the Supreme Court in 1972.
The school districts in the San Antonio area, and generally in Texas, had a long history of financial inequity. Rodriguez presented evidence that school districts in the wealthy, primarily white, areas of town, most notably the north - side Alamo Heights Independent School District, were able to contribute a much higher amount per child than Edgewood, a poor, minority area.
From the trial brief, Dr. Jose Cardenas, Superintendent of Schools, Edgewood Independent School District testified to the problem in his affidavit, the following information:
Cardenas cites a study, "A Tale of Two Districts, '' which makes the following comparisons in 1967 - 68 between Edgewood and the North East Independent School District:
In fact, the financial disparity between Edgewood and Alamo Heights increased in the four years that it took for Rodriguez to work its way through the court system "from a $310 total per - pupil disparity in 1968 in state and local support between the districts to a $389 disparity in 1972. ''
In the Supreme Court, a new group of justices had been appointed since the filing of the case. The most significant new member was Justice Lewis Powell, who proved to be the swing vote in the Rodriguez case. Powell led the narrow majority in deciding that the right to be educated (as a child of school age or an uneducated adult), was neither ' explicitly or implicitly ' textually found anywhere in the U.S. Constitution. It was therefore, not anywhere protected by the Constitution.
He also found that Texas had not created a suspect class related to poverty. The two findings allowed the state to continue its school financing plan as long as it was "rationally related to a legitimate state interest. ''
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the seven states of the united arab emirates | United Arab Emirates - wikipedia
Coordinates: 24 ° N 54 ° E / 24 ° N 54 ° E / 24; 54
in the Arabian Peninsula (white)
The United Arab Emirates (UAE; Arabic: دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة Dawlat al - ʾImārāt al - ʿArabīyyah al - Muttaḥidah), sometimes simply called the Emirates (Arabic: الإمارات al - ʾImārāt), is a country in Western Asia at the southeast end of the Arabian Peninsula on the Persian Gulf, bordering Oman to the east and Saudi Arabia to the south, as well as sharing maritime borders with Qatar to the west and Iran to the north. The sovereign absolute monarchy is a federation of seven emirates consisting of Abu Dhabi (which serves as the capital), Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al - Khaimah, Sharjah and Umm al - Quwain. Each emirate is governed by a ruler; together, they jointly form the Federal Supreme Council. One of the rulers serves as the President of the United Arab Emirates. In 2013, the UAE 's population was 9.2 million, of which 1.4 million are Emirati citizens and 7.8 million are expatriates.
Human occupation of the present UAE has been traced back to the emergence of anatomically modern man from Africa some 125,000 BCE through finds at the Faya - 1 site in Mleiha, Sharjah. Burial sites dating back to the Neolithic Age and the Bronze Age include the oldest known such inland site at Jebel Buhais. Following decades of maritime conflict, the coastal emirates became known as the Trucial States with the signing of a Perpetual Treaty of Maritime Peace with the British in 1819 (ratified in 1853 and again in 1892), which established the Trucial States as a British Protectorate. This arrangement ended with independence and the establishment of the United Arab Emirates on 2 December 1971, immediately following the British withdrawal from its treaty obligations. Six emirates joined the UAE in 1971, the seventh, Ras al - Khaimah, joined the federation on 10 February 1972.
Islam is the official religion and Arabic is the official language of the UAE. The UAE 's oil reserves are the seventh - largest in the world while its natural gas reserves are the world 's seventeenth - largest. Sheikh Zayed, ruler of Abu Dhabi and the first President of the UAE, oversaw the development of the Emirates and steered oil revenues into healthcare, education and infrastructure. The UAE 's economy is the most diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, while its most populous city of Dubai is an important global city and an international aviation and maritime trade hub. Nevertheless, the country is much less reliant on oil and gas than in previous years and is economically focusing on tourism and business. The UAE government does not levy income tax although there is a system of corporate tax in place and value added tax was established in 2018 at 5 %.
The UAE 's rising international profile has led to it being recognised as a regional and middle power. It is a member of the United Nations, the Arab League, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, OPEC, the Non-Aligned Movement and the Gulf Cooperation Council.
The land of the Emirates has been occupied for thousands of years. Stone tools recovered from Jebel Faya in the emirate of Sharjah reveal a settlement of people from Africa some 127,000 years ago and a stone tool used for butchering animals discovered at Jebel Barakah on the Arabian coast suggests an even older habitation from 130,000 years ago. There is no proof of contact with the outside world at that stage, although in time lively trading links developed with civilisations in Mesopotamia, Iran and India 's Harappan culture. This contact persisted and became wide - ranging, probably motivated by the trade in copper from the Hajar Mountains, which commenced around 3000 BCE. Sumerian sources talk of the UAE as home to the ' Makkan ' or Magan people.
There are six major periods of human settlement with distinctive behaviours in the pre-Islamic UAE: the Hafit period from 3200 - 2600 BCE; the Umm Al Nar culture spanned from 2600 - 2000 BCE, the Wadi Suq peopl e dominated from 2000 -- 1300 BCE. From 1200 BC to the advent of Islam in Eastern Arabia, through three distinctive iron ages (Iron age 1, 1200 -- 1000 BC; Iron age 2, 1000 -- 600 BC and Iron age 3 600 -- 300 BC) and the Mleiha period (300 BC onward), the area was variously occupied by Archaemenid and other forces and saw the construction of fortified settlements and extensive husbandry thanks to the development of the falaj irrigation system.
In ancient times, Al Hasa (today 's Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia) was part of Al Bahreyn and adjoined Greater Oman (today 's UAE and Oman). From the second century AD, there was a movement of tribes from Al Bahreyn towards the lower Gulf, together with a migration among the Azdite Qahtani (or Yamani) and Quda'ah tribal groups from south - west Arabia towards central Oman. Sassanid groups were present on the Batinah coast. In 637, Julfar (in the area of today 's Ra 's al - Khaimah) was an important port that was used as a staging post for the Islamic invasion of the Sassanian Empire. The area of the Al Ain / Buraimi Oasis was known as Tu'am and was an important trading post for camel routes between the coast and the Arabian interior.
The earliest Christian site in the UAE was first discovered in the 1990s, an extensive monastic complex on what is now known as Sir Bani Yas Island and which dates back to the 7th century. Thought to be Nestorian and built in 600 AD, the church appears to have been abandoned peacefully in 750 AD. It forms a rare physical link to a legacy of Christianity which is thought to have spread across the peninsula from 50 to 350 AD following trade routes. Certainly, by the 5th century, Oman had a bishop named John -- the last bishop of Oman being Etienne, in 676 AD.
The spread of Islam to the North Eastern tip of the Arabian Peninsula is thought to have followed directly from a letter sent by the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, to the rulers of Oman in 630 AD, nine years after the hijrah. This led to a group of rulers travelling to Medina, converting to Islam and subsequently driving a successful uprising against the unpopular Sassanids, who dominated the Northern coasts at the time. Following the death of Muhammad, the new Islamic communities south of the Persian Gulf threatened to disintegrate, with insurrections against the Muslim leaders. The Caliph Abu Bakr sent an army from the capital Medina which completed its reconquest of the territory (the Ridda Wars) with the battle of Dibba in which 10,000 lives are thought to have been lost. This assured the integrity of the Caliphate and the unification of the Arabian Peninsula under the newly emerging Rashidun Caliphate.
The harsh desert environment led to the emergence of the "versatile tribesman '', nomadic groups who subsisted due to a variety of economic activities, including animal husbandry, agriculture and hunting. The seasonal movements of these groups led to not only frequent clashes between groups but also the establishment of seasonal and semi-seasonal settlements and centres. These formed tribal groupings whose names are still carried by modern Emiratis, including the Bani Yas and Al Bu Falah of Abu Dhabi, Al Ain, Liwa and the Al Bahrain coast, the Dhawahir, Awamir, Al Ali and Manasir of the interior, the Sharqiyin of the east coast and the Qawasim to the North.
By the 16th century, ports in the Persian Gulf and part of the population that today form the coastal Iraq, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, came under the direct influence of the Ottoman Empire. At the same time, the Portuguese, English and Dutch colonial forces also appeared in the Persian Gulf region. By the 17th century, the Bani Yas confederation was the dominant force in most of the area now known as Abu Dhabi. The Portuguese maintained an influence over the coastal settlements, building forts in the wake of the bloody 16th - century conquests of coastal communities by Albuquerque and the Portuguese commanders who followed him -- particularly on the east coast at Muscat, Sohar and Khor Fakkan.
The southern coast of the Persian Gulf was known to the British as the "Pirate Coast '', as boats of the Al Qawasim (Al Qasimi) federation based in the area harassed British - flagged shipping from the 17th century into the 19th. The charge of piracy is disputed by modern Emirati historians, including the current Ruler of Sharjah, Sheikh Sultan Al Qasim i, in his 1986 book The Myth of Arab Piracy in the Gulf.
British expeditions to protect the Indian trade from raiders at Ras al - Khaimah led to campaigns against that headquarters and other harbours along the coast in 1809 and subsequently 1819. The following year, Britain and a number of local rulers signed a treaty to combat piracy along the Persian Gulf coast, giving rise to the term Trucial States, which came to define the status of the coastal emirates. A further treaty was signed in 1843 and, in 1853 the Perpetual Treaty of Maritime Truce was agreed. To this was added the ' Exclusive Agreements ', signed in 1892, which made the Trucial States a British protectorate.
Under the 1892 treaty, the trucial sheikhs agreed not to dispose of any territory except to the British and not to enter into relationships with any foreign government other than the British without their consent. In return, the British promised to protect the Trucial Coast from all aggression by sea and to help in case of land attack. The Exclusive Agreement was signed by the Rulers of Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Ras Al Khaimah and Umm Al Quwain between 6 and 8 March 1892. It was subsequently ratified by the Viceroy of India and the British Government in London. British maritime policing meant that pearling fleets could operate in relative security. However, the British prohibition of the slave trade meant an important source of income was lost to some sheikhs and merchants.
In 1869, the Qubaisat tribe settled at Khawr al Udayd and tried to enlist the support of the Ottomans, whose flag was occasionally seen flying there. Khawr al Udayd was claimed by Abu Dhabi at that time, a claim supported by the British. In 1906, the British Political Resident, Percy Cox, confirmed in writing to the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan (' Zayed the Great ') that Khawr al Udayd belonged to his sheikhdom.
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the pearling industry thrived, providing both income and employment to the people of the Persian Gulf. The First World War had a severe impact on the industry, but it was the economic depression of the late 1920s and early 1930s, coupled with the invention of the cultured pearl, that wiped out the trade. The remnants of the trade eventually faded away shortly after the Second World War, when the newly independent Government of India imposed heavy taxation on pearls imported from the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. The decline of pearling resulted in extreme economic hardship in the Trucial States.
The British set up a development office that helped in some small developments in the emirates. The seven sheikhs of the emirates then decided to form a council to coordinate matters between them and took over the development office. In 1952, they formed the Trucial States Council, and appointed Adi Bitar, Dubai 's Sheikh Rashid 's legal advisor, as Secretary General and Legal Advisor to the Council. The council was terminated once the United Arab Emirates was formed. The tribal nature of society and the lack of definition of borders between emirates frequently led to disputes, settled either through mediation or, more rarely, force. The Trucial Oman Scouts was a small military force used by the British to keep the peace.
In 1955, the United Kingdom sided with Abu Dhabi in the latter 's dispute with Oman over the Buraimi Oasis, another territory to the south. A 1974 agreement between Abu Dhabi and Saudi Arabia would have settled the Abu Dhabi - Saudi border dispute, but this has not been ratified. The UAE 's border with Oman was ratified in 2008.
In 1922, the British government secured undertakings from the trucial rulers not to sign concessions with foreign companies. Aware of the potential for the development of natural resources such as oil, following finds in Persia (from 1908) and Mesopotamia (from 1927), a British - led oil company, the Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), showed an interest in the region. The Anglo - Persian Oil Company (APOC, later to become British Petroleum, or BP) had a 23.75 % share in IPC. From 1935, onshore concessions to explore for oil were agreed with local rulers, with APOC signing the first one on behalf of Petroleum Concessions Ltd (PCL), an associate company of IPC. APOC was prevented from developing the region alone because of the restrictions of the Red Line Agreement, which required it to operate through IPC. A number of options between PCL and the trucial rulers were signed, providing useful revenue for communities experiencing poverty following the collapse of the pearl trade. However, the wealth of oil which the rulers could see from the revenues accruing to surrounding countries such as Iran, Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar and Saudi Arabia remained elusive. The first bore holes in Abu Dhabi were drilled by IPC 's operating company, Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast) Ltd (PDTC) at Ras Sadr in 1950, with a 13,000 - foot - deep (4,000 - metre) bore hole taking a year to drill and turning out dry, at the tremendous cost at the time of £ 1 million.
In 1953, a subsidiary of BP, D'Arcy Exploration Ltd, obtained an offshore concession from the ruler of Abu Dhabi. BP joined with Compagnie Française des Pétroles (later Total) to form operating companies, Abu Dhabi Marine Areas Ltd (ADMA) and Dubai Marine Areas Ltd (DUMA). A number of undersea oil surveys were carried out, including one led by the famous marine explorer Jacques Cousteau. In 1958, a floating platform rig was towed from Hamburg, Germany, and positioned over the Umm Shaif pearl bed, in Abu Dhabi waters, where drilling began. In March, it struck oil in the Upper Thamama, a rock formation that would provide many valuable oil finds. This was the first commercial discovery of the Trucial Coast, leading to the first exports of oil in 1962. ADMA made further offshore discoveries at Zakum and elsewhere, and other companies made commercial finds such as the Fateh oilfield off Dubai and the Mubarak field off Sharjah (shared with Iran).
PDTC had continued its onshore exploration activities, drilling five more bore holes that were also dry, but on 27 October 1960, the company discovered oil in commercial quantities at the Murban No. 3 well on the coast near Tarif. In 1962, PDTC became the Abu Dhabi Petroleum Company. As oil revenues increased, the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, undertook a massive construction program, building schools, housing, hospitals and roads. When Dubai 's oil exports commenced in 1969, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, the ruler of Dubai, was able to invest the revenues from the limited reserves found to spark the diversification drive that would create the modern global city of Dubai.
By 1966, it had become clear the British government could no longer afford to administer and protect what is now the United Arab Emirates. British MPs debated the preparedness of the Royal Navy to defend the sheikhdoms. Secretary of State for Defence Denis Healey reported that the British Armed Forces were seriously overstretched and in some respects dangerously under - equipped to defend the sheikhdoms. On 24 January 1968, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson announced the government 's decision, reaffirmed in March 1971 by Prime Minister Edward Heath to end the treaty relationships with the seven Trucial Sheikhdoms, that had been, together with Bahrain and Qatar, under British protection. Days after the announcement, the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, fearing vulnerability, tried to persuade the British to honour the protection treaties by offering to pay the full costs of keeping the British Armed Forces in the Emirates. The British Labour government rejected the offer. After Labour MP Goronwy Roberts informed Sheikh Zayed of the news of British withdrawal, the nine Persian Gulf sheikhdoms attempted to form a union of Arab emirates, but by mid-1971 they were still unable to agree on terms of union even though the British treaty relationship was to expire in December of that year.
Fears of vulnerability were realized the day before independence. An Iranian destroyer group broke formation from an exercise in the lower Gulf, sailing to the Tunb islands. The islands were taken by force, civilians and Arab defenders alike allowed to flee. A British warship stood idle during the course of the invasion. A destroyer group approached the island Abu Musa as well. But there, Sheikh Khalid bin Mohammed Al Qasimi had already negotiated with the Iranian Shah, and the island was quickly leased to Iran for $3 million a year. Meanwhile, Saudi Arabia laid claim to swathes of Abu Dhabi.
Originally intended to be part of the proposed Federation of Arab Emirates, Bahrain became independent in August, and Qatar in September 1971. When the British - Trucial Sheikhdoms treaty expired on 1 December 1971, they became fully independent. On 2 December 1971, at the Dubai Guesthouse, now known as Union House, six of the emirates agreed to enter into a union called the United Arab Emirates. Ras al - Khaimah joined later, on 10 January 1972. In February 1972, the Federal National Council (FNC) was created; it was a 40 - member consultative body appointed by the seven rulers. The UAE joined the Arab League on 6 December 1971 and the United Nations on 9 December. It was a founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council in May 1981, with Abu Dhabi hosting the first GCC summit. UAE forces joined the allies against Iraq after the invasion of Kuwait in 1990.
The UAE supported military operations from the US and other coalition nations engaged in the war against the Taliban in Afghanistan (2001) and Saddam Hussein in Iraq (2003) as well as operations supporting the Global War on Terror for the Horn of Africa at Al Dhafra Air Base located outside of Abu Dhabi. The air base also supported Allied operations during the 1991 Persian Gulf War and Operation Northern Watch. The country had already signed a military defense agreement with the U.S. in 1994 and one with France in 1995. In January 2008, France and the UAE signed a deal allowing France to set up a permanent military base in the emirate of Abu Dhabi. The UAE joined international military operations in Libya in March 2011.
On 2 November 2004, the UAE 's first president, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, died. His eldest son, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, succeeded as Emir of Abu Dhabi. In accordance with the constitution, the UAE 's Supreme Council of Rulers elected Khalifa as president. Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan succeeded Khalifa as Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi. In January 2006, Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum, the prime minister of the UAE and the ruler of Dubai, died, and the crown prince Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum assumed both roles.
The first ever national elections were held in the UAE on 16 December 2006. A small number of hand - picked voters chose half of the members of the Federal National Council, an advisory body. UAE has largely escaped the Arab Spring, which other countries have had; however, more than 100 Emirati activists were jailed and tortured because they sought reforms. Furthermore, some people have had their nationality revoked. Mindful of the protests in nearby Bahrain, in November 2012 the UAE outlawed online mockery of its own government or attempts to organise public protests through social media.
The United Arab Emirates is situated in Middle East, bordering the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, between Oman and Saudi Arabia; it is in a strategic location slightly south of the Strait of Hormuz, a vital transit point for world crude oil.
The UAE lies between 22 ° 30 ' and 26 ° 10 ' north latitude and between 51 ° and 56 ° 25 ′ east longitude. It shares a 530 - kilometre (330 mi) border with Saudi Arabia on the west, south, and southeast, and a 450 - kilometre (280 mi) border with Oman on the southeast and northeast. The land border with Qatar in the Khawr al Udayd area is about nineteen kilometres (12 miles) in the northwest; however, it is a source of ongoing dispute. Following Britain 's military departure from the UAE in 1971, and its establishment as a new state, the UAE laid claim to islands resulting in disputes with Iran that remain unresolved. The UAE also disputes claim on other islands against the neighboring state of Qatar. The largest emirate, Abu Dhabi, accounts for 87 % of the UAE 's total area (67,340 square kilometres (26,000 sq mi)). The smallest emirate, Ajman, encompasses only 259 km (100 sq mi) (see figure).
The UAE coast stretches for more than 650 km (404 mi) along the southern shore of the Persian Gulf. Most of the coast consists of salt pans that extend far inland. The largest natural harbor is at Dubai, although other ports have been dredged at Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, and elsewhere. Numerous islands are found in the Persian Gulf, and the ownership of some of them has been the subject of international disputes with both Iran and Qatar. The smaller islands, as well as many coral reefs and shifting sandbars, are a menace to navigation. Strong tides and occasional windstorms further complicate ship movements near the shore. The UAE also has a stretch of the Al Bāţinah coast of the Gulf of Oman, although the Musandam Peninsula, the very tip of Arabia by the Strait of Hormuz, is an exclave of Oman separated by the UAE.
South and west of Abu Dhabi, vast, rolling sand dunes merge into the Rub al - Khali (Empty Quarter) of Saudi Arabia. The desert area of Abu Dhabi includes two important oases with adequate underground water for permanent settlements and cultivation. The extensive Liwa Oasis is in the south near the undefined border with Saudi Arabia. About 100 km (62 mi) to the northeast of Liwa is the Al - Buraimi oasis, which extends on both sides of the Abu Dhabi - Oman border. Lake Zakher is a human - made lake near the border with Oman.
Prior to withdrawing from the area in 1971, Britain delineated the internal borders among the seven emirates in order to preempt territorial disputes that might hamper formation of the federation. In general, the rulers of the emirates accepted the British intervention, but in the case of boundary disputes between Abu Dhabi and Dubai, and also between Dubai and Sharjah, conflicting claims were not resolved until after the UAE became independent. The most complicated borders were in the Al - Hajar al - Gharbi Mountains, where five of the emirates contested jurisdiction over more than a dozen enclaves.
The oases grow date palms, acacia and eucalyptus trees. In the desert, the flora is very sparse and consists of grasses and thorn bushes. The indigenous fauna had come close to extinction because of intensive hunting, which has led to a conservation program on Bani Yas Island initiated by Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan in the 1970s, resulting in the survival of, for example, Arabian Oryx, Arabian camel and leopards. Coastal fish and mammals consist mainly of mackerel, perch, and tuna, as well as sharks and whales.
The climate of the UAE is subtropical - arid with hot summers and warm winters. The hottest months are July and August, when average maximum temperatures reach above 45 ° C (113 ° F) on the coastal plain. In the Al Hajar Mountains, temperatures are considerably lower, a result of increased elevation. Average minimum temperatures in January and February are between 10 and 14 ° C (50 and 57 ° F). During the late summer months, a humid southeastern wind known as Sharqi (i.e. "Easterner '') makes the coastal region especially unpleasant. The average annual rainfall in the coastal area is less than 120 mm (4.7 in), but in some mountainous areas annual rainfall often reaches 350 mm (13.8 in). Rain in the coastal region falls in short, torrential bursts during the summer months, sometimes resulting in floods in ordinarily dry wadi beds. The region is prone to occasional, violent dust storms, which can severely reduce visibility.
On 28 December 2004, there was snow recorded in the UAE for the very first time, in the Jebel Jais mountain cluster in Ras al - Khaimah. A few years later, there were more sightings of snow and hail. The Jebel Jais mountain cluster has experienced snow only twice since records began.
The United Arab Emirates is a federation of hereditary absolute monarchies. It is governed by a Federal Supreme Council made up of the seven emirs of Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Fujairah, Sharjah, Dubai, Ras al - Khaimah and Umm al - Qaiwain. All responsibilities not granted to the national government are reserved to the emirates. A percentage of revenues from each emirate is allocated to the UAE 's central budget.
Although elected by the Supreme Council, the presidency and prime ministership are essentially hereditary; the Emir of Abu Dhabi holds the presidency, and the Emir of Dubai is prime minister. All prime ministers but one have served concurrently as vice president. Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan was the UAE 's president from the nation 's founding until his death on 2 November 2004. On the following day the Federal Supreme Council elected his son, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, to the post. Abu Dhabi 's crown prince, Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan, is the heir apparent.
The UAE convened a half - elected Federal National Council in 2006. The FNC consists of 40 members drawn from all the emirates. Half are appointed by the rulers of the constituent emirates, and the other half are indirectly elected to serve two - year terms. However, the FNC is restricted to a largely consultative role. The UAE eGovernment is the extension of the UAE Federal Government in its electronic form. On 10 February 2016, 22 - year - old Oxford and NYU - Abu Dhabi graduate Shamma Al Mazrui was named Minister of State for Youth Affairs, the youngest minister in the cabinet. Shaikh Mohammed noted that as head of the Youth Council, Al Mazrui will "represent the hopes of our youth ''.
The UAE is frequently described as an "autocracy ''. According to the New York Times, the UAE is "an autocracy with the sheen of a progressive, modern state ''. The UAE ranks poorly in freedom indices measuring civil liberties and political rights. The UAE is annually ranked as "Not Free '' in Freedom House 's annual Freedom in the World report, which measures civil liberties and political rights. The UAE also ranks poorly in the annual Reporters without Borders ' Press Freedom Index.
Al Nahyan family, one of the six ruling families of the United Arab Emirates, is believed to have a fortune of $150 billion collectively as a family.
The UAE has extensive diplomatic and commercial relations with other countries. It plays a significant role in OPEC and the UN, and is one of the founding members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). One of the main anchorers of the UAE 's foreign policy has been building cooperation - based relations with all countries of the world. Substantial development assistance has increased the UAE 's stature among recipient states. Most of this foreign aid (in excess of $15 billion) has been to Arab and Muslim countries.
The UAE has long maintained close relations with Egypt and is Egypt 's largest investor from the Arab world. Pakistan was the first country to formally recognize the UAE upon its formation and continues to be one of its major economic and trading partners; about 400,000 Pakistani expatriates are employed in the UAE. The UAE and China have been strong international allies, with significant cooperation across economic, political and cultural aspects. The largest expatriate presence in the UAE is Indian. Following British withdrawal from the UAE in 1971 and the establishment of the UAE as a state, the UAE disputed rights to a islands in the Persian Gulf against Iran, namely Abu Musa, Greater Tunb, and Lesser Tunb. The UAE went so far as to bring the matter to the United Nations, but the case was dismissed. The dispute has not significantly impacted relations because of the large Iranian community presence and strong economic ties.
Commercially, the UK and Germany are the UAE 's largest export markets and bilateral relations have long been close as a large number of their nationals reside in the UAE. Diplomatic relations between UAE and Japan were established as early as UAE 's independence in December 1971. The two countries had always enjoyed friendly ties and trade between each other. Exports from the UAE to Japan include crude oil and natural gas and imports from Japan to UAE include cars and electric items.
The UAE was one of only three countries to recognise the Taliban as Afghanistan 's legitimate government (Pakistan and Saudi Arabia were the other two countries). At the encouragement of the United States, UAE attempted to host a Taliban embassy under three conditions which include denouncing Al Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden, recognizing the Afghan constitution, and renouncing violence and laying down their weapons. The Taliban refused all three conditions, and the UAE withdrew its offer. The UAE rescinded diplomatic relations with the Taliban after 11 September attacks in 2001 (alongside Pakistan).
In 2013, The UAE spent more than any other country in the world to influence U.S. policy and shape domestic debate by funding former high - level government officials who worked with it to carry out its agenda within the U.S. Tony Blair serves as a funded adviser to the Mubadala Development Company, a wholly owned investment vehicle of the government of Abu Dhabi.
In its dispute with the United States and Israel, Iran has repeatedly threatened to close the strait at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, a vital oil - trade route. Therefore, in July 2012, the UAE began operating a key overland oil pipeline, the Habshan -- Fujairah oil pipeline, which bypasses the Strait of Hormuz in order to mitigate any consequences of an Iranian shut - off.
The United Arab Emirates has been actively involved in Saudi - led intervention in Yemen and has supported Yemen 's internationally recognized government as well as the separatist Southern Transitional Council in Yemen against the Houthi takeover in Yemen and Al - Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula. An Associated press report implicated that the United Arab Emirates made gains against Al Qaeda in Yemen by making payments and recruiting them in fighting the Houthis, instead of military intervention. The notion of the UAE recruiting or paying AQAP has been thoroughly denied by the United States Pentagon with Colonel Robert Manning, spokesperson of the Pentagon, calling the news source "patently false ''.
The UAE has been notable for its improved enforcement of the charcoal ban by importing countries, which had created an identifiable deterrent effect on charcoal exporters in Somalia as at May 2016, cutting funding to terror organizations such as Al - Shabaab.
In June 2017, the UAE alongside multiple middle eastern and African countries cut diplomatic ties with Qatar due to allegations of Qatar being a state sponsor of terrorism, resulting in the Qatar diplomatic crisis. In August 2018, the New York Times published a report claiming that the United Arab Emirates rulers had been using an Israeli spyware to secretly tap the phone calls of Qatari emir, a Saudi Arabian prince, Saad Hariri, prime minister of Lebanon and some journalists.
As a result of the successful foreign policy of the United Arab Emirates, the Emirati passport became the largest individual climber in Henley & Partners Passport Index in 2018 over the past decade, increasing its global rank by 28 places. The UAE passport currently ranks in the top 10 most powerful passports in the world, and ranks the 1st in the middle east in terms of visa free restrictions.
The United Arab Emirates Armed Forces is commonly nicknamed as "Little Sparta '' by United States Armed Forces Generals and US defense secretary James Mattis due to its active and effective military role, particular in War on Terrorism, despite its small active personnel.
France and the United States have played the most strategically significant roles with defence cooperation agreements and military material provision. The UAE discussed with France the possibility of a purchase of 60 Rafale fighter aircraft in January 2013. The UAE operates the General Dynamics F - 16 Fighting Falcon F - 16E Block 60 unique variant, developed specifically for the United Arab Emirates Air Force. The UAE helped the US launch its first air offensive against Islamic State targets in Syria.
Although initially small in number, the UAE armed forces have grown significantly over the years and are presently equipped with some of the most modern weapon systems, purchased from a variety of outside countries, mainly France, the US and the UK. Most officers are graduates of the United Kingdom 's Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst, with others having attended the United States Military Academy at West Point, the Royal Military College, Duntroon, and St Cyr, the military academy of France. France opened its base installation Forces de présence aux Emirats arabes unis in Abu Dhabi in May 2009. In March 2011, the UAE agreed to join the enforcement of the no - fly - zone over Libya by sending six F - 16 and six Mirage 2000 multi-role fighter aircraft. During the Gulf war, the US had troops and equipment stationed in the UAE as well as other parts of the Persian Gulf.
In 2015, UAE participated in the Saudi Arabian - led military intervention in Yemen against the Houthi takeover in Yemen. UAE has been reported to buy American weapons and F - 16 fighter jets through offset payments which were channelled to DC thinktanks such as Middle East Institute.
On Friday 4 September 2015, 52 soldiers from the United Arab Emirates were killed in Marib area of central Yemen by a Houthi missile which targeted a weapons cache and caused a large explosion, marking the largest lost of life in the military history of United Arab Emirates Armed Forces. The Houthis claimed responsibility for the attack using a Tochka missile.
According to SIPRI, between 2012 and 2016, the UAE was the 3rd largest importer of arms among countries in the world. Norway has suspended any kind of arms exports to the UAE due its involvement in Yemen War.
In 2016 Battle of Mukalla, the United Arab Emirates Armed Forces liberated the port of Mukalla from AQAP forces in 36 hours after being held by AQAP for more than a year with the US defense secretary James Mattis calling the UAE led operation a model for American troops. However, in 2018, the Associated Press in a report mentioned that the UAE struck deals with AQAP militants by recruiting them against fighting the Houthis and providing them with money. The report continued to state that the United States was aware of Al - Qaeda joining ranks with the UAE and has held off drone strikes against Al - Qaeda. The notion of Al Qaeda joining ranks with UAE Armed Forces and the US holding off drone strikes against Al Qaeda has been thoroughly denied by The Pentagon with Colonel Robert Manning, spokesperson of the Pentagon, calling the news source "patently false ''.
On 30 April 2018 the UAE armed forces, as part of the ongoing Saudi - led intervention in Yemen, landed troops on the island of Socotra. The Independent newspaper reported that the UAE has politically annexed the island and built a communications network, as well as conducted census and provided Socotra residents with free healthcare and work permits in Abu Dhabi. Two weeks later on 14 May, Saudi troops were also deployed to the archipelago and a deal was brokered between the United Arab Emirates and Yemen for a joint military training exercise and the return of administrative control of Socotra 's airport and seaport to Yemen.
The United Arab Emirates is divided into seven emirates. Dubai is the most populated Emirate with 35.6 % of the UAE population. The Emirate of Abu Dhabi has a further 31.2 %, meaning that over two - thirds of the UAE population live in either Abu Dhabi or Dubai.
Abu Dhabi has an area of 67,340 square kilometres (26,000 square miles), which is 86.7 % of the country 's total area, excluding the islands. It has a coastline extending for more than 400 km (250 mi) and is divided for administrative purposes into three major regions. The Emirate of Dubai extends along the Persian Gulf coast of the UAE for approximately 72 km (45 mi). Dubai has an area of 3,885 square kilometres (1,500 square miles), which is equivalent to 5 % of the country 's total area, excluding the islands. The Emirate of Sharjah extends along approximately 16 km (10 mi) of the UAE 's Persian Gulf coastline and for more than 80 km (50 mi) into the interior. The northern emirates which include Fujairah, Ajman, Ras al - Khaimah, and Umm al - Qaiwain all have a total area of 3,881 square kilometres (1,498 square miles). There are two areas under joint control. One is jointly controlled by Oman and Ajman, the other by Fujairah and Sharjah.
There is an Omani exclave surrounded by UAE territory, known as Wadi Madha. It is located halfway between the Musandam peninsula and the rest of Oman in the Emirate of Sharjah. It covers approximately 75 square kilometres (29 square miles) and the boundary was settled in 1969. The north - east corner of Madha is closest to the Khor Fakkan - Fujairah road, barely 10 metres (33 feet) away. Within the Omani exclave of Madha, is a UAE exclave called Nahwa, also belonging to the Emirate of Sharjah. It is about eight kilometres (5.0 miles) on a dirt track west of the town of New Madha. It consists of about forty houses with its own clinic and telephone exchange.
The UAE has a federal court system. There are three main branches within the court structure: civil, criminal and Sharia law. The UAE 's judicial system is derived from the civil law system and Sharia law. The court system consists of civil courts and Sharia courts. UAE 's criminal and civil courts apply elements of Sharia law, codified into its criminal code and family law.
Flogging is a punishment for criminal offences such as adultery, premarital sex and alcohol consumption. According to Sharia court rulings, flogging ranges from 80 to 200 lashes. Verbal abuse pertaining to a person 's honour is illegal and punishable by 80 lashes. Between 2007 and 2014, many people in the UAE were sentenced to 100 lashes. More recently in 2015, two men were sentenced to 80 lashes for hitting and insulting a woman. In 2014, an expatriate in Abu Dhabi was sentenced to 10 years in prison and 80 lashes after alcohol consumption and raping a toddler. Alcohol consumption for Muslims is illegal and punishable by 80 lashes; many Muslims have been sentenced to 80 lashes for alcohol consumption. Sometimes 40 lashes are given. Illicit sex is sometimes penalized by 60 lashes. 80 lashes is the standard number for anyone sentenced to flogging in several emirates. Sharia courts have penalized domestic workers with floggings. In October 2013, a Filipino housemaid was sentenced to 100 lashes for illegitimate pregnancy. Drunk - driving is strictly illegal and punishable by 80 lashes; many expatriates have been sentenced to 80 lashes for drunk - driving. In Abu Dhabi, people have been sentenced to 80 lashes for kissing in public. Under UAE law, premarital sex is punishable by 100 lashes.
Stoning is a legal punishment in the UAE. In May 2014, an Asian housemaid was sentenced to death by stoning in Abu Dhabi. Other expatriates have been sentenced to death by stoning for committing adultery. Between 2009 and 2013, several people were sentenced to death by stoning. Abortion is illegal and punishable by a maximum penalty of 100 lashes and up to five years in prison. In recent years, several people have retracted their guilty plea in illicit sex cases after being sentenced to stoning or 100 lashes. The punishment for committing adultery is 100 lashes for unmarried people and stoning to death for married people.
Sharia courts have exclusive jurisdiction over family law cases and also have jurisdiction over several criminal cases including adultery, premarital sex, robbery, alcohol consumption and related crimes. The Sharia - based personal status law regulates matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody. The Islamic personal status law is applied to Muslims and sometimes non-Muslims. Non-Muslim expatriates can be liable to Sharia rulings on marriage, divorce and child custody.
Apostasy is a crime punishable by death in the UAE. Blasphemy is illegal; expatriates involved in insulting Islam are liable for deportation. UAE incorporates hudud crimes of Sharia (i.e., crimes against God) into its Penal Code -- apostasy being one of them. Article 1 and Article 66 of UAE 's Penal Code requires hudud crimes to be punished with the death penalty; therefore, apostasy is punishable by death in the UAE.
In several cases, the courts of the UAE have jailed women who have reported rape. For example, a British woman, after she reported being gang raped by three men, was charged with the crime of "alcohol consumption ''. Another British woman was charged with "public intoxication and extramarital sex '' after she reported being raped, while an Australian woman was similarly sentenced to jail after she reported gang rape in the UAE. In another recent case, an 18 - year Emirati woman withdrew her complaint of gang rape by six men when the prosecution threatened her with a long jail term and flogging. The woman still had to serve one year in jail. In July 2013, a Norwegian woman, Marte Dalelv, reported rape to the police and received a prison sentence for "illicit sex and alcohol consumption ''.
Emirati women must receive permission from a male guardian to marry and remarry. This requirement is derived from the UAE 's interpretation of Sharia, and has been federal law since 2005. In all emirates, it is illegal for Muslim women to marry non-Muslims. In the UAE, a marriage union between a Muslim woman and non-Muslim man is punishable by law, since it is considered a form of "fornication ''.
Kissing in public is illegal and can result in deportation. Expats in Dubai have been deported for kissing in public. In Abu Dhabi, people have been sentenced to 80 lashes for kissing in public. A new federal law in the UAE prohibits swearing in Whatsapp and penalizes swearing by a $68,061 fine and imprisonment; expatriates are penalized by deportation. In July 2015, an Australian expatriate was deported for swearing on Facebook.
Homosexuality is illegal and is a capital offense in the UAE. In 2013, an Emirati man was on trial for being accused of a "gay handshake ''. Article 80 of the Abu Dhabi Penal Code makes sodomy punishable with imprisonment of up to 14 years, while article 177 of the Penal Code of Dubai imposes imprisonment of up to 10 years on consensual sodomy.
Amputation is a legal punishment in the UAE due to the Sharia courts. Crucifixion is a legal punishment in the UAE. Article 1 of the Federal Penal Code states that "provisions of the Islamic Law shall apply to the crimes of doctrinal punishment, punitive punishment and blood money. '' The Federal Penal Code repealed only those provisions within the penal codes of individual emirates which are contradictory to the Federal Penal Code. Hence, both are enforceable simultaneously.
During the month of Ramadan, it is illegal to publicly eat, drink, or smoke between sunrise and sunset. Exceptions are made for pregnant women and children. The law applies to both Muslims and non-Muslims, and failure to comply may result in arrest. Dancing in public is illegal in the UAE.
Flogging and stoning are legal punishments in the UAE. The requirement is derived from Sharia law, and has been federal law since 2005. Some domestic workers in the UAE are victims of the country 's interpretations of Sharia judicial punishments such as flogging and stoning. The annual Freedom House report on Freedom in the World has listed the United Arab Emirates as "Not Free '' every year since 1999, the first year for which records are available on their website.
The UAE has escaped the Arab Spring; however, more than 100 Emirati activists were jailed and tortured because they sought reforms. Since 2011, the UAE government has increasingly carried out forced disappearances. Many foreign nationals and Emirati citizens have been arrested and abducted by the state. The UAE government denies these people are being held (to conceal their whereabouts), placing these people outside the protection of the law. According to Human Rights Watch, the reports of forced disappearance and torture in the UAE are of grave concern.
The Arab Organization for Human Rights has obtained testimonies from many defendants, for its report on "Forced Disappearance and Torture in the UAE '', who reported that they had been kidnapped, tortured and abused in detention centres. The report included 16 different methods of torture including severe beatings, threats with electrocution and denying access to medical care.
In 2013, 94 Emirati activists were held in secret detention centres and put on trial for allegedly attempting to overthrow the government. Human rights organizations have spoken out against the secrecy of the trial. An Emirati, whose father is among the defendants, was arrested for tweeting about the trial. In April 2013, he was sentenced to 10 months in jail. The latest forced disappearance involves three sisters from Abu Dhabi.
Repressive measures were also used against non-Emiratis in order to justify the UAE government 's claim that there is an "international plot '' in which UAE citizens and foreigners were working together to destabilize the country. Foreign nationals were also subjected to a campaign of deportations. There are many documented cases of Egyptians and other foreign nationals who had spent years working in the UAE and were then given only a few days to leave the country.
Foreign nationals subjected to forced disappearance include two Libyans and two Qataris. Amnesty reported that the Qatari men have been abducted by the UAE government and the UAE government has withheld information about the men 's fate from their families. Amongst the foreign nationals detained, imprisoned and expelled is Iyad El - Baghdadi, a popular blogger and Twitter personality. He was arrested by UAE authorities, detained, imprisoned and then expelled from the country. Despite his lifetime residence in the UAE, as a Palestinian citizen, El - Baghdadi had no recourse to contest this order. He could not be deported back to the Palestinian territories, therefore he was deported to Malaysia.
In 2007, the UAE government attempted to cover up information on the rape of a French teenage boy by three Emirati locals, one of whose HIV - positive status was hidden by Emirati authorities. Diplomatic pressure led to the arrest and conviction of the Emirati rapists.
In April 2009, a video tape of torture smuggled out of the UAE showed Sheikh Issa bin Zayed Al Nahyan torturing a man (Mohammed Shah Poor) with whips, electric cattle prods, wooden planks with protruding nails and running him over repeatedly with a car. In December 2009, Issa appeared in court and proclaimed his innocence. The trial ended on 10 January 2010, when Issa was cleared of the torture of Mohammed Shah Poor. Human Rights Watch criticised the trial and called on the government to establish an independent body to investigate allegations of abuse by UAE security personnel and other persons of authority. The US State Department has expressed concern over the verdict and said all members of Emirati society "must stand equal before the law '' and called for a careful review of the decision to ensure that the demands of justice are fully met in this case.
In recent years, a large number of Shia Muslim expatriates have been deported from the UAE. Lebanese Shia families in particular have been deported for their alleged sympathy for Hezbollah. According to some organizations, more than 4,000 Shia expatriates have been deported from the UAE in recent years.
The issue of sexual abuse among female domestic workers is another area of concern, particularly given that domestic servants are not covered by the UAE labour law of 1980 or the draft labour law of 2007. Worker protests have been suppressed and protesters imprisoned without due process. In its 2013 Annual Report, Amnesty International drew attention to the United Arab Emirates ' poor record on a number of human rights issues. They highlighted the government 's restrictive approach to freedom of speech and assembly, their use of arbitrary arrest and torture, and UAE 's use of the death penalty.
In 2012, Dubai police subjected three British citizens to beatings and electric shocks after arresting them on drugs charges. The British Prime Minister, David Cameron, expressed "concern '' over the case and raised it with the UAE President, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, during his 2013 state visit to the UK. The three men were pardoned and released in July 2013.
In a report released on 12 July 2018, Amnesty International urged for ' war crimes ' probe on UAE - run prisons in Yemen.
On 10 September 2018, Yemeni detainees in a UAE - run prison underwent a hunger strike to protest their detention. Despite orders by the prosecutors to release some of the detained prisoners, the detainees are still being held.
In spite of a certification announced by the US Secretary of State to ensure minimum damage to the lives of innocents in the UAE - backed coalition in Yemen, several children and people have died since then. The blast at Hodeidah port came on 13th September 2018, after Mike Pompeo 's announcement, and killed around 15 - 20 people.
The treatment of migrant workers in the UAE has been likened to "modern - day slavery ''. Migrant workers are excluded from the UAE 's collective labour rights, hence migrants are vulnerable to forced labour. Migrant workers in the UAE are not allowed to join trade unions. Moreover, migrant workers are banned from going on strike. Dozens of workers were deported in 2014 for going on strike. As migrant workers do not have the right to join a trade union or go on strike, they do n't have the means to denounce the exploitation they suffer. Those who protest risk prison and deportation. The International Trade Union Confederation has called on the United Nations to investigate evidence that thousands of migrant workers in the UAE are treated as slave labour.
In 2013, police arrested a US citizen and some UAE citizens, in connection with a YouTube parody video which allegedly portrayed Dubai and its residents in a bad light. The video was shot in areas of Satwa, Dubai, and featured gangs learning how to fight using simple weapons, including shoes, the aghal, etc. In 2015, nationals from different countries were put in jail for offences. An Australian woman was accused of ' writing bad words on social media ', after she had posted a picture of a vehicle parked illegally. She was later deported from the UAE.
The State Security Apparatus in the UAE has been accused of a series of atrocities and human rights abuses including enforced disappearance, arbitrary arrests and torture, the latest being the forced disappearance of Turkish businessman Dr Amer Al Shawa on 2 October 2014.
Freedom of association is also severely curtailed. All associations and NGOs have to register through the Ministry of Social Affairs and are therefore under de facto State control. About twenty non-political groups operate on the territory without registration. All associations have to be submitted to censorship guidelines and all publications have first to be approved by the government.
Secret Dubai was an independent blog in Dubai, from 2002 until 2010. It generated a significant following in the Middle East Blogosphere until the UAE 's Telecoms Regulatory Authority (TRA) in the UAE blocked the website.
The UAE has a modest dress code. The dress code is part of Dubai 's criminal law. Most malls in the UAE have a dress code displayed at entrances. At Dubai 's malls, females are encouraged to cover their shoulders and knees. But people can wear swimwear at the pools and beaches.
People are also requested to wear modest clothing when entering mosques, such as the Sheikh Zayed Mosque in Abu Dhabi. Mosques which are open to tourists provide modest clothing for men and women if needed.
The UAE 's media is annually classified as "not free '' in the Freedom of the Press report by Freedom House. The UAE ranks poorly in the annual Press Freedom Index by Reporters without Borders. Dubai Media City and twofour54 are the UAE 's main media zones. The UAE is home to some pan-Arab broadcasters, including the Middle East Broadcasting Centre and Orbit Showtime Network. In 2007, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum decreed that journalists can no longer be prosecuted or imprisoned for reasons relating to their work. At the same time, the UAE has made it illegal to disseminate online material that can threaten "public order ''.
Criticism of the government is not allowed. Criticism of government officials and royal family members is not allowed. Prison terms have been given to those who "deride or damage '' the reputation of the state and "display contempt '' for religion. There have been many politically motivated press freedom violations; for example in 2012 a YouTube user was arrested in Dubai for filming and uploading a video of a UAE local (who happened to be a Government official) hitting an overseas worker.
UAE has the second largest economy in the GCC (after Saudi Arabia), with a gross domestic product (GDP) of $377 billion (1.38 trillion AED) in 2012. Since independence in 1971, UAE 's economy has grown by nearly 231 times to 1.45 trillion AED in 2013. The non-oil trade has grown to 1.2 trillion AED, a growth by around 28 times from 1981 to 2012. UAE is ranked as the 26th best nation in the world for doing business based on its economy and regulatory environment, ranked by the Doing Business 2017 Report published by the World Bank Group.
Although UAE has the most diversified economy in the GCC, the UAE 's economy remains extremely reliant on oil. With the exception of Dubai, most of the UAE is dependent on oil revenues. Petroleum and natural gas continue to play a central role in the economy, especially in Abu Dhabi. More than 85 % of the UAE 's economy was based on the oil exports in 2009. While Abu Dhabi and other UAE emirates have remained relatively conservative in their approach to diversification, Dubai, which has far smaller oil reserves, was bolder in its diversification policy. In 2011, oil exports accounted for 77 % of the UAE 's state budget. Successful efforts at economic diversification have reduced the portion of GDP based on oil / gas output to 25 %. Dubai suffered from a significant economic crisis in 2007 -- 2010 and was bailed out by Abu Dhabi 's oil wealth. Dubai is running a balanced budget, reflecting economic growth. Tourism acts as a growth sector for the entire UAE economy. Dubai is the top tourism destination in the Middle East. According to the annual MasterCard Global Destination Cities Index, Dubai is the fifth most popular tourism destination in the world. Dubai holds up to 66 % share of the UAE 's tourism economy, with Abu Dhabi having 16 % and Sharjah 10 %. Dubai welcomed 10 million tourists in 2013. The UAE has the most advanced and developed infrastructure in the region. Since the 1980s, the UAE has been spending billions of dollars on infrastructure. These developments are particularly evident in the larger emirates of Abu Dhabi and Dubai. The northern emirates are rapidly following suit, providing major incentives for developers of residential and commercial property. Property prices in Dubai fell dramatically when Dubai World, the government construction company, sought to delay a debt payment.
UAE law does not allow trade unions to exist. The right to collective bargaining and the right to strike are not recognised, and the Ministry of Labour has the power to force workers to go back to work. Migrant workers who participate in a strike can have their work permits cancelled and be deported. Consequently, there are very few anti-discrimination laws in relation to labour issues, with Emiratis -- other GCC Arabs -- getting preference in public sector jobs despite lesser credentials than competitors and lower motivation. In fact, just over eighty percent of Emirati workers hold government posts, with many of the rest taking part in state - owned enterprises such as Emirates airlines and Dubai Properties.
Dubai International Airport was the busiest airport in the world by international passenger traffic in 2014, overtaking London Heathrow. A 1,200 km (750 mi) country - wide railway is under construction which will connect all the major cities and ports. The Dubai Metro is the first urban train network in the Arabian Peninsula. The major ports of the United Arab Emirates are Khalifa Port, Zayed Port, Port Jebel Ali, Port Rashid, Port Khalid, Port Saeed, and Port Khor Fakkan.
The UAE is served by two telecommunications operators, Etisalat and Emirates Integrated Telecommunications Company ("du ''). Etisalat operated a monopoly until du launched mobile services in February 2007. Internet subscribers were expected to increase from 0.904 million in 2007 to 2.66 million in 2012. The regulator, the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority, mandates filtering websites for religious, political and sexual content.
Emirati culture is based on Arabian culture and has been influenced by the cultures of Persia, India, and East Africa. Arabian and Persian inspired architecture is part of the expression of the local Emirati identity. Persian influence on Emirati culture is noticeably visible in traditional Emirati architecture and folk arts. For example, the distinctive wind tower which tops traditional Emirati buildings, the barjeel has become an identifying mark of Emirati architecture and is attributed to Persian influence. This influence is derived both from traders who fled the tax regime in Persia in the early 19th Century and from Emirati ownership of ports on the Persian coast, for instance the Al Qassimi port of Lingeh.
The United Arab Emirates has a diverse society. Major holidays in the United Arab Emirates include Eid al Fitr, which marks the end of Ramadan, and National Day (2 December), which marks the formation of the United Arab Emirates. Emirati males prefer to wear a kandura, an ankle - length white tunic woven from wool or cotton, and Emirati women wear an abaya, a black over-garment that covers most parts of the body.
Ancient Emirati poetry was strongly influenced by the 8th - century Arab scholar Al Khalil bin Ahmed. The earliest known poet in the UAE is Ibn Majid, born between 1432 and 1437 in Ras Al - Khaimah. The most famous Emirati writers were Mubarak Al Oqaili (1880 -- 1954), Salem bin Ali al Owais (1887 -- 1959) and Ahmed bin Sulayem (1905 -- 1976). Three other poets from Sharjah, known as the Hirah group, are observed to have been heavily influenced by the Apollo and Romantic poets. The Sharjah International Book Fair is the oldest and largest in the country.
The list of museums in the United Arab Emirates includes some of regional repute, most famously Sharjah with its Heritage District containing 17 museums, which in 1998 was the Cultural Capital of the Arab World. In Dubai, the area of Al Quoz has attracted a number of art galleries as well as museums such as the Salsali Private Museum. Abu Dhabi has established a culture district on Saadiyat Island. Six grand projects are planned, including the Guggenheim Abu Dhabi and the Louvre Abu Dhabi. Dubai also plans to build a Kunsthal museum and a district for galleries and artists.
Emirati culture is a part of the culture of Eastern Arabia. Liwa is a type of music and dance performed locally, mainly in communities that contain descendants of Bantu peoples from the African Great Lakes region. The Dubai Desert Rock Festival is also another major festival consisting of heavy metal and rock artists. The cinema of the United Arab Emirates is minimal but expanding.
The traditional food of the Emirates has always been rice, fish, and meat. The people of the United Arab Emirates have adopted most of their foods from other West and South Asian countries including Iran, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, India and Oman. Seafood has been the mainstay of the Emirati diet for centuries. Meat and rice are other staple foods; lamb and mutton are the more favored meats, than goat and beef. Popular beverages are coffee and tea, which can be complemented with cardamom, saffron, or mint to give them a distinct flavor.
Popular cultural Emirati dishes include threed, machboos, khubisa, khameer and chabab bread among others while the famous Emirati dessert is Lugaimat.
With the influence of western cultures, fast food has become very popular among young people, to the extent that campaigns were held and organized to highlight the dangers of fast food excesses. Alcohol is allowed to be served only in hotel restaurants and bars. All nightclubs are permitted to sell alcohol. Specific supermarkets may sell alcohol, but these products are sold in separate sections. Likewise, pork, which is haram (not permitted for Muslims), is sold in separate sections in all major supermarkets. Note that although alcohol may be consumed, it is illegal to be intoxicated in public or drive a motor vehicle with any trace of alcohol in the blood.
Formula One is particularly popular in the United Arab Emirates, and is annually held at the Yas Marina Circuit. The race is held at evening time, and is the first ever Grand Prix to start in daylight and finish at night. Other popular sports include camel racing, falconry, endurance riding, and tennis. The emirate of Dubai is also home to two major golf courses: The Dubai Golf Club and Emirates Golf Club.
In the past, child camel jockeys were used, leading to widespread criticism. Eventually the UAE passed laws banning the use of children for the sport, leading to the prompt removal of almost all child jockeys. Recently the robotic jockeys were introduce to over come this problem of child camel jockeys which was an issue of human right violations. Ansar Burney is often praised for the work he has done in this area.
Football is a popular sport in the UAE. Al Nasr SC, Al - Ain, Al - Wasl, Al - Sharjah, Al - Wahda, and Shabab Al Ahli Dubai are the most popular teams and enjoy the reputation of long - time regional champions. The United Arab Emirates Football Association was established in 1971 and since then has dedicated its time and effort to promoting the game, organizing youth programs and improving the abilities of not only its players, but also the officials and coaches involved with its regional teams. The UAE national football team qualified for the FIFA World Cup in 1990 with Egypt. It was the third consecutive World Cup with two Arab nations qualifying, after Kuwait and Algeria in 1982, and Iraq and Algeria again in 1986. The UAE won the Gulf Cup Championship two times: the first cup in January 2007 held in Abu Dhabi and the second in January 2013, held in Bahrain. The country is scheduled to host the 2019 AFC Asian Cup.
Cricket is one of the most popular sports in the UAE, largely because of the expatriate population from the SAARC countries, the United Kingdom, and Australia. The Sharjah Cricket Association Stadium in Sharjah has hosted four international test cricket matches so far. Sheikh Zayed Cricket Stadium in Abu Dhabi also hosted international cricket matches. Dubai has two cricket stadiums (Dubai Cricket Ground No. 1 and No. 2) with a third, the DSC Cricket Stadium, as part of Dubai Sports City. Dubai is also home to the International Cricket Council. The UAE national cricket team qualified for the 1996 Cricket World Cup and narrowly missed out on qualification for the 2007 Cricket World Cup. They qualified for the 2015 Cricket World Cup held in Australia and New Zealand. The 14th edition of the Asia Cup Cricket tournament was held in UAE in September 2018.
The education system through secondary level is monitored by the Ministry of Education in all emirates except Abu Dhabi, where it falls under the authority of the Abu Dhabi Education Council. It consists of primary schools, middle schools and high schools. The public schools are government - funded and the curriculum is created to match the United Arab Emirates ' development goals. The medium of instruction in the public school is Arabic with emphasis on English as a second language. There are also many private schools which are internationally accredited. Public schools in the country are free for citizens of the UAE, while the fees for private schools vary.
The higher education system is monitored by the Ministry of Higher Education. The ministry also is responsible for admitting students to its undergraduate institutions. The adult literacy rate in 2011 was 90 %. Thousands of nationals are pursuing formal learning at 86 adult education centres spread across the country.
The UAE has shown a strong interest in improving education and research. Enterprises include the establishment of the CERT Research Centers and the Masdar Institute of Science and Technology and Institute for Enterprise Development. According to the QS Rankings, the top - ranking universities in the country are the United Arab Emirates University (421 -- 430th worldwide), Khalifa University (441 -- 450th worldwide), the American University of Sharjah (431 -- 440th) and University of Sharjah (551 -- 600th worldwide).
The demography of the UAE is extremely diverse. In 2010, the UAE 's population was estimated to be 8,264,070, of whom only 11.48 % were UAE nationals or Emiratis. The country 's net migration rate stands at 21.71, the world 's highest. Under Article 8 of UAE Federal Law no. 17, an expatriate can apply for UAE citizenship after residing in the country for 20 years, providing that person has never been convicted of a crime and can speak fluent Arabic. According to an estimate by the World Bank, the UAE 's population in 2018 stands at 9.543 million. Expatriates and immigrants account for 88.52 % while Emiratis make up remaining 11.48 % of the population.
There are 1.4 million Emirati citizens. The United Arab Emirates ' population is ethnically diverse. According to the CIA, in 2015, 40 % of residents were Emirati; 10.2 % were Pakistanis; 30 % were South Asian.
In 2009, Emirati citizens accounted for 16.5 % of the total population; South Asian (Bangladeshi, Pakistani, Sri Lankans and Indians) constituted the largest group, making up 12 % of the total; other Asians (Filipinos, Iranians) made up 16.7 %, while Western expatriates were 8.4 % of the total population.
Indian and Pakistani expatriates make up more than a third (23 %) of the population of three emirates -- Dubai, Sharjah, and Ajman according to the latest 2014 statistics provided by Euromonitor International, a market intelligence company. The five most populous nationalities in the three emirates, are: Indian (11 %), Pakistani (10 %), Emirati (40 %), Bangladeshi (7 %), and Filipino (6 %).
There is a growing presence of Europeans especially in multicultural cities such as Dubai. Western expatriates, from Europe, Australia, Northern America and Latin America make up 500,000 of the UAE population. More than 100,000 British nationals live in the country. The rest of the population were from other Arab states.
About 88 % of the population of the United Arab Emirates is urban. The average life expectancy was 76.7 in 2012, higher than for any other Arab country. With a male / female sex ratio of 2.2 males for each female in the total population and 2.75 to 1 for the 15 -- 65 age group, the UAE 's gender imbalance is second highest in the world after Qatar.
Islam is the largest and the official state religion of the UAE. The government follows a policy of tolerance toward other religions and rarely interferes in the activities of non-Muslims. By the same token, non-Muslims are expected to avoid interfering in Islamic religious matters or the Islamic upbringing of Muslims.
The government imposes restrictions on spreading other religions through any form of media as it is considered a form of proselytizing. There are approximately 31 churches throughout the country, one Hindu temple in the region of Bur Dubai, one Sikh Gurudwara in Jebel Ali and also a Buddhist temple in Al Garhoud.
Based on the Ministry of Economy census in 2005, 76 % of the total population was Muslim, 13 % Christian, and 11 % other (mainly Hindu). Census figures do not take into account the many "temporary '' visitors and workers while also counting Baha'is and Druze as Muslim. Among Emirati Muslim citizens, 97 % are Sunni, while 3 % are Shi'a, mostly concentrated in the emirates of Sharjah and Dubai. Omani immigrants are mostly Ibadi, while Sufi influences exist too.
Arabic is the national language of the United Arab Emirates. The Gulf dialect of Arabic is spoken natively by the Emirati people. Since the area was occupied by the British until 1971, English is the primary lingua franca in the UAE. As such, a knowledge of the language is a requirement when applying for most local jobs.
The life expectancy at birth in the UAE is at 76.96 years. Cardiovascular disease is the principal cause of death in the UAE, constituting 28 % of total deaths; other major causes are accidents and injuries, malignancies, and congenital anomalies. According to World Health Organisation data from 2014, 37.2 % of adults in the UAE are clinically obese, with a Body mass index (BMI) score of 30 or more.
In February 2008, the Ministry of Health unveiled a five - year health strategy for the public health sector in the northern emirates, which fall under its purview and which, unlike Abu Dhabi and Dubai, do not have separate healthcare authorities. The strategy focuses on unifying healthcare policy and improving access to healthcare services at reasonable cost, at the same time reducing dependence on overseas treatment. The ministry plans to add three hospitals to the current 14, and 29 primary healthcare centres to the current 86. Nine were scheduled to open in 2008.
The introduction of mandatory health insurance in Abu Dhabi for expatriates and their dependants was a major driver in reform of healthcare policy. Abu Dhabi nationals were brought under the scheme from 1 June 2008 and Dubai followed for its government employees. Eventually, under federal law, every Emirati and expatriate in the country will be covered by compulsory health insurance under a unified mandatory scheme. The country has benefited from medical tourists from all over the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf. The UAE attracts medical tourists seeking plastic surgery and advanced procedures, cardiac and spinal surgery, and dental treatment, as health services have higher standards than other Arab countries in the Persian Gulf.
In 2018, the Emirati passport became the highest climber in the Henley & Partners Passport Index over the past decade, increasing its global rank by 28 places. it currently ranks 21st in the world. The UAE Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation has stated it plans to make the UAE passport one of the five strongest passports in the world by 2021.
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when was the song black and yellow made | Black and Yellow - wikipedia
"Black and Yellow '' is a song by American rapper Wiz Khalifa from his third studio album, Rolling Papers. It was released on September 14, 2010, as the lead single from the album. The song was written by Khalifa, along with Stargate, who produced it. It was released as a CD single in honor of Record Store Day. The song peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Wiz Khalifa 's first number - one single in the US; he would top the chart again in 2015 with "See You Again ''.
The song is about Khalifa 's car, a yellow Dodge Challenger Hemi with black stripes. He has stated that he got the car in those colors as a tribute to his hometown of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, whose official colors are black and gold, and its professional sports teams, most of whose colors are black and some variation of gold or yellow. The song itself does not mention Pittsburgh or sports, although the song 's music video made the connection to Pittsburgh explicit, showing various iconic locations in the city, as well as apparel associated with the football team the Pittsburgh Steelers, the hockey team the Pittsburgh Penguins, and the baseball team the Pittsburgh Pirates. In the year after it was released, "Black and Yellow '' spawned dozens of remixes, parodies and remakes, both in the US and internationally, many of them made in tribute to a local sports team. At Super Bowl XLV in 2011, which featured the Steelers competing against the Green Bay Packers, the Steelers used "Black and Yellow '' as their fight song, while the Packers used a remix by Lil ' Wayne called "Green and Yellow '', marking the first time both teams at the Super Bowl had used the same song.
On the issue dated October 2, 2010, "Black and Yellow '' debuted at No. 100 on the Billboard Hot 100. It then dropped out the following week and re-entered at No. 64 on the issue dated October 30, 2010. On its eighteenth charting week, the song rose to No. 1 on the issue dated February 19, 2011, selling 198,000 digital copies that week. "Black and Yellow '' has sold 4,144,922 digital copies since release.
The music video was directed by Bill Paladino. It was filmed in Pittsburgh and features sights of the city, including the U.S. Steel Tower, BNY Mellon Center, PPG Place, William Penn Hotel, Citizens Bank Tower, Union Trust Building, One PNC Plaza, K&L Gates Center the Three Sisters and Smithfield Street bridges, Station Square, Shannon Hall of the Art Institute of Pittsburgh and the smoke stacks of the former U.S. Steel Homestead Works at The Waterfront adjacent to the city. The video also prominently features city icons such as the Terrible Towel, a rally towel for the Pittsburgh Steelers, and city sports in general, as well as Pittsburgh Pirates apparel. It was recorded in Chatsworth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA.
The official remix, "Black & Yellow (G - Mix) '' features west - coast rapper Snoop Dogg, Juicy J and R&B singer T - Pain. Wiz Khalifa has a new verse on the track. The song leaked on December 12, 2010 but was officially released on December 16. A video for the remix was shot and was released on January 8, 2011. A remix by T - Pain, named "Black & Yellow (T - Mix) '', featured the verse that was later put on the official remix. An anime version fan remix was also made combining the song and Hidamari Sketch 's opening music, Sketch Switch.
Many remakes have been made, mostly in tribute to other sports teams, referring to their respective pair of colors. Some of the notable remakes include:
In addition, a number of freestyle versions have been released, of artists rapping over "Black and Yellow '' 's instrumental track, without any overt reference to the song or to sports teams. These include versions by Crooked I (who included a chorus of "packing metal ''), Donnis, Young Jeezy, Tyga, Novi Novak, and Layzie Bone and Flesh - n - Bone of Bone Thugs - n - Harmony.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who won the national championship in men's basketball last year | List of NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Champions - wikipedia
This is a list of NCAA Division I men 's basketball champions. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Men 's Division I Basketball Championship, or NCAA Tournament, is a single - elimination tournament for men 's college basketball teams in the United States. It determines the champion of Division I, the top level of play in the NCAA, and the media often describes the winner as the national champion of college basketball. The NCAA Tournament has been held annually since 1939, and its field grew from eight teams in the beginning to sixty - five teams by 2001; as of 2011, sixty - eight teams take part in the tournament. Teams can gain invitations by winning a conference championship or receiving an at - large bid from a 10 - person committee. The semifinals of the tournament are known as the Final Four and are held in a different city each year, along with the championship game; Indianapolis, the city where the NCAA is based, will host the Final Four every five years until 2040. Each winning university receives a rectangular, gold - plated trophy made of wood.
The first NCAA Tournament was organized by the National Association of Basketball Coaches. Oregon won the inaugural tournament, defeating Ohio State 46 -- 33 in the first championship game. Before the 1941 tournament, control of the event was given to the NCAA. In the early years of the tournament, it was considered less important than the National Invitation Tournament (NIT), a New York City - based event. Teams were able to compete in both events in the same year, and three of those that did so -- Utah in 1944, Kentucky in 1949, and City College of New York (CCNY) in 1950 -- won the NCAA Tournament. The 1949 -- 50 CCNY team won both tournaments (defeating Bradley in both finals), and is the only college basketball team to accomplish this feat. By the mid-1950s, the NCAA Tournament became the more prestigious of the two events, and in 1971 the NCAA barred universities from playing in other tournaments, such as the NIT, if they were invited to the NCAA Tournament.
The University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) has been the most successful college in the NCAA Tournament, winning 11 national titles. Ten of those championships came during a 12 - year stretch from 1964 to 1975. UCLA also holds the record for the most consecutive championships, winning seven in a row from 1967 to 1973. Kentucky has the second-most titles, with eight. North Carolina is third with six championships, while Duke and Indiana follow with five each. Villanova is the most recent champion, having defeated Michigan in the final of the 2018 tournament. Among head coaches, John Wooden is the all - time leader with 10 championships; he coached UCLA during their period of success in the 1960s and 1970s. Duke 's Mike Krzyzewski is second all - time with five titles.
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when does it's always sunny in philadelphia season 13 start | It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia (season 13) - wikipedia
The thirteenth season of the American comedy television series It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia premiered on FXX on September 5, 2018.
On April 1, 2016, the series was renewed for a thirteenth and fourteenth season, which will tie it with The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet as the longest running (in number of seasons) live - action American comedy series in history.
In March 2017, following the twelfth season finale in which Glenn Howerton 's character was seemingly written off the show, Howerton expressed doubt in his return for the thirteenth season, describing it as "partially a creative and personal decision. '' He also suggested that the show would take an "extended hiatus '' in order to accommodate the cast 's other projects. In late April, Kaitlin Olson confirmed Sunny 's extended hiatus ahead of the thirteenth season due to the cast 's busy schedules. In August 2018, Rob McElhenney confirmed that Howerton is "in pretty much every episode '' of the season.
The thirteenth season received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 100 % with an average score of 7.8 / 10 based on 12 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads, "It 's Always Sunny 's winning formula keeps the laughs rolling and the stomachs turning in a thirteenth season that 's topical, triumphant, and toxic in the best way. ''
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what is the difference between enamel cast iron and cast iron | Cast - iron cookware - wikipedia
Cast - iron cookware is valued for its heat retention properties, and can be produced and formed with a relatively low level of technology. Seasoning is used to protect bare cast iron from rust and to create a non-stick surface. Types of bare cast - iron cookware include panini presses, waffle irons, crepe makers, dutch ovens, frying pans, deep fryers, tetsubin, woks, potjies, karahi, flattop grills and griddles.
Bare cast - iron vessels have been used for cooking for over two thousand years. Cast - iron cauldrons and cooking pots were valued as kitchen items for their durability and their ability to retain heat, thus improving the quality of cooking meals. In Europe, before the introduction of the kitchen stove in the middle of the 19th century, meals were cooked in the hearth or fireplace, and cooking pots and pans were designed for use in the hearth. This meant that all cooking vessels had to be designed to be suspended on, or in, a fireplace. Cast - iron pots were made with handles to allow them to be hung over a fire, or with legs so that they could stand up in the fireplace. In addition to Dutch ovens, which were developed with the onset of the Industrial Revolution, a commonly used cast - iron cooking pan called a spider had a handle and three legs used to stand up in the coals and ashes of the fire. Cooking pots and pans with legless, flat bottoms were designed when cooking stoves became popular; this period of the late 19th century saw the introduction of the flat cast - iron skillet.
Cast - iron cookware was especially popular among homemakers and housekeepers during the first half of the 20th century. Most American households had at least one cast - iron cooking pan, and brands such as Griswold and Wagner Ware were especially popular. Although those companies folded in the late 1950s and the brands are now owned by the American Culinary Corporation, Wagner and Griswold cast - iron pots and pans from this era continue to see daily use in the present day; they are also highly sought after by antique collectors and dealers. The Lodge Manufacturing company is currently the only major manufacturer of cast - iron cookware in the United States, as most other cookware suppliers use pots and pans made in Asia or Europe.
The 20th century also saw the introduction and popularization of enamel - coated cast - iron cookware.
Cast iron fell out of favor in the 1960s and 1970s, as teflon - coated aluminum non-stick cookware was introduced and quickly became the item of choice in many kitchens. Today, a large selection of cookware can be purchased from kitchen suppliers, of which cast iron comprises only a small fraction. However, the durability and reliability of cast iron as a cooking tool has ensured its survival, and cast - iron cookware is still recommended by most cooks and chefs as an essential part of any kitchen.
Cast iron 's ability to withstand and maintain very high cooking temperatures makes it a common choice for searing or frying, and its excellent heat retention makes it a good option for long - cooking stews or braised dishes. Because cast - iron skillets can develop a "non-stick '' surface, they are also a good choice for egg dishes. Other uses of cast - iron pans include baking, for instance for making cornbread, cobblers and cakes.
Most bare cast - iron pots and pans are cast as a single piece of metal, including the handle. This allows them to be used on both the stovetop and in the oven. Many recipes call for the use of a cast - iron skillet or pot, especially so that the dish can be initially seared or fried on the stovetop then transferred into the oven, pan and all, to finish baking. Likewise, cast - iron skillets can double as baking dishes. Cornbread in particular is seen as a food item that is best prepared in a cast - iron skillet: the iron pan is heated beforehand in the oven, the ingredients are first combined and mixed in a mixing bowl, then added to the heated pan, and the dish is then placed directly into the oven for fast baking. This differs from many other cooking pots, which have varying components that may be damaged by the excessive temperatures of 400 ° F (204 ° C) or more.
Cast iron is a very slow conductor of heat and forms hot spots if heated too quickly, or on an undersized burner; however, it has excellent heat retention properties, and the entire pan will eventually become extremely hot, including the iron handle or handles.
An American Dietetic Association study found that cast - iron cookware can leach significant amounts of dietary iron into food. The amounts of iron absorbed varied greatly depending on the food, its acidity, its water content, how long it was cooked, and how old the cookware is. The iron in spaghetti sauce increased 2,109 percent (from 0.35 mg / 100g to 7.38 mg / 100g), while other foods increased less dramatically; for example, the iron in cornbread increased 28 percent, from 0.67 to 0.86 mg / 100g. Anemics, and those with iron deficiencies, may benefit from this effect, which was the basis for the development of the lucky iron fish, an iron ingot used during cooking to provide dietary iron to those with iron deficiency. People with hemochromatosis (iron overload, bronze disease) should avoid using cast - iron cookware because of the iron leaching effect into the food.
A seasoned pan has a stick - resistant coating created by polymerized oils and fats. Seasoning is a process by which a layer of animal fat or vegetable oil is applied and cooked onto cast - iron or carbon steel cookware. New cookware should be vigorously washed in hot water with a strong detergent to remove any casting oils from the cookware 's surface. A light coat of oil is applied and the cookware is placed upside down in an oven above a large pan (to drain for an hour), the pan can now be removed, then the oven set to 350 degrees Fahrenheit (180 degrees Celsius) and baked for 30 minutes. Some cookware comes pre-seasoned from the factory. A proper cast iron seasoning protects the cookware from rusting, provides a non-stick surface for cooking, and prevents food from interacting with the iron of the pan. However, frequent use of acidic foods such as tomato sauce can remove the seasoning faster and the cookware will need to be re-seasoned frequently. This can be lessened if initial season is better at polymerizing than standard fats / oils. Enamel - coated cast - iron pans do not need seasoning, as the enamel coating prevents rust in most instances. It is recommended to maintain the seasoning frequently to keep the food from sticking to the iron.
Because other cookware cleaning techniques like scouring or washing in a dishwasher can remove or damage the seasoning on a bare cast - iron pan, these pans should not be cleaned like most other cookware. Some chefs advocate never cleaning cast - iron pans at all; simply wiping them out after use, or washing them with hot water and a stiff brush. Others advocate washing with mild soap and water, and then re-applying a thin layer of fat or oil. A third approach is to scrub with coarse salt and a paper towel or clean rag.
There are many producers of traditional cast iron in France, Italy, Denmark, Sweden and the UK, manufacturing enameled and enameled cookware. In Asia, particularly China, India, Korea and Japan, there is a long history of cooking with cast iron. Well - established brands in the United States include Griswold and Wagner (both brand names owned by the American Culinary Corporation), Camp Chef, Lodge, Bayou Classic, and John Wright.
The decline in daily use of cast - iron cookware contributed to the closure of nearly all iron cookware manufacturers in the United States. By the beginning of the 21st century, Lodge Manufacturing was the only remaining manufacturer of cast - iron cookware in the United States; all other makers had closed. However, cast iron saw a resurgence of its popularity in specialty markets, as cooking shows and celebrity chefs brought renewed attention to traditional cooking methods, especially cast iron. In the 2010s, small startup companies such as FINEX, Element Cookware and Borough Furnace were founded, especially to produce new cast - iron cookware for specialty cooking markets; typically, these pans were high - priced and not meant for everyday purchases, in the manner of "luxury '' cookware such as Le Creuset and Staub.
Enameled cast iron is cast iron that has a vitreous enamel glaze. The enamel coating over the cast iron prevents rusting, eliminates the need to season the metal, and allows more thorough cleaning. Furthermore, pigments used in the enameling process can produce vibrant colors. While enamel - coated cast iron does n't have the seasoning and cleaning issues of bare cast iron, it can be several times more costly, and does not have some of the benefits of bare cast iron, such as the ability to withstand searing heat and resist sticking. It limits the leaching of dietary iron, and chipping of the enamel coating can be a concern.
Well - known manufacturers of enameled cast - iron cookware are Cousances, Le Creuset, Tramontina, Le Chasseur, Lodge, Staub, Descoware, and John Wright. Several newer brands are associated with well - known celebrities and chefs, including Daniel Boulud Kitchen, Martha Stewart, Rachael Ray Cookware (made by Anolon), and Mario Batali (made by Copco).
Media related to Cast iron pots and pans at Wikimedia Commons
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which of these paintings depicts ancient greek philosophers | The School of Athens - wikipedia
The School of Athens (Italian: Scuola di Atene) is one of the most famous frescoes by the Italian Renaissance artist Raphael. It was painted between 1509 and 1511 as a part of Raphael 's commission to decorate the rooms now known as the Stanze di Raffaello, in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican. The Stanza della Segnatura was the first of the rooms to be decorated, and The School of Athens, representing Philosophy, was probably the second painting to be finished there, after La Disputa (Theology) on the opposite wall, and the Parnassus (Literature). The picture has long been seen as "Raphael 's masterpiece and the perfect embodiment of the classical spirit of the Renaissance ''.
The School of Athens is one of a group of four main frescoes on the walls of the Stanza (those on either side centrally interrupted by windows) that depict distinct branches of knowledge. Each theme is identified above by a separate tondo containing a majestic female figure seated in the clouds, with putti bearing the phrases: "Seek Knowledge of Causes, '' "Divine Inspiration, '' "Knowledge of Things Divine '' (Disputa), "To Each What Is Due. '' Accordingly, the figures on the walls below exemplify Philosophy, Poetry (including Music), Theology, and Law. The traditional title is not Raphael 's. The subject of the "School '' is actually "Philosophy, '' or at least ancient Greek philosophy, and its overhead tondo - label, "Causarum Cognitio '', tells us what kind, as it appears to echo Aristotle 's emphasis on wisdom as knowing why, hence knowing the causes, in Metaphysics Book I and Physics Book II. Indeed, Plato and Aristotle appear to be the central figures in the scene. However, all the philosophers depicted sought knowledge of first causes. Many lived before Plato and Aristotle, and hardly a third were Athenians. The architecture contains Roman elements, but the general semi-circular setting having Plato and Aristotle at its centre might be alluding to Pythagoras ' circumpunct.
Commentators have suggested that nearly every great ancient Greek philosopher can be found in the painting, but determining which are depicted is difficult, since Raphael made no designations outside possible likenesses, and no contemporary documents explain the painting. Compounding the problem, Raphael had to invent a system of iconography to allude to various figures for whom there were no traditional visual types. For example, while the Socrates figure is immediately recognizable from Classical busts, the alleged Epicurus is far removed from his standard type. Aside from the identities of the figures depicted, many aspects of the fresco have been variously interpreted, but few such interpretations are unanimously accepted among scholars.
The popular idea that the rhetorical gestures of Plato and Aristotle are kinds of pointing (to the heavens, and down to earth) is very likely. But Plato 's Timaeus -- which is the book Raphael places in his hand -- was a sophisticated treatment of space, time, and change, including the Earth, which guided mathematical sciences for over a millennium. Aristotle, with his four - elements theory, held that all change on Earth was owing to motions of the heavens. In the painting Aristotle carries his Ethics, which he denied could be reduced to a mathematical science. It is not certain how much the young Raphael knew of ancient philosophy, what guidance he might have had from people such as Bramante, or whether a detailed program was dictated by his sponsor, Pope Julius II.
Nevertheless, the fresco has even recently been interpreted as an exhortation to philosophy and, in a deeper way, as a visual representation of the role of Love in elevating people toward upper knowledge, largely in consonance with contemporary theories of Marsilio Ficino and other neo-Platonic thinkers linked to Raphael.
Finally, according to Vasari, the scene includes Raphael himself, the Duke of Mantua, Zoroaster and some Evangelists.
However, as Heinrich Wölfflin observed, "it is quite wrong to attempt interpretations of the School of Athens as an esoteric treatise... The all - important thing was the artistic motive which expressed a physical or spiritual state, and the name of the person was a matter of indifference '' in Raphael 's time. What is evident is Raphael 's artistry in orchestrating a beautiful space, continuous with that of viewers in the Stanza, in which a great variety of human figures, each one expressing "mental states by physical actions, '' interact, in a "polyphony '' unlike anything in earlier art, in the ongoing dialogue of Philosophy.
An interpretation of the fresco relating to hidden symmetries of the figures and the star constructed by Bramante was given by Guerino Mazzola and collaborators.
The identities of some of the philosophers in the picture, such as Plato and Aristotle, are certain. Beyond that, identifications of Raphael 's figures have always been hypothetical. To complicate matters, beginning from Vasari 's efforts, some have received multiple identifications, not only as ancients but also as figures contemporary with Raphael. Vasari mentions portraits of the young Federico II Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, leaning over Bramante with his hands raised near the bottom right, and Raphael himself. He was writing over 40 years after the painting, and never knew Raphael, but no doubt reflects what was believed in his time. Many other popular identifications of portraits are very dubious.
Luitpold Dussler (de) counts among those who can be identified with some certainty: Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Pythagoras, Euclid, Ptolemy, Zoroaster, Raphael, Sodoma and Diogenes of Sinope. Other identifications he holds to be "more or less speculative ''.
A more comprehensive list of proposed identifications is given below:
1: Zeno of Citium 2: Epicurus 3: unknown 4: Boethius or Anaximander? 5: Averroes 6: Pythagoras 7: Alcibiades or Alexander the Great? 8: Antisthenes or Xenophon? 9: unknown or Fornarina as a personification of Love (Francesco Maria della Rovere?) 10: Aeschines 11: Parmenides or Nicomachus? 12: Socrates 13: Heraclitus (Michelangelo?) 14: Plato (Leonardo da Vinci?) 15: Aristotle (Giuliano da Sangallo?) 16: Diogenes of Sinope 17: Plotinus? 18: Euclid or Archimedes (Bramante?) 19: Strabo or Zoroaster? (Baldassare Castiglione?) 20: Ptolemy R: Apelles (Raphael) 21: Protogenes (Il Sodoma or Timoteo Viti)
In the center of the fresco, at its architecture 's central vanishing point, are the two undisputed main subjects: Plato on the left and Aristotle, his student, on the right. Both figures hold modern (of the time), bound copies of their books in their left hands, while gesturing with their right. Plato holds Timaeus, Aristotle his Nicomachean Ethics. Plato is depicted as old, grey, wise - looking, and bare - foot. By contrast Aristotle, slightly ahead of him, is in mature manhood, handsome, well - shod and dressed with gold, and the youth about them seem to look his way. In addition, these two central figures gesture along different dimensions: Plato vertically, upward along the picture - plane, into the beautiful vault above; Aristotle on the horizontal plane at right - angles to the picture - plane (hence in strong foreshortening), initiating a powerful flow of space toward viewers.
It is popularly thought that their gestures indicate central aspects of their philosophies, for Plato, his Theory of Forms, and for Aristotle, his empiricist views, with an emphasis on concrete particulars. Many interpret the painting to show a divergence of the two philosophical schools. Plato argues a sense of timelessness whilst Aristotle looks into the physicality of life and the present realm. However, Plato 's Timaeus was, even in the Renaissance, a very influential treatise on the cosmos, whereas Aristotle insisted that the purpose of ethics is "practical '' rather than "theoretical '' or "speculative '': not knowledge for its own sake, as he considered cosmology to be.
The building is in the shape of a Greek cross, which some have suggested was intended to show a harmony between pagan philosophy and Christian theology (see Christianity and Paganism and Christian philosophy). The architecture of the building was inspired by the work of Bramante, who, according to Vasari, helped Raphael with the architecture in the picture. Some have suggested that the building itself was intended to be an advance view of St. Peter 's Basilica.
There are two sculptures in the background. The one on the left is the god Apollo, god of light, archery and music, holding a lyre. The sculpture on the right is Athena, goddess of wisdom, in her Roman guise as Minerva.
The main arch, above the characters, shows a meander (also known as a Greek fret or Greek key design), a design using continuous lines that repeat in a "series of rectangular bends '' which originated on pottery of the Greek Geometric period and then become widely used in ancient Greek architectural friezes.
A number of drawings made by Raphael as studies for the School of Athens are extant. A study for the Diogenes is in the Städel in Frankfurt while a study for the group around Pythagoras, in the lower left of the painting, is preserved in the Albertina Museum in Vienna. Several drawings, showing the two men talking while walking up the steps on the right and the Medusa on Athena 's shield, the statue of Athena (Minerva) and three other statues, a study for the combat - scene in the relief below Apollo and "Euclid '' teaching his pupils are in the Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology at Oxford University.
The cartoon for the painting is in the Pinacoteca Ambrosiana in Milan.
The Victoria and Albert Museum has a rectangular version over 4 metres by 8 metres in size, painted on canvas, dated 1755 by Anton Raphael Mengs on display in the eastern Cast Court.
Modern reproductions of the fresco abound. For example, a full - size one can be seen in the auditorium of Old Cabell Hall at the University of Virginia. Produced in 1902 by George W. Breck to replace an older reproduction that was destroyed in a fire in 1895, it is four inches off scale from the original, because the Vatican would not allow identical reproductions of its art works.
Other reproductions include: by Neide, in Königsberg Cathedral, Kaliningrad, in the University of North Carolina at Asheville 's Highsmith University Student Union, and a recent one in the seminar room at Baylor University 's Brooks College. A copy of Raphael 's School of Athens was painted on the wall of the ceremonial stairwell that leads to the famous, main - floor reading room of the Bibliothèque Sainte - Geneviève in Paris.
The two figures at the left of Plotinus were used as part of the cover art of both Use Your Illusion I and II albums of Guns N ' Roses.
Zeno of Citium
Epicurus
Averroes and Pythagoras
Pythagoras
Alcibiades or Alexander the Great and Antisthenes or Xenophon
Parmenides
Aeschines and Socrates
Michelangelo as Heraclitus
Leonardo da Vinci as Plato
Aristotle
Diogenes
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write a brief account of gulliver's second voyage | Gulliver 's Travels - wikipedia
Gulliver 's Travels, or Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World. In Four Parts. By Lemuel Gulliver, First a Surgeon, and then a Captain of Several Ships, (which is the full title), is a prose satire by Irish writer and clergyman Jonathan Swift, that is both a satire on human nature and the "travellers ' tales '' literary subgenre. It is Swift 's best known full - length work, and a classic of English literature. He himself claimed that he wrote Gulliver 's Travels "to vex the world rather than divert it ''.
The book became popular as soon as it was published. John Gay wrote in a 1726 letter to Swift that "It is universally read, from the cabinet council to the nursery. ''
The travel begins with a short preamble in which Lemuel Gulliver gives a brief outline of his life and history before his voyages.
During his first voyage, Gulliver is washed ashore after a shipwreck and finds himself a prisoner of a race of tiny people, less than 6 inches (0.50 ft) tall, who are inhabitants of the island country of Lilliput. After giving assurances of his good behaviour, he is given a residence in Lilliput and becomes a favourite of the Lilliput Royal Court. He is also given permission by the King of Lilliput to go around the city on condition that he must not harm their subjects.
At first, the Lilliputians are hospitable to Gulliver, but they are also wary of the threat that his size poses to them. The Lilliputians reveal themselves to be a people who put great emphasis on trivial matters. For example, which end of an egg a person cracks becomes the basis of a deep political rift within that nation. They are a people who revel in displays of authority and performances of power. Gulliver assists the Lilliputians to subdue their neighbors the Blefuscudians by stealing their fleet. However, he refuses to reduce the island nation of Blefuscu to a province of Lilliput, displeasing the King and the royal court.
Gulliver is charged with treason for, among other crimes, "making water '' in the capital though he was putting out a fire. He is convicted and sentenced to be blinded. With the assistance of a kind friend, "a considerable person at court '', he escapes to Blefuscu. Here, he spots and retrieves an abandoned boat and sails out to be rescued by a passing ship, which safely takes him back home.
Gulliver soon sets out again. When the sailing ship Adventure is blown off course by storms and forced to sail for land in search of fresh water, Gulliver is abandoned by his companions and is left on a peninsula on the western coast of the North American continent.
The grass of that land is as tall as a tree. He is then found by a farmer who was about 72 ft. tall, judging from Gulliver estimating a man 's step being 10 yards (9 m). He brings Gulliver home and the farmer 's daughter Glumdalclitch cares for Gulliver. The giant - sized farmer treats him as a curiosity and exhibits him for money. After a while the constant shows make Gulliver sick, and the farmer sells him to the queen of the realm. Glumdalclitch (who accompanied her father while exhibiting Gulliver) is taken into the Queen of Brobdingnag 's service to take care of the tiny man. Since Gulliver is too small to use their huge chairs, beds, knives and forks, the Queen of Brobdingnag commissions a small house to be built for him so that he can be carried around in it; this is referred to as his "travelling box ''.
Between small adventures such as fighting giant wasps and being carried to the roof by a monkey, he discusses the state of Europe with the King of Brobdingnag. The King is not happy with Gulliver 's accounts of Europe, especially upon learning of the use of guns and cannons. On a trip to the seaside, his traveling box is seized by a giant eagle which drops Gulliver and his box into the sea where he is picked up by some sailors who return him to England.
Setting out again, Gulliver 's ship is attacked by pirates and he is marooned close to a desolate rocky island near India. He is rescued by the flying island of Laputa, a kingdom devoted to the arts of music, mathematics, and astronomy but unable to use them for practical ends. Rather than use armies, Laputa has a custom of throwing rocks down at rebellious cities on the ground.
Gulliver tours Balnibarbi, the kingdom ruled from Laputa, as the guest of a low - ranking courtier and sees the ruin brought about by the blind pursuit of science without practical results, in a satire on bureaucracy and on the Royal Society and its experiments. At the Grand Academy of Lagado in Balnibarbi, great resources and manpower are employed on researching completely preposterous schemes such as extracting sunbeams from cucumbers, softening marble for use in pillows, learning how to mix paint by smell, and uncovering political conspiracies by examining the excrement of suspicious persons (see muckraking). Gulliver is then taken to Maldonada, the main port of Balnibarbi, to await a trader who can take him on to Japan.
While waiting for a passage, Gulliver takes a short side - trip to the island of Glubbdubdrib which is southwest of Balnibarbi. On Glubbdubdrib, he visits a magician 's dwelling and discusses history with the ghosts of historical figures, the most obvious restatement of the "ancients versus moderns '' theme in the book. The ghosts consist of Julius Caesar, Brutus, Homer, Aristotle, René Descartes, and Pierre Gassendi.
On the island of Luggnagg, he encounters the struldbrugs, people who are immortal. They do not have the gift of eternal youth, but suffer the infirmities of old age and are considered legally dead at the age of eighty.
After reaching Japan, Gulliver asks the Emperor "to excuse my performing the ceremony imposed upon my countrymen of trampling upon the crucifix '', which the Emperor does. Gulliver returns home, determined to stay there for the rest of his days.
Despite his earlier intention of remaining at home, Gulliver returns to sea as the captain of a merchantman, as he is bored with his employment as a surgeon. On this voyage, he is forced to find new additions to his crew whom he believes to have turned the rest of the crew against him. His crew then commits mutiny. After keeping him contained for some time, they resolve to leave him on the first piece of land they come across, and continue as pirates. He is abandoned in a landing boat and comes upon a race of hideous, deformed and savage humanoid creatures to which he conceives a violent antipathy. Shortly afterwards, he meets the Houyhnhnms, a race of talking horses. They are the rulers while the deformed creatures that resemble human beings are called Yahoos.
Gulliver becomes a member of a horse 's household and comes to both admire and emulate the Houyhnhnms and their way of life, rejecting his fellow humans as merely Yahoos endowed with some semblance of reason which they only use to exacerbate and add to the vices Nature gave them. However, an Assembly of the Houyhnhnms rules that Gulliver, a Yahoo with some semblance of reason, is a danger to their civilization and command him to swim back to the land that he came from. Gulliver 's "Master, '' the Houyhnhnm who took him into his household, bought him time to create a canoe to make his departure easier. After another disastrous voyage, he is rescued against his will by a Portuguese ship. He is disgusted to see that Captain Pedro de Mendez, a Yahoo, is a wise, courteous, and generous person.
He returns to his home in England, but he is unable to reconcile himself to living among "Yahoos '' and becomes a recluse, remaining in his house, largely avoiding his family and his wife, and spending several hours a day speaking with the horses in his stables.
It is uncertain exactly when Swift started writing Gulliver 's Travels (much of the writing was done at Loughry Manor in Cookstown, County Tyrone, whilst Swift stayed there) but some sources suggest as early as 1713 when Swift, Gay, Pope, Arbuthnot and others formed the Scriblerus Club with the aim of satirising popular literary genres. According to these accounts, Swift was charged with writing the memoirs of the club 's imaginary author, Martinus Scriblerus, and also with satirising the "travellers ' tales '' literary subgenre. It is known from Swift 's correspondence that the composition proper began in 1720 with the mirror - themed Parts I and II written first, Part IV next in 1723 and Part III written in 1724; but amendments were made even while Swift was writing Drapier 's Letters. By August 1725 the book was complete; and as Gulliver 's Travels was a transparently anti-Whig satire, it is likely that Swift had the manuscript copied so that his handwriting could not be used as evidence if a prosecution should arise, as had happened in the case of some of his Irish pamphlets (the Drapier 's Letters). In March 1726 Swift travelled to London to have his work published; the manuscript was secretly delivered to the publisher Benjamin Motte, who used five printing houses to speed production and avoid piracy. Motte, recognising a best - seller but fearing prosecution, cut or altered the worst offending passages (such as the descriptions of the court contests in Lilliput and the rebellion of Lindalino), added some material in defence of Queen Anne to Part II, and published it. The first edition was released in two volumes on 28 October 1726, priced at 8s. 6d.
Motte published Gulliver 's Travels anonymously, and as was often the way with fashionable works, several follow - ups (Memoirs of the Court of Lilliput), parodies (Two Lilliputian Odes, The first on the Famous Engine With Which Captain Gulliver extinguish 'd the Palace Fire...) and "keys '' (Gulliver Decipher 'd and Lemuel Gulliver 's Travels into Several Remote Regions of the World Compendiously Methodiz 'd, the second by Edmund Curll who had similarly written a "key '' to Swift 's Tale of a Tub in 1705) were swiftly produced. These were mostly printed anonymously (or occasionally pseudonymously) and were quickly forgotten. Swift had nothing to do with them and disavowed them in Faulkner 's edition of 1735. Swift 's friend Alexander Pope wrote a set of five Verses on Gulliver 's Travels, which Swift liked so much that he added them to the second edition of the book, though they are rarely included.
In 1735 an Irish publisher, George Faulkner, printed a set of Swift 's works, Volume III of which was Gulliver 's Travels. As revealed in Faulkner 's "Advertisement to the Reader '', Faulkner had access to an annotated copy of Motte 's work by "a friend of the author '' (generally believed to be Swift 's friend Charles Ford) which reproduced most of the manuscript without Motte 's amendments, the original manuscript having been destroyed. It is also believed that Swift at least reviewed proofs of Faulkner 's edition before printing, but this can not be proved. Generally, this is regarded as the Editio Princeps of Gulliver 's Travels with one small exception. This edition had an added piece by Swift, A letter from Capt. Gulliver to his Cousin Sympson, which complained of Motte 's alterations to the original text, saying he had so much altered it that "I do hardly know mine own work '' and repudiating all of Motte 's changes as well as all the keys, libels, parodies, second parts and continuations that had appeared in the intervening years. This letter now forms part of many standard texts.
The five - paragraph episode in Part III, telling of the rebellion of the surface city of Lindalino against the flying island of Laputa, was an obvious allegory to the affair of Drapier 's Letters of which Swift was proud. Lindalino represented Dublin and the impositions of Laputa represented the British imposition of William Wood 's poor - quality copper currency. Faulkner had omitted this passage, either because of political sensitivities raised by an Irish publisher printing an anti-British satire, or possibly because the text he worked from did not include the passage. In 1899 the passage was included in a new edition of the Collected Works. Modern editions derive from the Faulkner edition with the inclusion of this 1899 addendum.
Isaac Asimov notes in The Annotated Gulliver that Lindalino is generally taken to be Dublin, being composed of double lins; hence, Dublin.
Gulliver 's Travels has been the recipient of several designations: from Menippean satire to a children 's story, from proto - science fiction to a forerunner of the modern novel.
Published seven years after Daniel Defoe 's wildly successful Robinson Crusoe, Gulliver 's Travels may be read as a systematic rebuttal of Defoe 's optimistic account of human capability. In The Unthinkable Swift: The Spontaneous Philosophy of a Church of England Man, Warren Montag argues that Swift was concerned to refute the notion that the individual precedes society, as Defoe 's novel seems to suggest. Swift regarded such thought as a dangerous endorsement of Thomas Hobbes ' radical political philosophy and for this reason Gulliver repeatedly encounters established societies rather than desolate islands. The captain who invites Gulliver to serve as a surgeon aboard his ship on the disastrous third voyage is named Robinson.
Scholar Allan Bloom points out that Swift 's critique of science (the experiments of Laputa) is the first such questioning by a modern liberal democrat of the effects and cost on a society which embraces and celebrates policies pursuing scientific progress.
A possible reason for the book 's classic status is that it can be seen as many things to many different people. Broadly, the book has three themes:
In storytelling and construction the parts follow a pattern:
Of equal interest is the character of Gulliver himself -- he progresses from a cheery optimist at the start of the first part to the pompous misanthrope of the book 's conclusion and we may well have to filter our understanding of the work if we are to believe the final misanthrope wrote the whole work. In this sense Gulliver 's Travels is a very modern and complex novel. There are subtle shifts throughout the book, such as when Gulliver begins to see all humans, not just those in Houyhnhnm - land, as Yahoos. However, a feminist perspective of Gulliver 's Travels argues that it is misogyny, and not misanthropy, that is shown in Gulliver.
Throughout, Gulliver is presented as being gullible; he believes what he is told, never perceives deeper meanings, is an honest man, and expects others to be honest. This makes for fun and irony; what Gulliver says can be trusted to be accurate, and he does not always understand the meaning of what he perceives.
Also, although Gulliver is presented as a commonplace "everyman '', lacking higher education, he possesses a remarkable natural gift for language. He quickly becomes fluent in the native tongue of any strange land in which he finds himself, a literary device that adds much understanding and humour to Swift 's work.
Despite the depth and subtlety of the book, it is often classified as a children 's story because of the popularity of the Lilliput section (frequently bowdlerised) as a book for children. One can still buy books entitled Gulliver 's Travels which contain only parts of the Lilliput voyage.
A well - known underlying theme in Gulliver 's Travels is misogyny. Swift uses satire to openly mock mysogyny throughout the book, with one of the most cited examples of this coming from Gulliver 's description of a Brobdingnagian woman:
"I must confess no Object ever disgusted me so much as the Sight of her monstrous Breast, which I can not tell what to compare with, so as to give the curious Reader an Idea of its Bulk, Shape, and Colour... This made me reflect upon the fair Skins of our English Ladies, who appear so beautiful to us, only because they are of our own Size, and their Defects not to be seen but through a magnifying glass... ''
This open critic towards aspects of the female body is something that Swift often brings up in other works of his, particularly in poems such as The Lady 's Dressing Room and A Beautiful Young Nymph Going To Bed
A well known criticism of Swift 's misogyny by Felicity A. Nussbaum proposes the idea that that "Gulliver himself is a gendered object of satire, and his antifeminist sentiments may be among those mocked. '' Gulliver 's own masculinity is often mocked, seen in how he is made to be a coward among the Brobdingnag people, repressed by the people of Lilliput, and viewed as an inferior Yahoo among the Houyhnhnms.
Another criticism of Swift 's use of misogyny delves into Gulliver 's repeated use of the word ' nauseous, ' and the way that Gulliver is fighting his emasculation by commenting on how he thinks the women of Brobdingnag are disgusting.
"Swift has Gulliver frequently invoke the sensory (as opposed to reflective) word "nauseous '' to describe this and other magnified images in Brobdingnag not only to reveal the neurotic depths of Gulliver 's misogyny, but also to show how male nausea can be used as a pathetic countermeasure against the perceived threat of female consumption. Swift has Gulliver associate these magnified acts of female consumption with the act of "throwing - up '' -- the opposite of and antidote to the act of gastronomic consumption. ''
This commentary of Deborah Needleman Armintor relies upon the way that the giant women do with Gulliver as they please, in much the same way as one might play with a toy, and get it to do everything one can think of. Armintor 's comparison focuses on the pocket microscopes that were popular in Swift 's time. She talks about how this instrument of science was transitioned to something toy - like and accessible, so it shifted into something that women favored, and thus men lose interest. This is similar to the progression of Gulliver 's time in Brobdingnag, from man of science to women 's plaything.
Pedro de Mendez is the name of the Portuguese captain who rescues Gulliver in Book IV. When Gulliver is forced to leave the Island of the Houyhnhnms, his plan is "to discover some small Island uninhabited '' where he can live in solitude. Instead, he is picked up by Don Pedro 's crew. Despite Gulliver 's appearance -- he is dressed in skins and speaks like a horse -- Don Pedro treats him compassionately and returns him to Lisbon.
Though Don Pedro appears only briefly, he has become an important figure in the debate between so - called soft school and hard school readers of Gulliver 's Travels. Some critics contend that Gulliver is a target of Swift 's satire and that Don Pedro represents an ideal of human kindness and generosity. Gulliver believes humans are similar to Yahoos in the sense that they make "no other use of reason, than to improve and multiply... vices '' Captain Pedro provides a contrast to Gulliver 's reasoning, proving humans are able to reason, be kind, and most of all: civilized. Gulliver sees the bleak fallenness at the center of human nature, and Don Pedro is merely a minor character who, in Gulliver 's words, is "an Animal which had some little Portion of Reason. ''
From 1738 to 1746, Edward Cave published in occasional issues of The Gentleman 's Magazine semi-fictionalized accounts of contemporary debates in the two Houses of Parliament under the title of Debates in the Senate of Lilliput. The names of the speakers in the debates, other individuals mentioned, politicians and monarchs present and past, and most other countries and cities of Europe ("Degulia '') and America ("Columbia '') were thinly disguised under a variety of Swiftian pseudonyms. The disguised names, and the pretence that the accounts were really translations of speeches by Lilliputian politicians, were a reaction to an Act of Parliament forbidding the publication of accounts of its debates. Cave employed several writers on this series: William Guthrie (June 1738 -- November 1740), Samuel Johnson (November 1740 -- February 1743), and John Hawkesworth (February 1743 -- December 1746).
In his reference to the astronomers of Laputa in Chapter III, Swift states: "They have likewise discovered two lesser stars, or satellites, which revolve about Mars; whereof the innermost is distant from the centre of the primary planet exactly three of his diameters, and the outermost, five; the former revolves in the space of ten hours, and the latter in twenty - one and a half; so that the squares of their periodical times are very near in the same proportion with the cubes of their distance from the centre of Mars; which evidently shows them to be governed by the same law of gravitation that influences the other heavenly bodies. '' (This is 103 years earlier than the recognized discovery of the two moons of Mars.)
Voltaire was presumably influenced by Swift: his 1750 short story Micromégas, about an alien visitor to Earth, also refers to two moons of Mars.
Swift crater, a crater on Mars 's moon Deimos, is named after Jonathan Swift.
The term Lilliputian has entered many languages as an adjective meaning "small and delicate ''. There is even a brand of small cigar called Lilliput. There is a series of collectable model houses known as "Lilliput Lane ''. The smallest light bulb fitting (5mm diameter) in the Edison screw series is called the "Lilliput Edison screw ''. In Dutch and Czech, the words Lilliputter and liliput (á) n respectively are used for adults shorter than 1.30 meters. Conversely, Brobdingnagian appears in the Oxford English Dictionary as a synonym for very large or gigantic.
In like vein, the term yahoo is often encountered as a synonym for ruffian or thug. In the Oxford English Dictionary it is considered a definition for "a rude, noisy, or violent person '' and its origins attributed to Swift 's Gulliver 's Travels.
In the discipline of computer architecture, the terms big - endian and little - endian are used to describe two possible ways of laying out bytes in memory. The terms derive from one of the satirical conflicts in the book, in which two religious sects of Lilliputians are divided between those who crack open their soft - boiled eggs from the little end, and those who use the big end, the "Big - endians ''.
Dostoevsky references Gulliver 's Travels in his novel Demons (1872): ' In an English satire of the last century, Gulliver, returning from the land of the Lilliputians where the people were only three or four inches high, had grown so accustomed to consider himself a giant among them, that as he walked along the Streets of London he could not help crying out to carriages and passers - by to be careful and get out of his way for fear he should crush them, imagining that they were little and he was still a giant... '
Gulliver 's Travels has been adapted several times for film, television and radio. Most film versions avoid the satire completely.
The standard edition of Swift 's prose works as of 2005 is the Prose Writings in 16 volumes, edited by Herbert Davis et al.
See also: Logic machines in fiction and List of fictional computers
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avicci wake me up when its all over | Wake Me up (Avicii song) - wikipedia
"Wake Me Up '' is a song by Swedish DJ and record producer Avicii, released as the lead single from his debut studio album True, released on CD and cassette by PRMD Music, Lava Records and Sony Music 's Columbia Records on 17 June 2013. "Wake Me Up '' was written by Avicii, Mike Einziger, and Aloe Blacc. American soul singer Aloe Blacc provides vocals for the track and Mike Einziger of Incubus provides acoustic guitar. Avicii introduced "Wake Me Up! '' for the first time live on stage at the Ultra Music Festival in Miami. The experimental rendering (it was accompanied by a live band with instruments and vocalists, including Blacc, Einziger and Incubus members Ben Kenney on bass and José Pasillas on drums) reportedly confused and angered a section of the electronic dance festival community. Subsequently, Avicii achieved critical and commercial success with the release of the single worldwide.
"Wake Me Up '' peaked at number one in much of Europe and charted well in various countries. The song has been described as a "summer anthem '' by Variance Magazine and, throughout the 2013 festival season, Avicii included it as part of the opening or closing sequence of his sets at EDC Las Vegas, EDC London, Tomorrowland, Creamfields, Electric Zoo and the iTunes Festival. Due to the success of the song, Blacc later released an acoustic version of "Wake Me Up '' in his solo EP Wake Me Up. It was also released as a promotional stand - alone single on Interscope Records, made available online for downloads via iTunes. A separate music video was also made. The Blacc single also charted in its own right in various charts.
In an interview with the Daily Star, Avicii, who had previously labelled "Wake Me Up! '' as "a fun experiment '' during an exclusive chat with MTV UK, said: "I had a demo with Mac Davis singing, the guy who wrote some songs that were covered by Elvis Presley, but I needed another singer to do the parts. At the same time I was tipped off about doing another track with Aloe Blacc, and I started working on that track. When I was with Mike Einziger from Incubus, we came up with the chord progression and the melody for ' Wake Me Up! ' but (with) no real lyrics. None of us (could) sing and we really needed to get that demo down and the only person I knew that lived in LA was Aloe, so I called him and he was free. Lyrics come really easy to him so he wrote them in a couple of hours and we finished the track. ''
Aloe Blacc, who is not credited on the track, explained to The Huffington Post: "I started writing the lyrics at the top of 2013, travelling back from Switzerland. I started in hip hop music back in the 90s and I never expected to be singing and have an actual career as a musician, but I 'm travelling all over the world and I thought ' Life is a dream, wake me up when it 's all over '. I was invited to the studio with Avicii and Mike Einziger from Incubus, and when I got to the studio they had already come up with a chord progression of the song. I came in with the lyrics and I just developed the melody as I heard the chords, and we all thought it was something very strong. We finished the song that night as an acoustic version, then Avicii made the dance mix in a couple of days, and that 's what we released to the world, and that was his release. '' Blacc later released an acoustic version of the song which was included on his solo EP Wake Me Up. It was also released as a promotional stand - alone single by Interscope Records and made available online for download via iTunes. The single also charted in its right in various charts.
"Wake Me Up '' is a folktronica song, blending elements of EDM, soul and country music. Musically, it is written in the key of B minor and runs at 124 beats per minute (BPM). It follows a chord progression of Bm / G / D / A -- Bm / G / D / F#.
Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave the song a positive review, stating:
"As chart - friendly EDM continues to reach the furthest corners of the globe, staying ahead of the pack can prove a tricky task -- especially when more and more acts arrive on the scene turning out mixes with identikit build - ups, tired lyrics and uninspired breakdowns that newcomers to the arena lap up with excitement. Kudos to Avicii then, who has dared to try something a little different for his latest offering. "So wake me up when it 's all over / When I 'm wiser and I 'm older, '' featured artist Aloe Blacc sings over dialled - up, country - flecked guitar strums that sound like Mumford & Sons on speed. The jig - along chorus may conjure up images of Brits - on - tour, but to be honest, what summer anthem does n't? ''.
The single has peaked at number one in 22 countries to date, including Australia, New Zealand, Hungary, Ireland, the United Kingdom and several European countries, in addition to reaching the top 10 in six others. The song is also the most searched on the app Shazam with more than 23 million in February of 2018.
The song debuted at number 42 on 24 June. On the next week, the song skyrocketed to number 2, behind "Blurred Lines ''. The number position became Avicii 's highest charting song, beating "I Could Be the One '' record which peaked at number four earlier in the year. It also beat Blacc 's 2011 hit, "I Need a Dollar '', which peaked at number 11. A week later, the song hit the top position, ending "Blurred Lines '' eight - week reign. On its sixth week at the top, 12 August, the song became the longest - running number one by a Swedish act since Roxette 's 1989 hit "The Look ''.
"Wake Me Up '' spent seven consecutive weeks at number one.
"Wake Me Up! '' has performed well in the North American music markets, having peaked in Canada and the United States at number two and number four, respectively. In the United States, "Wake Me Up! '' was kept off the top three by Katy Perry 's "Roar '', Miley Cyrus 's "Wrecking Ball '', and Lorde 's "Royals ''. It spent 21 weeks in the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100, and 53 weeks overall, making it the first Dance / Electronic song to stay over a year on that chart. It also reached number one position in the 7 September 2013 issue of Billboard 's Dance / Mix Show Airplay Chart. In Canada it was the second best - selling song of 2013 with 519,000 copies sold (523,000 for all versions combined). It is the first dance / electronic song to sell over 4 million copies in the U.S., and as of August 2015 it has sold over 4,060,000 copies.
In July 2013, "Wake Me Up '' entered at the number one on the UK Singles Chart, selling 88,000 copies in its first day and 267,000 in its first week, becoming Britain 's fastest - selling single of 2013. Following three weeks at number one, "Wake Me Up '' spent a further four consecutive weeks at number two, and a total of 11 consecutive weeks in the top ten. The single spent 32 consecutive weeks in the top 40, before exiting. By October 2013, the single had sold over 1 million copies in the UK, becoming the 140th single to do so in UK chart history and the third single of 2013 to do so. "Wake Me Up '' was also the fifth most streamed track of 2013 in the UK. The song also spent nine consecutive weeks at number one on the UK Dance Chart until being replaced by Avicii 's next single "You Make Me ''.
Swiss singer Sebalter performed a version as his cover song choice during the Swiss national final for the Eurovision Song Contest 2014.
Glee 's character Rachel Berry (Lea Michele) sang a slower version in the series season 5 on the episode "The Back - up Plan ''.
Croatian cello duo 2Cellos released a cover version on YouTube on 6 January 2015. As of May 2018, the video has been viewed over 35 million times. It is included on their album Celloverse.
K - pop group Lunafly recorded a version of "Wake Me Up '' in 2013.
"Wake Me Up '' is a playable song in Dance Dance Revolution A.
A lyric video to accompany the release of "Wake Me Up '' was first released on YouTube 28 June 2013, at a total length of four minutes and thirty two seconds, and teaser clips for the official video were also released.
The official video for "Wake Me Up '' was released a month after the lyric video on 29 July 2013. It was directed by celebrity photographer Mark Seliger & co-directed & edited by CB "Barney '' Miller (former guitarist for 1980 's pop band Miller Miller Miller & Sloan). It features two females: the older girl is Russian fashion model Kristina Romanova, and the younger girl is Laneya Grace. It depicts them and how they are different from the people in their village. One morning, Kristina gets up early and rides off on a horse to a nearby city. She notices a woman with the Avicii logo birthmark like the one on her lower arm. They meet others and then jump into a truck and are then shown to be attending an Avicii concert. The next morning, Kristina rides back on the horse to Laneya. The video ends with them walking down the highway and shots from the concert and the staring villagers from the beginning. The video includes product placement from Denim & Supply by Ralph Lauren and Sony Xperia Z smartphone. The video was shot in the Santa Clara River orange groves and in the town of Piru, California, west of Los Angeles, as well as Downtown LA. Avicii concert footage was from Miami. As of May 2018, this video has been viewed on Avicii 's official YouTube channel over 1.5 billion times, making it the 34th most viewed video on the site. Avicii collaborated with the YouTube channel Yo Mama to produce the official music video for the single on his AVICII by AVICII album.It was directed by Zachary James and Alex Negrete
Adapted from CD single and BMI website.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
On 30 September 2013, Blacc released his own acoustic version of the song. The track appeared in the Wake Me Up EP as track number two in the 5 - track EP.
Blacc 's version "Wake Me Up '' was made available through the following formats:
"Wake Me Up (Acoustic) '' by Aloe Blacc was released as a promotional stand - alone single on Interscope Records and made available online for downloads via iTunes.
In October 2013, Blacc released the music video for "Wake Me Up ''. Blacc collaborated with the immigrant rights group National Day Laborer Organizing Network and the ABC * Foundation 's Healing Power of Music Initiative. The director is Alex Rivera. The cast were real life immigrant activists: Hareth Andrade Ayala (a Virginia leader in the immigrant youth movement working to stop her own father 's deportation), Agustin Chiprez Alvarez (a Los Angeles day laborer), and Margarita Reyes (who was deported with her mother as a child despite being born in the US).
The track also appears on Aloe Blacc 's full studio album Lift Your Spirit.
"Wake Me Up '' was covered in the style of country music 2013 by Canadian country singer Tebey featuring Canadian country band Emerson Drive. This version was released to digital retailers via TebeyMusic on 27 November 2013 as the third single from the former 's second studio album, Two (2014) before impacting radio in January 2014. The song was released in the US on 28 January 2014 through The Talent Associates. It has been well received by Canadian country radio, peaking at No. 5 on the Canada Country airplay chart. The song is also included on Tebey 's 2016 EP, Old School.
"Wake Me Up '', as performed by Tebey and Emerson Drive, entered the Canadian Hot 100 at No. 63 for the week ending 1 February 2014. It peaked at No. 56 for the week ending 29 March 2014, which position it held for one chart week.
In the United Kingdom, the original release date was intended to be 8 September 2013. In the absence of the original, a group called "Spark Productions '' took advantage and released a cover version of it; this version reached number 26 on the UK Singles Chart before Avicii conceded to public demand and decided to release it early, with the Official Charts Company announcing on 15 July 2013 that it would be released that week.
A cover of the song in Irish was uploaded onto YouTube on 9 August 2013, by an Irish Language College called ' Coláiste Lurgan '. The video received heavy publicity and popularity within Ireland from many news websites and the public. The video was a viral hit within the country and with Irish abroad, hitting a million views in one week.
British band You Me at Six made a country version for BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge. James Shotwel commented that their cover "will be pulling at your heart strings all day long. The once fun - loving track has taken a turn for the melancholy, but it plays so well you 'll hardly think twice about the change. ''
In November 2013, British singer - songwriter Pixie Lott covered "Wake Me Up '' live at the Pool Studios in London.
Also in November 2013, Russian folk - metal band Russkaja covered "Wake Me Up '' on their 2013 EP "Barada ''.
In December 2013, The X Factor finalist Daniel Evans released a mellow Rhodes - based version on his YouTube channel. It was also released as part of his 2013 album, Wicked Game.
In January 2014, Scottish ensemble Red Hot Chilli Pipers performed an acoustic rendition with bagpipes on BBC Radio 1.
Irish singer Derek Ryan did a Country and Irish version of the song in his 2014 album The Entertainer -- Live accompanied with a music video of footage from his performances. Swedish band, Dirty Loops, covered the song on their album Loopified.
Christian rock band Skillet began performing a shortened cover of the song at some of their live shows starting in 2015.
The Norwegian acoustic - pop supergroup Stavangerkameratene covered the song as a translated single called "Vekk meg opp '' (Wake Me Up), released 11 March 2016.
Jessica Mauboy covered the song on her 2016 album, The Secret Daughter: Songs from the Original TV Series. It reached number 34 on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart.
Performed by Gareth Malone 's All Star Choir, the song was released as the official BBC Children in Need single for 2014.
Choirmaster and broadcaster Gareth Malone has previously had chart success after putting together non-singers and turning them into a cohesive choir. In 2011, he guided the Military Wives -- a group of women with partners serving overseas in the army -- to Christmas number one with the song "Wherever You Are ''. In 2012, in collaboration with Gary Barlow, Malone produced the song "Sing '', as part of the Diamond Jubilee celebrations, with the Commonwealth Band being joined by the Military Wives.
Malone was chosen to create the official Children in Need single for 2014, and his efforts were captured in a two - part series, Gareth Malone 's All Star Choir, which aired on 3 November and 10 November. The BBC press release said that Malone would "bring together an array of untrained voices from the world of television sport and theatre '' for the single.
The celebrities that make up the All Star Choir are Margaret Alphonsi, Jo Brand, Radzi Chinyanganya, John Craven, Mel Giedroyc, Nitin Ganatra, Larry Lamb, Alice Levine, Fabrice Muamba, Craig Revel Horwood, Linda Robson and Alison Steadman.
Gareth Malone went on numerous television and radio shows to promote the song, including some presented by celebrities who feature on the record. This included spots on Loose Women, Blue Peter, The One Show and Alice Levine 's afternoon show on Radio 1.
After its release on 9 November, the song was placed at number 1 on the midweek Official Chart Update on Radio 1, ahead of "Thinking Out Loud '' by Ed Sheeran and Cheryl 's "I Do n't Care '', which was number one the previous weekend.
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is bhartiya mahila bank a public sector bank | Bharatiya Mahila bank - Wikipedia
Bharatiya Mahila Bank (BMB) was an Indian financial services banking company based in Mumbai, India. Former Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh inaugurated the system on 19 November 2013 on the occasion of the 96th birth anniversary of former Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. Although initially reported as a bank exclusively for women, the bank allows deposits to flow from everyone, but lending will be predominantly for women. India is the third country in the world to have a bank especially for women, after Pakistan and Tanzania. The bank was merged with State Bank of India on 31 March 2017.
In India, only 26 % of women have an account with a formal financial institution, compared with 46 % of men. (This has changed after the initiation of Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana - accounts of women jumped radically to 60 %) That means an account in either a bank, a credit union, a co-operative, post office or a microfinance institution, according to a study by the World Bank. Also, for women, per capita credit is 80 per cent lower than males.
Furthermore, the results of a study using a global dataset covering 350 Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) in 70 countries indicates that more women clients is associated with lower portfolio - at - risk, lower write - offs, and lower credit - loss provisions, ceteris paribus. provision
The bank will also place emphasis on funding for skills developments to help in economic activity. Moreover, the products will be designed in a manner to give a slight concession on loan rates to women.
The bank shall also aim to inspire people with entrepreneurial skills and, in conjunction with NGOs, plans to locally mobilise women to train them in vocations like toy - making or driving tractors or mobile repairs, according to Usha Ananthasubramanian (CMD).
One of the other objectives of the bank is to promote asset ownership amongst women customers. Studies have shown that asset ownership amongst women reduces their risk of suffering from domestic violence.
The Bank 's initial capital consists of Rs 1,000 crores. The government plans to have 25 branches of the said bank by the end of March 2014 and 500 branches by 4th year of operation (2017). As of date it has 105 Branches.
US - based FIS Global, in partnership with Wipro is providing IT systems at the country 's first women - focussed bank.
The Bank currently has 103 branches and is planning to open more than 700 branches within 2 years. Currently Bharatiya Mahila Bank 's branches are located at the following places - Mumbai - Nariman Point, Central Mumbai - Ghatkopar, Thane, Pune, Patna, Noida, Chandigarh, Bhubaneshwar, Panchkula, Kochi, Vadodara, Ahmedabad, Indore, Bhopal, New Delhi - Nehru Palace, New Delhi - Model Town, Chandigarh, Gurgaon, Patna, Ranchi, Raipur, Guwahati, Shimla, Shillong, Gangtok, Thiruvananthapuram, Chennai, Coimbatore, Madurai, Bengaluru, Mangalore, Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam, Jaipur, Alwar, Dholpur, Komargiri, Kakinada, Goa - Panji, Agartala, Agra, Haridwar, Kanpur, Lucknow, Dehradun, Doddapalya, Kutiyatu, Murshidabad and Lalithadripura.
Bharatiya Mahila Bank was wholly owned by Government of India. Initially the bank had a board of directors consisting of eight women. Mrs. Usha Ananthasubramanian was the chairman and managing director of the Bank and SM Swathi was executive director of Bank. The board consisted of a business graduate sarpanch from Rajasthan, Chhavi Rajawat, Dalit entrepreneur Kalpana Saroj, who turned around a tubes business, retired public banker Nupur Mitra, academic Pakiza Samad, private equity professional Renuka Ramnath, Godrej Group executive Director Tanya Dubash and a government nominee. Details can be seen on bank 's website www.bmb.co.in
One of the key objective of the Bank was focus on the banking needs of women and promote economic empowerment through women 's growth and developments.
The bank has been criticised as adopting a segregationist approach to gender equality. Uma Shashikant of The Hindu writes:
Women - only banks are another instance of wanting to treat women ' differently '. We guise this in many forms, some in garbs of reverence, some as protection, but they are all forms of discrimination that promote gender - based stereotyping. Women - only organisations stem from this eagerness to patronise women in the name of preferential treatment.
As part of the Modi government 's banking reforms, the Bharatiya Mahila Bank, launched in 2013, was merged with State Bank of India from April 1, 2017. The merger would mean 103 branches and business of Rs. 2,000 crores added to SBI. The bank employees, who had joined on deputation, would be transferred back to their previous banks.
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the fog of war eleven lessons from the life of robert | The Fog of War - wikipedia
The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara is a 2003 American documentary film about the life and times of former U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara illustrating his observations of the nature of modern warfare. The film was directed by Errol Morris and features an original score by Philip Glass. The title derives from the military concept of the "fog of war '' depicting the difficulty of making decisions in the midst of conflict.
The film won the 2003 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature and Independent Spirit Award for Best Documentary Feature. It was non-competitively screened at the Cannes Film Festival.
Using archival footage, United States Cabinet conversation recordings, and an interview of the then eighty - five - year - old Robert McNamara, The Fog of War depicts his life, from his birth during the First World War remembering the time American troops returned from Europe, to working as a World War II Whiz Kid military officer, to being the Ford Motor Company 's president, to serving as Secretary of Defense for presidents Kennedy and Johnson (including his involvement in the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Vietnam War).
In a 2004 appearance at U.C. Berkeley, Errol Morris said his inspiration for the documentary derived from McNamara 's book (with James G. Blight), Wilson 's Ghost: Reducing the Risk of Conflict, Killing, and Catastrophe in the 21st Century (2001). Morris originally approached McNamara for an interview for an hour - long television special. That was extended multiple times and Morris decided to make a feature film. Morris interviewed McNamara for some twenty hours; the two - hour documentary comprises eleven lessons from In Retrospect: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam (1995). He posits, discourses upon, and propounds the lessons in the interview that is The Fog of War. Moreover, at the U.C. Berkeley event, McNamara disagreed with Morris 's interpretations in The Fog of War, yet, on completion, McNamara supplemented the original eleven lessons with an additional ten lessons; they are in The Fog of War DVD.
When asked to apply the eleven lessons from In Retrospect to the U.S. invasion of Iraq, McNamara refused, arguing that ex-secretaries of defense must not comment upon the incumbent defense secretary 's policies. He suggested other people could apply the eleven lessons to the war in Iraq, but that he would not, noting that the lessons are about war in general, not a specific war.
The film focuses primarily on the interviews of former Secretary of defense, Robert McNamara, who was interviewed for about 20 hours by the director of the documentary, Errol Morris, through a special device called the "Interrotron '' which projects images of interviewer and interviewee on two - way mirrors in front of their respective cameras so each appears to be talking directly to the other. Use of this device is intended to convey actual interaction with each other and direct eye contact with the viewer.
In the interviews, McNamara talks about aspects of international security and how and by what means it can be influenced by circumstances. The documentary explores recent events in American history and also focuses on McNamara 's life and how he rose from a humble American family to be a politician who achieved enormous power and influence. McNamara worked with presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson and with general Curtis LeMay, and had direct access to many governmental documents. His opinions, personal experiences and lessons learned while serving as a Secretary of Defense can provide the audience with an enlightening philosophy and outlook on American politics.
The documentary covers important events such as World War II, Vietnam War, Cuban Missile Crisis, and many others that McNamara himself witnessed.
McNamara is regarded as the "architect '' of the Vietnam war; a war that cost an enormous number of lives against a foe whose resolve he seriously underestimated. McNamara 's interview, along with archival footage, offers a close look at international security and the international relations of the US, and an insight into why certain conflicts occur and the lessons that can be learned from these conflicts.
Reviews for the film were very positive. The film received an overall score of 98 % on Rotten Tomatoes, thus obtaining a "Certified Fresh '' rating. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times wrote, "Although McNamara is photographed through the Interrotron, the movie is far from offering only a talking head. Morris is uncanny in his ability to bring life to the abstract, and here he uses graphics, charts, moving titles and visual effects in counterpoint to what McNamara is saying. ''
These lessons were chosen by Morris, not Robert McNamara himself
Lesson # 1: Empathize with your enemy.
McNamara states "Empathize with your enemy '' several times throughout the documentary. McNamara relates this lesson to the Cuban Missile Crisis when he and Kennedy were trying to keep the United States out of war but General Curtis LeMay wanted to invade Cuba. Kennedy discovered LeMay 's obsession with nuclear weapons when focusing on the Laotian problem in 1961. Kennedy received two messages from Nikita Khrushchev during the Cuban missile crisis. McNamara refers to them as the "hard message '' and the "soft message ''. McNamara differentiated the two messages because the first message was informal, whereas the second message was formal and was broadcast around the world. McNamara stated the first message sounded like it came from "A drunk man or one under a lot of stress. '' The first message, "soft message '', stated if the United States guaranteed to not invade Cuba then Cuba would take the missiles out. The "hard message '' stated "if you (United States) attack we 're (Cuba) prepared to confront you with masses of military power. '' Llewellyn Thompson, former US ambassador to Moscow, urged Kennedy to respond to the soft message. Knowing Khrushchev personally, Thompson believed that Khrushchev just wanted to be able to tell Cuba he stopped an invasion from the U.S. Although Kennedy did not agree with Thompson at first, he later did.
Lesson # 2: Rationality alone will not save us.
In the documentary, McNamara emphasized it was luck that prevented nuclear war. Rational individuals such as: Kennedy, Khrushchev, and Castro, came close to creating national destruction. McNamara states that the possibility of nuclear destruction still exists today.
Lesson # 3: There 's something beyond one 's self.
This lesson was used to describe McNamara 's private life. McNamara states "there 's something beyond one 's self and a responsibility to society. '' During this time in the documentary McNamara discussed when he started to court his wife, Margaret Craig, and had a child. Then the war came. McNamara was then promoted to the youngest assistant professor at Harvard.
Lesson # 4: Maximize efficiency.
In this example, McNamara was brought back from the 8th air force and assigned to the first B - 29, 58th Bomb Wing flying planes. It was thought the B - 29s could destroy targets much more efficiently and effectively. McNamara was in charge of analyzing bombing operations, and how to make them more efficient.
Lesson # 5: Proportionality should be a guideline in war.
In this example, McNamara talks about the proportions of cities destroyed in Japan by the U.S. McNamara compares destroyed cities of Japan to cities in the United States before the dropping of the nuclear bomb. Tokyo, roughly the size of New York, 51 % destroyed; Toyama, the size of Chattanooga, 99 % destroyed; Nagoya, the size of Los Angeles, 40 % destroyed; Osaka, the size of Chicago, 35 % destroyed. McNamara compares the proportionality of the war on Japan to being immoral.
Lesson # 6: Get the data.
McNamara worked at Ford in an executive position where he conducted studies on buyer demographics to accident reports to make cars safer. McNamara was later promoted to president of Ford, being the first person not a family member to hold the position. Although, he quit 5 months later because of a position offered to him by John F. Kennedy. Kennedy offered McNamara a position as the Secretary of Treasury where he declined and later accepted the position as the Secretary of Defense.
Lesson # 7: Belief and seeing are both often wrong.
McNamara relates lesson 7 to the Tonkin Gulf incident. "We see what we want to believe. ''
Lesson # 8: Be prepared to reexamine your reasoning.
McNamara believed even though the United States is the strongest nation in the world, we should never use that power unilaterally. "if we ca n't persuade nations with comparable values of the merit of our cause we better reexamine our reasoning. ''
Lesson # 9: In order to do good, you may have to engage in evil.
"Recognize at times we have to engage in evil, but minimize it. ''
Lesson # 10: Never say never.
McNamara talks about how he believes the responsibility for the Vietnam War is on the president and if JFK had lived, the situation would n't have been as bad.
Lesson # 11: You ca n't change human nature.
McNamara talks about the "fog of war '' by comparing it to the human mind and how it can not fully comprehend it all.
These topics were selected by McNamara to supplement the documentary; they are in the DVD 's special features.
From Robert McNamara 's 1995 book "In Retrospect: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam ''.
These are slightly shortened versions of the text from page 321 to page 323 of his book.
Sony Pictures Classics allowed proceeds from limited screenings of The Fog of War to benefit Clear Path International 's work with victims of war in Vietnam.
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who was the prime minister of india in 1967 | Indian general election, 1967 - Wikipedia
Indira Gandhi INC
Indira Gandhi INC
The Indian general election of 1967 elected the 4th Lok Sabha of India and was held from 17 to 21 February. The 27 Indian states and union territories were represented by 520 single - member constituencies (an increase of 26).
Under the leadership of Indira Gandhi, the Indian National Congress won a fourth consecutive term in power and over 54 % of the seats, while no other party won more than 10 % of the votes or seats. However, the INC 's victory was significantly lower than the results they had achieved in the previous three elections under Jawaharlal Nehru. By 1967, economic growth in India had slowed -- the 1961 -- 1966 Five - Year Plan gave a target of 5.6 % annual growth, but the actual growth rate was 2.4 %. Under Lal Bahadur Shastri, the government 's popularity was boosted after India prevailed in the 1965 War with Pakistan, but this war (along with the previous 1962 War with China) had helped put a strain on the economy. Internal divisions were emerging in the Indian National Congress and its two popular leaders Nehru and Shastri had both died. Indira Gandhi had succeeded Shastri as leader, but a rift had emerged between her and Deputy Prime Minister Morarji Desai, who had been her rival in the 1966 party leadership contest.
The INC suffered significant losses in 7 states which included: Gujarat where INC won 11 out of 24 seats while Swatantra Party won 12 seats. Madras where INC won 3 out of 39 seats and DMK won 25 seats. Orissa where INC won 6 out of 20 seats and Swatantra Party won 8 seats. Rajasthan where INC won 10 out of 20 seats Swatantra Party won 8 seats. West Bengal where INC won 14 out of 40. Kerala where INC won only 1 out of 19. Delhi where INC won 1 out of 7 while remaining 6 were won by Bharatiya Jana Sangh. The decline in support for Congress was also reflected by the fact it lost control of six state governments in the same year. The party 's electoral losses led to Gandhi becoming assertive and opting for a series of choices that put her against the rest of the party establishment, eventually leading to a split in the party.
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baby don't make me wait for love this time | Do n't Make Me Wait For Love - wikipedia
4: 06 (Single)
"Do n't Make Me Wait For Love '' is a song by Kenny G (featuring Lenny Williams on lead vocals), and the first single released from his 1986 album Duotones. The song was written and composed by Walter Afanasieff, Preston Glass and Narada Michael Walden.
In the US, "Do n't Make Me Wait For Love '' was first released in late 1986 where it only peaked at # 77 on the Hot Black Singles chart. Later in 1987 the song 's re-isuue went to reached # 17 on the Hot Black Singles chart and # 15 on the Hot 100 chart. This was Kenny G 's first Hot 100 Hit. "Do n't Make Met For Wait For Love '' had its best showing on the Adult Contemporary music charts, where it peaked at # 2.
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what happens at the end of walking dead season 7 | The Walking Dead (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of The Walking Dead, an American post-apocalyptic horror television series on AMC, premiered on October 23, 2016, and concluded on April 2, 2017, consisting of 16 episodes. Developed for television by Frank Darabont, the series is based on the eponymous series of comic books by Robert Kirkman, Tony Moore, and Charlie Adlard. The executive producers are Kirkman, David Alpert, Scott M. Gimple, Greg Nicotero, Tom Luse, and Gale Anne Hurd, with Gimple as showrunner for the fourth consecutive season. The seventh season received mixed reviews from critics. It was nominated for multiple awards and won three, including Best Horror Television Series for the second consecutive year, at the 43rd Saturn Awards.
This season adapts material from issues # 100 -- 114 of the comic book series and focuses on the oppressive group of survivors known as the Saviors, led by the vindictive Negan (Jeffrey Dean Morgan). He uses numbers, power and lethal brutality to coerce Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln), his group of survivors, and the Alexandria Safe - Zone to make regular offerings of supplies and weapons for the Saviors. Eventually, Rick and his group seek allies to help them confront Negan, including members of the survivor communities of the Hilltop, the Kingdom, Oceanside, and the Scavengers, who have had their own dealings with Negan and the Saviors.
The seventh season features twenty series regulars overall. For the season premiere, Jeffrey Dean Morgan and Austin Amelio were promoted to series regular status, with Morgan added to the opening credits and Amelio listed under "Also starring ''. After the first episode aired, the cast faced numerous changes: Steven Yeun and Michael Cudlitz were removed from the opening credits, while Alanna Masterson, Josh McDermitt and Christian Serratos were added to the opening credits, respectively, after previously being credited as "Also starring '', in the second episode onwards. Tom Payne and Xander Berkeley were also promoted to series regulars in the second episode and beyond. This is the first season not to include Alexandra Breckenridge and Tovah Feldshuh (since their first appearance on the show), who were both credited as series regulars in the previous season.
The Walking Dead was renewed by AMC for a 16 - episode seventh season on October 30, 2015. Filming for season 7 began in Georgia on May 2, 2016 and concluded on November 18, 2016. Actors Jeffrey Dean Morgan, Xander Berkeley, Tom Payne, and Austin Amelio were all promoted to series regulars for the seventh season, after having recurring roles in the sixth season. The seventh season has featured several extended episodes, running longer than its usual 43 - minute running time (without commercials). Extended episodes have ranged from 46 to 62 minutes in length.
The finale was dedicated in memory of American comic artist Bernie Wrightson, who died on March 18, 2017.
The seventh season of The Walking Dead has received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season holds a score of 62 % with an average rating of 6.97 out of 10, based on 11 reviews, and an average episode score of 76 %. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Increased character depth and effective world - building helps The Walking Dead overcome a tiresome reliance on excessive, gratuitous violence. ''
The first episode of the season, "The Day Will Come When You Wo n't Be '', received criticism for the amount of violence depicted in the episode, with one writer calling it the equivalent of "torture porn ''. Subsequently, the first half of the seventh season has seen some of the show 's lowest critical ratings. The show 's executive producer Gale Anne Hurd claimed that in light of the negative feedback, they tamed some of the more gruesome scenes that were in episodes being filmed for the second half of the season. Hurd said that "this is not a show that 's torture porn... Let 's make sure we do n't cross that line ''. However, this claim was countered by executive producers Scott M. Gimple and Greg Nicotero. Gimple said that the violence used in the episode was "pronounced for a reason '', specifically that "there was a purpose of traumatizing these characters to a point where maybe they would have been docile for the rest of their lives '', but noted that he felt that this episode should n't represent "the base level of violence that necessarily should be on the show ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a 66 % with an average rating of 7.03 out of 10, based on 50 reviews. The site 's consensus reads: The flashback - laden "The Day Will Come When You Wo n't Be '' is slow to deliver the payoff from last season 's finale -- but ultimately delivers with sadistic acts of gut - wrenching violence that will push Walking Dead fans to their limit.
Best Actor on Television (Andrew Lincoln), and Best Guest Starring Role on Television (Jeffrey Dean Morgan). The nominations were for Best Supporting Actor on Television (Norman Reedus), Best Supporting Actress on Television (Danai Gurira and Melissa McBride), and Best Performance by a Younger Actor in a Television Series (Chandler Riggs).
The first half of the season was nominated for Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Television Series at the 23rd Screen Actors Guild Awards. Additionally, for his portrayal of Negan, Jeffrey Dean Morgan earned himself a nomination and win for Best Guest Performer in a Drama Series at the 7th Critics ' Choice Television Awards for the first half of the season, in addition to his guest appearance in the season six finale, "Last Day on Earth ''. Morgan was also nominated at the 26th MTV Movie & TV Awards for Best Actor in a TV Show and Best Villain, winning the latter.
The Walking Dead 's seventh - season premiere ("The Day Will Come When You Wo n't Be '') received 17.03 million viewers in its initial broadcast on AMC in the United States. The viewership steadily declined every week after the premiere, until the seventh episode ("Sing Me a Song ''), with the sixth episode ("Swear '') of the season dropping to 10.40 million viewers, the lowest rating the show has had since season three. Viewing increased to 12 million viewers in the ninth episode ("Rock in the Road ''), following this viewing decreased with the twelfth episode ("Say Yes '') reaching a season low with 10.16 million viewers.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
The season was released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on August 22, 2017, in region 2 on September 25, 2017, and in region 4 on September 27, 2017. The "Limited Edition Spike Walker Statue '' set, which is exclusive to Amazon.com was released on October 24, 2017, and was created by McFarlane Toys to pay homage to the zombie character featured in the "New Best Friends '' episode in season 7.
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who is selling top secret information on ncis | Nature of the Beast (NCIS) - wikipedia
"Nature of the Beast '' is the first episode of the ninth season of the American police procedural drama NCIS, and the 187th episode overall. It originally aired on CBS in the United States on September 20, 2011. The episode is written by Gary Glasberg and directed by Tony Wharmby, and was seen by 19.96 million viewers.
In the episode, Special agent Tony DiNozzo is shot and unable to remember what it all was about. He must work together with Special agent Leroy Jethro Gibbs and Dr. Rachel Cranston to identify the attacker.
Scott Wolf is introduced as FBI agent Stratton, while Matthew Willig 's NCIS Special agent Simon Cade is shot dead.
Set over the course of several months, the episode follows a series of events surrounding the investigation given to Special agent Tony DiNozzo by SECNAV Clayton Jarvis (Matt Craven) in "Pyramid '', culminating in the death of an NCIS agent. Secretary Jarvis assigned Tony to the investigation after a dead Navy Captain was found with an incision in his arm. After Dr. Donald "Ducky '' Mallard discovers security footage of Special agent Erica Jane "EJ '' Barrett removing a microchip from the body of Special agent Gayne Levin, suspicion falls on her.
The Major Case Response Team begin to suspect EJ is the target of Tony 's investigation, but EJ confides to Tony that Levin asked her to remove the microchip. The team learns that the microchips provide access to a classified Navy fleet, known as the ' Watchers '. Tony is lured to a meeting with EJ and her buyer, revealed to be Barrett 's other team member and the target of Tony 's investigation, Special Agent Simon Cade, although he claims that he was framed. During the meeting, all three are shot. Cade is killed, Tony is knocked unconscious and Barrett is missing. As Tony recalls the meeting, he realizes they were set up by the shooter, an FBI agent in league with the Office of Naval Intelligence 's Director of Special Operations, who places the microchips up for auction.
"Nature of the Beast '' is written by Gary Glasberg and directed by Tony Wharmby. Glasberg thought about the main storyline at a hotel in Las Vegas, ending up with the idea involving Special agents Simon Cade, Gayne Levin, Erica Jane "EJ '' Barrett and Tony DiNozzo: "Cade is the one in the picture, but he did n't do it. The audience needs to think EJ is the one in the photo, but she is n't the traitor either. Yes, she took the microchip from Levin, but what if she did it for well - intentioned reasons? What if the whole thing was a set - up? '' About how to make Tony remember, "why not bring Dr. Rachel Cranston back? She could help Tony remember what he 'd done. She and Gibbs could help him put the pieces together '', Glasberg say. "I knew (...) Tony, EJ and Cade needed to all be innocent pawns in someone else 's larger plan. And that 's how Stratton and Latham (Scott Wolf and Phil Casnoff) were born. New villains for an exciting new season ''.
The episode includes a lot of recurring characters, some for the first time and some for the last time. Jimmy Palmer (Brian Dietzen), E.J. Barrett (Sarah Jane Morris), Rachel Cranston (Wendy Makkena) and Clayton Jarvis (Matt Craven) continue their participation on NCIS, while Scott Wolf 's Casey Stratton is shown for the first time. Matthew Willig ends his recurring role as Special agent Simon Cade.
The arc between FBI agent Stratton, EJ Barrett and Tony DiNozzo continues in the episode "Housekeeping ''.
It is worth noting that Tony 's reference to Angels with Dirty Faces is incorrect. He attributes the Priest 's (Pat O'Brien) role to Humphrey Bogart, who portrayed the crooked lawyer in that film. This may have been a deliberate error due to Tony 's mental state in the episode.
"Nature of the Beast '' was seen by 19.96 million live viewers following its broadcast on September 20, 2011, with an 4.3 / 12 share among adults aged 18 to 49. A rating point represents one percent of the total number of television sets in American households, a share means the percentage of television sets in use tuned to the program. In total viewers, "Nature of the Beast '' easily won NCIS and CBS the night, while the spin - off NCIS: Los Angeles drew second and was seen by 16.11 million viewers. Compared to the last episode "Pyramid '', "Nature of the Beast '' was up a bit in both viewers and adults 18 - 49.
Steve Marsi from TV Fanatic gave the episode 4.5 (out of 5) and stated that "the ninth season premiere of NCIS was slower - paced and more complicated than expected, but provided a compelling conclusion to Tony 's mole hunt while setting up a new foil, and a new enemy, for Gibbs ''.
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who is playing in the nba celebrity game 2015 | NBA All - Star Celebrity Game - wikipedia
The NBA All - Star Celebrity Game is an annual exhibition basketball game held by the National Basketball Association that takes place during the NBA All - Star Weekend and features retired NBA players, WNBA players, actors, musicians and athletes from sports other than basketball.
The game was first held during the 2002 -- 03 season as part of the NBA All - Star Weekend in Atlanta, Georgia. The NBA All - Star Celebrity Game is played on Friday in the same host city as the NBA All - Star Game. However, the game is not held in the same arena as all the other All - Star Saturday events. Instead, it is held on the NBA Jam Session 's practice court.
The game is played with the standard NBA rules; however, there are several rule changes that are used in this game.
The inaugural NBA All - Star Celebrity Game was played on Friday, February 7, 2003 at the Georgia World Congress Center in Atlanta, Georgia.
Celebrities like Justin Timberlake and Jamie Foxx highlighted this NBA All - Star Celebrity game playing alongside WNBA players, NBA legends, and other celebrities. Former NBA players and current Inside the NBA analysts Kenny Smith and Charles Barkley were the opposing coaches. Kenny Smith and the Jets wound up winning in a tight - knit game 46 - 43.
The 2004 McDonald 's NBA All - Star Celebrity Game was played on Friday, February 13, 2004 at the Los Angeles Convention Center in Los Angeles, California.
The NBA All - Star Celebrity Game featured celebrities from Paris Hilton to Bill Walton. Although Richard Jefferson of the Lakers led all scorers with 16 points, the Lakers would lose to the Braves 60 - 52.
The 2005 McDonald 's NBA All - Star Celebrity Game sponsored by Sprite was played on Friday, February 18, 2005 at the Colorado Convention Center in Denver, Colorado.
Rapper Nelly, pop rock singer Ryan Cabrera, rapper / actor Ice Cube, and actor Danny Masterson were among some of the celebrities who participated. After playing the first half with the Nuggets, Entertainment Tonight correspondent Kevin Frazier played the second half with Team Denver. R&B Singer Brian McKnight scored the game winning basket as he threw in an off - balance shot that sailed in while getting the foul call with 9.9 seconds in the fourth quarter, and he was named the first ever MVP of the NBA All - Star Celebrity game.
The 2006 McDonald 's NBA All - Star Celebrity Game was played on Friday, February 17, 2006 at the George R. Brown Convention Center in Houston, Texas.
Nelly was named MVP with a game - high 14 points and 12 rebounds and hit H - Town 's only two three - pointers in a losing effort as the Clutch City Team beat the H - Town Team 37 - 33.
The 2007 McDonald 's NBA All - Star Celebrity Game Presented by 2K Sports was played on Friday, February 16, 2007 at the Las Vegas Convention Center in Winchester, Nevada. Jamie Foxx was scheduled to play but did not play to perform at a concert later that night. Donald Faison started for the East but was traded to the West team in exchange for no one during the second quarter. During the third quarter New Orleans Saints running back and West player Reggie Bush slightly sprained his right ankle and did not play the rest of the game. However, Access Hollywood correspondent and fellow West teammate Tony Potts scored 14 points and eight rebounds for the West team as he helped the West beat the East 40 - 21 and was named the game 's MVP. During the game, Jazz Bear, the mascot of the Utah Jazz, ESPN reporter Jim Gray, and former NBA player Jerome Williams played a few minutes in the game.
The NBA All - Star Celebrity Game was played on Friday, February 15, 2008 at the Ernest N. Morial Convention Center in New Orleans, Louisiana. A total of 17 celebrities took part in the game. The game was marked by a surprise appearance by Dallas Cowboys wide receiver Terrell Owens in the middle of the second quarter, where he joined and played with the New Orleans team. Owens scored 18 points including a dunk. He was named MVP of the game after helping his team win 51 - 50. ESPN analyst Ric Bucher was the commissioner for the game.
The 2009 McDonald 's NBA All - Star Celebrity Game was played on Friday, February 13, 2009 at the Phoenix Convention Center in Phoenix, Arizona. A total of 17 celebrities took part in the game. Basketball Hall of Famers Magic Johnson and Julius Erving, who combined for 23 NBA All - Star appearances, served as coaches for the celebrity teams. NBA legends, Dominique Wilkins and Clyde Drexler, were joined by former players, Dan Majerle and Rick Fox, in the celebrity team roster. WNBA stars Lisa Leslie and Kara Lawson also participated in the game along with four Harlem Globetrotters players.
Previous year 's MVP, Terrell Owens scored a game - high 17 points and led the East Sunrisers to a 60 -- 57 victory over the West Sunsetters. Owens, an American football star for Dallas Cowboys, was named as the Celebrity Game MVP for the second year in a row. The game was marked by a surprise appearance by another Hall of Famer Nancy Lieberman in the middle of the game, where she joined and played with the East Sunrisers. ESPN play - by - play commentator Mike Breen also made a surprise appearance as the referee for the game.
The 2010 NBA All - Star Celebrity Game presented by Final Fantasy XIII was played on Friday, February 12, 2010 at the Dallas Convention Center in Dallas, Texas. A total of 20 celebrities took part in the game, including several former basketball players. Basketball Hall of Famer Magic Johnson and five - time NBA All - Star Alonzo Mourning, served as coaches for the celebrity teams. Three former NBA players, Robert Horry, Rick Fox and Chris Mullin, along with Hall of Famer Nancy Lieberman and Dallas Mavericks owner Mark Cuban, participated in the game. The West team won 41 -- 37 over the East. "Special K '' Daley, one of the four Harlem Globetrotters player that participated in the game, scored game - high 18 points for the West. Actor Michael Rapaport, who scored 4 points, was named as the Celebrity Game MVP for his defense on football player Terrell Owens, the MVP of the last two Celebrity Games. Owens, who played both college basketball and football in Chattanooga, led the East with 10 points. The Globetrotters, joined by "Curly '' Neal and "Bucket '' Blakes, entertained the crowd during the timeouts with their signature ball - handling tricks.
The 2011 BBVA Celebrity All - Star Game was played on Friday, February 18 at the Los Angeles Convention Center in Los Angeles, California. The head coaches were Basketball Hall of Famers Bill Walton and Magic Johnson. Their assistants were comedians Ty Burrell and Jason Alexander. Each team featured fake "general managers '' who simulated to have chosen the team.
The game 's MVP was chosen by voting through text messaging and social media. At the end of the game, Justin Bieber was announced the MVP. Bieber scored eight points (3 - 11 FG), and had two rebounds and four assists. NBA legend Chris Mullin said of Bieber, "He 's got a nice little game... but more importantly, he 's got great passion. It looked like he loves the game. ''
The 2012 Sprint NBA All - Star Celebrity Game was played on Friday, February 24, 2012 at the Orange County Convention Center in Orlando, Florida. Participants in 2012 's version of the game include J. Cole, Common, Vinny Guadagnino, Kevin Hart, and Ne - Yo.
Arne Duncan scored 17 points, and grabbed eight rebounds for the East, but teammate Kevin Hart, who recorded 8 points and 6 assists, was named the game 's MVP. Hart was also given two technical fouls and was ejected from the game with about a minute to go in the fourth quarter for protesting a call made against him. The East won the game 86 - 54. Orlando Magic center Dwight Howard coached for the East team and Oklahoma City Thunder forward Kevin Durant coached the West team.
The 2013 Sprint NBA All - Star Celebrity Game was played on Friday, February 15, 2013 at the George R. Brown Convention Center in Houston, Texas. The game featured 18 players, including Jamaican Olympic sprinter Usain Bolt, Entertainment Tonight correspondent Rocsi Diaz, actor Josh Hutcherson, ABC News correspondent John Schriffen, and Kevin Hart. Oklahoma City Thunder point guard Russell Westbrook and Houston Rockets shooting guard James Harden served as the game 's head coaches.
Josh Hutcherson was the leading scorer of the East Team with 11 points which included three 3 - pointers. Arne Duncan and Terrence Jenkins were the leading scorers of the West Team with 11 points; teammate Kevin Hart, however, who scored five points, three rebounds, and one assist, was named Celebrity Game MVP for the second successive year. Hart became the second player to win the Most Valuable Player award twice joining Terrell Owens, who won it in 2008 and 2009.
The 2014 Sprint NBA All - Star Celebrity Game was played on Friday, February 14, 2014 from the Sprint Arena at the New Orleans Ernest N. Morial Convention Center in New Orleans, Louisiana. The game featured 18 players including comedian / actor and two - time Celebrity Game MVP Kevin Hart, Victoria 's Secret model Erin Heatherton, ESPN "Mike & Mike '' co-hosts Mike Golic and Mike Greenberg, hip - hop artist Snoop Dogg, Actor Michael B. Jordan ("The Wire ''), United States Secretary of Education Arne Duncan, and others. ESPN 's "NBA Countdown '' co-hosts Bill Simmons and Jalen Rose were the head coaches. Brandon Franklin was a fan who won the Sprint 's Assistant Coach For A Day Sweepstakes and he served as assistant coach for the East team.
Arne Duncan led the way with a celebrity game record of 20 points, and added 11 rebounds, and six assists as the East team beat the West team 60 - 56. The West 's Kevin Hart scored 7 points and 4 assists was once again voted MVP by the fans; however, due to his lackluster play he passed the award to Arne Duncan.
(Winner of the Sprint 's Assistant Coach For A Day Sweepstakes)
The 2015 Sprint NBA All - Star Celebrity Game was played on Friday, February 13, 2015. It was held at Madison Square Garden in New York City, home of the New York Knicks. This was the first celebrity game played at an NBA arena in the event 's history. The game was televised nationally by ESPN.
This game featured 20 players including Arcade Fire frontman, Win Butler, Bollywood actor Abhishek Bachchan, 2014 Little League World Series female pitcher Mo'ne Davis, WNBA player Skylar Diggins, Paralympic athlete Blake Leeper, NBA hall of famer Chris Mullin, and Memphis Grizzlies owner Robert Pera. This game also featured two All - Star Celebrity Game MVPs; 2010 winner Michael Rapaport and 2012, 2013, and 2014 winner Kevin Hart.
ESPN Radio 's "Mike & Mike '' hosts Mike Golic and Mike Greenberg coached the West and East teams respectively. The West team assistant coaches were film director Spike Lee and tennis legend John McEnroe. New York Knicks ' small forward Carmelo Anthony and former Baylor Bears center Isaiah Austin was the assistant coaches for the East team. Actress and singer Keke Palmer sang the national anthem, and Canadian reggae fusion band Magic! performed at halftime.
Although the West led by Atlanta Dream point guard Shoni Schimmel with 17 points beat the East 57 - 51, Kevin Hart of the East who scored 15 points and won the MVP award. This was Hart 's fourth MVP award in a row, a record for the Celebrity Game. Hart would then announce his retirement from the annual celebrity game.
The 2016 NBA Celebrity All - Star Game was played on February 12th, 2016 at the Ricoh Coliseum in Toronto, Ontario.
The game was a matchup of Team Canada vs. Team USA, coached by Canadian rapper Drake, and 4 - time Celebrity Game MVP Kevin Hart, respectively. It featured 21 players, including actors Stephan James, Jason Sudeikis, Anthony Anderson, O'Shea Jackson, Jr., Joel David Moore, and Tom Cavanagh, and TV hosts Nick Cannon, Terrence Jenkins, and the Property Brothers. The game also included four NBA legends in Chauncey Billups, Muggsy Bogues, Tracy McGrady, and Rick Fox, as well as Elena Delle Donne and Tammy Sutton - Brown of the WNBA.
Despite the efforts of head coach Kevin Hart who later played in the game in the second half, Team Canada won 74 -- 64 and Win Butler was named MVP of the game.
The 2017 NBA All - Star Celebrity Game was played on Friday, February 17, 2017 at the Mercedes - Benz Superdome.
The game was a matchup of Team East vs. Team West, coached by ESPN SportsCenter hosts Michael Smith and Jemele Hill, respectively. The game featured 23 players, including actors Ansel Elgort, Caleb McLaughlin, & Romeo Miller, and TV host Nick Cannon. The game also includes two NBA legends, Jason Williams, and Baron Davis, as well as Lindsay Whalen and Candace Parker of the WNBA.
The game ended up being the second most lopsided game in Celebrity Game history to date. The East Team 's 88 points were the most ever scored by one team, and their 29 - point margin of victory was the second largest ever. Even though last year 's MVP and the East Team player Win Butler scored 22 points and 11 rebounds, his teammate Brandon Armstrong won the 2017 All - Star Celebrity Game MVP award with 16 points and 15 rebounds.
The 2018 NBA All - Star Celebrity Game presented by Ruffles was played on Friday, February 16, 2018 at the Los Angeles Convention Center. Since the All - Star Weekend was held in Los Angeles, the competition was represented by the two NBA teams in the city with the Los Angeles Lakers (Team Lakers) and the Los Angeles Clippers (Team Clippers) instead of the typical West Vs. East affair like in previous years.
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when did the original mickey mouse club air | The Mickey Mouse Club - wikipedia
Fred Newman (1989 revival, seasons 1 - 6)
The Mickey Mouse Club is an American variety television show that aired intermittently from 1955 to 1996 and returned in 2017 to social media. Created by Walt Disney and produced by Walt Disney Productions, the program was first televised for three seasons, from 1955 to 1958, by ABC. This original run featured a regular but ever - changing cast of mostly teen performers. ABC broadcast reruns weekday afternoons during the 1958 -- 1959 season, airing right after American Bandstand. The show was revived after its initial 1955 -- 1959 run on ABC, first from 1977 -- 1979 for first - run syndication, again from 1989 -- 1996 as The All - New Mickey Mouse Club (also known to fans as MMC from 1993 -- 1996) airing exclusively on cable television 's The Disney Channel, then rebooted in 2017 with the moniker Club Mickey Mouse airing exclusively on internet social media.
Mickey Mouse himself appeared in every show not only in vintage cartoons originally made for theatrical release but in opening, interstitial, and closing segments made especially for the show. In both the vintage cartoons and new animated segments, Mickey was voiced by his creator Walt Disney. (Disney had previously voiced the character theatrically from 1928 to 1947 before being replaced by sound effects artist Jimmy MacDonald.)
The first official theater - based Mickey Mouse Club began on January 11, 1930 at the Fox Dome Theater in Ocean Park, California, with sixty theaters hosting clubs by March 31. The Club released its first issue of the Official Bulletin of the Mickey Mouse Club on April 15, 1930. By 1932, the Club had 1 million members, and in 1933 its first British club opened at Darlington 's Arcade Cinema. In 1935, Disney began to phase out the club.
The Mickey Mouse Club was hosted by Jimmie Dodd, a songwriter and the Head Mouseketeer, who provided leadership both on and off screen. In addition to his other contributions, he often provided short segments encouraging young viewers to make the right moral choices. These little homilies became known as "Doddisms ''. Roy Williams, a staff artist at Disney, also appeared in the show as the Big Mouseketeer. Roy suggested the Mickey and Minnie Mouse ears worn by the cast members, which he helped create, along with Chuck Keehne, Hal Adelquist, and Bill Walsh.
The main cast members were called Mouseketeers, and they performed in a variety of musical and dance numbers, as well as some informational segments. The most popular of the Mouseketeers comprised the so - called Red Team, who were kept under contract for the entire run of the show (1955 - 1959), consisted of the following:
Other Mouseketeers that were Red Team members but not on the show for all three seasons included the following:
The remaining Mouseketeers, consisting of the White or Blue Teams, were Don Agrati (later known as Don Grady when starring as "Robbie '' on the long - running sitcom My Three Sons), Sherry Alberoni, Billie Jean Beanblossom, Eileen Diamond, Dickie Dodd (not related to Jimmie Dodd), Mary Espinosa, Bonnie Lynn Fields, Judy Harriet, Linda Hughes, Dallas Johann, John Lee Johann, Bonni Lou Kern, Charlie Laney, Larry Larsen, Paul Petersen, Lynn Ready, Mickey Rooney Jr., Tim Rooney, Mary Sartori, Bronson Scott, Margene Storey, Ronnie Steiner, and Mark Sutherland. Larry Larsen, on only for the 1956 -- 57 season, was the oldest Mouseketeer, being born in 1939, and Bronson Scott, on only the 1955 - 56 season, was the youngest Mouseketeer, being born in July 1947. Among the thousands who auditioned but did n't make the cut were future vocalist / songwriter Paul Williams and future actress Candice Bergen.
The 39 Mouseketeers and the seasons they were featured in (with the team color they belonged to listed for each season):
Other notable non-Mouseketeer performers appeared in various dramatic segments:
These non-Mouseketeers primarily appeared in numerous original serials filmed for the series, only some of which have appeared in reruns. Certain Mouseketeers were also featured in some of the serials, particularly Annette Funicello and Darlene Gillespie.
Major serials included the following:
"Border Collie ''
The opening theme, "The Mickey Mouse March, '' was written by the show 's primary adult host, Jimmie Dodd. It was also reprised at the end of each episode, with the slower it 's - time - to - say - goodbye verse. A shorter version of the opening title was used later in the series, in syndication, and on Disney Channel reruns. Dodd also wrote many other songs used in individual segments over the course of the series.
Each day of the week had a special show theme, which was reflected in the various segments. The themes were:
The series ran on ABC Television for an hour each weekday in the 1955 -- 1956 and 1956 -- 1957 seasons (from 5: 00 to 6: 00 pm ET), and only a half - hour weekdays (5: 30 to 6: 00 p.m. ET) in 1957 -- 1958, the final season to feature new programming. Although the show returned for the 1958 -- 1959 season (5: 30 to 6: 00 p.m. ET), these programs were repeats from the first two seasons, re-cut into a half - hour format. The Mickey Mouse Club was featured on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, and Walt Disney 's Adventure Time, featuring re-runs of The Mickey Mouse Club serials and several re-edited segments from Disneyland and Walt Disney Presents, appeared on Tuesdays and Thursdays.
Although the show remained popular, ABC decided to cancel the show after its fourth season, as Disney and the ABC network could not come to terms for renewal. The cancellation in September 1959 was attributable to several factors: the Disney studios did not realize high - profit margins from merchandise sales, the sponsors were uninterested in educational programming for children, and many commercials were needed in order to pay for the show. After canceling The Mickey Mouse Club, ABC also refused to let Disney air the show on another network. Walt Disney filed a lawsuit against ABC, and won the damages in a settlement; however, he had to agree that both the Mickey Mouse Club and Zorro could not be aired on any major network. This left Walt Disney Presents (initially titled Disneyland, later retitled the Walt Disney 's Wonderful World of Color when it moved to NBC) as the only Disney series left on prime time until 1972 when The Mouse Factory went on the air. The prohibition against major U.S. broadcast network play of the original Mickey Mouse Club (or any later version) became moot when Disney acquired ABC in 1996, but no plans have been announced for an ABC airing of any version of The Mickey Mouse Club produced between 1955 and 1996 or for a new network series.
Although the series had been discontinued in the United States, many members of the cast assembled for highly successful tours of Australia in 1959 and 1960. The television series was very successful in Australia and was still running on Australian television. The cast surprised Australian audiences, as by then they had physically matured and in some cases, bore little resemblance to the young cast with whom Australians were so familiar. Mainstream television did not reach Australia until 1956 so the series screened well into the 1960s when the back catalogue expired.
In response to continuing audience demand, the original Mickey Mouse Club went into edited syndicated half - hour reruns that enjoyed wide distribution starting in the fall of 1962, achieving strong ratings especially during its first three seasons in syndicated release. (because of its popularity in some markets, a few stations continued to carry it into 1968 before the series was finally withdrawn from syndication). Some new features were added such as Fun with Science, aka "Professor Wonderful '' (with scientist Julius Sumner Miller) and Marvelous Marvin in the 1964 -- 1965 season; Jimmie Dodd appeared in several of these new segments before his death in November 1964. Many markets stretched the program back to an hour 's daily run time during the 1960s rerun cycle by adding locally produced and hosted portions involving educational subjects and live audience participation of local children, in a manner not unlike Romper Room.
In response to an upsurge in demand from baby boomers entering adulthood, the show again went into syndicated reruns from January 20, 1975, until January 14, 1977. It has since been rerun on cable specialty channels Disney in the U.S. and Family in Canada. The original Mickey Mouse Club films aired five days a week on The Disney Channel from its launch in 1983 until the third version of the series began in 1989. The last airing of the edited 1950s material was on Disney Channel 's Vault Disney from 1997 to September 2002. During the baseball seasons in 1975 and 1976, WGN - TV in Chicago, Illinois aired the MMC on a delayed basis due to Cubs ballgame coverages.
Annette Funicello and Tim Considine were reunited on The New Mickey Mouse Club in 1977. Darlene Gillespie and Cubby O'Brien were also reunited on another episode of the same series.
31 of the 39 original Mouseketeers were reunited for a TV special, which aired on Disney 's Wonderful World in November 1980.
Cast members Annette Funicello, Bobby Burgess, Tommy Cole, Sharon Baird, Don Grady, and Sherry Alberoni were reunited on the 100th episode of The All - New Mickey Mouse Club, during the show 's third season in 1991.
Mouseketeers Doreen Tracey, Cubby O'Brien, Sherry Alberoni, Sharon Baird, Don Grady, Cheryl Holdridge, Bobby Burgess, Karen Pendleton, Tommy Cole, and Mary Espinosa performed together at Disneyland in the fall of 2005, in observance of Disneyland 's 50th birthday, and the 50th anniversary of the TV premiere of The Mickey Mouse Club.
In the 1977 Walt Disney Productions revived the concept, but modernized the show cosmetically, with a disco re-recording of the theme song and a more ethnically diverse group of young cast members. The sets were brightly colored and simpler than the detailed black and white artwork of the original. Like the original, nearly each day 's episode included a vintage cartoon, though usually in color from the late 1930s and onward. The 1977 Mouseketeers were part of the halftime show of Super Bowl XI on January 9, 1977.
Serials were usually old Disney movies, cut into segments for twice - weekly inclusion. Movies included Third Man on the Mountain, The Misadventures of Merlin Jones and its sequel The Monkey 's Uncle (both starring Tommy Kirk), Emil and the Detectives (retitled The Three Skrinks), Tonka (retitled A Horse Called Comanche), The Horse Without a Head (about a toy horse), and Toby Tyler (starring Kevin Corcoran). In addition, one original serial was produced, The Mystery of Rustler 's Cave, starring Kim Richards and Robbie Rist.
Theme days were:
The series debuted on January 17, 1977, on 38 local television stations in the United States, and by June of that same year, when the series was discontinued, about 70 stations in total had picked up the series. Additional stations picked up the canceled program, which continued to run until January 12, 1979; 130 new episodes, with much of the original material repackaged and a bit of new footage added, and a shortened version of the theme song, were produced to start airing September 5, 1977. Since the 1970s, the series has aired only briefly in reruns, unlike its 1950s predecessor, and while both the 1950s and 1989 / 1990s series had DVD releases of select episodes in July 2005, the 1970s series has been largely forgotten including the generation of youthful viewers. On November 20, 1977, "The Mouseketeers at Walt Disney World '' was shown on The Wonderful World of Disney. WGN - TV in Chicago, Illinois also aired this version on a delayed basis in 1977 and 1978 during the Cubs baseball season due to game coverages.
The cast of twelve (5 boys and 7 girls) had a more diverse ethnic background than the 1950s version. Several 1977 -- 1978 cast members went on to become TV stars and other notable icons.
The show 's most notable alumna was Lisa Whelchel (born in 1963, in Littlefield, Texas), who later starred in the NBC television sitcom The Facts of Life before becoming a well - known Christian author and, most recently, overall runner - up, and winner of the $100,000 viewers ' choice award, on the fall 2012 season of the CBS television reality series Survivor. Mouseketeer Julie Piekarski (born St. Louis, 1963) also appeared with Lisa Whelchel on the first season of The Facts of Life. Kelly Parsons (born Coral Gables, Fla., 1964) went on to become a beauty queen and runner - up to Miss USA.
Other Mouseketeers (from seasons 1 -- 2 (1977)) from the 1977 show:
Disney voice actor and sound effects editor Wayne Allwine voiced Mickey Mouse in the animated lead - ins for the show, replacing Jimmy MacDonald, who in 1947 had replaced Walt Disney as the voice of Mickey for theatrical cartoons. Walt Disney had been the original voice of Mickey and for the original 1954 -- 1959 run provided the voice for animated introductions to the original TV show but had died in 1966. Allwine would keep providing the voice for the character up to his death in 2009.
Future rock musician Courtney Love claims to have auditioned for a part on the show, reading a poem by Sylvia Plath; she was not selected.
Former Mouseketeer Annette Funicello and Mouseketeer serial star Tim Considine guest starred in one episode; Former Mouseketeers Darlene Gillespie and Cubby O'Brien were also reunited on a different episode.
The lyrics of the "Mickey Mouse Club March '' theme song were slightly different from the original, with two additional lines: "He 's our favorite Mouseketeer; we know you will agree '' and "Take some fun and mix in love, our happy recipe. ''
A soundtrack album was released with the show.
A new rendition of the "Mickey Mouse Club March '' was made later on in 1999 by Mannheim Steamroller, a contemporary band, in hopes of connecting new - age children and their parents who watched the Mickey Mouse Club.
This incarnation was not distributed by Disney alone; while Disney did produce the series, it was co-produced and distributed by SFM Entertainment, which also handled 1970s - era syndication of the original 1950s series (Disney since regained sole distribution rights).
Reruns of the original The Mickey Mouse Club began airing on The Disney Channel with the channel 's 1983 launch. While the show was popular with younger audiences, The Disney Channel executives felt it had become dated over the years, particularly as it was aired in black - and - white. Their answer was to create a brand - new version of the Club, one geared toward contemporary audiences. Notably, the all - new "club - members '' would wear high - school like Mouseketeer jackets without the iconic Mickey Mouse ears. This show was called The All - New Mickey Mouse Club (also known as "MMC '' to fans).
This version of the series is notable for featuring a number of cast members who went on to international success in music and acting, including Tony Lucca, Chasen Hampton, Britney Spears, Christina Aguilera, Justin Timberlake, JC Chasez, Rhona Bennett, Nikki DeLoach, Keri Russell, and Ryan Gosling.
This was the first version of the club to have any studio audience, though a fairly small group.
Former Mouseketeer Don Grady guest - starred on an episode during the show 's first season. Grady, along with fellow Mouseketeers Annette Funicello, Bobby Burgess, Tommy Cole, Sharon Baird, and Sherry Alberoni were reunited on the 100th episode, during the show 's third season. Funicello would later appear on the show again, in an interview with the Mouseketeer Lindsey Alley.
From the first through fifth seasons, the series aired Monday through Friday at 5: 30pm. Through Season 6, the show aired Monday to Thursday. In its final season, Season 7, it aired Thursdays only at 7: 00pm (later moved a half hour later, to 7: 30pm). The series premiered Monday, April 24, 1989, ended production in October 1994, and aired its last original episode in 1996. Seasons 3 and 5 had the most episodes (55, each season). Seasons 4 and 6 were shorter, having about 35 episodes each. The remaining seasons were a standard 45 episodes (44 in Season 7) each.
The show was known for its sketch comedy. Some of the sketches played off well - known movies, musicals, and even cartoons, as well as holiday - related skits. During the final season, some of the skits showed everyday occurrences experienced by teens, often teaching viewers a lesson on how to handle real - life situations.
The series featured music videos of the Mouseketeers singing their versions of popular songs in front of a live studio audience or in the Walt Disney World Resort. This became one of the most popular segments.
A unique feature of the show was the Mouseketeers performing concerts on certain days (which were usually taped the day before or in the summer, when the kids had more time). During the final season, the concerts were replaced primarily by live performances that featured singing and dancing in front of the audience.
This version maintained the "theme day '' format from the previous two versions. When Disney decided to revamp the show for its final season, the show was reduced to a single weekly airing, shown only on Thursdays. Although still produced as a daily series during the final season taping in 1994, The Disney Channel, after cancelling the series once Season 7 production had concluded, decided to air the final season in a weekly format, therefore stretching the first run episodes into early 1996. The final season premiered in May 1995, almost a year after production had started and 6 + months after the series finale was taped.
Theme days were as follows:
The adult co-hosts for the show were Fred Newman (1989 -- 1993, Seasons 1 - 6)), Mowava Pryor (1989 -- 1990, Seasons 1 -- 3)), and Terri Misner Eoff (1991 -- 1993 (Seasons 4 -- 6)).
The 35 Mouseketeers and the seasons they were featured in:
In 2015, a South Korean version of the show was announced. is The show used major K - POP influences and was co-produced with the S.M. Entertainment agency. The cast have 9 of SM Rookies between the ages of 12 and 16, along Leeteuk from Super Junior hosted the show. 12 episodes are produced. The premise of the show is the same of US shows.
On May 4, 2017, it was announced that Club Mickey Mouse will be created in Malaysia. The format will include musical performances, games and comedy sketches.
The series is hosted by YouTube personality, Charis Ow, and premiered on Disney Channel Asia on September 15, 2017.
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who recorded pick me produce 101 season 1 | Pick Me (song) - wikipedia
"Pick Me '' is a song by contestants of Produce 101. It was released online as a digital single on December 17, 2015 by CJ E&M, along with a music video. It was unveiled for the first time on Episode 453 of M! Countdown that same day. The group was presented by Jang Keun - suk, and 98 out of 101 members showcased their talents through the song.
"Pick Me '' is an electronic dance music song, composed and written by veteran composer Kim Chang - hwan under the pen name Midas - T.
The song was used in the South Korean legislative elections to elect members of the National Assembly.
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when was stopping by woods on a snowy evening written | Stopping by woods on a Snowy Evening - wikipedia
"Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening '' is a poem written in 1922 by Robert Frost, and published in 1923 in his New Hampshire volume. Imagery, personification, and repetition are prominent in the work. In a letter to Louis Untermeyer, Frost called it "my best bid for remembrance ''.
Frost wrote the poem in June 1922 at his house in Shaftsbury, Vermont. He had been up the entire night writing the long poem "New Hampshire '' and had finally finished when he realized morning had come. He went out to view the sunrise and suddenly got the idea for "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening ''. He wrote the new poem "about the snowy evening and the little horse as if I 'd had a hallucination '' in just "a few minutes without strain ''.
The poem is written in iambic tetrameter in the Rubaiyat stanza created by Edward Fitzgerald. Each verse (save the last) follows an a-a-b-a rhyming scheme, with the following verse 's a 's rhyming with that verse 's b, which is a chain rhyme (another example is the terza rima used in Dante 's Inferno.) Overall, the rhyme scheme is AABA - BBCB - CCDC - DDDD.
The text of the poem describes the thoughts of a lone rider (the speaker), pausing at night in his travel to watch snow falling in the woods. It ends with him reminding himself that, despite the loveliness of the view, "I have promises to keep, / And miles to go before I sleep. ''
In the early morning of November 23, 1963, Sid Davis of Westinghouse Broadcasting reported the arrival of President John F. Kennedy 's casket to the White House. As Frost was one of the President 's favorite poets, Davis concluded his report with a passage from this poem but was overcome with emotion as he signed off.
At the funeral of former Canadian prime minister Pierre Trudeau, on October 3, 2000, his eldest son Justin rephrased the last stanza of this poem in his eulogy: "The woods are lovely, dark and deep. He has kept his promises and earned his sleep. ''
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when did the macbook pro touchbar come out | MacBook Pro - Wikipedia
The MacBook Pro (sometimes abbreviated MBP) is a line of Macintosh portable computers introduced in January 2006 by Apple Inc. Replacing the PowerBook G4, the MacBook Pro was the second model to be announced during the Apple -- Intel transition, after the iMac. It is the high - end model of the MacBook family and is currently available in 13 - and 15 - inch screen sizes. A 17 - inch version was available between April 2006 and June 2012.
The first generation MacBook Pro appeared externally similar to the PowerBook G4, but used Intel Core processors instead of PowerPC G4 chips. The 15 - inch model was introduced first, in January 2006; the 17 - inch model followed in April. Both received several updates and Core 2 Duo processors later that year.
The product 's second iteration, known as the "unibody '' model, has a casing made from a single piece of aluminum. It debuted in October 2008 in 13 - and 15 - inch screen sizes. In January 2009, the 17 - inch model was updated with the same unibody design. Subsequent updates brought upgraded Intel Core i5 and i7 processors and introduced Intel 's Thunderbolt technology.
Apple released the third generation of MacBook Pro with a 15 - inch screen during WWDC 2012 and discontinued the 17 - inch variant. The previous generation 13 - and 15 - inch unibody models continued to sell with updated processors. The third generation model was a quarter thinner than its predecessor and introduced the Retina Display with a much higher screen resolution. A 13 - inch variant was released in October 2012.
The fourth generation MacBook Pro was announced on October 27, 2016. It replaced the function keys with an interactive, multi-touch "Touch Bar '' and a Touch ID sensor integrated into the Power button. The 15 - inch notebook started at $2,399, compared to $1,999 for the previous iteration. On 5 June 2017, Apple upgraded the internals of the MacBook Pro, such as enhanced Iris Plus and AMD Radeon graphics, Kaby Lake processors, and added memory. Additionally, the 13 - inch MacBook Pro now comes with a 128GB storage option (down from the base 256GB storage) with a lowered starting price of $1299. All other configurations of the MacBook Pro have the same price as last year, barring the incremental upgrades in processors and graphics.
The original 15 - inch MacBook Pro was announced on January 10, 2006 by Steve Jobs at the Macworld Conference & Expo. The 17 - inch model was unveiled on April 24, 2006. The first design was largely a carryover from the PowerBook G4, but uses Intel Core CPUs instead of PowerPC G4 chips. The 15 - inch MacBook Pro weighs the same as the 15 - inch aluminum PowerBook G4, but is 0.1 inches (0.25 cm) deeper, 0.4 inches (1.0 cm) wider, and 0.1 inches (0.25 cm) thinner. Other changes from the PowerBook include a built - in iSight webcam and the inclusion of MagSafe, a magnetic power connector designed to detach easily when yanked. These features were later brought over to the MacBook. The optical drive was reduced in size in order to fit into the slimmer MacBook Pro, hence it runs slower than the optical drive in the PowerBook G4 and can not write to dual layer DVDs.
Both the original 15 - and 17 - inch model MacBook Pros come with ExpressCard / 34 slots, which replace the PC Card slots found in the PowerBook G4. All first generation 15 - inch models have two USB 2.0 ports and one FireWire 400 port, while the 17 - inch models have three USB 2.0 ports as well as one FireWire 400 port. When first introduced, the MacBook Pro did not come with FireWire 800 or S - Video ports, although FireWire 800 was added in the next 15 - inch model revision and is present in every version of the 17 - inch design. S - Video capability can be attained through the use of a DVI to S - Video adapter. External displays with up to a 2,560 × 1,600 pixel resolution are supported through a dual - link DVI port. All models include a built - in Gigabit Ethernet port, Bluetooth 2.0, and 802.11 a / b / g. Later models include support for the draft 2.0 specification of 802.11 n and Bluetooth 2.1.
Apple refreshed the entire MacBook Pro line on October 24, 2006 to include Intel Core 2 Duo processors. Memory capacity was doubled for each model, to 1 GB on the low - end 15 - inch and 2 GB for the high - end 15 - and 17 - inch models. FireWire 800 was added to the 15 - inch models. Hard drive capacity was increased, although video card options stayed the same. The MacBook Pro line received a second update on June 5, 2007 with new Nvidia Geforce 8600M GT video cards and faster processor options. LED backlighting was added to the 15 - inch model 's screen, and its weight was reduced from 5.6 pounds (2.5 kg) to 5.4 pounds (2.4 kg). Furthermore, the speed of the front - side bus was increased from 667 MHz to 800 MHz. On November 1, 2007, Apple added the option of a 2.6 GHz Santa Rosa platform Core 2 Duo CPU as well as reconfigured hard drive options.
On February 26, 2008, the MacBook Pro line was again updated. LED backlighting was added as an option for the 17 - inch model. Processors were updated to "Penryn '' cores, which are built on the 45 nanometer process (65 nanometer "Merom '' cores were previously used), and hard drive and memory capacities were increased. Multi-touch capabilities, first introduced with the MacBook Air earlier that year, were brought over to the MacBook Pro 's trackpad. When the 15 - inch unibody MacBook Pro was introduced on October 14, 2008, the pre-unibody model with the same screen size was discontinued, while the 17 - inch pre-unibody model continued to be sold. The original case design was discontinued on January 6, 2009, when the 17 - inch MacBook Pro was also updated with unibody construction.
Some reviewers applauded the MacBook Pro for its doubling or tripling the speed of the PowerBook G4 in some areas. For example, the 3D rendering program Cinema 4D XL was 3.3 times as fast (2.3 times faster), and its boot - up time was more than twice as quick. The MacBook Pro generally outperformed the PowerBook G4 in performance analyzer utility tests XBench and Cinebench. Reviewers lauded the screen 's maximum brightness, 67 percent higher than the PowerBook G4; the excellent horizontal viewing angles; the matte options; and the bright, crisp, and true colors. Although the screen offered fewer vertical pixels (1,440 × 900 in the MacBook Pro instead of 1,440 × 960 in the PowerBook), one reviewer called the screen "nothing less than stellar ''. Reviewers praised the new MagSafe power adapter, although one reviewer said it disconnected too easily in some instances. They also praised the backlit keyboard, large trackpad, and the virtually silent operation of the machine. The new laptop also offered better wireless performance.
One reviewer criticized the decision to underclock the ATI Mobility Radeon X1600 graphics card by about 30 percent its original speed. The notebook was also noted for running hot. Users complained that upgrading system memory was harder than in older Apple notebooks. Since the dimensions for the 15 - inch MacBook Pro were tweaked slightly from the 15 - inch PowerBook G4, older accessories such as notebook sleeves did not work with the new models. Some users noted a slight flickering when the screen was on lower brightness settings. Apple increased the battery capacity by 10 Wh, going from 50 in the PowerBook G4 to 60, but the more powerful Core Duo CPU required more power. Battery life therefore remained about the same as in previous models, at three - plus hours.
SuperDrive: 8 × DVD - DL discs reads. 4 × DVD+ / - R & RW recording. 24 × CD - R and 10 × CD - RW recording (optional for 15 - inch) SuperDrive: 4 × DVD + R writes, 8 × DVD+ / - R read, 4 × DVD+ / - RW writes, 24 × CD - R, and 10 × CD - RW recording (17 - inch)
On October 14, 2008, in a press event at company headquarters, Apple officials announced a new 15 - inch MacBook Pro featuring a "precision aluminum unibody enclosure '' and tapered sides similar to those of the MacBook Air. Designers shifted the MacBook Pro 's ports to the left side of the case, and moved the optical disc drive slot from the front to the right side, similar to the MacBook. The new MacBook Pros had two video cards, which the user could switch between: the Nvidia GeForce 9600M GT with either 256 or 512 MB of dedicated memory and a GeForce 9400M with 256 MB of shared system memory. Although the FireWire 400 port was removed, the FireWire 800 port was retained. The DVI port was replaced with a Mini DisplayPort receptacle. The original unibody MacBook Pro came with a user - removable battery; Apple claimed five hours of use, with one reviewer reporting results closer to four on a continuous video battery stress test. Apple said that the battery would hold 80 percent of its charge after 300 recharges.
The unibody - construction MacBook Pro largely follows the styling of the original aluminum iMac and the MacBook Air and is slightly thinner than its predecessor, albeit wider and deeper due to the widescreen display. The screen is high - gloss, covered by an edge - to - edge reflective glass finish, while an anti-glare matte option is available in the 15 - and 17 - inch models in which the glass panel is removed. The entire trackpad is usable and acts as a clickable button. The trackpad is also larger than the first generation model 's, giving more room for scrolling and multi-touch gestures. When the line was updated in April 2010, inertial scrolling was added, making the scrolling experience much like that of the iPhone and iPad. The keys, still backlit, are now that of Apple 's now - standard sunken keyboard with separated black keys.
During the MacWorld Expo keynote on January 6, 2009, Phil Schiller announced a 17 - inch MacBook Pro with unibody construction. This version diverged from its 15 - inch sibling with an anti-glare "matte '' screen option (with the glossy finish standard) and a non user - removable lithium polymer battery. Instead of traditional round cells inside the casing, the lithium - ion polymer batteries are shaped and fitted into each laptop to maximally utilize space. Adaptive charging, which uses a chip to optimize the charge flow to reduce wear and tear, extends the battery 's overall life. Battery life for the 17 '' version is quoted at eight hours, with 80 percent of this charge remaining after 1,000 charge - discharge cycles.
At Apple 's Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) on June 8, 2009, it was announced that the 13 - inch unibody MacBook would be upgraded and re-branded as a MacBook Pro, leaving only the white polycarbonate MacBook in the MacBook line. It was also announced that the entire MacBook Pro line would use the non user - removable battery first introduced in the 17 - inch MacBook Pro. The updated MacBook Pro 13 - and the 15 - inch would each have up to a claimed seven hours of battery life, while the 17 - inch would keep its eight - hour capacity. Some sources even reported up to eight hours of battery life for the 13 - and 15 - inch MacBook Pros during casual use, while others reported around six hours. Like the 17 - inch MacBook Pro, Apple claims that they will last around 1,000 charge cycles while still containing 80 percent of their capacity. Graphics card options stayed the same from the previous release, although the 13 - inch and the base model 15 - inch, came with only the GeForce 9400M GPU. The screens were also improved, gaining a claimed 60 percent greater color gamut. All of these mid 2009 models also included a FireWire 800 port and all except the 17 - inch models would receive an SD card slot. The 17 - inch model would retain its ExpressCard / 34 slot. For the 13 - inch MacBook Pro, the Kensington lock slot was moved to the right side of the chassis. In August 2009, Apple extended the "matte '' anti-glare display option to the 15 - inch MacBook Pro.
On April 13, 2010, Intel Core i5 and Core i7 CPUs were introduced in the 15 - and 17 - inch models, while the 13 - inch retained the Core 2 Duo with a speed increase. The power brick was redesigned and a high - resolution display (of 1,680 × 1,050) was announced as an option for the 15 - inch models. The 13 - inch gained an integrated Nvidia GeForce 320M graphics processing unit (GPU) with 256 MB of shared memory, while the 15 - and 17 - inch models were upgraded to the GeForce GT 330M, with either 256 or 512 MB of dedicated memory. The 15 - and 17 - inch models also have an integrated Intel GPU that is built into the Core i5 and i7 processors. The 15 - inch model also gained 0.1 pounds (0.045 kg). Save for a third USB 2.0 slot, all the ports on the 17 - inch MacBook Pro are the same in type and number as on the 15 - inch version. All models come with 4 GB of system memory that is upgradeable to 8 GB. Battery life was also extended further in this update, to an estimated ten hours for the 13 - inch and 8 -- 9 hours on the 15 - and 17 - inch MacBook Pros. This was achieved through both greater power efficiency and adding more battery capacity. One reviewer reported about six hours of battery life through a continuous video battery stress test in the 15 - inch and another, who called the battery life "unbeatable, '' reported nearer to eight in the 13 - inch through their "highly demanding battery drain test ''.
Thunderbolt technology, Sandy Bridge dual core Intel Core i5 and i7 (on the 13 - inch model) or quad - core i7 (on the 15 - and 17 - inch models) processors, and a high definition FaceTime camera were added on February 24, 2011. Intel HD Graphics 3000 come integrated with the CPU, while the 15 - and 17 - inch models also utilize AMD Radeon HD 6490M and Radeon HD 6750M graphics cards. Later editions of these models, following the release of OS X Lion, replaced the dashboard (F4) key with a launchpad key. The chassis bottoms are also engraved differently from the 2010 models. The Thunderbolt serial bus platform can achieve speeds of up to 10 Gbit / s, which is up to twice as fast as the USB 3.0 specification, 20 times faster than the USB 2.0 specification, and up to 12 times faster than FireWire 800. Apple says that Thunderbolt can be used to drive displays or to transfer large quantities of data in a short amount of time.
On June 11, 2012, Apple showcased its upgraded Mac notebooks, OS X Mountain Lion, and iOS 6 at the Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) in San Francisco. The new MacBook Pro models were updated with Ivy Bridge processors and USB 3.0 ports, and the default RAM on premium models was increased to 8 GB. Following this announcement, the 17 - inch model was discontinued. After a media event on October 22, 2013 Apple discontinued all second generation MacBook Pros except for the entry - level 2.5 GHz 13 - inch model. Apple discontinued the 13 - inch 2nd generation MacBook Pro on October 27, 2016. Prior to its discontinuation it was Apple 's only product to still include an optical drive and a Firewire port, and only laptop with a hard disk drive and Ethernet port.
Some reviewers praised the new laptop 's performance and compact size, the quality of the screen, and sturdy unibody build, which allowed easier upgrading of internal components as compared to the original models. Some reviewers also noted that the new MacBook Pro ran more quietly and at cooler temperatures than first generation machines. Others, however, criticized the amount of heat generated by the new design.
Reviewers lamented the loss of a matte screen option for the 2008 unibody MacBook Pro, noting the reflectiveness of the screen in sunlight, even when its brightness was turned all the way up. CNET 's Dan Ackerman commented of the mid-2009 models: "According to Apple, the new display offers a wider color gamut, and the screen certainly looks bright and colorful, but we wish the same matte - screen option offered on the 17 - inch MacBook Pro was available across the line... While the LED screen means a thinner lid and some battery life benefits, the edge - to - edge glass covering the entire display panel grabs stray light rays with ease, making the glossy screen hard to see in some lighting conditions. '' By 2011, matte screens were offered for both the 15 '' and 17 '' models. Furthermore, the addition of Mini DisplayPort instead of the more popular HDMI was criticized. The relatively low number of ports and lower end technical specifications when compared to similarly priced laptops from other brands were also bemoaned.
Laptop Magazine 's Michael Prospero praised the 2010 15 - inch model 's display, calling it "bright and crisp ''. He further commented, "While reflections from the glossy display were n't overwhelming, it 's also nice to know there 's an antiglare option -- though only for the higher resolution display. Still, colors were bright, blacks were deep and dark, and viewing angles were excellent both vertically and horizontally. '' He also lauded the quality of the iSight webcam, the responsiveness of the touchpad, the microphone and speakers, as well as the performance of the new CPUs for the 15 '' model and the long battery life. Complaints included the price of the laptop, the low number of USB ports, and the lack of HDMI.
CNET praised the automatic graphics switching features of the 15 - and 17 - inch 2010 models as well as the graphics cards themselves. Acclaim was also given to the Core i5 and i7 CPUs, the multi-touch trackpad, and the addition of audio capabilities to the Mini DisplayPort video output. They also called for the addition of HDMI and the Blu - ray optical disc format, saying that most other computers in the MacBook Pro 's price range possessed these features. CNET also criticized the option of a higher resolution screen in the 15 - inch model, saying that "the higher - resolution screen should be included by default. ''
2.53 GHz (T9400) Intel Core 2 Duo Penryn with 6 MB on - chip L2 cache Optional 2.8 GHz (T9600) with 6 MB on - chip L2 cache
2.8 GHz (T9600) (15 '' and 17 '' only) Intel Core 2 Duo Penryn with 6 MB on - chip L2 cache Optional 3.06 GHz (T9900) with 6 MB on - chip L2 cache (15 '' and 17 '' only)
Since the RAM and the hard drive on some generations of MacBook Pro are user serviceable parts, there are aftermarket modifications to enhance the system with up to 16GB of DDR3 - 1600 RAM (maximum capacity and frequency depend on the hardware in question), 7200 - rpm hard drives or third party SSDs.
Early and Late 2011 models reportedly suffer from manufacturing problems leading to overheating, graphical issues, and eventually complete GPU and logic board failure. A thread was opened on the Apple Support community that reached more than 12,000 posts and 4,000,000 visits (Feb 2015). A similar but nonidentical issue affected iMac GPUs which were later recalled by Apple. The problem was covered by many articles in Mac - focused magazines, starting late 2013 throughout 2014. In August 2014 the law firm Whitfield Bryson & Mason LLP had begun investigating the problem to determine if any legal claim exists. On October 28, 2014, the firm announced that it has filed a class - action lawsuit in a California federal court against Apple. The lawsuit will cover residents residing in both California and Florida who have purchased a 2011 MacBook Pro notebook with an AMD graphics card. The firm is also investigating similar cases across the United States. On February 20, 2015, Apple instituted the "MacBook Pro Repair Extension Program for Video Issues ''. This "will repair affected MacBook Pro systems, free of charge. ''
On June 11, 2012 at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference in San Francisco, Apple introduced the third generation MacBook Pro, marketed as the "MacBook Pro with Retina display '' to differentiate it from the predecessor model. The new model includes Intel 's third generation Core i7 processors (Ivy Bridge microarchitecture), USB 3.0, and a high - resolution 15.4 '' IPS 2880 × 1800 - pixel Retina Display. Other new or changed features include a second Thunderbolt port, a HDMI port, and a thinner MagSafe port, dubbed the "MagSafe 2 ''. Apple introduced a 13 - inch version on October 23, 2012 with specifications similar but slightly inferior to the 15 - inch version 's, such as less powerful processors.
The new models omit Ethernet and FireWire 800 ports, though Apple offers Thunderbolt adapters for both interfaces. They also omit a SuperDrive, making the 15 - inch model Apple 's first professional notebook since the PowerBook 2400c to ship without a built - in optical drive. Instead of a hard disk drive, the new models ship with a solid state drive housed in a proprietary flash module design rather than a 2.5 '' notebook drive. Apple also claims improved speakers and microphones and a new system for cooling the notebook with improved fans. The new case design does not have a Kensington lock slot, so alternative products are required to physically secure the computer.
The Retina models also have fewer user - accessible upgrade or replacement options than previous MacBooks. Unlike in previous generations, the memory is soldered onto the logic board and is therefore not upgradable. The solid state drive is not soldered and can be replaced by users. The battery is glued into place; attempts to remove it may destroy the battery and / or trackpad. The entire case uses proprietary pentalobe screws and can not be disassembled with standard tools. While the battery is glued in, recycling companies have stated that the design is only "mildly inconvenient '' and does not hamper the recycling process.
On February 13, 2013, Apple announced updated prices and processors for the MacBook Pro with Retina Display and increased the RAM of the high - end 15 - inch model to 16 GB.
On October 22, 2013, Apple updated the line with Intel 's Haswell processors and Iris Graphics, 802.11 ac Wi - Fi, Thunderbolt 2, and PCIe - based flash storage. The chassis of the 13 - inch version was slightly slimmed to 0.71 inches (18 mm) to match the 15 - inch model. The lower - end 15 - inch model only included integrated graphics while the higher - end model continued to include a discrete Nvidia graphics card in addition to integrated graphics. Support for 4K video output via HDMI was added but limited the maximum number of external displays from three to two. On July 29, 2014 Apple announced updated prices and processors for the Haswell MacBook Pro with Retina Display.
On March 9, 2015, the 13 - inch model was updated with Intel Broadwell processors, Iris 6100 graphics, faster flash storage, increased battery life, and a Force Touch trackpad. On May 19, 2015, the 15 - inch model was also updated with similarly fast flash storage, increased battery life, the Force Touch trackpad, and an AMD Radeon R9 discrete graphics card on the higher - end model. The higher - end 15 - inch model also added support for dual - cable output to 5120 × 2880 displays. The 15 - inch models were released with the same Intel Haswell processors and Iris Pro graphics as the 2014 models due to a delay in shipment of newer Broadwell quad - core processors.
The Retina Display MacBook Pro largely follows the design of the previous generation with its aluminum enclosure and separated black keys. The most apparent body changes are a thinner chassis and a display with a redesigned hinge and thinner bezel and the removal of the internal optical drive. The power button is moved from the upper right corner of the chassis onto the keyboard, taking the place of the optical disc eject button. At 0.71 inches (18 mm) thick, the 15 - inch model is 25 percent thinner than its predecessor. The model name is no longer placed at the bottom of the screen bezel; instead, it is found on the underside of the chassis, similar to an iOS device. It is the first Macintosh laptop to not have its model name visible during normal use, as every prior laptop had its model name on the screen bezel or keyboard.
The third generation MacBook Pro received positive reviews of the Retina Display, flash storage and power. It was criticized, however, for its high price and lack of an Ethernet port and optical drive. Roman Loyola of Macworld said that the Retina MacBook Pro was "groundbreaking '' and made people "rethink how they use technology. '' He praised the inclusion of USB 3.0 and the slimmer body. Dan Ackerman of CNET commented "I 've previously called the 15 - inch MacBook Pro one of the most universally useful all - around laptops you can buy. This new version adds to that with HDMI, faster ports, and more portability. But it also subtracts from that with its exclusion of an optical drive and Ethernet port, plus its very high starting price. The Pro and Retina Pro are clearly two laptops designed for two different users, and with the exception of all - day commuters who need something closer to a MacBook Air or ultrabook, one of the two branches of the MacBook Pro family tree is still probably the most universally useful laptop you can buy. ''
Joel Santo Domingo of PC Magazine gave the MacBook Pro an "Editor 's Choice '' rating. He praised its "brilliant Retina display, '' the thin design, port selection and speedy storage, and highlighted the expandability via Thunderbolt ports which support up to seven devices each. David Pogue of The New York Times praised the 15 - inch model 's screen, keyboard, sound, start - up time, cosmetics, battery life, storage, and RAM capacity. They criticized the lack of a SuperDrive, pricing, and the MagSafe 2 power connector 's lack of backwards compatibility with the older MagSafe design.
Since the battery is glued in and can not be easily disassembled for recycling (an EPEAT requirement), Apple received criticisms about the machine 's ability to be recycled. Greenpeace spokesman Casey Harrell said Apple "has pitted design against the environment -- and chosen design. They 're making a big bet that people do n't care, but recycling is a big issue. '' Wired also criticized Apple 's recyclability claims, stating "(t) he design may well be comprised of ' highly recyclable aluminum and glass ' -- but my friends in the electronics recycling industry tell me they have no way of recycling aluminum that has glass glued to it like Apple did with both this machine and the recent iPad. ''
The Retina Display on the MacBook Pro have been criticized for "image retention, '' specifically for displays manufactured by LG.
Optional 2.6 GHz (i7 - 3720QM) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache Optional 2.7 GHz (i7 - 3820QM) with 8 MB on - chip L3 cache
Optional 2.9 GHz (i7 - 3520M) dual - core Intel Core i7 Ivy Bridge processor with 4 MB shared L3 cache
Optional 3.0 GHz (i7 - 3540M) dual - core Intel Core i7 Ivy Bridge with 4 MB shared L3 cache
Optional 2.6 GHz (i5 - 4288U) dual - core Intel Core i5 Haswell with 3 MB shared L3 cache Optional 2.8 GHz (i7 - 4558U) dual - core Intel Core i7 Haswell with 4 MB shared L3 cache
Optional 2.8 GHz (i5 - 4308U) dual - core Intel Core i5 Haswell with 3 MB shared L3 cache Optional 3.0 GHz (i7 - 4578U) dual - core Intel Core i7 Haswell with 4 MB shared L3 cache
Optional 2.9 GHz (i5 - 5287U) dual - core Intel Core i5 Broadwell with 3 MB shared L3 cache Optional 3.1 GHz (i7 - 5557U) dual - core Intel Core i7 Broadwell with 4 MB shared L3 cache
Optional 2.5 GHz (i7 - 4870HQ) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache and 128 MB L4 cache (Crystalwell) Optional 2.8 GHz (i7 - 4980HQ) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache and 128 MB L4 cache (Crystalwell)
Optional 2.7 GHz (i7 - 3740QM) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache Optional 2.8 GHz (i7 - 3840QM) with 8 MB on - chip L3 cache
Optional 2.3 GHz (i7 - 4850HQ) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache and 128 MB L4 cache (Crystalwell) Optional 2.6 GHz (i7 - 4960HQ) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache and 128 MB L4 cache (Crystalwell)
Optional 2.5 GHz (i7 - 4870HQ) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache and 128 MB L4 cache (Crystalwell) Optional 2.8 GHz (i7 - 4980HQ) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache and 128 MB L4 cache (Crystalwell)
Apple unveiled fourth generation 13 - and 15 - inch MacBook Pro models during a press event at their headquarters on October 27, 2016. The models introduced the Touch Bar, a multi-touch enabled OLED strip built into the top of the keyboard in place of the function keys. They include a sapphire - glass covered Touch ID sensor at the right end of the Touch Bar which doubles as a power button. The models also introduce a "second - generation '' butterfly mechanism keyboard that provided more travel than the first iteration implemented on the Retina MacBook. The 13 - inch model has a trackpad that is 46 % larger than its predecessor while the 15 - inch model has a trackpad twice as large as the prior generation.
All ports have been replaced with either two or four combination USB - C 3.1 ports that support Thunderbolt 3 and dual DisplayPort 1.2 signals, any of which can be used for charging. The MacBook Pro is incompatible with some older Thunderbolt 3 certified peripherals, including Intel 's own reference design for Thunderbolt 3 devices. Furthermore, MacOS on MacBook Pro blocks certain classes of Thunderbolt 3 compatible devices from working by blacklisting them. Devices using HDMI, previous generation Thunderbolt, and USB will require an adapter to connect to the MacBook Pro. The models come with a 3.5 mm headphone jack, although TOSLINK functionality of older generation MacBook Pros has been removed.
Other updates to the MacBook Pro include dual and quad - core Intel "Skylake '' Core i5 and i7 processors, improved graphics, and displays that offer a 25 % wider color gamut, 67 % more brightness, and 67 % more contrast. All versions are able to output to a 5K display, with the 15 - inch models capable of two. The 15 - inch models include a discrete Radeon Pro 450, 455 or 460 graphics card in addition to the integrated Intel graphics. Additionally, Apple introduced a cheaper lower - end 13 - inch model which lacks the Touch Bar in favor of function keys, and has only two USB - C ports. The flash storage in the Touch Bar models is soldered to the logic board and is not upgradeable, while in the 13 - inch model without Touch Bar, it is removable.
The fourth generation MacBook Pro follows the design of the previous two generations with an all - metal unibody enclosure and separated black keys. A few apparent design changes are a thinner chassis, thinner screen bezel, larger trackpad, the OLED Touch Bar, and shallower butterfly mechanism keyboard with less key separation than the previous models. The speakers grilles have been relocated to the sides of the keyboard on the 13 - inch variant. Tear downs show that the speaker grilles on the 13 - inch model with Touch Bar are "largely cosmetic '', and that sound output mostly comes through the side vents. The fourth generation MacBook Pro comes in two finishes, the traditional silver color and a darker "space gray '' color. The MacBook Pro model name returns to the bottom of the screen bezel in Apple 's San Francisco font after being absent from the third generation. Similar to the Retina MacBook, the new models replace the backlit Apple logo on the rear of the screen with a glossy opaque version.
MagSafe, a magnetic charging connector, has been replaced with USB - C charging. Unlike MagSafe, which provided an indicator light within the user 's field of view to indicate the device 's charging status, the USB - C charger has no visual indicator. Instead, the MacBook Pro emits a chime when connected to power. The Macintosh startup chime that has been used since the first Macintosh in 1984 is now disabled by default. The laptop now boots automatically when the lid is opened.
The 2016 MacBook Pro received mixed reviews. Ars Technica noted that the keyboard was a "drastic departure '' from previous MacBook Pro keyboards, being a second - generation version of the keyboard used in the Retina MacBook. It further noted that resting palms may brush the trackpad occasionally causing inadvertent cursor jumps onscreen as the laptop interprets this as input, without one 's hands or wrists actually resting on it. Also noted was an increase of bandwidth and approximately 40 percent increased read speed of the flash storage. Engadget praised the thinner, lighter design, improved display and audio, and increased speed of the graphics and flash storage, but criticized the lack of ports and price. Wired praised the display, calling it "the best laptop display I 've ever seen '', as well as praising the Touch Bar, though it criticized the need of adapters for many common connectors. Likewise, The Verge concluded that "using (the new MacBook) is alienating to anyone living in the present. I agree with Apple 's vision of the future. I 'm just not buying it today. ''
Other well - known review outlets, like Engadget, voiced their concerns over Apple "by doing things like removing full - sized USB ports, the memory card reader and even the Function row, Apple seems to forgotten how many of us actually work ''. This goes unison with the wider blogosphere and review scene where foremost the touch bar was criticized for providing a negative impact on a user 's concentration and usability: "The cognitive footprint of direct second screen interactions is significantly higher than that of indirect interactions ''. Other items of critique frequently where non-compatibility between Thunderbolt 2 and 3 devices, frequently unpleasant fan whine noises in idle CPU states on the larger screen (15 ") models were reported, where the two integrated fans run all the time by default. Responsible for this behaviour are the Co-Processor powering the touch bar and higher TDP of the stronger CPU models.
The battery life of the new models also received mixed reception, with outlets reporting inconsistent battery life and inaccurate estimates of time remaining on battery by the operating system. Apple addressed the latter by hiding the display of estimated battery time remaining entirely in a macOS update. Consumer Reports did not initially recommend the 2016 MacBook Pro models, citing inconsistent and unpredictable battery life in its lab testing (which involves the consecutive loading of multiple websites). However, Apple and Consumer Reports found that the results had been affected by a bug caused by disabling caching in Safari 's developer tools. Consumer Reports performed the tests again with a patched macOS, and retracted its original assessment.
iFixit gave the models their lowest possible score of 1 out of 10 for repairability, noting that memory, the processor, and flash storage are soldered to the logic board, while the battery is glued to the case. The entire assembly uses proprietary pentalobe screws and can not be disassembled with standard tools.
Optional 2.4 GHz i7 - 6660U, up to 3.4 GHz, 4 MB L3 cache
Optional 3.1 GHz i5 - 6287U, up to 3.5 GHz, 4 MB L3 cache Optional 3.3 GHz i7 - 6567U, up to 3.6 GHz, 4 MB L3 cache
Optional 2.9 GHz i7 - 6920HQ, up to 3.8 GHz, 8 MB L3 cache
Optional 2.5 GHz i7 - 7660U, up to 4.0 GHz, 4 MB L3 cache
Optional 3.3 GHz i5 - 7287U, up to 3.7 GHz, 4 MB L3 cache Optional 3.5 GHz i7 - 7567U, up to 4.0 GHz, 4 MB L3 cache
Optional 3.1 GHz i7 - 7920HQ, up to 4.1 GHz, 8 MB L3 cache
Optional 2.9 GHz i7 - 6920HQ, up to 3.8 GHz, 8 MB L3 cache
Optional 3.1 GHz i7 - 7920HQ, up to 4.1 GHz, 8 MB L3 cache
Optional 16 GB RAM configuration available at time of purchase only
Optional 16 GB RAM configuration available at time of purchase only
AMD Radeon Pro 450 with 2 GB of GDDR5 memory and automatic graphics switching (2.6 GHz) Configurable to Radeon Pro 455 with 2 GB of GDDR5 memory, or Pro 460 with 4 GB of GDDR5 memory
AMD Radeon Pro 555 with 2 GB of GDDR5 memory and automatic graphics switching (2.8 GHz) Configurable to Radeon Pro 560 with 4 GB of GDDR5 memory
AMD Radeon Pro 455 with 2 GB of GDDR5 memory and automatic graphics switching (2.7 GHz) Configurable to Radeon Pro 460 with 4 GB of GDDR5 memory
AMD Radeon Pro 560 with 4 GB of GDDR5 memory and automatic graphics switching (2.9 GHz)
The macOS operating system has been pre-installed on all MacBook Pros since release, starting with version 10.4. 4 (Tiger). Along with OS X, iLife has also shipped with all systems, beginning with iLife ' 06.
The MacBook Pro comes with the successor to BIOS, Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) 1.1. EFI handles booting differently from BIOS - based computers, but provides backwards compatibility, allowing dual and triple boot configurations. In addition to OS X, the Microsoft Windows operating system is installable on Intel x86 - based Apple computers. Officially, this is limited to both 32 - bit and 64 - bit versions of Windows XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10 with the necessary hardware drivers included with the Boot Camp software. Other x86 operating systems such as Linux are also unofficially supported. This is made possible by the presence of the Intel architecture as provided by the CPU and the BIOS emulation Apple has provided on top of EFI.
As the MacBook Pro uses a different hardware platform from earlier PowerPC (PPC) - based Macintoshes, versions of OS X prior to Lion can run PPC applications only via the Rosetta emulator, which exacts some performance penalty, can not emulate some lower - level PPC code, and does not support 64 - bit (G5 specific) PPC features. Rosetta is not present in Lion and later, so PPC applications can not be run under those versions of OS X.
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where is a georgia concealed carry permit valid | Gun laws in Georgia - wikipedia
Gun laws in the state of Georgia regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the state of Georgia in the United States. It does not however affect the laws of other states. The Georgia Constitution, like many other state constitutions, guarantees to its citizen the right to keep and bear arms. Article one, section one, paragraph VII of the Georgia Constitution states: "The right of the People to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed, but the General Assembly shall have the power to prescribe the manner in which arms may be borne. ''
On June 8, 2010, Senate Bill 308 was signed by Governor Sonny Perdue reforming and clarifying many of Georgia 's Gun Laws, while leaving certain restrictions in place.
Georgia is a "shall issue '' state, with the Georgia Weapons Carry License application to be submitted through the probate court of the county of residence.
Georgia reciprocates in recognizing firearms licenses with the following states: Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, New Hampshire, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.
South Carolina H3799 was signed by Gov Haley on June 3, 2016, allowing reciprocity with Georgia CCW permits.
There are a number of ways a firearm can be carried without a permit. No permit is needed:
State preemption laws prohibit localities from regulating the ownership, transportation, and possession of firearms. Georgia also has a law preventing localities from enacting ordinances or lawsuits to classify gun ranges as nuisances. This means that local parks, offices, etc. of non-Federal government agencies may not prohibit those with a valid Georgia Weapons License from carrying. Federal regulations continue to prohibit carrying weapons on Corps of Engineers and US Postal Service property.
Firearm regulations are uniform throughout the state, and a firearms permit is valid throughout the state, in all areas other than in a few specially - defined areas. These specially - defined prohibited areas include:
As exceptions to the above list, a person may keep their firearm in a locked compartment of their vehicle at any of the above places except nuclear power facilities. Also, a person may approach security or management of any of the above places (except schools and nuclear power facilities) and ask them for directions on removing, securing, storing, or temporarily surrendering the weapon.
As of July 1, 2006, Georgia became a "Stand Your Ground '' state, and requires no duty to retreat before using deadly force in self - defense, or defense of others.
Georgia law allows private firearm sales between residents without requiring any processing through an FFL.
A Kennesaw, GA city ordinance requires that all homeowners own a firearm and ammunition (Sec 34 - 1a). No one has ever been charged with violating this ordinance. An amendment exempts those who conscientiously object to owning a firearm, convicted felons, those who can not afford a firearm, and those with a mental or physical disability that would prevent them from owning a firearm.
As of the 23rd of April, 2014, Georgia 's gun laws were drastically revised when Governor Nathan Deal signed House Bill 60, or the Safe Carry Protection Act, into action. The Safe Carry Protection Act changed many of the currently enacted gun laws in place beforehand.
In 2017, the Georgia legislature passed HB 280, which allows for concealed carry permit holders to carry concealed handguns on public college campuses. Governor Nathan Deal signed it into law on May 4, 2017. The law took effect July 1, 2017 on all University System of Georgia Campuses, including universities, colleges, and trade schools under the University System. Under HB280 any Georgia Weapons Licensee may carry on University System of Georgia property if they are carrying concealed. They may not carry in any dormitory or Greek house owned by the University System, in any athletic venue used for intercollegiate sports, in any daycare facility on campus with limited entry (gated), in any classroom with a currently enrolled high school student, in any private office space, or in any room currently in use for disciplinary proceedings. HB280 does not remove the prohibition against carry on private university and college property under Georgia Law.
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who plays robb starks wife in game of thrones | Oona Chaplin - wikipedia
Oona Castilla Chaplin (ˈuna kasˈtija ˈt͡ʃaplin) (born 4 June 1986), known professionally as Oona Chaplin, is a Spanish actress. Her roles include Talisa Maegyr in the HBO TV series Game of Thrones, The Crimson Field and the series Taboo.
A member of the Chaplin family, she is the daughter of actress Geraldine Chaplin, the granddaughter of acclaimed English filmmaker and actor Charlie Chaplin, and the great - granddaughter of American playwright Eugene O'Neill. She was named after her maternal grandmother Oona O'Neill, Charlie 's wife.
Oona Chaplin was born in Madrid to Anglo - American actress Geraldine Chaplin and Chilean cinematographer Patricio Castilla. Her paternal grandmother is a mapuche Indian. She was named after her maternal grandmother, Oona O'Neill Chaplin. She spent her childhood mostly in Spain, Great Britain, Switzerland, and Cuba, but also travelled often because of her mother 's film career. She started dancing ballet, salsa and flamenco at an early age.
When Chaplin was fifteen, she began studying at Gordonstoun School in Scotland on a drama scholarship. During her time there, she appeared in several school plays, touring the United Kingdom in an adaptation of Romeo and Juliet and impersonating her grandfather in the role of Bottom in an adaptation of A Midsummer Night 's Dream, which was performed at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe. After leaving Gordonstoun, she was accepted to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, from which she graduated in 2007. Oona has a half - brother named Shane from her mother 's previous relationship with film director, Carlos Saura.
Since graduating from RADA, Chaplin has acted in mainly British and Spanish short and feature films. She has played alongside her mother in three feature films: Inconceivable, ¿ Para qué sirve un oso? and Imago Mortis. Chaplin has also had several supporting roles in British and American television. In 2010, she appeared as a Brazilian cage dancer in ITV 's Married Single Other (2010), followed by roles as the wife of one of the main characters, Hector Madden, in the BBC period drama The Hour (2011 -- 2012), as Dr. John Watson 's girlfriend in an episode of BBC 's Sherlock (2012) and as Talisa Maegyr in HBO 's Game of Thrones (2012 -- 2013).
She plays Kitty Trevelyan, a lead character, in the BBC drama The Crimson Field (2014) and Ruth Levinson, wife of Ira Levinson, in The Longest Ride (2015).
Chaplin stars as Zilpha Geary in the eight - part historical fiction series Taboo (2017) on BBC One and FX.
Chaplin joined the cast of James Cameron 's Avatar sequels in June 2017. Her character, named Varang, is described as "a strong and vibrant central character who spans the entire saga of the sequels ''.
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who rescues marius from his icy tomb in the anne rice novel queen of the damned | The vampire Armand - wikipedia
The Vampire Armand (1998) is a horror novel by American writer Anne Rice, the sixth in her The Vampire Chronicles series.
With Lestat still in slumber after his adventures in Memnoch the Devil, the vampire coven is united around the "brat prince '', and the vampire David Talbot takes the opportunity to request that Armand tell David his life story. Armand, who first appeared in Interview with the Vampire (1976), agrees to tell his tale.
Born somewhere in the Russian state of Kiev in the late 15th century, Armand (at this time called Andrei) becomes an icon painter in a monastery. He is forcefully taken out of this life of prayer and devotion by slave traders, who take him to Constantinople and then to Venice, where he is destined to work in a brothel. Soon after his arrival in Venice he is purchased by the vampire Marius de Romanus (whose life story is told in 2001 's Blood and Gold), who names him Amadeo.
In Venice, Marius lives the extravagant life of a respected Renaissance painter, and mentors many boys who serve as his apprentices. Marius provides his apprentices with education, shelter, food, and he assists them in finding respectable positions once they are grown. Life in Marius ' villa is a stark contrast to the poverty, hunger and disease described elsewhere in the city. Over time, Amadeo 's relationship to Marius develops and they become much closer than Marius is with any of the other boys. In addition to developing a sexual relationship, Amadeo sleeps in Marius ' bed, is privy to special privileges, and becomes something of a ' head boy ' in the household. Still, Marius maintains strict control over Amadeo, and expects industriousness from him in all things.
When Amadeo comes of age (the book is not specific, but he is most likely 15 or 16 at this point), Marius begins Amadeo 's education in sexuality and coupling. He takes Amadeo to a brothel, where Amadeo remains for several days. Amadeo later visits a male brothel for several days, and while there makes several observations about the difference in sexual activities with the different genders. There is a distinct bisexuality to Amadeo 's nature, as he enjoys activity with either sex. He later has a brief affair with an Englishman called Lord Harlech. Harlech becomes obsessed with Amadeo, but his love is not returned. During this period, Amadeo also befriends Bianca Solderini, a wealthy debutante and courtesan whose primary role in life seems to be to throw nightly parties. Amadeo ultimately seduces the willing Bianca.
Marius eventually divulges his vampire nature to Amadeo, who almost immediately begins asking to be made a vampire. Marius shows Amadeo some of what it means to be immortal, and allows him to join him in the hunt on several occasions. He tells Amadeo that they must always focus on killing evildoers. They assist Bianca by murdering her kinsmen who force her to poison those from whom they have borrowed money.
Eventually, on a night when Marius is out of the country, Lord Harlech breaks into Marius 's palazzo and attacks Amadeo, murdering two apprentices in the process. Amadeo kills Harlech, but not before the Englishman wounds him with a poisoned sword. Amadeo falls critically ill, and over several days falls into fever and delusions. Upon returning and finding Amadeo on his deathbed, Marius heals Amadeo 's external wounds, cleans and grooms him, then gives him the Dark Gift, turning him into a vampire. It is revealed in Queen of the Damned that he was 17 at the time of his change.
Marius sets out to train Amadeo, and sets up a coffin in a secret basement with his own. Marius retains high expectations of Amadeo, and forces him to continue his education in the arts. Amadeo 's transition to vampire is relatively easy for him, although the Dark Gift brings about nightmares of his childhood. Marius and Amadeo return to Russia, where Amadeo visits his old school and home. He finds his elderly mother and father there, reveals that he is alive, and says farewell to them, leaving them with all the money and jewels he has with him. This is generally a happy reunion, as Amadeo is able to let go of his mortal background and his parents are able to see that their beloved son is alive (so to speak) and thriving. Though this reunion allows Amadeo to let go of his mortal background, discovering that his father is alive (Amadeo believed he was dead) and a drunkard hurts him deeply.
Shortly after returning to Venice, the vampire Santino and his coven (the "Children of Darkness '') attack Marius ' home, kidnap Amadeo and the apprentices, and burn the villa. Marius is burned and thought to be destroyed; his boys are taken to a bonfire that the coven has created and thrown in one by one as Amadeo watches. Santino spares Amadeo and educates him in the laws of the Coven. Amadeo later goes to Paris, changes his name to Armand, and creates his own coven under the Cimetière des Innocents, which Lestat would years later drastically impact thus resulting in the creation of the Théâtre des Vampires (featured in the earlier novel Interview with the Vampire).
Armand also shares with David his version of some of the events recounted by Louis de Pointe du Lac in Interview with the Vampire: the end of the Théâtre des Vampires and the time that Armand and Louis shared together. The book also chronicles Armand 's feelings about several of the major vampire characters from the previous books. It is also revealed that Armand thinks he saw Bianca in Paris in the 19th century, and has wondered ever since if Marius made her a vampire.
In the final segment of the book, Armand explains what occurred to him after the final chapters of Memnoch the Devil. At the end of Memnoch the Devil, Armand rushes into the open daylight and appears to be destroyed in a conflagration. Armand explains to David that by some means beyond his understanding he survived, and ended up on a rooftop in a stairwell protected from further exposure to the sun. However, he is badly burned and unable to move or fully function. While in this delirious state, he makes a mental connection to two children in a nearby apartment -- Sybelle and Benji. The connection is forged through Sybelle 's constant piano playing.
Eventually, Armand is able to reach out to the children and lead them to him. They believe he is an angel, but are moderately unsurprised when Armand divulges his true nature to them. Armand can not hunt, so the two agree to trick a drug dealer up to the apartment so that Armand may feed on him. The plan works, and ultimately Armand is fully healed. He becomes friends with Sybelle and Benji and ultimately falls in love with them, showing to a certain degree a lolita complex. He shares his wealth with them without limit, mirroring the relationship Marius had with him to a certain degree.
Armand brings them to see Lestat, which he has some concerns about since vampires are traditionally not safe for mortals to be around. After trying to wake Lestat from his catatonic state, Armand returns to Marius 's house to discover that Marius has given Benji and Sybelle the Dark Gift. Armand is at first furious at Marius because he wanted Sybelle and Benji to have full, mortal lives. The fact that Benji is ecstatic about the prospect of eternal life, only serves to fuel his anger. Marius explains to Armand that he did it since Armand never could without the two coming to hate him for it. Marius is willing to take the burden of Sybelle and Benji 's eventual anger.
Like many of Rice 's novels, The Vampire Armand deals with various aspects of human sexuality. Although the vampires themselves can not procreate, they do have a sexuality about them and practice their version of homosexuality, bisexuality and sadomasochism. Such seems to be a recurrent theme throughout Anne Rice 's books, as well as pederasty, as Armand is just past puberty when Marius first takes him as a lover. Another example, is instances where Armand is visiting brothels, and gives a detailed description of the "pleasure '' he obtained at the hands of "beautiful boys ''. The mortal human characters are also largely portrayed as bisexual, both in the medieval and modern day periods covered in the novel.
Sex is used throughout the novel as both a reward and a punishment, and to a large extent drives some of the conflict between characters. An example of such a relationship is that between Marius and Armand. There are also recurrent themes of BDSM within the novel, as well as disambiguous references to "sleeping beauty '' awakening from her slumber, perhaps a reference to Rice 's The Sleeping Beauty Quartet.
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when was the lost colony of roanoke founded | Roanoke Colony - wikipedia
The Roanoke Colony (/ ˈroʊəˌnoʊk /), also known as the Lost Colony, was established in 1585 on Roanoke Island in what is today 's Dare County, North Carolina. It was a late 16th - century attempt by Queen Elizabeth I to establish a permanent English settlement in North America. The colony was founded by Sir Walter Raleigh.
The colonists disappeared during the Anglo - Spanish War, three years after the last shipment of supplies from England. Their disappearance gave rise to the nickname "The Lost Colony ''. There is no conclusive evidence as to what happened to the colonists.
The enterprise was originally financed and organized by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who drowned in 1583 returning from a voyage to the fishing settlement at St. John 's, Newfoundland. Sir Humphrey Gilbert 's half - brother Sir Walter Raleigh later gained his brother 's charter from the Queen and subsequently executed the details of the charter through his delegates Ralph Lane and Richard Grenville, Raleigh 's distant cousin.
On March 25, 1584, Queen Elizabeth I granted Raleigh a charter for the colonization of the area of North America. This charter specified that Raleigh needed to establish a colony in North America, or lose his right to colonization.
The Queen and Raleigh intended that the venture should provide riches from the New World. The queen 's charter said that Raleigh was supposed to "discover, search, find out, and view such remote heathen and barbarous Lands, Countries, and territories... to have, hold, occupy, and enjoy ''.
The queen 's charter also said that Raleigh was supposed to establish a base from which to send privateers on raids against the treasure fleets of Spain. The purpose of these raids was to tell Spain that England was ready for war. The original charter basically told Raleigh to establish a military base to counteract the activities of the Spaniards. Raleigh himself never visited North America, although he led expeditions in 1595 and 1617 to South America 's Orinoco River basin in search of the legendary golden city of El Dorado.
On April 27, 1584, Raleigh dispatched an expedition led by Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe to explore the eastern coast of North America. They arrived on Roanoke Island on July 4 and soon established relations with the local natives, the Secotans and Croatans. Barlowe returned to England with two Croatans named Manteo and Wanchese, who were able to describe the politics and geography of the area to Raleigh. Based on the information given, Raleigh organized a second expedition, to be led by Sir Richard Grenville.
Grenville 's fleet departed Plymouth on April 9, 1585, with five main ships: Tiger (Grenville 's), Roebuck, Red Lion, Elizabeth, and Dorothy. A severe storm off the coast of Portugal separated Tiger from the rest of the fleet. The captains had a contingency plan if they were separated, which was to meet up again in Puerto Rico, and Tiger arrived in the "Baye of Muskito '' (Guayanilla Bay) on May 11.
While waiting for the other ships, Grenville established relations with the resident Spanish while simultaneously engaging in some privateering against them. He also built a fort. Elizabeth arrived soon after the fort 's construction. Grenville eventually tired of waiting for the remaining ships and departed on June 7. The fort was abandoned, and its location remains unknown.
Tiger sailed through Ocracoke Inlet on June 26, but it struck a shoal, ruining most of the food supplies. The expedition succeeded in repairing the ship and, in early July, reunited with Roebuck and Dorothy, which had arrived in the Outer Banks with Red Lion some weeks previous. Red Lion had dropped off its passengers and left for Newfoundland for privateering.
During the initial exploration of the mainland coast and the native settlements, the Europeans blamed the natives of the village of Aquascogoc for stealing a silver cup. As retaliation, the settlers sacked and burned the village. English writer and courtier Richard Hakluyt 's contemporaneous reports also describe this incident. (Hakluyt 's reports of the first voyage to Roanoke were compiled from accounts by various financial backers, including Sir Walter Raleigh. Hakluyt himself never traveled to the New World.)
Despite this incident and a lack of food, Grenville decided to leave Ralph Lane and 107 men to establish a colony at the north end of Roanoke Island, promising to return in April 1586 with more men and fresh supplies. The group disembarked on August 17, 1585, and built a small fort on the island. There are no surviving renderings of the Roanoke fort, but it was likely similar in structure to the one in Guayanilla Bay. Grenville in the Tiger on only his seventh day of sail captured (after a three - day battle) a rich Spanish galleon, Santa Maria de San Vicente off Bermuda which he took with him as a prize back to England.
As April 1586 passed, there was no sign of Grenville 's relief fleet. Meanwhile, in June, bad blood resulted from the destruction of the village, and this spurred an attack on the fort by the local Native Americans, which the colonists were able to repel. Soon after the attack, Sir Francis Drake was on his way home from a successful raid in the Caribbean, and he stopped at the colony and offered to take the colonists back to England. Several accepted, including metallurgist Joachim Gans. On this return voyage, the Roanoke colonists introduced tobacco, maize, and potatoes to England. The relief fleet arrived shortly after Drake 's departure with the colonists. Finding the colony abandoned, Grenville returned to England with the bulk of his force, leaving behind a small detachment of fifteen men both to maintain an English presence and to protect Raleigh 's claim to Roanoke Island.
In 1587, Raleigh dispatched a new group of 115 colonists to establish a colony on Chesapeake Bay. They were led by John White, an artist and friend of Raleigh who had accompanied the previous expedition to Roanoke, and was appointed governor of the 1587 colony. White and Raleigh named 12 assistants to aid in the settlement. They were ordered to stop at Roanoke to pick up the small contingent left there by Grenville the previous year, but when they arrived on July 22, 1587, they found nothing except a skeleton that may have been the remains of one of the English garrison.
When they could find no one, the master pilot Simon Fernandez refused to let the colonists return to the ships, insisting that they establish the new colony on Roanoke. His motives remain unclear, however, and new evidence offered by author Brandon Fullam indicates not only that Fernandez had good reason for his actions, but that the decision to alter the Chesapeake Bay destination had already been agreed to prior to their arrival at Roanoke.
White re-established relations with the Croatan and other local tribes, but those with whom Lane had fought previously refused to meet with him. Shortly thereafter, colonist George Howe was killed by a native while searching alone for crabs in Albemarle Sound.
The colonists persuaded Governor White to return to England to explain the colony 's desperate situation and ask for help. Left behind were about 115 colonists -- the remaining men and women who had made the Atlantic crossing plus White 's newly born granddaughter Virginia Dare, the first English child born in the Americas.
White sailed for England in late 1587, although crossing the Atlantic at that time of year was a considerable risk. Plans for a relief fleet were delayed first by the captain 's refusal to return during the winter, and then the attack on England of the Spanish Armada and the subsequent Anglo - Spanish War. Every able English ship joined the fight, leaving White without a means to return to Roanoke at the time. In the spring of 1588, White managed to acquire two small vessels and sailed for Roanoke; however, his attempt to return was thwarted when the captains of the ships attempted to capture several Spanish ships on the outward - bound voyage (in order to improve their profits). They themselves were captured and their cargo seized. With nothing left to deliver to the colonists, the ships returned to England.
Because of the continuing war with Spain, White was unable to mount another resupply attempt for an additional three years. He finally gained passage on a privateering expedition organised by John Watts and Walter Raleigh. They agreed to stop off at Roanoke on the way back after raiding the Spanish in the Caribbean. White landed on August 18, 1590, on his granddaughter 's third birthday, but found the settlement deserted. His men could not find any trace of the 90 men, 17 women, and 11 children, nor was there any sign of a struggle or battle.
The only clue was the word "CROATOAN '' carved into a post of the fence around the village, and the letters C-R-O carved into a nearby tree. All the houses and fortifications had been dismantled, which meant that their departure had not been hurried. Before he had left the colony, White instructed the colonists that, if anything happened to them, they should carve a Maltese cross on a tree nearby, indicating that their absence had been forced. There was no cross, and White took this to mean that they had moved to Croatoan Island (now known as Hatteras Island), but he was unable to conduct a search. A massive storm was forming and his men refused to go any farther; the next day, they left.
Born in 1560, Thomas Harriot entered Raleigh 's employment in the early 1580s, after graduating from the University of Oxford. Harriot may have been among the men of Arthur Barlowe 's 1584 expedition of the colony. He trained the members of Raleigh 's first Roanoke expedition in navigational skills and eventually sailed to Roanoke with the second group of settlers, where his skills as a naturalist became particularly important along with those of painter and settlement leader John White.
Between their arrival in Roanoke in April 1585 and the July 1586 departure, Harriot and White both conducted detailed studies of the Roanoke area, with Harriot compiling his samples and notes into several notebooks that did not survive the colony 's disappearance. Harriot also wrote descriptions of the surrounding flora and fauna of the area, which survive in his work A Brief and True Report of the New Founde Land of Virginia, written as a report on the colony 's progress to the English government on the request of Raleigh. Viewed by modern historians as propaganda for the colony, this work has become vastly important to Roanoke 's history due to Harriot 's observations on wildlife as well as his depictions of Indian activities at the time of the colony 's disappearance.
Harriot reports that relations between the Roanoke Indians and the English settlers were mutually calm and prosperous, contradicting other historical evidence that catalogs the bloody struggles between the Roanoke Indians and both of Raleigh 's commanders, Sir Richard Grenville and his successor, Ralph Lane. Harriot recounts little to none of these accounts in his report to England and does not mention the disorderly state of the colony under either Grenville 's or Lane 's tenure, correctly assuming these facts would prevent Roanoke from gaining more settlers. Harriot 's text did not reach England, or the English press, until 1588, by which time the fate of the "Lost Colony '' was sealed in all but name.
Twelve years went by before Raleigh decided to find out what happened to his colony. Led by Samuel Mace, this 1602 expedition differed from previous voyages in that Raleigh bought his own ship and guaranteed the sailors ' wages so that they would not be distracted by privateering. However, Raleigh still hoped to make money from the trip, and Mace 's ship landed in the Outer Banks to gather aromatic woods or plants such as sassafras that would generate a decent profit back in England. By the time they could turn their attention to the colonists, the weather had turned bad and they were forced to return without even making it to Roanoke Island. By this time, having been arrested for treason, Raleigh was unable to send any further missions.
There was one final expedition in 1603 led by Bartholomew Gilbert with the intention of finding Roanoke colonists. Their intended destination was Chesapeake Bay, but bad weather forced them to land in an unspecified location near there. The landing team, including Gilbert himself, was killed by a group of Native Americans for unknown reasons on July 29. The remaining crew were forced to return to England empty - handed.
Meanwhile, the Spanish had different reasons for wanting to find the colony. Knowing of Raleigh 's plans to use Roanoke as a base for privateering, they were hoping to destroy it. Moreover, they had been getting mostly inaccurate reports of activities there, and they imagined the colony to be far more successful than it actually was.
In 1590, they found the remnants of the colony purely by accident, but assumed it was only an outlying base of the main settlement, which they believed was in the Chesapeake Bay area (John White 's intended location). But just as the Anglo - Spanish War prevented White from returning in a timely manner, Spanish authorities in the New World could not muster enough support back home for such a venture.
Once the Jamestown settlement was established in 1607, efforts were undertaken by the English to acquire information from the Powhatan tribe about Roanoke. The first definitive information concerning the fate of the Lost Colony came from Captain John Smith, leader of the Jamestown Colony from 1608 to 1609. According to chronicler Samuel Purchas, Smith learned from Chief Powhatan that he had personally conducted the slaughter of the Roanoke colonists just prior to the arrival of the Jamestown settlers because they were living with the Chesepians, a tribe living in the eastern portion of the present - day South Hampton Roads sub-region who were related to the Pamlico tribe in Carolina and who refused to merge with the Powhatans. This shocking information was reported to England and by the spring of 1609, King James and the Royal Council were convinced that Chief Powhatan was responsible for the slaughter of the Lost Colony.
The second source of Chief Powhatan 's involvement was William Strachey, Secretary of the Jamestown colony in 1610 -- 11. Strachey 's The Historie of Travaile Into Virginia Britannia seemed to confirm Smith 's report and provided additional information: the colonists had been living peacefully among a group of natives beyond Powhatan 's domain for more than twenty years when they were massacred. Furthermore, Powhatan himself seemed to have directed the slaughter because of prophecies by his priests that he would be overthrown by people from that area, and he reportedly produced several English - made iron implements to back his claim.
The information from these two sources, John Smith and William Strachey, provides the basis for the traditional view that the Lost Colony was slaughtered by Chief Powhatan, and versions of the Powhatan - Lost Colony - slaughter scenario have persisted for more than 400 years. However, no bodies were found and no archaeological evidence has been found to support this claim.
Furthermore, recent re-examination of the Smith and Strachey sources advanced by author and researcher Brandon Fullam has suggested that the massacre described by Powhatan was actually of the 15 people left behind by the first Roanoke expedition, leaving the fate of the second colony still unknown.
As per Smith 's and Strachey 's reports, Dr. David Beers Quinn theorized that the colonists moved north to integrate with the Chesepians that Chief Powhatan claimed to have killed. To make the journey northward, Quinn believed that they used the pinnace and other small boats to transport themselves and their belongings. Naturally, if that were the mode of transportation, the colonists could have gone to live in other locations as well.
In her 2000 book Roanoke: Solving the Mystery of the Lost Colony, historian Lee Miller postulated that some of the Lost Colony survivors sought shelter with the Chowanoke, who were attacked by another tribe, identified by the Jamestown Colony as the "Mandoag '' (an Algonquian name commonly given to enemy nations). The Mandoag are believed to be either the Tuscarora, an Iroquois - speaking tribe, or the Eno, also known as the Wainoke.
The so - called "Zuniga Map '' (named for Pedro de Zúñiga, the Spanish ambassador to England, who had secured a copy and passed it on to Philip III of Spain), drawn about 1607 by the Jamestown settler Francis Nelson, also gives credence to this claim. The map states "four men clothed that came from roonock '' were living in an Iroquois site on the Neuse. William Strachey wrote that, at the Indian settlements of Peccarecanick and Ochanahoen, there were reportedly two - story houses with stone walls. The Indians supposedly had learned how to build them from the Roanoke settlers. In both cases, as stated above, it is equally possible that these were survivors of Chief Powhatan 's attack on the first Jamestown colonists.
There were also reported sightings of European captives at various Indian settlements during the same time period. Strachey wrote in 1612 that four English men, two boys and one girl had been sighted at the Eno settlement of Ritanoc, under the protection of a chief called Eyanoco. Strachey reported that the captives were forced to beat copper and that they had escaped the attack on the other colonists and fled up the Chaonoke river, the present - day Chowan River in Bertie County, North Carolina.
John Lawson wrote in his 1709 work A New Voyage to Carolina that the Croatans living on Hatteras Island used to live on Roanoke Island and claimed to have white ancestors:
A farther Confirmation of this we have from the Hatteras Indians, who either then lived on Ronoak - Island, or much frequented it. These tell us, that several of their Ancestors were white People, and could talk in a Book, as we do; the Truth of which is confirm 'd by gray Eyes being found frequently amongst these Indians, and no others. They value themselves extremely for their Affinity to the English, and are ready to do them all friendly Offices. It is probable, that this Settlement miscarry 'd for want of timely Supplies from England; or thro ' the Treachery of the Natives, for we may reasonably suppose that the English were forced to cohabit with them, for Relief and Conversation; and that in process of Time, they conform 'd themselves to the Manners of their Indian Relations.
From the early 17th century to the middle 18th century, European colonists reported encounters with gray - eyed American Indians who claimed descent from the colonists (although at least one, a story of a Welsh priest who met a Doeg warrior who spoke the Welsh language, is likely to be a hoax). Records from French Huguenots who settled along the Tar River in 1696 tell of meeting Tuscaroras with blond hair and blue eyes not long after their arrival. As Jamestown was the nearest English settlement, and they had no record of being attacked by Tuscarora, the likelihood that the origin of those fair - skinned natives was the Lost Colony is high.
Fred Willard and Phillip MacMullan believe that the colonists along with the Croatans relocated to villages along the Alligator River in an area known as "Beechland '', slightly inland from Roanoke Island. Archeological remains of settlements have been discovered in the area, including coffins with Christian markings on them where there had been no previous record of a grave site, but their hypothesis is mostly based on oral histories and also lacks any definitive evidence.
In the late 1880s, North Carolina state legislator Hamilton McMillan discovered that his "redbones '' (those of Indian blood) neighbors in Robeson County claimed to have been descended from the Roanoke settlers. He also noticed that many of the words in their language had striking similarities to obsolete English words. Furthermore, many of the family names were identical to those listed in Hakluyt 's account of the colony. Thus on February 10, 1885, convinced that these were the descendants of the Lost Colony, he helped to pass the "Croatan bill '', that officially designated the population around Robeson county as Croatan. Two days later on February 12, 1885, the Fayetteville Observer published an article regarding the Robeson people 's origins. This article states:
They say that their traditions say that the people we call the Croatan Indians (though they do not recognize that name as that of a tribe, but only a village, and that they were Tuscaroras), were always friendly to the whites; and finding them destitute and despairing of ever receiving aid from England, persuaded them to leave (Roanoke Island), and go to the mainland... They gradually drifted away from their original seats, and at length settled in Robeson, about the center of the county...
However, the case was far from settled. A similar legend claims that the now extinct Saponi of Person County, North Carolina, are descended from the English colonists of Roanoke Island. However, no documented evidence exists to link the Saponi to the Roanoke colonists.
Other tribes claiming partial descent from surviving Roanoke colonists include the Catawba (who absorbed the Shakori and Eno people), and the Coree and the people who call themselves the Lumbee. Samuel A'Court Ashe was convinced that the colonists had relocated westward to the banks of the Chowan River in Bertie County, and Conway Whittle Sams claimed that after being attacked by Wanchese and Powhatan, the colonists scattered to multiple locations: the Chowan River, and south to the Pamlico and Neuse Rivers.
Another theory is that the Spanish destroyed the colony. Earlier in the century, the Spanish did destroy evidence of the French colony of Fort Charles in coastal South Carolina and then massacred the inhabitants of Fort Caroline, a French colony near present - day Jacksonville, Florida. However, a Spanish attack is unlikely, as the Spanish were still looking for the location of England 's failed colony as late as 1600, ten years after White discovered that the colony was missing.
From 1937 to 1941, a series of inscribed stones were discovered that were claimed to have been written by Eleanor Dare, mother of Virginia Dare. They told of the travelings of the colonists and their ultimate deaths. Most historians believe that they are a fraud, but there are some today who still believe at least one of the stones to be genuine.
In May 2011, Brent Lane of the First Colony Foundation was studying the Virginia Pars Map, which was made by John White during his 1585 visit to Roanoke Island, and noticed two patches where the map had been corrected. The patches are made of paper contemporaneous with that of the map. Lane asked researchers at the British Museum in London, where the map has been kept since 1866, what might be under the patches, sparking a research investigation. On May 3, 2012, at Wilson Library of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, members of the Foundation and representatives of the museum announced the discovery of "a large, square - shaped symbol with oddly shaped corners. '' This symbol, presumed to represent a fort, is visible when the map is viewed on a light box. Some scholars speculate that the colonists relocated to that location, on what is now called Salmon Creek in the Bertie County community of Merry Hill. The Scotch Hall Preserve golf course community was planned on the site, but it has not been fully developed.
The discovery of new information on the map led to more study of artifacts previously found, as well as additional digs in 2012 and 2014.
In 1993, Hurricane Emily caused numerous relics to appear, and David Phelps of East Carolina University later began digging in the area and found evidence the settlers lived with the native people.
In 1998, East Carolina University organized "The Croatoan Project '', an archaeological investigation into the events at Roanoke. The excavation team sent to Hatteras Island uncovered what they believed to be a 10 karat (42 %) gold 16th - century English signet ring, gun flints, and two copper farthings (produced sometime in the 1670s) at the site of the ancient Croatan capital, 50 miles (80 km) from the old Roanoke Colony. Genealogists were able to trace the lion crest on the signet ring to the Kendall coat of arms, and concluded that the ring most likely belonged to one Master Kendall who is recorded as having lived in the Roanoke Colony from 1585 to 1586. If this is the case, the ring represents the first material connection between the Roanoke colonists and the Native Americans on Hatteras Island. However, archaeologist David Phelps did not have the ring tested, and Charles Ewen, who continued Phelps ' work after Phelps retired, had the ring tested and found the ring was brass. Ewen announced his findings in April 2017. Mark Horton of the University of Bristol said he was not convinced that this news proved the ring did not date to the 16th century.
It is also believed that the reason for the extreme deficiency in archaeological evidence is due to shoreline erosion. Since all that was found was a rustic looking fort on the north shore, and this location is well - documented and backed up, it is believed that the settlement must have been nearby. The northern shore, between 1851 and 1970, lost 928 feet (283 m) because of erosion. If in the years leading up to and following the brief life of the settlement at Roanoke, shoreline erosion was following the same trend, it is likely the site of the dwellings is underwater, along with any artifacts or signs of life. Archaeological investigations continue to find tantalizing clues and funding is being sought to continue recent excavations.
In 1998, a team led by climatologist David W. Stahle, of the University of Arkansas and archaeologist Dennis B. Blanton of the College of William and Mary used tree ring cores from 800 - year - old bald cypresses taken from the Roanoke Island area of North Carolina and the Jamestown area of Virginia to reconstruct precipitation and temperature chronologies.
The researchers concluded that the settlers of the Lost Colony landed at Roanoke Island in the summer of the worst growing - season drought in 800 years. "This drought persisted for 3 years, from 1587 to 1589, and is the driest 3 - year episode in the entire 800 - year reconstruction, '' the team reported in the journal Science. A map shows that "the Lost Colony drought affected the entire southeastern United States but was particularly severe in the Tidewater region near Roanoke (Island). '' The authors suggested that the Croatan who were shot and killed by the colonists may have been scavenging the abandoned village for food as a result of the drought.
The Lost Colony of Roanoke DNA Project was founded in 2007 by a group led by Roberta Estes, who owns a private DNA - testing company, in order to solve the mystery of the Lost Colony using historical records, migration patterns, oral histories and DNA testing. The project used Y chromosome, Mitochondrial DNA and Autosomal DNA. As of 2016, they have not yet been able to positively identify any descendants of the colony.
Coordinates: 35 ° 55 ′ 42 '' N 75 ° 42 ′ 15 '' W / 35.928259 ° N 75.704098 ° W / 35.928259; - 75.704098
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The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the upper house, the House of Lords, it meets in the Palace of Westminster. Officially, the full name of the house is: the Honourable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled.
The Commons is an elected body consisting of 650 members known as Members of Parliament (MPs). Members are elected to represent constituencies by first - past - the - post and hold their seats until Parliament is dissolved.
The House of Commons of England evolved in the 13th and 14th centuries. It eventually became the House of Commons of Great Britain after the political union with Scotland in 1707, and assumed the title of "House of Commons of Great Britain and Ireland '' after the political union with Ireland at the start of the 19th century. The "United Kingdom '' referred to was the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 1800, and became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland after the independence of the Irish Free State in 1922. Accordingly, the House of Commons assumed its current title.
Under the Parliament Act 1911, the Lords ' power to reject legislation was reduced to a delaying power. The Government is solely responsible to the House of Commons and the Prime Minister stays in office only as long as he or she retains the support of a majority of the Commons.
Although it does not formally elect the prime minister, the position of the parties in the House of Commons is of overriding importance. By convention, the prime minister is answerable to, and must maintain the support of, the House of Commons. Thus, whenever the office of prime minister falls vacant, the Sovereign appoints the person who has the support of the House, or who is most likely to command the support of the House -- normally the leader of the largest party in the Commons, while the leader of the second - largest party becomes the Leader of the Opposition. Since 1963, by convention, the prime minister is always a member of the House of Commons, rather than the House of Lords.
The Commons may indicate its lack of support for the Government by rejecting a motion of confidence or by passing a motion of no confidence. Confidence and no confidence motions are phrased explicitly, for instance: "That this House has no confidence in Her Majesty 's Government. '' Many other motions were considered confidence issues, even though not explicitly phrased as such. In particular, important bills that form a part of the Government 's agenda were formerly considered matters of confidence, as is the annual Budget. When a Government has lost the confidence of the House of Commons, the prime minister is obliged either to resign, making way for another MP who can command confidence, or to request the monarch to dissolve Parliament, thereby precipitating a general election.
Parliament normally sits for a maximum term of five years. Subject to that limit, the prime minister could formerly choose the timing of the dissolution of parliament, with the permission of the Monarch. However, since the Fixed - Term Parliaments Act 2011, terms are now a fixed five years, and an early general election can only be brought about either by a two - thirds majority in favour of a motion for a dissolution, or by a vote of no confidence that is not followed within fourteen days by a vote of confidence (which may be for confidence in the same government or a different one). By this second mechanism, the government of the United Kingdom can change without an intervening general election. Only four of the eight last Prime Ministers have attained office as the immediate result of a general election; the others have gained office upon the resignation of a Prime Minister of their own party. The latter four were Jim Callaghan, John Major, Gordon Brown and the current Prime Minister Theresa May; these four inherited the office from Harold Wilson, Margaret Thatcher, Tony Blair and David Cameron respectively. In such circumstances there may not even have been an internal party leadership election, as the new leader may be chosen by acclaim, having no electoral rival (as in the case of both Brown and May).
A prime minister may resign even if he or she is not defeated at the polls (for example, for personal health reasons). In such a case, the premiership goes to whoever can command a majority in the House of Commons; in practice this is usually the new leader of the outgoing prime minister 's party. Until 1965, the Conservative Party had no mechanism for electing a new leader; when Anthony Eden resigned as PM in 1957 without recommending a successor, the party was unable to nominate one. It fell to the Queen to appoint Harold Macmillan as the new prime minister, after taking the advice of ministers.
By convention, all ministers must be members of the House of Commons or of the House of Lords. A handful have been appointed who were outside Parliament, but in most cases they then entered Parliament either in a by - election or by receiving a peerage. Since 1902, all prime ministers have been members of the Commons (the sole exception, the Earl of Home, disclaimed his peerage three days after becoming prime minister, and was immediately elected to the House of Commons as Sir Alec Douglas - Home after twenty days in neither House).
In modern times, the vast majority of ministers belong to the Commons rather than the Lords. Few major cabinet positions (except Lord Privy Seal, Lord Chancellor and Leader of the House of Lords) have been filled by a peer in recent times. Notable exceptions are Lord Carrington, who served as Foreign Secretary from 1979 to 1982, and Lord Young, who was appointed Employment Secretary in 1985. Lord Mandelson was appointed Secretary of State for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform in October 2008; he was also briefly a member of neither the Lords nor the Commons while serving in this capacity. The elected status of members of the Commons, as opposed to the unelected nature of members of the Lords, is seen to lend more legitimacy to ministers. The prime minister chooses the ministers, and may decide to remove them at any time; the formal appointment or dismissal, however, is made by the Sovereign.
The House of Commons scrutinises HM Government through "Prime Minister 's Questions '', when members have the opportunity to ask questions of the prime minister; there are other opportunities to question other cabinet ministers. Prime Minister 's Questions occurs once each week, normally for half an hour each Wednesday. Questions must relate to the responding minister 's official government activities, not to his or her activities as a party leader or as a private Member of Parliament. Customarily, members of the Government party and members of the Opposition alternate when asking questions. In addition to questions asked orally during Question Time, Members of Parliament may also make inquiries in writing.
In practice, the House of Commons ' scrutiny of the Government is fairly weak. Since the first - past - the - post electoral system is employed, the governing party often enjoys a large majority in the Commons, and there is often little need to compromise with other parties. Modern British political parties are so tightly organised that they leave relatively little room for free action by their MPs. Also, many ruling party MPs are paid members of the Government. Thus, during the 20th century, the Government has lost confidence issues only three times -- twice in 1924, and once in 1979. However, the threat of rebellions by their own party 's backbench MPs often forces Governments to make concessions (under the Coalition, over foundation hospitals and under Labour over top - up fees and compensation for failed company pension schemes). Occasionally the Government is defeated by backbench rebellions (Terrorism Act 2006). However, the scrutiny provided by the Select Committees is more serious.
The House of Commons technically retains the power to impeach Ministers of the Crown (or any other subject, even if not a public officer) for their crimes. Impeachments are tried by the House of Lords, where a simple majority is necessary to convict. The power of impeachment, however, has fallen into disuse: the House of Commons exercises its checks on the Government through other means, such as No Confidence Motions; the last impeachment was that of Viscount Melville in 1806.
Bills may be introduced in either house, though bills of importance generally originate in the House of Commons. The supremacy of the Commons in legislative matters is assured by the Parliament Acts, under which certain types of bills may be presented to the Queen for Royal Assent without the consent of the House of Lords. The Lords may not delay a money bill (a bill that, in the view of the Speaker of the House of Commons, solely concerns national taxation or public funds) for more than one month. Moreover, the Lords may not delay most other public bills for more than two parliamentary sessions, or one calendar year. These provisions, however, only apply to public bills that originate in the House of Commons. Moreover, a bill that seeks to extend a parliamentary term beyond five years requires the consent of the House of Lords.
By a custom that prevailed even before the Parliament Acts, only the House of Commons may originate bills concerning taxation or Supply. Furthermore, supply bills passed by the House of Commons are immune to amendments in the House of Lords. In addition, the House of Lords is barred from amending a bill so as to insert a taxation or supply - related provision, but the House of Commons often waives its privileges and allows the Lords to make amendments with financial implications. Under a separate convention, known as the Salisbury Convention, the House of Lords does not seek to oppose legislation promised in the Government 's election manifesto. Hence, as the power of the House of Lords has been severely curtailed by statute and by practice, the House of Commons is clearly the most powerful branch of Parliament.
The British Parliament of today largely descends, in practice, from the Parliament of England, although the 1706 Treaty of Union, and the Acts of Union that ratified the Treaty, created a new Parliament of Great Britain to replace the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland, with the addition of 45 MPs and sixteen Peers to represent Scotland. Later still the Acts of Union 1800 brought about the abolition of the Parliament of Ireland and enlarged the Commons at Westminster with 100 Irish members, creating the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
Although popularly considered to refer to the fact its members are commoners, the actual name of the House of Commons comes from the Norman French word for communities - communes.
The current Commons ' layout is influenced by the use of the original St. Stephen 's Chapel in the Palace of Westminster. The rectangular shape is derived from the shape of the chapel. Benches were arranged using the configuration of the chapel 's choir stalls whereby they were facing across from one another. This arrangement facilitated an adversarial atmosphere that is representative of the British parliamentary approach.
The distance across the floor of the House between the government and opposition benches is 3.96 metres, said to be equivalent to two swords ' length.
The House of Commons underwent an important period of reform during the 19th century. Over the years, several anomalies had developed in borough representation. The constituency boundaries had not been changed since 1660, so many towns that were once important but had declined by the 19th century still retained their ancient right of electing two members, in addition to other boroughs that had never been important, e.g. Gatton.
Among the most notorious of these "rotten boroughs '' were Old Sarum, which had only six voters for two MPs, and Dunwich which had largely collapsed into the sea due to coastal erosion. At the same time, large cities such as Manchester received no separate representation (although their eligible residents were entitled to vote in the corresponding county seat). Also notable were the pocket boroughs, small constituencies controlled by wealthy landowners and aristocrats, whose "nominees '' were invariably elected.
The Commons attempted to address these anomalies by passing a Reform Bill in 1831. At first, the House of Lords proved unwilling to pass the bill, but were forced to relent when the prime minister, Lord Grey, advised King William IV to flood the House of Lords by creating pro-Reform peers. To avoid this the Lords relented and passed the bill in 1832. The Reform Act 1832, also known as the "Great Reform Act '', abolished the rotten boroughs, established uniform voting requirements for the boroughs, and granted representation to populous cities, but still retained many pocket boroughs.
In the ensuing years, the Commons grew more assertive, the influence of the House of Lords having been reduced by the Reform Bill crisis, and the power of the patrons reduced. The Lords became more reluctant to reject bills that the Commons had passed with large majorities, and it became an accepted political principle that the confidence of the House of Commons alone was necessary for a government to remain in office.
Many more reforms were introduced in the latter half of the 19th century. The Reform Act 1867 lowered property requirements for voting in the boroughs, reduced the representation of the less populous boroughs, and granted parliamentary seats to several growing industrial towns. The electorate was further expanded by the Representation of the People Act 1884, under which property qualifications in the counties were lowered. The Redistribution of Seats Act of the following year replaced almost all multi-member constituencies with single - member constituencies.
In 1908, the Liberal Government under Asquith introduced a number of social welfare programmes, which, together with an expensive arms race, forced the Government to seek higher taxes. In 1909, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, introduced the "People 's Budget '', which proposed a new tax targeting wealthy landowners. But this measure failed in the heavily Conservative House of Lords, and the government resigned.
The resulting general election returned a hung parliament, but Asquith remained prime minister with the support of the smaller parties. Asquith then proposed that the powers of the Lords be severely curtailed. After a further election in December 1910, the Asquith Government secured the passage of a bill to curtail the powers of the House of Lords after threatening to flood the House with 500 new Liberal peers to ensure the passage of the bill.
Thus the Parliament Act 1911 came into effect, destroying the legislative equality of the two Houses of Parliament. The House of Lords was permitted only to delay most legislation, for a maximum of three parliamentary sessions or two calendar years (reduced to two sessions or one year by the Parliament Act 1949). Since the passage of these Acts, the House of Commons has become the dominant branch of Parliament, both in theory and in practice.
In 1918, women over 30 were given the right to vote, quickly followed by the passage of a law enabling women to be eligible for election as members of parliament at the younger age of 21. The only woman to be elected that year was an Irish Sinn Féin candidate, Constance Markievicz, who therefore became the first woman MP. However, due to Sinn Féin 's policy of abstention from Westminster, she never took her seat.
With effect from the General Election in 1950, various forms of plural voting (i.e. some individuals had the right to vote in more than one constituency in the same election), including University constituencies, were abolished.
Since the 17th century, MPs had been unpaid. Most of the men elected to the Commons had private incomes, while a few relied on financial support from a wealthy patron. Early Labour MPs were often provided with a salary by a trade union, but this was declared illegal by a House of Lords judgment of 1909. Consequently, a resolution was passed in the House of Commons in 1911 introducing salaries for MPs. Government ministers had always been paid.
In May and June 2009 revelations of MPs ' expenses claims caused a major scandal and loss of confidence by the public in the integrity of MPs, as well as causing the first forced resignation of the Speaker in 300 years.
(2017 general election) MPs for constituencies in Northern Ireland MPs for constituencies in Scotland MPs for constituencies in England
Leader of the House Shadow Leader of the House
House of Commons Chamber
Since 1950 each Member of Parliament has represented a single constituency. There remains a technical distinction between county constituencies and borough constituencies, but the only effect of this difference is in the amount of money candidates are allowed to spend during campaigns. The boundaries of the constituencies are determined by four permanent and independent Boundary Commissions, one each for England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. The commissions conduct general reviews of electoral boundaries once every 8 to 12 years, and a number of interim reviews. In drawing boundaries, they are required to take into account local government boundaries, but may deviate from this requirement to prevent great disparities in the populations of the various constituencies. The proposals of the Boundary Commissions are subject to parliamentary approval, but may not be amended. After the next general review of constituencies, the Boundary Commissions will be absorbed into the Electoral Commission, which was established in 2000. As of 2017, the United Kingdom is divided into 650 constituencies, with 533 in England, 40 in Wales, 59 in Scotland, and 18 in Northern Ireland.
General elections occur whenever Parliament is dissolved. The timing of the dissolution was normally chosen by the prime minister (see relationship with the Government above); however, as a result of the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011, Parliamentary terms are now fixed at five years, except in the event of the Commons passing a vote of no confidence or an "early election '' motion, the latter having to be passed by two - thirds majority.
All British elections are held on a Thursday. The Electoral Commission is unsure when this practice arose, but dates it to 1931, with the suggestion that it was made to coincide with market day; this would ease voting for those who had to travel to the towns to cast their ballot.
A candidate for a constituency must submit nomination papers signed by ten registered voters from that constituency, and pay a deposit of £ 500, which is refunded only if the candidate wins at least five per cent of the vote. The deposit seeks to discourage frivolous candidates. Each constituency returns one member, using the first - past - the - post electoral system, under which the candidate with a plurality of votes wins. Minors (that is, anyone under the age of 18), members of the House of Lords, prisoners, and insane persons are not qualified to become members of the House of Commons. To vote, one must be a resident of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and a British citizen, or a citizen of a British overseas territory, of the Republic of Ireland, or of a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. British citizens living abroad are allowed to vote for 15 years after moving from the United Kingdom. No person may vote in more than one constituency.
Once elected, Members of Parliament normally continue to serve until the next dissolution of Parliament. But if a member dies or ceases to be qualified (see qualifications below), his or her seat falls vacant. It is also possible for the House of Commons to expel a member, but this power is exercised only in cases of serious misconduct or criminal activity. In each case, the vacancy is filled by a by - election in the constituency, with the same electoral system as in general elections.
The term "Member of Parliament '' is normally used only to refer to members of the House of Commons, even though the House of Lords is also a part of Parliament. Members of the House of Commons may use the post-nominal letters "MP ''. The annual salary of each member is £ 74,962, effective from 1 April 2016. Members may also receive additional salaries for other offices they hold (for instance, the Speakership). Most members also claim for various office expenses (staff costs, postage, travelling, etc.) and, in the case of non-London members, for the costs of maintaining a home in the capital.
There are numerous qualifications that apply to Members of Parliament. Most importantly, one must be aged at least 18 (the minimum age was 21 until s. 17 of the Electoral Administration Act 2006 came into force), and must be a citizen of the United Kingdom, of a British overseas territory, of the Republic of Ireland, or of a member state of the Commonwealth of Nations. These restrictions were introduced by the British Nationality Act 1981, but were previously far more stringent: under the Act of Settlement 1701, only natural - born subjects were qualified. Members of the House of Lords may not serve in the House of Commons, or even vote in parliamentary elections (just as the Queen does not vote); however, they are permitted to sit in the chamber during debates (unlike the Queen, who can not enter the chamber).
A person may not sit in the Commons if he or she is the subject of a Bankruptcy Restrictions Order (applicable in England and Wales only), or if he or she is adjudged bankrupt (in Northern Ireland), or if his or her estate is sequestered (in Scotland). Previously, MPs detained under the Mental Health Act 1983 for six months or more would have their seat vacated if two specialists reported to the Speaker that the member was suffering from a mental disorder. However, this disqualification was removed by the Mental Health (Discrimination) Act 2013. There also exists a common law precedent from the 18th century that the "deaf and dumb '' are ineligible to sit in the Lower House; this precedent, however, has not been tested in recent years. Jack Ashley continued to serve as an MP for 25 years after becoming profoundly deaf.
Anyone found guilty of high treason may not sit in Parliament until he or she has either completed the term of imprisonment or received a full pardon from the Crown. Moreover, anyone serving a prison sentence of one year or more is ineligible. Finally, the Representation of the People Act 1983 disqualifies for ten years those found guilty of certain election - related offences. Several other disqualifications are codified in the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975: holders of high judicial offices, civil servants, members of the regular armed forces, members of foreign legislatures (excluding the Republic of Ireland and Commonwealth countries), and holders of several Crown offices. Ministers, even though they are paid officers of the Crown, are not disqualified.
The rule that precludes certain Crown officers from serving in the House of Commons is used to circumvent a resolution adopted by the House of Commons in 1623, under which members are not permitted to resign their seats. In practice, however, they always can. Should a member wish to resign from the Commons, he or she may request appointment to one of two ceremonial Crown offices: that of Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds, or that of Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead. These offices are sinecures (that is, they involve no actual duties); they exist solely to permit the "resignation '' of members of the House of Commons. The Chancellor of the Exchequer is responsible for making the appointment, and, by convention, never refuses to do so when asked by a member who desires to leave the House of Commons.
At the beginning of each new parliamentary term, the House of Commons elects one of its members as a presiding officer, known as the Speaker. If the incumbent Speaker seeks a new term, then the House may re-elect him or her merely by passing a motion; otherwise, a secret ballot is held. A Speaker - elect can not take office until he or she has been approved by the Sovereign; the granting of the royal approbation, however, is a formality. The Speaker is assisted by three Deputy Speakers, the most senior of whom holds the title of Chairman of Ways and Means. The two other Deputy Speakers are known as the First and Second Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means. These titles derive from the Committee of Ways and Means, a body over which the chairman once used to preside; even though the Committee was abolished in 1967, the traditional titles of the Deputy Speakers are still retained. The Speaker and the Deputy Speakers are always members of the House of Commons.
Whilst presiding, the Speaker or Deputy Speaker wears ceremonial dress. The presiding officer may also wear a wig, but this tradition was abandoned by a former Speaker, Betty Boothroyd. Michael Martin, who succeeded to the office, also did not wear a wig whilst in the chamber. The current speaker, John Bercow, has chosen to wear a gown over a lounge suit, a decision which has sparked much debate and opposition. The Speaker or deputy presides from a chair at the front of the House. This chair was designed by Augustus Pugin, who initially built a prototype of the chair at King Edward 's School, Birmingham: that chair is called Sapientia, and is where the Chief master sits. The Speaker is also chairman of the House of Commons Commission, which oversees the running of the House, and he or she controls debates by calling on members to speak. If a member believes that a rule (or Standing Order) has been breached, he or she may raise a "point of order '', on which the Speaker makes a ruling that is not subject to any appeal. The Speaker may discipline members who fail to observe the rules of the House. Thus, the Speaker is far more powerful than his Lords counterpart, the Lord Speaker, who has no disciplinary powers. Customarily, the Speaker and the deputies are non-partisan; they do not vote (with the notable exception of tied votes, where the Speaker votes in accordance with Denison 's rule), or participate in the affairs of any political party. By convention, a Speaker seeking re-election to parliament is not opposed in his or her constituency by any of the major parties. The lack of partisanship continues even after the Speaker leaves the House of Commons.
The Clerk of the House is both the House 's chief adviser on matters of procedure and chief executive of the House of Commons. He or she is a permanent official, not a member of the House itself. The Clerk advises the Speaker on the rules and procedure of the House, signs orders and official communications, and signs and endorses bills. He or she chairs the Board of Management, which consists of the heads of the six departments of the House. The Clerk 's deputy is known as the Clerk Assistant. Another officer of the House is the Serjeant - at - Arms, whose duties include the maintenance of law, order, and security on the House 's premises. The Serjeant - at - Arms carries the ceremonial mace, a symbol of the authority of the Crown and of the House of Commons, into the House each day in front of the Speaker, and the Mace is laid upon the Table of the House during sittings. The Librarian is head of the House of Commons Library, the House 's research and information arm.
Like the Lords, the Commons meets in the Palace of Westminster in London. The Commons chamber is small and modestly decorated in green, in contrast to the large, lavishly furnished red Lords chamber. There are benches on two sides of the chamber, divided by a centre aisle. This arrangement reflects the design of St Stephen 's Chapel, which served as the home of the House of Commons until destroyed by fire in 1834. The Speaker 's chair is at one end of the Chamber; in front of it, is the Table of the House, on which the Mace rests. The Clerks sit at one end of the Table, close to the Speaker so that they may advise him or her on procedure when necessary. Members of the Government sit on the benches on the Speaker 's right, whilst members of the Opposition occupy the benches on the Speaker 's left. In front of each set of benches a red line is drawn, which members are traditionally not allowed to cross during debates. Government ministers and the leader of the Opposition and the Shadow Cabinet sit on the front rows, and are known as frontbenchers. Other members of parliament, in contrast, are known as backbenchers. Not all Members of Parliament can fit into the Chamber at the same time, as it only has space to seat approximately two thirds of the Members. It 's always said that there are 427 seats in the Chamber, but according to Sir Robert Rogers, former Clerk of the House of Commons and Chief Executive, that figure is an average or a finger in the wind estimate. Members who arrive late must stand near the entrance of the House if they wish to listen to debates. Sittings in the Chamber are held each day from Monday to Thursday, and also on some Fridays. During times of national emergency, the House may also sit at weekends.
Sittings of the House are open to the public, but the House may at any time vote to sit in private, which has occurred only twice since 1950. Traditionally, a Member who desired that the House sit privately could shout "I spy strangers '' and a vote would automatically follow. In the past, when relations between the Commons and the Crown were less than cordial, this procedure was used whenever the House wanted to keep its debate private. More often, however, this device was used to delay and disrupt proceedings; as a result, it was abolished in 1998. Now, Members seeking that the House sit in private must make a formal motion to that effect.
Public debates are recorded and archived in Hansard. The post war redesign of the House in 1950 included microphones, and debates were allowed to be broadcast by radio in 1975. Since 1989, they have also been broadcast on television, which is now handled by BBC Parliament.
Sessions of the House of Commons have sometimes been disrupted by angry protesters throwing objects into the Chamber from the galleries -- items thrown include leaflets, manure, flour by the group Fathers 4 Justice, and a canister of chlorobenzylidene malonitrile (tear gas). Even members have been known to disturb proceedings of the House. For instance, in 1976, Conservative MP Michael Heseltine seized and brandished the Mace of the House during a heated debate. However, perhaps the most famous disruption of the House of Commons was caused by King Charles I, who entered the Commons Chamber in 1642 with an armed force to arrest five members for high treason. This action was deemed a breach of the privilege of the House, and has given rise to the tradition that the monarch does not set foot in the House of Commons.
Each year, the parliamentary session begins with the State Opening of Parliament, a ceremony in the Lords Chamber during which the Sovereign, in the presence of Members of both Houses, delivers an address outlining the Government 's legislative agenda. The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod (a Lords official) is responsible for summoning the Commons to the Lords Chamber. When he arrives to deliver his summons, the doors of the Commons Chamber are traditionally slammed shut in his face, symbolising the right of the Lower House to debate without interference. He then knocks on the door three times with his Black Rod, and only then is granted admittance, where he informs the MPs that the Monarch awaits them, after which they proceed to the House of Lords for the Queen 's Speech.
During debates, Members may speak only if called upon by the Speaker (or a Deputy Speaker, if the Speaker is not presiding). Traditionally, the presiding officer alternates between calling Members from the Government and Opposition. The Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition, and other leaders from both sides are normally given priority. All Privy Counsellors used to be granted priority; however, the modernisation of Commons procedure in 1998 led to the abolition of this tradition.
Speeches are addressed to the presiding officer, using the words "Mr Speaker '', "Madam Speaker '', "Mr Deputy Speaker '', or "Madam Deputy Speaker ''. Only the presiding officer may be directly addressed in debate; other members must be referred to in the third person. Traditionally, members do not refer to each other by name, but by constituency, using forms such as "the Honourable Member for (constituency) '', or, in the case of Privy Counsellors, "the Right Honourable Member for (constituency) ''. Members of the same party (or allied parties or groups) refer to each other as "my (Right) Honourable friend ''. (A member of the Armed Forces used to be called "the Honourable and Gallant Member '', a barrister "the Honourable and Learned Member '', and a woman "the Honourable Lady the Member ''.) This may not always be the case during the actual oral delivery, when it might be difficult for a member to remember another member 's exact constituency, but it is invariably followed in the transcript entered in the Hansard. The Speaker enforces the rules of the House and may warn and punish members who deviate from them. Disregarding the Speaker 's instructions is considered a breach of the rules of the House and may result in the suspension of the offender from the House. In the case of grave disorder, the Speaker may adjourn the House without taking a vote.
The Standing Orders of the House of Commons do not establish any formal time limits for debates. The Speaker may, however, order a member who persists in making a tediously repetitive or irrelevant speech to stop speaking. The time set aside for debate on a particular motion is, however, often limited by informal agreements between the parties. Debate may also be restricted by the passage of "Allocation of Time Motions '', which are more commonly known as "Guillotine Motions ''. Alternatively, the House may put an immediate end to debate by passing a motion to invoke Closure. The Speaker is allowed to deny the motion if he or she believes that it infringes upon the rights of the minority. Today, bills are scheduled according to a Timetable Motion, which the whole House agrees in advance, negating the use of a guillotine.
When the debate concludes, or when the Closure is invoked, the motion in question is put to a vote. The House first votes by voice vote; the Speaker or Deputy Speaker puts the question, and Members respond either "Aye! '' (in favour of the motion) or "No! '' (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote, but if his or her assessment is challenged by any member or the voice vote is unclear, a recorded vote known as a division follows. The presiding officer, if he or she believes that the result of the voice vote is clear, may reject the challenge. When a division occurs, members enter one of two lobbies (the "Aye '' lobby or the "No '' lobby) on either side of the Chamber, where their names are recorded by clerks. A member who wishes to pointedly abstain from a vote may do so by entering both lobbies, casting one vote for and one against. At each lobby are two tellers (themselves members of the House) who count the votes of the members.
Once the division concludes, the tellers provide the results to the presiding officer, who then announces them to the House. If there is an equality of votes, the Speaker or Deputy Speaker has a casting vote. Traditionally, this casting vote is exercised to allow further debate, if this is possible, or otherwise to avoid a decision being taken without a majority (e.g. voting ' No ' to a motion or the third reading of a bill). Ties rarely occur -- the last one was in July 1993. The quorum of the House of Commons is 40 members for any vote, including the Speaker and four tellers. If fewer than 40 members have participated, the division is invalid.
Formerly, if a member sought to raise a point of order during a division, suggesting that some of the rules governing parliamentary procedure are violated, he was required to wear a hat, thereby signalling that he was not engaging in debate. Collapsible top hats were kept in the Chamber just for this purpose. This custom was discontinued in 1998.
The outcome of most votes is largely known beforehand, since political parties normally instruct members on how to vote. A party normally entrusts some members of parliament, known as whips, with the task of ensuring that all party members vote as desired. Members of Parliament do not tend to vote against such instructions, since those who do so jeopardise promotion, or may be deselected as party candidates for future elections. Ministers, junior ministers and parliamentary private secretaries who vote against the whips ' instructions usually resign. Thus, the independence of Members of Parliament tends to be low, although "backbench rebellions '' by members discontent with their party 's policies do occur. A member is also traditionally allowed some leeway if the particular interests of his constituency are adversely affected. In some circumstances, however, parties announce "free votes '', allowing members to vote as they please. Votes relating to issues of conscience such as abortion and capital punishment are typically free votes.
Pairing is an arrangement where a member from one party agrees with a member of another party not to vote in a particular division, allowing both MPs the opportunity not to attend.
A bisque is permission from the Whips given to a member to miss a vote or debate in the House to attend to constituency business or other matters.
The British Parliament uses committees for a variety of purposes, e.g., for the review of bills. Committees consider bills in detail, and may make amendments. Bills of great constitutional importance, as well as some important financial measures, are usually sent to the "Committee of the Whole House '', a body that includes all members of the Commons. Instead of the Speaker, the chairman or a Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means presides. The Committee meets in the House of Commons Chamber.
Most bills were until 2006 considered by Standing Committees, which consisted of between 16 and 50 members. The membership of each Standing Committee roughly reflected the strength of the parties in the House. The membership of Standing Committees changed constantly; new Members were assigned each time the committee considered a new bill. There was no formal limit on the number of Standing Committees, but usually only ten existed. Rarely, a bill was committed to a Special Standing Committee, which investigated and held hearings on the issues raised. In November 2006, Standing Committees were replaced by Public Bill Committees.
The House of Commons also has several Departmental Select Committees. The membership of these bodies, like that of the Standing Committees, reflects the strength of the parties. Each committee elects its own chairman. The primary function of a Departmental Select Committee is to scrutinise and investigate the activities of a particular government department. To fulfil these aims, it is permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence. Bills may be referred to Departmental Select Committees, but such a procedure is seldom used.
A separate type of Select Committee is the Domestic Committee. Domestic Committees oversee the administration of the House and the services provided to Members. Other committees of the House of Commons include Joint Committees (which also include members of the House of Lords), the Committee on Standards and Privileges (which considers questions of parliamentary privilege, as well as matters relating to the conduct of the members), and the Committee of Selection (which determines the membership of other committees).
The symbol used by the Commons consists of a portcullis topped by St Edward 's Crown. The portcullis has been one of the Royal Badges of England since the accession of the Tudors in the 15th century, and was a favourite symbol of King Henry VII. It was originally a pun on the name Tudor, as in tu - door. The original badge was of gold, but nowadays is shown in various colours, predominantly green or black.
In 1986, the British television production company Granada Television created a near - full size replica of the post-1950 House of Commons debating chamber at its studios in Manchester for use in its adaptation of the Jeffrey Archer novel First Among Equals. The set was highly convincing, and was retained after the production -- since then, it has been used in nearly every British film and television production that has featured scenes set in the chamber. From 1988 until 1999 it was also one of the prominent attractions on the Granada Studios Tour, where visitors could watch actors performing mock political debates on the set. The major difference between the studio set and the real House of Commons Chamber is that the studio set has just four rows of seats on either side whereas the real Chamber has five.
In 2002, the set was purchased by the scriptwriter Paul Abbott so that it could be used in his BBC drama serial State of Play. Abbott, a former Granada Television staff writer, bought it personally as the set would otherwise have been destroyed and he feared it would take too long to get the necessary money from the BBC. Abbott kept the set in storage in Oxford.
The post-1941 Commons Chamber was used in the film Ali G Indahouse, the political satire Restart by Komedy Kollective, about a British prime minister seeking re-election, and was mentioned in the Robin Williams stand - up special Robin Williams Live on Broadway in which he describes it as "like Congress, but with a two drink minimum ''. The pre-1941 Chamber was recreated in Shepperton Studios for the Ridley Scott / Richard Loncraine 2002 biographical film on Churchill, The Gathering Storm.
Coordinates: 51 ° 29 ′ 59.6 '' N 0 ° 07 ′ 28.8 '' W / 51.499889 ° N 0.124667 ° W / 51.499889; - 0.124667
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which of the following jobs is most likely to have an extensive set of feeling rules | Feeling rules - wikipedia
Feeling rules are socially shared norms that influence how people want to try to feel emotions in given social relations. This concept was introduced by sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild in 1979. Hochschild 's 1983 book, "The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling, '' discusses feeling rules in greater depth, especially in the occupational worlds of flight attendants and bill collectors. Hochschild draws on the work of sociologist Erving Goffman as well as labor scholar Harry Braverman to discuss the dramaturgical demands and emotional labor entailed by jobs in the service sector, in which workers must "perform '' certain roles that entail abiding by certain feeling rules (e.g. "friendly and dependable ''). She notes that women are more likely to have such jobs than men, and that analysis of feeling rules may therefore be especially relevant to understanding the gendered dimensions of labor. This work foreshadows themes from her later analyses of women 's work, both paid and unpaid, e.g. in "The Commercialization of Intimate Life '' (2003).
This work is part of the broader sociology of emotions, which notes that socialization plays an important role in how people experience, interpret, and express emotions, including the situations that evoke a range of feelings. All human beings learn certain feeling rules, but these feeling rules may differ widely depending on the society in which one grows up and one 's social position and social identity, including gender and ethnic identity and socio - economic status. Feeling rules are flexible and the ways in which they impinge on one 's experience in different settings influences one 's personality, both in specific contexts (e.g. at work, home, school, or in different social groups) and over time.
Race not only plays an important role in the way that employees act with each other, but also how employees act toward customers based on what race they are associated with. People expect others to behave in a certain manner due to what race they identify or associate with. Race influences and changes the way we see and view others.
Roxana Harlow, a sociologist, conducted extensive research on black colleges and professors. Harlow 's research showed that white college students viewed their professors as "unintelligent '' and "inferior '' simply because of the color of their skin and not the measurement of their knowledge. In a classroom setting, white students were shown to give black professors a hard time and question every statement that their professor made. Whereas, if they were in a classroom with a white professor that had made the same statement that a black professor had made previously, the white professor was not questioned and was viewed as knowledgeable. In spite of this baseless challenge to their authority, the black professor maintained their composure and adhered to the feeling rules demanded by the setting.
In a workplace, feeling rules are established and are expected to be followed, but there is a double standard on the feeling rules applied to the white workers versus black workers.
Due to feeling rules, people of lower status or standing are expected to behave in an ashamed or emotional manner versus a cold or angry manner. By showing that they are ashamed of their current standing, the people of higher status are more likely to help them out and have pity on them versus those who do not show shame or pity for their current state. People respond better to seeing people on the streets asking for money or rambling through trash to find items. People of higher standings respond back by giving that individual of lower status clothes, food, and money. Our generosity is dependent on the manner of the poor individual. A poor individual who acted in an indifferent or prissy manner would not receive any response from the financially stable individual, not because his or her current situation had changed, in fact that person is still the poor individual you saw a few minutes ago, but in fact your demeanor had changed due to feeling rules.
Feeling rules gives people the expectancy that individuals of lower status should act in a pitiful and ashamed manner just because of their standing. Feeling rules affect our status because it dictates how one should act just because of their economic / financial standing.
An experiment was conducted to show how people would react if they saw an ad with a person who was angry about being poor and another person who was shameful about being in poverty. After viewing the ad, people were more willingly to give money to the person who ashamed about being poor versus the person who was angry about being poor. Since the individual who was angry about being in poverty broke the feeling rule of what is expected our people of lower class, little to none donations were received in their favor. People of lower status that displayed no sense of self - pity or dissatisfaction gave people of higher status a harder time to sympathize with them thus proving that expressing shame was more effective and when anger was expressed there was little to no help being provided.
Around the world, males get paid more than females. Feeling rules require men and women to act a certain way, and in fear of breaking that norm, these rules stay in place. Women are associated with being sweet and innocent, whereas men are associated with being tough and strong. People are assigned jobs based on their gender. Since women are usually seen as beings that can control their anger, they are most likely enlisted in jobs that require them to use their looks or charms. Men, who are seen as tough, are usually in jobs that require them to use that toughness or anger in order to deliver some type of means.
Women in traditional and middle - class families rely on men to make or give them money. In response to the men providing, the women in a sense feel as if they have to repay the men back by hugging, kissing or celebrating the man. Since the women do not have the financial capability of repaying the man, the women use emotional means in order to thank or repay the man for what he has provided for them. If the man had provided the money for the woman and she in return did not act by hugging or kissing him, she would be seen an ungrateful because the feeling rules calls for her to feel joy or happiness for what the man has done for her.
Children learn their habits and emotional skills from their parents. Men are seen as beings that are not capable of controlling their feelings or emotions because they were not taught or required to as a child. Males obtain jobs such as bill collector, taxi driver, and construction worker because many of those jobs do not rely heavily on emotional labor. Hochschild showed that male flight attendants showed more power and tolerated less abuse from passengers than female flight attendants. Since people generally associate males with being tough and associate females with being sweet, feeling rules makes them feel appalled when a women behaves in a tough manner, but when a male behaves in the same way, it is seen as acceptable.
A large portion of workers have jobs or careers that requires them to use their feelings, or "emotional labor '' as Hochschild calls it, in the workplace. Their reactions and actions are based on the way they see how other people react or express their feelings. Companies and corporations see this and use it to exploit workers in order to maximize profits.
Hochschild gives a clear example on how companies maximize their profits through the use of feeling rules by viewing the job of a flight attendant. A flight attendant 's job requires emotional labor. The flight attendance uplifts the customer through his or her demeanor and expression of feelings. A flight attendant who is constantly smiling or asking the customer how they are doing is more comforting to a customer versus if a flight attendant who rolls their eyes and rarely smiles. The feeling rules for a flight attendant calls for them to be happy, calm, and to suppress their negative feelings. Customers who see the way the flight attendant upholds themselves are more likely to come back if the experience was pleasant. Which is why many airlines like Delta, which was rated as one of the top airlines calls and requires these feeling rules at the workplace. In a way, this is beneficial to the companies and the customer because the customer is satisfied and keeps coming back, which makes the company more money. However, at the same time, it can be harmful to the flight attendant because they are not able to express their feelings, but rather suppress their feelings for the benefit of others.
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when does the era of good feelings end | Era of good Feelings - wikipedia
The Era of Good Feelings marked a period in the political history of the United States that reflected a sense of national purpose and a desire for unity among Americans in the aftermath of the War of 1812. The era saw the collapse of the Federalist Party and an end to the bitter partisan disputes between it and the dominant Democratic - Republican Party during the First Party System. President James Monroe strove to downplay partisan affiliation in making his nominations, with the ultimate goal of national unity and eliminating parties altogether from national politics. The period is so closely associated with Monroe 's presidency (1817 -- 1825) and his administrative goals that his name and the era are virtually synonymous.
The designation of the period by historians as one of good feelings is often conveyed with irony or skepticism, as the history of the era was one in which the political atmosphere was strained and divisive, especially among factions within the Monroe administration and the Republican Party.
The phrase Era of Good Feelings was coined by Benjamin Russell, in the Boston Federalist newspaper, Columbian Centinel, on July 12, 1817, following Monroe 's visit to Boston, Massachusetts, as part of his good - will tour of the United States.
ERA OF GOOD FEELINGS During the late Presidential Jubilee many persons Have met at festive boards, in pleasant conversation, Centinel, July 12, 1817, introducing the term "Era of Good Feelings ''
The Era of Good Feelings started in 1815 in the mood of victory that swept the nation at the end of the War of 1812. Exultation replaced the bitter political divisions between Federalists and Republicans, the North and South, and the East Coast cities and settlers on the American frontier. The political hostilities declined because the Federalist Party had largely dissolved after the fiasco of the Hartford Convention in 1814 -- 15. As a party, Federalists "had collapsed as a national political force ''. The Democratic - Republican Party was nominally dominant, but in practice it was inactive at the national level and in most states.
The era saw a trend toward nationalization that envisioned "a permanent federal role in the crucial arena of national development and national prosperity ''. Monroe 's predecessor, President James Madison, and the Republican Party, had come to appreciate -- through the crucible of war -- the expediency of Federalist institutions and projects, and prepared to legislate them under the auspices of John C. Calhoun and Henry Clay 's American System.
Madison announced this shift in policy with his Seventh Annual Message to Congress in December 1815, subsequently authorizing measures for a national bank and a protective tariff on manufactures. Vetoing the Bonus Bill on strict constructionist grounds, Madison nevertheless was determined, as had been his predecessor, Thomas Jefferson, to see internal improvements implemented with an amendment to the US Constitution. Writing to Monroe, in 1817, Madison declared that "there has never been a moment when such a proposition to the states was so likely to be approved ''. The emergence of "new Republicans '' -- undismayed by mild nationalist policies -- anticipated Monroe 's "era of good feelings '' and a general mood of optimism emerged with hopes for political reconciliation.
Monroe 's landslide victory against Federalist Rufus King in the 1816 presidential election was so widely predicted that voter turnout was low. A spirit of reconciliation between Republicans and Federalists was well underway when Monroe assumed office in March 1817.
As president, James Monroe was widely expected to facilitate a rapprochement of the political parties in order to harmonize the country in a common national outlook, rather than party interests. Both parties exhorted him to include a Federalist in his cabinet to symbolize the new era of "oneness '' that pervaded the nation.
Monroe approached these developments with great caution and deliberation. As president - elect, he carefully crafted the stance he would assume towards the declining Federalists in a letter to General Andrew Jackson of Tennessee in December 1816.
First, Monroe reaffirmed his conviction -- an "anti-Federalist '' article of faith -- that the Federalist Party was committed to installing a monarch and overthrowing republican forms of government at the first opportunity. To appoint a member of such a party to a top executive position, Monroe reasoned, would only serve to prolong the inevitable decline and fall of the opposition. Monroe made absolutely clear in this document that his administration would never allow itself to become tainted with Federalist ideology.
Secondly, he was loath to arouse jealousies within his own party by appearing to accommodate any Federalist, at the expense of a Republican. This would only serve to create factions and a revival of party identity.
And third, Monroe sought to merge former Federalists with Republicans as a prelude to eliminating party associations altogether from national politics, including his own Republican party. All political parties, wrote Monroe, were by their very nature, incompatible with free government. Ideally, the business of governing was best conducted by disinterested statesmen, acting exclusively in the national interest -- not on behalf of sectional interests or personal ambition. This was "amalgamation '' -- the supposed end of party warfare and the beginning of the "politics of consensus ''.
His policy echoed the arguments put forth by President George Washington in his farewell address in 1796 and his warnings against political "factions ''.
The method Monroe employed to deflate the Federalist Party was through neglect: they were denied all political patronage, administrative appointments and federal support of any kind. Monroe pursued this policy dispassionately and without any desire to persecute the Federalists: his purpose was simply to extirpate them from positions of political power, both Federal and State, especially in its New England strongholds. He understood that any expression of official approval would only encourage hope for a Federalist revival, and this he could not abide.
In his public pronouncements, Monroe was careful to avoid any comments that could be interpreted as politically partisan. Not only did he never attack the Federalist party, he made no direct reference to them in his speeches whatsoever: officially, they ceased to exist. In his private encounters with Federalists, he made favorable impressions, committing himself to nothing, yet eliciting good feelings, and reassuring them that his policies would be generous, as he proceeded quietly with a program of "de-Federalization ''.
So thoroughly had Monroe reduced party politics that he essentially ran unopposed in the 1820 presidential election. The Federalists ran no candidate to oppose him, running only a vice-presidential candidate, Richard Stockton. Monroe and his vice president Daniel D. Tompkins would have won reelection unanimously through the electoral college, had there not been a handful of faithless electors; one presidential elector cast his vote for John Quincy Adams, while a handful of electors (mostly former Federalists) cast votes for a number of Federalist candidates for Vice President. It would be the last presidential election in which a candidate would run essentially unopposed.
The most perfect expression of the Era of Good Feelings was Monroe 's country - wide good - will tour in 1817 and 1819. His visits to New England and to the Federalist stronghold of Boston, Massachusetts, in particular, were the most significant of the tour. Here, the descriptive phrase "Era of Good Feelings '' was bestowed by a local Federalist journal.
The President 's physical appearance, wardrobe and personal attributes were decisive in arousing good feelings on the tour. He donned a Revolutionary War officer 's uniform and tied his long powdered hair in a queue according to the old - fashioned style of the 18th century. "Tall, rawboned, venerable '', he made an "agreeable '' impression and had a good deal of charm and "most men immediately liked him... (in) manner he was rather formal, having an innate sense of dignity, which allowed no one to take liberties. Yet in spite of his formality, he had the unusual ability to put men at their ease by his courtesy, lack of condescension, his frankness, and what his contemporaries looked upon as the essential goodness and kindness of heart which he always radiated. ''
Monroe 's visit to Boston elicited a huge outpouring of nationalist pride and expressions of reconciliation. New England Federalists were especially eager to demonstrate their loyalty after the debacle of the Hartford Convention. Amidst the festivities -- banquets, parades, receptions -- many took the opportunity to make the most "explicit and solemn declarations '' to remove, as Monroe wrote afterwards, "impressions of that kind, which they knew existed, and to get back into the great family of the union ''. Abigail Adams dubbed the catharsis an "expiation. ''
Here, in the heart of Federalist territory, Monroe gained the primary goal of his tour; in effect, permitting "the Federalists by solemn public demonstrations to reaffirm their loyalty to the government and their acceptance of Republican control ''. Even in this atmosphere of contrition, Monroe was assiduous in avoiding any remarks or expressions that might chasten or humiliate his hosts. He presented himself strictly as the head of state, and not as the leader of a triumphant political party.
In the ensuing years the New England states capitulated, and all but Massachusetts was in Republican Party hands. De-Federalization was virtually complete by 1820 and the appointment of former Federalist Party members seemed in order; however, Monroe feared a backlash even at this advanced stage in the process of amalgamation. Most anti-Federalist sentiments were political posturing, but Monroe was not so secure of support for his domestic and foreign programs and was concerned at the mounting hostilities over the upcoming presidential contest in 1824, a purely intraparty affair. Monroe 's final reconciling with the Federalists was never consummated.
Monroe 's success in mitigating party rancor produced an appearance of political unity, with almost all Americans identifying themselves as Republicans. His nearly unanimous electoral victory for reelection in 1820 seemed to confirm this.
Recognizing the danger of intraparty rivalries, Monroe attempted to include prospective presidential candidates and top political leaders in his administration. His cabinet comprised three of the political rivals who would vie for the presidency in 1824: John Quincy Adams, John C. Calhoun and William H. Crawford. A fourth, Andrew Jackson, held high military appointments. Here, Monroe felt he could manage the factional disputes and arrange compromise on national politics within administration guidelines. His great disadvantage was that amalgamation deprived him of appealing to Republican "solidarity '' that would have cleared the way for passage of his programs in Congress.
"From the moment that Monroe adopted as his guiding principle the maxim that he was head of a nation, not the leader of a party, he repudiated for all practical purposes the party unity '' that would have served to establish his policies. The result was a loss of party discipline. Absent was the universal adherence to the precepts of Jeffersonianism: state sovereignty, strict construction and stability of Southern institutions. Old Republican critics of the new nationalism, among them John Randolph of Roanoke, Virginia, had warned that the abandonment of the Jeffersonian scheme of Southern preeminence would provoke a sectional conflict, North and South, that would threaten the union. Former president James Madison had cautioned Monroe that in any free government, it was natural that party identity would take shape.
The disastrous Panic of 1819 and the Supreme Court 's McCulloch v. Maryland reanimated the disputes over the supremacy of state sovereignty and federal power, between strict construction of the US Constitution and loose construction. The Missouri Crisis in 1820 made the explosive political conflict between slave and free soil open and explicit. Only through the adroit handling of the legislation by Speaker of the House Henry Clay was a settlement reached and disunion avoided.
With the decline in political consensus, it became imperative to revive Jeffersonian principles on the basis of Southern exceptionalism. The agrarian alliance, North and South, would be revived to form Jacksonian Nationalism and the rise of the modern Democratic Party. The interlude of the Era of Good Feelings was at an end.
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what is a technical definition of a baby | Infant - wikipedia
An infant (from the Latin word infans, meaning "unable to speak '' or "speechless '') is the more formal or specialised synonym for "baby '', the very young offspring of a human. The term may also be used to refer to juveniles of other organisms.
A newborn is, in colloquial use, an infant who is only hours, days, or up to one month old. In medical contexts, newborn or neonate (from Latin, neonatus, newborn) refers to an infant in the first 28 days after birth; the term applies to premature, full term, and postmature infants; before birth, the term "fetus '' is used. The term "infant '' is typically applied to young children between one month and one year of age; however, definitions may vary and may include children up to two years of age. When a human child learns to walk, the term "toddler '' may be used instead.
In British English, an infant school is for children aged between four and seven. As a legal term, "infancy '' continues from birth until age 18.
A newborn 's shoulders and hips are wide, the abdomen protrudes slightly, and the arms and legs are relatively long with respect to the rest of their body. In first world nations, the average total body length of newborns are 35.6 -- 50.8 cm (14.0 -- 20.0 in), although premature newborns may be much smaller. The Apgar score is a measure of a newborn 's transition from the uterus during the first minutes after birth.
In developed countries, the average birth weight of a full - term newborn is approximately 3.4 kg (7 ⁄ lb), and is typically in the range of 2.7 -- 4.6 kg (6.0 -- 10.1 lb).
Over the first 5 -- 7 days following birth, the body weight of a term neonate decreases by 3 -- 7 %, and is largely a result of the resorption and urination of the fluid that initially fills the lungs, in addition to a delay of often a few days before breastfeeding becomes effective. After the first week, healthy term neonates should gain 10 -- 20 grams / day.
A newborn 's head is very large in proportion to the body, and the cranium is enormous relative to his or her face. While the adult human skull is about one seventh of the total body length, the newborn 's is about 1⁄4. Normal head circumference for a full - term infant is 33 -- 36 cm at birth. At birth, many regions of the newborn 's skull have not yet been converted to bone, leaving "soft spots '' known as fontanels. The two largest are the diamond - shaped anterior fontanel, located at the top front portion of the head, and the smaller triangular - shaped posterior fontanel, which lies at the back of the head. Later in the child 's life, these bones will fuse together in a natural process. A protein called noggin is responsible for the delay in an infant 's skull fusion.
During labour and birth, the infant 's skull changes shape to fit through the birth canal, sometimes causing the child to be born with a misshapen or elongated head. It will usually return to normal on its own within a few days or weeks. Special exercises sometimes advised by physicians may assist the process.
Some newborns have a fine, downy body hair called lanugo. It may be particularly noticeable on the back, shoulders, forehead, ears and face of premature infants. Lanugo disappears within a few weeks. Infants may be born with full heads of hair; others, particularly caucasian infants, may have very fine hair or may even be bald. Amongst fair - skinned parents, this fine hair may be blonde, even if the parents are not. The scalp may also be temporarily bruised or swollen, especially in hairless newborns, and the area around the eyes may be puffy.
Immediately after birth, a newborn 's skin is often grayish to dusky blue in color. As soon as the newborn begins to breathe, usually within a minute or two, the skin 's color reaches its normal tone. Newborns are wet, covered in streaks of blood, and coated with a white substance known as vernix caseosa, which is hypothesised to act as an antibacterial barrier. The newborn may also have Mongolian spots, various other birthmarks, or peeling skin, particularly on the wrists, hands, ankles, and feet.
A newborn 's genitals are enlarged and reddened, with male infants having an unusually large scrotum. The breasts may also be enlarged, even in male infants. This is caused by naturally occurring maternal hormones and is a temporary condition. Females (and even males) may actually discharge milk from their nipples (sometimes called witch 's milk), or a bloody or milky - like substance from the vagina. In either case, this is considered normal and will disappear with time.
The umbilical cord of a newborn is bluish - white in color. After birth, the umbilical cord is normally cut, leaving a 1 -- 2 inch stub. The umbilical stub will dry out, shrivel, darken, and spontaneously fall off within about 3 weeks. This will later become a belly - button after it heals. Occasionally, hospitals may apply triple dye to the umbilical stub to prevent infection, which may temporarily color the stub and surrounding skin purple.
Infants cry as a form of basic instinctive communication. A crying infant may be trying to express a variety of feelings including hunger, discomfort, overstimulation, boredom, wanting something, or loneliness.
Breastfeeding is the recommended method of feeding by all major infant health organizations. If breastfeeding is not possible or desired, bottle feeding is done with expressed breast - milk or with infant formula. Infants are born with a sucking reflex allowing them to extract the milk from the nipples of the breasts or the nipple of the baby bottle, as well as an instinctive behavior known as rooting with which they seek out the nipple. Sometimes a wet nurse is hired to feed the infant, although this is rare, especially in developed countries.
Adequate food consumption at an early age is vital for an infant 's development. From birth to four months, infants should consume breast milk or an unmodified milk substitute. As an infant 's diet matures, finger foods may be introduced as well as fruit, vegetables and small amounts of meat.
As infants grow, food supplements are added. Many parents choose commercial, ready - made baby foods to supplement breast milk or formula for the child, while others adapt their usual meals for the dietary needs of their child. Whole cow 's milk can be used at one year, but lower - fat milk is not recommended until the child is 2 to 3 years old. Weaning is the process through which breast milk is eliminated from the infant 's diet through the introduction of solid foods in exchange for milk. Until they are toilet - trained, infants in industrialized countries wear diapers. The transition from diapers to cloth undergarments is an important transition in the development of an infant / baby to that of a toddler. Children need more sleep than adults -- up to 18 hours for newborn babies, with a declining rate as the child ages. Until babies learn to walk, they are carried in the arms, held in slings or baby carriers, or transported in baby carriages or strollers. Most industrialized countries have laws requiring child safety seats for babies in motor vehicles.
Infants respond to the sound of snake hissing, angry voices of adults, the crackling sound of a fire, thunder, and the cries of other infants. They have a drop in heart rate, their eyes blinking, increased turning toward the speakers or parent, all of these indicating that they were paying more attention. This is believed by some to be evolutionary response to danger.
Studies have shown that infants who have been the recipients of positive touch experience more benefits as they develop emotionally and socially. Experiments have been done with infants up to four months of age using both positive touch (stroking or cuddling) and negative touch (poking, pinching or tickling). The infants who received the positive touch cried less often and also vocalized and smiled more than the infants who were touched negatively. Infants who were the recipients of negative touching have been linked with emotional and behavioral problems later in life. A lower amount of physical violence in adults has been discovered in cultures with greater levels of positive physical touching.
The infant is undergoing many adaptations to extrauterine life, and its physiological systems, such as the immune system, are far from fully developed. Potential diseases of concern during the neonatal period include:
Infant mortality is the death of an infant in the first year of life, often expressed as the number of deaths per 1000 live births (infant mortality rate). Major causes of infant mortality include dehydration, infection, congenital malformation and SIDS.
This epidemiological indicator is recognized as a very important measure of the level of health care in a country because it is directly linked with the health status of infants, children, and pregnant women as well as access to medical care, socioeconomic conditions, and public health practices.
There is a positive relationship between national wealth and good health. The rich and industrialized countries of the world, prominently Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Japan, spend a large proportion of their wealthy budget on the health care system. As, a result, their health care systems are very sophisticated, with many physicians, nurses, and other health care experts servicing the population. Thus, infant mortality is low. On the other hand, a country such as Mexico, which spends disproportionately less of its budget on healthcare, suffers from high mortality rates. This is because the general population is likely to be less healthy. In the U.S., infant mortality rates are especially high in minority groups. For instance, non-Hispanic black women have an infant mortality rate of 13.63 per 1000 live births whereas in non-Hispanic white women it was much lower at a rate of 5.76 per 1000 live births. The average infant mortality rate in the U.S. is 6.8 per 1000 live births.
Attachment theory is primarily an evolutionary and ethological theory whereby the infant or child seeks proximity to a specified attachment figure in situations of alarm or distress for the purpose of survival. The forming of attachments is considered to be the foundation of the infant / child 's capacity to form and conduct relationships throughout life. Attachment is not the same as love or affection although they often go together. Attachment and attachment behaviors tend to develop between the age of 6 months and 3 years. Infants become attached to adults who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with the infant, and who remain as consistent caregivers for some time. Parental responses lead to the development of patterns of attachment, which in turn lead to ' internal working models ' which will guide the individual 's feelings, thoughts, and expectations in later relationships. There are a number of attachment ' styles ' namely ' secure ', ' anxious - ambivalent ', ' anxious - avoidant ', (all ' organized ') and ' disorganized ', some of which are more problematic than others. A lack of attachment or a seriously disrupted capacity for attachment could potentially amount to serious disorders.
Infants develop distinct relationships to their mothers, fathers, siblings, and non - familial caregivers. Beside the dyadic attachment relationships also a good quality of the triadic relationships (mother - father -- infant) is important for infant mental health development.
Babyhood is a critical period in personality development when the foundations of adult personality are laid. In contrast toddler is used to denote a baby that has achieved relative independence, in moving about, and feeding.
Many airlines refuse boarding for all babies aged under 7 days (for domestic flights) or 14 days for international flights. Asiana Airlines allows babies to board international flights at 7 days of age. Garuda Indonesia disallows all babies under the age of 14 days to board any flights.
Delta Air Lines and Pinnacle Airlines allow infants to travel when they are less than 7 days old when they present a physician travel approval letter. Comair requires a letter if the infant is 12 days or younger. Skywest will not allow an infant less than 8 days old on board.
an Asian baby
an African baby
An African baby born to two African parents, with an unusually light skin.
An Indian baby
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how many hilton hotels are there in the usa | Hilton Worldwide - wikipedia
Hilton Worldwide Holdings Inc., formerly Hilton Hotels Corporation, is an American multinational hospitality company that manages and franchises a broad portfolio of hotels and resorts. Founded by Conrad Hilton in 1919, the corporation is now led by Christopher J. Nassetta.
Hilton is headquartered in Tysons Corner, Virginia. As of December 2017, its portfolio includes more than 5,200 properties (including timeshare properties) with over 856,000 rooms in 105 countries and territories. Prior to their December 2013 IPO, Hilton was ranked as the 36th largest privately held company in the United States by Forbes.
Hilton has 14 brands across different market segments, including Conrad Hotels & Resorts, Canopy by Hilton, Curio - A Collection by Hilton, Hilton Hotels & Resorts, DoubleTree by Hilton, Embassy Suites Hotels, Hilton Garden Inn, Hampton by Hilton, Homewood Suites by Hilton, Home2 Suites by Hilton, Hilton Grand Vacations, Waldorf Astoria Hotels & Resorts, Tru by Hilton, and Tapestry Collection by Hilton.
On December 12, 2013, Hilton again became a public company, raising an estimated $2.35 billion in its second IPO. At the time, The Blackstone Group held a 45.8 percent stake in the company. In October 2016, HNA Group agreed to acquire a 25 percent equity interest in Hilton from Blackstone. The transaction was expected to close in the first quarter of 2017. Hilton 's largest stockholders are HNA Group, Blackstone, and Wellington Management Group, which own 25 %, 15.2 %, and 6.7 % of Hilton common stock respectively.
Hilton was founded by Conrad Hilton in Cisco, Texas, in 1919 and had its headquarters in Beverly Hills, California, from 1969 until 2009. In August 2009, the company moved to Tysons Corner, unincorporated Fairfax County, Virginia, near McLean.
Hilton 's mission
In 1919, Conrad Hilton purchased his first hotel, the 40 - room Mobley Hotel in Cisco, Texas, and bought additional Texas hotels as years passed.
In 1925, the Dallas Hilton became the first hotel to use the Hilton name. In 1927, Hilton expanded to Waco, Texas, where he opened the first hotel with air - conditioning in public areas and cold running water.
In 1943, Hilton purchased the Roosevelt Hotel and the Plaza Hotel in New York, establishing the first hospitality company to span the contiguous United States. The company incorporated in 1946 as the Hilton Hotels Corporation, and subsequently began public trading of shares on the New York Stock Exchange. In 1947, the Roosevelt Hotel became the first hotel in the world to have televisions in its rooms.
Hilton International was founded a few years later, in 1949, with the opening of the Caribe Hilton Hotel in Puerto Rico. Barman Ramon "Monchito '' Marreno claimed he created the piña colada cocktail at this resort. Hilton purchased the Waldorf Astoria New York in the same year.
The Hotels Statler Company was acquired in 1954 for $111 million in what was then the world 's most expensive real estate transaction. One year later, Hilton created the world 's first central reservations office, titled "HILCRON ''. The reservations team in 1955 consisted of eight members on staff booking reservations for any of Hilton 's then 28 hotels. Reservations agents used the "availability board '' to track records. The chalk board measured 30 feet (9.1 m) by 6 feet (1.8 m) and allowed HILCRON to make over 6,000 reservations in 1955. Bookings could be made for any Hilton via telephone, telegram, or Teletype.
Later in 1955, Hilton launched a program to ensure every hotel room would include air conditioning.
In late 1955, Hilton opened the first post-World War II property in Istanbul.
Hilton is credited with pioneering the airport hotel concept with the opening of the San Francisco Airport Hilton in 1959.
In 1965, Hilton launched Lady Hilton, the first hotel concept created specifically for women guests. To appeal to female travelers, a number of properties offered floors occupied by only women along with distinct amenities for their usage.
In 1969, the first DoubleTree Hotel opened. However, Hilton was not affiliated with the brand until its acquisition of the parent company in 1999.
Hilton purchased the Flamingo Las Vegas in 1970, which would become the first in the domestic gaming business to be listed on the NYSE.
In 1979, founder Conrad Hilton died at the age of 91. Hilton Hotels Corporation later created the Conrad Hotels brand in honor of Hilton.
Hilton Honors (formerly Hilton HHonors), the company 's guest loyalty program, was initiated in 1987. In 1994, the Honors surpassed competing hotel loyalty programs by offering members both hotel credit points and airline credit miles.
The company has been a sponsor of the United States Olympic Team.
The company spun off its international operations into a separately traded company on December 1, 1964, known as "Hilton International Co. '' It was acquired in 1967 by Trans World Corp., the holding company for Trans World Airlines. In 1986, it was sold to UAL Corp., the holding company for United Airlines, which became Allegis Corp. in an attempt to re-incarnate itself as a full - service travel company, encompassing Westin Hotels and Hertz rental cars in addition to Hilton International and United Airlines. In 1987, after a corporate putsch, the renamed UAL Corp. sold Hilton International to Ladbroke Group plc, a British leisure and gambling company, which, in May 1999, adopted the name "Hilton Group plc. ''
As a result, there were two separate, fully independent companies operating hotels under the Hilton name. Those Hilton Hotels outside the U.S. were, until 2006, styled as "Hilton International '' hotels. Because the two chains were contractually forbidden to operate hotels in the other 's territory under the Hilton name, for many years hotels run by Hilton International in the U.S. were called Vista International Hotels, while hotels operated by the American arm of Hilton outside the U.S. were named Conrad Hotels.
In 1997, to minimize longtime consumer confusion, the American and British Hilton companies adopted a joint marketing agreement under which they shared the same logos, promoted each other 's brands and maintained joint reservation systems. At that point, the Vista chain was phased out, while Conrad has been restyled as one of the luxury brands of Hilton (along with the Waldorf - Astoria Collection) and operates hotels within the US as well as abroad.
In 1971, Hilton acquired International Leisure Company, including the Las Vegas Hilton and Flamingo Hilton.
In 1998, Hilton spun off its gaming operations into a separate, publicly held company called Park Place Entertainment (later Caesars Entertainment, Inc.)
In 1999, Hilton acquired Promus Hotel Corporation, which included the DoubleTree, Red Lion, Embassy Suites, Hampton Inn and Homewood Suites brands.
In 2001, Hilton agreed to sell Red Lion to WestCoast Hospitality.
On December 29, 2005, Hilton Hotels Corporation agreed to re-acquire the Hilton International chain from its British owner, Hilton Group plc, for £ 3.3 billion ($5.71 billion). As well as bringing the two Hilton companies back together as a single entity, this deal also included Hilton plc properties operating as Conrad Hotels, Scandic Hotels and LivingWell Health Clubs. On February 23, 2006, the deal closed, making Hilton Hotels the world 's fifth largest hotel operator in number of rooms. Hilton Group PLC (headquartered in the UK) then renamed itself Ladbrokes plc. Scandic Hotels was sold the next year on March 1 to EQT Partners.
On July 3, 2007, Hilton Hotels Corp. agreed to an all - cash buyout from the Blackstone Group LP in a $26 billion (including debt) deal that would make Blackstone the world 's largest hotel owner. At $47.50 per share, the buyout price was 32 percent higher than the closing value of a share of Hilton stock on July 3. The deal was the culmination of a year of on and off discussions with Blackstone. In October 2007, Christopher J. Nassetta was appointed President and Chief Executive Officer of Hilton. In February 2009, Hilton Hotels Corp. announced that its headquarters were moving from Beverly Hills to Fairfax County, Virginia.
While Blackstone saw an opportunity to streamline the company and push Hilton 's expansion overseas when Blackstone pursued Hilton in 2006 and 2007, the buyout saddled the company with $20 billion of debt just as the economy was turning down. The debt had very liberal terms, so there was no danger of default, but when travel slowed, the company suffered. In April 2010, Hilton and Blackstone restructured the debt. Blackstone invested a further $800 million of equity and the debt was reduced to $16 billion.
Hilton returned to being a public company on December 12, 2013. This second IPO in the company 's history raised an estimated $2.35 billion. The Blackstone Group retained a 45.8 % stake in the company.
The company announced in February 2016 that Hilton would turn its hotel holdings into a real estate investment trust. Prior to making the announcement, the company went to the IRS for approval.
In February 2016, Hilton announced its intention to spin off its timeshare and real estate businesses, creating three independent public companies. The spin - offs of Park Hotels & Resorts and Hilton Grand Vacations were completed in January 2017.
As of 2013, about 70 % of the rooms branded under Hilton were franchised to independent operators and companies. During its 2007 -- 2013 ownership of Hilton, Blackstone Group pursued a strategy of predominantly expanding Hilton 's reach through franchise agreements, while relatively few new properties were actually operated by Hilton. Hence, the proportion of franchised rooms grew significantly during this period. The practice of franchising is popular within the hospitality industry among most major hotel chains, as the parent company does not have to pay for the maintenance and overhead costs of franchised properties. Franchisees must follow strict brand standards in order to maintain a licensing agreement with Hilton. Many of Hilton 's flagship properties, airport properties, and largest resorts, however, are corporately managed.
Hilton Honors (formerly Hilton HHonors) is Hilton 's guest loyalty program through which frequent guests can accumulate points and airline miles by staying within the Hilton portfolio. The program is one of the largest of its type, with approximately 71 million members.
Hilton renamed the Hilton HHonors program to Hilton Honors in February 2017.
Main article: List of properties of Hilton Worldwide
The company has its headquarters in Tysons Corner, Virginia and an operations center in Memphis. Its Asia - Pacific operations are managed out of Singapore, its Middle East and Africa operations are managed out of Dubai, and its European operations are based in the UK.
According to Careerbliss.com, Hilton ranked first in the list of "2012 Happiest Companies in America '', with a score of 4.36 out of 5. The survey looked at job reviews from more than 100,000 employees such as characteristics like work - life balance, company culture and reputation, and the relationships employees have with their bosses. Hilton has scored 100 % on the Corporate Equality Index each year from 2014 to 2017.
In 2016, Hilton was named one of the "World 's 25 Best Multinational Workplaces '' by Fortune and Great Place to Work.
In 2017, Fortune ranked Hilton number 26 in their list of "The 100 Best Companies to Work For ''.
Keith Richards and Mick Jagger performed in the East Penthouse on the 45th floor of the New York Hilton on October 28, 1965.
John Lennon and Yoko Ono honeymooned in the presidential suite at the Hilton Amsterdam where they hosted one of their famous "Bed - Ins '' for a full week in 1969.
In 1971, Diamonds Are Forever was filmed at the Las Vegas Hilton.
On April 3, 1973, Dr. Martin Cooper made the world 's first cell phone call in front of the New York Hilton Midtown. A press conference was held at the hotel later that day to mark the milestone.
The Bodyguard with Whitney Houston and Kevin Costner was filmed at the Fontainebleau Hilton in Miami in 1992. On February 11, 2012, Houston died in her bathtub in Suite 434 of the Beverly Hilton after a drug overdose. Hotel management has since renovated the room.
In 1995, the James Bond movie GoldenEye was filmed at the Langham Hilton.
The Insider was filmed in 1999 at the Seelbach Hilton.
In 2006, several movies including Spider - Man 3, Michael Clayton, and American Gangster were filmed at the New York Hilton.
Conrad Hilton (played by actor Chelcie Ross) features as a major character in the third season of Mad Men, as lead character Don Draper creates a series of ad campaigns for Hilton Hotels. The Drapers travel during one episode to the Cavalieri Hilton in Rome, though the scenes were actually shot at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles.
On the rotating wheel space station in Stanley Kubrick 's 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey, a receptionist is shown sitting at the entrance to the Hilton Space Station 5.
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how far is delray beach from miami fl | Delray Beach, Florida - Wikipedia
Delray Beach is a coastal city in Palm Beach County, Florida, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city had a total population of 60,522. The population was estimated at 66,255 in 2015. Delray Beach is part of the Miami metropolitan area.
Recorded history began when the United States Life Saving Service built the Orange Grove House of Refuge in 1876. The house derived its name from the grove of mature sour orange and other tropical fruit trees found at the site chosen for the house of refuge, but no record or evidence of who planted the trees has survived.
Settlement began around 1884, when African - Americans from the Panhandle of Florida purchased land a little inland from the Orange Grove House of Refuge and began farming. By 1894 the Black community was large enough to establish the first school in the area.
In 1894 William S. Linton, a Republican US Congressman for Saginaw, Michigan, bought a tract of land just west of the Orange Grove House of Refuge, and began selling plots in what he hoped would become a farming community. Initially, this community was named after Linton. In 1896 Henry Flagler extended his Florida East Coast Railroad south from West Palm Beach to Miami, with a station at Linton.
The Linton settlers began to achieve success, with truck farming of winter vegetables for the northern market. A hard freeze in 1898 was a setback, and many of the settlers left, including William Linton. Partly in an attempt to change the community 's luck, or to leave behind a bad reputation, the settlement 's name was changed in 1901 to Delray, after the Detroit neighborhood of Delray ("Delray '' being the anglicized spelling of "Del Rey '', which is Spanish for "of the king ''), which in turn was named after the Mexican - American War 's Battle of Molino del Rey.
Settlers from The Bahamas (then part of the British West Indies), sometimes referred to as ' Nassaws ', began arriving in the early 1900s. After 1905, newspaper articles and photographs of Delray events reveal that Japanese settlers from the nearby Yamato farming colony also began participating in Delray civic activities such as parades, going to the movies, and shopping. The 1910 census shows Delray as a town of 904 citizens. Twenty - four U.S. states and nine other countries are listed as the birthplace of its residents. Although still a small town, Delray had a remarkably diverse citizenry.
In 1911, the area was chartered by the State of Florida as an incorporated town. In the same year, pineapple and tomato canning plants were built. Pineapples became the primary crop of the area. This is reflected in the name of the present day Pineapple Grove neighborhood near downtown Delray Beach.
Prior to 1909, the Delray settlement land was within Dade County. That year, Palm Beach County was carved out of the northern portion of the region. In 1915, Palm Beach County and Dade County contributed nearly equal portions of land to create what is now Broward County between the two, leaving Delray situated within the southeastern portion of Palm Beach County.
By 1920, Delray 's population had reached 1,051. In the 1920s, drainage of the Everglades west of Delray lowered the water table, making it harder to grow pineapples, while the extension of the Florida East Coast Railway to Key West resulted in competition from Cuban pineapples for the markets of the northern United States.
The Florida land boom of the 1920s brought renewed prosperity to Delray. Tourism and real estate speculation became important parts of the local economy. Delray issued bonds to raise money to install water and sewer lines, paved streets, and sidewalks. Several hotels were built. At that time Delray was the largest town on the east coast of Florida between West Palm Beach and Fort Lauderdale. The collapse of the land boom in 1926 left Delray saddled with high bond debts, and greatly reduced income from property taxes.
Delray was separated from the Atlantic Ocean beach by the Florida East Coast Canal (now part of the Intracoastal Waterway). In 1923 the area between the canal and the ocean was incorporated as Delray Beach. In 1927 Delray and Delray Beach merged into one town named Delray Beach.
Beginning in the mid-1920s, a seasonal Artists and Writers Colony was established in Delray Beach and the adjacent town of Gulf Stream. Throughout the 1930s and ' 40s, Delray became a winter enclave for artists and authors, especially famous cartoonists. Two nationally syndicated cartoonists -- H.T. Webster (creator of "Caspar Milquetoast '') and Fontaine Fox of "Toonerville Trolley '' fame -- had offices upstairs in the Arcade Building over the Arcade Tap Room; a gathering place where the artists and writers might be joined by aristocrats, politicians, entertainers, and sports figures. Other well - known artists and writers of the era who had homes in Delray Beach include: Herb Roth, W.J. "Pat '' Enright, Robert Bernstein, Wood Cowan, Denys Wortman, Jim Raymond, Charles Williams, Herb Niblick, Hugh McNair Kahler, Clarence Budington Kelland, Nina Wilcox Putnam, and Edna St. Vincent Millay. These seasonal visitors helped soften the effect of the real estate downturn and The Great Depression on the city.
During the Depression, not much money was available since the two banks had failed, but progress continued, and the town still looked prosperous because of the previous burst of new buildings during the boom years. The Artists and Writers Colony flourished and Delray Beach 's fame as a resort town grew. This era is regarded as Delray Beach 's "golden age of architecture ''; a period in which the city ranked 50th in population but 10th in building permits in Florida. Prominent architectural styles in Delray Beach from this period include Art Deco, Mediterranean Revival, Mission Revival, Monterey Colonial, Streamline Moderne, ' Key West style ' cottages, and bungalows.
For the four years of World War II, citizens of Delray Beach volunteered to watch the beach and ocean 24 hours a day from the faux bell tower atop the seaside Seacrest Hotel. Military personnel patrolled the beach on horseback. Shipping attacks could be seen from the coast. During WWII Delray Beach also saw an influx of service personnel stationed at the nearby Boca Raton Army Airfield. Some of the veterans who had trained at the airfield returned to settle in Delray Beach after the war. Steady growth of the city continued though the 1950s and 1960s.
By the early 1960s Delray Beach was becoming known for surfing. Atlantic Avenue was the biggest seller of surfboards in Florida at the time. Delray Beach 's surfing fame increased somewhat serendipitously after a 1965 shipwreck. During Hurricane Betsy, the 441 feet (134 m) freighter Amaryllis ran aground on Singer Island, creating a windbreak that formed perfectly breaking waves. The ship was dismantled three years later, yet local surfers have retained an association with the area.
In the 1970s, Interstate 95 between Palm Beach Gardens and Miami was fully completed and development began to spread west of the city limits. This pattern continued and accelerated through the 1980s, as downtown and many of the older neighborhoods fell into a period of economic decline.
Revitalization of some historic areas began during the last decade of the twentieth century, as several local landmark structures were renovated. These include the Colony Hotel and Old School Square (the former campus of Delray Elementary School and Delray High School, since turned into a cultural center). The city also established five Historic Districts, listed in the Local Register of Historic Places, and annexed several other historic residential neighborhoods between U.S. Route 1 and the Intracoastal Waterway in an effort to preserve some of the distinctive local architecture.
In 2001, the historic home of teacher / principal Solomon D. Spady was renovated and turned into the Spady Cultural Heritage Museum. The Spady Museum houses black archives. In 2007 the museum was expanded by renovating a 1935 cottage as a Kid 's Cultural Clubhouse, and the construction of a 50 - seat amphitheater named for C. Spencer Pompey, a pioneer black educator.
Downtown Delray, located in the eastern part of the city, along Atlantic Avenue, east of I - 95 and stretching to the beach, has undergone a large - scale renovation and gentrification. The Delray Beach Tennis Center has brought business to the area. It has hosted several major international tennis events such as the April 2005 Fed Cup (USA vs. Belgium, the April 2004 Davis Cup (USA vs. Sweden), the Delray Beach International Tennis Championships (ATP Event), and the Chris Evert / Bank of America Pro Celebrity.
Atlantic Community High School was rebuilt in 2005 on a different site from the previous school, a plan which was met with much contention.
When DayJet operated from 2007 to 2008, its headquarters were in Delray Beach.
From 2009 to 2012, Pet Airways had its headquarters in Delray Beach.
In 2012, Rand McNally "Best of the Road '' named Delray Beach America 's Most Fun Small Town. Delray Beach was rated as the 3rd Happiest Seaside Town in America by Coastal Living in 2015.
Delray Beach 's location in Southeastern Palm Beach County is in the middle of Florida 's Gold Coast region.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city of Delray Beach has a total land area of 15.81 miles (25.44 km).
In earlier years downtown Delray was centered along Atlantic Avenue as far west as Swinton Avenue and as far east as the intracoastal waterway. Downtown has since expanded. By 2010, downtown extended west to I - 95 and east as the Atlantic Ocean; The north - south boundaries extend roughly two blocks north and south of Atlantic Avenue.
Delray Beach has a tropical climate, more specifically a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification Af), as its driest month (February) averages 64.8 mm of precipitation, meeting the minimum standard of 60mm in the driest month needed to qualify for that designation.
Delray Beach has hot and humid summers and warm winters, with a marked drier season in the winter. Its near sea - level elevation, coastal location, position just above the Tropic of Cancer, and proximity to the Gulf Stream shapes its climate. Hurricane season officially runs from June 1 through November 30, although hurricanes can develop outside those dates. The most likely time for hurricane activity is during the peak of the Cape Verde season, which is mid-August through the end of September. Delray Beach has received direct or near direct hits from hurricanes in 1903, 1906, 1928, 1947, 1949, 1964, 1965, 1979, 1992, 1999, 2004, and 2005.
As of 2010, there were 34,156 households out of which 20.4 % were vacant. As of 2000, 18.9 % of households had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.4 % were married couples living together, 10.2 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.7 % were non-families. 35.3 % of all households were made up of individuals and 18.3 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 2.87.
In 2000, the city 's population was spread out with 18.2 % under the age of 18, 6.3 % from 18 to 24, 27.1 % from 25 to 44, 22.4 % from 45 to 64, and 25.9 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females there were 91.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.0 males.
In 2000, the median income for a household in the city was $43,371, and the median income for a family was $51,195. Males had a median income of $33,699 versus $28,469 for females. The per capita income for the city was $29,350. About 8.2 % of families and 11.8 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 17.6 % of those under age 18 and 7.8 % of those age 65 or over.
As of 2000, speakers of English as a first language accounted for 75.44 % of all residents, while French Creole accounted for 11.73 %, Spanish consisted of 7.02 %, French was at 1.87 %, Italian at 0.88 %, and German made up 0.75 % of the population.
As of 2000, Delray Beach had the sixteenth highest percentage of Haitian residents in the US, with 10.50 % of the population.
The Delray Beach Open is an ATP World Tour 250 series men 's professional tennis tournament held each year. The Delray Beach Tennis Center has also hosted the Fed Cup, the Davis Cup, and the Chris Evert Pro-Celebrity Tennis Classic.
The Delray Beach Tennis Center is a full - service public tennis facility with 14 clay courts, 6 hard courts, and an 8,200 - seat stadium located near downtown on Atlantic Avenue. The center includes an upstairs pavilion and conference room, pro-shop with locker rooms, racquet stringing, and merchandise. The club offers a variety of adult and junior programs, leagues, clinics and camps. A second location, the Delray Swim & Tennis Club, features 24 clay courts and a clubhouse that has a pro shop with merchandise and locker rooms.
On July 20, 2010, the city 's commissioners proclaimed that the city 's name would be officially changed to Tennis Beach for one week in honor of its nomination by the United States Tennis Association as one of the top tennis towns in the United States.
The city has 2 miles (3.2 km) of public beach accessible from Florida State Road A1A. Travel Holiday magazine named Delray Municipal Beach as the top beach in the southeastern United States. The remains of the Steamship Inchulva that sank on Sept 11, 1903 are located in shallow water near the public beach, acting as habitat for native fish and corals. Known today as the Delray Wreck, the site is noted for snorkeling and scuba diving.
Downtown Delray Beach has undergone a gentrification program centered on East Atlantic Avenue, also known as simply "The Avenue ''. The area is noted for its nightlife, dining, and shopping. Atlantic Avenue is also a regular destination for various art fairs and street festivals.
Delray Beach has a street - legal golf cart community among residents as well as local businesses. Exhilaride offers street - legal golf cart rentals to visitors and residents by the hour, day or longer. The Downtowner is point - to - point golf cart free ride service available by app and Katch - a-Ride is a similar business, available by phone.
The Pineapple Grove Arts District, located downtown just north of Atlantic Avenue, is noted for its galleries, performance art, and cultural organizations.
Arts Garage, a not - for - profit multi-media arts venue, hosts musical concerts, live theatre, arts education and outreach programs, and a visual art gallery.
The Silverball Museum features more than 150 classic, playable pinball machines and arcade games.
The Delray Beach Playhouse, which opened in 1947 in Lake Ida East Park, stages plays, musicals, interactive studio theatre, books on stage, children 's theatre productions, classes and camps.
Old School Square, the former campus of Delray Elementary School and Delray High School, has since been converted into a cultural center. The Old School Square complex now comprises the Crest Theatre, a venue for the performing arts, in the former High School building; the 1925 Gymnasium, restored to maintain its appearance, which has since become a venue for local events such as wedding receptions and dances; the Cornell Art Museum, built in the restored Elementary School; and The Pavillion, which serves as an outdoor venue for musical performances and other events such as political rallies. The Creative Arts School offers beginner through master level art, photography, and writing classes for children and adults.
Cason Cottage House Museum, once home to a family of Delray Beach pioneers, offers visitors a glimpse at daily life in South Florida from 1915 to 1935. The Museum is maintained and operated by the Delray Beach Historical Society.
The Sandoway Discovery Center, located at the historic J.B. Evans House at 142 South Ocean Boulevard, features native plants, live animals, and a large collection of shells from around the world. The center offers environmental education programs and classes.
The historic Sundy House now operates as a luxury eco resort. The premises includes The Sundy family 's former apartments and cottages which have been converted into guest accommodations, a café, an antique shop, and tropical Taru Gardens.
The historic home of teacher / principal Solomon D. Spady was renovated and turned into the Spady Cultural Heritage Museum. The Spady Museum houses black archives and hosts exhibits and programs designed to recognize the efforts of blacks who were instrumental in shaping Delray Beach and Palm Beach County. In 2007 the museum was expanded by renovating a 1935 cottage as a Kid 's Cultural Clubhouse, and the construction of a 50 - seat amphitheater named for C. Spencer Pompey, a pioneer black educator.
Morikami Museum and Japanese Gardens is a center for Japanese arts and culture. The campus includes two museum buildings, the Roji - en Japanese Gardens: Garden of the Drops of Dew, a bonsai garden, library, gift shop, and a Japanese restaurant, called the Cornell Cafe, which has been featured on the Food Network. Rotating exhibits are displayed in both buildings, and demonstrations, including tea ceremonies and classes, are held in the main building. Traditional Japanese festivals are celebrated several times a year.
Wakodahatchee Wetlands is a wetlands park open to the public. Facilities include a three - quarter mile boardwalk that crosses between open water pond areas, emergent marsh areas, shallow shelves, and islands with shrubs and snags to foster nesting and roosting. The site is part of the South section of the Great Florida Birding Trail and offers many opportunities to observe birds in their natural habitats. Over 151 species of birds have been spotted inside the park, including pied - billed grebe, snowy egrets, and black - bellied whistling ducks. The park is also home to turtles, alligators, rabbits, frogs, and raccoons.
The City of Delray Beach maintains five athletic fields, five beach and oceanfront parks, eight community parks, two intracoastal parks, a teen center and skatepark, a splash park, and a pool and tennis club, offering a variety of recreational activities and facilities.
Delray Beach is one of South Florida 's most popular beach destinations. The area is noted for its restaurants, retail shops, nightclubs, art galleries, and hotels.
Downtown Delray Beach has had a building boom since roughly 2003. Recent development reflects trends of New Urbanism downtown, and mansionization of waterfront property, sometimes creating pressures on Historic Districts and historic sites. New mixed - use development projects have recently been constructed, and more are planned, in the areas immediately north and south of Atlantic Avenue. To accommodate the anticipated growth the city has also built two new municipal parking garages.
In 2007, a New York Times article labeled Delray Beach the drug recovery capital of the United States because it had one of the country 's largest recovery communities and relative number of sober living houses. However, the lucrative local drug rehab industry has received mixed reviews from addiction experts and is considered a public nuisance by some residents and city officials. Persistent complaints of health care fraud, insurance fraud, strain on public resources, and a perceived lack of adequate regulation and rehab facility inspections have received media coverage. In July 2017, several national news outlets including the New York Times and NBC News published investigative reports detailing fraud allegations within South Florida 's billion - dollar drug rehab industry, focusing on Delray Beach 's sober houses. At least 30 arrests for illegal "patient brokering '' had been made between July 2016 and July 2017 and more are expected.
According to Delray Beach 's 2014 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:
Delray Beach has experienced a drastic spike in opioid overdoses in recent years, ascending to a record numbers in 2016 and 2017. The number reached its pinnacle of 96 in October 2016. Most overdoses are a result of Heroin mixed with Fentanyl.
Downtown Delray Beach is accessible by boat via The Intracoastal Waterway. The city has a municipal marina with rental slips just south of the Atlantic Avenue crossing. Yacht cruises also launch daily from Veteran 's Park just north of the Atlantic Avenue drawbridge.
Delray Beach has three sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International:
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when was the first music video aired on tv | List of first music videos aired on MTV - wikipedia
This is a list of the first music videos broadcast on MTV 's first day, August 1, 1981. MTV 's first day on the air was rebroadcast on VH1 Classic in 2006 and again in 2011 (the latter celebrating the channel 's 30th anniversary). The first hour on the air was broadcast again on August 1, 2016 and was called MTV Hour One, as part of VH1 Classic 's planned re-launch as MTV Classic, MTV itself, and additionally streamed on the channel 's Facebook page.
The Buggles had the honor of the inaugural video, with the appropriate "Video Killed the Radio Star. '' Although the fledgling network broadcast 208 video segments in its first 24 hours, only 116 videos were actually played as many were repeated. For instance, "You Better You Bet '' by The Who, which was also the first video to be repeated, "Just Between You and Me '' by April Wine, and "In the Air Tonight '' by Phil Collins were each played five times. Rod Stewart made the most total appearances that day with 16, with 11 of his videos being played.
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who played an important role in the gadar movement in 1915 | Ghadar party - Wikipedia
The Ghadar Party (Punjabi: ਗ਼ਦਰ ਪਾਰਟੀ) was an organisation founded by Punjabis, principally Sikhs in the United States and Canada with the aim of securing India 's independence from British rule. It was an extremist revolutionary association of Indians with headquarters at San Francisco. Key members included, Bhai Parmanand, Sohan Singh Bhakna, Har Dayal, Kartar Singh Sarabha, Abdul Hafiz Mohamed Barakatullah, Rashbehari Bose and Gulab Kaur.
After the outbreak of World War I, Ghadar party members returned to Punjab to agitate for rebellion alongside the Babbar Akali Movement. In 1915 they conducted revolutionary activities in central Punjab and organised uprisings. Their presence challenged the hold of the British Empire; police surveillance in Punjabi villages increased in an attempt to crush the rebellion. The party is known for setting the foundation for future Indian revolutionary movements and served as a stepping stone for independence. Though predominantly Sikh, the party included members and leaders of many religions, demonstrating an accepting and democratic attitude towards all people as they united in their patriotism. After the conclusion of the war, the party in America split into Communist and Anti-Communist factions. The party was formally dissolved in 1948.
Ghadar is an Urdu word derived from Arabic which means "revolt '' or "rebellion. '' As Kartar Singh Sarabha, one of the founders of the party, wrote in the first issue: "Today there begins ' Ghadar ' in foreign lands, but in our country 's tongue, a war against the British Raj. What is our name? Ghadar. What is our work? Ghadar. Where will be the Revolution? In India. The time will soon come when rifles and blood will take the place of pens and ink. '' The name of the organisation was primarily spelled "Gadar Party '' or "Ghadr Party '' by its members.
The economic downturn in India during the early twentieth century witnessed a high level of emigration. Some of these emigrants settled in North America. These included Punjabis as well as people from other parts of India. The Canadian government decided to curtail this influx with a series of laws, which were aimed at limiting the entry of South Asians into the country and restricting the political rights of those already in the country. The Punjabi community had hitherto been an important loyal force for the British Empire and the community had expected, equal welcome and rights from the British and Commonwealth governments as extended to British and white immigrants. These laws fed growing discontent, protests and anti-colonial sentiments within the community. Faced with increasingly difficult situations, the community began organising itself into political groups. A large number of Punjabis also moved to the United States, but they encountered similar political and social problems.
RasBihari Bose on request from Vishnu Ganesh Pingle, an American trained Ghadr, who met Bose at Benares and requested him to take up the leadership of the coming revolution. But before accepting the responsibility, he sent Sachin Sanyal to the Punjab to assess the situation. Sachin returned very optimistic., in the United States and Canada with the aim to liberate India from British rule. The movement began with a group of immigrants known as the Hindustani Workers of the Pacific Coast.
The Ghadar Party, initially the Pacific Coast Hindustan Association, was formed in 1913 in the United States under the leadership of Har Dayal, Sant Baba Wasakha Singh Dadehar, Baba Jawala Singh, Santokh Singh and Sohan Singh Bhakna as its president. The members of the party were Indian immigrants, largely from Punjab. Many of its members were students at University of California at Berkeley including Dayal, Tarak Nath Das, Maulavi Barkatullah, Harnam Singh Tundilat, Kartar Singh Sarabha and V.G. Pingle. The party quickly gained support from Indian expatriates, especially in the United States, Canada, East Africa and Asia.
The party was built around the weekly paper The Ghadar, which carried the caption on the masthead: Angrezi Raj Ka Dushman (an enemy of the British rule). "Wanted brave soldiers '', the Ghadar declared, "to stir up rebellion in India. Pay - death; Price - martyrdom; Pension - liberty; Field of battle - India ''. The ideology of the party was strongly secular. In the words of Sohan Singh Bhakna, who later became a major peasant leader of the Punjab: "We were not Sikhs or Punjabis. Our religion was patriotism ''. The first issue of The Ghadar, was published from San Francisco on November 1, 1913.
Following the voyage of the Komagata Maru (Guru Nanak Jhaj) in 1914, a direct challenge to Canadian anti-Indian immigration laws, several thousand Indians resident in the United States sold their business and homes ready to drive the British from India. However, Hardayal had fled to Europe concerned that the US authorities would hand him over to the British. Sohan Singh Bhakna was already in British hands, and the leadership fell to Ram Chandra. Following the entry of Canada into World War I, the organisation was centred in the USA and received substantial funding from the German government. They had a very militant tone, as illustrated by this quote from Harnam Singh:
The party rose to prominence in the second decade of the 20th century, and grew in strength owing to Indian discontent over World War I and the lack of political reforms.
Ghadar activists undertook what the British described as political terrorism. Ghadar activists were responsible for bombs planted on government property.
In 1917 some of their leaders were arrested and put on trial in the Hindu German Conspiracy Trial in which their paper was quoted.
The Ghadar party commanded a loyal following the province of Punjab, but many of its most prominent activists were forced into exile to Canada and the United States. It ceased to play an active role in Indian politics after 1919. The party had active members in other countries such as Mexico, Japan, China, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines, Malaya, Indo - China and Eastern and Southern Africa.
A character in the World War II thriller The Tenth Unknown by author Jvalant Nalin Sampat is a member of the Ghadar Party and is involved in the Ghadar Mutiny.
Ajmer Singh - Gadari Babe Kaun San - https://archive.org/details/GadriBabeKounSanByAjmerSingh
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doc martin how many episodes in season 7 | List of Doc Martin episodes - wikipedia
Doc Martin is a British comedy - drama that has aired on ITV since 2004, with a first season of six episodes. The episode number for the second series increased to eight. This was followed by a special bonus TV film and a third series of seven episodes. The next four series aired eight episodes each. Series 8 began on 20 September 2017 and as of 11 October 2017, 4 episodes have aired, bringing the total to 58 episodes (from the series plus the stand - alone TV Film).
Louisa buys two tickets to the Portwenn Players Dance and invites Martin. He does n't want to go so Louisa offers the ticket to Mark instead. Peter Cronk, a boy at Louisa 's school, causes trouble on a wildlife trip and Martin meets the Park Ranger Stewart, who believes he lives with a 6 foot squirrel named Anthony.
John Slater, an old flame of Joan 's, returns to the village hoping to rekindle his love affair with her, but Martin discovers he has a life - threatening heart condition. Fifteen - year - old Melanie Gibson (Stephanie Leonidas) has a crush on the doctor after he mends her dislocated shoulder.
An old man, inexplicably emanating a horrible stench, consults Doctor Ellingham; and the local radio host, Caroline, seems to have a serious drinking problem. Julie Mitchell arrives in Portwenn and immediately catches the attention of PC Mark Mylow.
Martin examines Helen Pratt, but she collapses and dies. Her husband, Phil, is angry with the doctor and blames him for his wife 's death. A feud develops between Phil and Helen 's long - time friend Joan after Phil becomes convinced that Joan knew something secret about him. Joan encourages Martin to explain the circumstances of Helen 's death to Phil, having previously been extremely cold and insensitive following her death. Pauline begins training to become a member of the lifeboat crew, flirting with her instructor, Ross, in the process, causing Al to become jealous.
Martin 's cold and difficult parents come to stay with him. He has n't seen them for seven years, and is puzzled as to why they should turn up out of the blue. Mark and Julie get engaged. Danny Steel 's lung collapses whilst renovating a house and Martin examines a woman with what she claims is a thyroid, but the results turn out to be rather different.
Dr. Martin Ellingham struggles to deal with Louisa 's news, and is conflicted over what action to take. But Louisa is adamant she does not want Martin involved. Auntie Joan, however, is highly insistent that she help Louisa through the pregnancy. Louisa takes a job back at Portwenn Primary School, where the headmaster is creating suspicion and public concern over his increasingly erratic behaviour. Martin realises the schoolmaster is unwell when he evacuates blue urine. Things come to a frightening turn when he takes a class of schoolchildren to the beach.
A. ^ Episode 1 is based on 28 day data from BARB for ITV and ITV + 1. Episodes 2 and 3 are based on 28 day data from BARB for ITV and ITV + 1 and 7 day data for ITV HD. Episodes 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 are based on 28 day data from BARB for ITV, ITV + 1 and ITV HD.
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before 1963 nagaland was the part of which state | Nagaland - Wikipedia
Nagaland / ˈnɑːɡəlænd / is a state in Northeast India. It borders the state of Assam to the west, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam to the north, Myanmar to the east, and Manipur to the south. The state capital is Kohima, and the largest city is Dimapur. It has an area of 16,579 square kilometres (6,401 sq mi) with a population of 1,980,602 per the 2011 Census of India, making it one of the smallest states of India.
The state is inhabited by 16 tribes -- Angami, Ao, Chakhesang, Chang, Kachari, Khiamniungan, Konyak, Kuki, Lotha, Phom, Pochury, Rengma, Sangtam, Sumi, Yimchunger, and Zeme - Liangmai (Zeliang) Each tribe is unique in character with its own distinct customs, language and dress.
Two threads common to all are language and religion. English is the official language, the language of education, and spoken by most residents. Nagaland is one of three states in India where the population is mostly Christian.
Nagaland became the 16th state of India on 1 December 1963. Agriculture is the most important economic activity and the principal crops include rice, corn, millets, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds, sugarcane, potatoes, and fibres. Other significant economic activity includes forestry, tourism, insurance, real estate, and miscellaneous cottage industries.
The state has experienced insurgency, as well as inter-ethnic conflict since the 1950s. The violence and insecurity have long limited Nagaland 's economic development, because it had to commit its scarce resources to law, order, and security.
The state is mostly mountainous except those areas bordering Assam valley which comprises 9 % of the total area of the state. Mount Saramati is the highest peak at 3,840 metres and its range forms a natural barrier between Nagaland and Burma. It lies between the parallels of 98 and 96 degrees east longitude and 26.6 and 27.4 degrees latitude north. The state is home to a rich variety of flora and fauna.
The ancient history of the Nagas is unclear. Tribes migrated at different times, each settling in the northeastern part of present India and establishing their respective sovereign mountain terrains and village - states. There are no records of whether they came from the northern Mongolian region, southeast Asia or southwest China, except that their origins are from the east of India and that historic records show the present - day Naga people settled before the arrival of the Ahoms in 1228 AD.
The origin of the word ' Naga ' is also unclear. A popularly accepted, but controversial, view is that it originated from the Burmese word ' naka ' or ' naga ', meaning people with earrings. Others suggest it means pierced noses. Both naka and naga are pronounced the same way in Burmese. The ancient name of Nagaland is ' Nakanchi ' or ' Naganchi ', derived from the Naga language.
Before the arrival of European colonialism in South Asia, there had been many wars, persecution and raids from Burma on Naga tribes, Meitei people and others in India 's northeast. The invaders came for "head hunting '' and to seek wealth and captives from these tribes and ethnic groups. When the British inquired Burmese guides about the people living in northern Himalayas, they were told ' Naka '. This was recorded as ' Naga ' and has been in use thereafter.
With the arrival of the British East India Company in the early 19th century, followed by the British Raj, Britain expanded its domain over the whole of South Asia, including the Naga Hills. The first Europeans to enter the hills were Captains Jenkins and Pemberton in 1832. The early contact with the Naga tribes were characterised by suspicion and conflict. The colonial interests in Assam, such as tea estates and other trading posts suffered from raids from tribes who were known for their bravery and "head hunting '' practices. To put an end to these raids, the British troops recorded 10 military expeditions between 1839 and 1850. In February 1851, at the bloody battle at Kikrüma, people died on the British and the Kikrüma Naga tribe side; in days after the battle, intertribal warfare followed that led to more bloodshed. After that war, the British adopted a policy of respect and non-interference with Naga tribes.
Despite this, between 1851 and 1865, Naga tribes continued to raid the British in Assam. The British India Government, fresh from the shocks of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, reviewed its governance structure throughout South Asia including its northeastern region. In 1866, the British India administration established a post at Samaguting with the explicit goal of ending intertribal warfare and tribal raids on property and personnel. In 1869, Captain Butler was appointed to lead and consolidate the British presence in the Nagaland Hills. In 1878, the headquarters were transferred to Kohima -- creating a city that remains an important centre of administration, commerce and culture for Nagaland.
On 4 October 1879, G.H. Damant (M.A.C.S), a British political agent, went to Khonoma with troops, where he was shot dead with 35 of his team. Kohima was subsequently attacked and the stockade looted. This violence led to a determined effort by the British Raj to return and respond. The subsequent defeat of Khonoma marked the end of serious and persistent hostility in the Naga Hills.
Between 1880 and 1922, the British administration consolidated their position over a large area of the Naga Hills and integrated it into its Assam operations. The British administration enforced the rupee as the currency for economic activity and a system of structured tribal government that was very different than historic social governance practices. These developments triggered profound social changes among the Naga people.
In parallel, since the mid-19th century, Christian missionaries from the United States and Europe, stationed in India, reached into Nagaland and neighbouring states, converting Nagaland 's Naga tribes from animism to Christianity.
In 1944 during World War II, the Indian National Army with the help of Japanese Army, led by Netaji Subhashchandra Bose, invaded through Burma and attempted to take India through Kohima. The population was evacuated. British India soldiers defended the area of Kohima and having lost many of their original force were relieved by British in June 1944. Together the British and Indian troops successfully repelled the Japanese troops. The battle was fought from 4 April to 22 June 1944 from the town of Kohima, coordinated with action at Imphal, Manipur. The Indian National Army lost half their numbers, many through starvation, and were forced to withdraw through Burma.
There is the World War II Cemetery, and the War Museum, in honour of those who lost their lives during World War II during the fighting between British Empire and Japanese troops. Nearly 4,000 British Empire troops lost their lives, along with 3,000 Japanese. Many of those who lost their lives were Naga people, particularly of Angami tribe. Near the memorial is the Kohima Cathedral, on Aradura hill, built with funds from the families and friends of deceased Japanese soldiers. Prayers are held in Kohima for peace and in memory of the fallen of both sides of the battle.
In 1929, a Memorandum was submitted to the Simon Statutory Commission, requesting that the Nagas be exempt from reforms and new taxes proposed in British India, should be left alone to determine their own future. This Naga Memorandum stated,
Before the British Government conquered our country in 1879 - 80, we were living in a state of intermittent warfare with the Assamese of the Assam valley to the North and West of our country and Manipuris to the South. They never conquered us nor were we subjected to their rules. On the other hand, we were always a terror to these people. Our country within the administered area consists of more than eight regions quite different from one another, with quite different languages which can not be understood by each other, and there are more regions outside the administered area which are not known at present. We have no unity among us and it is only the British Government that is holding us together now. Our education is poor. (...) Our country is poor and it does not pay for any administration. Therefore if it is continued to be placed under Reformed Scheme, we are afraid new and heavy taxes will have to be imposed on us, and when we can not pay, then all lands have to be sold and in long run we shall have no share in the land of our birth and life will not be worth living then. Though our land at present is within the British territory, Government have always recognised our private rights in it, but if we are forced to enter the council the majority of whose number is sure to belong to other districts, we also have much fear the introduction of foreign laws and customs to supersede our own customary laws which we now enjoy.
From 1929 to 1935, the understanding of sovereignty by Nagas was ' self - rule ' based on traditional territorial definition. From 1935 to 1945, Nagas were merely asking for autonomy within Assam. In response to the Naga memorandum to Simon Commission, the British House of Commons decreed that the Naga Hills ought to be kept outside the purview of the New Constitution; the Government of India Act, 1935 and ordered Naga areas as Excluded Area; meaning outside the administration of British India government. Thereafter from 1 April 1937, it was brought under the direct administration of the Crown through Her Majesty 's representative; the Governor of Assam province.
The Naga Memorandum submitted by the Naga Club (which later became the Naga National Council) to the Simon Commission explicitly stated, ' to leave us alone to determine ourselves as in ancient times. ' In February 1946, the Naga Club officially took shape into a unified Naga National Council in Wokha. In June 1946, the Naga National Council submitted a four - point memorandum to officials discussing the independence of India from British colonial rule. The memorandum strongly protested against the grouping of Assam with Bengal and asserted that Naga Hills should be constitutionally included in an autonomous Assam, in a free India, with local autonomy, due safeguards and separate electorate for the Naga tribes.
Jawaharlal Nehru replied to the memorandum and welcomed the Nagas to join the Union of India promising local autonomy and safeguards. On 9 April 1946, the Naga National Council (NNC) submitted a memorandum to the British Cabinet Mission during its visit to Delhi. The crux of the memorandum stated that: "Naga future would not be bound by any arbitrary decision of the British Government and no recommendation would be accepted without consultation ''.
In June 1946, the NNC submitted a four - point memorandum signed by T. Sakhrie; the then Secretary of NNC, to the still - visiting British Cabinet Mission. The memorandum stated that: 1. The NNC stands for the solidarity of all Naga tribes, including those in un-administered areas; 2. The Council protests against the grouping of Assam with Bengal; 3. The Naga Hills should be constitutionally included in an autonomous Assam, in a free India, with local autonomy and due safeguards for the interests of the Nagas; 4. The Naga tribes should have a separate electorate.
On 1 August 1946, Nehru, President of the Indian National Congress Party in his reply to the memorandum, appealed to the Nagas to join the Union of India promising local autonomy and safeguards in a wide - ranging areas of administration. It was after 1946 only that the Nagas had asserted their inalienable right to be a separate nation and an absolute right to live independently.
After the independence of India in 1947, the area remained a part of the province of Assam. Nationalist activities arose amongst a section of the Nagas. Phizo - led Naga National Council and demanded a political union of their ancestral and native groups. The movement led to a series of violent incidents, that damaged government and civil infrastructure, attacked government officials and civilians. The union government sent the Indian Army in 1955, to restore order. In 1957, an agreement was reached between Naga leaders and the Indian government, creating a single separate region of the Naga Hills. The Tuensang frontier was united with this single political region, Naga Hills Tuensang Area (NHTA), and it became a Union territory directly administered by the Central government with a large degree of autonomy. This was not satisfactory to the tribes, however, and agitation with violence increased across the state -- including attacks on army and government institutions, banks, as well as non-payment of taxes. In July 1960, following discussion between Prime Minister Nehru and the leaders of the Naga People Convention (NPC), a 16 - point agreement was arrived at whereby the Government of India recognised the formation of Nagaland as a full - fledged state within the Union of India.
Accordingly, the territory was placed under the Nagaland Transitional Provisions Regulation, 1961 which provided for an Interim body consisting of 45 members to be elected by tribes according to the customs, traditions and usage of the respective tribes. Subsequently, Nagaland attained statehood with the enactment of the state of Nagaland Act in 1962 by the Parliament. The interim body was dissolved on 30 November 1963 and the state of Nagaland was formally inaugurated on 1 December 1963 and Kohima was declared as the state capital. After elections in January 1964, the first democratically elected Nagaland Legislative Assembly was constituted on 11 February 1964.
The rebel activity continued, in the form of banditry and attacks, motivated more by tribal rivalry and personal vendetta than by political aspiration. Cease - fires were announced and negotiations continued, but this did little to stop the violence. In March 1975, direct presidential rule was imposed by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi on the state. In November 1975, the leaders of largest rebellion groups agreed to lay down their arms and accept the Indian constitution, a small group did not agree and continued their insurgent activity. The Nagaland Baptist Church Council played an important role by initiating peace efforts in 1960s. This took concrete and positive shape during its Convention in early 1964. It formed the Nagaland Peace Council in 1972. However, these efforts have not completely ended the inter-factional violence. In 2012, the state 's leaders approached Indian central government to seek a political means for a lasting peace within the state.
Over the 5 - year period of 2009 to 2013, between 0 and 11 civilians died per year in Nagaland from rebellion related activity (or less than 1 death per 100,000 people), and between 3 and 55 militants deaths per year in inter-factional killings (or between 0 and 3 deaths per 100,000 people). The world 's average annual death rate from intentional violence, in recent years, has been 7.9 per 100,000 people. The most recent Nagaland Legislative Assembly election took place on 27th February 2018 to elect the Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) in 59 out of the 60 Assembly Constituencies in the state. The scheduled election in Northern Angami II constituency did not take place as only incumbent MLA Neiphiu Rio was nominated and was therefore declared elected unopposed. A voter turnout of 75 % was observed in the 2018 election.
Historically, Naga tribes celebrated two main rituals. These were feasting and head hunting.
Head hunting, a male activity, would involve separating men from their women before, during and after coming back from an expedition. The women, as a cultural practice, would encourage men to undertake head - hunting as a prerequisite to marriage. The men would go on an expedition against other tribes or neighbouring kingdoms, and kill to score number of heads they were able to hunt. A successful head hunter would be conferred a right to ornaments. The practice of head hunting was banned in 19th century India, and is no longer practised among Naga people.
In Naga society, individuals were expected to find their place in the social hierarchy, and prestige was the key to maintaining or increasing social status. To achieve these goals a man, whatever his ascendancy, had to be a headhunter or great warrior, have many conquests among women sex, or complete a series of merit feasts.
The Feasts of Merit reflected the splendor and celebration of Naga life. Only married men could give such Feasts, and his wife took a prominent and honoured place during the ritual which emphasised male - female co-operation and interdependence. His wife brewed the beer which he offered to the guests. The event displayed ceremonies and festivities organised by the sponsor. The Feast given by a wealthier tribes person would be more extravagant. He would typically invite everyone from the tribe. This event bestowed honour to the couple from the tribe. After the Feast, the tribe would give the couple rights to ornaments equally.
Nagaland is largely a mountainous state. The Naga Hills rise from the Brahmaputra Valley in Assam to about 610 metres (2,000 ft) and rise further to the southeast, as high as 1,800 metres (6,000 ft). Mount Saramati at an elevation of 3,841.00 metres (12,601.70 ft) is the state 's highest peak; this is where the Naga Hills merge with the Patkai Range in which form the boundary with Burma. Rivers such as the Doyang and Diphu to the north, the Barak river in the southwest, dissect the entire state. 20 percent of the total land area of the state is covered with wooded forest, a haven for flora and fauna. The evergreen tropical and the sub tropical forests are found in strategic pockets in the state.
Nagaland has a largely monsoon climate with high humidity levels. Annual rainfall averages around 1,800 -- 2,500 millimetres (70 -- 100 in), concentrated in the months of May to September. Temperatures range from 21 to 40 ° C (70 to 104 ° F). In winter, temperatures do not generally drop below 4 ° C (39 ° F), but frost is common at high elevations. The state enjoys a salubrious climate. Summer is the shortest season in the state that lasts for only a few months. The temperature during the summer season remains between 16 to 31 ° C (61 to 88 ° F). Winter makes an early arrival and bitter cold and dry weather strikes certain regions of the state. The maximum average temperature recorded in the winter season is 24 ° C (75 ° F). Strong northwest winds blow across the state during the months of February and March.
About one - sixth of Nagaland is covered by tropical and sub-tropical evergreen forests -- including palms, bamboo, rattan as well as timber and mahogany forests. While some forest areas have been cleared for jhum cultivation, many scrub forests, high grass, and reeds. Many staple Indian species live in Nagaland including dholes, pangolins, porcupines, elephants, leopards, bears, many species of monkeys, deer, and buffaloes thrive across the state 's forests.
The great Indian hornbill is one of the most famous birds found in the state. Blyth 's tragopan, a vulnerable species of pheasant, is the state bird of Nagaland. It is sighted in Mount Japfü and Dzükou Valley of Kohima district, Satoi range in Zunheboto district and Pfütsero in Phek district. Of the mere 2500 tragopans sighted in the world, Dzükou valley is the natural habitat of more than 1,000. The state is also known as the "falcon capital of the world. ''
Mithun (a semi-domesticated gaur) found only in the north - eastern states of India, is the state animal of Nagaland and has been adopted as the official seal of the Government of Nagaland. It is ritually the most valued species in the state. To conserve and protect this animal in the northeast, the National Research Centre on Mithun (NRCM) was established by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in 1988.
Nagaland is home to 396 species of orchids, belonging to 92 genera of which 54 having horticultural and medicinal economic importance. Kopou (pictured right) is also used for festive hairstyle decoration by women in India 's northeast. Rhododendron is the state flower. The state has at least four species which is endemic to the state.
Several preliminary studies indicate significant recoverable reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Limestone, marble and other decorative stone reserves are plentiful, and other as yet unexploited minerals include iron, nickel, cobalt and chromium.
The Nagaland population is largely rural with 71.14 % living in rural regions in 2011. Census reports up to 1951 listed just one settlement in Nagaland as a town, the capital Kohima. The next two settlements, Dimapur and Mokokchung, were listed as towns from 1961. Four more towns appeared in 1981, Tuensang, Wokha, Mon and Zunheboto.
The relatively slow rate of urbanization in Nagaland was described in the 1980s as being an effect of (a) the largely administrative roles of the towns, except for Dimapur which had a more diversified economy, and (b) a low level of mobility among the tribes of Nagaland, scheduled tribes constituting nearly 90 % of the population.
The population of Nagaland is nearly two million people, of which 1.04 million are males and 0.95 million females. Among its districts, Dimapur has the largest population (379,769), followed by Kohima (270,063). The least populated district is Longleng (50,593). 75 % of the population lives in the rural areas. As of 2013, about 10 % of rural population is below the poverty line; among the people living in urban areas 4.3 % of them are below the poverty line.
The state showed a population drop between 2001 census to 2011 census, the only state to show a population drop in the census. This has been attributed, by scholars, to incorrect counting in past censuses; the 2011 census in Nagaland is considered most reliable so far.
The largest urban agglomerations are centred upon Dimapur (122,834) and Kohima (115,283). Other major towns (and 2011 census populations) are Tuensang (36,774), Mokokchung (35,913), Wokha (35,004), Mon (26,328), Chumukedima (25,885), Zunheboto (22,633), Kiphire (16,487), Kuda (16,108), Kohima Village (15,734), Phek (14,204), Pfutsero (10,371) and Diphupar ' A ' (10,246).
Languages of Nagaland in 2011
Naga people form the majority of the population. According to the 2011 census there are 2 million people living in Nagaland. The Naga people numbering around 1.8 million in the state, constituting over 90 % of the population. Per Grierson 's classification system, Naga languages can be grouped into Western, Central and Eastern groups. The Western group includes (among others) Angami, Chokri and Kheza. The Central group includes Ao, Sumi, Lotha and Sangtam, whereas the Eastern group includes Konyak and Chang. In addition, there are Naga - Bodo group illustrated by Mikir language, and Kuki group of languages illustrated by Sopvama (also called Mao Naga) and Luppa languages. These belong mostly to the Sino - Tibetan language family. Shafer came up with his own classification system for languages found in and around Nagaland. Each tribe has one or more dialects that are unintelligible to others.
In 1967, the Nagaland Assembly proclaimed English as the official language of Nagaland and it is the medium for education in Nagaland. Other than English, Nagamese, a creole language based on Assamese, is widely spoken.
The major languages spoken as per the 2001 census are Ao (257,500), Konyak (248,002), Lotha (168,356), Angami (131,737), Phom (122,454), Sema (92,884), Yimchungre (92,092), Sangtam (84,150), Chakru (83,506), Chang (62,347), Zeme (71,954, covering Zeliang, 61,492 and Zemi, 10,462), Bengali (58,890), Rengma (58,590), Hindi (56,981), Kheza (40,362), Khiamniungan (37,752), Nepali (34,222), Pochury (16,681), Kuki (16,846), Assamese (16,183) and Chakhesang (9,544).
Religion in Nagaland (2011)
The state 's population is 1.978 million, out of which 88 % are Christians. The census of 2011 recorded the state 's Christian population at 1,739,651, making it one of the three Christian - majority states in India along with Meghalaya and Mizoram. The state has a very high church attendance rate in both urban and rural areas. Huge churches dominate the skylines of Kohima, Dimapur, and Mokokchung.
Nagaland is known as "the only predominantly Baptist state in the world '' and "the most Baptist state in the world '' Among Christians, Baptists have constituted more than 75 % of the state 's population, thus making it more Baptist (on a percentage basis) than Mississippi in the southern United States, where 55 % of the population is Baptist, and Texas which is 51 % Baptist. Roman Catholics, Revivalists, and Pentecostals are the other Christian denominations. Catholics are found in significant numbers in parts of Phek district, Wokha district and Kohima district as well as in the urban areas of Kohima and Dimapur.
Christianity arrived in Nagaland in the early 19th century. The American Baptist Naga mission grew out of the Assam mission in 1836. Miles Bronson, Nathan Brown and other Christian missionaries working out of Jaipur to bring Christianity to the Indian subcontinent, saw the opportunity for gaining converts since India 's northeast was principally animist and folk religion driven. Along with other tribal regions of the northeast, the people of Nagaland accepted Christianity. However, the conversions have been marked by high rates of re-denomination ever since. After having converted to Christianity, people do not feel bound to any one sect and tend to switch affiliation between denominations. According to a 2007 report, breakaway churches are constantly being established alongside older sects. These new Christian churches differ from older ones in terms of their liturgical traditions and methods of worship. The younger churches exhibit a more vocally explicit form of worship. The Constitution of India grants all citizens a freedom to leave, change or adopt any religion and its new sects.
Hinduism, Islam and Jainism are also found in Nagaland. They are minority religions in the state, at 8.75 %, 2.47 % and 0.13 % of the population respectively.
The governor is the constitutional head of state, representative of the President of India. He possesses largely ceremonial responsibilities apart from law and order responsibilities.
The Legislative Assembly of Nagaland (Vidhan Sabha) is the real executive and legislative body of the state. The 60 - member Vidhan Sabha -- all elected members of legislature -- forms the government executive and is led by the Chief minister. Unlike most states in India, Nagaland has been granted a great degree of state autonomy, as well as special powers and autonomy for Naga tribes to conduct their own affairs. Each tribe has a hierarchy of councils at the village, range, and tribal levels dealing with local disputes.
When created in 1963 the state of Nagaland was divided into just three districts, Kohima district, Mokokchung district and Tuensang district. By a process of subdivision that number increased to seven in 1973, to eleven by 2004, and the most recent district to be created, Noklak district in 2017, brought the total number to twelve districts. Tuensang district is now the largest, nearly five times the area of Longleng district, the smallest. The most populous and the most urbanized is Dimapur district, with seven times the inhabitants of Longleng, the least populous. Noklak district is considered entirely rural. Dimapur district is also at the lowest elevation, Zunheboto district being highest in the mountains.
The Democratic Alliance of Nagaland (DAN) is a state level coalition of political parties. It headed the government with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and Janata Dal (United) (JDU). It was formed in 2003 after the Nagaland Legislative Assembly election, with the Naga People 's Front (NPF), and the BJP. The alliance has been in power in Nagaland since 2003.
The Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of Nagaland was about ₹ 12,065 crore (US $1.8 billion) in 2011 - 12. Nagaland 's GSDP grew at 9.9 % compounded annually for a decade, thus more than doubling the per capita income.
Nagaland has a high literacy rate of 80.1 per cent. The majority of the population in the state speaks English, which is the official language of the state. The state offers technical and medical education. Nevertheless, agriculture and forestry contribute majority of Nagaland 's Gross Domestic Product. The state is rich in mineral resources such as coal, limestone, iron, nickel, cobalt, chromium, and marble. Nagaland has a recoverable reserve of limestone of 1,000 million tonnes plus a large untapped resource of marble and handicraft stone.
Most of state 's population, about 68 per cent, depends on rural cultivation. The main crops are rice, millet, maize, and pulses. Cash crops, like sugarcane and potato, are also grown in some parts.
Plantation crops such as premium coffee, cardamom, and tea are grown in hilly areas in small quantities with a large growth potential. Most people cultivate rice as it is the main staple diet of the people. About 80 % of the cropped area is dedicated to rice. Oilseeds is another, higher income crop gaining ground in Nagaland. The farm productivity for all crops is low, compared to other Indian states, suggesting significant opportunity for farmer income increase. Currently the Jhum to Terraced cultivation ratio is 4: 3; where Jhum is local name for cut - and - burn shift farming. Jhum farming is ancient, causes a lot of pollution and soil damage, yet accounts for majority of farmed area. The state does not produce enough food, and depends on trade of food from other states of India.
Forestry is also an important source of income. Cottage industries such as weaving, woodwork, and pottery are important sourcesof revenue.
Tourism has a lot of potential, but was largely limited due to insurgency and concern of violence over the last five decades. More recently, a number of Small Medium Enterprises and private sector companies have actively promoted Nagaland tourism, helping initiate a growing tourism market. Tourism experts contend that the state 's uniqueness and strategic location in northeast India give Nagaland an advantage in tapping into the tourism sector for economic growth.
Nagaland 's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at $1.4 billion in current prices.
The state generates 87.98 MU compared to a demand for 242.88 MU. This deficit requires Nagaland to buy power. The state has significant hydroelectric potential, which if realised could make the state a power surplus state. In terms of power distribution, every village and town, and almost every household has an electricity connection; but, this infrastructure is not effective given the power shortage in the state.
Tourism experts contend that the state 's uniqueness and strategic location in northeast India give Nagaland an advantage in tapping into the tourism sector for economic growth. The state has been extremely successful in promoting the Hornbill Festival, which attracts Indian and foreign tourists alike. The key thrusts of Nagaland 's tourism are its rich culture, showcasing of history and wildlife. Tourism infrastructure is rapidly improving and experts contend this is no longer an issue as was in the past. Local initiatives and tourism pioneers are now beginning to promote a socially responsible tourism model involving participation of the councils, village elders, the church and the youth.
After a gap of almost 20 years, Nagaland state Chief Minister, T.R. Zeliang launched the resumption of oil exploration in Changpang and Tsori areas, under Wokha district in July 2014. The exploration will be carried out by the Metropolitan Oil & Gas Pvt. Ltd. Zeliang has alleged failures and disputed payments made to the state made by previous explorer, the state owned Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC).
Nagaland is known in India as the land of festivals. The diversity of people and tribes, each with their own culture and heritage, creates a year - long atmosphere of celebrations. In addition, the state celebrates all the Christian festivities. Traditional tribe - related festivals revolve round agriculture, as a vast majority of the population of Nagaland is directly dependent on agriculture. Some of the significant festivals for each major tribe are:
Hornbill Festival was launched by the Government of Nagaland in December 2000 to encourage intertribal interaction and to promote cultural heritage of the state. Organized by the State Tourism Department and Art & Culture Department. Hornbill Festival showcases a mélange of cultural displays under one roof. This festival takes place between 1 and 10 December every year.
It is held at Naga Heritage Village, Kisama which is about 12 km from Kohima. All the tribes of Nagaland take part in this festival. The aim of the festival is to revive and protect the rich culture of Nagaland and display its history, culture and traditions.
The festival is named after the hornbill bird, which is displayed in folklores in most of the states tribes. The week - long festival unites Nagaland and people enjoy the colourful performances, crafts, sports, food fairs, games and ceremonies. Traditional arts which include paintings, wood carvings, and sculptures are on display. Festival highlights include traditional Naga Morungs rxhibition and sale of arts and crafts, food stalls, herbal medicine stalls, shows and sales, cultural medley -- songs and dances, fashion shows, beauty contest, traditional archery, naga wrestling, indigenous games and musical concerts. Additional attractions include the Konyak fire eating demonstration, pork - fat eating competitions, the Hornbill Literature Festival (including the Hutton Lectures), Hornbill Global Film Fest, Hornbill Ball, Choral Panorama, North East India Drum Ensemble, Naga king chilli eating competition, Hornbill National Rock Contest, Hornbill International Motor Rally and WW - II Vintage Car Rally.
The railway network in the state is minimal. Broad gauge lines run 12.84 kilometres (7.98 mi), National Highway roads 365.3 kilometres (227.0 mi), and state roads 1,094.5 kilometres (680.1 mi). Roads are the backbone of Nagaland 's transportation network. The state has over 15,000 km of surfaced roads, but these are not satisfactorily maintained given the weather damage. Yet, in terms of population served for each kilometre of surfaced road, Nagaland is the second best state in the region after Arunachal Pradesh.
Nagaland was first connected to the railway line in 1903 when the 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 3 ⁄ 8 in) wide metre gauge railway track earlier laid by Assam Bengal Railway from Chittagong to Lumding was extended to Tinsukia on the Dibru - Sadiya line.
As part of the Indian Railway 's ambitious plan to connect the capitals of all north - eastern states by broad gauge rail link, railway minister Suresh Prabhu laid the foundation stone of the 88 - km rail line to bring Kohima, the capital of Nagaland, on the railway map of India. The capitals of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura have already been connected with broad gauge line and projects are under various stages of progress to connect four other capitals of Mizoram, Meghalaya, Manipur and Sikkim.
The project will be executed in three phases. The first phase involves construction of Dhansiri to Sukhovi (16 km) line, the second phase involves Sukhovi to Khaibong (30 km) and the third phase involves Khaibong to Zubza (45 km). While the first phase of the project is targeted for completion by December 2018, the second and third phases are targeted for completion by December 2019 and March 2020 respectively. Rs 350 crore were allotted for financial year 2016 - 17 for the project. The total sanctioned cost of the project is Rs 2,315 crore. The railway ministry has decided to make the planning process for projects participatory having scope for people 's participation in the form of suggestions etc. For this an IT enabled platform has been designed which makes people 's participation easy and the process transparent. All stakeholders would be able to participate in the planning process and monitor progress of the projects.
Governor of Nagaland, PB Acharya, minister of state for railways, Rajen Gohain, chief minister of Nagaland TR Zeliang, general manager of Northeast Frontier Railway, Chahatey Ram, were present in the function held at the Dimapur railway. Dimapur is the only railway station in Nagaland and is on the Guwahati - Dibrugarh rail section. Since the region is culturally rich, instructions had been issued to design all future railway stations reflecting the local culture and heritage of the region. the Indian Railways Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC) would be advised to explore possibility of marketing the handloom and handicraft products of the state. This project was sanctioned by Railway Board in 2007 - 08. Considering its importance, it was declared a National Project in 2007. The new line will take off from the existing railhead at Dhansiri railway station, 19 km from Dimapur, and reach Zubza which is 16 km short of Kohima.
Railway: North East Frontier Railway
National highways: 365.3 kilometres (227.0 mi)
There are 1,094.5 kilometres (680.1 mi) of state highways: dimapur -- Mokokchung 55r55r6666r6ia Chazuba and Zunheboto
Nagaland schools are run by the state and central government or by private organisation. Instruction is mainly in English -- the official language of Nagaland. Under the 10 + 2 + 3 plan, after passing the Higher Secondary Examination (the grade 12 examination), students may enroll in general or professional degree programs.
Nagaland has two Central University (Nagaland University, Global Open University), one engineering college (National Institute of Technology Nagaland), one College of Veterinary Science and animal husbandary in jalukie and two private universities, St. Joseph University and (a branch of the Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts of India).
The 16 main tribes of Nagaland are Angami, Ao, Chakhesang, Chang, Dimasa Kachari, Khiamniungan, Konyak, Kuki, Lotha, Phom, Pochury, Rengma, Sangtam, Sumi, Yimchunger, and Zeliang. The Angamis, Aos, Konyaks, Lothas, and Sumis are the largest Naga tribes; there are several smaller tribes as well (see List of Naga tribes).
Tribe and clan traditions and loyalties play an important part in the life of Nagas. Weaving is a traditional art handed down through generations in Nagaland. Each of the tribe has unique designs and colours, producing shawls, shoulder bags, decorative spears, table mats, wood carvings, and bamboo works. Among many tribes the design of the shawl denotes the social status of the wearer. Some of the more known shawls include Tsungkotepsu and Rongsu of the Ao tribe; Sutam, Ethasu, Longpensu of the Lothas; Supong of the Sangtams, Rongkhim and Tsungrem Khim of the Yimchungers; the Angami Lohe shawls with thick embroidered animal motifs etc.
Folk songs and dances are essential ingredients of the traditional Naga culture. The oral tradition is kept alive through folk tales and songs. Naga folk songs are both romantic and historical, with songs narrating entire stories of famous ancestors and incidents. There are also seasonal songs which describe activities done in an agricultural season. Tribal dances of the Nagas give an insight into the inborn Naga reticence of the people. War dances and other dances belonging to distinctive Naga tribes are a major art form in Nagaland.
Nagaland is home to the bhut jolokia or ghost pepper, one of the hottest chilis in the world at 855,000 SHU on the Scoville scale. All the tribes of Nagaland have their own cuisine, and they use a lot of meat, fish, and fermented products in their dishes. However, the state dish is smoked pork cooked with fermented soya bean. Naga dishes use a lot of locally grown herbs, ghost peppers, ginger, and garlic. Famous dishes include snails cooked with pork and silkworm larvae, which is an expensive delicacy of the state. Galho is a vegetarian porridge cooked with rice, leaves, and condiments. Drinks include zutho and thutse, beers made with sticky rice.
Government
General information
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how many states is weed legal in us | Legality of cannabis by US jurisdiction - wikipedia
In the United States, the use and possession of cannabis is illegal under federal law for any purpose, by way of the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. Under the CSA, cannabis is classified as a Schedule I substance, determined to have a high potential for abuse and no accepted medical use, thereby prohibiting even medical use of the drug. At the state level, however, policies regarding the medical and non-medical use of cannabis vary greatly, and in many states conflict with federal law.
The medical use of cannabis is legal (with a doctor 's recommendation) in 29 states, plus the territories of Guam and Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia. Seventeen other states have more restrictive laws limiting THC content, for the purpose of allowing access to products that are rich in cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive component of cannabis. In the 32 U.S. jurisdictions that have passed comprehensive medical cannabis laws, the Rohrabacher -- Farr amendment prohibits the Justice Department from prosecuting individuals acting in accordance with those laws.
The non-medical use of cannabis is legal in 8 states (Alaska, California, Colorado, Maine, Massachusetts, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington) and decriminalized in another 14 states (plus the U.S. Virgin Islands). The District of Columbia has also legalized the non-medical use of cannabis; however, no system is in place for commercial distribution of the drug. In the states that have legalized non-medical cannabis, the 2013 Cole Memorandum previously provided some protections from the enforcement of federal law, but the memo was rescinded by Attorney General Jeff Sessions in January 2018.
There are currently three cannabinoid drugs (Marinol, Syndros, and Cesamet) that can be prescribed in accordance with federal law. The drug cannabidiol can not legally be prescribed (as with whole - plant cannabis), due to the fact that the Drug Enforcement Administration considers it a Schedule I drug. Despite this classification, a number of online retailers sell CBD products to all 50 states, claiming such products are derived from industrial hemp plants and therefore legal. The federal government has so far not taken action against these retailers.
Alabama
First - time possession for personal use may be punished as a misdemeanor, but further personal possession, or intent to sell, can result in felony charges.
Alaska
Legalized in Measure 2 on November 4, 2014.
Arizona
In November 2010, Arizona legalized medical marijuana when the voters passed Proposition 203 with 50.13 % of the vote.
Arkansas
Possession of amounts under three ounces is a criminal misdemeanor; the cities of Fayetteville and Eureka Springs have labeled cannabis the "lowest law enforcement priority ''. On November 8, 2016, the state legalized medical marijuana when voters passed Issue 6 by 53 %.
California
In July 1975, Governor Jerry Brown enacted Senate Bill 95, which reduced the penalty for possession of one ounce (28.5 grams) of cannabis or less to a citable misdemeanor. On November 5, 1996, California became the first state in the United States to legalize medical marijuana when the voters passed Proposition 215 by 56 %. On November 8, 2016, Proposition 64, also known as the Adult Use of Marijuana Act, passed by a vote of 57 % to 43 %, legalizing the sale and distribution of cannabis in both a dry and concentrated form. Adults are allowed to possess up to one ounce of cannabis for recreational use and can grow up to six live plants individually or more commercially with a license.
Colorado
Colorado Amendment 64 legalized the sale and possession of marijuana for non-medical uses on November 6, 2012, including private cultivation of up to six marijuana plants, with no more than three being mature.
Connecticut
Possession of less than one half ounce by persons 21 and over results in graduating scale of fines, and seizure of contraband. Under 21 face addition sanctions, to include temporary loss of license to drive.
Delaware
On February 10, 2012, Gov. Markell announced that he was suspending medical marijuana because of a letter from the Obama Justice Department alleging that its implementation would subject those licensed under the law, as well as public servants, to federal criminal prosecution. On 31 August 2016, Gov. Markell signed House Bill 400 into law, to expand medical cannabis programs for people with a terminal illness.
Florida
On November 8, 2016, the state legalized medical marijuana when voters passed Amendment 2 by 71 %. The rules implementing the law started on July 1.
Georgia
Any conviction of a marijuana possession, sale, or cultivation offense results in suspension of driver 's license. First - time offenders may be eligible for a conditional discharge under Section 16 - 13 - 2 of the Official Code of Georgia Annotated (O.C.G.A.), which operates as a dismissal if certain conditions are met, such as the payment of a fine and community service. A measure to allow medical cannabis oil passed the House in February 2015. On April 16, 2015, the non-psychoactive form of Marijuana oil (CBD Oil, also known as "Charlotte 's Web '') was legalized for medical use in the state.
Hawaii
On June 15, 2000, Governor Benjamin Cayetano signed a bill legalizing medical marijuana. On July 14, 2015 the Governor of Hawaii David Ige signed a bill into law allowing medical cannabis dispensaries. On July 14, 2016 David Ige also signed into law expanding medical cannabis programs.
Idaho
Personal use possession of 3 ounces or less of marijuana is a misdemeanor punishable by up to 1 year imprisonment or a fine up to $1,000 or both if for. If the quantity possessed is more than 3 ounces but less than 1 pound, it is a felony punishable by up to 5 years imprisonment or a fine up to $10,000 or both.
Illinois
Illinois passed the Cannabis Control Act in 1978, which technically allows for medical marijuana. However, in order for it to become an actuality, action is required from two state departments -- Human Services and the State Police -- neither of which has taken action. On August 1, 2013, Gov. Pat Quinn signed a bill legalizing medical marijuana; the legislation took effect on January 1, 2014.
On March 22, 2017, Illinois lawmakers proposed legalizing recreational marijuana in the state. The measure would also allow residents to possess up to 28 grams of marijuana, or about an ounce, and to grow five plants.
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
On April 14, 2014, Maryland Governor Martin O'Malley signed two pieces of cannabis reform legislation. SB 364 decriminalizes possession of 10 grams or less to a civil infraction punishable by a $100 fine for the first offense, a $250 fine for a second offense, and a $500 fine plus possible drug treatment for a third offense. HB 881 legalizes the possession, sale, and production of medical cannabis, and it authorizes the creation of a commission to license dispensaries, doctors, and patients to manage distribution. These two laws do not go into effect until October 1, 2014, prior to the effective date, possession of any amount of marijuana could still be charged and prosecuted.
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Personal use possession of 60 grams or less of marijuana is a misdemeanor punishable by up to 6 months imprisonment and a fine of $100 -- $500. A second offense is punishable by up to 3 years imprisonment or a fine up to $1,000 or both. Possession of more than 60 grams is a felony punishable by up to 5 years imprisonment or a fine up to $50,000 or both. Possession of any amount of marijuana with intent to distribute is a felony punishable by up to 20 years imprisonment or a fine up to $50,000 or both.
Nebraska
Possession of up to one ounce of cannabis is treated as a civil infraction for the first offense, and as a misdemeanor for the second and third offenses. A fine of up to $300 may be issued for the first offense, along with potential court - mandated drug education courses. A second offense is punishable by a fine of up to $500 and up to five days ' jail time, and a third offense carries up to a $500 fine and a maximum of one week in jail.
Nevada
On November 7, 2000, Nevada legalized medical marijuana when 65 % of the populace voted yes on Question 9. On November 8, 2016, the state legalized recreational marijuana when voters passed Question 2 by 54 %.
New Hampshire
On July 18, 2017, New Hampshire Governor Chris Sununu signed a bill into law decriminalizing possession of up to three - quarters of an ounce.
On July 23, 2013, New Hampshire legalized medical marijuana when Governor Maggie Hassan signed HB 573. On July 11, 2015 Governor Maggie Hassan signs a law that expands the medical marijuana law.
New Jersey
On January 18, 2010, New Jersey legalized medical marijuana when Governor Jon Corzine signed the New Jersey Compassionate Use Medical Marijuana Act. Maximum sentencing of 1 year in prison as a misdemeanor and a 1,000 dollar fine for possession of up to 50 grams. On September 19, 2016 New Jersey Governor Chris Christie signed a measure expanding the state 's medical marijuana law, further nullifying federal prohibition in practice. A coalition of representatives introduced Assembly Bill 457 (A457) in January. The new law adds post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) to the list of debilitating medical conditions that qualify a patient to receive medical marijuana under the New Jersey Compassionate Use Medical Marijuana Act. The Assembly passed A457 on June 16 by a 56 - 7 vote. After substituting the assembly bill for a Senate version, the Senate passed the measure 28 - 9 on Aug. 1. Gov. Christie 's signature, the provision went into immediate effect.
New Mexico
In April 2007, New Mexico legalized medical marijuana when Governor Bill Richardson signed Senate Bill 523.
New York
On July 14, 2014, New York legalized medical marijuana when Governor Andrew Cuomo signed the Compassionate Care Act into law. The legislation only allows patients to ingest cannabis using edibles, oils, pills, or vaporization, and does not allow smoking of the plant material.
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
On June 8, 2016, Governor John Kasich signed legislation legalizing marijuana for medical use.
Oklahoma
Oregon
Oregon voters approved Measure 91 on November 4, 2014, providing for regulated legal possession and sale of set amounts of cannabis. Further cannabis reforms were signed into law on July 1, 2015 by Oregon Democratic Governor Kate Brown. More medical cannabis reforms were signed into law on July 28, 2015 by Governor Brown to become effective from October 1, 2015. On top of all the cannabis law reforms in Oregon, Governor Brown also signed a bill that sets a cannabis sales tax at 25 percent.
Pennsylvania
For medical use only. Signed by Governor Wolf on April 17, 2016. Possession of 30g or less is a misdemeanor resulting in up to 30 days incarceration and a fine of up to $500. Possession of more than 30g is a misdemeanor netting up to a year in jail and a $5000 fine.
Rhode Island
Possession of an ounce or less is a civil violation with a $150 fine, three violations within 18 months is a misdemeanor with larger fines or prison or both.
South Carolina
South Dakota
Personal use possession of 2 oz or less is a Class 1 misdemeanor which is punishable by a maximum sentence of 1 year imprisonment and a maximum fine of $2,000.
Tennessee
First - time possession offenders can complete one year of supervised probation instead of criminal penalty of one year incarceration; * Possession of 1 / 2 ounce or more is automatic felony charge: possession for resale. Non-psychoactive CBD oil possession, as of Monday, May 4, 2015, is allowed, due to newly signed legislation, if a person is suffering seizures or epilepsy and has the recommendation of their doctor.
Texas
"Both the current leadership and candidates for prominent political offices are increasingly calling for marijuana policy reform in the Lone Star State -- In Texas, a conviction for possession of up to two ounces of marijuana can result in a jail sentence of up to six months and a fine of up to $2,000. ''. On June 1, 2015 governor Greg Abbott signed a bill legalizing non-psychoactive CBD oil for medical use.
Utah
House bill 105 was introduced by Representative Gage Froerer (R) and has been passed and signed by the governor. This bill would excuse anyone who was in possession of hemp extract. Hemp extract means an extract from a cannabis plant, or a mixture or preparation containing cannabis plant material, that is composed of less than. 3 % of THC by weight. Possession of less than an ounce can result in a 6 - month incarceration and a maximum fine of $1,000. Any amount over 10 ounces can result in a $10,000 fine. Selling of any amount is a felony and will result with 5 years in prison and a $5,000 fine.
Vermont
On May 19, 2004, Vermont legalized medical marijuana when Governor James Douglas announced he would allow Senate Bill 76 to pass without his signature. The law was further expanded in June 2007 when Senate Bill 7 passed without Governor Douglas ' signature once again. On June 6, 2013, Governor Peter Shumlin signed legislation (HB200) which decriminalized the possession of 1 ounce or less to a civil infraction. In both 2016 and 2017, bills have passed both houses of the Vermont Legislature to end prohibition of cannabis and legalize recreational cannabis within the state, but fail in conference committee -- due to a lack of an agreement between the two houses and time restraints. It is unlikely that Vermont will fully legalize recreational cannabis until at least 2018.
Virginia
A first offense is an "Unclassified Misdemeanor '', meaning the maximum penalty is 30 days in jail and a $500 fine (or both), and loss of driving privileges. A subsequent offense is a Class 1 misdemeanor, with a maximum penalty of 12 months in confinement and a $2,500 fine (or both), plus loss of driving privileges. A first - offense will qualify for a deferred disposition resulting in dismissal. This option requires a drug assessment, classes, community service, and loss of driving privileges for six months. The first - offender program is controversial according to some Virginia criminal defense attorneys and advocates for young men and women in the Commonwealth, primarily because it does not allow the defendant to qualify for expungement, and as a result, remains on the individual 's record for life.
Washington
West Virginia
"Creates the "Compassionate Use Act for Medical Cannabis; providing for protections for the medical use of cannabis... '' ''
Wisconsin
A first offense for possession of marijuana is a misdemeanor punishable by a fine of up to $1,000 or imprisonment of up to 6 months, or both. A second offense is a Class I felony and is punishable by a fine of up to $10,000 or imprisonment for up to 3.5 years, or both.
Wyoming
"Being under the influence of marijuana is a misdemeanor punishable by a maximum of 90 days imprisonment and a maximum fine of $100. Possession of three ounces or less is a misdemeanor that is punishable by a maximum of 1 year imprisonment and a maximum fine of $1000. ''
District of Columbia
American Samoa
In 1999, the Territory established a 5 - year mandatory minimum sentence for possession of any amount of any illegal drug, to explicitly include marijuana, even when medically prescribed in another jurisdiction.
Guam
Residents passed a ballot measure on 4 November 2014 that allows cannabis for medical use only.
Northern Mariana Islands
In 2010, the CNMI House of Representatives approved a legalization bill to regulate and tax marijuana, but the measure ultimately failed.
Puerto Rico
On May 4, 2015, the governor of Puerto Rico signed an executive order legalizing medicinal marijuana in the U.S territory.
U.S. Virgin Islands
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why is the harp a symbol of ireland | Coat of arms of Ireland - wikipedia
The coat of arms of Ireland is blazoned as Azure a harp Or, stringed Argent (a gold harp with silver strings on a blue background). These arms have long been Ireland 's heraldic emblem. References to them as being the arms of the king of Ireland can be found as early as the 13th century. These arms were adopted by Henry VIII of England when he ended the period of Lordship of Ireland and declared Ireland to be a kingdom again in 1541. When the crowns of England, Scotland and Ireland were united in 1603, they were integrated into the unified royal coat of arms of kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland. The harp was adopted as the emblem of the Irish Free State when it separated from the United Kingdom in 1922. They were registered as the arms of Ireland with the Chief Herald of Ireland on 9 November 1945.
The depiction of the harp has changed over time. In the 17th century, during the period of the Kingdom of Ireland, the pillar of the harp began to be depicted as a bare - breasted woman. When the arms were restored as the arms of the independent Irish state in 1922, a late - medieval Gaelic harp (a cláirseach), the Trinity College Harp, was used as a model.
Several variants of the arms of Ireland exist, including a heraldic badge and an infrequently used crest and torse. The Lordship of Ireland, the medieval realm of Ireland that existed between 1171 and 1541 under the English crown, had a separate arms, which are blazoned Azure, three crowns in pale Or, bordure Argent (three golden crowns ordered vertically on a blue background with a white border). A variant of the arms of the ancient royal province of Meath were also apparently used at one time as the arms of Ireland.
As heraldry is essentially a feudal art, it was not until the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169 that Irish coats of arms came into being, several decades after the art began to take seed in England and continental Europe. The earliest reference to a herald of arms for Ireland was in 1392 on the creation of the first Ireland King of Arms. The Ireland King of Arms, which was under the English College of Arms, was succeeded by an independent Ulster King of Arms, and an Athlone Pursuivant, in 1552, which despite its name had jurisdiction for arms over all of Ireland. In 1943, the Ulster King of Arms was merged with the Norroy King of Arms in England to form the Norroy and Ulster King of Arms. The office of the Chief Herald of Ireland was created as successor to the Ulster King of Arms and the arms of Ireland were registered by the Chief Herald of Ireland on 9 November 1945.
However, reference to the harp as the arms of the king of Ireland can be found in one of the oldest medieval rolls of arms. The Wijnbergen Roll, a French roll of arms dating from c. 1280 and preserved in The Hague, Netherlands, attributed "D'azure a la harpe d'or '' (English: Blue with a harp of gold) to the King of Ireland ("le Roi d'Irlande ''). The harp, traditionally associated with King David, was a rare charge on medieval rolls and only two arms with a harp are listed in a collection of 19 early rolls. Triangular devices appeared on medieval Irish coinage by kings John and Edward I in the 12th and 13th centuries. These devices may have been crude harps or it may be that the harp developed from the use of triangles to distinguish Irish coins. The idea of a harp being the arms of Ireland may have originated as a reference to a fictional character, le roi d'irelande, in the courtly legend cycle of Tristan. Alternatively, it may have derived from a celebrated 13th century bardic poem, Tabhroidh Chugam Cruit mo Riogh, dedicated to the Donnchadh Cairbreach O'Briain (d. 1242), a Gaelic King of Thomond.
Whatever its origins, the harp was adopted as the symbol of the new Kingdom of Ireland, established by Henry VIII, in 1541. A document in the Office of the Ulster King of Arms, from either the late reign of Henry VIII or the early reign his son of Edward VI, states that they were the arms of the kingdom of Ireland. The arms were incorporated into the unified Royal Coats of Arms of England, Ireland and Scotland upon the Union of the Crowns of the three kingdoms in 1603. Upon the secession of the Irish Free State from the United Kingdom in 1922, the harp was taken as the emblem of the independent Irish state.
Today, the image of the harp is used on the coins, passports and official seals of Ireland and is incorporated into the emblems of many bodies in Northern Ireland, such as the Police Service of Northern Ireland. The harp is frequently incorporated into the emblems of Irish companies, such as Guinness and Ryanair. It appears on the arms of countries with historical links to Ireland or the United Kingdom, such as Montserrat and Canada. In 1984, exemplars of the modern design, approved by the Chief Herald, were registered by the Government of Ireland with the World Intellectual Property Organization under Article 6ter of the Paris Convention, which relates to state emblems. The government only registered "left - facing '' images, with the harp 's sound board on the right. While the Attorney General 's office felt that right - facing images should also be registered, patent agents advised this might be interfere with Guinness Brewery 's use of such harps in its logo since the 1870s.
As well as being the arms of Ireland, since 1945 the harp is the arms of each President of Ireland whilst in office. Typically the arms are borne as a banner in the form of a Presidential Standard. The standard is flown over Áras an Uachtaráin, the President 's residence in Dublin, at Dublin Castle when the President is in residence and on vehicles used by the President. As with other Presidential and Royal Standards, it is never flown at half mast. However, the Presidential Standard never takes precedence over the flag of Ireland, whereas, for example, the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom takes precedence over the flag of the United Kingdom.
The Lordship of Ireland, the medieval realm of Ireland that existed between 1171 and 1541 under the English crown, had separate arms. A commission of Edward IV in c. 1467 - 8 into the arms of Ireland found them to be blazoned Azure, three crowns in pale Or, bordure Argent (three golden crowns ordered vertically on a blue background with a white border). The association of these arms with Ireland is likely to have originated with Irish magnates (both Norman and Gaelic) who fought in Edward I 's Scottish wars at the turn of the 14th century. These were the arms of Edmund the Martyr, which the Irish lords adopted as their banner in the same way as English lords identified with the banner of St. George. However, these arms were also well known in other medieval contexts and are often attributed to King Arthur.
It is believed that the three crowns were abandoned as the arms of Ireland after Henry VIII 's split with the Papacy. Strictly speaking, following the Norman invasion of the 12th century, Ireland was a feudal possession of the Pope under the overlordship of the English monarch. The decision to change the three crowns arms may have sprung "from an idea that they might denote the feudal sovereignty of the pope '' -- whose tiara has three crowns -- "whose vassal the king of England was, as lord of Ireland. ''
Despite this, the memory of the three crowns arms may have remained for a time with one Elizabethan variant of the harp, sometimes found on coins, maps and seals as early as 1562, using of the three harps, one replacing each of the three crowns of the lordship 's arms. This appears to have been a creation of the newly established Ulster King of Arms and never captured the popular imagination sufficiently to replace the single Harp arms that was in use from the reign of Henry VIII. Thus, at the funeral cortège of Elizabeth I in 1603 depicted in a manuscript at the British Library, the Earl of Clanrickarde is shown carrying the banner of Ireland just as in the Wijnbergen Roll.
A variant of arms of the royal province of Meath were also apparently used at one time as the arms of Ireland. Meath, now a part of the province of Leinster was once the province of the High Kings of Ireland. Its arms are of a king sitting on a throne on a blue field. The variant apparently used as the arms of Ireland were of a majesty on a sable (black) background instead of an azure (blue) field.
The design of the harp used by the modern Irish state is based on the Brian Boru harp, a late - medieval Gaelic harp now in Trinity College, Dublin. The design is by an English sculptor, Percy Metcalfe. Metcalfe 's design was in response to a competition held by the state to design Irish coinage, which was to start circulation in December 1928. Metcalfe 's design became the model for future official interpretations of the harp as an emblem of the state.
The modern design is markedly different from earlier depictions. During the 17th century, it became common to depict the harp with a woman 's head and breasts, like a ship 's figurehead, as the pillar.
It is not necessary to show a full complement of thirty strings, provided that the numbers do not fall below nine (notwithstanding the illustration to the left). The strings are always silver and the harp is always gold.
The harp is shown on a blue background. The colour of the field is sometimes called St. Patrick 's blue, a name applied to shades of blue associated with Ireland. In current designs, used by the UK and Irish states, the field is invariably a deep blue. The use of blue in the arms has been associated with Gormfhlaith, a Gaelic mythological personification of Ireland. The word Gormfhlaith is a compound of the Irish words gorm ("blue '') and flaith ("sovereign ''); it is noted in early Irish texts as the name of several queens closely connected with dynastic politics in the 10th and 11th century Ireland. The National Library of Ireland, in describing the blue background of the arms, notes that in early Irish mythology the sovereignty of Ireland (Irish: Flaitheas Éireann) was represented by a woman often dressed in a blue robe.
A crest, which was little used, is thought to have been created for the ascension of James I. This crest was blazoned: A tower triple towered or, from the portal a hart springing argent, attired and unguled also or. The torse was Or and azure. The torse and crest were apparently little used even during the period of the Kingdom of Ireland. From the Acts of Union in 1801 until the declaration of the Republic of Ireland in 1949, the crest was used only intermittently. Unlike Scotland, Ireland did not reserve the right to bear a distinct coat of arms within the United Kingdom. The crest and torse are not employed by the Irish state today.
Historically, the harp was frequently seen surmounted by a crown. In this case, the depiction is as heraldic badge, a device used to indicate allegiance to or the property of someone or something. Elizabeth I used the badge as her second Great Seal of 1586. This motif had earlier featured of the coins of the Lordship of Ireland during the Tudor period and continued to be used on the coins of the Kingdom of Ireland. Following the creation of the United Kingdom, the device was used on the cap badges of the Royal Irish Constabulary and later the Royal Ulster Constabulary. The badge can be seen today on the cap badge of the Royal Irish Regiment of the British Army. The harp, unsurmounted by a crown, is used as a badge in the Republic of Ireland today, but the harp surmounted by a crown is also found (e.g. in ' colours ' ties of Trinity College sports teams).
The arms of Ireland are without supporters. However, historically, some depictions of the arms have been accompanied by various supporters. For example, during the late Tudor period, depictions of the arms appeared accompanied by a dragon and a lion, representing Wales and England. The Tudors were monarchs of England but of Welsh descent. In later centuries, following the union of the crowns of England and Scotland, depictions appeared accompanied by a lion and a unicorn, representing England and Scotland. Other depictions included two stags, representing Ireland, or a stag and a lion. However, none of these were ever a part of the blazon and should be interpreted in terms of artistic licence.
Several mottos associated with Ireland and have also been used alongside representations of the harp, including the patriotic slogan, Erin Go Bragh (English: Ireland Forever), Quis separabit? (English: Who will separate (us)?), the motto of the Most Illustrious Order of Saint Patrick, and It is new strung and shall be heard, the motto of the Society of United Irishmen. However, no heraldic motto has ever been granted to Ireland and none ever accompanies the coat of arms.
As well as the coat of arms, which shows the harp on an Azure (blue) field, Ireland has long been associated with a flag also bearing the harp. This flag is identical to the coat of arms but with a green field, rather than blue, and is blazoned Vert, a Harp Or, stringed Argent (a gold harp with silver strings on a green field).
The earliest - known record of the green flag is attributed to Eoghan Ruadh Ó Néill, a 17th - century exile and soldier in the Irish brigade of the Spanish army. His ship, the St. Francis, is recorded as flying from her mast top "the Irish harp in a green field, in a flag '' as she lay at anchor at Dunkirk en route to Ireland. Ó Néill was returning to Ireland in order to participate in the Irish Confederate Wars (1641 -- 1653), during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (a series of civil wars engulfing England, Ireland and Scotland), where he would contribute as a leading general. Variants of the green flag were flown by United Irishmen during the 1798 Rebellion and by the Irish émigré in foreign armys, such as the Irish Brigade of the Union Army during the American Civil War (1861 -- 1865) and Saint Patrick 's Battalion in the Mexican Army during the Mexican - American War (1846 -- 1848).
Although the Kingdom of Ireland never had an official flag, this flag is recorded as the flag of Ireland by 18th and 19th century sources. It was used as a naval jack and as the basis for the unofficial green ensign of Ireland, particularly during the 18th and 19th centuries. The flag is identical to the arms of the province of Leinster. It is believed that the Leinster arms are derived from it, rather than the other way around.
The arms of the four traditional provinces of Ireland are popularly displayed quartered as arms of Ireland. The quartering is usually in the order Leinster first, Connacht second, Ulster third and Munster fourth. The resulting arms are frequently displayed in the form of a banner. They also appear as charges in other arms and emblems. For example, the arms of the Genealogical Office, which is headed by the Chief Herald of Ireland, are the four provinces shown quartered beneath a chief Gules, charged with a Tudor Portcullis Or between two Scrolls Argent (a red band with a gold Tudor portcullis between two silver scrolls).
The arms of Leinster (Vert, a Harp Or, stringed Argent) are believed to have likely evolved from the arms of Ireland itself with a change of tincture. Similarly, Munster 's arms (Azure, three antique crowns Or) are thought to have been derived from those of the former Lordship of Ireland, or from the short - lived dukedom of Ireland created for Robert de Vere in 1386. The crowns now usually depicted as "antique '' or "eastern '': a gold rim with eight sharp, triangular rays, of which five are seen.
The arms of Ulster are the arms of the de Burgh, Earls of Ulster, combined with the red hand seal of the O'Neills. These two dynasties and symbols are inseparably linked to Ulster. The combination of them is blazoned Or, on a Cross Gules, an inescutcheon Argent, charged with a dexter hand erect aupaumee and couped at the wrist Gules.
Finally, Connacht 's arms are blazoned Party Per Pale Argent and Azure, in the first an eagle dimidiated and displayed Sable in the second issuant from the partition an arm embowed and vested, the hand holding a sword erect, all Argent. These are believed to have been adopted from the arms of the medieval Schottenklöster (Gaelic monastery) in Regensburg, Germany. The arms of the Regensburg Schottenklöster, which date from at least the 14th century, combined the arms of the Holy Roman Emperor (from whom the abbey received protection) dimidiated with a symbol that may be linked with the crest of the O'Brien dynasty arms (an 11th - century O'Brien is listed as the "fundator '' of the abbey). The arms may have been granted to Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, King of Connacht and the last High King of Ireland before the Norman invasion, by the abbey as a gift to return his patronage. The arms were given as the "old tyme arms '' of Ireland by the Athlone Pursuivant, Edward Fletcher, c. 1575 and, with slight change of tinctures, became the arms of Connacht in the seventeenth century.
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who plays june in avatar the last airbender | The Last Airbender - wikipedia
The Last Airbender is a 2010 American action fantasy adventure film written, co-produced, and directed by M. Night Shyamalan. It is based on the first season of the Nickelodeon animated series Avatar: The Last Airbender (or Avatar: The Legend of Aang in some regions). The film stars Noah Ringer as Aang, with Dev Patel as Prince Zuko, Nicola Peltz as Katara, and Jackson Rathbone as Sokka. Development for the film began in 2007. It was produced by Nickelodeon Movies and distributed by Paramount Pictures. Premiering in New York City on June 30, 2010, it opened the following day in the rest of the US, grossing an estimated $16 million.
The film was universally panned by critics, audiences, and fans of the animated series alike upon its release, with many reviewers citing inconsistencies between the plot, screenplay, and source material as well as deriding the acting, writing, casting, and dialogue. The film 's 3D conversion was also criticized. However, some praised James Newton Howard 's soundtrack, the film 's CGI and visual design, and the performances of Dev Patel, Aasif Mandvi, and Shaun Toub. The film swept the Golden Raspberry Awards in 2010, with five "wins '' including Worst Picture; the film is sometimes considered one of the worst ever made. Despite the negative reviews, The Last Airbender opened in second place at the box office behind The Twilight Saga: Eclipse. Produced on a $150 million budget, the film grossed $131 million domestically and $319 million worldwide. It is currently the fourth highest grossing Nickelodeon film, behind The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water (2015), Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2014), and The Adventures of Tintin (2011).
15 - year - old Sokka and his 14 - year - old sister, Katara, are near a river at the Southern Water Tribe, a small village in the South Pole. While hunting, they discover an iceberg that when broken open shoots a beam of light into the sky. Inside of the iceberg is a 12 - year - old boy named Aang and a giant flying bison named Appa. Unknown to them, Aang is the long - lost Avatar -- the only person capable of "bending '' all 4 elements of Air, Water, Earth and Fire. A century has passed since the Fire Nation has declared war on the other 3 nations of Air, Water, and Earth in their attempt to conquer the world.
Zuko is the scarred 16 - year - old exiled prince of the Fire Nation on a quest to find the Avatar and bring him to his father, Fire Lord Ozai, so he can regain his honor. Seeing the light that appeared from Aang 's release, Zuko and some Fire Nation soldiers arrive at the Southern Water Tribe to demand the villagers hand over the Avatar. Aang reveals himself and surrenders to Zuko on the condition that he agrees to leave the village alone. On the ship, Aang is tested by Zuko 's paternal uncle Iroh to confirm he is the Avatar. After being informed that he is to be their prisoner for passing the test, Aang escapes using his glider and flies to his flying bison brought by Katara and Sokka. Aang and his new friends visit the Southern Air Temple where they meet a winged lemur, who Aang later names Momo. There, Aang learns that he was in the ice for a whole century and that the Fire Nation wiped out all of the Air Nomads, including his guardian, Monk Gyatso. In despair, he enters the Avatar State and finds himself in the Spirit World where he encounters a Dragon Spirit. Katara 's pleas bring Aang back out of the Avatar State.
To seek shelter, Aang 's group arrives at a little Earth Kingdom village controlled by the Fire Nation, but they are arrested and taken to a prison for Earthbenders surrounded by earth after Katara attempts to help a young Earthbender boy escape from Fire Nation soldiers. They incite a rebellion by reminding the disgruntled Earthbenders that Earth was given to them. After battling and defeating the Fire Nation soldiers occupying the village, Aang tells Katara and Sokka that he only knows airbending and he must master the other three elements. Katara is given a waterbending scroll that she uses to greatly strengthen and hone her waterbending abilities and to help Aang learn as they make their way to the Northern Water Tribe (where Aang will be able to learn from waterbending masters) and liberate more Earth Kingdom villages in the process, weakening the Fire Nation 's food and water supplies.
During a side track to the Northern Air Temple on his own, Aang is betrayed by a Southern Earth Kingdom peasant and captured by a group of Fire Nation archers, led by Commander Zhao, a Fire Nation Commander appointed by the Fire Lord. However, a masked marauder, the "Blue Spirit '', helps Aang escape from his imprisonment, fighting off the Fire Nation soldiers under Zhao 's command until the Blue Spirit realises they will be overwhelmed, at which point he takes Aang hostage to negotiate their way out. During the prison break, Zhao realizes that Zuko is the masked vigilante. He arranges to kill the prince, first by having a crossbowman fire a bolt over a huge distance that shatters the lower half of Zuko 's mask and knocks him out, however Aang uses his skills to bend a cloud across the bridge connecting the prison to the other side of the valley, causing the Fire Nation soldiers in pursuit to stop in fear. With the cloud covering their escape, Aang escapes with an unconscious Zuko into a nearby forest and watches over him until morning, when he leaves to reunite with Sokka and Katara. Zhao tries again to kill Zuko, this time by rupturing a gas pipe running through Zuko 's quarters on Iroh 's ship. Noticing the danger, Zuko manages to survive the attempt on his life with Iroh 's help. He sneaks aboard Zhao 's lead ship as his fleet departs for the Northern Water Tribe, which is a heavy fortress, to capture the Avatar. Upon arriving, Aang 's group is welcomed warmly by the citizens of the Northern Water Tribe. Sokka quickly befriends the Northern Water Tribe princess, Yue. After a few agreements, a waterbending master, Pakku, teaches Aang waterbending. Katara also becomes a much stronger and more powerful waterbender due to her training with Master Pakku.
Soon, the Fire Nation arrives and Zhao begins his attack while Zuko begins his search for the Avatar on his own. After defeating Katara in a battle, Zuko captures Aang as he enters the Spirit World to find the Dragon Spirit to give him the wisdom to defeat the Fire Nation who tells him to let his emotions "flow like water ''. Returning to his body, Aang battles Zuko before Katara freezes him in ice. Before leaving to join the battle, Aang lowers the ice so that Zuko can breathe. As the battle escalates, Iroh and Zhao make their way to a sacred cave where Iroh watches Zhao capture the Moon Spirit, which has assumed the form of a fish along with its Ocean Spirit counterpart. Despite Iroh 's pleas, Zhao kills the Moon Spirit to strip all of the waterbenders of their ability to waterbend. Iroh, enraged by Zhao 's disrespect for sacredness and by his actions to unbalance the world, reveals the extent of his mastery of firebending by using his chi to create huge flame jets from his wrists, scaring Zhao and his entourage of Fire Nation Soldiers out of the sacred cave. Princess Yue explains to everyone that the Moon Spirit gave her life and, with Iroh 's help, realises she can give her life back to the Moon Spirit to revive it, and she dies in the process. With the tables turned, Zhao finds out Zuko survived. They almost fight before Iroh appears and tells Zuko it 's not worth it. Zhao attempts one more time to kill Zuko with a massive blast of fire, which Iroh manages to deflect. Zuko and Iroh leave Zhao to his fate as he is drowned by waterbenders. Aang remembers his life before being trapped in the ice, including when he left his home, seeing his master 's face. With his waterbending powers and his emotions "flowing like water '', Aang enters the Avatar State and raises the ocean into a gigantic wall to drive the armada back. Aang now fully embraces his destiny as the Avatar as he, Katara and Sokka prepare to continue their journey to the Earth Kingdom to find an earthbending teacher for Aang. The Fire Lord learns of the defeat; angry over the betrayal of his brother Iroh and the failure of his eldest son Zuko, he tasks his youngest daughter, Zuko 's sister, Azula to stop the Avatar from mastering Earth and Fire before the arrival of Sozin 's Comet; an event that will strengthen firebending to the point where firebenders will be able to create fire. The Fire Lord believes he will be able to prove that firebending is dominant and conquer the other Nations during this time.
According to an interview with the co-creators in SFX magazine, Shyamalan came across Avatar: The Last airbender when his daughter wanted to be Katara for Halloween. Intrigued, Shyamalan researched and watched the series with his family. "Watching Avatar has become a family event in my house... so we are looking forward to how the story develops in season three, '' said Shyamalan. "Once I saw the amazing world that Mike and Bryan created, I knew it would make a great feature film. '' He added he was attracted to the spiritual and martial arts influences on the show.
Avatar: The Last Airbender co-creators Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko voiced their opinion within an interview regarding Shyamalan writing, directing, and producing the film. The two displayed much enthusiasm over Shyamalan 's decision for the adaptation, stating that they admire his work and, in turn, he respects their material. Producer Frank Marshall explained that they have high hopes to stick to a PG rating. "I 'm not even sure we want to get in the PG - 13 realm. Furthermore, Shyamalan said, "A lot of the inspiration for the direction we took comes from a friend of mine. A Nathan Blackmer helped shape this Idea into the film it became. I took away a little bit of the slapsticky stuff that was there for the little little kids, the fart jokes and things like that... We grounded Katara 's brother... and that really did wonderful things for the whole theme of the movie. '' Paramount 's president Brad Grey said that despite the director 's career being inconsistent, he "believed in (Shyamalan 's) vision and that he could execute it, '' adding that "It 's a bold step because he had to create a potential new franchise. '' The studio was willing to spend $250 million in a trilogy of films, one for each season. The Last Airbender 's budget wound up being $150 million, with later over $130 million being spent on marketing costs, making it Shyamalan 's most expensive film. During production, the name Avatar was removed from the title to avoid confusion with the highly - successful 2009 film Avatar.
Shyamalan originally offered the roles of Aang to Noah Ringer; Sokka to Jackson Rathbone; Katara to Nicola Peltz; and Zuko to Jesse McCartney. In an interview with People, Shyamalan claimed that he did not want to make The Last Airbender without Nicola Peltz, "I said that only once before in my career, and that was when I met Haley in The Sixth Sense auditions. '' In February 2009, Dev Patel replaced Jesse McCartney, whose tour dates conflicted with a boot camp scheduled for the cast to train in martial arts. Katharine Houghton played "Gran Gran '', the grandmother of Katara and Sokka, and Seychelle Gabriel portrayed Princess Yue, another of Sokka 's love interests and princess of the Northern Water Tribe. Isaac Jin Solstein played an earthbending boy. Comedian Aasif Mandvi played Commander Zhao, Cliff Curtis played Fire Lord Ozai, and Keong Sim was cast in the role of an Earthbender.
Ringer began practicing Taekwondo -- the martial art and national sport of Korea -- at the age of 10. His skills later garnered accolades, including the title of American Taekwondo Association Texas State Champion. He began shaving his head during his martial arts training to help cool off, which gave him the nickname "Avatar '' due to his resemblance to Aang from the animated series. When he heard about the film adaptation, he made an audition tape with his instructor and sent it to the filmmakers. He had n't worked on a film before, but his resemblance to Aang -- enhanced by painting a blue arrow on his already shaved head, swung him the role. Having not acted before, Ringer was required to attend acting school a month before filming commenced. Peltz was familiar with the character before submitting for the part of Katara, having faithfully watched Avatar: The Last Airbender, the animated series on which the film is based, with her younger twin brothers. She describes her character as being a big role model with young girls and women, "She 's really mentally and physically strong, strong - willed and - minded, but she 's also caring and compassionate... The movie has a lot of values, but it 's also fun. It 's fantasy, but it 's also a really cool battle between good and evil. '' She explained that she initially did n't know about Rathbone starring in the Twilight films until after she met him and said that working with Shyamalan was an amazing experience. Rathbone, who originally auditioned for the role of Zuko, was approached by Shyamalan to audition for the film. After waiting for six months, he received a call informing him that he was cast as Sokka. Rathbone stated that his favorite scenes were the fight sequences, which he prepared for by stickfighting.
Before Slumdog Millionaire was released, Patel auditioned for the role of Zuko by submitting a tape to the studio. Shyamalan called Patel personally to inform him that he got the part. Training for the film was intense, as he had to learn Wushu and different martial arts. Patel recalls fighting, punching, and throwing and said the experience was "truly amazing. '' While he was filming Slumdog in India, he would finish a take and turn one of the channels over to the animated series. Even though it is based on a cartoon, he wanted to bring as much of himself as possible to the character he was portraying. Shaun Toub, who was cast as Iroh, describes his character in the first film as "loose '' and "free ''. He compares Zuko 's "obsession '' to his childhood memories and how kids are always looking for their parents ' approval, saying that Zuko just wants his father 's. "He is n't necessarily bad, he just has a great deal of built up anger and forgets to consider others. I think people will understand that he 's not bad, he 's just angry and hurting because he really wants his father to love him, but his father is too busy with other things. '' He says that Patel is an "18 year old with all this energy, '' and that Patel was able to influence him into appreciating the business of filmmaking more. While comparing the animated series to the film, he says the film is much more serious. He attributed this change to the director trying to relate to every age group, rather than just kids.
Pre-production began in late 2008, while filming began in March 2009 in Greenland. After two weeks, the cast and crew moved to Reading, Pennsylvania, where production designers and special - effects crews worked for several weeks, preparing the local site for the film. A production team scouting the area found the pagoda on Mount Penn, which served as an ancient temple in the film. Reading mayor Tom McMahon explained that crews made road improvements and buried electrical lines surrounding the structure.
Filming also took place in Ontelaunee Township and at the William Penn Memorial Fire Tower in Pennsylvania after the production crew finished at the Pagoda. When asked about shooting the film in Reading, Pamela Shupp, vice president of Berks Economic Development said, "They needed buildings to shoot all the interiors, and were looking for a group of buildings with high ceilings and specific column spacing. We showed them a number of buildings, but we could n't come up with enough to meet their requirements. So the interiors will be shot in Philadelphia. ''
With a film as technologically advanced as Avatar, the expectations of realistically throwing balls of fire and water were pushed to the limit on The Last Airbender. Pablo Helman, who previously worked on Star Wars: Episode II -- Attack of the Clones, was the visual effects supervisor for the Industrial Light and Magic team on the film. He worked closely with Shyamalan, reviewing each scene and talking about the visual effects needed to tell the story, and ultimately worked with about 300 people to reflect the director 's vision, who he said planned it all in a story - board book.
Industrial Light and Magic was posed with visualizing the elemental tribes of Air, Water, Earth, and Fire; most importantly creating the "bending '' styles of these elements. Additionally, they were required to animate creatures and enhance stunt work with digital doubles. "The work was challenging, '' shares Helman. "We had to figure out what "bending '' is for fire, water, air and earth. '' The project was started without the desired technology needed to create the effects. Rather than software, computer graphic cards were the basis for "bending '' the elements, allowing previews to be viewed more swiftly. This resulted in Shyamalan having to direct more than sixty takes before the effect was finished and lined up with his visions.
Due to reality - based expectations, fire and water were the hardest elements to effectively bend, and because of particle work which was unable to be rendered in hardware, earth bending also was difficult to create. With water, the variety in different scales required Helman and his team to create different techniques. The concept for air was derived from the animation of the television series. To create the air bending effect, visual effects art director Christian Alzman and digital matte department supervisor Barry Williams explained that seeing dust and snow particles, rather than seeing the air itself, helped shape the real world effect of bending the element. Before the bending effects could be applied though, the actor 's movements had to be matched; Shyamalan therefore wanted each character 's bending styles to be unique to fit with their unique personalities.
The challenge for fire did n't come with making it look realistic, but rather making the fire behave in an unrealistic way that would be believable to the audience. The film that inspired The Last Airbender 's fire style was the sixth Harry Potter film, which was re-engineered to reflect two - dimensional simulations. Helman 's team referenced images of flames being pushed through the air by giant fans for certain shots needed throughout the film. The team also considered using a meshed image of real and digital fire, but in the end, went with the richer, deeper texture of computer generated flame.
In matte paintings, this was the biggest show that Helman had ever done. The paintings had to be in 3D because the visual style included long duration shots in which the camera always moved. The climax, which was enacted on a 200 by 200 feet (61 m × 61 m) set, had to be incorporated with still of the landscapes shot in Greenland, as well as the low - angle lighting that was captured on location there. The camera was animated to get angles needed for different shots in the film by importing these stills into the computer. Multiple cameras were used to capture the different wire - work and animation that was used to create the creatures and many fight scenes within the film. In creating these creatures, the team referenced nature. In order for them to be believable, they looked for examples of the same size and weight as the animated character and then developed hybrids from different animals to make each species unique. This was done by observing actual animals to get a take on how they would act. Shyamalan 's take on the personality of each creature also influenced the creation stage of the creatures. For example, the lemur Momo has flying mechanics based on a giant fruit bat. Other elements, such as texturing, hair or scale simulation, and light and shadow complimentary to the live action, were added to make the final animation appear as real as possible during the later stages of character development.
Paramount Pictures made an announcement in late April 2010, revealing that The Last Airbender would be released in 3D. This decision came after an increasing number of films being made or converted to 3D, such as Avatar, Alice in Wonderland and Clash of the Titans, made a decent profit at the box office. Although Helman stated that Shyamalan 's way of shooting without fast edits and the film 's visuals could lend itself to the 3D conversion well, James Cameron voiced his disapproval on any film being converted using this process, saying, "You can slap a 3 - D label on it and call it 3 - D, but there 's no possible way that it can be done up to a standard that anybody would consider high enough. '' Despite this, Shyamalan opted to work with Stereo D LLC, the company who worked on James Cameron 's own Avatar. The conversion process for the film cost between $5 million and $10 million, adding to the reported $100 million that already went into the film.
In December 2008, James Newton Howard was announced as the composer for The Last Airbender. The film marks the seventh collaboration between Howard and M. Night Shyamalan, after the 2008 film The Happening. Howard had received acclaim for his work with Hans Zimmer on The Dark Knight. On May 13, 2009, producer Frank Marshall announced that Howard was recording music for the teaser trailer that was later released that summer; it was later confirmed by Frank Marshall that all of the film 's trailers featured original music by Howard himself. The soundtrack, released by Lakeshore Records on June 29, 2010, required Howard to hire a 119 - member ensemble. Running at about 66 minutes, it contains eleven tracks ranging from three to seven minutes, with a twelfth track, called "Airbender Suite '' running at nearly eleven minutes. Reviews for the score were overwhelmingly positive.
The casting of white actors in the East Asian and Inuit - influenced Avatar universe, as well as the fact that the casting of the heroes and villains seemed to be backward racially from the show, triggered negative reactions from some fans marked by accusations of racism, a letter - writing campaign, and various protests. "To take this incredibly loved children 's series, and really distort not only the ethnicity of the individual characters but the message of acceptance and cultural diversity that the original series advocated, is a huge blow, '' said Michael Le of Racebending.com, a fan site calling for a boycott of the martial - arts fantasy. As a result of the casting, the Media Action Network for Asian - Americans urged a film boycott for the first time in the organization 's 18 - year history. "This was a great opportunity to create new Asian - American stars... I 'm disappointed. '' stated Guy Aoki, president of the organization. After a casting call specifically looking for "Caucasians and other ethnicities, '' Shyamalan explained that "Ultimately, this movie, and then the three movies, will be the most culturally diverse tent - pole movies ever released, period. '' Furthermore, Paramount provided a statement about the casting choices, "The movie has 23 credited speaking roles -- more than half of which feature Asian and Pan Asian actors of Korean, Japanese and Indian descent. The filmmaker 's interpretation reflects the myriad qualities that have made this series a global phenomenon. We believe fans of the original and new audiences alike will respond positively once they see it. ''
Shyamalan commented on the issues regarding fans ' perceptions of the casting in an interview with Washington Post columnist Jen Chaney, saying, "Anime is based on ambiguous facial features. It 's meant to be interpretive. It 's meant to be inclusive of all races, and you can see yourself in all these characters... This is a multicultural movie and I 'm going to make it even more multicultural in my approach to its casting. There 's African - Americans in the movie... so it 's a source of pride for me. The irony that (protesters) would label this with anything but the greatest pride, that the movie poster has Noah and Dev on it and my name on it. I do n't know what else to do. '' In this quote, Shyamalan 's reference to Noah Ringer can be explained by Noah 's self - identification of his ancestry as "American Indian, '' although critics of the film 's casting have presumed that the actor is simply "white '' when making their complaints.
Rathbone was also one to dismiss the complaints in an interview with MTV, saying, "I think it 's one of those things where I pull my hair up, shave the sides, and I definitely need a tan. It 's one of those things where, hopefully, the audience will suspend disbelief a little bit. '' The controversy was poorly received by critics as well. Film critic Roger Ebert was one of the critical voices against the casting. When asked about casting a white cast to portray the characters, he said, "The original series Avatar: The Last Airbender was highly regarded and popular for three seasons on Nickelodeon. Its fans take it for granted that its heroes are Asian. Why would Paramount and Shyamalan go out of their way to offend these fans? There are many young Asian actors capable of playing the parts. '' Jevon Phillips of the Los Angeles Times noted that despite Shyamalan 's attempts to defuse the situation, "this is definitely not an issue that will fade away or be overlooked '' and that this film exemplifies the need for a debate within Hollywood about racial diversity in its films.
In July 2013, series co-creator Bryan Konietzko responded to an online comment about skin color in The Legend of Korra. Konietzko wrote that his work on the two series "speaks for itself which obviously does not include the gross misinterpretations and misrepresentations of our work in (Shyamalan 's) work. ''
The teaser trailer for the film was attached to Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen, released in theaters on June 24, 2009. The teaser trailer was also shown exclusively on the June 22, 2009 episode of Entertainment Tonight. The trailer shows Aang airbending in a temple which is being attacked by a multitude of Fire Nation ships. A trailer was to be released around Christmas 2009, but it was pushed back until February 2010 because not enough visual effects shots were completed. This trailer was attached to the first Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief film released on February 12, 2010. A trailer was later released on March 25, 2010. It was then attached with How to Train Your Dragon. The last theatrical trailer is attached to Iron Man 2 which was released May 7, 2010.
The first TV spot aired during Super Bowl XLIV on February 7, 2010. It showed parts of the film that were not shown in the teaser trailer and had no diagetic dialogue, but merely narration. On February 10, the theatrical trailer was released online. It shows multiple scenes from the film and is an expanded version of the first TV spot. McDonald 's sold Happy Meals to promote the film.
On February 9, 2010, Nickelodeon Consumer Products also debuted the upcoming line of toys based on The Last Airbender. It includes various 3 ⁄ - inch action figures, as well as larger, action - enabled figures, costumes and other props. Among the toys featured in the line were figures based on Aang, Prince Zuko, Sokka, Katara, and a fully ride - able Appa the Sky Bison. "We worked very closely with M. Night, the rest of the Paramount team and our in - house design team, along with our partner Spin - Master, to come up with the right assortment, the right size for these action figures and make sure we had representation of all the nations within the ' Airbender ' series, '' said Nickelodeon 's Lourdes Arocho. The Last Airbender action figures are expected to be released in three "waves ''; wave one on June 1, wave two near the film 's July release date, and wave three near the 2010 holiday season. THQ Studio Australia also developed a video game based on the film. Titled The Last Airbender, it was released on June 29, 2010 for the Wii and the Nintendo DS.
Two original black - and - white graphic novels, entitled The Last Airbender Prequel: Zuko 's Story and The Last Airbender, drawn in the manga style, were written by Dave Roman and Alison Wilgus. "We 're excited to be working with Nickelodeon to bring these great stories to the manga audience '', says Dallas Middaugh, Associate Publisher of Del Rey Manga. "Avatar: The Last Airbender has shown incredible crossover appeal with manga fans. The release of The Last Airbender movie and original tie - in manga gives us the chance to share completely new stories with Avatar fans looking for more about Aang, Zuko, and their favorite characters. '' The second manga, The Last Airbender, illustrated by Joon Choi, was released on June 22, 2010. The plot, like the film, is a condensed version of the first season of the series.
The prequel, Zuko 's Story, is co-written by Alison Wilgus and Dave Roman and illustrated by Nina Matsumoto and was released on May 18, 2010. The synopsis for the graphic novel was released in early 2010, "When Prince Zuko dared to question authority, his father, Fire Lord Ozai, banished him from the Fire Nation. Horribly scarred and stripped of everything he held dear, Zuko has wandered the earth for almost three years in search of his only chance at redemption: the Avatar, a mystical being who once kept the four nations in balance. Everyone he encounters believes that this is an impossible task, as the Avatar disappeared a century ago. But Zuko stubbornly continues the search. He must regain his honor, so his quest is all he has left. ''
Roman and Wilgus, who developed comics based on the series for Nick Magazine, consulted series creators Mike Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko, and head writer for the show Aaron Ehasz while they were developing Zuko 's Story. The four wanted to try a comic that would fit into with the continuity of the show. The prequel, though mostly associated with the film, was meant to be a prequel to the series. Roman explained, "In a lot of ways, it 's like an expanded origin. With the film and the series, there are differences and there are places where they split off, but the setup for both is exactly the same -- so when you 're introduced to the characters, that 's the part where they 're completely identical. '' The prequel allowed the expansions of different details told in the series; for example, an episode called "The Blue Spirit '' in the series was seen in the film. However, since explaining everything that happened in that episode was hard to translate onto film, the prequel allowed for them to "delve '' into that specific story. What more, when asked about whether he answered some questions that were left open at the end of the series, Roman stated that, while he had a strong relationship with the show 's creators and got their blessing for his project, it was n't his plot to address.
The Last Airbender was rumored to be released in the summer of 2010 before it received a formal release date of July 1, 2010. To avoid confusion with James Cameron 's Avatar, the title was changed from Avatar: The Last Airbender to simply The Last Airbender. On June 16, 2010, it was revealed that the film would be released on July 1, 2010, and after questions about the definition of the release being limited or wide, was later confirmed by the studio to be a full nationwide release. The film premiered in New York City on June 30, 2010, and opened the following day in 3,169 theaters, against The Twilight Saga: Eclipse which also stars Jackson Rathbone.
The Last Airbender was released on DVD and Blu - ray on November 16, 2010. At the same time, a Blu - ray 3D version was also made available exclusively at Best Buy locations. The Last Airbender grossed $12,757,094 and sold a total of 750,859 units in its first week on DVD. The Last Airbender was re-released on DVD and Blu - ray on April 25, 2017.
The Last Airbender had grossed $131,772,187 in the United States, and $187,941,694 in other countries, making for a total of $319,713,881 worldwide.
On its opening day in the United States, The Last Airbender made $16,614,112, ranking fifth overall for Thursday openings. For its opening three - day, Fourth of July weekend, The Last Airbender accumulated a total of $40,325,019. The following Monday, it grossed $11,479,213. 54 % of its total gross was from 3D presentations at 1,606 screens. On Thursday, July 1, 2010, its opening day, it debuted at # 2 behind The Twilight Saga: Eclipse. It stayed # 2 until Monday, July 5, 2010, when it went down to # 3 now behind Eclipse and Toy Story 3. On July 9, it went down to # 5 behind Despicable Me, The Twilight Saga: Eclipse, Predators, and Toy Story 3. By Friday, July 23, it was down to # 9 behind Inception, Salt, Despicable Me, Ramona and Beezus, The Sorcerer 's Apprentice, Toy Story 3, Grown Ups, and Eclipse.
Opening overseas in 923 sites, the film grossed an estimated $9 million, $8 million of which was from 870 sites in Russia, making it the number one film there. The film grossed $9.4 million from its second weekend in overseas markets.
The film was the twentieth highest - grossing film of 2010.
The film was heavily panned by critics and fans of the series. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 6 % approval rating based on 188 reviews with an average rating of 2.8 / 10, making it the lowest - rated film ever produced by Nickelodeon Movies, and Shyamalan 's worst - reviewed film to date. The critics ' consensus reads, "The Last Airbender squanders its popular source material with incomprehensible plotting, horrible acting, and detached joyless direction. '' By comparison, Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating based on reviews from the top mainstream critics, calculated an average score of 20 out of 100, based on 33 reviews, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was "C '' on an A+ to F scale.
Liam Lacey of The Globe and Mail stated the film had little chance to develop its characters and therefore suffered, with the overall storyline of the film becoming a run - on narrative. According to Owen Gleiberman from Entertainment Weekly, who gave the film a C, "The Last Airbender keeps throwing things at you, but its final effect is, in every way, flat. '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film half a star in his review, stating that it "bores and alienates its audiences, '' and notes the poor use of 3D among the film 's faults. Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave the film an F, criticizing the performances of the child actors, overuse of exposition, and shoehorned 3D special effects, calling it the worst summer blockbuster of 2010. Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter said that the lack of correct casting caused the film to lose substantial credibility in regard to its source material, but did praise the casting and acting of Noah Ringer as Aang. Peter Debruge of Variety criticized the casting and the score, saying that the overall effect of each play into making the film a bore. Rifftrax put the film at number 5 of The top 10 Worst Movies of All Time, saying "We CAN state for the record that it is quite easy to detest this movie even if you 've never seen a frame of the TV show. ''
Charlie Jane Anders in the review by io9 criticized "the personality - free hero, the nonsensical plot twists, the CG clutter, the bland romance, the new - age pablum... '', concluding that "Shyamalan 's true achievement in this film is that he takes a thrilling cult TV series, Avatar: The Last Airbender, and he systematically leeches all the personality and soul out of it -- in order to create something generic enough to serve as a universal spoof of every epic, ever. '' Anders summarized the experience of watching the film by stating that, "Actually, my exact words when I walked out of this film were, ' Wow, this makes Dragonball Evolution look like a masterpiece. ' '' Ai n't It Cool News ' review questioned why Shyamalan was allowed to write the script, as well as why he was even chosen to direct such a high - profile film after a string of previous flops: "Burdened by (a) never - ending onslaught of expository dialogue awkwardly delivered by actors giving career - worst performances across the board, The Last Airbender is so outrageously bad it 's a wonder it ever got before cameras. ''
Scott Bowles of USA Today gave a generally favorable review, claiming that Shyamalan delivered on fight scenes and the film worked as a kid 's film, although he also added that poor scriptwriting made some of the performances sound wooden. Another favorable review came from Stephanie Zacharek of MovieLine, who praises the way Shyamalan captures the art of action and human motion. David Roark of Relevant Magazine accused other critics of having a bias against Shyamalan and gave the film a positive review, stating that its visuals and heart far outweighed the clunky plotting and "awful '' dialogue.
Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian noted an unfortunate linguistic problem that reduced British viewers to "a state of nervous collapse '' due to laughter. In British English, ' bent ' is a slang term for gay, with ' bender ' meaning a gay man, giving an entirely different meaning to lines such as, "I could tell at once that you were a bender. '' Bradshaw commented that the response from the audience to such lines was "deafeningly immature '' and would "inevitably be repeated in every cinema in the land showing The Last Airbender. ''
In a Reddit AmA thread by Dante Basco, the original voice of Prince Zuko, when he was asked what he thought of the Last Airbender film, he responded by saying that Konietzko and DiMartino told him not to see it.
The creators officially said that they would like to pretend the film does not exist. Bryan and Mike spoke extensively about how the project was given the go - ahead without their approval, and when they tried to provide input it was ignored.
In a Vulture interview, Shyamalan argued that his style and art - form of storytelling resulted in the negative reviews of the film and compared it to asking a painter to change to a different style: "I bring as much integrity to the table as humanly possible. It must be a language thing, in terms of a particular accent, a storytelling accent. I can only see it this certain way and I do n't know how to think in another language. I think these are exactly the visions that are in my head, so I do n't know how to adjust it without being me. ''
Shyamalan also addressed criticisms about the barely 90 minute runtime of the film, which was considered bizarre given that it had to condense a 20 - episode TV season into one film, and is a far shorter runtime than is typical for summer blockbusters. Shyamalan 's response was that all of his previous films were 90 minutes, because they were small - scale supernatural thrillers, and as a result his instinct for the pacing of the film was to edit it down to 90 minutes. This short runtime indirectly led to several other problems which multiple critics listed above objected to: characters frequently resort to giving long speeches of exposition to summarize entire scenes that were cut for time, and a running voiceover commentary by Katara was added in which she summarizes entire subplots (e.g. Sokka 's relationship with Yue) that barely appear on screen.
The Last Airbender received nine nominations at the 31st Golden Raspberry Awards including Worst Picture. The film went on to sweep the Razzies with five awards: Worst Picture, Worst Director (Shyamalan), Worst Screenplay (Shyamalan), Worst Supporting Actor (Jackson Rathbone), and a special award, "Worst Eye - Gouging Mis - Use of 3D. ''
Shyamalan or Paramount / Nickelodeon did not immediately confirm the "go - ahead '' or whether the plug will be pulled on the trilogy. While filming The Last Airbender, Shyamalan mapped out a rough draft for a second film that is "darker '' and includes Azula, portrayed by Summer Bishil, as the main antagonist. In a July 2010 interview with New York Magazine, Shyamalan commented "In the next few months we 'll be able to know whether we have that opportunity or not '' when asked about the sequel. No such announcement was made and in a September 2010 interview when asked if he knew when the sequel will be made, he replied, "I do n't, because there are so many factors they take into account '', adding, "I guess it will get into an area where it becomes a discussion -- like pros and cons. '' In September 2015, Shyamalan confirmed to Metro UK that he may work on the sequel after completing his next thriller, which started shooting in November 2015.
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when did georgia ratify the bill of rights | United States Bill of Rights - wikipedia
The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. Proposed following the oftentimes bitter 1787 -- 88 battle over ratification of the U.S. Constitution, and crafted to address the objections raised by Anti-Federalists, the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government 's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically delegated to Congress by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people. The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those found in several earlier documents, including the Virginia Declaration of Rights and the English Bill of Rights 1689, along with earlier documents such as Magna Carta (1215). In practice, the amendments had little impact on judgements by the courts for the first 150 years after ratification.
On June 8, 1789, Representative James Madison introduced nine amendments to the constitution in the House of Representatives. Among his recommendations Madison proposed opening up the Constitution and inserting specific rights limiting the power of Congress in Article One, Section 9. Seven of these limitations would become part of the ten ratified Bill of Rights amendments. Ultimately, on September 25, 1789, Congress approved twelve articles of amendment to the Constitution, each consisting of one one - sentence paragraph, and submitted them to the states for ratification. Contrary to Madison 's original proposal that the articles be incorporated into the main body of the Constitution, they were proposed as supplemental additions (codicils) to it. Articles Three through Twelve were ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15, 1791, and became Amendments One through Ten of the Constitution. Article Two became part of the Constitution on May 5, 1992, as the Twenty - seventh Amendment. Article One is technically still pending before the states.
Although Madison 's proposed amendments included a provision to extend the protection of some of the Bill of Rights to the states, the amendments that were finally submitted for ratification applied only to the federal government. The door for their application upon state governments was opened in the 1860s, following ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment. Since the early 20th century both federal and state courts have used the Fourteenth Amendment to apply portions of the Bill of Rights to state and local governments. The process is known as incorporation.
There are several original engrossed copies of the Bill of Rights still in existence. One of these is on permanent public display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.
Prior to the ratification and implementation of the United States Constitution, the thirteen sovereign states followed the Articles of Confederation, created by the Second Continental Congress and ratified in 1781. However, the national government that operated under the Articles of Confederation was too weak to adequately regulate the various conflicts that arose between the states. The Philadelphia Convention set out to correct weaknesses of the Articles that had been apparent even before the American Revolutionary War had been successfully concluded.
The convention took place from May 14 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although the Convention was purportedly intended only to revise the Articles, the intention of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison of Virginia and Alexander Hamilton of New York, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The convention convened in the Pennsylvania State House, and George Washington of Virginia was unanimously elected as president of the convention. The 55 delegates who drafted the Constitution are among the men known as the Founding Fathers of the new nation. Thomas Jefferson, who was Minister to France during the convention, characterized the delegates as an assembly of "demi - gods. '' Rhode Island refused to send delegates to the convention.
On September 12, George Mason of Virginia suggested the addition of a Bill of Rights to the Constitution modeled on previous state declarations, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts made it a formal motion. However, the motion was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations after only a brief discussion. Madison, then an opponent of a Bill of Rights, later explained the vote by calling the state bills of rights "parchment barriers '' that offered only an illusion of protection against tyranny. Another delegate, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, later argued that the act of enumerating the rights of the people would have been dangerous, because it would imply that rights not explicitly mentioned did not exist; Hamilton echoed this point in Federalist No. 84. Because Mason and Gerry had emerged as opponents of the proposed new Constitution, their motion -- introduced five days before the end of the convention -- may also have been seen by other delegates as a delaying tactic. The quick rejection of this motion, however, later endangered the entire ratification process. Author David O. Stewart characterizes the omission of a Bill of Rights in the original Constitution as "a political blunder of the first magnitude '' while historian Jack N. Rakove calls it "the one serious miscalculation the framers made as they looked ahead to the struggle over ratification ''.
Thirty - nine delegates signed the finalized Constitution. Thirteen delegates left before it was completed, and three who remained at the convention until the end refused to sign it: Mason, Gerry, and Edmund Randolph of Virginia. Afterward, the Constitution was presented to the Articles of Confederation Congress with the request that it afterwards be submitted to a convention of delegates, chosen in each State by the people, for their assent and ratification.
Following the Philadelphia Convention, some leading revolutionary figures such as Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and Richard Henry Lee publicly opposed the new frame of government, a position known as "Anti-Federalism ''. Elbridge Gerry wrote the most popular Anti-Federalist tract, "Hon. Mr. Gerry 's Objections '', which went through 46 printings; the essay particularly focused on the lack of a bill of rights in the proposed constitution. Many were concerned that a strong national government was a threat to individual rights and that the president would become a king. Jefferson wrote to Madison advocating a Bill of Rights: "Half a loaf is better than no bread. If we can not secure all our rights, let us secure what we can. '' The pseudonymous Anti-Federalist "Brutus '' wrote,
We find they have, in the ninth section of the first article declared, that the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless in cases of rebellion -- that no bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed -- that no title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, etc. If every thing which is not given is reserved, what propriety is there in these exceptions? Does this Constitution any where grant the power of suspending the habeas corpus, to make ex post facto laws, pass bills of attainder, or grant titles of nobility? It certainly does not in express terms. The only answer that can be given is, that these are implied in the general powers granted. With equal truth it may be said, that all the powers which the bills of rights guard against the abuse of, are contained or implied in the general ones granted by this Constitution.
He continued with this observation:
Ought not a government, vested with such extensive and indefinite authority, to have been restricted by a declaration of rights? It certainly ought. So clear a point is this, that I can not help suspecting that persons who attempt to persuade people that such reservations were less necessary under this Constitution than under those of the States, are wilfully endeavoring to deceive, and to lead you into an absolute state of vassalage.
Supporters of the Constitution, known as Federalists, opposed a bill of rights for much of the ratification period, in part due to the procedural uncertainties it would create. Madison argued against such an inclusion, suggesting that state governments were sufficient guarantors of personal liberty, in No. 46 of The Federalist Papers, a series of essays promoting the Federalist position. Hamilton opposed a bill of rights in The Federalist No. 84, stating that "the constitution is itself in every rational sense, and to every useful purpose, a bill of rights. He stated that ratification did not mean the American people were surrendering their rights, making protections unnecessary: "Here, in strictness, the people surrender nothing, and as they retain everything, they have no need of particular reservations. '' Patrick Henry criticized the federalist point of view, writing that the legislature must be firmly informed "of the extent of the rights retained by the people... being in a state of uncertainty, they will assume rather than give up powers by implication. '' Other anti-federalists pointed out that earlier political documents, in particular the Magna Carta had protected specific rights. In response, Hamilton argued that the Constitution was inherently different:
Bills of rights are in their origin, stipulations between kings and their subjects, abridgments of prerogative in favor of privilege, reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince. Such was the Magna Charta, obtained by the Barons, swords in hand, from King John.
In December 1787 and January 1788, five states -- Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut -- ratified the Constitution with relative ease, though the bitter minority report of the Pennsylvania opposition was widely circulated. In contrast to its predecessors, the Massachusetts convention was angry and contentious, at one point erupting into a fistfight between Federalist delegate Francis Dana and Anti-Federalist Elbridge Gerry when the latter was not allowed to speak. The impasse was resolved only when revolutionary heroes and leading Anti-Federalists Samuel Adams and John Hancock agreed to ratification on the condition that the convention also propose amendments. The convention 's proposed amendments included a requirement for grand jury indictment in capital cases, which would form part of the Fifth Amendment, and an amendment reserving powers to the states not expressly given to the federal government, which would later form the basis for the Tenth Amendment.
Following Massachusetts ' lead, the Federalist minorities in both Virginia and New York were able to obtain ratification in convention by linking ratification to recommended amendments. A committee of the Virginia convention headed by law professor George Wythe forwarded forty recommended amendments to Congress, twenty of which enumerated individual rights and another twenty of which enumerated states ' rights. The latter amendments included limitations on federal powers to levy taxes and regulate trade.
A minority of the Constitution 's critics, such as Maryland 's Luther Martin, continued to oppose ratification. However, Martin 's allies, such as New York 's John Lansing, Jr., dropped moves to obstruct the Convention 's process. They began to take exception to the Constitution "as it was, '' seeking amendments. Several conventions saw supporters for "amendments before '' shift to a position of "amendments after '' for the sake of staying in the Union. The New York Anti-Federalist "circular letter '' was sent to each state legislature proposing a second constitutional convention for "amendments before '', but it failed in the state legislatures. Ultimately, only North Carolina and Rhode Island waited for amendments from Congress before ratifying.
Article Seven of the proposed Constitution set the terms by which the new frame of government would be established. The new Constitution would become operational when ratified by at least nine states. Only then would it replace the existing government under the Articles of Confederation and would apply only to those states that ratified it.
Following contentious battles in several states, the proposed Constitution reached that nine state ratification plateau in June 1788. On September 13, 1788, the Articles of Confederation Congress certified that the new Constitution had been ratified by more than enough states for the new system to be implemented and directed the new government to meet in New York City on the first Wednesday in March the following year. On March 4, 1789, the new frame of government came into force with eleven of the thirteen states participating.
The 1st United States Congress, which met in New York City 's Federal Hall, was a triumph for the Federalists. The Senate of eleven states contained 20 Federalists with only two Anti-Federalists, both from Virginia. The House included 48 Federalists to 11 Anti-Federalists, the latter of whom were from only four states: Massachusetts, New York, Virginia and South Carolina. Among the Virginia delegation to the House was James Madison, Patrick Henry 's chief opponent in the Virginia ratification battle. In retaliation for Madison 's victory in that battle at Virginia 's ratification convention, Henry and other Anti-Federalists, who controlled the Virginia House of Delegates had gerrymandered a hostile district for Madison 's planned congressional run and recruited Madison 's future presidential successor, James Monroe, to oppose him. Madison defeated Monroe after offering a campaign pledge that he would introduce constitutional amendments comprising a Bill of Rights at the First Congress.
Originally opposed to the inclusion of a bill of rights in the Constitution, he had gradually come to understand the importance of doing so during the often contentious ratification debates. By taking the initiative to propose amendments himself through the Congress, he hoped to preempt a second constitutional convention that might, it was feared, undo the difficult compromises of 1787, and open the entire Constitution to reconsideration, thus risking the dissolution of the new federal government. Writing to Jefferson, he stated, "The friends of the Constitution, some from an approbation of particular amendments, others from a spirit of conciliation, are generally agreed that the System should be revised. But they wish the revisal to be carried no farther than to supply additional guards for liberty. '' He also felt that amendments guaranteeing personal liberties would "give to the Government its due popularity and stability ''. Finally, he hoped that the amendments "would acquire by degrees the character of fundamental maxims of free government, and as they become incorporated with the national sentiment, counteract the impulses of interest and passion ''. Historians continue to debate the degree to which Madison considered the amendments of the Bill of Rights necessary, and to what degree he considered them politically expedient; in the outline of his address, he wrote, "Bill of Rights -- useful -- not essential -- ''.
On the occasion of his April 30, 1789 inauguration as the nation 's first president, George Washington addressed the subject of amending the Constitution. He urged the legislators,
whilst you carefully avoid every alteration which might endanger the benefits of an united and effective government, or which ought to await the future lessons of experience; a reverence for the characteristic rights of freemen, and a regard for public harmony, will sufficiently influence your deliberations on the question, how far the former can be impregnably fortified or the latter be safely and advantageously promoted.
James Madison introduced a series of Constitutional amendments in the House of Representatives for consideration. Among his proposals was one that would have added introductory language stressing natural rights to the preamble. Another would apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government. Several sought to protect individual personal rights by limiting various Constitutional powers of Congress. Like Washington, Madison urged Congress to keep the revision to the Constitution "a moderate one '', limited to protecting individual rights.
Madison was deeply read in the history of government and used a range of sources in composing the amendments. The English Magna Carta of 1215 inspired the right to petition and to trial by jury, for example, while the English Bill of Rights of 1689 provided an early precedent for the right to keep and bear arms (although this applied only to Protestants) and prohibited cruel and unusual punishment.
The greatest influence on Madison 's text, however, was existing state constitutions. Many of his amendments, including his proposed new preamble, were based on the Virginia Declaration of Rights drafted by Anti-Federalist George Mason in 1776. To reduce future opposition to ratification, Madison also looked for recommendations shared by many states. He did provide one, however, that no state had requested: "No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases. '' He did not include an amendment that every state had asked for, one that would have made tax assessments voluntary instead of contributions.
First. That there be prefixed to the constitution a declaration that all power is originally vested in, and consequently derived from the people. That government is instituted, and ought to be exercised for the benefit of the people; which consists in the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the right of acquiring and using property, and generally of pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety. That the people have an indubitable, unalienable, and indefeasible right to reform or change their government, whenever it be found adverse or inadequate to the purposes of its institution. Secondly. That in article 1st, section 2, clause 3, these words be struck out, to wit: "The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative, and until such enumeration shall be made; '' and in place thereof be inserted these words, to wit: "After the first actual enumeration, there shall be one Representative for every thirty thousand, until the number amounts to --, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that the number shall never be less than --, nor more than --, but each State shall, after the first enumeration, have at least two Representatives; and prior thereto. '' Thirdly. That in article 2nd, section 6, clause 1, there be added to the end of the first sentence, these words, to wit, "But no law varying the compensation last ascertained shall operate before the next ensuing election of representatives. '' Fourthly. That in article 2nd, section 9, between clauses 3 and 4, be inserted these clauses, to wit, The civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religious belief or worship, nor shall any national religion be established, nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience by in any manner, or on any pretext infringed. The people shall not be deprived or abridged of their right to speak, to write, or to publish their sentiments; and the freedom of the press, as one of the great bulwarks of liberty, shall be inviolable. The people shall not be restrained from peaceably assembling and consulting for their common good, nor from applying to the legislature by petitions, or remonstrances for redress of their grievances. The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; a well armed, and well regulated militia being the best security of a free country: but no person religiously scrupulous of bearing arms, shall be compelled to render military service in person. No soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner; nor at any time, but in a manner warranted by law. No person shall be subject, except in cases of impeachment, to more than one punishment, or one trial for the same office; nor shall be compelled to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law; nor be obliged to relinquish his property, where it may be necessary for public use, without a just compensation. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. The rights of the people to be secured in their persons, their houses, their papers, and their other property from all unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated by warrants issued without probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, or not particularly describing the places to be searched, or the persons or things to be seized. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, to be informed of the cause and nature of the accusation, to be confronted with his accusers, and the witnesses against him; to have a compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. The exceptions here or elsewhere in the constitution, made in favor of particular rights, shall not be so construed as to diminish the just importance of other rights retained by the people; or as to enlarge the powers delegated by the constitution; but either as actual limitations of such powers, or as inserted merely for greater caution. Fifthly. That in article 2nd, section 10, between clauses 1 and 2, be inserted this clause, to wit: No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases Sixthly. That article 3rd, section 2, be annexed to the end of clause 2nd, these words to wit: but no appeal to such court shall be allowed where the value in controversy shall not amount to -- dollars: nor shall any fact triable by jury, according to the course of common law, be otherwise re-examinable than may consist with the principles of common law. Seventhly. That in article 3rd, section 2, the third clause be struck out, and in its place be inserted the classes following, to wit: The trial of all crimes (except in cases of impeachments, and cases arising in the land or naval forces, or the militia when on actual service in time of war or public danger) shall be by an impartial jury of freeholders of the vicinage, with the requisite of unanimity for conviction, of the right of challenge, and other accustomed requisites; and in all crimes punishable with loss of life or member, presentment or indictment by a grand jury shall be an essential preliminary, provided that in cases of crimes committed within any county which may be in possession of an enemy, or in which a general insurrection may prevail, the trial may by law be authorized in some other county of the same State, as near as may be to the seat of the offence. In cases of crimes committed not within any county, the trial may by law be in such county as the laws shall have prescribed. In suits at common law, between man and man, the trial by jury, as one of the best securities to the rights of the people, ought to remain inviolate. Eighthly. That immediately after article 6th, be inserted, as article 7th, the clauses following, to wit: The powers delegated by this constitution, are appropriated to the departments to which they are respectively distributed: so that the legislative department shall never exercise the powers vested in the executive or judicial; nor the executive exercise the powers vested in the legislative or judicial; nor the judicial exercise the powers vested in the legislative or executive departments. The powers not delegated by this constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the States respectively. Ninthly. That article 7th, be numbered as article 8th.
Federalist representatives were quick to attack Madison 's proposal, fearing that any move to amend the new Constitution so soon after its implementation would create an appearance of instability in the government. The House, unlike the Senate, was open to the public, and members such as Fisher Ames warned that a prolonged "dissection of the constitution '' before the galleries could shake public confidence. A procedural battle followed, and after initially forwarding the amendments to a select committee for revision, the House agreed to take Madison 's proposal up as a full body beginning on July 21, 1789.
The eleven - member committee made some significant changes to Madison 's nine proposed amendments, including eliminating most of his preamble and adding the phrase "freedom of speech, and of the press ''. The House debated the amendments for eleven days. Roger Sherman of Connecticut persuaded the House to place the amendments at the Constitution 's end so that the document would "remain inviolate '', rather than adding them throughout, as Madison had proposed. The amendments, revised and condensed from twenty to seventeen, were approved and forwarded to the Senate on August 24, 1789.
The Senate edited these amendments still further, making 26 changes of its own. Madison 's proposal to apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government was eliminated, and the seventeen amendments were condensed to twelve, which were approved on September 9, 1789. The Senate also eliminated the last of Madison 's proposed changes to the preamble.
On September 21, 1789, a House -- Senate Conference Committee convened to resolve the numerous differences between the two Bill of Rights proposals. On September 24, 1789, the committee issued this report, which finalized 12 Constitutional Amendments for House and Senate to consider. This final version was approved by joint resolution of Congress on September 25, 1789, to be forwarded to the states on September 28.
By the time the debates and legislative maneuvering that went into crafting the Bill of Rights amendments was done, many personal opinions had shifted. A number of Federalists came out in support, thus silencing the Anti-Federalists ' most effective critique. Many Anti-Federalists, in contrast, were now opposed, realizing that Congressional approval of these amendments would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention. Anti-Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution, such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation, intact.
Madison remained active in the progress of the amendments throughout the legislative process. Historian Gordon S. Wood writes that "there is no question that it was Madison 's personal prestige and his dogged persistence that saw the amendments through the Congress. There might have been a federal Constitution without Madison but certainly no Bill of Rights. ''
The twelve articles of amendment approved by congress were officially submitted to the Legislatures of the several States for consideration on September 28, 1789. The following states ratified some or all of the amendments:
Having been approved by the requisite three - fourths of the several states, there being 14 States in the Union at the time (as Vermont had been admitted into the Union on March 4, 1791), the ratification of Articles Three through Twelve was completed and they became Amendments 1 through 10 of the Constitution. President Washington informed Congress of this on December 30, 1791.
As they had not yet been approved by 11 of the 14 states, the ratification of Article One (ratified by 10) and Article Two (ratified by 6) remained incomplete. The ratification plateau they needed to reach soon rose to 12 of 15 states when Kentucky joined the Union (June 1, 1792). On June 27, 1792, the Kentucky General Assembly ratified all 12 amendments, however this action did not come to light until 1996.
Article One came within one state of the number needed to become adopted into the Constitution on two occasions between 1789 and 1803. Despite coming close to ratification early on, it has never received the approval of enough states to become part of the Constitution. As Congress did not attach a ratification time limit to the article, it is still technically pending before the states. Since no state has approved it since 1792, ratification by an additional 27 states would now be necessary for the article to be adopted.
Article Two, initially ratified by seven states through 1792 (including Kentucky), was not ratified by another state for eighty years. The Ohio General Assembly ratified it on May 6, 1873 in protest of an unpopular Congressional pay raise. A century later, on March 6, 1978, the Wyoming Legislature also ratified the article. Gregory Watson, a University of Texas at Austin undergraduate student, started a new push for the article 's ratification with a letter - writing campaign to state legislatures. As a result, by May 1992, enough states had approved Article Two (38 of the 50 states in the Union) for it to become the Twenty - seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution. The amendment 's adoption was certified by Archivist of the United States Don W. Wilson and subsequently affirmed by a vote of Congress on May 20, 1992.
Three states did not complete action on the twelve articles of amendment when they were initially put before the states. Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify. Both chambers of the Massachusetts General Court ratified a number of the amendments (the Senate adopted 10 of 12 and the House 9 of 12), but failed to reconcile their two lists or to send official notice to the Secretary of State of the ones they did agree upon. Both houses of the Connecticut General Assembly voted to ratify Articles Three through Twelve but failed to reconcile their bills after disagreeing over whether to ratify Articles One and Two. All three later ratified the Constitutional amendments originally known as Articles Three through Twelve as part of the 1939 commemoration of the Bill of Rights ' sesquicentennial: Massachusetts on March 2, Georgia on March 18, and Connecticut on April 19. Connecticut and Georgia would also later ratify Article Two, on May 13, 1987 and February 2, 1988 respectively.
The Bill of Rights had little judicial impact for the first 150 years of its existence; in the words of Gordon S. Wood, "After ratification, most Americans promptly forgot about the first ten amendments to the Constitution. '' The Court made no important decisions protecting free speech rights, for example, until 1931. Historian Richard Labunski attributes the Bill 's long legal dormancy to three factors: first, it took time for a "culture of tolerance '' to develop that would support the Bill 's provisions with judicial and popular will; second, the Supreme Court spent much of the 19th century focused on issues relating to intergovernmental balances of power; and third, the Bill initially only applied to the federal government, a restriction affirmed by Barron v. Baltimore (1833). In the twentieth century, however, most of the Bill 's provisions were applied to the states via the Fourteenth Amendment -- a process known as incorporation -- beginning with the freedom of speech clause, in Gitlow v. New York (1925). In Talton v. Mayes (1896), the Court ruled that Constitutional protections, including the provisions of the Bill of Rights, do not apply to the actions of American Indian tribal governments. Through the incorporation process the United States Supreme Court succeeded in extending to the States almost all of the protections in the Bill of Rights, as well as other, unenumerated rights. The Bill of Rights thus imposes legal limits on the powers of governments and acts as an anti-majoritarian / minoritarian safeguard by providing deeply entrenched legal protection for various civil liberties and fundamental rights. The Supreme Court for example concluded in the West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette (1943) case that the founders intended the Bill of Rights to put some rights out of reach from majorities, ensuring that some liberties would endure beyond political majorities. As the Court noted the idea of the Bill of Rights "was to withdraw certain subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities and officials and to establish them as legal principles to be applied by the courts. '' This is why "fundamental rights may not be submitted to a vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections. ''
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
The First Amendment prohibits the making of any law respecting an establishment of religion, impeding the free exercise of religion, abridging the freedom of speech, infringing on the freedom of the press, interfering with the right to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances. Initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today.
In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson 's correspondence to call for "a wall of separation between church and State '', though the precise boundary of this separation remains in dispute. Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th - and 21st - century court decisions that protected various forms of political speech, anonymous speech, campaign financing, pornography, and school speech; these rulings also defined a series of exceptions to First Amendment protections. The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for libel suits, most notably in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964). Commercial speech is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation.
The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, and applies to a wide variety of media. In Near v. Minnesota (1931) and New York Times v. United States (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint -- pre-publication censorship -- in almost all cases. The Petition Clause protects the right to petition all branches and agencies of government for action. In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, the Court has also ruled that the amendment implicitly protects freedom of association.
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.
The Second Amendment protects the individual right to keep and bear arms. The concept of such a right existed within English common law long before the enactment of the Bill of Rights. First codified in the English Bill of Rights of 1689 (but there only applying to Protestants), this right was enshrined in fundamental laws of several American states during the Revolutionary era, including the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights and the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776. Long a controversial issue in American political, legal, and social discourse, the Second Amendment has been at the heart of several Supreme Court decisions.
No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
The Third Amendment restricts the quartering of soldiers in private homes, in response to Quartering Acts passed by the British parliament during the Revolutionary War. The amendment is one of the least controversial of the Constitution, and, as of 2016, has never been the primary basis of a Supreme Court decision.
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
The Fourth Amendment guards against unreasonable searches and seizures, along with requiring any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause. It was adopted as a response to the abuse of the writ of assistance, which is a type of general search warrant, in the American Revolution. Search and seizure (including arrest) must be limited in scope according to specific information supplied to the issuing court, usually by a law enforcement officer who has sworn by it. The amendment is the basis for the exclusionary rule, which mandates that evidence obtained illegally can not be introduced into a criminal trial. The amendment 's interpretation has varied over time; its protections expanded under left - leaning courts such as that headed by Earl Warren and contracted under right - leaning courts such as that of William Rehnquist.
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.
The Fifth Amendment protects against double jeopardy and self - incrimination and guarantees the rights to due process, grand jury screening of criminal indictments, and compensation for the seizure of private property under eminent domain. The amendment was the basis for the court 's decision in Miranda v. Arizona (1966), which established that defendants must be informed of their rights to an attorney and against self - incrimination prior to interrogation by police.
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.
The Sixth Amendment establishes a number of rights of the defendant in a criminal trial:
In Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), the Court ruled that the amendment guaranteed the right to legal representation in all felony prosecutions in both state and federal courts.
In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.
The Seventh Amendment guarantees jury trials in federal civil cases that deal with claims of more than twenty dollars. It also prohibits judges from overruling findings of fact by juries in federal civil trials. In Colgrove v. Battin (1973), the Court ruled that the amendment 's requirements could be fulfilled by a jury with a minimum of six members. The Seventh is one of the few parts of the Bill of Rights not to be incorporated (applied to the states).
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
The Eighth Amendment forbids the imposition of excessive bails or fines, though it leaves the term "excessive '' open to interpretation. The most frequently litigated clause of the amendment is the last, which forbids cruel and unusual punishment. This clause was only occasionally applied by the Supreme Court prior to the 1970s, generally in cases dealing with means of execution. In Furman v. Georgia (1972), some members of the Court found capital punishment itself in violation of the amendment, arguing that the clause could reflect "evolving standards of decency '' as public opinion changed; others found certain practices in capital trials to be unacceptably arbitrary, resulting in a majority decision that effectively halted executions in the United States for several years. Executions resumed following Gregg v. Georgia (1976), which found capital punishment to be constitutional if the jury was directed by concrete sentencing guidelines. The Court has also found that some poor prison conditions constitute cruel and unusual punishment, as in Estelle v. Gamble (1976) and Brown v. Plata (2011).
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
The Ninth Amendment declares that there are additional fundamental rights that exist outside the Constitution. The rights enumerated in the Constitution are not an explicit and exhaustive list of individual rights. It was rarely mentioned in Supreme Court decisions before the second half of the 20th century, when it was cited by several of the justices in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965). The Court in that case voided a statute prohibiting use of contraceptives as an infringement of the right of marital privacy. This right was, in turn, the foundation upon which the Supreme Court built decisions in several landmark cases, including, Roe v. Wade (1973), which overturned a Texas law making it a crime to assist a woman to get an abortion, and Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), which invalidated a Pennsylvania law that required spousal awareness prior to obtaining an abortion.
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.
The Tenth Amendment reinforces the principles of separation of powers and federalism by providing that powers not granted to the federal government by the Constitution, nor prohibited to the states, are reserved to the states or the people. The amendment provides no new powers or rights to the states, but rather preserves their authority in all matters not specifically granted to the federal government.
Congress has sometimes gotten around the Tenth Amendment by invoking the Commerce Clause in Article One or by threatening to withhold funding for a federal program from noncooperative States, as in South Dakota v. Dole (1987).
George Washington had fourteen handwritten copies of the Bill of Rights made, one for Congress and one for each of the original thirteen states. The copies for Georgia, Maryland, New York, and Pennsylvania went missing. The New York copy is thought to have been destroyed in a fire. Two unidentified copies of the missing four (thought to be the Georgia and Maryland copies) survive; one is in the National Archives, and the other is in the New York Public Library. North Carolina 's copy was stolen from the State Capitol by a Union soldier following the Civil War. In an FBI sting operation, it was recovered in 2003. The copy retained by the First Congress has been on display (along with the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence) in the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom room at the National Archives Building in Washington, D.C. since December 13, 1952.
After fifty years on display, signs of deterioration in the casing were noted, while the documents themselves appeared to be well preserved. Accordingly, the casing was updated and the Rotunda rededicated on September 17, 2003. In his dedicatory remarks, President George W. Bush stated, "The true (American) revolution was not to defy one earthly power, but to declare principles that stand above every earthly power -- the equality of each person before God, and the responsibility of government to secure the rights of all. ''
In 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared December 15 to be Bill of Rights Day, commemorating the 150th anniversary of the ratification of the Bill of Rights. In 1991, the Virginia copy of the Bill of Rights toured the country in honor of its bicentennial, visiting the capitals of all fifty states.
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