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what is an advantage of daily vertical migration by marine zooplankton quizlet | Diel vertical migration - wikipedia
Diel vertical migration (DVM), also known as diurnal vertical migration, is a pattern of movement used by some organisms, such as copepods, living in the ocean and in lakes. The migration occurs when organisms move up to the epipelagic zone at night and return to the mesopelagic zone of the oceans or to the hypolimnion zone of lakes during the day. The word diel comes from the Latin dies day, and means a 24 - hour period. It is the greatest migration in the world in terms of biomass. This form of migration is not restricted to any one taxa as examples are known from crustaceans (copepods), molluscs (squid), and ray - finned fishes (trout). There are various stimuli responsible for this phenomenon, the most prominent being response to changes in light intensity, though evidence suggests that biological clock s are an underlying stimulus as well. There are a number of potential reasons to explain the phenomenon in nature, though it is most typically to access food and avoid predators. While this mass migration is typically nocturnal, with the animals ascending from the depths at nightfall and descending at sunrise, novel types of vertical migration can occur in response to the different cues and stimuli that trigger migration. Some novel events include the absence of DVM during midnight sun in Arctic regions and the sudden onset of migration due to a solar eclipse.
During World War II the U.S. Navy was taking sonar readings of the ocean when they discovered the deep scattering layer (DSL). While performing sound propagation experiments the University of California 's Division of War Research (UCDWR), consistently had results of the echo - sounder that showed a distinct reverberation that they attributed to mid-water layer scattering agents, there was speculation these readings may be attributed to enemy submarines. By collaborating with biologists from Scripps Institution and the UCDWR, they were able to confirm that the observed reverberations from the echo - sounder were in fact related to the diel vertical migration of marine animals. The DSL was caused by large, dense groupings of organisms, like zooplankton, that scattered the sonar to create a false or second bottom.
Once scientists started to do more research on what was causing the DSL, it was discovered that a large range of organisms were vertically migrating. Most types of plankton and some types of nekton have exhibited some type of vertical migration, although it is not always diel. These migrations may have substantial effects on mesopredators and apex predators by modulating the concentration and accessibility of their prey (e.g., impacts on the foraging behavior of pinnipeds).
There are two different factors that are known to play a role in vertical migration, endogenous and exogenous. Endogenous factors originate from the organism itself; sex, age, biological rhythms, etc. Exogenous factors are environmental factors acting on the organism such as light, gravity, oxygen, temperature, predator - prey interactions, etc.
Endogenous rhythm
Biological clocks are an ancient and adaptive sense of time innate to an organism that allows them to anticipate environmental changes and cycles so they are able to physiologically and behaviorally respond to the expected change. Evidence of circadian rhythms controlling DVM, metabolism, and even gene expression have been found in copepod species, Calanus finmarchicus. These copepods were shown to continue to exhibit these daily rhythms of vertical migration in the laboratory setting even in constant darkness, after being captured from an actively migrating wild population. An experiment was done at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography which kept organisms in column tanks with light / dark cycles. A few days later the light was changed to a constant low light and the organisms still displayed diel vertical migration. Thus suggestions that some type of internal response was causing the migration.
Clock gene expression
Many organisms including the copepod C. finmarchicus, has genetic material devoted to maintaining its biological clock. The expression of these gene varies temporally with the expression significantly increasing following dawn and dusk at times of greatest vertical migration seen in this species. These finding may indicate they work as a molecular stimulus for vertical migration.
Body size
The relative body size of an organism has been found to effect DVM. Bull trout express daily and seasonal vertical migrations with smaller individuals always staying at a deeper layer than the larger individuals. This is most likely due to a predation risk but is dependent on the individuals own size such that smaller animals may be more inclined to remain at depth.
Light
Light is the most common and critical cue for vertical migration. Organisms want to find an optimum light intensity (isolume). Whether it is no light or a large amount of light, an organism will travel to where it is most comfortable. Studies have shown that during a full moon organisms will not migrate up as far or during an eclipse they will start to migrate.
Temperature
Organisms will migrate to a water depth with suitable temperatures that best suit the organisms needs, for example some fish species migrate to warmer surface waters in order to aid digestion. Temperature changes can influence swimming behavior of some copepods. In the presence of a strong thermocline some zooplankton may be inclined to pass through it, and migrate to the surface waters, though this can be very variable even in a single species. The marine copepod, Calanus finmarchicus, will migrate through gradients with temperature differences of 6 ° C over George 's Bank; whereas, in the North Sea they are observed to remain below the gradient.
Salinity
Changes in salinity may promote organism to seek out more suitable waters if they happen to be stenohaline or unequipped to handle regulating their osmotic pressure. Areas that are impacted by tidal cycles accompanied by salinity changes, estuaries for example, may see vertical migration in some species of zooplankton. In areas such as the Arctic, melting ice causes a layer of freshwater which organisms can not cross.
Pressure
Pressure changes have been found to produce differential responses that result in vertical migration. many zooplankton will react to increased pressure with positive phototaxis, a negative geotaxis, and / or a kinetic response that results in ascending in the water column. Likewise, when there is a decrease in pressure, the zoo plankton respond by passively sinking or active downward swimming to descend in the water column.
Predator kairomones
A predator might release a chemical cue which could cause its prey to vertically migrate away. This may stimulate the prey to vertically migrate to avoid said predator. The introduction of a potential predator species, like a fish, to the habitat of diel vertical migrating zooplankton has been shown to influence the distribution patterns seen in their migration. For example, a study used Daphnia and a fish that was too small to prey of them (Lebistus reticulatus), found that with the introduction of the fish tot the system the Daphnia remained below the thermocline, where the fish was not present. This demonstrates the effects of kairomones on Daphnia DVM.
Tidal Patterns
Some organisms have been found to move with the tidal cycle. A study looked at the abundance of a species of small shrimp, Acetes sibogae, and found that they tended to move further higher in the water column and in higher numbers during flood tides than during ebb tides experiences at the mouth of an estuary. It is possible that varying factors with the tides may be the true trigger for the migration rather than the movement of the water itself, like the salinity or minute pressure changes.
There are many hypotheses as to why organisms would vertically migrate, and several may be valid at any given time.
Water transparency
A recent theory of DVM, termed the Transparency Regulator Hypothesis, argues that water transparency is the ultimate variable that determines the exogenous factor (or combination of factors) that causes DVM behavior in a given environment. In less transparent waters, where fish are present and more food is available, fish tend to be the main driver of DVM. In more transparent bodies of water, where fish are less numerous and food quality improves in deeper waters, UV light can travel farther, thus functioning as the main driver of DVM in such cases.
Due to the particular types of stimuli and cues used to initiate vertical migration, there can be sudden anomalies that change the pattern drastically.
For example, the occurrence of midnight sun in the Arctic induces changes to planktonic life that would normally perform DVM with a 24 - hour night and day cycle. In the summers of the Arctic the Earth 's north pole is directed toward the sun creating longer days and at the high latitude continuous day light for more than 24 - hours. Species of foraminifera found in the ocean cease their DVM pattern, and rather remain at the surface in favor of feeding on the phytoplankton, for example Neogloboquadrina pachyderma, and for those species that contain symbionts, like Turborotalita quinqueloba, remain in sunlight to aid photosynthesis.
There is also evidence of changes to vertical migration patterns during solar eclipse events. In the moments that the sun is obscured during normal day light hours, there is a sudden dramatic decrease in light intensity. The decreased light intensity, replicates the typical lighting experienced at night time that stimulate the planktonic organisms to migrate. During an eclipse, some copepod species distribution is concentrated near the surface, for example Calanus finmarchicus displays a classic diurnal migration pattern but on a much shorter time scale during an eclipse.
The biological pump is the conversion of CO and inorganic nutrients by plant photosynthesis into particulate organic matter in the euphotic zone and transference to the deeper ocean. This is a major process in the ocean and without vertical migration it would n't be nearly as efficient. The deep ocean gets most of its nutrients from the higher water column when they sink down in the form of marine snow. This is made up of dead or dying animals and microbes, fecal matter, sand and other inorganic material.
Organisms migrate up to feed at night so when they migrate back to depth during the day they defecate large sinking fecal pellets. Whilst some larger fecal pellets can sink quite fast, the speed that organisms move back to depth is still faster. At night organisms are in the top 100 metres of the water column, but during the day they move down to between 800 -- 1000 meters. If organisms were to defecate at the surface it would take the fecal pellets days to reach the depth that they reach in a matter of hours. Therefore, by releasing fecal pellets at depth they have almost 1000 metres less to travel to get to the deep ocean. This is something known as active transport. The organisms are playing a more active role in moving organic matter down to depths. Because a large majority of the deep sea, especially marine microbes, depends on nutrients falling down, the quicker they can reach the ocean floor the better.
Zooplankton and salps play a large role in the active transport of fecal pellets. 15 -- 50 % of zooplankton biomass is estimated to migrate, accounting for the transport of 5 -- 45 % of particulate organic nitrogen to depth. Salps are large gelatinous plankton that can vertically migrate 800 meters and eat large amounts of food at the surface. They have a very long gut retention time, so fecal pellets usually are released at maximum depth. Salps are also known for having some of the largest fecal pellets. Because of this they have a very fast sinking rate, small detritus particles are known to aggregate on them. This makes them sink that much faster. So while currently there is still much research being done on why organisms vertically migrate, it is clear that vertical migration plays a large role in the active transport of dissolved organic matter to depth.
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what is the name of the man in wonder woman | Wonder Woman (2017 film) - wikipedia
Wonder Woman is a 2017 American superhero film based on the DC Comics character of the same name, distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. It is the fourth installment in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU). The film is directed by Patty Jenkins, with a screenplay by Allan Heinberg, from a story by Heinberg, Zack Snyder, and Jason Fuchs, and stars Gal Gadot as Diana Prince / Wonder Woman, alongside Chris Pine, Robin Wright, Danny Huston, David Thewlis, Connie Nielsen, and Elena Anaya. Wonder Woman is the second live action theatrical film featuring the titular character, following her debut in 2016 's Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. Jenkins 's role as director makes her the first female director of a live - action, theatrically released comic book superhero film. In Wonder Woman, the story of Diana is told, who is the daughter of Hippolyta and grows up on the Amazon island of Themyscira. After American pilot and spy Steve Trevor crashes offshore of the island and is rescued by her, he tells the Amazons about the ongoing World War. Diana then leaves her home in order to end the conflict.
While development for the film began in 1996, Jenkins signed on to direct in 2015. Principal photography began on November 21, 2015, with filming taking place in the United Kingdom, France, and Italy before wrapping up on May 9, 2016, the 123rd anniversary of the birth of the creator, William Moulton Marston. Additional filming took place in November 2016.
Wonder Woman premiered in Shanghai on May 15, 2017, and was released in the United States on June 2, 2017, in 2D, 3D and IMAX 3D. It received largely positive reviews from critics, with praise for its performances (particularly those of Gadot and Pine), direction, action sequences, and musical score. The film set numerous box office records; it is the fifth - highest - grossing superhero film domestically and 20th - highest - grossing film in the United States. It grossed over $821 million worldwide, making it the tenth highest - grossing film of 2017. It also helped the DCEU to push past $3 billion at the worldwide box office, making it the fourteenth - highest - grossing film franchise of all time. As of February 2018, Rotten Tomatoes has listed the movie as No. 2 on its list of the "Best Superhero Movies of All Time '', and the American Film Institute selected it as one of the top 10 Movies of the Year. The film received three nominations at the 23rd Critics ' Choice Awards, winning Best Action Movie. A sequel is set to be released on November 1, 2019 with Jenkins and Gadot reprising their roles as director and lead role respectively.
In present - day Paris, Diana receives a photographic plate from Wayne Enterprises of herself and four men taken during World War I, prompting her to recall her past. Daughter of Queen Hippolyta, Diana was raised on the hidden island of Themyscira, home to the Amazonian warrior women created by Zeus to protect mankind. Hippolyta shares the Amazonian history with Diana, including how Ares, Zeus 's son, became jealous of humanity and orchestrated its destruction. When the other gods attempted to stop him, Ares killed all but Zeus, who used the last of his power to wound Ares and force his retreat (thus dying in the process). Zeus left the Amazons the island and a weapon, the "Godkiller '', to prepare them for Ares ' return.
Although she initially forbids Diana to be trained as a warrior, Hippolyta reluctantly agrees to let her sister, Antiope, train Diana, only more rigorously than any other warrior. In 1918, Diana, now a young woman, rescues American pilot Captain Steve Trevor when his plane crashes off the Themysciran coast. The island is soon invaded by a German ship pursuing Trevor. The Amazons kill the crew, but Antiope sacrifices herself to save Diana (by taking the bullet fired from a German marine that was meant to target Diana). Steve is interrogated with the Lasso of Hestia, and reveals that a war is consuming the outside world and that he is an Allied spy. He has stolen a notebook of the chief chemist Isabel Maru, who is attempting to engineer a deadlier form of mustard gas, under the orders of General Erich Ludendorff from a weapon facility in the Ottoman Empire. Believing Ares to be responsible for the war, Diana arms herself with the "Godkiller '' sword, the lasso, and her armor before leaving Themyscira with Steve to locate and stop Ares for good.
In London, they deliver Maru 's notebook to the Supreme War Council, where Sir Patrick Morgan is trying to negotiate an armistice with Germany. Diana translates Maru 's notes and reveals that the Germans plan to release the deadly gas at the Western Front. Although forbidden by his commander to act, Steve, with secret funding from Sir Patrick, recruits spy Sameer, marksman Charlie, and smuggler Chief to help prevent the gas from being released. The team reaches the front in Belgium. Diana goes alone through No Man 's Land and captures the enemy trench, allowing the Allied forces to help her liberate the village of Veld. The team briefly celebrates, while Diana and Steve grow closer romantically.
The team learns a gala will be held at the nearby German High Command. Steve and Diana separately infiltrate the party, with Steve intending to locate the gas and destroy it, while Diana intends to kill Ludendorff, believing that he is Ares and thus killing him will end the war. Steve stops her to avoid jeopardizing his mission, but this allows Ludendorff to unleash the gas on Veld, killing its inhabitants. Blaming Steve for intervening, Diana pursues Ludendorff to a base where the gas is being loaded into a bomber aircraft bound for London. Diana fights and kills Ludendorff, but is confused and disillusioned when his death does not stop the war.
Sir Patrick appears and reveals himself as Ares. He tells Diana that although he has subtly given humans ideas and inspirations, using Ludendorff and Maru as pawns in the process, it is ultimately their decision to resort to violence as they are inherently corrupt. When Diana attempts to kill Ares with the "Godkiller '' sword, he destroys it, then reveals Diana to be the "Godkiller '', as the daughter of Zeus and Hippolyta. He fails to persuade Diana to help him destroy mankind to restore paradise on Earth. While the two battle, Steve 's team destroys Maru 's laboratory. Steve hijacks and pilots the bomber carrying the gas to a safe altitude and detonates it, sacrificing himself in the process. Ares attempts to direct Diana 's rage and grief at Steve 's death by convincing her to kill Maru, but the memories of her experiences with Steve cause her to realize that humans have good within them. She spares Maru and redirects Ares ' lightning into him, killing him for good. Later, the team celebrates the end of the war. In the present day, Diana sends an email to Bruce Wayne thanking him for the photographic plate of her and Steve and reaffirms her new mission to fight and give on the world 's behalf.
Additionally, Mayling Ng, Florence Kasumba, Madeleine Vall Beijner, Hayley Jane Warnes and Ann Wolfe portray Orana, Acantha, Egeria, Aella and Artemis, respectively, all of whom are Amazons. James Cosmo appears as Field Marshal Haig, Steffan Rhodri appears as Colonel Darnell, and Dutch model Doutzen Kroes portrays the Amazon Venelia. Samantha Jo was cast as the Amazonian Euboea, and previously played the Kryptonian, Car - Vex, in Man of Steel. Zack Snyder also makes a brief cameo appearance in the film as an unnamed soldier.
Development for a live action Wonder Woman feature film began in 1996, with Ivan Reitman attached as producer and possible director. In 1999 the project became attached to Jon Cohen, who adapted Wonder Woman for producer Joel Silver, with the hope that Sandra Bullock would star. By 2001, Todd Alcott was hired to write the screenplay, with Silver Pictures backing the project. At that time, performers such as Mariah Carey and Catherine Zeta - Jones were also rumored to be possible candidates for the role of Wonder Woman. Leonard Goldberg, however, focused on Bullock who said that she was approached for the role. In addition, wrestler Chyna also expressed interest. Lucy Lawless, the star of Xena: Warrior Princess, was also under consideration, though she stated that she would have been more interested if Wonder Woman was portrayed as a "flawed hero ''. The screenplay went through various drafts written by Alcott, Cohen, Becky Johnston, and Philip Levens, and by August 2003, Levens had been replaced by screenwriter Laeta Kalogridis.
In March 2005, Warner Bros. and Silver Pictures announced that Joss Whedon would write and direct the film, with a reported salary of $2 to $3 million. Since Whedon was directing Serenity at the time, and required time to research Wonder Woman 's background, he did not begin the screenplay until late 2005. Early drafts of his screenplay included Steve Trevor as the narrator, a fierce battle between Diana and her mother over Trevor 's welfare, and after leaving Themyscira, his need to frequently rescue a Diana rendered helpless by the modern world. Whedon was not able to complete a final version of his screenplay however, and left the project in 2007.
Although Whedon stated in May 2005 that he would not cast the part of Wonder Woman until he finished the script, Kate Beckinsale was linked to the part. In 2010 however, Whedon admitted that he did have an actress in mind for the part, stating that "Wonder Woman was basically Angelina Jolie. '' A few years later in May 2017, Indie Ground Films leaked a version of Whedon 's script in - progress online. Some reacted negatively to it on social media in June 2017, shortly after the release of Patty Jenkins 's version of the film. When asked about this response to his script, Jenkins said in a June 2017 interview that she has not read it and that Whedon is "in the DC universe now, and I do n't think there 's any reason to go there (...) It was what it was. I 'm lucky that I 'm the person who got to do it. But I do n't see what would be beneficial about comparing what he would 've done versus what I would have done. ''
A day before Whedon 's departure from Wonder Woman, Warner Bros. and Silver Pictures purchased a spec script for the film written by Matthew Jennison and Brent Strickland. Set during World War II, the script impressed executives at Silver Pictures. However, Silver stated that he had purchased the script because he did not want the rights reverting; while stating the script had good ideas, Silver did not want the film to be a period piece. By April 2008, Silver hired Jennison and Strickland to write a new script set in contemporary times that would not depict Wonder Woman 's origin, but explore Paradise Island 's history. In November 2008, Beyoncé met with representatives from DC Comics and Warner Bros., to discuss her interest in portraying Wonder Woman.
In 2010, Warner Bros. stated that a film was in development, along with films based on DC Comics superheroes the Flash and Aquaman. Both Wonder Woman and Aquaman were still under consideration for solo film subjects as of June 2013. DC Chief Diane Nelson said Wonder Woman "has been, since I started, one of the top three priorities for DC and for Warner Bros. We are still trying right now, but she 's tricky. '' On October 5, 2013, WB chairman Kevin Tsujihara said he wanted to get Wonder Woman in a film or on TV. Shortly afterward, Paul Feig said he had pitched the studio an idea for Wonder Woman as an action - comedy film. The studio then began to search for female directors to direct the film. While Michelle MacLaren was the studio 's initial choice to direct (and while she initially indicated interest), she eventually left the project due to creative differences.
In 2015, Patty Jenkins accepted an offer to direct Wonder Woman, based on a screenplay by Allan Heinberg and a story co-written by Heinberg, Zack Snyder, Geoff Johns and Jason Fuchs. Of this version, Gadot stated that,
for a long time, people did n't know how to approach the story. When Patty and I had our creative conversations about the character, we realized that Diana can still be a normal woman, one with very high values, but still a woman. She can be sensitive. She is smart and independent and emotional. She can be confused. She can lose her confidence. She can have confidence. She is everything. She has a human heart.
This version was conceived of as a prequel to the first live - action, theatrical appearance of Wonder Woman, in the 2016 film, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, placing Wonder Woman in the 1910s and World War I (a decision which differs from her comic book origins as a supporter of the Allies during World War II). As for story development, Jenkins credits the stories by the character 's creator William Moulton Marston in the 1940s and George Perez 's seminal stories in the 1980s in which he modernized the character. In addition, it follows some aspects of DC Comics ' origin changes in The New 52 reboot, where Diana is the daughter of Zeus. Jenkins cited Richard Donner 's Superman as an inspiration.
In late 2013, Zack Snyder cast Gal Gadot in the role of Wonder Woman for the 2016 film, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice over Élodie Yung and Olga Kurylenko. Some fans initially reacted to this choice by criticizing Gadot 's appearance. Snyder would later comment on his decision to cast Gadot, stating that he tested a "bunch of actresses, as you can imagine. But the thing with Gal is that she 's strong, she 's beautiful, and she 's a kind person, which is interesting, but fierce at the same time. It 's that combination of being fierce but kind at the same time that we were looking for. Gadot described Diana as having "the heart of a human so she can be emotional, she 's curious, she 's compassionate, she loves people. And then she has the powers of a goddess. She 's all for good, she fights for good. '' She also said that Diana has "many strengths and powers, but at the end of the day she 's a woman with a lot of emotional intelligence ''. As to how her character is different from her appearance in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, Gadot said "We go back 100 years to when she 's more naive '', further explaining, "She 's this young idealist. She 's pure. Very different to the experienced, super-confident, grown - up woman you 've seen ''. Gadot underwent a diet and training regimen, practiced different martial arts and gained 17 pounds of muscle for the role. Gadot was previously offered a different role (as a villain) in Man of Steel, which she declined because she was pregnant at the time; this allowed her to later be cast as Wonder Woman in the film 's follow - up. Gadot signed a three - picture deal. She was only paid a base salary of $300,000 for the film itself.
Chris Pine was cast as Steve Trevor, a character he described as a "rogue - ish, cynical realist who 's seen the awful brutish nature of modern civilization '' and added that he is a "worldly guy, a charming guy ''. He signed a multi-picture deal. Lucy Davis ' performance as Etta Candy is the first live - action cinematic portrayal of the character. As well, Elena Anaya 's performance as Doctor Poison is the cinematic debut of that character. Nicole Kidman was in negotiations for the role of Queen Hippolyta, but was forced to drop out due to scheduling conflicts with Big Little Lies.
Production began on November 21, 2015, under the working title Nightingale. Among the film sets were Lower Halstow, Kent, Australia House, and the Sassi di Matera, Castel del Monte and Camerota in Southern Italy. Matthew Jensen was the director of photography, filming in the United Kingdom, France and Italy. Production in London ended on March 13, 2016. On March 20, 2016, filming was underway in Italy. In late April, filming took place at a museum in France, where a Wayne Enterprises truck was spotted alongside Gadot. Production ended on May 9, 2016. Patty Jenkins and director of photography Matt Jensen revealed that the film 's look was inspired by painter John Singer Sargent. Reshoots took place in November 2016, while Gadot was five months pregnant. A green cloth was placed over her stomach to edit out her pregnancy during post-production.
To find the perfect location to shoot the Amazon island of Themyscira, the birthplace of Wonder Woman herself, the film 's producers searched all over the world, finally settling on the Amalfi Coast: a stretch of coastline on the Tyrrhenian Sea, located in the Province of Salerno in Southern Italy. It was chosen because most beaches in the world that sit below big cliffs disappear beneath the tide for part of every day. Production designer Aline Bonetto and her location manager Charles Somers considered 47 countries and visited several of them before they found what they were looking for. Bonetto explained that, "Italy had beautiful weather, a beautiful blue - green sea, not too much tide, not too much wave. Our effects team added some cliffs in post-production, and it was the perfect way to go ''.
The estuary at Lower Halstow in Kent, featured in the scenes in which Princess Diana arrives in the Belgian creek to make her way to the warfront.
Bill Westenhofer served as the visual effects supervisor for the film and Martin Walsh served as editor.
On November 3, 2016, Rupert Gregson - Williams was hired to write and compose the film 's music. He was joined by Evan Jolly, Tom Howe, Paul Mounsey, and Andrew Kawczynski, who provided additional music. The soundtrack was released on CD, digital, and vinyl the same day as the film. Australian musician Sia sang a song for the film, titled "To Be Human '', featuring English musician Labrinth. Written by Florence Welch and Rick Nowels, the track is also featured on the soundtrack.
Additional music featured in the film are: "Another Little Drink Would n't Do Us Any Harm '' by Clifford Grey and Nat Ayer and performed by Edgar Trevor and Cecil Cooper; "Molly O'Morgan '' written by Fred Godfrey and Will Letters and performed by Ella Retford; "It 's a Long Way to Tipperary '' written by Jack Judge and Harry Williams; "Sous les ponts de Paris '' written by Jean Rodor and Vincent Scotto and performed by Lucienne Delyle; "I 'll Walk Beside You '' written by Edward Lockton and Alan Murray and performed by Ewen Bremner; "Green Grow the Rushes, O '' written by Robert Burns and performed by Ewen Bremner; and "Schatzwalzer Op. 4 '' written by Johann Strauss II and performed by the Berlin String Quartet. Also features samples from the movie 's soundtrack "Is She with You '' from Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice composed by Hans Zimmer and Junkie XL.
Wonder Woman had its world premiere on May 15, 2017 in Shanghai. It premiered on May 25, 2017 in Los Angeles. The film 's London premiere, which was scheduled to take place on May 31 at the Odeon Leicester Square, was cancelled due to the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing. The film had its Latin America premiere in Mexico City on May 27. It was released in most of the world, including in IMAX, on June 2, 2017, after originally being scheduled for June 23. Belgium, Singapore and South Korea received the film first, with May 31 openings. On April 17, it was announced that Wonder Woman would be released in China on June 2, the same day as its North American release.
The success of the superhero television series Supergirl informed the marketing and promotion strategy used for Wonder Woman. According to Time Warner chief marketing officer Kristen O'Hara, they wanted to approach the Wonder Woman marketing campaign in a light manner, similar to how they did with Supergirl. O'Hara elaborated that the modest campaign route they took for Supergirl aided in establishing a large central fanbase among women well in advance of the series, which reportedly generated 5 million female superhero fans in one week. They were then able to model over time, and grow that audience leading up to the 15 - months - later release of Wonder Woman. Though neither the film nor the series are aimed exclusively at women, the latter 's campaign gave them their first opportunity to begin collecting data about female superhero fans. In May 2017, a promo for Wonder Woman was released during the season finale of Supergirl, featuring a remix of the song "These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' '' and Supergirl (Melissa Benoist) wearing Wonder Woman 's boots. The promo included an appearance by Lynda Carter, star of the 1970s Wonder Woman, who plays the American president on Supergirl.
The costs for television advertisements for Wonder Woman are higher in comparison to that of previous DCEU film Suicide Squad. Warner Bros. has spent over $3 million on advertisements for Wonder Woman, whereas they spent $2.6 million on advertisements for Suicide Squad. Ticket selling site Fandango reported that Wonder Woman rounded the final leg of its marketing campaign as the most anticipated blockbuster of summer 2017, according to a poll conducted by 10,000 voters, the biggest survey in company history. Separately, Fandango also found that 92 % of people surveyed said that they are looking forward to seeing a film that features a standalone woman superhero, and 87 % wished Hollywood would make more women - led superhero films. In May 2017, NASCAR driver Danica Patrick drove her No. 10 car with a Wonder Woman paint scheme at the Go Bowling 400 in Kansas and at the Monster Energy Open in Charlotte.
Wonder Woman was released on Digital HD on August 29, 2017 and on Blu - ray, Blu - ray 3D, 4K Ultra-HD Blu - ray and DVD on September 19, 2017. The film debuted at the top spot of both the NPD VideoScan overall disc sales chart and the Blu - ray Disc sales chart.
On May 31, Wonder Woman was banned in Lebanon after the Campaign to Boycott Supporters of Israel asked the Lebanese government 's Ministry of Economy and Trade to block the film because its star, Gal Gadot, is Israeli. The Lebanese government did not, however, ban Gadot 's Fast & Furious films which did screen in Lebanon. On June 7, Variety reported that a Tunisian court suspended the theatrical release of Wonder Woman after a lawsuit brought by the Al - Chaab party and the Tunisian Association of Young Lawyers to have the film blocked due to Gadot 's Israeli citizenship, military service, and public comments in support of the Israeli military during the 2014 war in Gaza. Jordan was reportedly also considering a ban of the film and suspended screenings pending a decision, but on June 11, Al Bawaba reported that the government decided not to do so, as there was no legal precedent for it.
Some men were unhappy with women - only screenings held at the Alamo Drafthouse Cinema in Austin, with some opponents of the gender - restricted screening stating on platforms such as Facebook that such screenings were discriminatory against men.
A gay Albany Law School professor initiated a complaint with Austin 's Equal Employment and Fair Housing Office claiming discrimination against male prospective customers and employees of the theater. The chain responded with an online statement saying the event "may have created confusion -- we want everybody to see this film '' and announced a similar event at their Brooklyn location. Tickets sold out in less than an hour, prompting the chain to schedule additional screenings. On July 18, Alamo Drafthouse proposed settlement offers of a Wonder Woman DVD to the complainants, stating "Respondent did not realize that advertising a ' women 's only ' screening was a violation of discrimination laws ''
Wonder Woman grossed $412.6 million in the United States and Canada and $409.3 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $821.9 million, against a production budget of $149 million. Estimates for the number the film needed to surpass internationally in order to cover its production and promotional costs and break even ranged from $300 million to $460 million.
In May 2017, early tracking had Wonder Woman opening with $65 -- 75 million, and possibly as high as $105 million. The film opened Friday, June 2, 2017, across 4,165 theaters and made $38.7 million on its opening day, including $3.7 million in IMAX. It was the biggest single - day gross for a woman - directed film, ahead of the $35.9 million opening Friday of Catherine Hardwicke 's Twilight in 2008 and the biggest opening day for a woman - led comic book superhero film, ahead of Ghost in the Shell ($7 million). This included $11 million it made from Thursday previews, also the best start for a film directed by a woman, surpassing Fifty Shades of Grey 's $8.6 million which was directed by Sam Taylor - Johnson, and the third - biggest of the year, behind Beauty and the Beast and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. Of that, $1.5 million came from IMAX screenings.
Earning a total of $103.3 million on its opening weekend, the film recorded a number of records: the biggest domestic opening of all time for a female director (surpassing previous record holder Fifty Shades of Grey by Sam Taylor - Johnson), the biggest DC Comics release without Batman or Superman (ahead of Constantine), the sixth - biggest non-sequel comic book superhero debut ever, as well as the sixth - biggest June debut weekend. Its three - day opening alone made it the highest - grossing woman - led comic book superhero film ever (surpassing Ghost in the Shell). It was also the 16th superhero film to cross $100 million in its domestic box office launch. About 9 % ($9 million) of the opening weekend came from IMAX screenings from 343 theaters. In its second week the film grossed $58.5 million, again topping the box office. It marked a 43.3 % drop for its second weekend at the box office, better than the average 50 -- 60 % decline superhero films tend to see, and was a better second weekend than Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice ($51.3 million) and Suicide Squad ($43.5 million). In its third weekend it grossed $40.8 million, finishing second behind newcomer Cars 3 ($53.5 million). It was the second - best third weekend ever for Warner Bros. and was nearly double what Batman v Superman ($23.3 million), Suicide Squad ($20.9 million) and Man of Steel ($20.7 million) made in their third weekends. It earned $24.9 million and $15.7 million in its fourth and fifth weekends, respectively, dropping just 39 % and 36 % despite facing rough competition from opening films Transformers: The Last Knight and Despicable Me 3. It eventually became the highest - grossing film directed by a woman, surpassing the previous records of Jennifer Yuh Nelson 's Kung Fu Panda 2 and Phyllida Lloyd 's Mamma Mia!. By August 8, the film had garnered $400 million in ticket sales, becoming the second female - fueled film (after Disney 's Beauty and the Beast and behind Star Wars: The Last Jedi), Warner Bros. ' third - biggest movie (after Christopher Nolan 's The Dark Knight and The Dark Knight Rises), holding the record of the highest - earning superhero origin film -- supplanting the previous record held by Spider - Man (2002), and also becoming the highest - earning film with a female director in terms of domestic earnings -- surpassing Frozen (2013).
Beyond the US and Canada, the film was released day - and - date with its North American debut in 55 markets (72 % of its total release), and was projected to debut with anywhere between $92 -- 118 million. It ended up opening to $125 million, including $38 million in China, $8.5 million in Korea, $8.4 million in Mexico, $8.3 million in Brazil and $7.5 million in the UK. In its second week of release, the film brought in another $60 million, including holding the top spot on France, the UK, Australia and Brazil. As of June 25, 2017, the biggest markets of Wonder Woman outside North America are China (US $90 million) followed by Brazil (US $34 million), UK (US $28 million) and Australia (US $24 million). In the Philippines, it broke 2017 box office record for highest - earning non-holiday opening day -- earning $4.7 million and becoming the 6th-most successful commercial film of all time as well overtaking the record set by Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. The film opened in its last market, Japan, on August 25 and debuted to $3.4 million, helping the international gross cross the $400 million mark.
Wonder Woman received largely positive reviews from film critics, with some calling it the best film in the DC Extended Universe, and praising Jenkins 's direction, performances, chemistry of Gadot and Pine and musical score. On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 92 % based on 367 reviews, with an average rating of 7.6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Thrilling, earnest, and buoyed by Gal Gadot 's charismatic performance, Wonder Woman succeeds in spectacular fashion. '' It is the second highest - rated superhero film on the site. On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 76 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Critics commented favorably on Gadot 's performance of the titular character and Chris Pine 's Steve Trevor. Andrew Barker of Variety found the film to be more lighthearted than recent DC Comics films: "Never prone to stewing in solitude, and taking more notes from Richard Donner than from Christopher Nolan, Patty Jenkins ' Wonder Woman provides a welcome respite from DC 's house style of grim darkness -- boisterous, earnest, sometimes sloppy, yet consistently entertaining -- with star Gal Gadot proving an inspired choice for this avatar of truth, justice, and the Amazonian way. '' Vox stated "Trevor is the superhero girlfriend comic book movies need ''. The San Francisco Chronicle 's Mick LaSalle lauded the performances of Gadot, Pine, Huston, and Thewlis while commending the film 's "different perspective '' and humor. Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times described Gadot 's performance as inspirational, heroic, heartfelt and endearing and the most "real '' Wonder Woman portrayal.
A.O. Scott of The New York Times wrote that it "briskly shakes off blockbuster branding imperatives and allows itself to be something relatively rare in the modern superhero cosmos. It feels less like yet another installment in an endless sequence of apocalyptic merchandising opportunities than like... what 's the word I 'm looking for? A movie. A pretty good one, too. '' Michael Phillips of Chicago Tribune compared the film to Captain America: The First Avenger, noting that as with "the first Captain America movie over in the Marvel Comics universe, DC 's Wonder Woman offers the pleasures of period re-creation for a popular audience. Jenkins and her design team make 1918 - era London; war - torn Belgium; the Ottoman Empire; and other locales look freshly realized, with a strong point of view. There are scenes here of dispossessed war refugees, witnessed by an astonished and heartbroken Diana, that carry unusual gravity for a comic book adaptation. '' Katie Erbland of IndieWire commended its thematic depth, explaining that "Wonder Woman is a war movie. Patty Jenkins ' first -- and we hope not last -- entry into the DC Expanded Universe is primarily set during World War I, but while the feature does n't balk at war - time violence, it 's the internal battles of its compelling heroine that are most vital. '' Alonso Duralde of TheWrap similarly felt that, "Diana 's scenes of action are thrilling precisely because they 're meant to stop war, not to foment it; the idea of a demi - god using love to fight war might sound goofy in the abstract, but Jenkins makes the concept work. '' Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post praised Gadot and Pine 's performances as well the film 's detailed plot and narrative while comparing of some slow - motion action sequences to The Matrix. Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine hailed the film as a "cut above nearly all the superhero movies that have been trotted out over the past few summers '' while praising Gadot 's performance as "charming '' and "marvelous '' and commending Jenkins 's direction of the film as a step forward for women directors in directing big - budget blockbuster films in Hollywood.
Elise Jost of Moviepilot observed that "Gadot 's take on Wonder Woman is one of those unique cases of an actor merging with their story, similar to Robert Downey Jr. 's Tony Stark. Gal Gadot is Wonder Woman, and Wonder Woman is Gal Gadot. '' Jost praised Gadot 's interpretation of Wonder Woman as the one in which Gadot "absolutely nails the character 's unwaveringly positive outlook on life. She 's a force of nature who believes in the greater good; her conviction that she 's meant to save the world is stronger than her bullet - deflecting shield. She 's genuine, she 's fun, she 's the warm source of energy at the heart of the movie. '' The Federalist suggests that Wonder Woman is "a story of Jesus ''. "The movie is wrapped up in faux Greek mythology, true, but there 's no mistaking the Christology here. '' "Perhaps Christ in the form of a beautiful and kick - ass Amazon is all that our contemporary society can handle right now '', stated M. Hudson, a Christian feminist. On HuffPost cultural critic, G. Roger Denson, who regards the superhero genre as a source of contemporary "Mainstream Mythopoetics '' ("the making of new yet vitally meaningful, if not symbolic, stories filled with imagery reflecting, yet also shaping and advancing, the political, legal, moral and social practices of today ''), wrote that the "No Man 's Land '' scene "that people are crying over in theaters and raving about afterward happens to be among the most powerfully mythopoetic scenes ever filmed at the same time it is one of the oldest myths to have been utilized by artists and writers after it had been invented by early military strategists and leaders. '' Specifically "used by director Patty Jenkins '', the scene raises "the esteem for powerful yet compassionate women as heroes and leaders to a level equal with that of men for having won over a huge and adoring popular audience around the world ''.
Steve Rose in The Guardian criticized the film for failing to explore the material 's potential for "patriarchy - upending subversion ''. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone criticized the film 's over-reliance on exposition: "Wonder Woman is hobbled by a slogging origin story and action that only comes in fits and starts. Just when Gadot and director Patty Jenkins... are ready to kick ass, we get backstory. ''
"Gas was intended to win the war. On that much Wonder Woman is absolutely right. '' said David Hambling in Popular Mechanics. Rachel Becker of The Verge stated that despite the scientific liberties of using a "hydrogen - based '' chemical weapon as a plot device, the film succeeds in evoking real and horrifying history. "First off, mustard gas is such a horrible, terrifying weapon, it does n't need to be made more potent. But if you were a chemist bent on raining destruction on the Allied forces, you would n't do it by replacing the sulfur atom in mustard gas with a hydrogen atom. You 'd know that sulfur is the linchpin holding together this poisonous molecule. ''
Wonder Woman has been the subject of a discussion regarding the appearance and representation of female power in general, and of female action heroes in particular since her initial 1941 appearance in Sensation Comics, as she was created to document "the growth in the power of women '', while wearing "a golden tiara, a red bustier, blue underpants and knee - high, red leather boots. '' She was blacklisted a year later in 1942 in the "Publications Disapproved for Youth '' because, the group behind the list argued, she was "not sufficiently dressed ''.
A few decades later, second - wave feminist Gloria Steinem 's Ms. Magazine debuted in 1972 with an image of Wonder Woman on the cover. Historian Tim Hanley suggests that this move shifted "the focus away from female superiority to sisterhood and equality, essentially making her a mascot of the women 's movement ''. This perception shifted over the years, however, as demonstrated in December 2016 when the United Nations decided to drop the title of "honorary ambassador for the empowerment of women and girls '' which it had given to the comic book character Wonder Woman a few months prior, in a ceremony attended by the actors who had portrayed her (Lynda Carter and Gal Gadot). The title was eliminated in response to a petition signed by 44,000 people which argued that Wonder Woman undermines female empowerment due to her costume, described as a "shimmery, thigh - baring bodysuit with an American flag motif and knee - high boots ''. The petition stated that "it is alarming that the United Nations would consider using a character with an overtly sexualised image at a time when the headline news in United States and the world is the objectification of women and girls ''. Wonder Woman director Patty Jenkins responded to both the petition and to the U.N. 's decision by stating that she thinks "that that 's sexist. I think it 's sexist to say you ca n't have both. I have to ask myself what I would apply to any other superhero ''.
The debate continued with the release of Jenkins 's 2017 film, Wonder Woman, which according to the BBC had "some thinking it 's too feminist and others thinking it 's not feminist enough ''. Kyle Killian found an inherent contradiction in the construction of Wonder Woman as "a warrior '' whom, she states, is also highly sexualized. Killian thus suggests that these elements "should not be the focus of a kickass heroine -- her beauty, bone structure, and sexiness -- if she is to be a feminist icon ''. Theresa Harold concurred, comparing Wonder Woman to Katniss Everdeen (of The Hunger Games), who "did n't have to wear a teenager 's wet dream of a costume to fight in ''. Christina Cauterucci also felt that Wonder Woman 's ability to be considered a "feminist antidote '' was undermined by her "sex appeal ''. Other critics refer to the construction of Wonder Woman in the film as "an implausible post-feminist hero ''.
Jenkins disagrees with this line of critique, however. She has stated that she was raised by a second - wave "feminist mother '', who taught her to be "both super aware that there had been sexism but also: ' Congratulations -- thank you, now I get to do whatever I want, Mom! ' '' Jenkins thus notes that it is this upbringing which has led her to question a feminist critique of Wonder Woman 's costume. When she was working on her own version of Wonder Woman 's "Gladiator '' re-design of the outfit (in the 2016 film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice) Jenkins decided that Wonder Woman (as well as the other Amazons) "should n't be dressed in armor like men (...) It should be different (...) I, as a woman, want Wonder Woman to be hot as hell, fight badass, and look great at the same time -- the same way men want Superman to have huge pecs and an impractically big body. '' Jenkins also notes that she is "frustrated '' by the critique of Wonder Woman 's appearance, stating "when people get super critical about her outfit, who 's the one getting crazy about what a woman wears? That 's who she is; that 's Wonder Woman. '' Gal Gadot concurred with Jenkins, arguing that the character "is a feminist '' as "feminism is about equality and choice and freedom. And the writers, Patty and myself all figured that the best way to show that is to show Diana as having no awareness of social roles. She has no gender boundaries. To her, everyone is equal. ''
Critics such as Valerie Estelle Frankel support Jenkins 's vision. Frankel argues that the film subverts the male gaze, stating that the construction of Wonder Woman tends to shift every few decades as it reflects the state of feminism during different time periods, including third - wave feminism (which reflects Jenkins 's approach). Zoe Williams offers a similar argument, stating that while Wonder Woman "is sort of naked a lot of the time, '' that is not, at the same time, "objectification so much as a cultural reset: having thighs, actual thighs you can kick things with, not thighs that look like arms, is a feminist act ''. Williams then juxtaposes Wonder Woman to past female action heroes such as Sarah Connor, Ellen Ripley, and Lara Croft, whom she suggests were all constructed for the male gaze, in which a "female warrior becomes a sex object '', (a point which she argues that Jenkins directly references in the film).
Gloria Steinem also liked the film, stating that she felt it made the "Amazon origin story clear; (Wonder Woman) was stopping war, not perpetuating it. '' Steinem also noted that she knew "some women were disappointed by all the makeup, but I may be desperate -- I was just happy that the Amazons had wild hair! '' Her only complaint lay in the choice to eliminate the World War II setting as the Wonder Woman comic book developed in response to existing comics that were "so sadistic and racist that there was a congressional hearing on the subject ''. Steinem also gave Hillary Clinton the first Wonder Woman Award in October 2017 during the Women 's Media Center 's "Speaking Truth to Power Awards '' (an organization created by Steinem, Jane Fonda, and Robin Morgan). Upon receiving the award, Clinton noted that she had seen Jenkins 's Wonder Woman film and that she "loved the outfit ''. She also said that as her granddaughter was "really keen '' on Wonder Woman, Clinton "thought maybe I could borrow something from her for the night. It did n't quite work for me, but I will say that this award means a lot to me because as a little girl, and then as a young woman, and then as a slightly older woman, I always wondered when Wonder Woman would have her time, and now that has happened. '' Clinton had previously praised Jenkins 's film, in a public August 2017 message, stating that "it was just as inspirational as I 'd suspected a movie about a strong, powerful woman in a fight to save the world from international disaster would be. ''
Director James Cameron continued this debate, through his critique of the representation of female power in Jenkins 's film. In an August 2017 interview with The Guardian, Cameron qualifies Jenkins 's vision of Wonder Woman as "an objectified icon '' and called the film "a step backwards ''. In contrast, he states, his character Sarah Connor (from his Terminator films) "was not a beauty icon. She was strong, she was troubled, she was a terrible mother, and she earned the respect of the audience through pure grit. '' Jenkins stated in response that Cameron 's "inability to understand what ' Wonder Woman ' is, or stands for, to women all over the world is unsurprising as, though he is a great filmmaker, he is not a woman ''. She further argued "there is no right and wrong kind of powerful woman '' because "if women have to always be hard, tough and troubled to be strong, and we are n't free to be multidimensional or celebrate an icon of women everywhere because she is attractive and loving, then we have n't come very far have we. '' Reaction to this debate was mixed. Julie Miller sided with Cameron, whom she states refers to himself as "a pretty hardcore feminist '' and who told Vulture that "I have no problem writing a script in which the males become subservient to the females, which is what happens in Aliens (...) It 's up to Ripley to win the day. '' In contrast, Miller argues that Jenkins and Gadot envisioned Wonder Woman as "a woman who exuded both femininity and strength, along with genuine confusion as to why men would treat women differently than they do other men ''. Susannah Breslin also agreed with Cameron, describing Jenkins 's Wonder Woman as "a Playmate with a lasso '' and "female power with no balls ''. Others were more critical of Cameron 's critique. An article in Newsweek suggests that in contrast to his criticism of Jenkins, Cameron 's own films include "lot of objectification '' and quotes a few Hollywood celebrities who echoed this view. One of the quotes came from Jesse McLaren who states that "James Cameron 's just confused there 's a female hero whose motivations are n't centered around motherhood. '' Noah Berlatsky found areas of agreement between both Cameron and Jenkins, stating that while Cameron 's objection is "an old point that 's been made over and over for decades '', Jenkins 's film is not "solely focused on objectifying Gal Gadot for a male audience ''.
A few weeks later in September, Cameron reiterated his criticism in an interview with The Hollywood Reporter. He compared Gal Gadot 's representation of the character to Raquel Welch films of the 1960s, and reinforced a comparison with Linda Hamilton 's portrayal of Sarah Connor. He argued that Connor was "if not ahead of its time, at least a breakthrough in its time '' because though she "looked great '', she "was n't treated as a sex object ''. He also stated that he while he "applaud (s) Patty directing the film and Hollywood, uh, ' letting ' a woman direct a major action franchise, I did n't think there was anything groundbreaking in Wonder Woman. I thought it was a good film. Period. '' Former Wonder Woman actress Lynda Carter responded to Cameron 's The Hollywood Reporter interview by asking him to "Stop dissing WW. '' Like Jenkins, she suggests that while Cameron does "not understand the character '', she does. She also refers to Cameron 's critiques as "thuggish jabs at a brilliant director '' that are as "ill advised '' as the "movie was spot on. '' Carter also states that she has the authority to make these observations because she has "embodied this character for more than 40 years ''. A month later, Jenkins responded to Cameron 's comments once again in an interview with Variety, stating that she "was not upset at all '', as "everybody is entitled to their own opinion. But if you 're going to debate something in a public way, I have to reply that I think it 's incorrect. '' Tricia Ennis was also critical of Cameron 's statements, arguing that "while he may consider himself a feminist and an ally to women, (he) is not very good at it '' as being an ally means using his position of privilege "without silencing the voices of those you 're trying to help ''. She also states that it "is not enough to simply call yourself a feminist. It 's not even enough to create a strong female character (...) You have to bring women to the table. You have to let them speak. You can not speak for them. But speaking for women is exactly what Cameron is doing through his comments (...) Cameron is using his position of power as a respected producer and director to silence women. ''
Originally signed for three feature films, with Wonder Woman and Justice League being her second and third films, Gadot signed an extension to her contract for additional films. Jenkins initially signed for only one film, but in an interview with Variety, Geoff Johns revealed that he and Jenkins are writing the treatment for a Wonder Woman sequel and that he has a "cool idea for the second one ''. At the 2017 San Diego Comic Con, Warner Bros. officially announced a sequel would be released on December 13, 2019, and would be titled Wonder Woman 2; the date was later moved up to November 1, 2019, to avoid competition with Star Wars: Episode IX. Later, Jenkins was officially signed to return as director, with confirmation that Gadot will be returning as the titular role. Days later, the studio hired Dave Callaham to co-write the film 's script with Jenkins and Johns. Kristin Wiig is in talks to play Cheetah, the villain of the film.
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which of the following is not part of the milankovitch theory | Milankovitch cycles - wikipedia
Milankovitch cycles describe the collective effects of changes in the Earth 's movements on its climate over thousands of years. The term is named for Serbian geophysicist and astronomer Milutin Milanković. In the 1920s, he hypothesized that variations in eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession of the Earth 's orbit resulted in cyclical variation in the solar radiation reaching the Earth, and that this orbital forcing strongly influenced climatic patterns on Earth.
Similar astronomical hypotheses had been advanced in the 19th century by Joseph Adhemar, James Croll and others, but verification was difficult because there was no reliably dated evidence, and because it was unclear which periods were important.
Now, materials on Earth that have been unchanged for millennia (obtained via ice, rock, and deep ocean cores) are being studied to indicate the history of Earth 's climate. Though they are consistent with the Milankovitch hypothesis, there are still several observations that the hypothesis does not explain.
The Earth 's rotation around its axis, and revolution around the Sun, evolve over time due to gravitational interactions with other bodies in the solar system. The variations are complex, but a few cycles are dominant.
The Earth 's orbit varies between nearly circular and mildly elliptical (its eccentricity varies). When the orbit is more elongated, there is more variation in the distance between the Earth and the Sun, and in the amount of solar radiation, at different times in the year. In addition, the rotational tilt of the Earth (its obliquity) changes slightly. A greater tilt makes the seasons more extreme. Finally, the direction in the fixed stars pointed to by the Earth 's axis changes (axial precession), while the Earth 's elliptical orbit around the Sun rotates (apsidal precession). The combined effect is that proximity to the Sun occurs during different astronomical seasons.
Milankovitch studied changes in these movements of the Earth, which alter the amount and location of solar radiation reaching the Earth. This is known as solar forcing (an example of radiative forcing). Milankovitch emphasized the changes experienced at 65 ° north due to the great amount of land at that latitude. Land masses change temperature more quickly than oceans, because of the mixing of surface and deep water and the fact that soil has a lower volumetric heat capacity than water.
The Earth 's orbit approximates an ellipse. Eccentricity measures the departure of this ellipse from circularity. The shape of the Earth 's orbit varies between nearly circular (with the lowest eccentricity of 0.000055) and mildly elliptical (highest eccentricity of 0.0679) Its geometric or logarithmic mean is 0.0019. The major component of these variations occurs with a period of 413,000 years (eccentricity variation of ± 0.012). Other components have 95,000 - year and 125,000 - year cycles (with a beat period of 400,000 years). They loosely combine into a 100,000 - year cycle (variation of − 0.03 to + 0.02). The present eccentricity is 0.017 and decreasing.
Eccentricity varies primarily due to the gravitational pull of Jupiter and Saturn. However, the semi-major axis of the orbital ellipse remains unchanged; according to perturbation theory, which computes the evolution of the orbit, the semi-major axis is invariant. The orbital period (the length of a sidereal year) is also invariant, because according to Kepler 's third law, it is determined by the semi-major axis.
The semi-major axis is a constant. Therefore, when Earth 's orbit becomes more eccentric, the semi-minor axis shortens. This increases the magnitude of seasonal changes.
The relative increase in solar irradiation at closest approach to the Sun (perihelion) compared to the irradiation at the furthest distance (aphelion) is slightly larger than four times the eccentricity. For Earth 's current orbital eccentricity, incoming solar radiation varies by about 6.8 %, while the distance from the Sun currently varies by only 3.4 % (5.1 million km). Perihelion presently occurs around January 3, while aphelion is around July 4. When the orbit is at its most eccentric, the amount of solar radiation at perihelion will be about 23 % more than at aphelion. However, the Earth 's eccentricity is always so small that the variation in solar irradiation is a minor factor in seasonal climate variation, compared to axial tilt and even compared to the relative ease of heating the larger land masses of the northern hemisphere.
The seasons are quadrants of the Earth 's orbit, marked by the two solstices and the two equinoxes. Kepler 's second law states that a body in orbit traces equal areas over equal times; its orbital velocity is highest around perihelion and lowest around aphelion. The Earth spends less time near perihelion and more time near aphelion. This means that the lengths of the seasons vary.
Perihelion currently occurs around January 3, so the Earth 's greater velocity shortens winter and autumn in the northern hemisphere. Summer in the northern hemisphere is 4.66 days longer than winter, and spring is 2.9 days longer than autumn.
Greater eccentricity increases the variation in the Earth 's orbital velocity. However, currently, the Earth 's orbit is becoming less eccentric (more nearly circular). This will make the seasons more similar in length.
The angle of the Earth 's axial tilt with respect to the orbital plane (the obliquity of the ecliptic) varies between 22.1 ° and 24.5 °, over a cycle of about 41,000 years. The current tilt is 23.44 °, roughly halfway between its extreme values. The tilt last reached its maximum in 8,700 BCE. It is now in the decreasing phase of its cycle, and will reach its minimum around the year 11,800 CE.
Increased tilt increases the amplitude of the seasonal cycle in insolation, providing more solar radiation in each hemisphere 's summer and less in winter. However, these effects are not uniform everywhere on the Earth 's surface. Increased tilt increases the total annual solar radiation at higher latitudes, and decreases the total closer to the equator.
The current trend of decreasing tilt, by itself, will promote milder seasons (warmer winters and colder summers), as well as an overall cooling trend. Because most of the planet 's snow and ice lies at high latitude, decreasing tilt may encourage the onset of an ice age for two reasons: There is less overall summer insolation, and also less insolation at higher latitudes, which melts less of the previous winter 's snow and ice.
Axial precession is the trend in the direction of the Earth 's axis of rotation relative to the fixed stars, with a period of 25,771.5 years. This motion means that eventually Polaris will no longer be the north pole star. It is caused by the tidal forces exerted by the Sun and the Moon on the solid Earth; both contribute roughly equally to this effect.
Currently, perihelion occurs during the southern hemisphere 's summer. This means that solar radiation due to (1) axial tilt inclining the southern hemisphere toward the Sun and (2) the Earth 's proximity to the Sun, both reach maximum during the summer and both reach minimum during the winter. Their effects on heating are additive, which means that seasonal variation in irradiation of the southern hemisphere is more extreme. In the northern hemisphere, these two factors reach maximum at opposite times of the year: The north is tilted toward the Sun when the Earth is furthest from the Sun. The two effects work in opposite directions, resulting in less extreme variations in insolation.
In about 13,000 years, the north pole will be tilted toward the Sun when the Earth is at perihelion. Axial tilt and orbital eccentricity will both contribute their maximum increase in solar radiation during the northern hemisphere 's summer. Axial precession will promote more extreme variation in irradiation of the northern hemisphere and less extreme variation in the south.
When the Earth 's axis is aligned such that aphelion and perihelion occur near the equinoxes, axial tilt will not be aligned with or against eccentricity.
In addition, the orbital ellipse itself precesses in space, in an irregular fashion, completing a full cycle every 112,000 years relative to the fixed stars. Apsidal precession occurs in the plane of the ecliptic and alters the orientation of the Earth 's orbit relative to the ecliptic. This happens primarily as a result of interactions with Jupiter and Saturn. Smaller contributions are also made by the sun 's oblateness and by the effects of general relativity that are well known for Mercury.
Apsidal precession combines with the 25,771.5 - year cycle of axial precession (see above) to vary the position in the year that the Earth reaches perihelion. Apsidal precession shortens this period to 23,000 years on average (varying between 20,800 and 29,000 years).
As the orientation of Earth 's orbit changes, each season will gradually start earlier in the year. Precession means the Earth 's nonuniform motion (see above) will affect different seasons. Winter, for instance, will be in a different section of the orbit. When the Earth 's apsides are aligned with the equinoxes, the length of spring and summer combined will equal that of autumn and winter. When they are aligned with the solstices, the difference in the length of these seasons will be greatest.
The inclination of Earth 's orbit drifts up and down relative to its present orbit. This three - dimensional movement is known as "precession of the ecliptic '' or "planetary precession ''. Earth 's current inclination relative to the invariable plane (the plane that represents the angular momentum of the Solar System, approximately the orbital plane of Jupiter) is 1.57 °.
Milankovitch did not study apsidal precession. It was discovered more recently and measured, relative to Earth 's orbit, to have a period of about 70,000 years. However, when measured independently of Earth 's orbit, but relative to the invariable plane, precession has a period of about 100,000 years. This period is very similar to the 100,000 - year eccentricity period. Both periods closely match the 100,000 - year pattern of glacial events.
Artifacts taken from the Earth have been studied to infer the cycles of past climate. A study of the chronology of Antarctic ice cores using oxygen - nitrogen ratios in air bubbles trapped in the ice, which appear to respond directly to the local insolation, concluded that the climatic response documented in the ice cores was driven by northern hemisphere insolation as proposed by the Milankovitch hypothesis. Analysis of deep - ocean cores, analysis of lake depths, and a seminal paper by Hays, Imbrie, and Shackleton provide additional validation through physical artifacts. Climate records contained in a 1,700 ft (520 m) core of rock drilled in Arizona show a pattern synchronized with Earth 's eccentricity, and cores drilled in New England match it, going back 215 million years.
These studies fit so well with the orbital periods that they supported Milankovitch 's hypothesis that variations in the Earth 's orbit influence climate. However, the fit was not perfect, and problems remained reconciling hypothesis with observation.
Of all the orbital cycles, Milankovitch believed that obliquity had the greatest effect on climate, and that it did so by varying the summer insolation in northern high latitudes. Therefore, he deduced a 41,000 - year period for ice ages. However, subsequent research has shown that ice age cycles of the Quaternary glaciation over the last million years have been at a 100,000 - year period, which matches the eccentricity cycle.
Various explanations for this discrepancy have been proposed, including frequency modulation or various feedbacks (from carbon dioxide, cosmic rays, or from ice sheet dynamics). Some models can reproduce the 100,000 - year cycles as a result of non-linear interactions between small changes in the Earth 's orbit and internal oscillations of the climate system.
Jung - Eun Lee of Brown University proposes that precession changes the amount of energy that Earth absorbs, because the southern hemisphere 's greater ability to grow sea ice reflects more energy away from Earth. Moreover, Lee says, "Precession only matters when eccentricity is large. That 's why we see a stronger 100,000 - year pace than a 21,000 - year pace. ''
Some have argued that the length of the climate record is insufficient to establish a statistically significant relationship between climate and eccentricity variations.
In fact, from 1 -- 3 million years ago, climate cycles did match the 41,000 - year cycle in obliquity. After 1 million years ago, this switched to the 100,000 - year cycle matching eccentricity. The transition problem refers to the need to explain what changed 1 million years ago.
Even the well - dated climate records of the last million years do not exactly match the shape of the eccentricity curve. Eccentricity has component cycles of 95,000 and 125,000 years. However, some researchers say the records do not show these peaks, but only show a single cycle of 100,000 years.
Deep - sea core samples show that the interglacial interval known as marine isotope stage 5 began 130,000 years ago. This is 10,000 years before the solar forcing that the Milankovitch hypothesis predicts. (This is also known as the causality problem, because the effect precedes the putative cause.)
Artifacts show that the variation in Earth 's climate is much more extreme than the variation in the intensity of solar radiation calculated as the Earth 's orbit evolves. If orbital forcing causes climate change, science needs to explain why the observed effect is amplified compared to the theoretical effect.
Some climate systems exhibit amplification (positive feedback) and damping responses (negative feedback). An example of amplification would be if, with the land masses around 65 ° north covered in year - round ice, solar energy were reflected away. Amplification would mean that an ice age induces changes that impede orbital forcing from ending the ice age.
The Earth 's current orbital inclination is 1.57 ° (see above). Earth presently moves through the invariable plane around January 9 and July 9. At these times, there is an increase in meteors and noctilucent clouds. If this is because there is a disk of dust and debris in the invariable plane, then when the Earth 's orbital inclination is near 0 ° and it is orbiting through this dust, materials could be accreted into the atmosphere. This process could explain the narrowness of the 100,000 - year climate cycle.
Since orbital variations are predictable, any model that relates orbital variations to climate can be run forward to predict future climate, with two caveats: the mechanism by which orbital forcing influences climate is not definitive; and non-orbital effects can be important (for example, Human impact on the environment principally increases in greenhouse gases result in a warmer climate).
An often - cited 1980 orbital model by Imbrie predicted "the long - term cooling trend that began some 6,000 years ago will continue for the next 23,000 years. '' More recent work suggests that orbital variations should gradually increase 65 ° N summer insolation over the next 25,000 years. Earth 's orbit will become less eccentric for about the next 100,000 years, so changes in this insolation will be dominated by changes in obliquity, and should not decline enough to cause an ice age in the next 50,000 years.
Other bodies in the Solar System undergo orbital fluctuations like the Milankovitch cycles. Any geological effects would not be as pronounced as climate change on the Earth, but might cause the movement of elements in the solid state:
Mars has no moon large enough to stabilize its obliquity, which has varied from 10 to 70 degrees. This would explain recent observations of its surface compared to evidence of different conditions in its past, such as the extent of its polar caps.
Saturn 's moon Titan has a cycle of approximately 60,000 years that could change the location of the methane lakes. Neptune 's moon Triton has a variation similar to Titan 's, which could cause its solid nitrogen deposits to migrate over long time scales.
Scientists using computer models to study extreme axial tilts have concluded that high obliquity would cause climate extremes that would threaten Earth - like life. They noted that high obliquity would not likely sterilize a planet completely, but would make it harder for warm - blooded, land - based life to thrive. Although the obliquity they studied is more extreme than Earth ever experiences, there are scenarios 1.5 to 4.5 billion years from now, as the Moon 's stabilizing effect lessens, where obliquity could leave its current range and the poles could eventually point almost directly at the Sun.
Media related to Milankovitch cycles at Wikimedia Commons
Milankovitch cycles at Wikibooks
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who sings you're only human after all | We Are the World - wikipedia
"We Are the World '' is a song and charity single originally recorded by the supergroup United Support of Artists (USA) for Africa in 1985. It was written by Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie (with arrangements by Michael Omartian) and produced by Quincy Jones for the album We Are the World. With sales in excess of 20 million copies, it is one of the fewer than 30 all - time physical singles to have sold at least 10 million copies worldwide.
Following Band Aid 's 1984 "Do They Know It 's Christmas? '' project in the United Kingdom, an idea for the creation of an American benefit single for African famine relief came from activist Harry Belafonte, who, along with fundraiser Ken Kragen, was instrumental in bringing the vision to reality. Several musicians were contacted by the pair, before Jackson and Richie were assigned the task of writing the song. The duo completed the writing of "We Are the World '' seven weeks after the release of "Do They Know It 's Christmas? '', and one night before the song 's first recording session, on January 21, 1985. The historic event brought together some of the most famous artists in the music industry at the time.
The song was released on March 7, 1985, as the only single from the album. A worldwide commercial success, it topped music charts throughout the world and became the fastest - selling American pop single in history. The first ever single to be certified multi-platinum, "We Are the World '' received a Quadruple Platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America.
Awarded numerous honors -- including three Grammy Awards, one American Music Award, and a People 's Choice Award -- the song was promoted with a critically received music video, a home video, a special edition magazine, a simulcast, and several books, posters, and shirts. The promotion and merchandise aided the success of "We Are the World '' and raised over $63 million (equivalent to $138 million today) for humanitarian aid in Africa and the US.
Following the devastation caused by the magnitude 7.0 M earthquake in Haiti on January 12, 2010, a remake of the song by another all - star cast of singers was recorded on February 1, 2010. Entitled "We Are the World 25 for Haiti '', it was released as a single on February 12, 2010, and proceeds from the record aided survivors in the impoverished country.
Before the writing of "We Are the World '', American entertainer and social activist Harry Belafonte had sought for some time to have a song recorded by the most famous artists in the music industry at the time. He planned to have the proceeds donated to a new organization called United Support of Artists for Africa (USA for Africa). The non-profit foundation would then feed and relieve starving people in Africa, specifically Ethiopia, where around one million people died during the country 's 1983 -- 85 famine. The idea followed Band Aid 's "Do They Know It 's Christmas? '' project in the UK, which Belafonte had heard about. In the activist 's plans, money would also be set aside to help eliminate hunger in the United States of America. Entertainment manager and fellow fundraiser Ken Kragen was contacted by Belafonte, who asked for singers Lionel Richie and Kenny Rogers -- Kragen 's clients -- to participate in Belafonte 's musical endeavor. Kragen and the two musicians agreed to help with Belafonte 's mission, and in turn, enlisted the cooperation of Stevie Wonder, to add more "name value '' to their project. Quincy Jones was drafted to co-produce the song, taking time out from his work on The Color Purple. Richie also telephoned Michael Jackson, who had just released the commercially successful Thriller album and had concluded a tour with his brothers.
Jackson revealed to Richie that he not only wanted to sing the song, but to participate in its writing as well. To begin with, "We Are the World '' was to be written by Jackson, Richie, and Wonder. As Wonder had limited time to work on the project, Jackson and Richie proceeded to write "We Are the World '' themselves. They began creating the song at Hayvenhurst, the Jackson family home in Encino. For a week, the two spent every night working on lyrics and melodies in the singer 's bedroom. They knew that they wanted a song that would be easy to sing and memorable. The pair wanted to create an anthem. Jackson 's older sister La Toya watched the two work on the song, and later contended that Richie only wrote a few lines for the track. She stated that her younger brother wrote 99 percent of the lyrics, "but he 's never felt it necessary to say that ''. La Toya further commented on the song 's creation in an interview with the American celebrity news magazine People. "I 'd go into the room while they were writing and it would be very quiet, which is odd, since Michael 's usually very cheery when he works. It was very emotional for them. ''
Richie had recorded two melodies for "We Are the World '', which Jackson took, adding music and words to the song in the same day. Jackson stated, "I love working quickly. I went ahead without even Lionel knowing, I could n't wait. I went in and came out the same night with the song completed -- drums, piano, strings, and words to the chorus. '' Jackson then presented his demo to Richie and Jones, who were both shocked; they did not expect the pop star to see the structure of the song so quickly. The next meetings between Jackson and Richie were unfruitful; the pair did not produce any additional vocals and got no work done. It was not until the night of January 21, 1985, that Richie and Jackson completed the lyrics and melody of "We Are the World '' within two and a half hours, one night before the song 's first recording session.
The first night of recording, January 22, 1985, had tight security on hand, as Richie, Jackson, Wonder, and Jones started work on "We Are the World '' at Kenny Rogers ' Lion Share Recording Studio. The studio, on Beverly Boulevard in California, was filled with musicians, technicians, video crews, retinues, assistants, and organizers as the four musicians entered. To begin the night, a "vocal guide '' of "We Are the World '' was recorded by Richie and Jackson and duplicated on tape for each of the invited performers. The guide was recorded on the sixth take, as Quincy Jones felt that there was too much "thought '' in the previous versions.
Following their work on the vocal guide, Jackson and Jones began thinking of alternatives for the line "There 's a chance we 're taking, we 're taking our own lives '': the pair was concerned that the latter part of the line would be considered a reference to suicide. As the group listened to a playback of the chorus, Richie declared that the last part of the line should be changed to "We 're ' saving ' our own lives '', which his fellow musicians agreed with. Producer Jones also suggested altering the former part of the line. "One thing we do n't want to do, especially with this group, is look like we 're patting ourselves on the back. So it 's really, ' There 's a choice we 're making. ' '' Around 1: 30 am, the four musicians ended the night by finishing a chorus of melodic vocalizations, including the sound "sha - lum sha - lin - gay ''. Jones told the group that they were not to add anything else to the tape. "If we get too good, someone 's gon na start playing it on the radio, '' he announced.
On January 24, 1985, after a day of rest, Jones shipped Richie and Jackson 's vocal guide to all of the artists who would be involved in "We Are the World '' 's recording. Enclosed in the package was a letter from Jones, addressed to "My Fellow Artists '':
The cassettes are numbered, and I ca n't express how important it is not to let this material out of your hands. Please do not make copies, and return this cassette the night of the 28th. In the years to come, when your children ask, ' What did mommy and daddy do for the war against world famine? ', you can say proudly, this was your contribution.
Ken Kragen chaired a production meeting at a bungalow off Sunset Boulevard on January 25, 1985. There, Kragen and his team discussed where the recording sessions with the supergroup of musicians should take place. He stated, "The single most damaging piece of information is where we 're doing this. If that shows up anywhere, we 've got a chaotic situation that could totally destroy the project. The moment a Prince, a Michael Jackson, a Bob Dylan -- I guarantee you! -- drives up and sees a mob around that studio, he will never come in. '' On the same night, Quincy Jones ' associate producer and vocal arranger, Tom Bahler, was given the task of matching each solo line with the right voice. Bahler stated, "It 's like vocal arranging in a perfect world. '' Jones disagreed, stating that the task was like "putting a watermelon in a Coke bottle ''. The following evening, Lionel Richie held a "choreography '' session at his home, where it was decided who would stand where.
The final night of recording was held on January 28, 1985, at A&M Recording Studios in Hollywood. Michael Jackson arrived at 9 pm, earlier than the other artists, to record his solo section and record a vocal chorus by himself. He was subsequently joined in the recording studio by the remaining USA for Africa artists, who included Ray Charles, Billy Joel, Diana Ross, Cyndi Lauper, Bruce Springsteen and Smokey Robinson. Also in attendance were five of Jackson 's siblings: Jackie, La Toya, Marlon, Randy and Tito. Many of the participants came straight from an American Music Award ceremony, which had been held that same night. Invited musician Prince, who would have had a part in which he and Michael Jackson sang to each other, did not attend the recording session. The reason given for his absence has varied. One newspaper claimed that the singer did not want to record with other acts. Another report, from the time of "We Are the World '' 's recording, suggested that the musician did not want to partake in the session because organizer Bob Geldof called him a "creep ''. Prince did, however, donate an exclusive track, "4 The Tears In Your Eyes '', for the We Are the World album. In all, more than 45 of America 's top musicians participated in the recording, and another 50 had to be turned away. Upon entering the recording studio, the musicians were greeted by a sign pinned to the door which read, "Please check your egos at the door. '' They were also greeted by Stevie Wonder, who proclaimed that if the recording was not completed in one take, he and Ray Charles, two blind men, would drive everybody home.
Each of the performers took their position at around 10: 30 pm and began to sing. Several hours passed before Stevie Wonder announced that he would like to substitute a line in Swahili for the "sha - lum sha - lin - gay '' sound. At this point, Waylon Jennings left the recording studio for a short time when it was suggested by some that the song be sung in Swahili. A heated debate ensued, in which several artists also rejected the suggestion. The "sha - lum sha - lin - gay '' sound ran into opposition as well and was subsequently removed from the song. Jennings returned to the studio and participated in the recording, which bears his name in the end credits. The participants eventually decided to sing something meaningful in English. They chose to sing the new line "One world, Our children '', which most of the participants enjoyed.
In the early hours of the morning, two Ethiopian women, guests of Stevie Wonder, were brought into the recording studio -- it had been decided that a portion of the proceeds raised would be used to bring aid to those affected by the recent famine in Ethiopia. They thanked the singers on behalf of their country, bringing several artists to tears, before being led from the room. Wonder attempted to lighten the mood, by joking that the recording session gave him a chance to "see '' fellow blind musician Ray Charles. "We just sort of bumped into each other! '' The solo parts of the song were recorded without any problems. The final version of "We Are the World '' was completed at 8 am.
"We Are the World '' is sung from a first person viewpoint, allowing the audience to "internalize '' the message by singing the word we together. It has been described as "an appeal to human compassion ''. The first lines in the song 's repetitive chorus proclaim, "We are the world, we are the children, we are the ones who make a brighter day, so let 's start giving ''. "We Are the World '' opens with Lionel Richie, Stevie Wonder, Paul Simon, Kenny Rogers, James Ingram, Tina Turner and Billy Joel singing the first verse. Michael Jackson and Diana Ross follow, completing the first chorus together. Dionne Warwick, Willie Nelson and Al Jarreau sing the second verse, before Bruce Springsteen, Kenny Loggins, Steve Perry and Daryl Hall go through the second chorus. Co-writer Jackson, Huey Lewis, Cyndi Lauper and Kim Carnes follow with the song 's bridge. This structuring of the song is said to "create a sense of continuous surprise and emotional buildup ''. "We Are the World '' concludes with Bob Dylan and Ray Charles singing a full chorus, Wonder and Springsteen duetting, and ad libs from Charles and Ingram.
On March 8, 1985, "We Are the World '' was released as a single, in both 7 '' and 12 '' format. The song was the only one released from the We Are the World album and became a chart success around the world. In the US, it was a number one hit on the R&B singles chart, the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart and the Billboard Hot 100, where it remained for a month. The single had initially debuted at number 21 on the Hot 100, the highest entry since Michael Jackson 's "Thriller '' entered the charts at number 20 the year before. It took four weeks for the song to claim the number one spot -- half the time a single would normally have taken to reach its charting peak. On the Hot 100, the song moved from 21 to 5 to 2 and then number 1. "We Are the World '' might have reached the top of the Hot 100 chart sooner, if it were not for the success of Phil Collins ' "One More Night '', which received a significant level of support from both pop and rock listeners. "We Are the World '' also entered Billboard 's Top Rock Tracks and Hot Country Singles charts, where it peaked at numbers 27 and 76 respectively. The song became the first single since The Beatles ' "Let It Be '' to enter Billboard 's Top 5 within two weeks of release. Outside of the US, the single reached number one in Australia, France, Ireland, Italy, New Zealand, The Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK. The song peaked at number 2 in only two countries: Germany and Austria.
The single was also a commercial success; the initial shipment of 800,000 "We Are the World '' records sold out within three days of release. The record became the fastest - selling American pop single in history. At one Tower Records store on Sunset Boulevard in West Hollywood, 1,000 copies of the song were sold in two days. Store worker Richard Petitpas commented, "A number one single sells about 100 to 125 copies a week. This is absolutely unheard of. '' By the end of 1985, "We Are the World '' had become the best selling single of the year. Five years later it was revealed that the song had become the biggest single of the 1980s. "We Are the World '' was eventually cited as the biggest selling single in both US and pop music history. The song became the first - ever single to be certified multi-platinum; it received a 4 × certification by the Recording Industry Association of America. The estimated global sales of "We Are the World '' are said to be 20 million.
Despite the song 's commercial success, "We Are the World '' received mixed reviews from journalists, music critics and the public following its release. American journalist Greil Marcus felt that the song sounded like a Pepsi jingle. He wrote, "... the constant repetition of ' There 's a choice we 're making ' conflates with Pepsi 's trademarked ' The choice of a new generation ' in a way that, on the part of Pepsi - contracted song writers Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie, is certainly not intentional, and even more certainly beyond the realm of serendipity. '' Marcus added, "In the realm of contextualization, ' We Are the World ' says less about Ethiopia than it does about Pepsi -- and the true result will likely be less that certain Ethiopian individuals will live, or anyway live a bit longer than they otherwise would have, than that Pepsi will get the catch phrase of its advertising campaign sung for free by Ray Charles, Stevie Wonder, Bruce Springsteen, and all the rest. '' Author Reebee Garofalo agreed, and expressed the opinion that the line "We 're saving our own lives '' was a "distasteful element of self - indulgence ''. He asserted that the artists of USA for Africa were proclaiming "their own salvation for singing about an issue they will never experience on behalf of a people most of them will never encounter ''.
In contrast, Stephen Holden of The New York Times praised the phrase "There 's a choice we 're making, We 're saving our own lives ''. He commented that the line assumed "an extra emotional dimension when sung by people with superstar mystiques ''. Holden expressed that the song was "an artistic triumph that transcends its official nature ''. He noted that unlike Band Aid 's "Do They Know It 's Christmas '', the vocals on "We Are the World '' were "artfully interwoven '' and emphasized the individuality of each singer. Holden concluded that "We Are the World '' was "a simple, eloquent ballad '' and a "fully - realized pop statement that would sound outstanding even if it were n't recorded by stars ''.
The song proved popular with both young and old listeners. The public enjoyed hearing a supergroup of musicians singing together on one track, and felt satisfied in buying the record, knowing that the money would go towards a good cause. People reported they bought more than one copy of the single, some buying up to five copies of the record. One mother from Columbia, Missouri purchased two copies of "We Are the World '', stating, "The record is excellent whether it 's for a cause or not. It 's fun trying to identify the different artists. It was a good feeling knowing that I was helping someone in need. ''
According to music critic and Bruce Springsteen biographer Dave Marsh, "We Are the World '' was not widely accepted within the rock music community. The author revealed that the song was "despised '' for what it was not: "a rock record, a critique of the political policies that created the famine, a way of finding out how and why famines occur, an all - inclusive representation of the entire worldwide spectrum of post-Presley popular music ''. Marsh revealed that he felt some of the criticisms were right, while others were silly. He claimed that despite the sentimentality of the song, "We Are the World '' was a large - scale pop event with serious political overtones.
"We Are the World '' was recognized with several awards following its release. At the 1986 Grammy Awards, the song and its accompanying music video won four awards: Record of the Year, Song of the Year, Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal and Best Music Video, Short Form. The music video was awarded two honors at the 1985 MTV Video Music Awards. It collected the awards for Best Group Video and Viewer 's Choice. People 's Choice Awards recognized "We Are the World '' with the Favorite New Song award in 1986. In the same year, the American Music Awards named "We Are the World '' "Song of the Year '', and honored organizer Harry Belafonte with the Award of Appreciation. Collecting his award, Belafonte thanked Ken Kragen, Quincy Jones, and "the two artists who, without their great gift would not have inspired us in quite the same way as we were inspired, Mr. Lionel Richie and Mr. Michael Jackson ''. Following the speech, the majority of USA for Africa reunited on stage, closing the ceremony with "We Are the World ''.
"We Are the World '' was promoted with a music video, a video cassette, and several other items made available to the public, including books, posters, shirts and buttons. All proceeds from the sale of official USA for Africa merchandise went directly to the famine relief fund. All of the merchandise sold well; the video cassette -- entitled We Are the World: The Video Event -- documented the making of the song, and became the ninth best - selling home video of 1985. All of the video elements were produced by Howard G. Malley and Craig B. Golin along with April Lee Grebb as the production supervisor.
The music video showed the recording of "We Are the World '', and drew criticism from some. Michael Jackson joked before filming, "People will know it 's me as soon as they see the socks. Try taking footage of Bruce Springsteen 's socks and see if anyone knows who they belong to. '' Jackson was also criticized for filming and recording his solo piece privately, away from the other artists.
The song was also promoted with a special edition of the American magazine Life. The publication had been the only media outlet permitted inside A&M Recording Studios on the night of January 28, 1985. All other press organizations were barred from reporting the events leading up to and during "We Are the World '' 's recording. Life ran a cover story of the recording session in its April 1985 edition of the monthly magazine. Seven members of USA for Africa were pictured on the cover: Bob Dylan, Bruce Springsteen, Cyndi Lauper, Lionel Richie, Michael Jackson, Tina Turner and Willie Nelson. Inside the magazine were photographs of the "We Are the World '' participants working and taking breaks.
"We Are the World '' received worldwide radio coverage in the form of an international simultaneous broadcast later that year. Upon spinning the song on their local stations, Georgia radio disc jockeys, Bob Wolf and Don Briscar came up with the idea for a worldwide simulcast. They called hundreds of radio and satellite stations asking them to participate. On the morning of April 5, 1985 (Good Friday of that year) at 10: 25 am, over 8000 radio stations simultaneously broadcast the song around the world. As the song was broadcast, hundreds of people sang along on the steps of St. Patrick 's Cathedral in New York. The simultaneous radio broadcast of "We Are the World '' was repeated again the following Good Friday.
"We Are the World '' gained further promotion and coverage on May 25, 1986, when it was played during a major benefit event held throughout the US. Hands Across America -- USA for Africa 's follow - up project -- was an event in which millions of people formed a human chain across the US. The event was held to draw attention to hunger and homelessness in the United States. "We Are the World '' 's co-writer, Michael Jackson, had wanted his song to be the official theme for the event. The other board members of USA for Africa outvoted the singer, and it was instead decided that a new song would be created and released for the event, titled "Hands Across America ''. When released, the new song did not achieve the level of success that "We Are the World '' did, and the decision to use it as the official theme for the event led to Jackson -- who co-owned the publishing rights to "We Are the World '' -- resigning from the board of directors of USA for Africa.
Four months after the release of "We Are the World '', USA for Africa had taken in almost $10.8 million (equivalent to $24 million today). The majority of the money came from record sales within the US. Members of the public also donated money -- almost $1.3 million within the same time period. In May 1985, USA for Africa officials estimated that they had sold between $45 million and $47 million worth of official merchandise around the world. Organizer Ken Kragen announced that they would not be distributing all of the money at once. Instead, he revealed that the foundation would be looking into finding a long - term solution for Africa 's problems. "We could go out and spend it all in one shot. Maybe we 'd save some lives in the short term but it would be like putting a Band - Aid over a serious wound. '' Kragen noted that experts had predicted that it would take at least 10 to 20 years to make a slight difference to Africa 's long - term problems.
In June 1985, the first USA for Africa cargo jet carrying food, medicine and clothing departed for Ethiopia and Sudan. It stopped en route in New York, where 15,000 T - shirts were added to the cargo. Included in the supplies were high - protein biscuits, high - protein vitamins, medicine, tents, blankets and refrigeration equipment. Harry Belafonte, representing the USA for Africa musicians, visited Sudan in the same month. The trip was his last stop on a four - nation tour of Africa. Tanzanian Prime Minister Salim Ahmed Salim greeted and praised Belafonte, telling him, "I personally and the people of Tanzania are moved by this tremendous example of human solidarity. ''
One year after the release of "We Are the World '', organizers noted that $44.5 million had been raised for USA for Africa 's humanitarian fund. They stated that they were confident that they would reach an initial set target of $50 million (equivalent to $109 million in 2017). By October 1986, it was revealed that their $50 million target had been met and exceeded; CBS Records gave USA for Africa a check for $2.5 million, drawing the total amount of money to $51.2 million. USA for Africa 's Hands Across America event had also raised a significant amount of money -- approximately $24.5 million for the hungry in the US.
Since its release, "We Are the World '' has raised over $63 million (equivalent to $138 million today) for humanitarian causes. Ninety percent of the money was pledged to African relief, both long and short term. The long - term initiative included efforts in birth control and food production. The remaining 10 percent of funds was earmarked for domestic hunger and homeless programs in the US. From the African fund, over 70 recovery and development projects were launched in seven African nations. Such projects included aid in agriculture, fishing, water management, manufacturing and reforestation. Training programs were also developed in the African countries of Mozambique, Senegal, Chad, Mauritania, Burkina Faso and Mali.
Elias Kifle Maraim Beyene, a survivor from Ethiopia being asked about his memory of Michael Jackson after his death remembers: "I wo n't ever forget Michael Jackson because his contribution to the song We are the World had a very significant effect on my life. I am 50 now but 25 years ago I was living in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, which at that time was suffering from a long drought and famine. It was a terrible situation. Lots of people became sick and many more died. Around one million people in all were killed by the famine. In 1984 Michael Jackson, along with a number of other leading musicians, made the song We are the World to raise money for Africa. We received a lot of aid from the world and I was one of those who directly benefitted from it. The wheat flour that was distributed to the famine victims was different to the usual cereal we bought at the market. We baked a special bread from it. The local people named the bread after the great artist and it became known as Michael Bread. It was soft and delicious.
When you have been through such hard times you never forget events like this. If you speak to anyone who was in Addis Ababa at that time they will all know what Michael Bread is and I know I will remember it for the rest of my life. (...) ''
"We Are the World '' has been performed live by members of USA for Africa on several occasions both together and individually. One of the earliest such performances came in 1985, during the rock music concert Live Aid, which ended with more than 100 musicians singing the song on stage. Harry Belafonte and Lionel Richie made surprise appearances for the live rendition of the song. Michael Jackson would have joined the artists, but was "working around the clock in the studio on a project that he 's made a major commitment to '', according to his press agent, Norman Winter.
An inaugural celebration was held for US President - elect Bill Clinton in January 1993. The event was staged by Clinton 's Hollywood friends at the Lincoln Memorial and drew hundreds of thousands of people. Aretha Franklin, LL Cool J, Michael Bolton and Tony Bennett were among some of the musicians in attendance. Said Jones, "I 've never seen so many great performers come together with so much love and selflessness. '' The celebration included a performance of "We Are the World '', which involved Clinton, his daughter Chelsea, and his wife Hillary singing the song along with USA for Africa 's Kenny Rogers, Diana Ross and Michael Jackson. The New York Times ' Edward Rothstein commented on the event, stating, "The most enduring image may be of Mr. Clinton singing along in ' We Are the World ', the first President to aspire, however futilely, to hipness. ''
As a prelude to his song "Heal the World '', "We Are the World '' was performed as an interlude during two of Michael Jackson 's tours, the Dangerous World Tour from 1992 to 1993 and the HIStory World Tour from 1996 to 1997. Jackson briefly perform the song with a chorus at the 2006 World Music Award in London, in his last live public performance. Jackson planned to use the song for his This Is It comeback concerts at The O2 Arena in London from 2009 to 2010, but the shows were cancelled due to his sudden death.
Michael Jackson died in June 2009, after suffering a cardiac arrest. His memorial service was held several days later on July 7, and was reported to have been viewed by more than three billion people. The finale of the event featured group renditions of the Jackson anthems "We Are the World '' and "Heal the World ''. The singalong of "We Are the World '' was led by Darryl Phinnessee, who had worked with Jackson since the late 1980s. It also featured co-writer Lionel Richie and Jackson 's family, including his children. Following the performance, "We Are the World '' re-entered the US charts for the first time since its 1985 release. The song debuted at number 50 on Billboard 's Hot Digital Songs chart.
On January 12, 2010, Haiti was struck by a magnitude - 7.0 earthquake, the country 's most severe earthquake in over 200 years. The epicenter of the quake was just outside the Haitian capital Port - au - Prince. Over 230,000 civilians have been confirmed dead by the Haitian government because of the disaster and around 300,000 have been injured. Approximately 1.2 million people are homeless and it has been reported that the lack of temporary shelter may lead to the outbreak of disease.
To raise money for earthquake victims, a new celebrity version of "We Are the World '' was recorded on February 1, 2010, and released on February 12, 2010. Over 75 musicians were involved in the remake, which was recorded in the same studio as the 1985 original. The new version features revised lyrics as well as a rap segment pertaining to Haiti. Michael Jackson 's younger sister Janet duets with her late brother on the track, as per a request from their mother Katherine. In the video and on the track, archive material of Michael Jackson is used from the original 1985 recording.
On February 20, 2010, a non-celebrity remake, "We Are the World 25 for Haiti (YouTube Edition) '', was posted to the video sharing website YouTube. Internet personality and singer - songwriter Lisa Lavie conceived and organized the Internet collaboration of 57 unsigned or independent YouTube musicians geographically distributed around the world. Lavie 's 2010 YouTube version, a cover of the 1985 original, excludes the rap segment and minimizes the Auto - tune that characterizes the 2010 celebrity remake. Another 2010 remake of the original is the Spanish - language "Somos El Mundo ''. It was written by Emilio Estefan and his wife Gloria Estefan, and produced by Emilio, Quincy Jones and Univision Communications, the company that funded the project.
"We Are the World '' has been recognized as a politically important song, which "affected an international focus on Africa that was simply unprecedented ''. It has been credited with creating a climate in which musicians from around the world felt inclined to follow. According to The New York Times ' Stephen Holden, since the release of "We Are the World '', it has been noted that movement has been made within popular music to create songs that address humanitarian concerns. "We Are the World '' was also influential in subverting the way music and meaning were produced, showing that musically and racially diverse musicians could work together both productively and creatively. Ebony described the January 28 recording session, in which Quincy Jones brought together a multi-racial group, as being "a major moment in world music that showed we can change the world ''. "We Are the World '', along with Live Aid and Farm Aid, demonstrated that rock music had become more than entertainment, but a political and social movement. Journalist Robert Palmer noted that such songs and events had the ability to reach people around the world, send them a message, and then get results.
Since the release of "We Are the World '', and the Band Aid single that influenced it, numerous songs have been recorded in a similar fashion, with the intent to aid disaster victims throughout the world. One such example involved a supergroup of Latin musicians billed as "Hermanos del Tercer Mundo '', or "Brothers of the Third World ''. Among the supergroup of 62 recording artists were Julio Iglesias, José Feliciano and Sérgio Mendes. Their famine relief song was recorded in the same studio as "We Are the World ''. Half of the profits raised from the charity single was pledged to USA for Africa. The rest of the money was to be used for impoverished Latin American countries. Another notable example is the 1989 cover of the Deep Purple song "Smoke on the Water '' by a supergroup of hard rock, prog rock, and heavy metal musicians collaborating as Rock Aid Armenia to raise money for victims of the devastating 1988 Armenian earthquake.
The 20th anniversary of "We Are the World '' was celebrated in 2005. Radio stations around the world paid homage to USA for Africa 's creation by simultaneously broadcasting the charity song. In addition to the simulcast, the milestone was marked by the release of a two - disc DVD called We Are the World: The Story Behind the Song. Ken Kragen asserted that the reason behind the simulcast and DVD release was not for USA for Africa to praise themselves for doing a good job, but to "use it to do some more good (for the original charity). That 's all we care about accomplishing. '' Harry Belafonte also commented on the 20th anniversary of the song. The entertainer acknowledged that "We Are the World '' had "stood the test of time ''; anyone old enough to remember it can still at least hum along.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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when did australia last win the bledislo cup | Bledisloe Cup - wikipedia
The Bledisloe Cup is a rugby union competition between the national teams of Australia and New Zealand that has been competed for since the 1930s. The frequency at which the competition has been held and the number of matches played has varied, but as of 2016, it consists of an annual three - match series, with two of the matches also counting towards The Rugby Championship. New Zealand have had the most success, winning the trophy for the 47th time in 2018, while Australia have won 12 times.
There is some dispute as to when the first Bledisloe Cup match was played. The Australian Rugby Union (ARU) contend that the one - off 1931 match played at Eden Park was first. However, no firm evidence has been produced to support this claim, and minutes from a New Zealand union management meeting several days later record Lord Bledisloe wishing to present a cup for the All Blacks and Wallabies to play for. The New Zealand Rugby Union (NZRU) believe that the first match was when New Zealand toured Australia in 1932.
Between 1931 and 1981 it was contested irregularly in the course of rugby tours between the two countries. New Zealand won it 19 times and Australia four times in this period including in 1949 when Australia won it for the first time on New Zealand soil. The trophy itself was apparently ' lost ' during this period and reportedly rediscovered in a Melbourne store room. In the years 1982 to 1995 it was contested annually, sometimes as a series of three matches (two in 1995) and other times in a single match. During these years New Zealand won it 11 times and Australia three times.
Since 1996 the cup has been contested as part of the annual Tri Nations tournament. Until 1998 the cup was contested in a three match series: the two Tri Nations matches between these sides and a third match. New Zealand won these series in 1996 and 1997, and Australia won it in 1998.
In 1996 and from 1999 through 2005, the third match was not played; during those years, Australia and New Zealand played each other twice as part of the Tri Nations for the cup. If both teams won one of these games, or if both games were drawn, the cup was retained by its current holder. The non-holder had to win the two games 2 -- 0 or 1 -- 0 (with a draw) to regain the Cup. A criticism of this system was that with the closeness in the level of ability between the two sides, years where each team won one game each were very common (1999, 2000, 2002, 2004) and in these years, many rugby fans felt dissatisfied with one team keeping the cup in a series tied at 1 -- 1.
2006 saw the return of the 3 - game contest for the Bledisloe Cup as the Tri Nations series was extended so that each team played each other 3 times. The 2007 Cup, however, reverted to the two - game contest because the Tri Nations was abbreviated that year to minimise interference with the teams ' preparations for the World Cup.
In 2008 it was announced that the Bledisloe Cup would be contested over an unprecedented four matches, with three games played in Australia and New Zealand and a fourth and potentially deciding game in Hong Kong in an effort to promote the game in Asia (the first time Australia and New Zealand played in a third country outside the World Cup). The Hong Kong match, which drew a crowd of 39,000 to see the All Blacks (which had already clinched the Bledisloe Cup) defeat the Wallabies 19 -- 14, proved to be a financial success for the two unions, generating a reported £ 5.5 million. Even before the match, the two countries ' rugby federations were considering taking Cup matches to the United States and Japan in 2009 and 2010. Japan hosted a fourth Bledisloe Test match on 31 October 2009. Each team expected to clear at least A $ 3.8 million / NZ $ 5 million from the Tokyo match. A 2010 fourth match was set in Hong Kong and failed to attract sufficient ticket sales.
The three - match format for the Bledisloe Cup continued in 2012, with the first two matches taking place as part of the 2012 Rugby Championship.
In Australia, the Bledisloe Cup was televised between 1992 to 1995 by Network Ten. Since 1996, Fox Sports has televised it. They jointly televised it with Seven Network between 1996 to 2010, Nine Network in 2011 and 2012 and Network Ten since 2013.
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show me a map of mexico and central america | Central America - Wikipedia
Central America (Spanish: América Central, pronounced (aˌmeɾika senˈtɾal), Centroamérica (sentɾoaˈmeɾika)) is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with the South American continent on the southeast. Central America is bordered by Mexico to the north, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Central America consists of seven countries: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. The combined population of Central America is between 41,739,000 (2009 estimate) and 42,688,190 (2012 estimate).
Central America is a part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot, which extends from northern Guatemala through to central Panama. Due to the presence of several active geologic faults and the Central America Volcanic Arc, there is a great deal of seismic activity in the region. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur frequently; these natural disasters have resulted in the loss of many lives and much property.It also includes Southern Mexico.
In the Pre-Columbian era, Central America was inhabited by the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica to the north and west and the Isthmo - Colombian peoples to the south and east. Soon after Italian explorer Christopher Columbus 's voyages to the Americas, the Spanish began to colonize the Americas. From 1609 until 1821, most of the territory within Central America -- except for the lands that would become Belize and Panama -- was governed by the Viceroyalty of New Spain from Mexico City as the Captaincy General of Guatemala. After New Spain achieved independence from Spain in 1821, some of its provinces were annexed to the First Mexican Empire, but soon seceded from Mexico to form the Federal Republic of Central America, which lasted from 1823 to 1838. The seven states finally became independent autonomous states: beginning with Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala (1838); followed by El Salvador (1841); then Panama (1903); and finally Belize (1981). Even today, people in Central America sometimes refer to their nations as if they were provinces of a Central American state. For example, it is not unusual to write "C.A. '' after the country names in formal and informal contexts and the automobile licence plates of many of the countries in the region show the legend "Centroamerica '' in addition to the country name.
"Central America '' may mean different things to various people, based upon different contexts:
In the Pre-Columbian era, the northern areas of Central America were inhabited by the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica. Most notable among these were the Mayans, who had built numerous cities throughout the region, and the Aztecs, who had created a vast empire. The pre-Columbian cultures of eastern El Salvador, eastern Honduras, Caribbean Nicaragua, most of Costa Rica and Panama were predominantly speakers of the Chibchan languages at the time of European contact and are considered by some culturally different and grouped in the Isthmo - Colombian Area.
Following Christopher Columbus 's voyages to the Americas, the Spanish sent many expeditions to the region, and they began their conquest of Maya territory in 1523. Soon after the conquest of the Aztec Empire, Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado commenced the conquest of northern Central America for the Spanish Empire. Beginning with his arrival in Soconusco in 1523, Alvarado 's forces systematically conquered and subjugated most of the major Maya kingdoms, including the K'iche ', Tz'utujil, Pipil, and the Kaqchikel. By 1528, the conquest of Guatemala was nearly complete, with only the Petén Basin remaining outside the Spanish sphere of influence. The last independent Maya kingdoms -- the Kowoj and the Itza people -- were finally defeated in 1697, as part of the Spanish conquest of Petén.
In 1538, Spain established the Real Audiencia of Panama, which had jurisdiction over all land from the Strait of Magellan to the Gulf of Fonseca. This entity was dissolved in 1543, and most of the territory within Central America then fell under the jurisdiction of the Audiencia Real de Guatemala. This area included the current territories of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Mexican state of Chiapas, but excluded the lands that would become Belize and Panama. The president of the Audiencia, which had its seat in Antigua Guatemala, was the governor of the entire area. In 1609 the area became a captaincy general and the governor was also granted the title of captain general. The Captaincy General of Guatemala encompassed most of Central America, with the exception of present - day Belize and Panama.
The Captaincy General of Guatemala lasted for more than two centuries, but began to fray after a rebellion in 1811 which began in the intendancy of San Salvador. The Captaincy General formally ended on 15 September 1821, with the signing of the Act of Independence of Central America. Mexican independence was achieved at virtually the same time with the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba and the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire, and the entire region was finally independent from Spanish authority by 28 September 1821.
From its independence from Spain in 1821 until 1823, the former Captaincy General remained intact as part of the short - lived First Mexican Empire. When the Emperor of Mexico abdicated on 19 March 1823, Central America again became independent. On 1 July 1823, the Congress of Central America peacefully seceded from Mexico and declared absolute independence from all foreign nations, and the region formed the Federal Republic of Central America.
The Federal Republic of Central America was a representative democracy with its capital at Guatemala City. This union consisted of the provinces of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Los Altos, Mosquito Coast, and Nicaragua. The lowlands of southwest Chiapas, including Soconusco, initially belonged to the Republic until 1824, when Mexico annexed most of Chiapas and began its claims to Soconusco. The Republic lasted from 1823 to 1838, when it disintegrated as a result of civil wars.
The United Provinces of Central America
United Provinces of Central America
Federal Republic of Central America
Greater Republic of Central America
Guatemala
El Salvador
Honduras
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
Belize
The territory that now makes up Belize was heavily contested in a dispute that continued for decades after Guatemala achieved independence (see History of Belize (1506 -- 1862). Spain, and later Guatemala, considered this land a Guatemalan department. In 1862, Britain formally declared it a British colony and named it British Honduras. It became independent as Belize in 1981.
Panama, situated in the southernmost part of Central America on the Isthmus of Panama, has for most of its history been culturally linked to South America. Panama was part of the Province of Tierra Firme from 1510 until 1538 when it came under the jurisdiction of the newly formed Audiencia Real de Panama. Beginning in 1543, Panama was administered as part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America. Panama remained as part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until 1739, when it was transferred to the Viceroyalty of New Granada, the capital of which was located at Santa Fé de Bogotá. Panama remained as part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada until the disestablishment of that viceroyalty in 1819. A series of military and political struggles took place from that time until 1822, the result of which produced the republic of Gran Colombia. After the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830, Panama became part of a successor state, the Republic of New Granada. From 1855 until 1886, Panama existed as Panama State, first within the Republic of New Granada, then within the Granadine Confederation, and finally within the United States of Colombia. The United States of Colombia was replaced by the Republic of Colombia in 1886. As part of the Republic of Colombia, Panama State was abolished and it became the Isthmus Department. Despite the many political reorganizations, Colombia was still deeply plagued by conflict, which eventually led to the secession of Panama on 3 November 1903. Only after that time did some begin to regard Panama as a North or Central American entity.
By the 1930s the United Fruit Company owned 3.5 million acres of land in Central America and the Caribbean and was the single largest land owner in Guatemala. Such holdings gave it great power over the governments of small countries. That was one of the factors that led to the coining of the phrase Banana republic.
After more than two hundred years of social unrest, violent conflict and revolution, Central America today remains in a period of political transformation. Poverty, social injustice and violence are still widespread. Nicaragua is the second poorest country in the western hemisphere (only Haiti is poorer).
Central America is the tapering isthmus of southern North America, with unique and varied geographic features. The Pacific Ocean lies to the southwest, the Caribbean Sea lies to the northeast, and the Gulf of Mexico lies to the north. Some physiographists define the Isthmus of Tehuantepec as the northern geographic border of Central America, while others use the northwestern borders of Belize and Guatemala. From there, the Central American land mass extends southeastward to the Isthmus of Panama, where it connects to the Pacific Lowlands in northwestern South America.
Of the many mountain ranges within Central America, the longest are the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Cordillera Isabelia and the Cordillera de Talamanca. At 4,220 meters (13,850 ft), Volcán Tajumulco is the highest peak in Central America. Other high points of Central America are as listed in the table below:
High points in Central America
Between the mountain ranges lie fertile valleys that are suitable for the raising of livestock and for the production of coffee, tobacco, beans and other crops. Most of the population of Honduras, Costa Rica and Guatemala lives in valleys.
Trade winds have a significant effect upon the climate of Central America. Temperatures in Central America are highest just prior to the summer wet season, and are lowest during the winter dry season, when trade winds contribute to a cooler climate. The highest temperatures occur in April, due to higher levels of sunlight, lower cloud cover and a decrease in trade winds.
Central America is part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot, boasting 7 % of the world 's biodiversity. The Pacific Flyway is a major north - south flyway for migratory birds in the Americas, extending from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego. Due to the funnel - like shape of its land mass, migratory birds can be seen in very high concentrations in Central America, especially in the spring and autumn. As a bridge between North America and South America, Central America has many species from the Nearctic and the Neotropic ecozones. However the southern countries (Costa Rica and Panama) of the region have more biodiversity than the northern countries (Guatemala and Belize), meanwhile the central countries (Honduras, Nicaragua and El Salvador) have the least biodiversity. The table below shows recent statistics:
Biodiversity in Central America (number of different species of terrestrial vertebrate animals and vascular plants)
Over 300 species of the region 's flora and fauna are threatened, 107 of which are classified as critically endangered. The underlying problems are deforestation, which is estimated by FAO at 1.2 % per year in Central America and Mexico combined, fragmentation of rainforests and the fact that 80 % of the vegetation in Central America has already been converted to agriculture.
Efforts to protect fauna and flora in the region are made by creating ecoregions and nature reserves. 36 % of Belize 's land territory falls under some form of official protected status, giving Belize one of the most extensive systems of terrestrial protected areas in the Americas. In addition, 13 % of Belize 's marine territory are also protected. A large coral reef extends from Mexico to Honduras: the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System. The Belize Barrier Reef is part of this. The Belize Barrier Reef is home to a large diversity of plants and animals, and is one of the most diverse ecosystems of the world. It is home to 70 hard coral species, 36 soft coral species, 500 species of fish and hundreds of invertebrate species. So far only about 10 % of the species in the Belize barrier reef have been discovered.
From 2001 to 2010, 5,376 square kilometers (2,076 sq mi) of forest were lost in the region. In 2010 Belize had 63 % of remaining forest cover, Costa Rica 46 %, Panama 45 %, Honduras 41 %, Guatemala 37 %, Nicaragua 29 %, and El Salvador 21 %. Most of the loss occurred in the moist forest biome, with 12,201 square kilometers (4,711 sq mi). Woody vegetation loss was partially set off by a gain in the coniferous forest biome with 4,730 square kilometers (1,830 sq mi), and a gain in the dry forest biome at 2,054 square kilometers (793 sq mi). Mangroves and deserts contributed only 1 % to the loss in forest vegetation. The bulk of the deforestation was located at the Caribbean slopes of Nicaragua with a loss of 8,574 square kilometers (3,310 sq mi) of forest in the period from 2001 to 2010. The most significant regrowth of 3,050 square kilometers (1,180 sq mi) of forest was seen in the coniferous woody vegetation of Honduras.
The Central American pine - oak forests ecoregion, in the tropical and subtropical coniferous forests biome, is found in Central America and southern Mexico. The Central American pine - oak forests occupy an area of 111,400 square kilometers (43,000 sq mi), extending along the mountainous spine of Central America, extending from the Sierra Madre de Chiapas in Mexico 's Chiapas state through the highlands of Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras to central Nicaragua. The pine - oak forests lie between 600 -- 1,800 metres (2,000 -- 5,900 ft) elevation, and are surrounded at lower elevations by tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests. Higher elevations above 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) are usually covered with Central American montane forests. The Central American pine - oak forests are composed of many species characteristic of temperate North America including oak, pine, fir, and cypress.
Laurel forest is the most common type of Central American temperate evergreen cloud forest, found in almost all Central American countries, normally more than 1,000 meters (3,300 ft) above sea level. Tree species include evergreen oaks, members of the laurel family, and species of Weinmannia, Drimys, and Magnolia. The cloud forest of Sierra de las Minas, Guatemala, is the largest in Central America. In some areas of southeastern Honduras there are cloud forests, the largest located near the border with Nicaragua. In Nicaragua, cloud forests are situated near the border with Honduras, but many were cleared to grow coffee. There are still some temperate evergreen hills in the north. The only cloud forest in the Pacific coastal zone of Central America is on the Mombacho volcano in Nicaragua. In Costa Rica, there are laurel forests in the Cordillera de Tilarán and Volcán Arenal, called Monteverde, also in the Cordillera de Talamanca.
The Central American montane forests are an ecoregion of the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome, as defined by the World Wildlife Fund. These forests are of the moist deciduous and the semi-evergreen seasonal subtype of tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests and receive high overall rainfall with a warm summer wet season and a cooler winter dry season. Central American montane forests consist of forest patches located at altitudes ranging from 1,800 -- 4,000 metres (5,900 -- 13,100 ft), on the summits and slopes of the highest mountains in Central America ranging from Southern Mexico, through Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras, to northern Nicaragua. The entire ecoregion covers an area of 13,200 square kilometers (5,100 sq mi) and has a temperate climate with relatively high precipitation levels.
Ecoregions are not only established to protect the forests themselves but also because they are habitats for an incomparably rich and often endemic fauna. Almost half of the bird population of the Talamancan montane forests in Costa Rica and Panama are endemic to this region. Several birds are listed as threatened, most notably the resplendent quetzal (Pharomacrus mocinno), three - wattled bellbird (Procnias tricarunculata), bare - necked umbrellabird (Cephalopterus glabricollis), and black guan (Chamaepetes unicolor). Many of the amphibians are endemic and depend on the existence of forest. The golden toad that once inhabited a small region in the Monteverde Reserve, which is part of the Talamancan montane forests, has not been seen alive since 1989 and is listed as extinct by IUCN. The exact causes for its extincition are unknown. Global warming may have played a role, because the development of fog that is typical for this area may have been compromised. Seven small mammals are endemic to the Costa Rica - Chiriqui highlands within the Talamancan montane forest region. Jaguars, cougars, spider monkeys, as well as tapirs, and anteaters live in the woods of Central America. The Central American red brocket is a brocket deer found in Central America 's tropical forest.
Central America is geologically very active, with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occurring frequently, and tsunamis occurring occasionally. Many thousands of people have died as a result of these natural disasters.
Most of Central America rests atop the Caribbean Plate. This tectonic plate converges with the Cocos, Nazca, and North American plates to form the Middle America Trench, a major subduction zone. The Middle America Trench is situated some 60 -- 160 kilometers (37 -- 99 mi) off the Pacific coast of Central America and runs roughly parallel to it. Many large earthquakes have occurred as a result of seismic activity at the Middle America Trench. For example, subduction of the Cocos Plate beneath the North American Plate at the Middle America Trench is believed to have caused the 1985 Mexico City earthquake that killed as many as 40,000 people. Seismic activity at the Middle America Trench is also responsible for earthquakes in 1902, 1942, 1956, 1982, 1992, 2001, 2007, 2012, 2014, and many other earthquakes throughout Central America.
The Middle America Trench is not the only source of seismic activity in Central America. The Motagua Fault is an onshore continuation of the Cayman Trough which forms part of the tectonic boundary between the North American Plate and the Caribbean Plate. This transform fault cuts right across Guatemala and then continues offshore until it merges with the Middle America Trench along the Pacific coast of Mexico, near Acapulco. Seismic activity at the Motagua Fault has been responsible for earthquakes in 1717, 1773, 1902, 1976, 1980, and 2009.
Another onshore continuation of the Cayman Trough is the Chixoy - Polochic Fault, which runs parallel to, and roughly 80 kilometers (50 mi) to the north, of the Motagua Fault. Though less active than the Motagua Fault, seismic activity at the Chixoy - Polochic Fault is still thought to be capable of producing very large earthquakes, such as the 1816 earthquake of Guatemala.
Managua, the capital of Nicaragua, was devastated by earthquakes in 1931 and 1972.
Volcanic eruptions are also common in Central America. In 1968 the Arenal Volcano, in Costa Rica, erupted killing 87 people as the 3 villages of Tabacon, Pueblo Nuevo and San Luis were buried under pyroclastic flows and debris. Fertile soils from weathered volcanic lava have made it possible to sustain dense populations in the agriculturally productive highland areas.
The population of Central America is estimated at 47,448,333 as of 2016. With an area of 523,780 square kilometers (202,230 sq mi), it has a population density of 81 per square kilometer (210 / sq mi).
The official language majority in all Central American countries is Spanish, except in Belize, where the official language is English. Mayan languages constitute a language family consisting of about 26 related languages. Guatemala formally recognized 21 of these in 1996. Xinca and Garifuna are also present in Central America.
This region of the continent is very rich in terms of ethnic groups. The majority of the population is mestizo, with sizable Mayan and White populations present, including Xinca and Garifuna minorities. The immigration of Arabs, Jews, Chinese, Europeans and others brought additional groups to the area.
The predominant religion in Central America is Christianity (95.6 %). Beginning with the Spanish colonization of Central America in the 16th century, Roman Catholicism became the most popular religion in the region until the first half of the 20th century. Since the 1960s, there has been an increase in other Christian groups, particularly Protestantism, as well as other religious organizations, and individuals identifying themselves as having no religion.
Central America is currently undergoing a process of political, economic and cultural transformation that started in 1907 with the creation of the Central American Court of Justice.
In 1951 the integration process continued with the signature of the San Salvador Treaty, which created the ODECA, the Organization of Central American States. However, the unity of the ODECA was limited by conflicts between several member states.
In 1991, the integration agenda was further advanced by the creation of the Central American Integration System (Sistema para la Integración Centroamericana, or SICA). SICA provides a clear legal basis to avoid disputes between the member states. SICA membership includes the 7 nations of Central America plus the Dominican Republic, a state that is traditionally considered part of the Caribbean.
Guatemala
El Salvador
Honduras
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
Belize
On 6 December 2008 SICA announced an agreement to pursue a common currency and common passport for the member nations. No timeline for implementation was discussed.
Central America already has several supranational institutions such as the Central American Parliament, the Central American Bank for Economic Integration and the Central American Common Market.
On 22 July 2011 President Mauricio Funes of El Salvador became the first president pro tempore to SICA. El Salvador also became the headquarters of SICA with the inauguration of a new building.
Until recently, all Central American countries have maintained diplomatic relations with Taiwan instead of China. President Óscar Arias of Costa Rica, however, established diplomatic relations with China in 2007, severing formal diplomatic ties with Taiwan. After breaking off relations with the Republic of China in 2017, Panama established diplomatic relations with the People 's Republic of China.
The Central American Parliament (also known as PARLACEN) is a political and parliamentary body of SICA. The parliament started around 1980, and its primary goal was to resolve conflicts in Nicaragua, Guatemala, and El Salvador. Although the group was disbanded in 1986, ideas of unity of Central Americans still remained, so a treaty was signed in 1987 to create the Central American Parliament and other political bodies. Its original members were Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Honduras. The parliament is the political organ of Central America, and is part of SICA. New members have since then joined including Panama and the Dominican Republic. Costa Rica is not a member State of the Central American Parliament and its adhesion remains as a very unpopular topic at all levels of the Costa Rican society due to existing strong political criticism towards the regional parliament, since it is regarded by Costa Rican as a menace to democratic accountability and effectiveness of integration efforts. Excessively high salaries for its members, legal immunity of jurisdiction from any member State, corruption, lack of a binding nature and effectiveness of the regional parliament 's decisions, high operative costs and immediate membership of Central American Presidents once they leave their office and presidential terms, are the most common reasons invoked by Costa Ricans against the Central American Parliament.
Signed in 2004, the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) is an agreement between the United States, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Dominican Republic. The treaty is aimed at promoting free trade among its members.
Guatemala has the largest economy in the region. Its main exports are coffee, sugar, bananas, petroleum, clothing, and cardamom. Of its 10.29 billion dollar annual exports, 40.2 % go to the United States, 11.1 % to neighboring El Salvador, 8 % to Honduras, 5.5 % to Mexico, 4.7 % to Nicaragua, and 4.3 % to Costa Rica.
Economic growth in Central America is projected to slow slightly in 2014 -- 15, as country - specific domestic factors offset the positive effects from stronger economic activity in the United States.
Tourism in Belize has grown considerably in more recent times, and it is now the second largest industry in the nation. Belizean Prime Minister Dean Barrow has stated his intention to use tourism to combat poverty throughout the country. The growth in tourism has positively affected the agricultural, commercial, and finance industries, as well as the construction industry. The results for Belize 's tourism - driven economy have been significant, with the nation welcoming almost one million tourists in a calendar year for the first time in its history in 2012. Belize is also the only country in Central America with English as its official language, making this country a comfortable destination for English - speaking tourists.
Costa Rica is the most visited nation in Central America. Tourism in Costa Rica is one of the fastest growing economic sectors of the country, having become the largest source of foreign revenue by 1995. Since 1999, tourism has earned more foreign exchange than bananas, pineapples and coffee exports combined. The tourism boom began in 1987, with the number of visitors up from 329,000 in 1988, through 1.03 million in 1999, to a historical record of 2.43 million foreign visitors and $1.92 - billion in revenue in 2013. In 2012 tourism contributed with 12.5 % of the country 's GDP and it was responsible for 11.7 % of direct and indirect employment.
Tourism in Nicaragua has grown considerably recently, and it is now the second largest industry in the nation. Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega has stated his intention to use tourism to combat poverty throughout the country. The growth in tourism has positively affected the agricultural, commercial, and finance industries, as well as the construction industry. The results for Nicaragua 's tourism - driven economy have been significant, with the nation welcoming one million tourists in a calendar year for the first time in its history in 2010.
The Inter-American Highway is the Central American section of the Pan-American Highway, and spans 5,470 kilometers (3,400 mi) between Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, and Panama City, Panama. Because of the 87 kilometers (54 mi) break in the highway known as the Darién Gap, it is not possible to cross between Central America and South America in an automobile.
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where was the first st patrick's day parade held | Saint Patrick 's Day in the United States - wikipedia
Saint Patrick 's Day, although a legal holiday only in Suffolk County, Massachusetts (where it is recognized alongside Evacuation Day) and Savannah, Georgia, is nonetheless widely recognized and celebrated throughout the United States. It is primarily celebrated as a recognition of Irish and Irish American culture; celebrations include prominent displays of the color green, eating and drinking, religious observances, and numerous parades. The holiday has been celebrated on the North American continent since the late 18th century.
According to the National Retail Federation, consumers in the United States spent $4.4 billion on St. Patrick 's Day in 2016. This amount is down from the $4.8 billion spent in 2014.
The world 's first recorded St Patrick 's Day celebration was in St. Augustine, Florida, in the year 1600 according to Dr. Michael Franicis 's 2017 research in the Spanish Archives of the Indies. Franicis discovered the first St. Patrick Day Parade was also in St. Augustine in 1601.. Both were organized by the Spanish Colony 's Irish vicar Ricardo Artur (Richard Arthur).
The Charitable Irish Society of Boston organized the first observance of Saint Patrick 's Day in the Thirteen Colonies in 1737. Surprisingly, the celebration was not Catholic in nature, Irish immigration to the colonies having been dominated by Protestants. The society 's purpose in gathering was simply to honor its homeland, and although they continued to meet annually to coordinate charitable works for the Irish community in Boston, they did not meet on 16 March again until 1794. During the observance of the day, individuals attended a service of worship and a special dinner.
New York 's first Saint Patrick 's Day observance was similar to that of Boston. It was held on 16 March 1762 in the home of John Marshall, an Irish Protestant, and over the next few years informal gatherings by Irish immigrants were the norm. The first recorded parade in New York was by Irish soldiers in the British Army in 1766. The first documented St. Patrick 's Day Celebration in Philadelphia was held in 1771. Philadelphia 's Friendly Sons of St. Patrick was found to honor St. Patrick and to provide relief to Irish immigrants in the city. Irish Americans have celebrated St. Patrick 's Day in Philadelphia since their arrival in America. General George Washington, a member of Philadelphia 's Friendly Sons of St. Patrick, actively encouraged Irish American patriots to join the Continental Army. In 1780, while camped in Morristown, NJ, General Washington allowed his troops a holiday on 17 March "as an act of solidarity with the Irish in their fight for independence. '' This event became known as The Saint Patrick 's Day Encampment of 1780.
Irish patriotism in New York City continued to soar, and the parade in New York City continued to grow. Irish aid societies like Friendly Sons of Saint Patrick and the Hibernian Society were created and marched in the parades. Finally when many of these aid societies joined forces in 1848, the parade became not only the largest parade in the United States but one of the largest in the world.
The City of Savannah, Georgia, has hosted Saint Patrick 's Day celebrations since 1824. It boasts a celebration rivaling that of New York City in size and fervor. Unlike any other cities, Savannah 's historic parade is always held on March 17, not on the neighboring weekend. Festivities begin more than a week in advance with communal rituals and commemorative ceremonies, such as the St. Patrick 's Parade. Such events were, in fact, the main factors in shaping Irish - American identity as recognized today. In fact, leading up to the 1870s, Irish - American identity in the United States was reworked through the shifting character of the Saint Patrick 's Day rituals and features under three separate occasions: initially, in 1853 when it undertook a "spiritual rhetoric '' notion, then when it became known as a "reformulated memory of an Irish past couched in terms of vengeance against Britain '' to, finally, adopting a "sectarian catholic nationalism '' attitude in the 1870s and 1880s.
In fact, ceremonies represent the very "junctures at which processes of identity formation surface through representation, '' which implies that ritual practices represent the molding tools people turn to in order to build a national identity. Furthermore, incorporating "the analysis of commemorative rituals '' becomes a valuable element "in the context of broader historical studies '' as such analysis reveals much about the collective conscience of the Irish - American community.
There is a clear gradual shift toward a nationalist attitude in the Irish - American Diaspora which can be detected in the prose of Doheny 's commemorative speech in 1853, but the "complete ascendency to a nationalist (approach) in Irish identity '' truly came in the 1870s and 1880s. More important, there were already numerous evidences of a national identity present in the Irish Catholic labouring classes prior to the settlement of an Irish - Catholic community in America. Despite the longing memory of a loved lost Ireland, the main factor that contributed to creating a clear "sense of group unity '' in the Irish - American community really came with the hatred sentiments that were felt towards "British oppression and resistance ''.
Furthermore, there is a turnover in perspectives towards the causes of the Great famine in the mind of the Irish - American that can be traced: one that varies from a "mourning religious view '', seen in Archbishop Hughes ' sermon, to a perspective that shifts the blame towards the British monarchy for its indifference and greed, seen in Cahill 's speech in 1860. From that point on, all the following commemorative speeches on the Saint Patrick 's Day invoked nationalist themes such as "British hatred '' and "heroic struggle '' and led the way for the creation of a "new parade '' which gained in adherents and absorbed "elements of American patriotism and full - fledged nationalism ''. The end result was such that the Irish - American community came to regard itself in the 1870s as a community that defined itself by dual loyalties on one hand, and in another as "a unified common organism, '' which gathered in strength on the basis that they had a common past, "not a religious one but one that centered on the common Irish experience of British oppression and suffering ''. In other words, this goes to show that the shifting character of commemorative rituals experienced during the Saint Patrick 's parade have influenced the development of American culture in a larger sense, since it contributed to enriching its heritage and making of its Irish - American Diaspora a prideful concept to be celebrated and admired.
In every year since 1991, March has been proclaimed Irish - American Heritage Month by the US Congress or President due to the date of Saint Patrick 's Day. Christian denominations in the United States observing this feast day include the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, Protestant Episcopal Church, and the Roman Catholic Church. Today, Saint Patrick 's Day is widely celebrated in America by Irish and non-Irish alike. For most Irish - Americans, this holiday is both religious and festive. It is one of the leading days for consumption of alcohol in the United States, as individuals are allowed to break their Lenten sacrifices for the day in order to celebrate Saint Patrick 's Day. The consumption of artificially colored green beer is a common celebration. Green Beer Day, for instance, is a tradition among students at Miami University (Miami of Ohio), dating to 1952; the day has been held on the Thursday before spring break due to the fact that Saint Patrick 's Day often occurs during the spring recess. The holiday has been criticized for promoting over-indulgence in alcohol, resulting in drunk driving, property damage, absenteeism, public urination and vomiting, and other ill effects. A notable difference between traditions widely observed in the United States versus those of Ireland is the consumption of corned beef, which is not a traditional Irish dish, but rather one that was adopted by the new immigrants upon their arrival in the 19th Century.
Many people choose to wear green colored clothing and items. Traditionally, those who are caught not wearing green are pinched "affectionately ''.
Seattle and other cities paint the traffic stripe of their parade routes green. Chicago dyes its river green and has done so since 1962 when sewer workers used green dye to check for sewer discharges and had the idea to turn the river green for Saint Patrick 's Day. Originally 100 pounds of vegetable dye was used to turn the river green for a whole week but now only forty pounds of dye is used and the color only lasts for several hours. Indianapolis also dyes its main canal green. Savannah dyes its downtown city fountains green. Missouri University of Science and Technology - St Pat 's Board Alumni paint 12 city blocks kelly green with mops before the annual parade. In Jamestown, New York, the Chadakoin River (a small tributary that connects Conewango Creek with its source at Chautauqua Lake) is dyed green each year.
Columbia, South Carolina, dyes its fountain green in the area known as Five Points (a popular collegiate location near the University of South Carolina). A two - day celebration is held over St Patrick 's Day weekend. In Boston, Evacuation Day is celebrated as a public holiday for Suffolk County. While officially commemorating the British departure from Boston, it was made an official holiday after Saint Patrick 's Day parades had been occurring in Boston for several decades and is believed to have been popularized because of its falling on the same day as Saint Patrick 's Day. Since 1992, the participation of gay and lesbian people in the Boston parade has been disputed and this was the subject of the 1995 U.S. Supreme Court case Hurley v. Irish - American Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Group of Boston. The New York parade has experienced a similar controversy since 1991, with boycotts by Mayors Menino and Dinkins, and De Blasio, and Walsh expected to boycott in 2014.
In the Northeastern United States, peas are traditionally planted on Saint Patrick 's Day.
Many parades are held to celebrate the holiday. The longest - running public parades are:
People in Atlanta, Georgia celebrate St. Patrick 's Day by holding a parade that courses through several blocks of a main portion of the city, particularly on Peachtree Street in Midtown Atlanta. In 2012, what was called the largest Irish flag in history was used in Atlanta 's parade. The St. Patrick 's Day parade has been held in Atlanta since 1858. In the 2014 parade, more than 200 units participated from across the South, and as far away as Ireland.
A parade is held the Sunday before St. Patrick 's Day, annually since the 1856, starting at the Washington Monument and ends at Market Place in the Inner Harbor. The Shamrock 5k is held just before the parade starts. There are large events held in the Federal Hill, Canton, Inner Harbor, and Fell 's Point neighborhoods. The parade in Baltimore is the largest in Maryland.
St. Patrick 's Day is indirectly observed as an official holiday in Boston, as it coincides with the official Evacuation Day holiday observed annually since 1901 to commemorate the day in 1776 that British troops ended their occupation of Boston. A large St. Patrick 's Day parade is held in South Boston, Massachusetts. The 3.2 - mile parade route starts at Andrew Square (at Broadway MBTA Red Line stop), at the intersection of Dorchester Avenue and Broadway in South Boston, Massachusetts, and travels Dorchester Street to Telegraph Street looping through Dorchester Heights and then bearing right onto East Fourth Street it continues down to ' P ' Street bearing left onto East Broadway where it ends (at the Andrew MBTA Red Line stop). Major George F.H. Murray of the Ninth Regiment of the Army was the first chief marshal of Boston 's St Patrick 's Day parade in 1901. In 2015 the first gay groups (Boston Pride and OutVets) marched in Boston 's St. Patrick 's Day parade.
The city of Buffalo has two full Saint Patrick 's Day parades. The first is the "Old Neighborhood Parade, '' in its 24th year in 2017, which takes place in the city 's historic Old First Ward in South Buffalo on the Saturday nearest Saint Patrick 's Day (before or after); through 2015, that parade followed a route used by the original Saint Patrick 's Day parades in Buffalo, until crowd concerns and drunken rowdiness forced the city to reroute the parade through wider roads in the First Ward. The older, larger "Buffalo Saint Patrick 's Day Parade '' (in its 75th consecutive year in 2017) also takes place, usually on the day after the Old Neighborhood parade. That parade runs from Niagara Square along Delaware Avenue to North Street. The latter parade is the third largest parade in New York State behind the New York City Parade and the Pearl River Parade.
In addition to the full parades, Talty 's Tavern in South Buffalo also holds a spoof parade that lasts only one block.
Butte Montana 's mining history brought in a large population of Irish immigrants, to the point that Gaelic was spoken as a common language in the mines and Butte had the highest percentage of Irish population of any city in America, including Boston. Today, the city 's population is under 40,000 people, and the annual St. Patrick 's Day celebration brings in roughly 30,000 visitors each year, nearly doubling the city 's population for the day. Butte has a long history of running a parade through the Uptown District of the city and hosting music at a number of venues, including numerous bars, including one featuring booths created from church pews that had been imported from Dublin and a stone imported from County Clare at the door for visitors to touch. Until 2013 there was no open container law in Butte, and the current ordinance only prohibits open containers between 2: 00 am and 8: 00 am. The day 's events have a reputation for rowdy celebrations.
The Irish comprise one of the largest ethnic groups in Chicago. Although the Irish are present throughout the city, the Beverly, Bridgeport, Morgan Park, and Mount Greenwood neighborhoods have had strong Irish - Catholic populations as does the adjacent suburbs of Blue Island, Alsip, Merrionette Park, and Oak Lawn. People on the south side that are of Irish heritage are known as the "South Side Irish, '' and have long had an influential role in the political and economic scene of the city. They even have their own song that features lines pronouncing pride in Irish - American heritage.
The city has many different Saint Patrick 's Day celebrations, the most famous being the dyeing of the Chicago River. Each year, the city hosts a parade downtown, which is preceded by the dyeing of the Chicago River. The dyeing of the river involves thousands of people lining the banks of the river and watching as a boat releases dye into the river and turns the river a kelly green color. The Chicago Journeymen Plumbers Union Local 130 has historically sponsored the river dyeing and know the secret to the dye mix.
Another famous celebration is the South Side Irish parade. This is known as more of a celebration by those of Irish heritage rather than a popular activity attended by people of all heritages like the downtown celebration has been known. This parade features traditional Irish dancers, as well as various businesses and organisations from around the city. This parade has been scaled back in recent years as the Saint Patrick 's Day committee announced that it was becoming too large for the community to handle. In 2010, the South Side Parade was suspended. Due in part to pressure from community businesses -- particularly pubs and package goods stores -- as well as local churches on the city, the parade was reinstated in 2012. Of the various St. Patrick 's Day parades in Chicago, the South Side parade tries to be family friendly and currently has a zero tolerance policy for public alcohol consumption while attending the parade.
The Chicago White Sox baseball team, who play on the South side, are known for their "Halfway to Saint Patrick 's Day '' promotion held in September, when the team wears white jerseys with green pinstripes and caps, in lieu of the usual black.
As Ohio 's largest and oldest St. Patrick 's Day celebration, Cleveland has honored its Irish heritage with an annual Saint Patrick 's Day parade first begun in 1842. The parade always occurs on March 17, no matter the day of the week. Originally held in the city 's nearby westside neighborhoods, where a higher percentage of the population was of Irish descent, the parade route today runs along Superior Avenue, downtown, from East 18th Street to Public Square.
In recent years, over 15,000 registered participants march in the parade and display their floats in front of hundreds of thousands of spectators. A new record attendance was set in 2012 with over 500,000 people.
As part of the parade ceremonies, a Grand Marshal is annually chosen to preside over the procession. This is an honorary title given to a man "usually in his senior years, who has contributed significantly to the advancement of the Irish Activities in Cleveland. '' This recognition has been part of the parade since 1935, while "Mother of the Year '' was established as a distinguished position since 1963.
Each year Saint Patrick 's in Five Points welcomes over 40,000 people living the luck of the Irish and celebrating all things Gaelic. Continually growing and improving, the festival includes a 10K and 5K run, a fun - filled parade, family entertainment, Irish food and craft offerings, child attraction, the Pot O ' Gold Playland, a swinging shag dance exhibition and DJ throwdown, as well as five outdoor stages with live music hosting over 25 musical acts.
The city of Dallas, Texas has held a Saint Patrick 's Day parade since 1979 down Greenville Avenue. It is the largest celebration in the city. It was almost canceled in 2012 due to rising costs, but was saved by local resident billionaire Mark Cuban.
St. Patrick 's Day was first formally celebrated in Detroit in 1808. The current parade, sponsored by the United Irish Societies, began in 1959. It is held in Detroit 's Corktown neighborhood, named after the its Irish residents who primarily immigrated from County Cork.
The "World 's Smallest Saint Patrick 's Day Parade '' occurs in Enterprise, Alabama, each year. A person of Irish descent, generally dressed in festive garb and carrying a large Irish flag, is the only person in the parade. He, or she, walks one block from the courthouse to the Boll Weevil Monument and back to the courthouse. The parade is reported by local and national news.
The New Jersey city of Hoboken has held an annual Saint Patrick 's Day parade since 1986. The parade takes place at 1 pm and marches down Washington Street from 14th Street to 1st Street.
Over the years, there has been much controversy surrounding the public intoxication during this event. The city has issued a zero tolerance policy, and has been enacting $2,000 minimum fines for any alcohol - related offence.
This western Massachusetts factory town was the site of massive Irish immigration in the 19th century and hosts a parade its organizers claim is the second largest in the United States. It is scheduled on the Sunday following Saint Patrick 's Day each year. Attendance exceeds 300,000, with over 25,000 marchers through a 2.3 - mile route in the city of 40,000. A 10K road race and many events create a remarkable festival weekend. Each year an Irish - American who has distinguished himself or herself in his or her chosen profession is awarded the John F. Kennedy National Award. JFK was a National Award Winner in the 1958 Holyoke Parade. Other winners include author Tom Clancy, Homeland Security Director Tom Ridge, and actor Pat O'Brien
The Hot Springs, Arkansas, parade is among world 's shortest and is held annually on historic Bridge Street, designated "The Shortest Street in the World '' in the 1940s by Ripley 's Believe It or Not. The street is 98 feet long, making it suitable for the shortest Saint Patrick 's Day parade in the world.
Mal 's St. Paddy 's Parade in downtown Jackson started in 1983 and has grown each year. The parade is the brainchild of Jackson entrepreneur Malcolm White, who is now the executive director of the Mississippi Arts Commission. For years, a highlight of the parade was the Sweet Potato Queens, who started a separate parade in 2011 because their ranks of marchers had grown too numerous.
The Southern Nevada (formerly Las Vegas) Sons and Daughters of Erin have put on a parade since 1966. It was formerly held on Fremont Street in downtown Las Vegas, later moved to 4th Street. Since 2005, the parade has been held in downtown Henderson. It is the biggest parade in the state of Nevada with over 100 entries. The celebration includes a three - day festival, carnival and classic car show in Old Town Henderson.
Maryville, Missouri, home of Northwest Missouri State University, annually holds a parade sponsored by The Palms Bar and Grill that has been recognised by the Guinness Book of World Records as the shortest Saint Patrick 's Day parade. It runs approximately 1 / 2 of a block.
Historically the largest entry port for Irish immigrants in the US South, New Orleans has maintained a large population of Irish heritage. The earliest record of Saint Patrick 's Day celebrations in the city is 1809. Saint Patrick 's Day traditions going back to the 19th century continue, including multiple block parties and parades.
The New Orleans parades are mostly based around neighborhood and community organizations. Major parades include the Irish Channel parade, the Downtown Irish Parade starting in the Bywater neighborhood, multiple parades in the French Quarter, and a combined Irish - Italian Parade celebrating both Saint Patrick 's Day and Saint Joseph 's Day. As with many parades in New Orleans, the influence of Mardi Gras is apparent, with some of the floats being reused from local Carnival parades, and beads and trinkets being thrown to those along the parade route. New Orleans Saint Patrick 's Day parades are also famous for throwing onions, carrots, cabbages, potatoes, and other ingredients for making an Irish stew.
Various suburbs and surrounding communities also hold celebrations, including parades in Metairie, Slidell, and an Irish Italian Isleño Parade in Chalmette.
The New York parade not only has become the largest Saint Patrick 's Day parade in the world but is also one of the oldest civilian parades in the world. In a typical year, 150,000 marchers participate in it, including bands, firefighters, military and police groups, county associations, emigrant societies and social and cultural clubs with two million spectators line the streets. The parade marches up the 1.5 - mile route along 5th Avenue in Manhattan, is a five - hour procession, and is always led by the 69th Infantry Regiment (New York). The commissioner of the parade always asks the commanding officer if the 69th is ready, to which the response is, "The 69th is always ready. '' New York politicians -- or those running for office -- are always found prominently marching in the parade. Former New York City Mayor Ed Koch (who was of Jewish ethnicity) once proclaimed himself "Ed O'Koch '' for the day, and he continued to don an Irish sweater and march every year up until 2003, even though he was no longer in office.
For many years the parade banned gay groups, saying groups could not display banners identifying their sexuality. On September 3, 2014, the organizers of the parade announced a decision to lift the ban on gay groups, saying they preferred to keep the parade non-political and the ban was having the opposite effect. In 2015 OUT@NBCUniversal, an organization of gay employees of NBCUniversal, became the first gay group to march in the parade.
In 1989 Dorothy Hayden Cudahy became the first female Grand Marshal of the New York City Saint Patrick 's Day Parade; in 1984 she had become the first woman, as well as the first American - born person, to be elected president of the County Kilkenny Association.
The New York parade is moved to the previous Saturday (16 March) in years where 17 March is a Sunday. The event also has been moved on the rare occasions when, due to Easter 's falling on a very early date, 17 March would land in Holy Week. This same scenario arose again in 2008, when Easter fell on 23 March, but the festivities occurred on their normal date and were enjoyed by a record number of viewers. In many other American cities (such as Philadelphia), the parade is always held on the Sunday before 17 March, regardless of the liturgical calendar.
Omaha 's "Stockyards '' opened in 1883 and was once considered the largest livestock market in the world. This led to many ethnic groups ' settling in the surrounded area, one of which is Irish. The Irish were the third largest ethnic group in South Omaha in the 20th century. Today the Ancient Order of Hibernians (AOH) Sarpy County Division 's St. Patrick 's Day Parade has more than 130 entries and lasts more than 90 minutes as it snakes through downtown and the Old Market.
Pearl River attracts a crowd of 100,000 people, making it the second largest parade in New York state behind the New York City Parade. The parade started in 1963.
The St. Patrick Society sponsors a St. Patrick 's Day Parade and Party on March 17 of each year. The Parade participants march along the designated parade route through downtown Peoria. Awards are presented in the following parade categories: Business Entries, Family Entries, and Organizational Entries. The Parade route ends near the designated site of the family - focused St. Patrick 's Day Party where families (Irish Clans) meet and enjoy Irish Music, Irish Dance and Irish refreshments.
St. Patrick 's Day in Pittsburgh is consistently ranked as one of the biggest and best St. Patrick 's Day celebrations in the United States. The parade in Pittsburgh dates back to 1869 and continues to draw record numbers of people out to celebrate as over 23,000 march in the parade which attracts almost 500,000 out to party. The city basically shuts down for the day to celebrate as the downtown area and many of the cities bridges and tunnels are filled with patrons heading out for the day 's festivities. Pittsburgh also has one of the highest percentage of its population that identifies as Irish (over 13.5 %) as any city in the U.S.
One of the largest in the nation, the St. Patrick 's Day parade in Philadelphia is held on the Sunday before every St. Patrick 's Day, and began there in 1771. Prior to the first parade, the Irish were already celebrating St. Patrick 's Day in Philadelphia. Before the America republic was founded, Irishmen came together in 1771 to pay honor to Ireland 's patron as founding members of the Society of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick for the relief of Emigrants from Ireland. George Washington, who has encouraged the many Irish soldiers under his command during the American Revolution to fete St. Patrick 's Day, was an honorary member of this society. The designation of March 17 as a day of special observance was a very early Philadelphia custom.
In 2013, the parade included about 20,000 participants in more than 150 groups. Participants included marching bands, youth groups, music dance groups, Irish associations, float riders and operators, and flag carriers. After years of being on the Benjamin Franklin Parkway in Central Philadelphia, the 2017 parade route started at John F. Kennedy Boulevard and 16th Street. It then continues its approach to Philadelphia City Hall, goes down 15th Street around City Hall to approach Market Street. It then goes down Market past Independence Hall and reaches its conclusion at Penn 's Landing.
A large Irish population in this cluster of Midwestern cities hosts an impressive St. Patrick 's Day parade. It is "the only bi-state St. Patrick 's Day Parade in the USA '', according to the St. Patrick 's Day Society of the Quad Cities (http://www.stpatsqc.com/GrandParade.htm), crossing the Centennial Bridge from Rock Island, Illinois into Davenport, Iowa. Being so close to Chicago, this parade still gathers around 200,000 annually on its historical parade route. Some travel experts have labeled it as one of the top St. Patrick 's Day parades in North America. Much of this is due to the unique nature and small town hospitality you get in the Quad Cities. The whole area combined is a population of around 350,000, with Davenport being the largest city at just under 100,000.
Rolla is home to the Missouri University of Science & Technology (formerly known as University of Missouri - Rolla, and Missouri School of Mines), an engineering college. Inasmuch as Saint Patrick is the patron saint of engineers, the school and town 's celebrations start ten days before Saint Patrick 's Day, with a downtown parade held the Saturday before Saint Patrick 's. A royal court is crowned, and the streets in the city 's downtown area are painted solid green. Each year 's celebrations are said to be "The Best Ever. '' In 2008, Rolla celebrated its "100th Annual Best Ever Saint Patrick 's Day 2008 '' celebration.
In previous years, a pit of green liquid was made by students as part of the festivities, and named ' Alice ' -- stepping into Alice was a rite of bravery. In recent years the university faculty has banned the practice out of health concerns.
San Diego 's 2015 St. Patrick 's Day Parade and Festival is the 35th Anniversary of the largest St. Patrick 's Day Parade west of the Mississippi. Lasting two hours and featuring over 120 entries, the theme for the day is "Celebrating Faith and Freedom '' as designated by the Irish Congress of Southern California (ICSC). Enjoyed by more than 30,000, the St. Patrick 's Day Parade and Festival includes three performance stages, a Kid 's Zone, a Celtic Village, dozens of crafts and food booths, two beer gardens hosted by Guinness. Held in Balboa Park, the event was founded by James Foley who had helped organize the St. Patrick 's Day Parade in Hartford, Connecticut before he and his wife, Pat, moved to San Diego to open the Blarney Stone Pub.
There has been a Saint Patrick 's Day celebration in San Francisco since 1852. San Francisco has always had a large Irish American population and for many decades Irish Americans were the largest ethnic group in San Francisco. However, as of the early 21st century, the largest ethnic group in San Francisco is Chinese Americans and most of the Irish Americans have moved to the suburban parts of the San Francisco Bay Area. Each year, however, Irish from all over the San Francisco Bay Area come into San Francisco to march in or to see the Saint Patrick 's Day parade march down Market Street, held the Sunday before Saint Patrick 's Day. Numerous people from all ethnic groups can be seen wearing green in San Francisco on Saint Patrick 's Day.
The annual Saint Patrick 's Day celebration includes a 5K Fun Run and Walk, a pancake breakfast, a festival, and a parade. The parade is popular with residents and visitors from outside Dublin alike, and has been growing in popularity each year. It is sponsored by the Dublin Host Lions Club and features bands and colorful floats. The Dublin firefighters sponsor the pancake breakfast, and tours of the firehouse are popular with children. The festival continues all weekend, and features food, games, kiddie rides, arts & crafts, and information about local organizations. The festival had been held near the end of the parade route in Shamrock Village on Amador Valley Blvd., but was relocated to the Civic Center on Dublin Blvd., in 2007, moving it closer to the growing population in the eastern part of Dublin.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin,_California#Saint_Patrick.27s_Day_Celebration
One of the largest parades is held in Savannah, Georgia. The parade held in Savannah is the largest in Georgia. Many Irish settled in Savannah even in the earliest years since those freed from debtors ' prison were invited to join General James Oglethorpe 's fledging colony. There is a Mass at the Cathedral of Saint John the Baptist prior to the parade. In the early 1960s, there was an attempt to dye the Savannah River green, but all it produced was an irregular green stripe in the middle of the river. In 2006, the Tánaiste was featured in the parade. The parade travels through Savannah 's Historic District.
Some confusion exists about the year of the first Saint Patrick 's Day parade in Savannah. There is some evidence that a private parade was held by "an unidentified group '' referred to as "Fencibles '' on 17 March 1813. Another source states that the first St. Patrick 's Day celebration in Savannah was held in 1818. However, it is generally accepted that the first publicly held Saint Patrick 's Day procession was in 1824, organized by the Hibernian Society.
The 2012 Parade included over 360 participants making it the largest parade in the history of the City of Savannah. Organizers say that the 2012 crowd was well over a million people.
Due to the rich history of Scranton participation in Saint Patrick 's Day festivities it is one of the oldest parades in the United States. It has been going on annually since 1862 by the Saint Patrick 's Day Parade Association of Lackawanna County and the parade has got attention nationally as being one of the better Saint Patrick 's Day parades. The parade route begins on Wyoming Avenue and loops up to Penn Avenue and then Lackawanna Avenue before going back down over Jefferson Avenue to get to Washington Avenue. Since 1962 the St. Patrick 's Parade Day Association of Lackawanna County, Pennsylvania, has conducted this nationally acclaimed parade the weekend before the feast of St. Patrick.
Seattle Washington 's Saint Patrick 's Day Parade, recognized by CNN in 2009 as one of the "Five places to get your green on '' in America, travels along a 1 - mile route through the Emerald City 's downtown financial and retail core the Saturday before Saint Patrick 's Day. Seattle 's Saint Patrick 's Day Celebration is the largest and oldest in the Northwestern United States. In 2009, some 20,000 spectators and groups from throughout the Northwest turned out for the city 's Irish shenanigans. Along with the annual "Laying ' O the Green '' where Irish revellers mark the path of the next morning 's procession with a mile - long green stripe, the Seattle parade marks the high - point of Seattle 's Irish Week festivities. The week - long civic celebration organized by the city 's Irish Heritage Club (4) includes the annual Society of the Friends of Saint Patrick Dinner where a century - old Irish Shillelagh has been passed to the group 's new president for 70 years, an Irish Soda Bread Baking Contest, a Mass for Peace that brings together Catholics and others in a Protestant church, and the annual Irish Week Festival, which takes place around Saint Patrick 's Day is enormous, including step dancing, food, historical and modern exhibitions, and Irish lessons. Many celebrities of Irish descent visit Seattle during its Saint Patrick 's Day Celebration. In 2010 The Right Honorable Desmond Guinness, a direct descendant of Guinness Brewery founder Arthur Guinness, will serve as the parade 's grand marshal. In 2009, The Tonight Show 's Conan O'Brien made a guest appearance at the annual Mayor 's Proclamation Luncheon at local Irish haunt F.X. McCrory 's. And in 2008, European Union Ambassador to the US and former Irish Prime Minister John Bruton served as the parade 's grand marshal and marched alongside Tom Costello, the mayor of Galway, Seattle 's Irish sister city. Spokane, in eastern Washington, also hosts a Saint Patrick 's Day Parade.
In the city of Syracuse, NY, Saint Patrick 's celebrations are traditionally begun with the delivery of green beer to Coleman 's Irish Pub on the last Sunday of February. Coleman 's is located in the Tipperary Hill section of the city. Tipperary Hill is home to the World - famous "Green - on - Top '' Traffic Light and is historically the Irish section in Syracuse. Saint Patrick 's Day is rung in at midnight with the painting of a Shamrock under the Green - Over-Red traffic light. Syracuse boasts the largest Saint Patrick 's Day celebration per - capita in the United States with their annual Syracuse Saint Patrick 's Parade, founded by Nancy Duffy, an honoured journalist in the Central New York area and an active community leader, and Daniel F. Casey, a local Irishman and businessman. "The parade remains a major annual event, typically drawing an estimated crowd of more than 100,000 visitors to downtown Syracuse, as well as 5,000 to 6,000 marchers. ''
The Tallahassee Irish Society has been hosting an annual Saint Patrick 's Day event in Tallahassee since 1999. In 2010, along with the City of Tallahassee, the first annual Saint Patrick 's Day parade and Downtown Get Down is being hosted along Adams Street.
A one - day music festival with a parade called National ShamrockFest has been held in Washington, D.C. each year since 2000 in association with Saint Patrick 's Day. Approximately 40,000 people attend each year.
The St. Patrick 's Parade of Washington, D.C. was first held in 1971. The parade route runs down Constitution Avenue from 7th to 17th Streets, N.W and features marching bands, pipe bands, Irish dance schools, military, police, and fire departments, as well as floats and novelty groups.
The Worcester County St. Patrick 's Day Parade has been held annually on the Sunday before St. Patrick 's Day since 1983. The parade route runs along Park Avenue, beginning at Mill St. and ending at Elm Park. The parade can often see crowds of over 100,000 people.
Although Major League Baseball is still in its preseason spring training phase when Saint Patrick 's Day rolls around, some teams celebrate by wearing holiday - themed uniforms. The Cincinnati Reds were the first team to wear Saint Patrick 's Day hats in 1978. The Philadelphia Phillies hold the distinction of being the first baseball team to wear green uniforms on Saint Patricks Day. The tradition was started by Phillies pitcher Tug McGraw, who dyed his uniform green the night before March 17, 1981. Along with the Phillies, many other teams have since started wearing Saint Patrick 's day themed jerseys, including the Boston Red Sox in 2004, who were also the second team to wear Saint Patrick 's Day hats in 1990; the green uniforms have also been worn twice during the regular season, in 2007 and 2008, as a tribute to the NBA 's Boston Celtics, whose primary color is green. Since then it has become a tradition of many sports teams to also wear special uniforms to celebrate the holiday. The Los Angeles Dodgers also have a history with the Irish - American community. With the O'Malley family owning the team and more recently Frank McCourt, the Dodgers have had team celebrations or worn green jerseys on Saint Patrick 's Day. The Detroit Tigers and Philadelphia Phillies also wear Saint Patrick 's Day caps and jerseys. Other teams celebrate by wearing kelly green hats. These teams include: the Chicago Cubs, the Chicago White Sox, the New York Mets, the San Diego Padres, the Atlanta Braves, the Pittsburgh Pirates, the Kansas City Royals, the Seattle Mariners and the St. Louis Cardinals. The Washington Nationals have fan green hat day on 17 September to represent 6 months to Saint Patrick 's Day. The White Sox belatedly celebrate Saint Patrick 's Day every second week of September by wearing a variation of their pinstriped home uniforms, featuring green instead of black, as part of their "Halfway to St. Patrick 's '' promotion.
Nearly all Major League Baseball teams now produce Saint Patrick 's Day merchandise, including Kelly green hats, jerseys, and T - shirts.
Four National Basketball Association teams adopt their third jerseys exclusively for Saint Patrick 's Day (or Saint Patrick 's Day week). During Saint Patrick 's Day week, the Boston Celtics, whose road jersey is green, wear their gold / green jerseys, the Chicago Bulls wear their black / green alternate jersey which was introduced in the 2005 -- 06 season, and the Toronto Raptors wear their black / green alternate jerseys which was introduced during the 2007 -- 08 season. During Saint Patrick 's Day games, the New York Knicks wear their green / orange alternate, which they adopted in the 2005 -- 06 season, but in the 2009 -- 10 season, they adopted it for both March 17 and Christmas (the league makes a conscious effort to schedule games between teams with green uniforms and red uniforms on the holiday).
The practice is not present in college basketball, due to the holiday being largely overshadowed by Championship Week and the subsequent NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship, NIT and lesser tournaments.
The New Jersey Devils of the National Hockey League traditionally wear their throwback uniforms, which include green in the color scheme (green was removed from the Devils ' uniforms in 1992), on Saint Patrick 's Day and did so for their 2010 and 2012 games against the Pittsburgh Penguins. They also wore them, albeit belatedly, on March 18, 2011 against the Washington Capitals; the Devils played a road game on March 17. Although the Devils, Dallas Stars and Minnesota Wild (the last two of which have green in their regular color schemes) are the only U.S. - based teams to wear green on ice, the league has offered a line of holiday - themed gear to its fans in recent years. The Buffalo Sabres also donned green and white Irish - inspired practice jerseys (complete with insular script for the names and captain designations) prior to their March 16, 2014, March 17, 2015 and March 17, 2018 games (the team switched to their regular gold third jerseys prior to the games themselves); the jerseys were auctioned off for charity after each game. In recent years, many minor - league hockey teams have chosen to wear special commemorative green Jerseys to mark the occasion.
The Buffalo Bandits of the National Lacrosse League (like the NHL 's Sabres, owned by Terrence Pegula) introduced a special black - and - green third jersey on their Saint Patrick 's Day 2012 game, which was likewise auctioned off for charity.
The only other major American sport, football, is out of season during the Saint Patrick 's Day holiday. The National Football League does sell Saint Patrick 's Day merchandise for its teams, however.
The Saint Patrick 's Day Test (also known as the Donnybrook Cup) is an international rugby league football match played between the United States and Ireland. The competition was first started in 1995 with Ireland winning the first two tests with the US winning the last 4 in 2000, 2002, 2003 and 2004. The game is usually held on or around 17 March to coincide with Saint Patrick 's Day.
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what voting district am i in in pa | Pennsylvania 's congressional districts - wikipedia
After the 2000 Census, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania was divided into 19 Congressional Districts, decreasing from 21 due to reapportionment. After the 2010 Census, the number of districts decreased again to 18.
On January 22, 2018, the Pennsylvania Supreme Court ruled that the Congressional Districts were an unlawful partisan gerrymander in violation of the Pennsylvania Constitution. The General Assembly and governor failed to reach an agreement for a revised district map. Therefore, on February 19, 2018, the Pennsylvania Supreme Court released a new congressional map. That map is estimated to have a partisan balance of 10 Republican - leaning and 8 Democratic - leaning seats.
The court - mandated map is set to go into effect before the primary elections on May 15, 2018. Republican lawmakers in the state asked for a stay from the United States Supreme Court and brought suit in federal court, seeking an injunction against using the court - drawn map in the upcoming congressional elections. Both attempts failed on March 19, 2018, following rulings by the Supreme Court and a Pennsylvania federal district court.
The congressional delegation from Pennsylvania consists of 18 members. In the current delegation, 10 representatives are Republicans, 6 are Democrats, with 2 vacancies (after the resignations of Pat Meehan and Charlie Dent).
The list below identifies the members of the Pennsylvanian United States House delegation, their terms, and their current district boundaries. Congressional district boundaries for the 2018 elections are also shown.
Following the 2010 Census, redistricting in Pennsylvania was controlled by elected officials from the Republican party. In 2012, Pennsylvania realigned a number of districts. A number of sitting Congressional Representatives had their districts modified or merged as part of the redistricting. The merger of Districts 4 and 12 forced a primary runoff between the two sitting Congressional representatives.
The 2012 redistricting process resulted in a map that disproportionately favored Republican candidates. In the 2012 Congressional elections, Democratic candidates won 50.5 % of the total votes cast. However, only five of the state 's 18 Federal Representatives (27.78 %) were Democrats.
On June 14, 2017, the League of Women Voters of Pennsylvania filed a lawsuit, alleging that the district boundaries constituted an unconstitutional partisan gerrymander. The case was eventually appealed to the Pennsylvania Supreme Court. On January 22, 2018, the Pennsylvania Supreme Court ruled that the Congressional Districts were unlawfully gerrymandered in violation of the Pennsylvania Constitution. The court ordered the General Assembly and the governor to adopt a remedied map, to be used for the 2018 Congressional elections. Pennsylvania Republicans requested a stay from the United States Supreme Court, to delay the drawing of new district boundaries; however, that request was denied on February 5, 2018. The governor and General Assembly failed to reach an agreement regarding the district boundaries, thus the Pennsylvania Supreme Court drew its own remedial map.
On February 19, 2018, the Pennsylvania Supreme Court released a new congressional map, to take effect for the May 15, 2018, primaries. The Court voted to implement the new map by a 4 -- 3 vote. The map was designed with the assistance of Stanford University law professor Nathan Persily. The districts in the Court 's map were significantly more compact, and its map split fewer municipalities and counties than the prior Republican - drawn map. While the GOP - drawn map had favored Republican candidates, the court - drawn map is expected not to favor one party over the other.
Republican lawmakers from Pennsylvania requested that the Supreme Court block the implementation of the court - drawn map; however, on March 19, 2018, the United States Supreme Court denied their request. A Pennsylvania federal district court dismissed a parallel suit on the same day.
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where did the meeting of the estates general take place | Estates General of 1789 - wikipedia
The estates general was a general assembly representing the French estates of the realm: the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and the commoners (Third Estate). Summoned by King Louis XVI, it was brought to an end when the Third Estate formed into a National Assembly, inviting the other two to join, against the wishes of the King. This signals the outbreak of the French Revolution.
The suggestion to summon the Estates General came from the Assembly of Notables installed by the King on 22 February 1787. It had not met since 1626. The usual business of registering the King 's edicts as law was performed by the Parlement of Paris. In this year it was refusing to cooperate with Charles Alexandre de Calonne 's program of badly needed financial reform, due to the special interests of its noble members. Calonne was the Controller - General of Finances, appointed by the King to address the state deficit. As a last measure, Calonne was hoping to bypass them by reviving an archaic institution. The initial roster of Notables included 137 nobles, among them many future revolutionaries, such as the Comte de Mirabeau and the Marquis de Lafayette, hero of the American Revolution. Lafayette had served in George Washington 's army. Much of the debt had been incurred on behalf of the Americans. The final defeat of Lord Cornwallis at the Battle of Yorktown was due in large part to the participation of the French army and navy. If Calonne thought he would find more cooperation by changing the assembly, he was mistaken. He proposed a "land tax, '' Subvention Territoriale, to be imposed on all land - holders, rich or poor. A storm of protest arose. Charges of mismanagement were made. Calonne was dismissed on 8 April 1787 and then was exiled. He commented on the French political scene from London.
Calonne 's replacement was Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne, President of the Assembly of Notables. He was offered the post of Prime Minister, which was to include being Controller. The Notables nevertheless remained recalcitrant. They made a number of proposals but they would not grant the King money. Lafayette suggested that the problem required a national assembly. Brienne asked him if he meant the Estates General. On receiving an affirmative answer, Brienne recorded it as a proposal. Frustrated by his inability to obtain money, the King staged a day - long harangue, and then on 25 May dissolved the Notables. Their proposals reverted to the Parlement.
Turning again to the parliament, the King found that they were inclined to continue the issues that had been raised in the Assembly of Notables. Their proper legal function, besides giving advice to the King, was only to register, or record, his edicts as law, a matter of simple obedience, which the King 's father and grandfather had been able to command, sometimes by sternness, threats, and losses of temper. Unless registered, the edicts were not lawful.
On 6 July 1787, Loménie forwarded the Subvention Territoriale and another tax, the Edit du Timbre, or "Stamp Act, '' based on the American model, for registration. Parlement refused an illegal act, demanding accounting statements, or "States, '' as a prior condition. It was the King 's turn to refuse. The members of the Parlement began to jest that they required either the accounting States or the Estates General. The King could not let this slight to his authority pass. Parlement was commanded to assemble at the King 's palace at Versailles where, on 6 August, he ordered them in person to register the taxes. On 7 August back in Paris, the Parlement declared, in earnest this time, that the order was null and void, repudiating all previous registrations of taxes. Only the Estates General, they said, could register taxes.
For the second time, the King summoned Parlement away from Paris, where crowds of people cheered their every act from the street, this time to meet at Troyes, Champagne on 15 August. He did not personally appear. By messenger he and Parlement negotiated an agreement: the King withdrew the Stamp Tax and modified the Land Tax to exclude the lands of people of title in return for the assured registration of further loans. Parlement was allowed to return on 20 September. Encouraged, Loménie, with the support of the King, went beyond the intent of the Parlement which was to grant specific loans. He proposed an Emprunt Successif (Successive Loan) until 1792 giving the King a blank cheque. When Parlement delayed the King resorted to a ruse; he scheduled a Royal Hunt for 19 November. On that day at 11: 00 AM the King and his peers noisily entered the session of Parlement dressed in hunting clothes. They would confer with each other and have the decisions registered immediately, they said.
Nearly the entire government was now face - to - face. They argued the problems and issues concerned until dusk, some six hours later. Parlement believed that the problem had gone beyond the government and needed the decisions of the Estates General which did not correspond to the King 's concept of monarchy. At the end of the day, the King demanded the registration of the Successive Loan. The Duc d'Orléans (a previous Notable, a relative of the King, and an ardent revolutionary), known as Philippe Égalité, asked if this were a Royal Session of the Peers or a Session of Parlement. On being told it was a Royal Session he replied that edicts were not registered at Royal Sessions. The King retorted, Vous êtes bien le maître (do as YOU will) with some sarcasm as the King 's will was legally required, and strode angrily from the session with a retinue. Lettres de Cachet, or arbitrary arrest warrants, followed on the 20th for D'Orleans and two others. They were taken into custody and held under comfortable conditions away from Paris; D'Orleans on his country estate. Parlement began a debate on the legality of Lettres de Cachet. The men being held became a cause célèbre.
As the King and Parlement could accomplish no more together De Brienne, over the winter, pressed for an alternative plan; to resurrect even more archaic institutions. The Grand Bailliages, or larger legal jurisdictions that once had existed, would assume Parlement legal functions, while the Plenary Court, last known under Louis IX, when it had the power to register edicts, would assume the registration duties of the Parlement, leaving it with no duties to perform. The King planned a sudden revelation and dismissal of Parlement. However, Jean - Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil heard the government presses running and bribed the printer to give him the proofs of the edict. Hearing it read the next day, 3 May 1788, Parlement swore an oath not to be disbanded and defined a manifesto of their rights.
Warrants were issued for Eprémesnil and another but they escaped from their homes over the rooftops in the early morning to seek refuge in Parlement. The King sent his guards into Parlement to arrest them. They surrendered. Parlement filed silently out between a line of guards. The commander gave the key to the building to the King.
The transfer of power to the new government was to begin on 8 May 1788 with the registration of the edicts establishing it in the regional Parlement. The latter refused unanimously following the Parlement of Paris. If the King 's commissioners forced the issue Parlement abandoned the meeting place only to return the next day to declare the registration null and void. Armed protest swept the kingdom. Street fighting broke out at Rennes, Brittany. A deputation sent to Paris from there was imprisoned in the Bastille. The Bretons in Paris founded the Breton Club, later the Jacobin Society. The Grand Bailliages could not be created and the Plenary Court met only once.
The Estates - General were summoned by a royal edict dated to 24 January 1789. It comprised two parts: a Lettre du Roi, and a Règlement.
The Lettre announces:
The King promises to address the grievances of his people. The "most notable persons '' of each community and judicial district are summoned "to confer and to record remonstrances, complaints, and grievances. '' Elections for Deputies are to be held. He says that he intends "reform of abuse, '' "establishment of a fixed and durable order, '' and "general prosperity. '' The Lettre is signed "Louis. ''
Lettres de Convocation were sent to all the provinces with the Règlement prescribing the methods of election. During the preceding autumn the Parlement of Paris, an aristocratic advisory body to the King, had decided that the organization of the convention would be the same as in 1614, the last time the Estates had met. As 175 years had gone by since then it is clear the Estates were not a functional institution in French society. By reviving them as much as possible like they had been the King and the Parlement intended to control the authority of the people. The previous Estates had voted by order; that is, the Nobles and the Clergy could together outvote the Commons by 2 to 1.
If on the other hand, each delegate were to have one vote, the majority would prevail. The issue was widely discussed in the press during the autumn of 1788. The people would nevertheless accept any national convention confident that enough members of the Nobility and the Clergy would be with them to sway the votes. A National Party was formed. It argued that France had never had a constitution and the proper function of the Convention was to establish one. The royalist defenders, however, accepted the absolute monarchy as the constitution. Just to be certain the press began to demand that the Commons be allocated twice as many delegates as each of the other two Estates. In an attempt to bolster his failing popularity the King acceded to this measure of "doubling the Third. '' He was confident of his influence over the Nobility and Clergy.
The First Estate represented 100,000 Catholic clergy; the Church owned about 10 percent of the land and collected its own taxes (the tithe) on peasants. The lands were controlled by bishops and abbots of monasteries, but two - thirds of the 303 delegates from the First Estate were ordinary parish priests; only 51 were bishops. The Second Estate represented the nobility, about 400,000 men and women who owned about 25 percent of the land and collected seigneurial dues and rents from their peasant tenants. About a third of the 282 deputies representing the Second Estate were nobles, mostly with minor holdings. The Third Estate representation was doubled to 578 men, representing 95 percent of the population of roughly 25 million. Half were well - educated lawyers or local officials. Nearly a third were in trades or industry; 51 were wealthy land owners.
The Réglement that went out by post in January thus specified separate voting for delegates of each Estate. Each tax district (cities, boroughs, and parishes) would elect their own delegates to the Third Estate. The Bailliages, or judicial districts, would elect delegates to the First and Second Estates in separate ballots. Each voting assembly would also collect a Cahier, or "Notebook '', of grievances to be considered by the Convocation. The election rules differed somewhat depending on the type of voting unit, whether city, parish or some other. Generally, the distribution of delegates was by population: the most populous locations had the greatest number of delegates. The City of Paris was thus dominant. The electorate consisted of males 25 years and older, property owners, and registered taxpayers. They could be native or naturalized citizens.
The number of delegates elected was about 1,200, half of whom formed the Third Estate. The First and Second Estates had 300 each. But French society had changed since 1614, and these Estates - General were not identical to those of 1614. Members of the nobility were not required to stand for election to the Second Estate, and many of them were elected to the Third Estate. The total number of nobles in the three Estates was about 400. Noble representatives of the Third Estate were among the most passionate revolutionaries in attendance, including Jean Joseph Mounier and the comte de Mirabeau. Despite their status as elected representatives of the Third Estate, many of these nobles were executed by guillotine during the Terror.
The Nobles in the Second Estate were the richest and most powerful in the kingdom. The King could count on them, but that was of little use to him in the succeeding course of history. He had also expected that the First Estate would be predominantly the noble Bishops. The electorate, however, returned mainly parish priests, most of whom were sympathetic to the Commons. The Third Estate elections returned predominantly magistrates and lawyers. The lower levels of society, the landless, working men, though present in large numbers in street gangs, were totally absent from the Estates - General, as the King had called for "the most notable persons ''.
The grievances returned were mainly about taxes, which the people considered a crushing burden. Consequently, the people and the King were totally at odds from the very beginning. Aristocratic privilege was also attacked. The people resented the fact that nobles could excuse themselves from most of the burden of taxation and service that fell on the ordinary people. A third type complained that the ubiquitous tolls and duties levied by the nobility hindered internal commerce.
On 5 May 1789, amidst general festivities, the Estates - General convened in an elaborate but temporary Île des États set up in one of the courtyards of the official Hôtel des Menus Plaisirs in the town of Versailles near the royal château. With the étiquette of 1614 strictly enforced, the clergy and nobility ranged in tiered seating in their full regalia, while the physical locations of the deputies from the Third Estate were at the far end, as dictated by the protocol. When Louis XVI and Charles Louis François de Paule de Barentin, the Keeper of the Seals of France, addressed the deputies on 6 May, the Third Estate discovered that the royal decree granting double representation also upheld the traditional voting "by orders '', i.e. that the collective vote of each estate would be weighed equally.
The apparent intent of the King and of Barentin was for everyone to get directly to the matter of taxes. The larger representation of the Third Estate would remain merely a symbol while giving them no extra power. Director - General of Finance Jacques Necker had more sympathy for the Third Estate, but on this occasion he spoke only about the fiscal situation, leaving it to Barentin to speak on how the Estates - General was to operate.
Trying to avoid the issue of representation and to focus solely on taxes, the King and his ministers had gravely misjudged the situation. The Third Estate wanted the estates to meet as one body and for each delegate to have one vote. The other two estates, while having their own grievances against royal absolutism, believed -- correctly, as history was to prove -- that they stood to lose more power to the Third Estate than they stood to gain from the King. Necker sympathized with the Third Estate in this matter, but the astute financier lacked equal astuteness as a politician. He decided to let the impasse play out to the point of stalemate before he would enter the fray. As a result, by the time the King yielded to the demand of the Third Estate, it seemed to all to be a concession wrung from the monarchy, rather than a magnanimous gift that would have convinced the populace of the King 's goodwill.
The Estates - General reached an impasse. The Second Estate pushed for meetings that were to transpire in three separate locations, as they had traditionally. The Comte de Mirabeau, a noble himself but elected to represent the Third Estate, tried but failed to keep all three orders in a single room for this discussion. Instead of discussing the King 's taxes, the three estates began to discuss separately the organization of the legislature. These efforts continued without success until 27 May, when the nobles voted to stand firm for separate verification. The following day, the Abbé Sieyès (a senior member of the clergy, but, like Mirabeau, elected to represent the Third Estate) moved that the representatives of the Third Estate, who now called themselves the Communes ("Commons ''), proceed with verification and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them.
On 13 June 1789, the Third Estate had arrived at a resolution to examine and settle the powers of the three orders. They invited the clergy and nobles to work with them on this endeavor. On 17 June, with the failure of efforts to reconcile the three estates, the Communes completed their own process of verification and almost immediately voted a measure far more radical: they declared themselves redefined as the National Assembly, an assembly not of the estates, but of the people. They invited the other orders to join them but made it clear that they intended to conduct the nation 's affairs with or without them. As their numbers exceeded the combined numbers of the other estates, they could dominate any combined assembly.
The King tried to resist. Under the influence of the courtiers of his privy council, he resolved to go in state to the Assembly, annul its decrees, command the separation of the orders, and dictate the reforms to be effected by the restored Estates - General. On 20 June, he ordered the hall where the National Assembly met, closed. The Assembly moved their deliberations to the nearby tennis court, where they proceeded to swear the ' Tennis Court Oath ', by which they agreed not to separate until they had settled the constitution of France. Two days later, deprived of the use of the tennis court as well, the Assembly met in the Church of Saint Louis, where the majority of the representatives of the clergy joined them: efforts to restore the old order had served only to accelerate events.
In the séance royale of 23 June, the King granted a Charte octroyée, a constitution granted by royal favor, which affirmed, subject to the traditional limitations, the right of separate deliberation for the three orders, which constitutionally formed three chambers. This move failed; soon, that part of the deputies of the nobles who still stood apart joined the National Assembly at the request of the King. The Estates - General had ceased to exist, having become the National Assembly (and after 9 July 1789, the National Constituent Assembly).
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where is the sugar bowl game being played | 2018 Sugar Bowl - wikipedia
Jalen Hurts, QB
The 2018 Sugar Bowl is a College Football Playoff semifinals bowl game that was played on January 1, 2018, at the Mercedes - Benz Superdome in New Orleans. This 84th Sugar Bowl game matched two of the top four teams selected by the Selection Committee to compete for a spot at the 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship to be played on January 8, 2018, at Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia. It was one of the 2017 -- 18 bowl games that concluded the 2017 FBS football season. Sponsored by the Allstate insurance company, the game is officially known as the Allstate Sugar Bowl.
The contest was televised on ESPN and ESPN Deportes, with a radio broadcast on ESPN Radio and XM Satellite Radio, with kickoff at 8: 00 PM CT (9: 00 PM ET).
The # 1 - ranked Clemson Tigers, champions of the Atlantic Coast Conference, faced the # 4 - ranked Alabama Crimson Tide, co-champions of the SEC West Division (along with Auburn who won head - to - head over Alabama.) This is the third consecutive year in which Clemson and Alabama have met in the CFPs, though the previous two meetings were in the CFP Championship Game.
This was Alabama 's first Sugar Bowl win of the Nick Saban era. This was also their first win in a Sugar bowl since 1993 against Miami. The Tide had lost games in the 2008 - 2009, 2013 - 2014, and 2014 - 2015 football / bowl seasons. (The Tide beat LSU at the site of the Sugar Bowl in the 2011 - 2012 season. However, that was the BCS National Championship Game, not the Sugar Bowl.)
The Crimson Tide immediately took a 10 - 3 lead at halftime. Alex Spence was the only player to score for the Clemson Tigers with just two field goals. Alabama 's defense was a huge factor in the game holding the Tigers to only six points. This matchup was a rematch of the 2017 College Football Playoff National Championship in which the Tigers won with quarterback Deshaun Watson leading the team as the game 's MVP. The Tigers were not able to perform without Watson and with Kelly Bryant.
# denotes national championship game / denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
Pound sign (#) denotes national championship game. Forward slash (/) denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
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where is cilia located in the respiratory tract | Respiratory tract - wikipedia
In humans, the respiratory tract is the part of the anatomy of the respiratory system involved with the process of respiration. Air is breathed in through the nose or the mouth. In the nasal cavity, a layer of mucous membrane acts as a filter and traps pollutants and other harmful substances found in the air. Next, air moves into the pharynx, a passage that contains the intersection between the esophagus and the larynx. The opening of the larynx has a special flap of cartilage, the epiglottis, that opens to allow air to pass through but closes to prevent food from moving into the airway.
From the larynx, air moves into the trachea and down to the intersection that branches to form the right and left primary (main) bronchi. Each of these bronchi branch into secondary (lobar) bronchi that branch into tertiary (segmental) bronchi that branch into smaller airways called bronchioles that eventually connect with tiny specialized structures called alveoli that function in gas exchange.
The lungs which are located in the thoracic cavity, are protected from physical damage by the rib cage. At the base of the lungs is a sheet of skeletal muscle called the diaphragm. The diaphragm separates the lungs from the stomach and intestines. The diaphragm is also the main muscle of respiration involved in breathing, and is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system.
The lungs are encased in a serous membrane that folds in on itself to form the pleurae -- a two - layered protective barrier. The inner visceral pleura covers the surface of the lungs, and the outer parietal pleura is attached to the inner surface of the thoracic cavity. The pleurae enclose a cavity called the pleural cavity that contains pleural fluid. This fluid is used to decrease the amount of friction that lungs experience during breathing.
The respiratory tract is divided into the upper airways and lower airways. The upper airways or upper respiratory tract includes the nose and nasal passages, paranasal sinuses, the pharynx, and the portion of the larynx above the vocal folds (cords). The lower airways or lower respiratory tract includes the portion of the larynx below the vocal folds, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles. The lungs can be included in the lower respiratory tract or as separate entity and include the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli.
The respiratory tract can also be divided into a conducting zone and a respiratory zone, based on the distinction of transporting gases or exchanging them.
The conducting zone includes structures outside of the lungs -- the nose, pharynx, larynx, and trachea, and structures inside the lungs -- the bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles. The conduction zone conducts air breathed in that is filtered, warmed, and moistened, into the lungs. It represents the 1st through the 16th division of the respiratory tract. The conducting zone is most of the respiratory tract that conducts gases into and out of the lungs, but excludes the respiratory zone that exchanges gases. The conducting zone also functions to offer a low resistance pathway for airflow. It provides a major defense role in its filtering abilities.
The respiratory zone includes the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli, and is the site of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange with the blood. The respiratory bronchioles and the alveolar ducts are responsible for 10 % of the gas exchange. The alveoli are responsible for the other 90 %. The respiratory zone represents the 16th through the 23rd division of the respiratory tract.
From the bronchi, the dividing tubes become progressively smaller with an estimated 20 to 23 divisions before ending at an alveolus.
The upper respiratory tract, can refer to the parts of the respiratory system lying above the sternal angle (outside of the thorax), above the vocal folds, or above the cricoid cartilage. The larynx is sometimes included in both the upper and lower airways. The larynx is also called the voice box and has the associated cartilage that produces sound. The tract consists of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses, the pharynx (nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx) and sometimes includes the larynx.
The lower respiratory tract or lower airway is derived from the developing foregut and consists of the trachea, bronchi (primary, secondary and tertiary), bronchioles (including terminal and respiratory), and lungs (including alveoli). It also sometimes includes the larynx.
The lower respiratory tract is also called the respiratory tree or tracheobronchial tree, to describe the branching structure of airways supplying air to the lungs, and includes the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles.
At each division point or generation, one airway branches into two or more smaller airways. The human respiratory tree may consist on average of 23 generations, while the respiratory tree of the mouse has up to 13 generations. Proximal divisions (those closest to the top of the tree, such as the bronchi) mainly function to transmit air to the lower airways. Later divisions including the respiratory bronchiole, alveolar ducts and alveoli, are specialized for gas exchange.
The trachea is the largest tube in the respiratory tract and consists of tracheal rings of hyaline cartilage. It branches off into two bronchial tubes, a left and a right main bronchus. The bronchi branch off into smaller sections inside the lungs, called bronchioles. These bronchioles give rise to the air sacs in the lungs called the alveoli.
The lungs are the largest organs in the lower respiratory tract. The lungs are suspended within the pleural cavity of the thorax. The pleurae are two thin membranes, one cell layer thick, which surround the lungs. The inner (visceral pleura) covers the lungs and the outer (parietal pleura) lines the inner surface of the chest wall. This membrane secretes a small amount of fluid, allowing the lungs to move freely within the pleural cavity while expanding and contracting during breathing. The lungs are divided into different lobes. The right lung is larger in size than the left, because of the heart 's being situated to the left of the midline. The right lung has three lobes -- upper, middle, and lower (or superior, middle and inferior), and the left lung has two -- upper and lower (or superior and inferior), plus a small tongue - shaped portion of the upper lobe known as the lingula. Each lobe is further divided up into segments called bronchopulmonary segments. Each lung has a costal surface, which is adjacent to the ribcage; a diaphragmatic surface, which faces downward toward the diaphragm; and a mediastinal surface, which faces toward the center of the chest, and lies against the heart, great vessels, and the carina where the two mainstem bronchi branch off from the base of the trachea.
The alveoli are tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange takes place. The mean number of alveoli in a human lung is 480 million. When the diaphragm contracts, a negative pressure is generated in the thorax and air rushes in to fill the cavity. When that happens, these sacs fill with air, making the lung expand. The alveoli are rich with capillaries, called alveolor capillaries. Here the red blood cells absorb oxygen from the air and then carry it back in the form of oxyhaemaglobin, to nourish the cells. The red blood cells also carry carbon dioxide (CO) away from the cells in the form of carboxyhemoglobin and releases it into the alveoli through the alveolor capillaries. When the diaphragm relaxes, a positive pressure is generated in the thorax and air rushes out of the alveoli expelling the carbon dioxide.
The respiratory tract is covered in epithelium, which varies down the tract. There are glands and mucus produced by goblet cells in parts, as well as smooth muscle, elastin or cartilage. Most of the epithelium (from the nose to the bronchi) is covered in ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium, commonly called respiratory epithelium. The cilia beat in one direction, moving mucus towards the throat where it is swallowed. Moving down the bronchioles, the cells get more cuboidal in shape but are still ciliated.
Glands are abundant in the upper respiratory tract, but there are fewer lower down and they are absent starting at the bronchioles. The same goes for goblet cells, although there are scattered ones in the first bronchioles.
Cartilage is present until the small bronchi. In the trachea they are C - shaped rings of hyaline cartilage, whereas in the bronchi the cartilage takes the form of interspersed plates. Smooth muscle starts in the trachea, where it joins the C - shaped rings of cartilage. It continues down the bronchi and bronchioles, which it completely encircles. Instead of hard cartilage, the bronchi and bronchioles are composed of elastic tissue.
The lungs are made up of thirteen different kinds of cells, eleven types of epithelial cell and two types of mesenchymal cell. The epithelial cells form the lining of the tracheal, and bronchial tubes, while the mesenchymal cells line the lungs.
Differences in cells along the respiratory tract.
Transverse section of tracheal tissue. Note that image is incorrectly labeled "ciliated stratified epithelium '' at upper right.
Most of the respiratory tract exists merely as a piping system for air to travel in the lungs, and alveoli are the only part of the lung that exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide with the blood.
Respiration is the rhythmical process of breathing, in which air is drawn into the alveoli of the lungs via inhalation and subsequently expelled via exhalation. When a human being inhales, air travels down the trachea, through the bronchial tubes, and into the lungs. The entire tract is protected by the rib cage, spine, and sternum. In the lungs, oxygen from the inhaled air is transferred into the blood and circulated throughout the body. Carbon dioxide (CO) is transferred from returning blood back into gaseous form in the lungs and exhaled through the lower respiratory tract and then the upper, to complete the process of breathing.
Unlike the trachea and bronchi, the upper airway is a collapsible, compliant tube. As such, it has to be able to withstand suction pressures generated by the rhythmic contraction of the diaphragm that sucks air into the lungs. This is accomplished by the rhythmic contraction of upper airway muscles, such as the genioglossus (tongue) and the hyoid muscles. In addition to rhythmic innervation from the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata, the motor neurons controlling the muscles also receive tonic innervation that sets a baseline level of stiffness and size.
The diaphragm is the primary muscle that allows for lung expansion and contraction. Smaller muscles between the ribs, the external intercostals, assist with this process.
The epithelial lining of the upper respiratory tract is interspersed with goblet cells that secrete a protective mucus. This helps to filter waste, which is eventually either swallowed into the highly acidic stomach environment or expelled via spitting. The epithelium lining the respiratory tract is covered in small hairs called cilia. These beat rhythmically out from the lungs, moving secreted mucus foreign particles toward the laryngopharynx upwards and outwards, in a process called the mucociliary escalator. In addition to keeping the lower respiratory tract sterile, they prevent mucus accumulation in the lungs. Macrophages in the alveoli are part of the immune system which engulf and digest any inhaled harmful agents.
Hair in the nostrils plays a protective role, trapping particulate matter such as dust. The cough reflex expels all irritants within the mucus membrane to the outside. The airways of the lungs contain rings of muscle. When the passageways are irritated by some allergen, these muscles can constrict.
The respiratory tract is a common site for infections.
Upper respiratory tract infections are probably the most common infections in the world.
The respiratory system is very prone to developing infections in the lungs. Infants and older adults are more likely to develop infections in their lungs, because their lungs are not as strong in fighting off these infections. Most of these infections used to be fatal, but with new research and medicine, they are now treatable. With bacterial infections, antibiotics are prescribed, while viral infections are harder to treat, but still curable.
The common cold / flu is the most common cause for the upper respiratory tract infection, which can cause more serious illness that can develop in the lower respiratory tract. Pneumonia is the most common, and frequent lower respiratory tract infection. This can be either viral, bacterial, or fungal. This infection is very common, because pneumonia can be airborne, and when you inhale this infection in the air, the particles enter the lungs and move into the air sacs. This infection quickly develops in the lower part of the lung, and fills the lung with fluid, and excess mucus. This causes difficulty in breathing, and coughing as the lower respiratory tract tries to get rid of the fluid in the lungs. You can be more prone to developing this infection if you have asthma, flu, heart disease, or cancer
Bronchitis is another common infection that takes place in the lower respiratory tract. It is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. There are two forms of this infection: acute bronchitis, which is treatable and can go away without treatment, or chronic bronchitis, which comes and goes, but will always affect one 's lungs. Bronchitis increases the amount of mucus that is natural in your respiratory tract. Chronic bronchitis is common in smokers, because the tar from smoking accumulates over time, causing the lungs to work harder to repair themselves.
Tuberculosis is one of many other infections that occurs in the lower respiratory tract. You can contract this infection from airborne droplets, and if inhaled you are at risk of this disease. This is a bacterial infection which deteriorates the lung tissue resulting in coughing up blood. This infection is deadly if not treated.
Some of these cancers have environmental causes such as smoking. When a tobacco product is inhaled, the smoke paralyzes the cilia, causing mucus to enter the lungs. Frequent smoking, over time causes the cilia hairs to die and can no longer filter mucus. Tar from the smoke inhaled enters the lungs, turning the pink - coloured lungs black. The accumulation of this tar could eventually lead to lung cancer, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a common lower respiratory disease that can be caused by exposure to harmful chemicals, or prolonged use of tobacco. This disease is chronic and progressive, the damage to the lungs is irreversible and eventually fatal. COPD destroys the alveoli, and lung tissue which makes breathing very difficult, causing shortness of breath, hyperventilation, and raised chest. The decreased number of alveoli causes loss of oxygen supply to the lungs, and an increased accumulation of carbon dioxide. There are two types of COPD: primary and secondary. Primary COPD can be found in younger adults. This type of COPD deteriorates the air sacs, and lung mass. Secondary COPD can be found in older adults who smoke or have smoked and have a history of bronchitis. Older terms for COPD are emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
The bronchi are the main passages to the right and left lungs. These airways carry the oxygen to the bronchioles inside the lungs. Inflammation of the bronchii and bronchioles can cause them to swell up, which could lead to an asthma attack. This results in wheezing, tightness of the chest and severe difficulty in breathing. There are different types of asthma that affect the functions of the bronchial tubes. Allergies can also set off an allergic reaction, causing swelling of the bronchial tubes; as a result, the air passage will swell up, or close up completely.
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the wind that shakes the barley (2006) cast | The Wind that Shakes the Barley (film) - wikipedia
The Wind That Shakes the Barley is a 2006 war drama film directed by Ken Loach, set during the Irish War of Independence (1919 -- 1921) and the Irish Civil War (1922 -- 1923). Written by long - time Loach collaborator Paul Laverty, this drama tells the fictional story of two County Cork brothers, Damien O'Donovan (Cillian Murphy) and Teddy O'Donovan (Pádraic Delaney), who join the Irish Republican Army to fight for Irish independence from the United Kingdom. The film takes its title from Robert Dwyer Joyce 's "The Wind That Shakes the Barley '', a song set during the 1798 rebellion in Ireland and featured early in the film. The film is heavily influenced by Walter Macken 's 1964 novel The Scorching Wind.
Widely praised, the film won the Palme d'Or at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival. Loach 's biggest box office success to date, the film did well around the world and set a record in Ireland as the highest - grossing Irish - made independent film, until surpassed by The Guard.
County Cork, Ireland, 1920. Dr. Damien O'Donovan is about to leave his native village to practise medicine in a London hospital. Meanwhile, his brother Teddy commands the local flying column of the Irish Republican Army. After a hurling match, Damien witnesses the summary execution of his friend, Micheál Ó Súilleabháin, by British Black and Tans. Although shaken, Damien rebuffs his friends ' entreaties to stay in Ireland and join the IRA, saying that the war is unwinnable. As he is leaving town, Damien witnesses the British Army vainly trying to intimidate a railway personnel for refusing to permit the troops to board. In response, Damien decides to stay and is sworn into Teddy 's IRA brigade.
After drilling in the mountains, the column raids the village 's Royal Irish Constabulary barracks to acquire revolvers, then uses them to assassinate four Auxiliaries. In the aftermath, Anglo - Irish landowner Sir John Hamilton coerces one of his servants, IRA member Chris Reilly, into passing information to the British Army 's Intelligence Corps. As a result, the entire brigade is arrested. In their cell, Damien meets the train driver, Dan, a union official who shares Damien 's socialist views.
Meanwhile, British officers interrogate Teddy, pulling out his fingernails when he refuses to give them the names of IRA members. Johnny Gogan, a British soldier of Irish descent, helps the prisoners escape, but three are left behind. After the actions of Sir John and Chris are revealed to the IRA 's intelligence network, both are taken hostage. As Teddy is still recovering, Damien is temporarily placed in command. News arrives that the three remaining IRA prisoners have been tortured and shot. Simultaneously, the brigade receives orders to "execute the spies ''.
Despite the fact that Chris is a lifelong friend, Damien shoots both him and Sir John. Later, the IRA ambushes and wipes out a convoy of the Auxiliary Division, and in retaliation another detachment of Auxiliaries loots and burns the farmhouse of Damien 's sweetheart, Cumann na mBan member Sinéad Sullivan. Sinéad is held at gunpoint while her head is roughly shorn, her scalp being wounded in the process. Later, as Damien treats her, a messenger arrives with news of a formal ceasefire between Britain and the IRA.
After the Anglo - Irish Treaty is signed, the brigade learns that a partitioned Ireland will only be granted Dominion status within the British Empire. As a result, the brigade divides over accepting the terms of the Treaty. Teddy and his allies argue that accepting the Treaty will bring peace now while further gains can be made later. Others oppose the Treaty, proposing to continue fighting until a united Irish Republic can be obtained. Dan and Damien further demand the collectivisation of industry and agriculture. Any other course, declares Dan, will change only "the accents of the powerful and the colour of the flag ''.
Soon the Irish Free State replaces British rule, and Teddy and his allies begin patrolling in National Army uniforms. Meanwhile, Damien and his allies join the Anti-Treaty IRA. When the Battle of Dublin launches the Irish Civil War, the Anti-Treaty column commences guerrilla warfare against Free State forces. As the violence escalates, Teddy expresses fear that the British will invade if the republicans gain the upper hand. His position is: "They take one out, we take one back. To hell with the courts. ''
Soon after, Dan is killed and Damien is captured during a raid for arms on an Irish Army barracks commanded by Teddy. Sentenced to execution, Damien is held in the same cell where the British Army imprisoned them earlier. Desperate to avoid executing his brother, Teddy pleads with Damien to reveal where the Anti-Treaty IRA is hiding the stolen rifles. In return, Teddy offers Damien full amnesty, a life with Sinéad, and the vision of an Ireland where Pro - and Anti-Treaty Irishmen can raise families side by side. Insulted, Damien responds by saying that he will never "sell out '' the Republic the way Chris Reilly did and Teddy leaves the cell in tears. Damien writes a goodbye letter to Sinéad, expressing his love for her, and quote his brother 's words "It 's easy to know what you 're against, quite another to know what you 're for ''. But he says that he knows what he stands for and is not afraid to die for it and tells Sinéad to look after Teddy. At dawn, Damien dies before a firing squad commanded by a heartbroken yet obstinate Teddy. Teddy delivers Damien 's letter to Sinéad who is distraught and heartbroken. She attacks Teddy and orders him to leave her land.
The film stars mostly Irish actors and was made by British director Ken Loach. It is an international co-production between companies in Ireland, United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, Spain, France, Belgium, and Switzerland.
The title derives from the song of the same name, The Wind That Shakes the Barley, by 19th - century author Robert Dwyer Joyce. The song made the phrase "the wind that shakes the barley '' a motif in Irish republican song and poetry. Loach took some of the inspiration for Damian 's character from the memoirs of republican leader Ernie O'Malley. University College Cork historian Donal O Drisceoil was Loach 's historical adviser on the film.
The film was shot in various towns within County Cork during 2005, including Ballyvourney and Timoleague. Some filming took place in Bandon, County Cork: a scene was shot along North Main Street and outside a building next to the Court House. The ambush scene was shot on the mountains around Ballyvourney while the farmhouse scenes were filmed in Coolea. Damien 's execution scene was shot at Kilmainham Gaol in Dublin, where many leaders of Irish rebellions were imprisoned and some executed by the British and latterly in 1923 by the Irish Free State.
Many of the extras in the film were drawn from local Scout groups, including Bandon, Togher and Macroom with veteran Scouter Martin Thompson in an important role. Many of the British soldiers seen in the film were played by members of the Irish Army Reserve, from local units.
Among the songs on the film 's soundtrack is Óró sé do bheatha abhaile, a 17th - century Irish Jacobite song whose lyrics the nationalist leader Pádraig Pearse changed to focus upon republican themes.
The commercial interest expressed in the UK was initially much lower than in other European countries and only 30 prints of the film were planned for distribution in Great Britain, compared with 300 in France. However, after the Palme d'Or award the film appeared on 105 screens across Britain and Northern Ireland. The Respect Party, of which Ken Loach is on the national council, called for people to watch the film on its first weekend in order to persuade the film industry to show the film in more cinemas.
According to director Ken Loach, the film attempts to explore the extent that the Irish revolution was a social revolution as opposed to a nationalist revolution. Loach commented on this theme in an interview with Toronto 's Eye Weekly (15 March 2007):
Every time a colony wants independence, the questions on the agenda are: a) how do you get the imperialists out, and b) what kind of society do you build? There are usually the bourgeois nationalists who say, ' Let 's just change the flag and keep everything as it was. ' Then there are the revolutionaries who say, ' Let 's change the property laws. ' It 's always a critical moment.
According to Rebecca O'Brien, producer of the film and a longtime Loach collaborator:
It 's about the civil war in microcosm... It 's not a story like Michael Collins. It 's not seeking that sort of biographical accuracy, but rather will express the themes of the period. This is the core of the later Troubles, which is why it 's so fascinating to make.
The movie became the most popular independent Irish film ever released in Ireland, earning € 377,000 in its opening weekend and € 2.7 million by August 2006.
The film got a positive reaction from film critics. As of 19 August 2017, the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 88 % of critics gave the film positive reviews, based on 113 reviews. Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 82 out of 100, based on 30 reviews.
The Daily Telegraph 's film critic described it as a "brave, gripping drama '' and said that director Loach was "part of a noble and very English tradition of dissent ''. A Times film critic said that the film showed Loach "at his creative and inflammatory best '', and rated it as 4 out of 5. The Daily Record of Scotland gave it a positive review (4 out of 5), describing it as "a dramatic, thought - provoking, gripping tale that, at the very least, encourages audiences to question what has been passed down in dusty history books. ''
Michael Sragow of The Baltimore Sun named it the 5th best film of 2007, and Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post named it the 7th best film of 2007.
Jim Emerson, Roger Ebert 's editor, gave the film a 4 star review, calling it "breathtakingly authentic '', and declared it ranked "among the best war films ever made. ''
The film was attacked by some politically conservative commentators including Simon Heffer, who admitted that he had n't seen it ("And no, I have n't seen it, any more than I need to read Mein Kampf to know what a louse Hitler was. ''), and by Michael Gove MP, who was not in Cannes. Following the Cannes prize announcement, Irish journalist Ruth Dudley Edwards wrote in the Daily Mail on 30 May 2006 that Loach 's political viewpoint "requires the portrayal of the British as sadists and the Irish as romantic, idealistic resistance fighters who take to violence only because there is no other self - respecting course, '' and attacked his career in an article that Loach criticised as inaccurate. The following week, Edwards continued her attack in The Guardian, admitting that her first article was written without seeing the film (which at that stage had only been shown at Cannes), and asserting that she would never see it "because I ca n't stand its sheer predictability. '' One day after Edwards ' initial article appeared, Tim Luckhurst of The Times called the film a "poisonously anti-British corruption of the history of the war of Irish independence '' and compared Loach to Nazi propagandist director Leni Riefenstahl. Yet George Monbiot revealed on 6 June, also in The Guardian, that the production company had no record of Luckhurst having attended a critics ' screening of the as - yet unreleased film. In a generally positive review, the Irish historian Brian Hanley suggested that the film might have dealt with the IRA 's relationship with the Protestant community, as one scene in its screenplay did.
The film also revived debate on rival interpretations of Irish history.
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knot is a unit of which of the following | Knot (unit) - wikipedia
The knot (/ nɒt /) is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile (1.852 km) per hour, approximately 1.15078 mph. The ISO Standard symbol for the knot is kn. The same symbol is preferred by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE); kt is also common. The knot is a non-SI (International Standard) unit that is "accepted for use with the SI ''. Worldwide, the knot is used in meteorology, and in maritime and air navigation -- for example, a vessel travelling at 1 knot along a meridian travels approximately one minute of geographic latitude in one hour.
Etymologically, the term derives from counting the number of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a chip log in a specific time.
7003185200000000000 ♠ 1852 m is the length of the internationally agreed nautical mile. The US adopted the international definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile (7003185324800000000 ♠ 1853. 248 m). The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having previously used the UK Admiralty nautical mile (7003185318400000000 ♠ 6080 ft or 7003185318400000000 ♠ 1853. 184 m).
(Values in bold face are exact.)
The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel (boat speeds and air speeds) are measured in knots. For consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids (tidal streams, river currents and wind speeds) are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground (SOG) (ground speed (GS) in aircraft) and rate of progress towards a distant point ("velocity made good '', VMG) are also given in knots.
Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log. This consisted of a wooden panel, attached by line to a reel, and weighted on one edge to float perpendicularly to the water surface and thus present substantial resistance to the water moving around it. The chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 8 fathoms - 47 feet 3 inches (14.4018 m) from each other, passed through a sailor 's fingers, while another sailor used a 30 - second sand - glass (28 - second sand - glass is the currently accepted timing) to time the operation. The knot count would be reported and used in the sailing master 's dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in / s, or 6999514350000000000 ♠ 1851. 66 m / h. The difference from the modern definition is less than 0.02 %.
Although the unit knot does not fit within the SI system, its retention for nautical and aviation use is important because standard nautical charts are on the Mercator projection and the scale varies with latitude. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland. A single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Since the length of a nautical mile, for practical purposes, is equivalent to about a minute of latitude, a distance in nautical miles on a chart can easily be measured by using dividers and the latitude scales on the sides of the chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier.
Speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as "knots per hour '', which is in fact a measure of acceleration.
Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for civil aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles, and speeds in miles per hour. In 1969, these standards were progressively amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles, and speeds in knots.
The following abbreviations are used to distinguish between various measurements of airspeed:
The indicated airspeed is close to the true airspeed only at sea level in standard conditions and at low speeds. At 11 000 m (36 000 ft), an indicated airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions.
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who sings take it all back just to have you | Take it All Back - wikipedia
"Take It All Back '' is a song written and recorded by American folk band Judah & the Lion, released as a single from their second studio album Folk Hop N ' Roll. It was released by the band 's label, Cletus the Van Records.
The first music video for the song was released on July 28, 2016. A second music video was uploaded on the band 's VEVO channel on January 17, 2017.
Consequence of Sound listed it as the 26th - worst number - one song in Alternative chart history, stating that "There 's a lot to hate about this song... but by far the worst are the hacky moments where singer Judah Akers mentions the banjo or the mandolin and follows with a little solo from that instrument. It 's the kind of idea you wish you could be there for the moment they came up with it, just so you could tell them that it 's literally the least cool move in rock and roll history. ''
"Take It All Back '' was the band 's first entry on the Alternative Songs chart in the United States, reaching number one.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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probability of a full house in 5 card draw | Poker probability - wikipedia
In poker, the probability of each type of 5 - card hand can be computed by calculating the proportion of hands of that type among all possible hands.
Probability and gambling have been an idea since long before the invention of poker. The development of probability theory in the late 1400s was attributed to gambling; when playing a game with high stakes, players wanted to know what the chance of winning would be. In 1494, Fra Luca Paccioli released his work Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni e proportionalita which was the first written text on probability. Motivated by Paccioli 's work, Girolamo Cardano (1501 - 1576) made further developments in probability theory. His work from 1550, titled Liber de Ludo Aleae, discussed the concepts of probability and how they were directly related to gambling. However, his work did not receive any immediate recognition since it was not published until after his death. Blaise Pascal (1623 - 1662) also contributed to probability theory. His friend, Chevalier de Méré, was an avid gambler with the goal to become wealthy from it. De Méré tried a new mathematical approach to a gambling game but did not get the desired results. Determined to know why his strategy was unsuccessful, he consulted with Pascal. Pascal 's work on this problem began an important correspondence between him and fellow mathematician Pierre de Fermat (1601 - 1665). Communicating through letters, the two continued to exchange their ideas and thoughts. These interactions led to the conception of basic probability theory. To this day, many gamblers still rely on the basic concepts of probability theory in order to make informed decisions while gambling.
The following chart enumerates the (absolute) frequency of each hand, given all combinations of 5 cards randomly drawn from a full deck of 52 without replacement. Wild cards are not considered. In this chart:
The nCr function on most scientific calculators can be used to calculate hand frequencies; entering nCr with 52 and 5, for example, yields (52 5) = 2, 598, 960 (\ displaystyle (\ begin (matrix) (52 \ choose 5) = 2,598,960 \ end (matrix))) as above.
The royal flush is a case of the straight flush. It can be formed 4 ways (one for each suit), giving it a probability of 0.000154 % and odds of 649,739: 1.
When ace - low straights and ace - low straight flushes are not counted, the probabilities of each are reduced: straights and straight flushes each become 9 / 10 as common as they otherwise would be. The 4 missed straight flushes become flushes and the 1,020 missed straights become no pair.
Note that since suits have no relative value in poker, two hands can be considered identical if one hand can be transformed into the other by swapping suits. For example, the hand 3 ♣ 7 ♣ 8 ♣ Q ♠ A ♠ is identical to 3 7 8 Q ♥ A ♥ because replacing all of the clubs in the first hand with diamonds and all of the spades with hearts produces the second hand. So eliminating identical hands that ignore relative suit values, there are only 134,459 distinct hands.
The number of distinct poker hands is even smaller. For example, 3 ♣ 7 ♣ 8 ♣ Q ♠ A ♠ and 3 7 ♣ 8 Q ♥ A ♥ are not identical hands when just ignoring suit assignments because one hand has three suits, while the other hand has only two -- that difference could affect the relative value of each hand when there are more cards to come. However, even though the hands are not identical from that perspective, they still form equivalent poker hands because each hand is an A-Q - 8 - 7 - 3 high card hand. There are 7,462 distinct poker hands.
In some popular variations of poker such as Texas Hold ' Em, a player uses the best five - card poker hand out of seven cards. The frequencies are calculated in a manner similar to that shown for 5 - card hands, except additional complications arise due to the extra two cards in the 7 - card poker hand. The total number of distinct 7 - card hands is (52 7) = 133, 784, 560 (\ displaystyle (\ begin (matrix) (52 \ choose 7) = 133,784,560 \ end (matrix))). It is notable that the probability of a no - pair hand is less than the probability of a one - pair or two - pair hand.
The Ace - high straight flush or royal flush is slightly more frequent (4324) than the lower straight flushes (4140 each) because the remaining two cards can have any value; a King - high straight flush, for example, can not have the Ace of its suit in the hand (as that would make it ace - high instead).
(The frequencies given are exact; the probabilities and odds are approximate.)
Since suits have no relative value in poker, two hands can be considered identical if one hand can be transformed into the other by swapping suits. Eliminating identical hands that ignore relative suit values leaves 6,009,159 distinct 7 - card hands.
The number of distinct 5 - card poker hands that are possible from 7 cards is 4,824. Perhaps surprisingly, this is fewer than the number of 5 - card poker hands from 5 cards because some 5 - card hands are impossible with 7 cards (e.g. 7 - high).
Some variants of poker, called lowball, use a low hand to determine the winning hand. In most variants of lowball, the ace is counted as the lowest card and straights and flushes do n't count against a low hand, so the lowest hand is the five - high hand A-2 - 3 - 4 - 5, also called a wheel. The probability is calculated based on (52 5) = 2, 598, 960 (\ displaystyle (\ begin (matrix) (52 \ choose 5) = 2,598,960 \ end (matrix))), the total number of 5 - card combinations. (The frequencies given are exact; the probabilities and odds are approximate.)
As can be seen from the table, just over half the time a player gets a hand that has no pairs, three - or four - of - a-kinds. (50.7 %)
If aces are not low, simply rotate the hand descriptions so that 6 - high replaces 5 - high for the best hand and ace - high replaces king - high as the worst hand.
In some variants of poker a player uses the best five - card low hand selected from seven cards. In most variants of lowball, the ace is counted as the lowest card and straights and flushes do n't count against a low hand, so the lowest hand is the five - high hand A-2 - 3 - 4 - 5, also called a wheel. The probability is calculated based on (52 7) = 133, 784, 560 (\ displaystyle (\ begin (matrix) (52 \ choose 7) = 133,784,560 \ end (matrix))), the total number of 7 - card combinations.
The table does not extend to include five - card hands with at least one pair. Its "Total '' represents 95.4 % of the time that a player can select a 5 - card low hand without any pair.
(The frequencies given are exact; the probabilities and odds are approximate.)
If aces are not low, simply rotate the hand descriptions so that 6 - high replaces 5 - high for the best hand and ace - high replaces king - high as the worst hand.
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is there an i am number four sequel | Lorien Legacies - wikipedia
Lorien Legacies is a series of young adult science fiction books, written by James Frey, Jobie Hughes, and formerly, Greg Boose, under the collective pseudonym Pittacus Lore. It contains mild violence and sexual content.
I Am Number Four is the first book in the Lorien Legacies series. It introduces readers to the Loric, an almost extinct race of extraterrestrials represented by nine teenagers living on Earth. Another alien race, the Mogadorians, wiped out the majority of the Loric, except those who escaped to Earth. Now the Mogadorians have come to finish the job. John ended up befriending a young man named Sam Goode, whose father had helped the Loriens when they first arrived, who has now mysteriously disappered. Then John laid his eyes on Sarah Hart a beautiful girl who has been taking photos and posting them on her website "Strangers In Paradise ''. John goes home to find the website and saw a few pictures of him and then disappear. Deleted. John then ended up going out with sarah for the remainder of the book. John and sarah end up at the high school and then find out that the Mogs have found them. John tries to get himself and Sarah out of harms way when Number Six comes out of nowhere and kills two mogs in a matter of seconds. John thanks her then they work their way through the school, killing the mog commander sent after him. The school is half destroyed, reduced to a massive pile of rubble, the football field has a massive crater in the center and then John, Six, Henri (He died earlier on), and Sam being a possible hostage. The book is told from the perspective of Number Four, also known as John Smith. John is the next target for the Mogadorians, who must kill the Loric in the order of their numbers. John is also inheriting Legacies, the ancestral right of some Loric, and must learn to keep his powers hidden from his human friends.
The story is told by two members of the Garde: Number Four (John Smith), who is on the run with Sam, Number Six, and Bernie Kosar, and Number Seven (Marina), who is hiding at a convent in Spain. While John, Six and Sam try to stay ahead of the Mogadorians while searching for the other surviving Loric, Marina searches for news of John after his heroic battle at the school that came at the end of I Am Number Four.
The plot begins by showing what life is like for Marina in the convent. Marina starts to suspect the Mogadorians have discovered her but believes the charm is what keeps them from attacking her. She keeps seeing the same Mogadorian watching her in various circumstances. A new 7 - year - old girl named Ella comes to the orphanage and Marina befriends her. Meanwhile, she tries to convince her Cepan (Adelina) to open her Loric Chest and take responsibility for her role as Cepan, but to no avail. Ella finds the hidden Chest, and she and Marina retrieve it after a scuffle with four women from the convent. In this fight, Ella breaks her arm, and Marina discovers her healing legacy. Later, Marina drugs Adelina and opens her Chest.
Elsewhere, John, Six, BK (Bernie Kosar), and Sam continue evading the police. After a particularly bad chase one night, John finally decides to open his Chest, which he has kept with him all his life and contains special Loric items. He and the others examine its contents but they are unfamiliar with almost all of the Chest 's objects. However, by opening the chest, they notify the Mogadorians of their location and prompt an attack on the house, which they narrowly escape. Later, John reads Henri 's letter and finds out the Mogadorians have captured Sam 's father. Sam remembers his father telling him of a secret Loric base in his backyard, and they set off to find it. Upon finding it, they are interrupted by Mogadorians, and the party splits up: Six and BK stay and fight, while John and Sam find Sarah. When they meet, the FBI appear and arrest John, putting him and Sam in a prison near Washington DC. They suspect Sarah had notified the FBI while they met. Meanwhile, Marina activates a communication device in her Chest, which alerts both the Mogadorians and the members of the Garde of her location.
As Mogadorians catch up to John and Sam in prison, Six helps them escape, though she is very angry they left her during the battle in Paradise. After escaping, she shows them on the internet that someone has burned the same symbols on their ankles onto a mountain in Spain in giant letters and they decide on a plan: Six will go to Spain to help the newly discovered Marina (Number seven), and Sam, BK, and John will go to the Mogadorian 's base in a hollowed - out mountain near West Virginia to retrieve John 's chest and possibly Six 's.
Meanwhile, the Mogadorians catch up with Marina and Adelina as they try to escape the convent. Adelina is murdered while trying to help Marina. Marina, after being saved by the Mogadorian she had noticed watching her, learns that he is not a Mogadorian, but a Cêpan, named Crayton, protecting Ella. He explains that Ella is the tenth member of the Garde, who escaped on a second ship, and has disguised herself through her legacy of age - shifting. Together, they all escape to a lake where Crayton has Loric Chimæra waiting to help them. As they battle the Mogadorians at the lake, Six arrives at the scene and helps them win the battle. Afterwards, Six makes plans with the others to find the other Garde and the rest of the Chimæras. However, Crayton warns that their successes in battle will alert the Mogadorian ruler, Setrákus Ra, to join the fight.
Elsewhere, Sam and John use a stone from John 's chest to transfer Six 's invisibility to them and sneak into the Mogadorian mountain base. They grab both John 's Chest and another, which turns out to be that of Nine, who is imprisoned in the mountain. They run out of invisibility, but manage to free Nine and escape the mountain with everyone but Sam, who was caught and had to be left behind. Setrákus Ra arrives, and as Nine is about to attack him, he hides in the base, unreachable. Nine, John, and BK head north, with nowhere to go since the address for meeting Six was in Sam 's pocket.
The Rise of Nine, the 3rd book of The Lorien Legacies, was released on August 21, 2012.
The Fall of Five, the 4th book of The Lorien Legacies, was released on August 27, 2013. This book is also told in the first person perspective, between Sam Goode, John Smith (Four), and Marina (Seven).
The novel opens with Sam 's imprisonment in New Mexico by the Mogadorians. Sam is being held incommunicado except for Mogadorian guards and fed a daily diet of stale cheese sandwiches and dirty water. Through a flashback, we learn that Sam was transported to New Mexico by human co-conspirators of the Mogadorians shortly after the battle in West Virginia. Before he was moved, he was tortured by the Mogadorian leader Setrákus Ra while suspended via chains from the ceiling. An acidic black goo crawls down the chains and burns Sam 's wrists, a pain only relieved by being touched by Setrákus Ra 's oddly shaped golden cane. Sam, unfortunately, does not know much, as he was the only one who had Six 's plan post-West Virginia in a letter that was seized by the Mogs.
After the flashback, the base is attacked by the Garde, as related at the end of the third book. However, it is not the Garde that discover Sam, but surprisingly his long - missing father. In a further twist, we discover that Malcolm Goode is accompanied by Adam, a good Mog teenager with Legacies. Adam is able to cause localized earthquakes, an effect he uses to break the back of Sam 's cell, allowing Malcolm and Sam to escape. Apparently, Malcolm and Adam, having learned where Sam was being kept, decided to attack at the same time as the Garde. Adam stays behind to cover their exit. Sam and Malcolm sneak out during the chaos unnoticed by both the Mogs and the Garde.
John (Four) begins to narrate and takes up the story, while the remaining Garde (Six, Seven, Eight, Nine and Ten) plus Bernie Kosar (BK) and Sarah are all safely at Nine 's penthouse apartment in Chicago. Initially aimless while healing, John is struggling to determine what next step to take. Ten (Ella) has been having nightmares, similar to the nightmares shared by John and Nine prior to going to New Mexico. John discusses the dreams with Ella. During the conversation, John recalls how Ella hurt Setrákus Ra by throwing a glowing piece of metal at him and speculates that it might be a new Legacy developing for her. He attempts to get her to practice, but she resists, declaring it "wrong. '' She relates the dream of the fight with Setrákus Ra, except in this version he realizes who Ella is and kneels before her, asking if she has read the letter. She tells John she knows of no letter and the conversation ends. After a short detour for Sarah and Six to have target practice, it is then discovered via an old scanning program written by Nine 's Cêpan that the Loric symbol for "five '' has been burned into crops in Florida. Five next leaves a message on the Internet, in spite of the fact that the Mogadorians regularly monitor it. After much discussion and fearful for the safety of the missing member of the Garde, John, Six, Sarah and BK leave for Arkansas to meet with Five before the Mogadorians arrive.
Marina (Seven) takes over narration duties after the away team departs. After nudging Ella to read the letter her Cêpan left her, she leaves the penthouse with Eight to go sightseeing. Scolded by Nine on their return, they agree to train with him and thereby sharpen their skills. At the culmination of this fight, Ella returns having read the letter from her Cêpan. It reveals that unlike the other Loric, she is not to become one of the Elders. Instead, her father comes from the family that once held the position of the tenth elder, but had since had it taken away. Her escape from Lorien was a fluke, a byproduct of her father 's fascination with artifacts. He loaded her, her Cêpan and his menagerie of Chimæra onto an old, fuel - powered ship and sent it off the planet. He stayed with her mother, who was a Garde, to defend the planet, and fell with it. Ella 's initial shock at this revelation makes her feel a fraud, but the other Garde reassure her and she decides to stay.
John takes over narration as the away team is driving to retrieve Five. On the way, John and Six resolve their tension over the kiss they shared in book two. After this, they go on to meet Five, who is waiting to meet them. On arrival, they discover Five is ignorant of the danger he created with the crop circle and the Internet message. Five wishes he could meet all of the Garde together and his mind is "officially blown '' when he meets Sarah, their human ally. Just then they are attacked by the Mogadorians, who arrive in a cloaked ship. Five does not participate in the battle, and appears shell - shocked at what he says is his first time to see Mogadorians. Five demonstrates his Legacy, Externa, that allows him to take on the properties of things he touches. Six uses her weather powers to cause the ship to crash, and Sarah, Four and Six mop up the Mogadorians. Just as they think they have won, a new monster -- much larger than the piken -- appears, chasing Six. It is a centipede the size of a tanker truck, covered in a cracked and leathery skin with hundreds of tin arms. John remembers creatures like this caged in West Virginia. Five then demonstrates his power of flight, and John climbs on his back above the monster and uses his lumen - powered fireballs to attack the creature. John falls off of Five and lands in front of the creature. Just as he is about to be eaten, a red dot appears on the creatures massive single eye and then a rifle shot blows that orb apart in a grisly fashion. John kills the creature and turns to discover he has been rescued by Malcolm, with Sam in tow.
With Sam, Sarah, John and Six reunited, and accompanied by Malcolm and Five, they return to the penthouse to meet up with Marina, Eight, Nine and Ella. Sam takes narration duties just in time to be hugged by Six and overwhelmed by it. Five continues to be both clueless and churlish, culminating in an evening where each of the Garde tells their stories. Five says he lived on the islands with his Cêpan and remained hidden until his Cêpan took ill. Five did n't believe he really was Lorien until he started to develop Legacies. After his Legacies had come in fully, he fulfilled his Cêpan 's dying wish and went to the US to join with the other Garde. After this story, Malcolm tells his own, about meeting Pittacus Lore. Struggling to undo the effects of the Mogadorian torture that left holes in his memory, Malcolm reveals that each chest holds a key to contact Lorien again. Malcolm also reveals that there are two kinds of Mogadorians -- the disposable vat - born, and the more rare trueborn that form the ruling class. He also revealed Adam -- a trueborn son of a Mogadorian general -- had One 's memories downloaded into him, which caused him to rebel. Malcolm also revealed Adam 's abilities were a "gift from the Lorien. '' They theorize that One gave her legacies to Adam. John declares that they will seek out Adam if he is still alive. Five expresses suspicion about the humans, given how many stories of human collaborators he has heard and their recent contacts with the Mogadorians, but John talks him down.
Five continues to be churlish and flips to steel to break Nine 's hands in response to Nine 's constant bullying. Bernie Kosar goes nuts over an antler artifact from a chest, trying to use it to call the other chimera. A capture the flag game ensues in the newly restored training room where Marina wins the day. John and Sarah go out on a date to the zoo and discover three Mogadorian spies collecting an envelope, filled with notes unhelpfully written in Mogadorian. Malcolm whips up a translator to figure out what was said. Sam attempts to ask Six out but is interrupted by Eight, who claims there is an emergency. The emergency is that Ella 's bad dreams have gotten worse. John touches her to try to wake her up and is sucked in, falling into a coma - like state. Urged on in part by Five 's story of a healing prism in his lost chest, the rest of the group go off to get the chest to help their friends.
While gone, the wheels start to come off the Garde 's security. First, the translation software determines the encoded notes were none other than Malcolm 's notes on the Garde Legacies. He begins to wonder if the damage to his memory is so bad that he has been turned into a double agent. While Sam has his doubts, Malcolm consents to be willingly locked up. When the long - dead disposable cell phone that connects Malcolm to Adam rings, Sam answers and is warned by Adam that the Mogadorians are coming to raid their safehouse in the penthouse of the John Hancock building.
In Florida, Five, Six, Seven, Eight and Nine arrive and acquire a fan boat to go pick up Five 's chest. Five flies up to get an aerial view but fails to return with his chest, instead of saying the group should go there together. Just as Five pulls his chest out of the mud, the group is attacked by a three - headed monstrosity initially mistaken for three alligator heads. At one point the narrator sees the letter "S '' carved in the creatures foot, like a signature. While the group struggles with the creature, Five retrieves a glove with a retractable blade and a pan flute from his chest. He plays the flute and the creature subsides. When asked if he can put the creature out of its misery, Five says gladly, saying he made the creature. The "S '' is an upside down 5. Without warning, he strikes Six in the head, holds Nine underwater and keeps Marina back with telekinesis. He then declares to Seven and Eight that "they should talk. '' He then pins Nine against a tree and tries to stab him with his weapon. Eight heroically teleports into the path of Five and is stabbed instead of Nine.
Meanwhile, back at the penthouse, Mogadorians land on the roof and rappel into the penthouse. Sam notes it is a relatively small force as if they were not expecting much resistance. They did not expect the comatose Garde to be guarded by their human allies. Bernie Kosar and Malcolm keep them at bay while Sarah and Sam go to get weapons. More Mogadorians come in, and Sam baits them into the training room by declaring that the girl they are looking for -- Ella -- is this way. He then turns on the newly restored training software to "insanity '' and watches as the room deals with the Mogadorians. Sarah and Sam shoot the stunned Mogadorians and then rejoin Bernie Kosar. They hear wave two getting ready to come and attack. Bernie Kosar tries to hold them off, but Sam discovers his dying father and is unwilling to leave him.
The book is narrated in the first person, with Number Four (John), Number Six, and Ella as narrators.
Ella wakes up in a strange place. She sees Mogadorians and tries to escape using the Great Book as a weapon. She realizes that she is in a spaceship. Setrákus Ra claims to be her grandfather. He tries to force her to eat and tells her that he used to be an Elder and that he experimented with altering genetics. He also tells her about how Lorien was controlling everything, and he rivaled it. Then, he puts a binding charm over himself and Ella. The Mogadorians try to force Ella to read the Great Book by blasting an alarm at her whenever she does n't. Ella rips the book apart. Setrákus Ra talks to her, mentioning her "betrothed ''. Eventually, he arrives. Ella is disgusted to note that she is betrothed to the treacherous Number Five. She finds out that Five killed Eight, and is even more upset. Setrákus Ra trains Ella to use her Legacy Dreynen, using Five as the equivalent of a punching bag. She apologizes to him later telepathically. He responds that he deserved it and that they need to escape. Ella wakes up later to find Five talking about how Mogadorians were bad. She and Five decide to escape. She finds out that Five was not aware of their betrothal either. Setrákus Ra catches them. Five stabs Setrákus Ra and the blow injures Ella. She loses consciousness.
Ella wakes up dressed formally for the invasion, with a Mogadorian injection of something disgusting where she was stabbed. Setrákus Ra forces her to get up. She sees a message from Phiri Dun - Ra saying that the Garde is at the Sanctuary. Ella accompanies Setrákus Ra to greet the humans. She sees Number Nine and tells him telepathically to break Ra 's staff. She witnesses Ra talking about how the faithful humans will greet him, and then a human leader denying what he said. She realizes that Number Four is there too.
John, Sam, Sarah, Malcolm, and Adam, as well as a bunch of Chimærae, are staying in an abandoned textile factory. They figure out that the surviving Garde are in Florida, except for one of them, whose dot on the tablet is bouncing everywhere. But Adam suggests going to Ashwood Estates instead of predictably going to Florida. The others agree, Four with a bit of persuasion required. They find a website titled They Walk Among Us with information about the Mogadorians and Sarah goes to meet Mark James. Malcolm, Four, Sam, and most of the Chimærae go to Ashwood Estates. The Chimærae carry cameras. They survey Mogs carrying equipment and kill them. Adam admits that the General residing at the Estates is his father. Four attacks him, and his shield bracelet is broken. The Chimærae also attack. The General and Four wrestles. Adam stabs his father through the back and takes up his father 's old sword. Adam uses Mogadorian surveillance to help Seven, Six, and Nine break into the base. Adam hacks a ship and uses its guns to kill all of the Mogadorians.
Number Six, Number Seven, and Number Nine are trying to escape the swamp. They find a form of town and see that the Chicago penthouse was destroyed. Marina finds a man who claims that there is an old NASA base in the swamp with UFOs flying around it. She believes that Eight 's body is there and decides to have the man lead them there. Nine and Six agree. Marina tells Six that she can feel Eight somewhere. They see Mogadorians from their boat and kill them. The man who was leading them is frightened and flees the boat. Nine, Seven, and Six find a huge Mogadorian base. They turn invisible and enter it. Nine uses his animal telepathy to tell a beast controlled by the Mogadorians to cause a distraction. It obliges but is killed, but it has given them enough time to make it into a greenhouse. They find Number Five lurking, as well as Number Eight 's body. Five stabs a Mogadorian telling him to bring Eight 's body to a ship. Six, Seven, and Nine are left with Eight 's body. Five apologizes out loud. A huge Mogadorian ship appears in the doorway and kills all of the Mogadorians. They hear Number Four 's voice coming out of the ship and board it. Six "pilots '' it to Ashwood Estates, with Adam 's instruction. Six and Sam kiss.
Shortly after Seven, Six, and Nine come to Ashwood Estates, Agent Walker and some FBI agents arrive. They have realized that the Mogadorians are villainous and want to help the Garde. They have seen what happens when someone stops taking the Mogadorian augmentations and they tell the Garde about the Mogadorians plan - to assassinate the secretary of defense, Bud Sanderson, who was working for the Mogadorians. They believe that his assassination will help stop Setrákus Ra 's invasion plan. The next day, Malcolm gathers footage of his mind being dredged. He shows them what he said, that Lorien is not a planet, but an entity, and that it can be awoken in Earth when their Inheritances are put in Calakmul. Four, Sam, and Nine decide to proceed with Walker 's plan and go to New York. Marina, Six, and Adam decide to go to Calakmul.
They collect much of the Inheritances to "commit to the earth '' and also bring Henri 's ashes and Eight 's body. On the plane, Marina is hostile toward Adam. When she finds out that he killed his Mogadorian father, she stops. They find a Mogadorian ship trying to contact them. Adam acts authoritative and their ship is allowed entry. When they leave the ship, Phiri Dun - Ra pretends to bargain with him, but hits him on the head. Six and Seven kill the Mogadorians except for Phiri Dun - Ra. Six, Seven, and Adam pass through a force field and climb. They open a door with three pendants and are transported to a place with Loralite everywhere. They see a cylinder in the ground that looks like a well. They dump the contents of the Chests, their pendants, and Henri 's ashes down it. Eight 's body reanimates. But it is n't him. It 's Lorien speaking. It speaks cryptically and annoys Six, but it temporarily resurrects Eight. He kisses Marina one last time before disappearing again. But they find out that the Lorien entity is spreading.
Sam, Four, Nine, and Walker are driving. On the way, Nine tries to interrogate Sam about Six. Four stops him. Nine claps, wearing a pair of gloves from Marina 's Chest, and generates a huge noise. The Mogadorians, of course, find them and attack. The heroes are trying to get bystanders to flee. One bystander takes a video of Four using his healing power. They enter the hotel where Sanderson is staying to find him. He looks awful and has clearly been taking Mogadorian augmentations. He says that it is too late and then shoots himself in the head. Four somehow stops the bullet with telekinesis and heals him. Sanderson tells them that it is too late to prevent the invasion. A spaceship arrives soon after. Sanderson gives Walker names of politicians working for the Mogadorians. They arrive at Setrákus Ra 's planned invasion site. Nine breaks Setrákus Ra 's staff, and Ra reverts from his human form to the repulsive genetically modified Mogadorian one. Ra uses Dreynen when Number Four attacks. Ella stabs Setrákus Ra in the leg and realizes that she is the only one who can kill him. He would have killed her, but Four prevented it. Five stops Four from stabbing Setrákus Ra and killing Ella, and he later stops Nine when he attacks as well. Ella is dragged back onto the ship, half - conscious, her fate unknown. The warship starts to fire. Sam and Four are separated from everyone else except for a group of human survivors being pursued by a piken. It was knocked down with telekinetic force. John realizes he did n't do it, but Sam did.
The Fate of Ten is the sixth in the series, and was released on 1 September, 2015. Its title via facebook page for the series. It was also revealed that there will be seven books in the series, rather than the previously believed six. The cover for the book was released on the 23rd of April, 2015, via an interview with MTV.
The book is primarily narrated in first person, from the perspectives of Four (John), Six and towards the end of the book, Ten (Ella). A prologue in third person narrates briefly the story of an unnamed human - turned - Garde (later known as Daniela) as she survives a Mogadorian attack on New York.
Prologue: An unnamed 15 - year - old girl and her 57 - year - old stepfather is watching the news of the Mogadorian invasion on TV (the girl is hinted to have a crush on Four) when they hear the Mogadorian soldiers breaking into the apartments on the lower floors of their building. Despite his poor relationship with his stepdaughter, the man sacrifices himself to save her and she flees via the fire escape. Cornered by Mogadorians, she discovers her telekinetic abilities and manages to kill her three attackers.
Four (John) narrates chapter 1, which picks up after the end of the previous book, Revenge of Seven. Together with Sam Goode and other survivors, they flee from the Mogadorians, but Four is exhausted from excessive use of his healing legacy. A cop leads the group to safety, but Sam and Four stay behind to continue looking for Nine, who was last seen fighting Five in front of the UN. John realizes that the videos posted online by Sarah and Mark about the Mogadorian invasion have made him into a celebrity, the face of the resistance against the Mogadorians. Sam and Four seek refuge in a deserted apartment where Sam experiments with his telekinesis. They watch the news on TV and are see Nine and Five both battling the Mogadorian soldiers, but they are also fighting each other. Four and Sam leave for Union Square to find them.
Six narrates chapter 2, where Six. Here, Seven (Marina) and Adam are leaving the Sanctuary, having recently awoken the Entity, or the spirit which previously dwelled on Lorien and now on Earth. They note that nothing else seems to have changed after the Entity woke. As they try operating a Skimmer (Mogadorian ship) to depart for the US they realize that an evil Mogadorian girl has sabotaged all the Skimmers by removing an important part from each of them. They decide to hunt her down to retrieve the components.
Four narrates chapter 3 and 4, where he and Sam are on their way to find Nine and Five. They avoid a Mogadorian patrol which Sam convinces Four not to antagonize. They notice a few Mogadorian soldiers (and a Skimmer) outside a bank, who are disarmed through telekinesis by someone inside the bank. They kill all the Mogadorian soldiers, but not before one radios for reinforcements. They enter the bank to find the girl from the prologue called Daniela, who recognizes Four immediately. Daniela is disinterested in joining forces with them as she only focuses on surviving. They are in the midst of bickering when Setrákus Ra 's ship, Anubis, comes into view, demolishing buildings left and right. Daniela guides Sam and Four to the subway to hide, and Four notices that the duffel bag Daniela carries is stuffed with cash from the bank. They flee into the tunnels, but the ceiling collapses, and all three work together to hold it up with telekinesis until they are out of danger. Four collapses, and in his dreams he witnesses Mogadorian augmentation surgery performed on Ten (Ella).
Six narrates chapter 5 and 6, where Six, Seven and Adam and planning on how to catch Phiri Dun - Ra and retrieve the Skimmer engine parts. They successfully bait her and Marina binds her with ice shackles. Adam tortures her briefly, just enough to find out where the Skimmer parts are hidden. However, the bag is rigged with explosives and blows up in their faces. Adam and Six are badly injured with Adam almost dying but Marina heals both of them in time. Phiri Dun - Ra survives. Adam uses one of the Skimmers to tap into Mogadorian communications where they hear that the Garde 's resistance in New York has been apparently crushed.
Chapter 7 is a continuation of Four 's dream from chapter 4, which is revealed to be telepathically induced by Ten (Ella). Ten takes him on a virtual tour of the Anubis from her memories where they see Setrákus Ra throw four Loric pendants into a vat of sludge. Four and Ten talk about Ten 's prescient visions of the future. Ten believes that she will have to be killed in order to harm Setrákus Ra because of the Mogadorian charm that is causing her to bear injuries inflicted upon Setrákus. She tells Four that he is likely to be the one who kills her. As the telepathic vision breaks apart due to the Anubis moving too far out of range, Ten tells Four to warn Six that Setrákus Ra is on his way to the Sanctuary and that they should flee.
Chapter 8 - 9: Four wakes up in an abandoned subway car with Daniela and Sam. Only Daniela is awake and she has illuminated the place with the light of cellphones left behind by the passengers when they ditched the train. She tells Four that the duffel bag actually belonged to bank robbers who had robbed the bank she was hiding in, when they fled and she thought the bag would be useful. She and Four talk some more about the whole saving - the - world - from - Mogadorians thing and she describes to him the video posted by Sarah and Mark. Sam wakes and they are about to leave for the civilian evac point at Brooklyn bridge when human soldiers find them in the subway car. They take the three to the Bridge anyway to meet Agent Walker, an ex-MogPro agent from a previous book. Daniela leaves the duffel bag behind in case they arrest her. Four meets with Agent Walker who has been designated as the middleman for the cautious government 's communication with the Garde. She tells him of the dire invasion situation all over the world and also tells him about Setrákus Ra 's threat to the government to surrender all the Garde and humans - turned - Garde to the Mogs in 48 hours. Walker tells Four that the government might actually consider the bargain.
Chapter 10 snaps back to Six 's perspective in New Mexico where Adam is having trouble scraping together repairs for the Skimmer with his limited materials. Phiri Dun - Ra taunts them and attempts to sow discord but they gag her. Six gets a call from Four who has obtained a satellite phone back in New York. Sam, Four, Six and Seven chat happily with the revelation of Sam 's Legacies but Sam urgently warns them of Setrákus Ra 's incoming ship.
Four narrates chapter 11 and 12, where Walker tries to alleviate some of his stress. She shows him Sarah 's video, and Sam prompts him to give her a call. They chat for a while with Sarah ultimately encouraging him not to give up fighting when he updates her on the round - the - world Mog invasion. She tells him that she has met GUARD in person and fills him in on the details, but GUARD 's information is not revealed to the reader until later in the book. Four feels reinvigorated by his talk with Sarah and leaves the tent to find Sam advising Six not to fight Setrákus Ra at the Sanctuary by themselves. Sam asks Four to help but instead Four discusses with Six and Adam on how they can board the Anubis when it arrives at the Sanctuary. After the call ends, Sam argues with Four briefly but Four says Ten 's vision depends on it (having misunderstood her warnings for Six and the others to flee instead of fight). Four walks off and Walker shows him footage taken by a civilian of a capsule dropped from the Anubis into the river. Four tells her that Setrákus Ra does n't do anything on accident. Suddenly, human soldiers turn up, one of them heavily injured. They are discovered to have been attacked by Five after mistaking him for an ally. They note that Five has taken an unconscious Nine hostage and that Five will expect Four to meet him at the Statue of Liberty at sunset, lest he give Four a new scar. Everyone expects Five to kill Nine if Four does n't turn up.
Six narrates chapter 13 - 15, where Six, Seven and Adam are fretting and arguing about the importance of protecting the Sanctuary. It escalates quickly into full - blown quarrelling with insults thrown everywhere, but they manage to resolve the issue and decide to set up traps in order to ambush the Mogs when they arrive at the Sanctuary. At the start of a new chapter, a non-Mog and non-human ship appears, and Sarah and Mark disembark. Six realises that it is the same Loric ship that brought the nine Garde and their Cepans to Earth. After some nostalgia, they meet Lexa, a Loric woman previously known as GUARD. She piloted the antique ship which brought Ten and Crayton to Earth. Mark and Sarah are mildly disappointed that they do n't have Legacies. Mark comments on the traps as they finish setting everything up. Six and Seven start to hear Ten 's voice in their heads, screaming at them to run or die as the Anubis draws closer, way before schedule. Ten panics but Six and Seven assure her that they have everything under control. The massive Anubis appears and instead of landing, blasts the Sanctuary apart. Six and Mark and badly injured by shrapnel and Seven moves to heal then.
Four narrates chapter 16 and 17, where he borrows a human boat and leaves for the Statue of Liberty with Sam, Daniela and a squad of human soldiers. Five is waiting for them and seems badly weakened. He hands over a badly damaged Nine to Four, who heals him almost immediately. Four starts to leave, fed up with Five 's theatrics, but Five reveals that he was never going to kill Nine all along, and takes off his shirt with difficulty, revealing that Nine had shoved a steel pole through him while he was still in metal form. Five asks Four to heal him, and turns back to flesh without warning. Four is forced to heal him against Sam 's wishes, so Daniela helps him instead. Five is disarmed and Four heals the rest of Nine 's injuries. He 's about to call Sarah when a military submarine sent to investigate the Mog capsule is hurled out of the water onto land, followed by a massive beast created by Setrakus Ra 's use of four Loric pendants. Before they can begin combat, a blue tentacle of light rises from the ground and causes Sam and Daniela to collapse unconscious, with nobody else being able to see it. All of the garde see the tentacle before they are knocked out, as well as all of the people who gained legacies when the Loric entity was released.
When they awake after the collective vision, they start battle against what is dubbed the Mogasaur, and seem unable to do it much damage. Then Daniella finds a new legacy which turns the Mogasaur to stone.
The final chapter snaps back to Six and the rest of the crew on the loric ship with Lexa. Marina is out from the beating she took at the hands of Setrakus, Ella sits crying while Six puts pressure on Sarah 's wound who is rapidly bleeding out. She phones Johns and tell him she loves him and urges him to carry on fighting before her words fade. Six checks for her pulse already aware that she is gone.
United As One is the 7th and final book in the series. The title was revealed on October 26, 2015. It was released on June 28, 2016.
The fact that John (Number four) has Ximic may hint at the fact that he is Pittacus ' descendant, as Ella is Setrákus '. Other clues include physical features, such as blonde hair, and Pittacus ' Lumen.
United as One is told in first perspective of two characters, Number Four (John Smith) and Number Six.
The book opens with brief descriptions of the state of some characters, describing them as "a girl '' or "a boy '' but can be determined who it is told about. It first describes Marina standing on the edge of a cliff in a dream. In The Fate of Ten she was left unconscious after a fight with Setrákus Ra. She sees Setrákus Ra taking the appearance of Eight, convincing her to let go and be with Eight, but she refuses and chooses to continue to fight. Next a scene is described of Five in a padded cell, locked up by Nine and John. Setrákus Ra also comes to him in a dream to convince him to come back on his side. Five refuses. The next scene is Mark walking the football field of his old school in Paradise, clutching a photo of Sarah. He is met by Setrákus Ra who tries to tell Mark he can bring Sarah back and they can fight together.
John is sitting in his room in a bed and breakfast in Patience Creek. He is called out by Sam and Daniella for the arrival of Ella, Marina, Six, Mark, Adam, and Lexa.
The Garde regroup and John has a moment with the deceased Sarah, and Mark James is disgusted at his lack of emotion and blames him for her death. The Garde talk tactics with Lawson, the acting general. John becomes increasingly cold and distant, no longer content with running and playing defense. A plan is hatched to hijack one of the warships and to strip the skimmers of their cloaking devices to co-ordinate a united strike against the other Mogadorian warships.
Some new Human - Garde post a video on the internet to attract John 's attention to have him pick them up as they stand by a Loralite stone in Niagara Falls. The team splits, with half going to rescue the human garde, while John and Nine meet with Five, who is locked away in a cell. John wants Five to teach him how to fly so he can board the warship. However, he struggles to pick up the legacy, so Five attacks him, hoping the battle rush would help him learn the skill, which he does. However, Marina wakes up and levitates an icicle in front of Five 's face, threatening to kill him.
The other team, en route to Niagara Falls, encounter turbulence when Sam uses his technopathic legacy to accidentally turn off the ship 's engines. With some help from Ella, Sam is able to visualize the workings of the ship and turn them back on. When they arrive on the scene they see fresh signs of a battle, with Skimmers destroyed and fire and ash swirling. The human garde managed to hold their own and fought off the Mogadorians. However, there is some disagreement if the teens are ready for war. To avoid any further people teleporting to Niagara Falls, Ella turns off the Loralite stone. As a neighboring warship makes its way there to check in, the team leaves for base.
Adam instigates dissension in the Mogadorian ranks as they start to go against orders and do what they think is best, a warship fires on Sydney while another captain in Moscow declares himself the beloved leader, which leads to the captain in Berlin making an assassination attempt on the usurper. In Kazakhstan another 2 warships meet and began to blow each other apart.
Sam attempts to use his techno legacy to copy the cloaking device codes into everyday electronics, he builds a prototype that he asks the team to test when they attack the warship.
John, Six, and Adam board the warship. John begins killing all the Mogadorians in a cold ruthless manner, while Adam and Six strip the skimmers of their cloaking devices. Before the day is done the Garde have stolen a warship. They meet a Mogadorian named Rex, whom Adam recognizes and saves from John 's attack. Sam 's tech is found to be successful.
John, not wanting to sacrifice any more friends, takes off to finish Setrákus without the others knowing. He realizes he needs a cloaking device and heads back to Patience Creek. However, the base is overrun by Mogadorians, who found the place through a mind controlled Mark James. Some of the true - borns have augmentations, twisted forms of legacies. Phiri dun Ra is there, whose arm has been replaced with black ooze - like tendrils, then she impales John and begins to drain his legacies while he 's helpless. While helpless, Mark James slips the Voron noose around John 's neck. The damage from this weapon can not be healed.
The others find out about John 's suicide mission and argue among themselves over his chosen course of action. Six calls Sam to tell him about his prototype 's success when she hears firing in the background. Sam tells Six he thinks they are under attack.
Back at the base, John is helpless as he 's dragged along the inside of the base, with Phiri mocking his failure at being a hero and his delusional idea of being able to save everyone. To prove a point she kills Mark. Phiri, John and the mind controlling Mogadorians run into resistance. The mind controlling Mogadorian releases a swarm of seemingly black flies that force half the marines to open fire on the others. The human garde make an appearance and are shocked to see John crawling on all fours with a noose around his neck. he screams at them to run but Phiri manages to kill 2 while the other 2 manage to escape. Sam shouts at the lights to turn off and frees Five who immediately attacks Phiri, however the mind controlling Mogadorian manages to overtake Five, but is quickly killed by Sam. Phiri screams for extraction and loses her grip on John as Five slams into her. The shadow Mogadorian makes an appearance and teleports both Phiri and Five. The shadow Mogadorian tries to finish them off, but Sam tells the lights to turn on while he 's in a mid teleport, which slices him in half.
The others have no time to mourn the dead and set their plan in motion. The garde use the loralite stone to teleport across the world arming the governments with cloaking tech.
The Garde aboard their stolen warship make their way to the West Virginia base where Setrákus waits. Six summons the biggest storm she has ever created to damage the Anubis, destroying it. Five flies Six and Adam into the base to deactivate the shield, once that 's done, Marina, John, Five, and Nine make their way underground to find Setrákus.
They find a mass grave of Mogadorians and Garde Humans, which repulses them all and steels their drives to end this. Setrákus emerges from a pool of black ooze covered in black slime that has given him a youthful appearance and effective immortality. They try to fight against him, however, their legacies are ineffective against him. Setrákus grabs Five and drowns him in the black puddle. He maims Nine, taking off his arm. While trying to heal him, Marina attacks Setrákus with her healing legacy, to which he recoils in pain. John, picking up on this, continues the healing assault and urges Marina to run with Nine, who is no shape to fight, she protests but John insists. Nine transfers his strength and anti gravity legacy to her and she slings him over her shoulder and runs. John is locked in battle with Setrákus with both of them taking heavy damage, while John pours his healing legacy into him, while also using it on himself in small busts to keep him going. He establishes telepathic contact with Sam and tells him to blow up the mountain.
While this is going on Adam and Six run into Phiri, who wounds Six and attacks Adam, Dust attacks Phiri but is quickly overwhelmed. Six manages to telekinetically pin Phiri to the wall, but a Mogadoraian sneaks behind her and shoots her, Adam promptly kills the Mogadorian but Phiri impales him and begins to drain his Loric spark, she releases a seismic wave that knocks Six back. Adam plunges his hands into the black oily tentacles and begins to tear itself away from Phiri 's stump and bond with Adam. He uses his seismic legacy and collapses the floor with both Adam and Phiri falling in. Six attempts to save him but there 's nothing there to telekinetically grab. Six realizes Dust has disappeared. Ella urges Six to make her way to the main entrance where Marina and Nine are on their way. Marina tries to get Six out of the base, but she refuses, asking Marina to heal her so she can finish the battle.
Six makes her way to the central chamber where John lays beaten and broken. She sees a frail withered old man crawling across the cavern floor she picks up the Voron dagger and decapitates him. She makes her way over to John who she thinks is dead but a gasp from John proves otherwise. His eyes swollen shut he grasps six 's arm and whispers ' Sarah? ', Six gives him a quick kiss before he falls unconscious. Six grabs John and they climb on to Bernie Kosar 's back and fly up. John remembers snippets after that such as seeing Adam crying as he clutched the final form of dust who was frozen in a wolf / snake form. John decides to close his eyes not wanting to see any more sadness.
One year later John is in the Himalayas restoring the cave that eight had found. He scrubs the prophecies from the wall and Ella tells him its time. John is hesitant as he secluded himself on the mountain after the fight until Ella found him and kept him company for some months. he flies to San Francisco, clutching a small box, to the Garde academy that 's still under construction. invisible he follows the sound to where kids are practicing their telekinesis, Nine stands on the catwalk and when they miss a ball he makes them run laps. His arm is still missing and he 's grown his hair. Still invisible John flies to him and turns visible and is greeted by a hug while he chastises him for not staying in contact. john apologizes and gives him something from his box. Lexa is also at the academy hacking into the dark web protecting the human garde from potential threats.
He then goes to New York where repairs and construction is still under way. He observes Daniela from afar who uses her stone legacy to repair some foundation before embracing her mother.
John sees agent walker in a Montreal car park where she kills someone. John reveals himself to her and she is pleased to see him, he says to her you better have a good reason for that, in response she shows what was in the man 's briefcase, 3 vials of black ooze which surprises John. Walker takes out a vial from her pocket and pours it into the black ooze destroying the substance. Walker says she could use some help tracking this down and John hands her a blue loralite pendant from his box saying we can talk about that soon.
He finds Adam in Alaska with Rex in a prison camp with other Mogs who surrendered, John says he can break them out and he replies saying this is the best place for him to rehabilitate his people. It 's mentioned he got a full pardon but did n't use it. John gives him a pendant.
He goes to paradise and hugs Malcolm which brings back memories of Henri. He ruminates on tracking Mark James ' father to tell him what really happened. Finally he steps on Sarah 's doorstep still unable to tell her parents what happened.
He tracks Six and Sam who are on their vacation. He observes them in the ocean in an embrace and leaves 2 pendants with a note.
Lastly he looks for Marina who John says would have taken ages to track if it were n't for her sporadic calls to Ella. Ella says she 's not the same and has become paranoid and angry. He finds her in a speedboat navigating islands in the south pacific. John recognizes the signs of isolation from his own experiences. When he appears she is n't started and asks if he 's really there or has gone crazy. He replies that it 's really him and she smiles. She says that he 's come at a good time and shows him a video footage of the West Virginia base where an object that looked like a missile shoots up into the sky. Marina says she found Five last week on one of the small deserted islands. His body is very skinny with lumps of skin hanging off with dark patches of obsidian blotching his skin. Marina confides in John that she has tried to get over the war and all the death and destruction but she just ca n't. She tells John that he said her she could decide what to do with Five but she does n't want to carry it around with her. John suggests her to get out of here and Marina asks what to do with Five to which John says that he 's a ghost we are n't.
Marina returns with John to the Himalayas when she sees what he 's done with the cave she finally cries she reaches out to John before thanking him, she kisses him. He 's not sure what it means ruminating maybe nothing, maybe something. He shows Marina what he 's been working for the past year it 's a massive wooden table with a loralite stone in the middle reminiscent of the table in the Elder 's chamber with the loric symbol of unity burned into the table and the pendants. John plans to use this as a meeting place for friends and allies away from the petty governments where they will gather to solve problems with a space at the table for Loric / Garde / humans / allies. The only difference being there are no nine seats around the table saying he 's done with numbers.
The Legacies, was released on July 24, 2012. It is a paperback edition of the three previously released Lost Files novellas -- Six 's Legacy, Nine 's Legacy, and The Fallen Legacies. Originally published as individual e-books, this was the first time they were available in print. All the included stories can be found under these names: Six 's Legacy, -- - Nine 's Legacy, -- - The Fallen Legacies.
Six 's Legacy was released on July 26, 2011. It is told from the first person perspective of Pittacus Lore 's character, Six. Before she met John in Paradise, Ohio, she lived with her Cepan Katarina. They were captured by the Mogadorians in NY. Katarina was killed after Six gives the Mogs false information. While in prison, Six developed her legacy of invisibility and used it to escape. Before leaving she took revenge on the Mogadorian who killed Katarina. After years, she hears of Number Four in Ohio and takes a bus there.
Nine 's Legacy was released on February 28, 2012. It is told from the first person perspective of Pittacus Lore 's character, Nine. Nine and his Cepan, Sandor, live in a penthouse on top of the John Hancock Center in Chicago. Nine starts to date a girl. He realizes she was being used to find him and gets captured. The Mogadorians torture Sandor to break Nine. Eventually Nine kills him to put him out of his misery. Nine is held in the West Virginia Mog compound until he 's rescued by John.
The Fallen Legacies was released on July 24, 2012. It is told from the first person perspective of Adamus Sutekh, a Mogadorian general 's son. The book starts with in front of the Washington Monument in Washington D.C. Adam and his adopted brother Ivan are doing homework. Then Adam and Ivan are called by their father. The Mogadorians have found a lead on Number One. Adam and Ivan accompany their father to Malaysia to kill Number One. A vat - born soldier (a Mogadorian soldier grown through genetic engineering) kills Number One right as she develops the legacy to create earthquakes. Once back at Ashwood Estates, a Mogadorian compound, Adam is asked by his father to be hooked up to a special machine that is connected to One 's body. He falls asleep. In his deep sleep, he meets the ghost of One. One takes him through her life on Earth up until she is killed and tries to see doubt in Mogadorian progress. When Adam awakes it has been three years. Adam ca n't believe he 's been asleep that long. But, he is just in time to accompany his father and Ivan on a mission to find Number Two. Adam gets to the apartment where she 's staying first. He tells her he 's there to help. Just then Ivan arrives. He thinks Adam is trying to trick the Garde and kills her himself. After however Adam deletes a post that Number Two was using to try and contact the other members of the Garde. Time passes and Number Three is located. The Mogs proceed to Kenya to find him. Adam and Ivan meet a boy named Hannu. He is Number Three. Adam tries to warn him but is too late. His father kills Three. The book ends when Adam falls down a ravine.
Secret Histories was released on July 23, 2013. Secret Histories refers to the second compilation of Lost Files in a paperback book. Secret Histories is a collection of three novellas. Originally published as e-novellas, they are now together in one print volume.
The entire book contains three separate stories: The Search for Sam -- - Last Days of Lorien -- - The Forgotten Ones
The Search for Sam, was released on December 26, 2012. It is told from the first person perspective of Adamus Sutekh. It picks up where The Fallen Legacies left off.
The Last Days of Lorien was released on April 9, 2013. Harpercollins describes it as a "stunning prequel novella to the New York Times bestselling I Am Number Four series ''. It is set on Lorien before it was attacked by the Mogadorians, and is told from the perspective of Sandor (Nine 's Cêpan).
The Forgotten Ones was released on July 23, 2013. It is told from the first person perspective of Adamus Sutekh. It is the third and final of Pittacus Lore 's novellas told by the son of a mogadorian general turned to the Loric side.
Hidden Enemy was released on July 22, 2014 in the US and August 14, 2014 in the UK. Hidden Enemy is the third compilation of Lost Files in one book. It is a collection of three novellas, originally published as separate e-novellas. The stories are "Five 's Legacy, '' "Return to Paradise, '' and "Five 's Betrayal. ''
The seventh Lost Files book, initially scheduled to be released on December 23, 2013, was released as an E-Book on February 11, 2014. Called "Five 's Legacy, '' the novella centers around the origins of Number Five, including the short amount of time he spent with his Cepan, Rey, and his eventual "capture '' by Mogadorians.
In this thrilling one - hundred - page prequel companion novella, discover what happened in the aftermath of the Mogadorians ' attack on Paradise, Ohio, from Mark James -- Number Four 's bully - turned - ally.
After Four leaves town to find the rest of the Garde, Mark is left behind to pick up the pieces. His school has been destroyed, his home burned down, and, worst yet, Mark now knows the horrifying truth: aliens live among us and some of them seek to destroy us. Even with the FBI tailing him and Sarah Hart, Mark tries to return to a normal life. But when Sarah goes missing, he knows he can no longer sit back and do nothing. His quest to find her will lead him to new allies and a startling revelation about the Mogadorians ' plan for invasion. It was released April 15, 2014 exclusively as an e-Book.
This sequel to Five 's Legacy finds Number Five entering the ranks of the Mogadorian army. The Mogs have convinced him that they will be the victors in the war for Earth, and Five decides he would rather be on the winning side, realizing that the only thing that matters is his survival.
Follows Mark James as he tries to track down Sarah Hart, evadesilly the Mogadorians and the FBI, and discover the identity of the mysterious blogger he knows only as GUARD.
Reveals the truth about the crew of the two Loric spaceships who escaped to Earth and shows what happened to the pilots after they arrived and parted ways with the Garde.
Tells the story of the hacker who has been aiding the Lorien survivors from the shadows for years. She 's determined to defeat the Mogs -- and she just found her secret weapon.
Gives a look at the Mogadorian invasion from the perspective of Daniela Morales, a human teen who 's shocked to discover aliens are attacking New York -- and that she suddenly has the power to fight back.
Reveals what happens to Malcolm Goode after the warships descend. To get to the president 's secret bunker near Washington, DC, he 'll have to fight his way through a war zone.
Picks up after the events of The Fate of Ten, following the stories of three different Mogadorians. One will do anything for redemption. One has a thirst for blood. One questions everything.
These very short works are meant to be read in line with the seven main novels. You can find the recommended order here.
John (number four), Number five, number six, Marina (Number seven), Eight (dies in the fall of five), Stanley (Number nine), Ella (Number ten), Sarah Hart (John 's girlfriend), Mark (Sarah 's ex-boyfriend), Sam Goodey (John 's friend), Malcolm Goodey (Sam 's father), Adam (mog with legacies), Setrakus Ra (main antagonist, Mogadorian leader), Agent Walker.
Reception to the series has been mostly positive. The first two books, I Am Number Four and The Power of Six, both reached # 1 on The New York Times Best Seller list, collectively spending ten weeks in the top spot.
In 2009 DreamWorks Pictures bought the rights to I Am Number Four and released the movie on February 18, 2011. The movie was the first DreamWorks film to be distributed by Disney 's Touchstone Pictures and received generally negative reviews from critics, with review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes giving a score of 32 % based on 156 reviews. The movie had a worldwide gross of $145,982,798 and a budget of $50 million, but still fell short of expectations.
Plans for any future installments for the series have been shelved. Director D.J. Caruso confirmed that he would like to direct a sequel, but in an interview with MTV Hollywood Crush Lore has stated that any questions or requests for a sequel should be directed to producer Michael Bay.
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where is the house in monarch of the glen | Ardverikie House - wikipedia
Ardverikie House is a 19th - century Scottish baronial house in Kinloch Laggan, Newtonmore, Inverness - shire, Scottish Highlands. The house was made famous as the fictional Glenbogle estate in the BBC series Monarch of the Glen.
The lands historically belonged to Clan Macpherson. The 20th chief, Ewen Macpherson, leased Benalder and Ardverikie in 1844 to the Marquess of Abercorn, "one of the trend setters in the emerging interest in deer stalking in Scotland. '' The Marquess expanded the original shooting lodge. He served as Groom of the Stool to Prince Albert, husband of Queen Victoria, who along with the prince spent three weeks at Ardverikie in the late summer of 1847.
In 1860, Abercorn transferred the lease to Lord Henry Bentinck, another stalking enthusiast, who lived there until his death in 1870.
Sir John Ramsden purchased the Ardverikie and Benalder forests in 1871 for £ 107,500 (approximately £ 6.5 m today). In 1873, the house was destroyed by fire, and was rebuilt from 1874 to 1878. It was rebuilt in the popular style of Scottish baronial architecture, designed by John Rhind.
Ramsden 's son, Sir John Frecheville Ramsden, inherited the lands after his father 's death in 1914. The majority of the land was sold off following the two World Wars, and in 1956 Sir John transferred the Ardverikie estate to a family company under the chairmanship of his son, Sir William Pennington - Ramsden. The company, Ardverikie Estate Limited, still owns and manages the estate today. The estate does business renting cottages and letting the property for weddings.
The estate and Ardverikie House have been used as a location for filming. It is most recognizable as the Glenbogle estate in the BBC series Monarch of the Glen, that ran for seven seasons from 2000 to 2005. It was also used in the series Outlander, and the films Mrs Brown and Salmon Fishing in the Yemen.
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what happens to the lonely mountain after the hobbit | Lonely Mountain - wikipedia
In J.R.R. Tolkien 's Middle - earth legendarium, the Lonely Mountain (Sindarin Erebor) is a mountain in the north of Rhovanion. It is the source of the Celduin River, and the location of the Kingdom under the Mountain. The town of Dale lies in a vale on its southern slopes.
Erebor stood hundreds of miles from the nearest mountain range. Tolkien 's map shown in The Hobbit shows the mountain with six ridges stretching out from a central peak that was snowcapped well into spring. The whole mountain was perhaps ten miles in diameter; it contained fabulous lodes of gold and jewels.
The mountain was the habitat for a variety of plants and animals, including thrushes, crows, snails and pines; some of these were endemic sub-species. Perhaps the most well - known were the ravens of Ravenhill, a spur of the mountain. Some wildlife survived the Desolation of Smaug, a dragon who invaded the Mountain and dominated its surrounds for nearly 200 years in the Third Age.
Erebor became the home of the Folk of Durin, a clan of Dwarves known as the Longbeards, after they were driven from their ancestral home of Khazad - dûm. In the latter days of the Third Age, this Kingdom under the Mountain held one of the largest dwarvish treasure hoards in Middle - earth.
Dale, a town of Men built between the two southern spurs of Erebor, formed an economically symbiotic relationship with the dwarves.
The Kingdom under the Mountain was founded by Thráin I the Old, who discovered the Arkenstone there. His son, Thorin I, left the mountain with much of the Folk of Durin to live in the Ered Mithrin (Grey Mountains) on account of the great riches to be found in that range. After dragons plundered their hoards, the Longbeards, led now by Thrór, a descendant of Thorin, returned to Erebor to take up the title King under the Mountain. Under Thrór 's reign, Erebor became a great stronghold where the dwarves became a numerous and prosperous people. The Dwarves of Erebor were at that time well known for the making of matchless weapons and armour, and there was great demand for their work by the surrounding peoples. The Longbeards amassed a large treasure hoard during this time.
In 2770 T.A., while the young Thorin II Oakenshield was out hunting, the dragon Smaug flew south from the Grey Mountains, killed all the dwarves he could find, and destroyed the town of Dale. Smaug then took over the mountain, using the dwarves ' hoard as a bed. King Thrór, his son Thráin II, and several companions escaped death by a secret door. Although Thrór and Thráin later perished, Thorin lived in exile in the Ered Luin until, by chance, he met the wizard Gandalf. Together they formed a plan to reclaim the mountain. Gandalf insisted that burglary was the best approach and recommended the hobbit Bilbo Baggins, whom he represented to be a professional thief.
Thus Bilbo, Thorin, and Thorin 's company of twelve other Dwarves travelled to the Lonely Mountain to regain the treasure. They planned to use the secret door, whose key Gandalf had managed to obtain from Thráin, whom he had found at the point of death in the pits of Dol Guldur. On Durin 's Day, when the setting sun and the last moon of autumn were in the sky together, the day 's last sunlight would fall on the door and expose its keyhole so that it could be unlocked. By a fortunate coincidence, this happened soon after Bilbo and the dwarves arrived, and the hobbit was able to enter the mountain and steal a golden cup.
Smaug, enraged by the theft, emerged from the mountain and destroyed Lake - town, which he thought to be the source of the "thieves ''. During this attack Smaug was slain by Bard the Bowman, and Thorin claimed the mountain. However, the Men of Esgaroth, supported by Thranduil and the Elves of Mirkwood, demanded a part of the dragon 's hoard as recompense for the destruction. Thorin, mad with greed, refused all claims and sent word to his second cousin Dáin II Ironfoot, chief of the Dwarves of the Iron Hills, who brought reinforcements to the aid of Thorin and Company. Before the battle began, however, an army of orcs and wargs descended on Erebor. Dwarves, elves, and men joined ranks against them, which led to the Battle of the Five Armies. During the battle, Thorin 's nephews Fíli and Kíli were slain, and Thorin himself was mortally injured and died shortly afterwards. The title of King under the Mountain passed to Dáin.
With the restoration of the Kingdom under the Mountain the area became prosperous again. Dale was rebuilt under Bard 's leadership, and dwarves and men reforged their friendship.
Some of the Dwarves, led by Balin, left Erebor to reclaim the ancient Dwarvish Kingdom of Khazad - dûm (also known as Moria). They established a colony there but five years later Balin was killed by an Orc, and soon after Moria was overrun by Orcs and the rest of the Dwarves were killed.
Gimli, a dwarf of Erebor and the son of Glóin, one of Thorin 's 12 companions, was chosen to represent his people in the Fellowship of the Ring and helped Aragorn II regain the throne of Gondor.
During the War of the Ring, a messenger from Mordor twice came to Erebor, asking for assistance in finding the One Ring and offering three of the seven Dwarf rings and Moria, but Dáin refused. Dale was overrun by Sauron 's northern army, and many dwarves and men took refuge in Erebor, which was promptly surrounded. Dáin II was killed before the gates of Erebor defending the body of his fallen ally King Brand of Dale. Dáin was succeeded by his son Thorin III Stonehelm, who along with King Bard II withstood the siege and later routed Sauron 's forces. In The Quest of Erebor, Gandalf related that although Sauron 's main thrust was directed against Gondor, the restoration of the Kingdom Under the Mountain provided a bulwark against Sauron 's northern allies, who otherwise could have done great harm in Arnor and the Shire.
The Lonely Mountain: Lair of Smaug the Dragon is a board game produced in 1985 by Iron Crown Enterprises, designed by Coleman Charlton, which features groups of adventurers, either Dwarves, Elves, Orcs or Men entering Smaug 's Lair to capture his treasure before he awakens.
"Erebor '', specifically the southern spurs of the Mountain and Dale, is a playable map in The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle - earth II. It has three gates, including the one Tolkien described and two which can not be closed, to allow those playing as invading forces to easily enter the stronghold.
The Lonely Mountain appears in the Peter Jackson motion picture adaptations of The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey, The Desolation of Smaug, and The Battle of the Five Armies.
The International Astronomical Union names all mountains on Saturn 's moon Titan after mountains in Tolkien 's work. In 2012, they named a Titanean mountain "Erebor Mons '' after the Lonely Mountain.
Middle - earth portal
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where in the bible does it say he who does not work does not eat | He who does not work, neither shall he eat - wikipedia
He who does not work, neither shall he eat is a New Testament aphorism originally by Paul the Apostle, later cited by John Smith in Jamestown, Virginia, and by Lenin during the Russian Revolution.
The aphorism is found in the Second Epistle of Paul the Apostle (with Silvanus and Timothy) to the Thessalonians, in which Paul writes:
that is,
The Greek phrase οὐ θέλει ἐργᾰ́ζεσθαι ou thélei ergázesthai means "is not willing to work ''. Other English translations render this as "would '' or "will not work '', which may confuse readers unaccustomed to this use of the verb "will '' in the archaic sense of "want to, desire to ''.
In the spring of 1609, John Smith cited the aphorism to the colonists of Jamestown:
Countrymen, the long experience of our late miseries I hope is sufficient to persuade everyone to a present correction of himself, And think not that either my pains nor the adventurers ' purses will ever maintain you in idleness and sloth...
... the greater part must be more industrious, or starve...
You must obey this now for a law, that he that will not work shall not eat (except by sickness he be disabled). For the labors of thirty or forty honest and industrious men shall not be consumed to maintain a hundred and fifty idle loiterers.
According to Vladimir Lenin, "He who does not work shall not eat '' is a necessary principle under socialism, the preliminary phase of the evolution towards communist society. The phrase appears in his 1917 work, The State and Revolution. Through this slogan Lenin explains that in socialist states only productive individuals could be allowed access to the articles of consumption.
The socialist principle, "He who does not work shall not eat '', is already realized; the other socialist principle, "An equal amount of products for an equal amount of labor '', is also already realized. But this is not yet communism, and it does not yet abolish "bourgeois law '', which gives unequal individuals, in return for unequal (really unequal) amounts of labor, equal amounts of products.
This is a "defect '' according to Marx, but it is unavoidable in the first phase of communism; for if we are not to indulge in utopianism, we must not think that having overthrown capitalism people will at once learn to work for society without any rules of law. (Chapter 5, Section 3, "The First Phase of Communist Society '')
In accordance with Lenin 's understanding of the socialist state, article twelve of the 1936 Soviet Constitution states:
In the USSR work is a duty and a matter of honor for every able - bodied citizen, in accordance with the principle: "He who does not work, neither shall he eat. ''
In Lenin 's writing, this was not so much directed at lazy or unproductive workers, but rather the bourgeoisie. (Marxist theory defines the bourgeoisie as the group of those who buy the labor - power of workers and engage it in the process of production, deriving profits from the surplus value thus expropriated. Once communism was realised, that is, after the abolition of property and the law of value, no - one would live off the labor of others.)
Neither did the principle apply to those rendered incapable of work by old age or disability. These groups would have a right to society 's products because they were not at fault for their condition. The elderly, in particular, had worked during their youth, and so could not be denied life 's basic necessities. The Soviet state would then, at least theoretically, provide a basic level of social security.
The principle was enunciated in the Russian Constitution of 1918.
Leon Trotsky wrote that: "The old principle: who does not work shall not eat, has been replaced with a new one: who does not obey shall not eat. ''
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when did pottery become widespread in the middle east | Minoan pottery - wikipedia
Minoan pottery is more than a useful tool for dating the mute Minoan civilization. Its restless sequence of quickly maturing artistic styles reveals something of Minoan patrons ' pleasure in novelty while they assist archaeologists in assigning relative dates to the strata of their sites. Pots that contained oils and ointments, exported from 18th century BC Crete, have been found at sites through the Aegean islands and mainland Greece, on Cyprus, along coastal Syria and in Egypt, showing the wide trading contacts of the Minoans. The fine palace pottery called Kamares ware, and the Late Minoan all - over patterned "Marine style '' are the high points of the Minoan pottery tradition.
The traditional chronology for dating Minoan civilization was developed by Sir Arthur Evans in the early years of the 20th century AD. His terminology and the one proposed by Nikolaos Platon are still generally in use and appear in this article. For more details, see the Minoan chronology.
Evans classified fine pottery by the changes in its forms and styles of decoration. Platon concentrated on the episodic history of the Palace of Knossos. A new method, fabric analysis, involves geologic analysis of coarse and mainly undecorated sherds as though they were rocks. The resulting classifications are based on composition of the sherds.
Butmir culture vessels that represent further development of Impresso tradition may be considered as prototypes of Kamares style of Minoan pottery, although the link between Butmir (and "Impressed Ware '' in general), on the one hand, and Minoan, on the other, is still a matter of debates.
A brief introduction to the topic of Early Minoan pottery is stated below. It concentrates on some better - known styles but should not be regarded as comprehensive. A variety of forms is known. The period is generally characterized by a large number of local wares with frequent Cycladic parallels or imports, suggesting a population of checkerboard ethnicity deriving from various locations in the eastern Aegean or even wider. The evidence is certainly open to interpretation, and none is decisive.
Early Minoan pottery, to some extent, continued, and possibly evolved from, the Final Neolithic (FN) without a severe break. Many suggest that Minoan civilization evolved in situ and was not imported from the East. Its other main feature is its variety from site to site, which is suggestive of localism of Early Minoan social traditions.
Studies of the relationship between EM I and FN have been conducted mainly in East Crete. There the Final Neolithic has affinities to the Cyclades, while both FN and EM I settlements are contemporaneous, with EM I gradually replacing FN. Of the three possibilities, no immigration, total replacement of natives by immigrants, immigrants settling among natives, Hutchinson takes a compromise view:
EM I types include Pyrgos Ware, also called "Burnished Ware ''. The major form was the "chalice '', or Arkalochori Chalice, in which a cup combined with a funnel - shaped stand could be set on a hard surface without spilling. (Example). As the Pyrgos site was a rock shelter used as an ossuary, some hypothesize ceremonial usage. This type of pottery was black, grey or brown, and burnished, with some sort of incised linear pattern. It may have imitated wood.
Another EM I type, Incised Ware, also called Scored Ware, were hand - shaped, round - bottomed, dark - burnished jugs (Example) and bulbous cups and jars ("pyxes ''). Favored decor was incised line patterns, vertical, horizontal or herring - bone. (Example, pyxis). These pots are from the north and northeast of Crete and appear to be modelled after the Kampos Phase of the Grotta - Pelos early Cycladic I culture. Some have suggested imports or immigrations. See also Hagia Photia.
Painted parallel - line decors of Ayios Onouphrios I Ware were drawn with an iron - red clay slip that would fire red under oxidizing conditions in a clean kiln but under the reducing conditions of a smoky fire turn darker, without much control over color, which could range from red to brown. A dark - on - light painted pattern was then applied. (Examples 1, Examples 2.) From this beginning, Minoan potters already concentrated on the linear forms of designs, perfecting coherent designs and voids that would ideally suit the shape of the ware. Shapes were jugs, two - handled cups and bowls. The ware came from north and south central Crete, as did Lebena Ware of the same general types but decorated by painting white patterns over a solid red painted background (Example). The latter came from EM I tombs.
In EM IIA, the geometric slip - painted designs of Koumasa Ware seem to have developed from the wares of Aghios Onouphrios. The designs are in red or black on a light background. Forms are cups, bowls, jugs and teapots (Example: "Goddess of Myrtos ''). Also from EM IIA are the cylindrical and spherical pyxides called Fine Gray Ware or just Gray Ware, featuring a polished surface with incised diagonals, dots, rings and semicircles. (Example)
The EM IIA and IIB Vasiliki Ware, named for the Minoan site in eastern Crete, has mottled glaze effects, early experiments with controlling color, but the elongated spouts drawn from the body and ending in semicircular spouts show the beginnings of the tradition of Minoan elegance (Examples 1, Examples 2). The mottling was produced by uneven firing of the slip - covered pot, with the hottest areas turning dark. Considering that the mottling was controlled into a pattern, touching with hot coals was probably used to produce it. The effect was paralleled in cups made of mottled stone.
Of the period Hutchinson says:
In the latest brief transition (EM III), wares in eastern Crete begin to be covered in dark slip with light slip - painted decor of lines and spirals; the first checkered motifs appear; the first petallike loops and leafy bands appear, at Gournia (Walberg 1986). Rosettes appear and spiral links sometimes joined into bands. These motifs are similar to those found on seals. In north central Crete, where Knossos was to emerge, there is little similarity: dark on light linear banding prevails; footed goblets make their appearance (Example).
Of the palace at Knossos and smaller ones like it at Phaestos, Mallia and elsewhere, Willetts says:
The rise of the palace culture, of the "old palaces '' of Knossos and Phaistos and their new type of urbanized, centralized society with redistribution centers required more storage vessels and ones more specifically suited to a range of functions. In palace workshops, standardization suggests more supervised operations and the rise of elite wares, emphasizing refinements and novelty, so that palace and provincial pottery become differentiated.
The forms of the best wares were designed for table and service. In the palace workshops, the introduction from the Levant of the potter 's wheel in MMIB enabled perfectly symmetrical bodies to be thrown from swiftly revolving clay. The well - controlled iron - red slip that was added to the color repertory during MMI could be achieved only in insulated closed kilns that were free of oxygen or smoke.
Any population center requires facilities in support of human needs and that is true of the palaces as well. Knossos had extensive sanitation, water supply and drainage systems, which is evidence that it was not a ceremonial labyrinth or large tomb. Liquid and granular necessities were stored in pithoi located in magazines, or storage rooms, and elsewhere. Pithoi make their earliest appearance just before MMI begins and continue into Late Minoan, becoming very rare by LMIII (Examples 1, Examples 2). About 400 pithoi were found at the palace of Knossos. An average pithos held about 1100 pounds of fluid. Perhaps because of the weight, pithoi were not stored on the upper floors.
New styles emerge at this time: an Incised Style, the tactile Barbotine ware, studded with knobs and cones of applied clay in bands, waves and ridges, sometimes reminiscent of sand - dollar tests and barnacle growth (Example), and the earliest stages of Kamares ware. Spirals and whorls are the favorite motifs of Minoan pottery from EM III onwards (Walberg). A new shape is the straight - sided cylindrical cup.
MMIA wares and local pottery imitating them are found at coastal sites in the eastern Peloponnese, though not more widely in the Aegean until MMIB; their influence on local pottery in the nearby Cyclades has been studied by Angelia G. Papagiannopoulou (1991). Shards of MMIIA pottery have been recovered in Egypt and at Ugarit.
Kamares Ware was named after finds in the cave sanctuary at Kamares on Mt. Ida in 1890. It is the first of the virtuoso polychrome wares of Minoan civilization, though the first expressions of recognizably proto - Kamares decor predate the introduction of the potter 's wheel.
Finer clay, thrown on the wheel, permitted more precisely fashioned forms, which were covered with a dark - firing slip and exuberantly painted with slips in white, reds and browns in fluent floral designs, of rosettes or conjoined coiling and uncoiling spirals. Designs are repetitive or sometimes free - floating, but always symmetrically composed. Themes from nature begin here with octopuses, shellfish, lilies, crocuses and palm - trees, all highly stylized. The entire surface of the pot is densely covered, but sometimes the space is partitioned by bands. One variety features extravagantly thin bodies and is called Eggshell Ware (Example 1, Example 2).
Four stages of Kamares ware were identified by Gisela Walberg (1976), with a "Classic Kamares '' palace style sited in MMII, especially in the palace complex of Phaistos. New shapes were introduced, with whirling and radiating motifs. (Examples 1, Examples 2, Examples 3, Examples 4, Examples 5, Examples 6, Examples 7, Examples 8, Examples 9, Examples 10)
In MMIIB, the increasing use of motifs drawn from nature heralded the decline and end of the Kamares style. The Kamares featured whole - field floral designs with all elements linked together (Matz). In MMIII patterned vegetative designs, the Patterned Style, began to appear (Example). This phase was replaced by individual vegetative scenes, which marks the start of the Floral Style. Matz refers to the "Age of Efflorescence '', which reached an apogee in LM IA. (Some would include Kamares Ware under the Floral Style.)
The floral style depicts palms and papyrus, with various kinds of lilies and elaborate leaves. It appears in both pottery and frescoes. One tradition of art criticism calls this the "natural style '' or "naturalism '' but another points out that the stylized forms and colors are far from natural. Green, the natural color of vegetation, appears rarely. Depth is represented by position around the main scene. (Examples 1,
LMI marks the highwater of Minoan influence throughout the southern Aegean (Peloponnese, Cyclades, Dodecanese, southwestern Anatolia). Late Minoan pottery was being widely exported; it has turned up in Cyprus, the Cylades, Egypt and Mycenae.
Fluent movemented designs drawn from flower and leaf forms, painted in reds and black on white grounds predominate, in steady development from Middle Minoan. In LMIB there is a typical all - over leafy decoration, for which first workshop painters begin to be identifiable through their characteristic motifs; as with all Minoan art, no name ever appears.
Dated to LM IA and following also are conical rhyta, or drinking cups, in steatite and also imitated in ceramic. (Example) Some of the rhyta are ornate libation vessels, such as the noted "Bull 's - head Rhyton '' found at Knossos. The Bull 's Head Rhyton, however, was a specific type of which many instances have been found. The bull 's head is found in ceramic as well. Other noted stone vases of LM IA and II are the "Harvester Vase '' View 1, View 3, View 4, from Hagia Triada, which depicts a harvest procession, "the Chieftain Cup '', depicting a coming - of - age rite, the Boxer Rhyton (Hagia Triada), showing boxing scenes, the Sanctuary Rhyton, depicting a peak sanctuary to the "mistress of animals '' and featuring birds and leaping goats, and others.
In LMIB, the Marine Style also emerges; in this style, perhaps inspired by frescoes, the entire surface of a pot was covered with sea creatures, octopus, fish and dolphins, against a background of rocks, seaweed and sponges (Examples 1, Examples 2, Examples 3, Examples 4. The Marine Style is more free flowing with no distinct zones, because it shows sea creatures as floating, as they would in the ocean. The Marine style was the last purely Minoan style; towards the end of LMIB, all the palaces except Knossos were violently destroyed, as were many of the villas and towns. This was because of the eruption of the volcano on the island of Thera during LMIA. The explosion caused a tsunami which hit the northern coast of Crete, and devastated the coastal settlements where the bulk of the palace complexes were located.
Around 1450 BCE, the beginning of LM II, the Mycenaean Greeks must have moved into the palace of Knossos. They were well - established by 1400, if the Linear B tablets can be dated to then. The resulting LM II culture is not a break with the Minoan past. Minoan traditions continue under a new administration. However, the vase forms and designs became more and more Mycenaean in character with a large variety of decoration. Style names have multiplied and depend to some degree on the author. The names below are only a few of the most common. Some authors just use the name "Mycenaean Koine ''; that is, the Late Minoan pottery of Crete was to some degree just a variety of widespread Mycenaean forms. The designs are found also on seals and sealings, in frescoes and on other artifacts. Often Late Minoan pottery is not easily placed in subperiods. In addition are imports from the neighboring coasts of the Mediterranean. Ceramic is not the only material used: breccia, calcite, chlorite, schist, dolomite and other colored and patterned stone were carved into pottery forms. Bronze ware appears imitating the ceramic ware.
The Linear B tablets contain records of vessels made of various materials. The vessel ideograms are not so clear as to make correlation with discovered artifacts easy. Using a drawing of the "Contents of the Tomb of the Tripod Hearth '' at Zafer Papoura from Evans ' Palace of Minos, which depicts LM II bronze vessels, many in the forms of ceramic ones, Ventris and Chadwick were able to make a few new correlations.
LM II Vessels
During LMII, Mycenean influence became apparent. The vase forms at Knossos are similar to those on the mainland. The Palace Style showcased by them adapts elements of the previous styles but also adds features, such as the practice of confining decor in reserves and bands, emphasizing the base and shoulder of the pot and the movement towards abstraction (Examples 1, Examples 2, Examples 3). This style started in LM II and went on into LM III. The palace style was mostly confined to Knossos. In the late manifestation of the palace style, fluent and spontaneous earlier motifs stiffened and became more geometrical and abstracted. Egyptian motifs such as papyrus and lotus are loser
The Plain Style and Close Style developed in LM IIIA, B from the Palace Style. In the Close Style the Marine and Floral Styles themes continue, but the artist manifests the horror vacui or "dread of emptiness ''. The whole field of decoration is filled densely. (Examples). The Stirrup Jar is especially frequent.
IIIC
Finally, in the Subminoan period, the geometric designs of the Dorians become more apparent. (Example)
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rodger who played uk ambassador on the west wing | Roger Rees - wikipedia
Roger Rees (5 May 1944 -- 10 July 2015) was a Welsh actor and director, widely known for his stage work. He won an Olivier Award and a Tony Award for his performance as the lead in The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby. He also received Obie Awards for his role in The End of the Day and as co-director of Peter and the Starcatcher. Rees was posthumously inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame, 16 November 2015. He was widely known to American television audiences for playing the characters Robin Colcord in Cheers and Lord John Marbury in The West Wing.
Rees was born in Aberystwyth, Cardiganshire, Wales, the son of Doris Louise (née Smith), a shop clerk, and William John Rees, a police officer. He studied art at the Camberwell College of Arts and the Slade School of Fine Art, turning to acting when he was painting backdrops at the Wimbledon Theatre and was asked to fill a part in a play.
Rees started his career with the Royal Shakespeare Company. He played Malcolm in the acclaimed Trevor Nunn 1976 stage and 1978 television production of Macbeth. Rees created the title role in the original production of The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby, David Edgar 's stage adaptation of the Charles Dickens novel, winning a Laurence Olivier Award for Actor of the Year in a New Play in 1980 and a Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play in 1982. A recorded version of the play also earned him an Emmy nomination in 1983. He also starred in the original production of The Real Thing by Tom Stoppard at the Strand Theatre in London in 1982.
Rees began to work in television during the 1970s, appearing opposite Laurence Olivier in The Ebony Tower (1984). That same year, Rees portrayed Fred Hollywell in A Christmas Carol starring George C. Scott as Scrooge. From 1988 to 1991 he starred in the late 80s / early 90s British sitcom Singles, with co-star Judy Loe. From 1989 to 1991 and in 1993, he also appeared intermittently on the long - running American TV series Cheers as the English tycoon Robin Colcord. His later television appearances include My So - Called Life as substitute teacher Mr Racine, British Ambassador Lord John Marbury on The West Wing and James MacPherson on Warehouse 13. His film career began in the 1980s. Rees played the Sheriff of Rottingham in the Mel Brooks movie, Robin Hood: Men in Tights (1993). Rees ' later film appearances include Frida (2002), The Prestige (2006) and The Pink Panther (2006).
Continuing his work in the theatre through the 1990s, both as an actor and a director, Rees was awarded an Obie Award for his 1992 performance in the Off - Broadway play The End of the Day. In 1995 he was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play for his role in Indiscretions. He recorded many audiobooks, including Memnoch the Devil by Anne Rice.
From November 2004 to October 2007, Rees was artistic director of the Williamstown Theatre Festival, only the fourth person to hold the post in its half century history. He replaced Nathan Lane in the role of Gomez Addams in the Broadway musical adaptation of The Addams Family, on 22 March 2011 and remained until the end of the run on 31 December 2011.
In 2012, Rees took his one - man Shakespeare show, What You Will, to London 's West End, playing a three - week engagement at the Apollo Theatre.
In 2013, Rees directed Crispin Whitell 's play, The Primrose Path, at the Guthrie Theater in Minneapolis.
In 2014, Rees directed Dog and Pony, a musical written by Rick Elice and Michael Patrick Walker, which had its world premiere at the Old Globe Theatre in San Diego.
His last role was as Anton Schell in the musical version of The Visit, opposite Chita Rivera, which opened on Broadway on 23 April 2015 and closed on 14 June 2015. Rees left the production in May 2015 due to his illness.
Rees was to have directed a new musical written by Elice and Will Van Dyke, Magnificent Climb, in the fall of 2016 at MCC Theater in New York. He was also scheduled to perform his one - man Shakespeare show, What You Will in New York in the autumn of 2015, and had hoped to return to the Royal Shakespeare Company for a stint in Don Quixote in 2016. He was inducted into the exclusive entertainment fraternity, the Grand Order of Water Rats as a full member.
Rees had lived in the United States for more than 25 years; he became a naturalised U.S. citizen in 2009. He converted to Judaism in the 1980s. Rees married his partner of 33 years, playwright Rick Elice, in 2011. Rees and Elice also collaborated professionally, including as co-playwrights of the comedic thriller Double Double. Elice co-wrote (with Marshall Brickman) the libretto for The Addams Family musical, the cast of which Rees had joined on 22 March 2011. In 2012, Elice and Rees received Tony Award nominations for Elice 's stage adaptation and Rees ' co-direction (with Alex Timbers), respectively, of Peter and the Starcatcher. In October 2017, his husband Rick Elice wrote a memoir of his life with Rees, entitled Finding Roger: An Improbably Theatrical Love Story, published by Kingswell, a division of Hachette.
After a diagnosis of brain cancer in October 2014, Rees focused his energy on his commitment to playing opposite Chita Rivera on Broadway in The Visit, the final musical written by John Kander and Fred Ebb. While undergoing two brain surgeries, two courses of radiation and ongoing chemotherapy, Rees managed to rehearse, preview and open in The Visit on 23 April 2015. By the middle of May, it had become too difficult for him to speak, and he left the show. Rees died of brain cancer at age 71 at his home in New York on 10 July 2015. On Wednesday, 15 July 2015, the marquee lights at all the theatres on Broadway were dimmed in his honour. His ashes were sprinkled into the Atlantic Ocean. Two months later, there was a memorial service for him at Broadway 's New Amsterdam Theatre.
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when do cadenzas usually occur in solo concertos | Cadenza - wikipedia
In music, a cadenza (from Italian: cadenza (kaˈdɛntsa), meaning cadence; plural, cadenze (kaˈdɛntse)) is, generically, an improvised or written - out ornamental passage played or sung by a soloist or soloists, usually in a "free '' rhythmic style, and often allowing for virtuosic display. During this time the accompaniment will rest, or sustain a note or chord. Thus an improvised cadenza is indicated in written notation by a fermata in all parts. A cadenza usually will occur over the final or penultimate note in a piece, or over the final or penultimate note in an important subsection of a piece. It can also be found before a final coda or ritornello.
The term cadenza often refers to a portion of a concerto in which the orchestra stops playing, leaving the soloist to play alone in free time (without a strict, regular pulse) and can be written or improvised, depending on what the composer specifies. Sometimes, the cadenza will include small parts for other instruments besides the soloist; an example is in Sergei Rachmaninoff 's Piano Concerto No. 3, where a solo flute, clarinet and horn are used over rippling arpeggios in the piano. The cadenza normally occurs near the end of the first movement, though it can be at any point in a concerto. An example is Tchaikovsky 's First Piano Concerto, where in the first five minutes a cadenza is used. The cadenza is usually the most elaborate and virtuosic part that the solo instrument plays during the whole piece. At the end of the cadenza, the orchestra re-enters, and generally finishes off the movement on their own, or, less often, with the solo instrument.
The cadenza was originally, and remains, a vocal flourish improvised by a performer to elaborate a cadence in an aria. It was later used in instrumental music, and soon became a standard part of the concerto. Originally, it was improvised in this context as well, but during the 19th century, composers began to write cadenzas out in full. Third parties also wrote cadenzas for works in which it was intended by the composer to be improvised, so the soloist could have a well formed solo that they could practice in advance. Some of these have become so widely played and sung that they are effectively part of the standard repertoire, as is the case with Joseph Joachim 's cadenza for Johannes Brahms ' Violin Concerto, Beethoven 's set of cadenzas for Mozart 's Piano Concerto no. 20, and Estelle Liebling 's edition of cadenzas for operas such as Donizetti 's 's La fille du Régiment and Lucia di Lammermoor.
Perhaps the most notable deviations from this tendency towards written (or absent) cadenzas are to be found in jazz, most often at the end of a ballad, though cadenzas in this genre are usually brief. Saxophonist John Coltrane, however, usually improvised an extended cadenza when performing "I Want To Talk About You '', in which he showcased his predilections for scalar improvisation and multiphonics. The recorded examples of "I Want To Talk About You '' (Live at Birdland and Afro - Blue Impressions) are approximately 8 minutes in length, with Coltrane 's unaccompanied cadenza taking up approximately 3 minutes. More sardonically, Jazz critic Martin Williams once described Coltrane 's improvisations on "Africa / Brass '' as "essentially extended cadenzas to pieces that never get played. '' Equally noteworthy is saxophonist Sonny Rollins ' shorter improvised cadenza at the close of "Three Little Words '' (Sonny Rollins on Impulse!).
Cadenzas are also found in instrumental solos with piano or other accompaniment, where they are placed near the beginning or near the end or sometimes in both places (e.g. "The Maid of the Mist, '' cornet solo by Herbert L. Clarke, or a more modern example: the end of "Think of Me '', where Christine Daaé sings a short but involved cadenza, in Andrew Lloyd Webber 's The Phantom of the Opera).
Composers who have written cadenzas for other performers in works not their own include:
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background about war on drugs in the philippines | Philippine drug war - wikipedia
Philippine Government
Non-state participants:
85 killed (Police and military)
3,968 killed in official police operations (Philippine claim)
The Philippine Drug War, also known locally as the War on Drugs (Filipino: Giyera Kontra Droga, lit. "War Against Drugs ''), refers to the drug policy in the Philippines initiated by the Philippine government under President Rodrigo Duterte. It has been criticized locally and internationally for the number of deaths resulting from police operations, and alleged summary executions. According to police reports, 3,900 deaths were legal operations and that all of those who died fought against the police force. It was later revealed by both local and foreign investigation groups that more than 14,000 people have been killed in the drug war from inception to March 2017. All deaths allegedly included Filipinos who fought against the police and possessed definite amount of drugs and guns, including teenagers.
Rodrigo Duterte won the 2016 Philippine presidential election on May 9 promising to kill tens of thousands of criminals, and urging people to kill drug addicts. As Mayor of Davao City, Duterte was criticized by groups like Human Rights Watch for the extrajudicial killings of hundreds of street children, petty criminals and drug users carried out by the Davao Death Squad, a vigilante group with which he was allegedly involved. Duterte has alternately confirmed and denied his involvement in the alleged Davao Death Squad killings. Duterte has benefited from reports in the national media that he made Davao into one of the world 's safest cities, and he cites this as justification for his drug policy, although in reality, police data shows that the city has the highest murder rate and the second highest rape rate in the Philippines.
Philippine anti-narcotic officials have admitted that Duterte uses flawed and exaggerated data to support his claim that the Philippines is becoming a "narco - state ''. The Philippines has a low prevalence rate of drug users compared to the global average, according to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Duterte said in his state of the nation address that data from the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency shows that there were 3 million drug addicts 2 to 3 years ago, which he said may have increased to 3.7 million. However, according to the Philippine Dangerous Drugs Board, the government drug policy - making body, 1.8 million Filipinos used illegal drugs (mostly marijuana) in 2015, the latest official survey published; a third of them had used illegal drugs only once in the past 13 months.
In speeches made after his inauguration on June 30, Duterte urged citizens to kill suspected criminals and drug addicts. He said he would order police to adopt a shoot - to - kill policy, and would offer them a bounty for dead suspects. On July 2, 2016, the Communist Party of the Philippines stated that it "reiterates its standing order for the NPA to carry out operations to disarm and arrest the chieftains of the biggest drug syndicates, as well as other criminal syndicates involved in human rights violations and destruction of the environment '' after its political wing Bagong Alyansang Makabayan accepted Cabinet posts in the new government. On July 3, 2016, the Philippine National Police announced they had killed 30 alleged drug dealers since Duterte was sworn in as president on June 30. They later stated they had killed 103 suspects between May 10 and July 7.
On July 9, 2016, a spokesperson of the president told critics to show proof that there have been human rights violations in the Drug War. Later that day, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front announced it was open to collaborate with police in the Drug War.
On August 3, 2016, Duterte said that the Sinaloa cartel and the Chinese triad are involved in the Philippine drug trade. A presidential spokesperson said that Duterte welcomed a proposed Congressional investigation into extrajudicial killings to be chaired by Senator Leila de Lima, his chief critic in the government. On August 7, 2016, Duterte named more than 150 drug suspects including local politicians, police, judges, and military. On August 8, 2016 the United States expressed concerns over the extrajudicial killings.
On August 17, 2016, Duterte announced that de Lima had been having an affair with a married man, her driver, Ronnie Palisoc Dayan. Duterte claimed that Dayan was her collector for drug money, who had also himself been using drugs. In a news conference on August 21, 2016, Duterte announced that he had in his possession wiretaps and ATM records which confirmed his allegations. He stated: "What is really crucial here is that because of her (romantic) relationship with her driver which I termed ' immoral ' because the driver has a family and wife, that connection gave rise to the corruption of what was happening inside the national penitentiary. '' Dismissing fears for Dayan 's safety, he added, "As the President, I got this information... as a privilege. But I am not required to prove it in court. That is somebody else 's business. My job is to protect public interest. She 's lying through her teeth. '' He explained that he had acquired the new evidence from an unnamed foreign country.
On August 18, 2016, United Nations human rights experts called on the Philippines to halt extrajudicial killings. Agnes Callamard, the UN Special Rapporteur on summary executions, stated that Duterte had given a "license to kill '' to his citizens by encouraging them to kill. In response, Duterte threatened to withdraw from the UN and form a separate group with African nations and China. Presidential spokesperson Ernesto Abella later clarified that the Philippines was not leaving the UN. As the official death toll reached 1,800, a Congressional investigation of the killings chaired by de Lima was opened.
On August 23, 2016, Chito Gascon, head of the Philippine Commission on Human Rights, told the Senate committee that the International Criminal Court may have jurisdiction over the mass killings. On August 25, Duterte released a "drug matrix '' supposedly linking government officials, including de Lima, with the New Bilibid Prison drug trafficking scandal. De Lima stated that the "drug matrix '' was like something drawn by a 12 - year - old child. She added, "I will not dignify any further this so - called ' drug matrix ' which, any ordinary lawyer knows too well, properly belongs in the garbage can. '' On August 29, Duterte called on de Lima to resign and "hang herself ''.
Following the September 2 bombing in Davao City that killed 14 people in the city 's central business district, on September 3, 2016, Duterte declared a "state of lawlessness '', and on the following day signed a declaration of a "state of national emergency on account of lawless violence in Mindanao ''. The Armed Forces of the Philippines and the Philippine National Police were ordered to "suppress all forms of lawless violence in Mindanao '' and to "prevent lawless violence from spreading and escalating elsewhere ''. Executive Secretary Salvador Medialdea said that the declaration "does not specify the imposition of curfews '', and would remain in force indefinitely. He explained: "The recent incidents, the escape of terrorists from prisons, the beheadings, then eventually what happened in Davao. That was the basis. '' The state of emergency has been seen as an attempt by Duterte to "enhance his already strong hold on power, and give him carte blanche to impose further measures '' in the Drug War.
At the 2016 ASEAN Summit, US President Barack Obama cancelled scheduled meetings with Duterte to discuss extrajudicial killings after Duterte referred to Obama as a "son of a whore ''.
On September 19, 2016, the Senate voted 16 - 4 to remove de Lima from her position heading the Senate committee, in a motion brought by senator and boxer Manny Pacquiao. Duterte 's allies in the Senate argued that by allowing the testimony of Edgar Matobato, de Lima had damaged the country 's reputation. She was replaced by Senator Richard Gordon, a supporter of Duterte. Matobato had testified that while working for the Davao Death Squad he had killed more than 50 people. He said that he had witnessed Duterte killing a government agent with an Uzi, and he had heard Duterte giving orders to carry out extrajudicial killings, including ordering the bombing of mosques in retaliation for an attack on a cathedral.
Duterte told reporters that he wanted "a little extension of maybe another six months '' in the Drug War, as there were so many drug offenders and criminals that he "can not kill them all ''. On the following day, a convicted bank robber and two former prison officials testified that they had paid bribes to de Lima. She denies the allegations.
At a press conference on September 30, 2016, on his arrival in Davao City after a two - day official visit in Vietnam, Duterte appeared to make a comparison between the Drug War and The Holocaust. He said that "Hitler massacred three million Jews. Now there are three million drug addicts. I 'd be happy to slaughter them. '' His remarks generated an international outcry. US Secretary of Defense Ash Carter said the statement was "deeply troubling ''. The German government told the Philippine ambassador that Duterte 's remarks were "unacceptable. '' On October 2, Duterte made an apology to the Jewish community following his remarks. He said that he did not mean to derogate the memory of 6 million Jews slaughtered by the Germans.
At the beginning of October, a senior police officer told The Guardian that 10 "special ops '' official police death squads had been operating, each consisting of 15 police officers. The officer said that he had personally been involved in killing 87 suspects, and described how the corpses had their head wrapped in masking tape with a cardboard placard labelling them as a drug offender so that the killing would not be investigated, or they were dumped at the roadside ("salvage '' victims). The chairman of the Philippines Commission on Human Rights, Chito Gascon, was quoted in the report: "I am not surprised, I have heard of this. '' The PNP declined to comment. The report stated: "although the Guardian can verify the policeman 's rank and his service history, there is no independent, official confirmation for the allegations of state complicity and police coordination in mass murder. ''
On October 28, 2016, incumbent Datu Saudi Ampatuan, Maguindanao Mayor Samsudin Dimaukom and nine others (including his five bodyguards) were killed during what was described as a shootout by the police after they reportedly engaged Dimaukom 's group during an anti-illegal drug operation in Makilala, North Cotabato. Dimaukom was among the drug list named by Duterte on August 7.
On November 1, 2016, it was reported that the US State Department had halted the sale of 26,000 assault rifles to the PNP after opposition from the Senate Foreign Relations Committee due to concerns about human rights violations. A police spokesman said they had not been informed. PNP chief Ronald dela Rosa suggested China as a possible alternative supplier. On November 7, Duterte reacted to the US decision to halt the sale by announcing that he was "ordering its cancellation ''.
In the early morning of November 5, 2016, incumbent Albuera, Leyte Mayor Rolando Espinosa Sr., who had been detained at Baybay City Sub-Provincial Jail for violation of the Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, was killed in what was described as a shootout inside his jail cell with personnel from the Criminal Investigation and Detection Group (CIDG). According to the CIDG, Espinosa opened fire on police agents who were executing a search warrant for "illegal firearms. '' A hard drive of CCTV footage which may have recorded the shooting of Espinosa is missing, a provincial official said. Espinosa had turned himself in to PNP after being named in Duterte 's drug list in August. He was briefly released but then re-arrested for alleged drug possession. The president of the National Union of People 's Lawyers, Edre Olalia, told local broadcaster TV5 that the police version of events was "too contrived ''. He pointed out that a search warrant is not required to search a jail cell. "Such acts make a mockery of the law, taunt impunity and insult ordinary common sense. '' Espinosa was the second official to be killed in the Drug War.
Following the incident, on the same day, Senator Panfilo Lacson sought to resume the investigation of extrajudicial killings after it was suspended on October 3, 2016 by the Senate Committee on Justice and Human Rights.
On November 28, 2016, Duterte appeared to threaten that human rights workers would be targeted: "The human rights (defenders) say I kill. If I say: ' Okay, I 'll stop '. They (drug users) will multiply. When harvest time comes, there will be more of them who will die. Then I will include you among them because you let them multiply. '' Amnesty International Philippines stated that Duterte was "inciting hate towards anyone who expresses dissent on his war against drugs. '' The National Alliance against Killings Philippines stated: "His comment - that human rights is part of the drug problem and, as such, human rights advocates should be targeted too - can be interpreted as a declaration of an open season on human rights defenders ''.
On December 5 Reuters reported that 97 % of drug suspects shot by police died, far more than in other countries with drug - related violence. They also stated that police reports of killings are "remarkably similar '', involving a "buy - bust '' operation in which the suspect panics and shoots at the officers, who return fire, killing the suspect, and report finding a packet of white powder and a. 38 caliber revolver, often with the serial number removed.
The figures pose a powerful challenge to the official narrative that the Philippines police are only killing drug suspects in self - defense. These statistics and other evidence amassed by Reuters point in the other direction: that police are pro-actively gunning down suspects.
On December 8, 2016, the Senate Committee on Justice and Human Rights issued a report stating that there was "no evidence sufficient to prove that a Davao Death Squad exists '', and "no proof that there is a state - sponsored policy to commit killings to eradicate illegal drugs in the country. '' Eleven senators signed the report, while senators Leila De Lima, JV Ejercito, Antonio Trillanes IV and Senate Minority Leader Ralph Recto did not sign the report or did not subscribe to its findings.
Following criticism of the police over the kidnapping and killing of Jee Ick - Joo, a South Korean businessman, Duterte ordered the police to suspend drug - related operations while ordering the military and the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency to continue drug operations.
On January 31, 2017, Amnesty International published a report of their investigation of 59 drug - related killings in 20 cities and towns, "If you are poor you are killed '': Extrajudicial Executions in the Philippines ' "War on Drugs '', which "details how the police have systematically targeted mostly poor and defenceless people across the country while planting ' evidence ', recruiting paid killers, stealing from the people they kill and fabricating official incident reports. '' They stated: "Amnesty International is deeply concerned that the deliberate, widespread and systematic killings of alleged drug offenders, which appear to be planned and organized by the authorities, may constitute crimes against humanity under international law. ''
A police officer with the rank of Senior Police Officer 1, a ten - year veteran of a Metro Manila anti-illegal drugs unit, told AI that police are paid 8,000 pesos (US $161) to 15,000 pesos (US $302) per "encounter '' (the term used for extrajudicial executions disguised as legitimate operations); there is no payment for making arrests. He said that some police also receive a payment from the funeral home they send the corpses to. Hitmen hired by police are paid 5,000 pesos (US $100) for each drug user killed and 10,000 to 15,000 pesos (US $200 -- 300) for each "drug pusher '' killed, according to two hitmen interviewed by AI.
Family members and witnesses repeatedly contested the police description of how people were killed. Police descriptions bore striking similarities from incident to incident; official police reports in several cases documented by Amnesty International claim the suspect 's gun "malfunctioned '' when he tried to fire at police, after which they shot and killed him. In many instances, the police try to cover up unlawful killings or ensure convictions for those arrested during drug - related operations by planting "evidence '' at crime scenes and falsifying incident reports -- both practices the police officer said were common.
The report makes a series of recommendations to Duterte and government officials and departments. If certain key steps are not swiftly taken, it recommends that the International Criminal Court "initiate a preliminary examination into unlawful killings in the Philippines 's violent anti-drug campaign and related crimes under the Rome Statute, including the involvement of government officials, irrespective of rank and status. ''
The Guardian and Reuters stated that the report added to evidence they had published previously about police extrajudicial executions. Presidential spokesman Ernesto Abella responded to the report, saying that Senate committee investigations proved that there had been no state - sponsored extrajudicial killings. In an interview on February 4, Duterte told a reporter that Amnesty International was "so naive and so stupid '', and "a creation of (George) Soros ''. He asked, "Is that the only thing you (de Lima) can produce? The report of Amnesty? ''
De Lima was jailed on February 24, awaiting trial on charges related to allegations made by Duterte in August 2016. A court date has not been set.
On February 20, Arturo Lascanas, a retired police officer, told reporters at a press conference outside the senate building that as a leader of the Davao Death Squad he had carried out extrajudicial killings on the orders of Duterte. He said death squad members were paid 20,000 to 100,000 pesos ($400 to $2,000) per hit, depending on the importance of the target. He gave details of various killings he had carried out on Duterte 's orders, including the previously unsolved murder of a radio show host critical of Duterte, and confessed to his involvement with Matobato in the bombing of a mosque on Duterte 's orders. On the following day the senate voted in a private session to reopen the investigation, reportedly by a margin of ten votes to eight, with five abstentions.
When Mayor Duterte sat down as mayor for the first time, we started what is called "salvaging '' of people, these people are suspects committing crime in Davao. We implemented the personal orders of Mayor Duterte to us.
On March 6, Lascanas gave evidence at the Senate committee, testifying that he had killed approximately 200 criminal suspects, media figures and political opponents on Duterte 's orders.
In June 2017 Reuters reported that "Police were sending corpses to hospitals to destroy evidence at crime scenes and hide the fact that they were executing drug suspects. '' Doctors stated that corpses loaded onto trucks were being dumped at hospitals, sometimes after rigor mortis had already set in, with clearly unsurvivable wounds, having been shot in the chest and head at close range. Reuters examined data from two Manila police districts, and found that the proportion of suspects sent to hospitals, where they are pronounced dead on arrival (DOA), increased from 13 % in July 2016 to 85 % in January 2017; "The totals grew along with international and domestic condemnation of Duterte 's campaign. ''
On July 30, Reynaldo Parojinog, the mayor of Ozamiz City, was killed along with 14 others, including his wife Susan, in a dawn raid at around 2: 30 am on his home in San Roque Lawis. According to police, they were on a search warrant when Parojinog 's bodyguards opened fire on them and police officers responded by shooting at them. According to police provincial chief Jaysen De Guzman, authorities recovered grenades, ammunition and illegal drugs in the raid.
On August 16, over 32 people are killed on multiple "one - time, big - time '' antidrug operations in Bulacan within one day. On Manila, 25 people, including 11 suspected robbers, are also killed in consecutive anti-criminality operations. The multiple deaths in the large - scale antidrug operations received condemnation from human rights groups and majority of the Senate.
On August 17, Kian Loyd delos Santos, a 17 - year - old Grade 11 student, was shot dead on an antidrug operation in Caloocan. CCTV footage appeared to show Kian being dragged by two policemen. Police say they killed him in self - defense, and retrieved a gun and two packets of methamphetamine. Delos Santos was the son of an overseas Filipino worker, a key demographic in support of Duterte. The teenager 's death caused condemnation by senators. His funeral on August 25, attended by more than a thousand people, was one of the largest protests to date against the Drug War.
Carl Angelo Arnaiz, a 19 - year - old teenager, last found in Cainta, Rizal, was tortured and shot dead also in August 17 (the same date Kian delos Santos was killed) by police after robbing a taxi in Caloocan. His 14 - year - old friend, Reynaldo de Guzman, also called under the nickname "Kulot '', was stabbed to death thirty times and thrown into a creek in Gapan, Nueva Ecija. Along with the deaths of Kian delos Santos, the deaths of the two teenagers also received public outrage and condemnation.
Human Rights Watch repeated their call for a UN investigation. HRW Asia director Phelim Kine commented: "The apparent willingness of Philippine police to deliberately target children for execution marks an appalling new level of depravity in this so - called drug war ''. Duterte called the deaths of Arnaiz and de Guzman (the former being a relative of the President on his mother 's side) a "sabotage '', believing that some groups are using the Philippine National Police to destroy the president 's public image. Presidential spokesman Abella said "It should not come as a surprise that these malignant elements would conspire to sabotage the president 's campaign to rid the Philippines of illegal drugs and criminality '', which "may include creating scenarios stoking public anger against the government ''.
As a result of involvement in the deaths of teenagers like Kian delos Santos, and Carl Angelo Arnaiz and Reynaldo de Guzman, and robbing of a drug suspect in an antidrug raid, National Capital Region Police Office (NCRPO) chief Oscar Albayalde ordered the firing and retraining of all members of the Caloocan City Police, with the exception of its newly appointed chief and its deputy.
On October 12, 2017, Duterte announced the transfer of anti-drug operations to the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA), ending the involvement of the Philippine National Police (PNP). The announcement followed the publication of an opinion poll on October 8, showing a drop in presidential approval from 66 % to 48 %. This is amidst the political storm and public outrage on the murders of minors by the Caloocan City police, and the various murder cases allegedly done by other law enforcement agents that surfaced in mainsteam and social media. In a televised speech, Duterte scoffed and mocked the "bleeding hearts '' who sympathized with those killed in the drug war, pointedly at the European Union, whom he accused of interfering with Philippine sovereignty.
In a speech before Asean representatives, Rodrigo Duterte tried to refute all extrajudicial killings related to the War on Drugs by stating that these stories only serves as a political agenda in order to "demonize '' him. He stated that he has only used his mouth to tell drug users that they will be killed. He stated that "drug users deserved to be killed because they have shrunken brains incapable of proper thinking ''. Duterte further added that all the drug pushers and their henchmen always carry their guns with them and killing them is justifiable so that they would not endanger the lives of his men. In order to freshen his image, Duterte appointed a human rights lawyer, Harry Roque, a Kabayan partylist representative, as his spokesperson. Roque stated that he will change public perception by reducing the impact of the statements of Duterte that advocates extra-judicial killings in his war on drugs.
Some politicians asked Duterte to investigate the killings, while others took the opportunity to propose Senate bills to lower the age of criminal responsibility from fifteen to nine, and to restore capital punishment. Senator Risa Hontiveros, an opponent of Duterte, said that the Drug War was a political strategy intended to persuade people that "suddenly the historically most important issue of poverty was no longer the most important. '' De Lima expressed frustration with the attitude of Filipinos towards extrajudicial killing: "they think that it 's good for peace and order. We now have death squads on a national scale, but I 'm not seeing public outrage. '' According to a Pulse Asia opinion poll conducted from July 2 to 8, 2016, 91 % of Filipinos "trusted '' Duterte. In a survey conducted between February and May, by PEW research center, found that 78 % of the Filipinos support the drug war.
Dela Rosa announced in September 2016 that the Drug War had "reduced the supply of illegal drugs in the country by some 80 to 90 percent '', and said that the War was already being won, based on statistical and observational evidence. Aljazeera reported that John Collins, director of the London School of Economics International Drug Policy Project, had a more cautious assessment: "Targeting the supply side can have short - term effects. However, these are usually limited to creating market chaos rather than reducing the size of the market... What you learn is that you 're going to war with a force of economics and the force of economics tends to win out: supply, demand and price tend to find their own way. '' He said it was a "certainty '' that "the Philippines ' new ' war ' will fail and society will emerge worse off from it. '' In June 2017 the price of methamphetamine on the streets of Manila was lower than it had been at the start of Duterte 's presidency, according to Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency data. Gloria Lai of the International Drug Policy Consortium commented: "If prices have fallen, it 's an indication that enforcement actions have not been effective ''.
The Chairman of the Philippine Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Sergio Ortiz - Luis Jr., quelled fears that foreign investors might be put off by the increasing rate of killings in the country, explaining at a press conference on September 19, 2016, that investors only care about profit: "They do n't care if 50 percent of Filipinos are killing each other so long as they 're not affected ''. On the following day the Wall Street Journal reported that foreign investors, who account for half of the activity on the Philippine Stock Exchange, had been "hightailing it out of town '', selling $500 million worth of shares over the past month, putting pressure on the Philippine peso which was close to its weakest point since 2009.
The Archbishop of Manila Luis Antonio Tagle acknowledged that people were right to be "worried about extrajudicial killings '', along with other "form (s) of murder '': abortion, unfair labor practices, wasting food, and "selling illegal drugs, pushing the youth to go into vices ''.
During his official state visit to the Philippines in January 2017, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe said: "On countering illegal drugs, we want to work together with the Philippines through relevant measures of support ''. He offered financial assistance for Philippine drug rehabilitation centres, and made no mention of deaths resulting from the drug war. He announced a $800 million Official Development Assistance package to "promote economic and infrastructure development ''.
Gary Song - Huann Lin, the representative of Taiwan in the Philippines, welcomed Duterte 's plan to declare a war against criminality and illegal drugs. He said Taiwan is ready to help the Philippines combat cross-border crimes like human and drug trafficking.
On July 19, 2016, Lingxiao Li, spokesman for the Chinese Embassy in Manila, announced China 's support for the Drug War: "China fully understands that the Philippine government under the leadership of H.E. President Rodrigo Duterte has taken it as a top priority in cracking down drug - related crimes. China has expressed explicitly to the new administration China 's willingness for effective cooperation in this regard, and would like to work out a specific plan of action with the Philippine side. '' The statement made no reference to extrajudicial killings, and called illegal drugs the "common enemy of mankind ''. On September 27, the Chinese Ambassador Zhao Jianhua reiterated that "Illegal drugs are the enemy of all mankind '' in a statement confirming Chinese support for the Duterte administration.
Indonesian National Police Chief General Tito Karnavian commented in regards to Indonesia 's rejection of a similar policy for Indonesia: "Shoot on sight policy leads to abuse of power. We still believe in presumption of innocence. Lethal actions are only warranted if there is an immediate threat against officers... there should not be a deliberate attempt to kill ''. In September 2016 Budi Waseso, head of Indonesia 's National Anti-Narcotics Agency (BNN), said that he was currently contemplating copying the Philippines ' hardline tactics against drug traffickers. He said that the Agency planned a major increase in armaments and recruitment. An Agency spokesman later attempted to play down the comments, stating: "We ca n't shoot criminals just like that, we have to follow the rules. '' Most recently, Indonesian President Joko "Jokowi '' Widodo used the language of "emergency '' to ramp up the country 's war on drugs, in a move that observers see as "in step with Filipino President Rodrigo Duterte 's '' own campaign against the illegal drug trade.
On October 16, prior to Duterte 's departure for a state visit to Brunei, the President said he would seek the support of that country for his campaign against illegal drugs and Brunei 's continued assistance to achieve peace and progress in Mindanao. This was responded positively from Brunei Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah in the next day according to Philippine Foreign Affairs Secretary Perfecto Yasay Jr. Malaysia 's Deputy Prime Minister Ahmad Zahid Hamidi said "he respect the method undertaken by the Philippine government as it is suitable for their country situation '', while stressing that "Malaysia will never follow such example as we have our own methods with one of those such as seizing assets used in drug trafficking with resultant funds to be channelled back towards rehabilitation, prevention and enforcement of laws against drugs ''.
On December 3, during a phone conversation between Duterte and then - United States President - elect Donald Trump, the latter called the government role in the "war on drugs '' as done at "the right way ''.
On December 16, Duterte and Singaporean President Tony Tan and Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong have agreed to work together in the fight against terrorism and illegal drugs. In a meeting during a state visit both parties discussed areas of cooperation between the two countries.
The European Parliament expressed concern over the extrajudicial killings after a resolution on September 15, stating: "Drug trafficking and drug abuse in the Philippines remain a serious national and international concern, note MEPs. They understand that millions of people are hurt by the high level of drug addiction and its consequences in the country but are also concerned by the ' extraordinarily high numbers killed during police operations in the context of an intensified anti-crime and anti-drug campaign. '' In response, at a press conference Duterte made an obscene hand gesture and called British and French representatives "hypocrites '' because their ancestors had killed thousands of Arabs and others in the colonial era. He said: "When I read the EU condemnation I told them fuck you. You are doing it in atonement for your sins. They are now strict because they have guilty feelings. Who did I kill? Assuming that it 's true? 1,700? How many have they killed? ''
EU Trade Commissioner Cecilia Malmström, in a visit to the Philippines in March 2017, warned that unless the Philippines addresses human rights issues, the EU would cancel tariff - free export of 6,000 products under the Generalized System of Preferences. Presidential spokesman Ernesto Abella dismissed the concerns, saying that they revealed European ignorance.
On December 24, U.S. Senators Marco Rubio, Edward Markey, and Christopher Coons expressed their concerns regarding the alleged extrajudicial killings and human rights violations in Duterte 's war on drugs. Through a letter sent to the U.S. Department of State, they noted that instead of addressing the drug problem, investing in treatment programs or approaching the issue with an emphasis on health, Duterte has "pledged to kill another 20,000 to 30,000 people, many simply because they suffer from a drug use disorder. '' Rubio, Markey and Coons also questioned U.S. secretary of state John Kerry 's pledge of $32 - million funding for training and other law - enforcement assistance during his visit to Manila. In May 2017, Senator Rubio, along with Senator Ben Cardin, filed a bipartisan bill in the U.S. Senate to restrict the exportation of weapons from the U.S. to the Philippines.
The US ambassador in Manila announced on December 14, 2016, that the US foreign aid agency, the Millennium Challenge Corporation, would cancel funding to the Philippines due to "significant concerns around rule of law and civil liberties in the Philippines '', explaining that aid recipients were required to demonstrate a "commitment to the rule of law, due process and respect for human rights ''. The MCC had disbursed $434 million to the Philippines from 2011 to 2015. The funding denial was expected to lead to the cancellation of a five - year infrastructure development project previously agreed to in December 2015.
The International Criminal Court (ICC) chief prosecutor Fatou Bensouda expressed concern, over the drug - related killings in the country, on October 13. In her statement, Bensouda said that the high officials of the country "seem to condone such killings and further seem to encourage State forces and civilians alike to continue targeting these individuals with lethal force. '' She also warns that any person in the country who provoke "in acts of mass violence by ordering, requesting, encouraging or contributing, in any other manner, to the commission of crimes within the jurisdiction of ICC '' will be prosecuted before the court. About that, Duterte is open for the investigation by the ICC, Malacañang said.
In February 2017, former Colombian President César Gaviria wrote an opinion piece on The New York Times to warn Duterte and the administration that the drug war is "unwinnable '' and "disastrous '', citing his own experiences as the President of Colombia. He also criticized the alleged extrajudicial killings and vigilantism, saying these are "the wrong ways to go ''. According to Gaviria, the war on drugs is essentially a war on people. Gaviria suggested that improving public health and safety, strengthening anti-corruption measures, investing in sustainable development, decriminalizing drug consumption, and strengthening the regulation of therapeutic goods would enhance supply and demand reduction. In response to Gaviria, Duterte called him an "idiot '', and said the issue of extrajudicial killings should be set aside, and that there were four to five million drug addicts in the country.
In September 2017, Foreign Affairs Secretary Alan Peter Cayetano delivered a speech at the 72nd United Nations General Assembly, during which he argued that extrajudicial killings were a myth, and that the Drug war, which according to Human Rights Watch has resulted in 13,000 deaths to date, was being waged to "protect (the) human rights of... the most vulnerable (citizens) ''. (See "Asean, the UN and Sec. Cayetano 's sophistry, '' INQUIRER.NET US Bureau, November 22, 2017).
In October 2017, Foreign Affairs Secretary Alan Peter Cayetano was interview by international media, Aljazeera. He asserted that all 3,900 people who were killed in the drug war fought against the police despite investigation prior to the drug bust were not conducted. He also rebuffed all claims that the drug war was against its people.
The ongoing drug war has been subject to popular interpretation from various media outlets ranging from local to international productions.
In March 2017, a National Geographic episode was aired featuring scenes and stories of the drug war.
"Hustisya '' is a rap song about the drug war which was created by local artists inspired by the death of their friend immortalized in a photograph often compared to Michelangelo 's Pieta.
In December 2016, American singer James Taylor posted on social media that he had cancelled his concert in Manila, which was set for February 2017, citing the increasing number of deaths related to the drug war.
On April 11, 2017, The New York Times won a Pulitzer Prize for breaking news photography on their Philippine Drug war report. The story was published on December 7, 2016, and was titled "They Are Slaughtering Us Like Animals ''.
The La Pieta or the "Philippines Pieta '', named after the sculpture by Michelangelo, refers to the photograph of Jennilyn Olayres holding the lifeless corpse of Michael Siaron, who was shot dead by unidentified assailants in Pasay, Metro Manila, in July 23, 2016. The image was widely used in the national press. The death of Michael Siaron remains unsolved for almost a year. Malacañang asserts that the man behind the killing were committed by drug syndicates themselves. After Siaron was shot dead by unidentified assailants, a writing on a cardboard states, "Wag tularan si Siaron dahil pusher umano, '' was placed on his body. One year and three months after he was killed, the police identified as the suspected assailant as Nesty Santiago through a ballistic exam on the recovered firearm. Santiago was apparently a member of a syndicate involved in robberies, car thefts, hired killings and illegal drugs. The Pasay City Police declared his death as "case closed ''. However, Santiago was also killed by riding - in - tandem on December 29, 2016. No further investigation were made.
A photo of a body of an alleged drug dealer, killed during a police anti-drug operation, in Manila by Noel Celis has been selected as one of Time Magazine 's top 100 photos of 2017.
There are various mobile games featuring Duterte fighting criminals. Many of these games, however, have since been removed by Apple Inc. from their App Store following an appeal by various regional organizations.
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which musical element is an innovation attributed to the renaissance brainly | Eugène Delacroix - wikipedia
Ferdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix (French: (ø. ʒɛn də. la. kʁwa); 26 April 1798 -- 13 August 1863) was a French Romantic artist regarded from the outset of his career as the leader of the French Romantic school.
As a painter and muralist, Delacroix 's use of expressive brushstrokes and his study of the optical effects of colour profoundly shaped the work of the Impressionists, while his passion for the exotic inspired the artists of the Symbolist movement. A fine lithographer, Delacroix illustrated various works of William Shakespeare, the Scottish author Walter Scott and the German author Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
In contrast to the Neoclassical perfectionism of his chief rival Ingres, Delacroix took for his inspiration the art of Rubens and painters of the Venetian Renaissance, with an attendant emphasis on colour and movement rather than clarity of outline and carefully modelled form. Dramatic and romantic content characterized the central themes of his maturity, and led him not to the classical models of Greek and Roman art, but to travel in North Africa, in search of the exotic. Friend and spiritual heir to Théodore Géricault, Delacroix was also inspired by Lord Byron, with whom he shared a strong identification with the "forces of the sublime '', of nature in often violent action.
However, Delacroix was given to neither sentimentality nor bombast, and his Romanticism was that of an individualist. In the words of Baudelaire, "Delacroix was passionately in love with passion, but coldly determined to express passion as clearly as possible. ''
Eugène Delacroix was born on 26 April 1798 at Charenton - Saint - Maurice in Île - de-France, near Paris. His mother was named Victoire, daughter of the cabinet - maker Jean - François Oeben. He had three much older siblings. Charles - Henri Delacroix (1779 -- 1845) rose to the rank of General in the Napoleonic army. Henriette (1780 -- 1827) married the diplomat Raymond de Verninac Saint - Maur (1762 -- 1822). Henri was born six years later. He was killed at the Battle of Friedland on 14 June 1807.
There is reason to believe that Eugène 's father, Charles - François Delacroix, was infertile at the time of Eugène 's conception and that his real father was Talleyrand, who was a friend of the family and successor of Charles Delacroix as Minister of Foreign Affairs, and whom the adult Eugène resembled in appearance and character. Throughout his career as a painter, he was protected by Talleyrand, who served successively the Restoration and king Louis - Philippe, and ultimately as ambassador of France in Great Britain, and later by Talleyrand 's grandson, Charles Auguste Louis Joseph, duc de Morny, half - brother of Napoleon III and speaker of the French House of Commons. His presumed father, Charles Delacroix, died in 1805, and his mother in 1814, leaving 16 - year - old Eugène an orphan.
His early education was at the Lycée Louis - le - Grand, and at the Lycée Pierre Corneille in Rouen where he steeped himself in the classics and won awards for drawing. In 1815 he began his training with Pierre - Narcisse Guérin in the neoclassical style of Jacques - Louis David. An early church commission, The Virgin of the Harvest (1819), displays a Raphael-esque influence, but another such commission, The Virgin of the Sacred Heart (1821), evidences a freer interpretation. It precedes the influence of the more colourful and rich style of the Flemish Baroque painter Peter Paul Rubens, and fellow French artist Théodore Géricault, whose works marked an introduction to Romanticism in art.
The impact of Géricault 's The Raft of the Medusa was profound, and stimulated Delacroix to produce his first major painting, The Barque of Dante, which was accepted by the Paris Salon in 1822. The work caused a sensation, and was largely derided by the public and officialdom, yet was purchased by the State for the Luxembourg Galleries; the pattern of widespread opposition to his work, countered by a vigorous, enlightened support, would continue throughout his life. Two years later he again achieved popular success for his The Massacre at Chios.
Delacroix 's painting of the massacre at Chios shows sick, dying Greek civilians about to be slaughtered by the Turks. One of several paintings he made of this contemporary event, it expresses sympathy for the Greek cause in their war of independence against the Turks, a popular sentiment at the time for the French people. Delacroix was quickly recognized as a leading painter in the new Romantic style, and the picture was bought by the state. His depiction of suffering was controversial, however, as there was no glorious event taking place, no patriots raising their swords in valour as in David 's Oath of the Horatii, only a disaster. Many critics deplored the painting 's despairing tone; the artist Antoine - Jean Gros called it "a massacre of art ''. The pathos in the depiction of an infant clutching its dead mother 's breast had an especially powerful effect, although this detail was condemned as unfit for art by Delacroix 's critics. A viewing of the paintings of John Constable and the watercolour sketches and art of Richard Parkes Bonnington prompted Delacroix to make extensive, freely painted changes to the sky and distant landscape.
Delacroix produced a second painting in support of the Greeks in their war for independence, this time referring to the capture of Missolonghi by Turkish forces in 1825. With a restraint of palette appropriate to the allegory, Greece Expiring on the Ruins of Missolonghi displays a woman in Greek costume with her breast bared, arms half - raised in an imploring gesture before the horrible scene: the suicide of the Greeks, who chose to kill themselves and destroy their city rather than surrender to the Turks. A hand is seen at the bottom, the body having been crushed by rubble. The painting serves as a monument to the people of Missolonghi and to the idea of freedom against tyrannical rule. This event interested Delacroix not only for his sympathies with the Greeks, but also because the poet Byron, whom Delacroix greatly admired, had died there.
A trip to England in 1825 included visits to Thomas Lawrence and Richard Parkes Bonington, and the colour and handling of English painting provided impetus for his only full - length portrait, the elegant Portrait of Louis - Auguste Schwiter (1826 -- 30). At roughly the same time, Delacroix was creating romantic works of numerous themes, many of which would continue to interest him for over thirty years. By 1825, he was producing lithographs illustrating Shakespeare, and soon thereafter lithographs and paintings from Goethe 's Faust. Paintings such as The Combat of the Giaour and Hassan (1826), and Woman with Parrot (1827), introduced subjects of violence and sensuality which would prove to be recurrent.
These various romantic strands came together in the Death of Sardanapalus (1827 -- 28). Delacroix 's painting of the death of the Assyrian king Sardanapalus shows an emotionally stirring scene alive with beautiful colours, exotic costumes and tragic events. The Death of Sardanapalus depicts the besieged king watching impassively as guards carry out his orders to kill his servants, concubines and animals. The literary source is a play by Byron, although the play does not specifically mention any massacre of concubines.
Sardanapalus ' attitude of calm detachment is a familiar pose in Romantic imagery in this period in Europe. The painting, which was not exhibited again for many years afterward, has been regarded by some critics as a gruesome fantasy involving death and lust. Especially shocking is the struggle of a nude woman whose throat is about to be cut, a scene placed prominently in the foreground for maximum impact. However, the sensuous beauty and exotic colours of the composition make the picture appear pleasing and shocking at the same time.
A variety of Romantic interests were again synthesized in The Murder of the Bishop of Liège (1829). It also borrowed from a literary source, this time Scott, and depicts a scene from the Middle Ages, that of the murder of Louis de Bourbon, Bishop of Liège amidst an orgy sponsored by his captor, William de la Marck. Set in an immense vaulted interior which Delacroix based on sketches of the Palais de Justice in Rouen and Westminster Hall, the drama plays out in chiaroscuro, organized around a brilliantly lit stretch of tablecloth. In 1855, a critic described the painting 's vibrant handling as "Less finished than a painting, more finished than a sketch, The Murder of the Bishop of Liège was left by the painter at that supreme moment when one more stroke of the brush would have ruined everything ''.
Delacroix 's most influential work came in 1830 with the painting Liberty Leading the People, which for choice of subject and technique highlights the differences between the romantic approach and the neoclassical style. Less obviously, it also differs from the Romanticism of Géricault, as exemplified by The Raft of the Medusa.
Delacroix felt his composition more vividly as a whole, thought of his figures and crowds as types, and dominated them by the symbolic figure of Republican Liberty which is one of his finest plastic inventions...
Probably Delacroix 's best - known painting, Liberty Leading the People is an unforgettable image of Parisians, having taken up arms, marching forward under the banner of the tricolour representing liberty, equality, and fraternity. Although Delacroix was inspired by contemporary events to invoke this romantic image of the spirit of liberty, he seems to be trying to convey the will and character of the people, rather than glorifying the actual event, the 1830 revolution against Charles X, which did little other than bring a different king, Louis - Philippe, to power. The warriors lying dead in the foreground offer poignant counterpoint to the symbolic female figure, who is illuminated triumphantly, as if in a spotlight.
Although the French government bought the painting, officials deemed its glorification of liberty too inflammatory and removed it from public view. Nonetheless, Delacroix still received many government commissions for murals and ceiling paintings.
Following the Revolution of 1848 that saw the end of the reign of King Louis Philippe, Delacroix ' painting, Liberty Leading the People, was finally put on display by the newly elected President, Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III). It is exhibited in the Louvre museum in Paris; although from December, 2012 until 2014 it was on exhibit at Louvre - Lens in Lens, Pas - de-Calais.
The boy holding a gun up on the right is sometimes thought to be an inspiration of the Gavroche character in Victor Hugo 's 1862 novel, Les Misérables.
In 1832, Delacroix traveled to Spain and North Africa, as part of a diplomatic mission to Morocco shortly after the French conquered Algeria. He went not primarily to study art, but to escape from the civilization of Paris, in hopes of seeing a more primitive culture. He eventually produced over 100 paintings and drawings of scenes from or based on the life of the people of North Africa, and added a new and personal chapter to the interest in Orientalism. Delacroix was entranced by the people and the costumes, and the trip would inform the subject matter of a great many of his future paintings. He believed that the North Africans, in their attire and their attitudes, provided a visual equivalent to the people of Classical Rome and Greece:
The Greeks and Romans are here at my door, in the Arabs who wrap themselves in a white blanket and look like Cato or Brutus...
He managed to sketch some women secretly in Algiers, as in the painting Women of Algiers in their Apartment (1834), but generally he encountered difficulty in finding Muslim women to pose for him because of Muslim rules requiring that women be covered. Less problematic was the painting of Jewish women in North Africa, as subjects for the Jewish Wedding in Morocco (1837 -- 41).
While in Tangier, Delacroix made many sketches of the people and the city, subjects to which he would return until the end of his life. Animals -- the embodiment of romantic passion -- were incorporated into paintings such as Arab Horses Fighting in a Stable (1860), The Lion Hunt (of which there exist many versions, painted between 1856 and 1861), and Arab Saddling his Horse (1855).
Delacroix pulled inspiration from many sources over his career, such as the literary works of William Shakespeare and Lord Byron, or the artistry of Michelangelo. But from beginning to end of his life, he was in part characterized by a constant need for music saying in 1855, "nothing can be compared with the emotion caused by music; that it expresses incomparable shades of feeling. '' He had said, while working at Sain - Sulpice, that the music put him in a state of "exaltation '' which inspired his painting. It was often in music, in the most melancholy renditions of Chopin, or the "pastoral '' works of Beethoven that Delacroix was often able to draw the most emotion and inspiration. At one point doing his life, Delacroix befriended and made portraits of the composer Chopin, who, in his journal, Delacroix praised frequently.
In 1838 Delacroix exhibited Medea about to Kill Her Children, which created a sensation at the Salon. His first large - scale treatment of a scene from Greek mythology, the painting depicts Medea clutching her children, dagger drawn to slay them in vengeance for her abandonment by Jason. The three nude figures form an animated pyramid, bathed in a raking light which penetrates the grotto in which Medea has hidden. Though the painting was quickly purchased by the State, Delacroix was disappointed when it was sent to the Lille Musée des Beaux - Arts; he had intended for it to hang at the Luxembourg, where it would have joined The Barque of Dante and Scenes from the Massacres of Chios.
From 1833 Delacroix received numerous commissions to decorate public buildings in Paris. In that year he began work for the Salon du Roi in the Chambre des Députés, Palais Bourbon, which was not completed until 1837, and began a lifelong friendship with the female artist Marie - Élisabeth Blavot - Boulanger. For the next ten years he painted in both the Library at the Palais Bourbon and the Library at the Palais du Luxembourg. In 1843 he decorated the Church of St. Denis du Saint Sacrement with a large Pietà, and from 1848 to 1850 he painted the ceiling in the Galerie d'Apollon of the Louvre. From 1857 to 1861 he worked on frescoes for the Chapelle des Anges at the Church of St. Sulpice in Paris. They included "The Battle of Jacob with the Angel '', "Saint Michael Slaying the Dragon '', and "The Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple ''. These commissions offered him the opportunity to compose on a large scale in an architectural setting, much as had those masters he admired, Paolo Veronese, Tintoretto, and Rubens.
The work was fatiguing, and during these years he suffered from an increasingly fragile constitution. In addition to his home in Paris, from 1844 he also lived at a small cottage in Champrosay, where he found respite in the countryside. From 1834 until his death, he was faithfully cared for by his housekeeper, Jeanne - Marie le Guillou, who zealously guarded his privacy, and whose devotion prolonged his life and his ability to continue working in his later years.
In 1862 Delacroix participated in the creation of the Société Nationale des Beaux - Arts. His friend, the writer Théophile Gautier, became chairman, with the painter Aimé Millet acting as deputy chairman. In addition to Delacroix, the committee was composed of the painters Carrier - Belleuse and Puvis de Chavannes. Among the exhibitors were Léon Bonnat, Jean - Baptiste Carpeaux, Charles - François Daubigny, Gustave Doré, and Édouard Manet. Just after his death in 1863, the society organized a retrospective exhibition of 248 paintings and lithographs by Delacroix -- and ceased to mount any further exhibitions.
The winter of 1862 - 63 was extremely rough for Eugene; he was suffering from a bad throat infection which seemed to get worse during the winter. On a trip to Champrosay, he met a friend on the train and he was so exhausted after having a conversation. On June 1st he returned to Paris to see his doctor. On June 16, he was getting better and returned to his house in the country. On July 15, he was so sick he went back to see his doctor who realized he could not do anything more for him, by then, the only food he could eat was fruit. Eugene realized his condition and wrote his Will, for all his friends he left a memento. For his trusted housekeeper, Jenny Le Guillou, he left enough for her to live on and ordered everything in his studio to be sold. He also inserted a clause forbidding any representation of his features "whether by a death - mask or by drawing or by photography. I forbid it expressly. '' On August 13, Eugene Delacroix died, with Jenny by his side. He was buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery.
His house, formerly situated along the canal of the Marne, is now near the exit of the motorway leading from Paris to central Germany.
Mademoiselle Rose, 1817 -- 24, Louvre
Orphan Girl at the Cemetery, 1823
Louis of Orléans Unveiling his Mistress, c. 1825 -- 26, Thyssen - Bornemisza Collection
Charles Étienne Raymond Victor de Verninac, the painter 's nephew, c. 1825 -- 26
The Combat of the Giaour and Hassan, 1826, Art Institute of Chicago
Woman with a Parrot, 1827
Woman With White Socks, 1825 -- 30
A Young Tiger Playing with its Mother, 1830
The Duke of Morny 's Apartment, 1831 -- 33, Louvre
Portrait of Dr. François - Marie Desmaisons, 1832 -- 33, Detroit Institute of Arts
Fantasia Arabe, 1833
The Women of Algiers, 1834, Louvre
The Battle of Taillebourg (draft), 1834 - 1835, Louvre
The Natchez, 1835, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Frédéric Chopin, 1838, Louvre
George Sand, 1838, Ordrupgaard - Museum
Columbus and His Son at La Rábida, 1838, National Gallery of Art
Jewish Wedding in Morocco, c. 1839, Louvre
Hamlet with Horatio, (the gravedigger scene), 1839, Louvre
Christ on the Sea of Galilee, 1841
Collision of Moorish Horsemen, 1844
Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, 1844, Musée des Beaux - Arts de Lyon
Desdemona Cursed by her Father (Desdemona maudite par son père), c. 1850 -- 54, Brooklyn Museum
1855, Moroccan Saddles His Horse, Hermitage Museum
Rider Attacked by a Jaguar, 1855
The Bride of Abydos, 1857
The Death of Desdemona, 1858
Horses Coming Out of the Sea, 1860
Arab Horses Fighting in a Stable, 1860
Shipwreck on the Coast, 1862, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston
Ovid among the Scythians, oil on cavas, 1862
Winter: Juno and Aeolus, 1856
At the sale of his work in 1864, 9140 works were attributed to Delacroix, including 853 paintings, 1525 pastels and water colours, 6629 drawings, 109 lithographs, and over 60 sketch books. The number and quality of the drawings, whether done for constructive purposes or to capture a spontaneous movement, underscored his explanation, "Colour always occupies me, but drawing preoccupies me. '' Delacroix produced several fine self - portraits, and a number of memorable portraits which seem to have been done purely for pleasure, among which were the portrait of fellow artist Baron Schwiter, an inspired small oil of the violinist Niccolò Paganini, and Portrait of Frédéric Chopin and George Sand, a double portrait of his friends, the composer Frédéric Chopin and writer George Sand; the painting was cut after his death, but the individual portraits survive.
On occasion Delacroix painted pure landscapes (The Sea at Dieppe, 1852) and still lifes (Still Life with Lobsters, 1826 -- 27), both of which feature the virtuoso execution of his figure - based works. He is also well known for his Journal, in which he gave eloquent expression to his thoughts on art and contemporary life.
A generation of impressionists was inspired by Delacroix 's work. Renoir and Manet made copies of his paintings, and Degas purchased the portrait of Baron Schwiter for his private collection. His painting at the church of St. Sulpice has been called the "finest mural painting of his time ''.
Contemporary Chinese artist Yue Minjun has created his own interpretation of Delacroix 's painting Massacre of Chios, which retains the same name. Yue Minjun 's painting was itself sold at Sotheby 's for nearly $4.1 million in 2007.
His pencil drawing Moorish Conversation on a Terrace was discovered as part of the 2012 Nazi loot discovery.
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how large a sample is necessary for this sample mean to be statistically significant | Sample size determination - wikipedia
Sample size determination is the act of choosing the number of observations or replicates to include in a statistical sample. The sample size is an important feature of any empirical study in which the goal is to make inferences about a population from a sample. In practice, the sample size used in a study is determined based on the expense of data collection, and the need to have sufficient statistical power. In complicated studies there may be several different sample sizes involved in the study: for example, in a stratified survey there would be different sample sizes for each stratum. In a census, data are collected on the entire population, hence the sample size is equal to the population size. In experimental design, where a study may be divided into different treatment groups, this may be different sample sizes for each group.
Sample sizes may be chosen in several different ways:
Larger sample sizes generally lead to increased precision when estimating unknown parameters. For example, if we wish to know the proportion of a certain species of fish that is infected with a pathogen, we would generally have a more precise estimate of this proportion if we sampled and examined 200 rather than 100 fish. Several fundamental facts of mathematical statistics describe this phenomenon, including the law of large numbers and the central limit theorem.
In some situations, the increase in precision for larger sample sizes is minimal, or even non-existent. This can result from the presence of systematic errors or strong dependence in the data, or if the data follows a heavy - tailed distribution.
Sample sizes are judged based on the quality of the resulting estimates. For example, if a proportion is being estimated, one may wish to have the 95 % confidence interval be less than 0.06 units wide. Alternatively, sample size may be assessed based on the power of a hypothesis test. For example, if we are comparing the support for a certain political candidate among women with the support for that candidate among men, we may wish to have 80 % power to detect a difference in the support levels of 0.04 units.
A relatively simple situation is estimation of a proportion. For example, we may wish to estimate the proportion of residents in a community who are at least 65 years old.
The estimator of a proportion is p ^ = X / n (\ displaystyle (\ hat (p)) = X / n), where X is the number of ' positive ' observations (e.g. the number of people out of the n sampled people who are at least 65 years old). When the observations are independent, this estimator has a (scaled) binomial distribution (and is also the sample mean of data from a Bernoulli distribution). The maximum variance of this distribution is 0.25 / n, which occurs when the true parameter is p = 0.5. In practice, since p is unknown, the maximum variance is often used for sample size assessments.
For sufficiently large n, the distribution of p ^ (\ displaystyle (\ hat (p))) will be closely approximated by a normal distribution. Using this approximation, it can be shown that around 95 % of this distribution 's probability lies within 2 standard deviations of the mean. Using the Wald method for the binomial distribution, an interval of the form
will form a 95 % confidence interval for the true proportion. If this interval needs to be no more than W units wide, the equation
can be solved for n, yielding n = 4 / W = 1 / B where B is the error bound on the estimate, i.e., the estimate is usually given as within ± B. So, for B = 10 % one requires n = 100, for B = 5 % one needs n = 400, for B = 3 % the requirement approximates to n = 1000, while for B = 1 % a sample size of n = 10000 is required. These numbers are quoted often in news reports of opinion polls and other sample surveys.
A proportion is a special case of a mean. When estimating the population mean using an independent and identically distributed (iid) sample of size n, where each data value has variance σ, the standard error of the sample mean is:
This expression describes quantitatively how the estimate becomes more precise as the sample size increases. Using the central limit theorem to justify approximating the sample mean with a normal distribution yields an approximate 95 % confidence interval of the form
If we wish to have a confidence interval that is W units in width, we would solve
for n, yielding the sample size n = 16σ / W.
For example, if we are interested in estimating the amount by which a drug lowers a subject 's blood pressure with a confidence interval that is six units wide, and we know that the standard deviation of blood pressure in the population is 15, then the required sample size is 100.
A common problem faced by statisticians is calculating the sample size required to yield a certain power for a test, given a predetermined Type I error rate α. As follows, this can be estimated by pre-determined tables for certain values, by Mead 's resource equation, or, more generally, by the cumulative distribution function:
The table shown on the right can be used in a two - sample t - test to estimate the sample sizes of an experimental group and a control group that are of equal size, that is, the total number of individuals in the trial is twice that of the number given, and the desired significance level is 0.05. The parameters used are:
Mead 's resource equation is often used for estimating sample sizes of laboratory animals, as well as in many other laboratory experiments. It may not be as accurate as using other methods in estimating sample size, but gives a hint of what is the appropriate sample size where parameters such as expected standard deviations or expected differences in values between groups are unknown or very hard to estimate.
All the parameters in the equation are in fact the degrees of freedom of the number of their concepts, and hence, their numbers are subtracted by 1 before insertion into the equation.
The equation is:
where:
For example, if a study using laboratory animals is planned with four treatment groups (T = 3), with eight animals per group, making 32 animals total (N = 31), without any further stratification (B = 0), then E would equal 28, which is above the cutoff of 20, indicating that sample size may be a bit too large, and six animals per group might be more appropriate.
Let X, i = 1, 2,..., n be independent observations taken from a normal distribution with unknown mean μ and known variance σ. Let us consider two hypotheses, a null hypothesis:
and an alternative hypothesis:
for some ' smallest significant difference ' μ > 0. This is the smallest value for which we care about observing a difference. Now, if we wish to (1) reject H with a probability of at least 1 - β when H is true (i.e. a power of 1 - β), and (2) reject H with probability α when H is true, then we need the following:
If z is the upper α percentage point of the standard normal distribution, then
and so
is a decision rule which satisfies (2). (Note, this is a 1 - tailed test)
Now we wish for this to happen with a probability at least 1 - β when H is true. In this case, our sample average will come from a Normal distribution with mean μ. Therefore, we require
Through careful manipulation, this can be shown (see Statistical power # Example) to happen when
where Φ (\ displaystyle \ Phi) is the normal cumulative distribution function.
With more complicated sampling techniques, such as stratified sampling, the sample can often be split up into sub-samples. Typically, if there are H such sub-samples (from H different strata) then each of them will have a sample size n, h = 1, 2,..., H. These n must conform to the rule that n + n +... + n = n (i.e. that the total sample size is given by the sum of the sub-sample sizes). Selecting these n optimally can be done in various ways, using (for example) Neyman 's optimal allocation.
There are many reasons to use stratified sampling: to decrease variances of sample estimates, to use partly non-random methods, or to study strata individually. A useful, partly non-random method would be to sample individuals where easily accessible, but, where not, sample clusters to save travel costs.
In general, for H strata, a weighted sample mean is
with
The weights, W h (\ displaystyle W_ (h)), frequently, but not always, represent the proportions of the population elements in the strata, and W h = N h / N (\ displaystyle W_ (h) = N_ (h) / N). For a fixed sample size, that is n = ∑ n h (\ displaystyle n = \ sum (n_ (h))),
which can be made a minimum if the sampling rate within each stratum is made proportional to the standard deviation within each stratum: n h / N h = k S h (\ displaystyle n_ (h) / N_ (h) = kS_ (h)), where S h = Var (x _̄ h) (\ displaystyle S_ (h) = (\ sqrt (\ operatorname (Var) ((\ bar (x)) _ (h))))) and k (\ displaystyle k) is a constant such that ∑ n h = n (\ displaystyle \ sum (n_ (h)) = n).
An "optimum allocation '' is reached when the sampling rates within the strata are made directly proportional to the standard deviations within the strata and inversely proportional to the square root of the sampling cost per element within the strata, C h (\ displaystyle C_ (h)):
where K (\ displaystyle K) is a constant such that ∑ n h = n (\ displaystyle \ sum (n_ (h)) = n), or, more generally, when
Sample size determination in qualitative studies takes a different approach. It is generally a subjective judgment, taken as the research proceeds. One approach is to continue to include further participants or material until saturation is reached. The number needed to reach saturation has been investigated empirically.
There is a paucity of reliable guidance on estimating sample sizes before starting the research, with a range of suggestions given. A tool akin to a quantitative power calculation, based on the negative binomial distribution, has been suggested for thematic analysis.
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who has the most losses in the ufc | List of UFC records - wikipedia
Below is a list of records held in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC).
Active UFC fighters in bold
.
Fighters who have won championships in multiple weight classes. Tournament championships and The Ultimate Fighter winners are not included.
Randy Couture is notably the first champion to hold belts in two different divisions, and one of the few to reclaim a title after being defeated. Conor McGregor is notably the first and only fighter thus far to hold multiple titles simultaneously.
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what is the capital of bolivia in south america | Bolivia - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 16 ° 42 ′ 43 '' S 64 ° 39 ′ 58 '' W / 16.712 ° S 64.666 ° W / - 16.712; - 64.666
Bolivia (/ bəˈlɪviə / (listen); Spanish: (boˈliβja); Guarani: Mborivia (mboˈɾiʋja); Quechua: Buliwya (bʊlɪwja); Aymara: Wuliwya (wʊlɪwja)), officially known as the Plurinational State of Bolivia (Spanish: Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia), is a landlocked country located in western - central South America. It is bordered to the north and east by Brazil, to the southeast by Paraguay, to the south by Argentina, to the southwest by Chile, and to the northwest by Peru. One - third of the country is the Andean mountain range.
The largest city and principal economic and financial center is Santa Cruz de la Sierra, located on the Llanos Orientales (Tropical lowlands) mostly flat region in the East of Bolivia. Bolivia is one of two landlocked countries (the other is Paraguay) that lie outside Afro - Eurasia. Bolivia is geographically the largest landlocked country in the Americas, but remains a relatively small country in economic and military terms.
Before Spanish colonization, the Andean region of Bolivia was part of the Inca Empire, while the northern and eastern lowlands were inhabited by independent tribes. Spanish conquistadors arriving from Cuzco and Asunción took control of the region in the 16th century. During the Spanish colonial period Bolivia was administered by the Royal Audiencia of Charcas. Spain built its empire in great part upon the silver that was extracted from Bolivia 's mines.
After the first call for independence in 1809, 16 years of war followed before the establishment of the Republic, named for Simón Bolívar, on 6 August 1825. Since independence, Bolivia has endured periods of political and economic instability, including the loss of various peripheral territories to its neighbors, such as Acre and parts of the Gran Chaco. It has been landlocked since the annexation of its Pacific coast territory by Chile following the War of the Pacific (1879 -- 84), but agreements with neighboring countries have granted it indirect access to the Pacific and Atlantic oceans.
The country 's population, estimated at 11 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Mestizos, Europeans, Asians and Africans. The racial and social segregation that arose from Spanish colonialism has continued to the modern era. Spanish is the official and predominant language, although 36 indigenous languages also have official status, of which the most commonly spoken are Guarani, Aymara and Quechua languages.
Modern Bolivia is a charter member of the UN, IMF, NAM, OAS, ACTO, Bank of the South, ALBA and USAN. It is constitutionally a unitary state, divided into nine departments. Its geography varies from the peaks of the Andes in the West, to the Eastern Lowlands, situated within the Amazon Basin. It is the poorest country in South America, a developing country, with a medium ranking in the Human Development Index and a poverty level of 53 percent. Its main economic activities include agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, and manufacturing goods such as textiles, clothing, refined metals, and refined petroleum. Bolivia is very wealthy in minerals, especially tin.
Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar, a leader in the Spanish American wars of independence. The leader of Venezuela, Antonio José de Sucre, had been given the option by Bolívar to either unite Charcas (present - day Bolivia) with the newly formed Republic of Peru, to unite with the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata, or to formally declare its independence from Spain as a wholly independent nation. Sucre opted to create a brand new nation and, with local support, named it in honor of Simón Bolívar.
The original name was Republic of Bolívar. Some days later, congressman Manuel Martín Cruz proposed: "If from Romulus comes Rome, then from Bolívar comes Bolivia '' (Spanish: Si de Rómulo Roma, de Bolívar Bolivia). The name was approved by the Republic on 3 October 1825. In 2009, a new constitution changed the country 's official name to "Plurinational State of Bolivia '' in recognition of the multi-ethnic nature of the country and the enhanced position of Bolivia 's indigenous peoples under the new constitution.
The region now known as Bolivia had been occupied for over 2,500 years when the Aymara arrived. However, present - day Aymara associate themselves with the ancient civilization of the Tiwanaku culture which had its capital at Tiwanaku, in Western Bolivia. The capital city of Tiwanaku dates from as early as 1500 BC when it was a small, agriculturally based village.
The community grew to urban proportions between AD 600 and AD 800, becoming an important regional power in the southern Andes. According to early estimates, the city covered approximately 6.5 square kilometers (2.5 square miles) at its maximum extent and had between 15,000 and 30,000 inhabitants. In 1996 satellite imaging was used to map the extent of fossilized suka kollus (flooded raised fields) across the three primary valleys of Tiwanaku, arriving at population - carrying capacity estimates of anywhere between 285,000 and 1,482,000 people.
Around AD 400, Tiwanaku went from being a locally dominant force to a predatory state. Tiwanaku expanded its reaches into the Yungas and brought its culture and way of life to many other cultures in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile. Tiwanaku was not a violent culture in many respects. In order to expand its reach, Tiwanaku exercised great political astuteness, creating colonies, fostering trade agreements (which made the other cultures rather dependent), and instituting state cults.
The empire continued to grow with no end in sight. William H. Isbell states "Tiahuanaco underwent a dramatic transformation between AD 600 and 700 that established new monumental standards for civic architecture and greatly increased the resident population. '' Tiwanaku continued to absorb cultures rather than eradicate them. Archaeologists note a dramatic adoption of Tiwanaku ceramics into the cultures which became part of the Tiwanaku empire. Tiwanaku 's power was further solidified through the trade it implemented among the cities within its empire.
Tiwanaku 's elites gained their status through the surplus food they controlled, collected from outlying regions and then redistributed to the general populace. Further, this elite 's control of llama herds became a powerful control mechanism as llamas were essential for carrying goods between the civic centre and the periphery. These herds also came to symbolize class distinctions between the commoners and the elites. Through this control and manipulation of surplus resources, the elite 's power continued to grow until about AD 950. At this time a dramatic shift in climate occurred, causing a significant drop in precipitation in the Titicaca Basin, believed by archaeologists to have been on the scale of a major drought.
As the rainfall decreased, many of the cities farther away from Lake Titicaca began to tender fewer foodstuffs to the elites. As the surplus of food decreased, and thus the amount available to underpin their power, the control of the elites began to falter. The capital city became the last place viable for food production due to the resiliency of the raised field method of agriculture. Tiwanaku disappeared around AD 1000 because food production, the main source of the elites ' power, dried up. The area remained uninhabited for centuries thereafter.
Between 1438 and 1527, the Inca empire, during its expansion from its capital at Cuzco, Peru. gained control over much of what is now Andean Bolivia and extended its control into the fringes of the Amazon basin.
The Spanish conquest of the Inca empire began in 1524, and was mostly completed by 1533. The territory now called Bolivia was known as Charcas, and was under the authority of the Viceroy of Lima. Local government came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Plata -- modern Sucre). Founded in 1545 as a mining town, Potosí soon produced fabulous wealth, becoming the largest city in the New World with a population exceeding 150,000 people.
By the late 16th century, Bolivian silver was an important source of revenue for the Spanish Empire. A steady stream of natives served as labor force under the brutal, slave conditions of the Spanish version of the pre-Columbian draft system called the mita. Charcas was transferred to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776 and the people from Buenos Aires, the capital of the Viceroyalty, coined the term "Upper Peru '' (Spanish: Alto Perú) as a popular reference to the Royal Audiencia of Charcas. Túpac Katari led the indigenous rebellion that laid siege to La Paz in March 1781, during which 20,000 people died. As Spanish royal authority weakened during the Napoleonic wars, sentiment against colonial rule grew.
The struggle for independence started in the city of Sucre on 25 May 1809 and the Chuquisaca Revolution (Chuquisaca was then the name of the city) is known as the first cry of Freedom in Latin America. That revolution was followed by the La Paz revolution on 16 July 1809. The La Paz revolution marked a complete split with the Spanish government, while the Chuquisaca Revolution established a local independent junta in the name of the Spanish King deposed by Napoleon Bonaparte. Both revolutions were short - lived and defeated by the Spanish authorities in the Viceroyalty of the Rio de La Plata, but the following year the Spanish American wars of independence raged across the continent.
Bolivia was captured and recaptured many times during the war by the royalists and patriots. Buenos Aires sent three military campaigns, all of which were defeated, and eventually limited itself to protecting the national borders at Salta. Bolivia was finally freed of Royalist dominion by Antonio José de Sucre, with a military campaign coming from the North in support of the campaign of Simón Bolívar. After 16 years of war the Republic was proclaimed on 6 August 1825.
In 1836, Bolivia, under the rule of Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz, invaded Peru to reinstall the deposed president, General Luis José de Orbegoso. Peru and Bolivia formed the Peru - Bolivian Confederation, with de Santa Cruz as the Supreme Protector. Following tension between the Confederation and Chile, Chile declared war on 28 December 1836. Argentina separately declared war on the Confederation on 9 May 1837. The Peruvian - Bolivian forces achieved several major victories during the War of the Confederation: the defeat of the Argentine expedition and the defeat of the first Chilean expedition on the fields of Paucarpata near the city of Arequipa.
At the outset of the war, the Chilean and Peruvian rebel army surrendered unconditionally and signed the Paucarpata Treaty. The treaty stipulated that Chile would withdraw from Peru - Bolivia, Chile would return captured Confederate ships, economic relations would be normalized, and the Confederation would pay Peruvian debt to Chile. In Chile, the government and public rejected the peace treaty. Chile organized a second attack on the Confederation and defeated it in the Battle of Yungay. After this defeat, Santa Cruz resigned and went to exile in Ecuador and then Paris, and the Peruvian - Bolivian Confederation was dissolved.
Following the renewed independence of Peru, Peruvian president General Agustín Gamarra invaded Bolivia. The Peruvian army was decisively defeated at the Battle of Ingavi on 20 November 1841 where Gamarra was killed. The Bolivian army under General José Ballivián then mounted a counter-offensive, capturing the Peruvian port of Arica. Later, both sides signed a peace treaty in 1842, putting a final end to the war.
A period of political and economic instability in the early - to - mid-19th century weakened Bolivia. In addition, during the War of the Pacific (1879 -- 83), Chile occupied vast territories rich in natural resources south west of Bolivia, including the Bolivian coast. Chile took control of today 's Chuquicamata area, the adjoining rich salitre (saltpeter) fields, and the port of Antofagasta among other Bolivian territories.
Thus, since independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to neighboring countries. It also lost the state of Acre, in the Acre War, important because this region was known for its production of rubber. Peasants and the Bolivian army fought briefly but after a few victories, and facing the prospect of a total war against Brazil, it was forced to sign the Treaty of Petrópolis in 1903, in which Bolivia lost this rich territory. Popular myth has it that Bolivian president Mariano Melgarejo (1864 -- 71) traded the land for what he called "a magnificent white horse '' and Acre was subsequently flooded by Brazilians, which ultimately led to confrontation and fear of war with Brazil. In the late 19th century, an increase in the world price of silver brought Bolivia relative prosperity and political stability.
During the early 20th century, tin replaced silver as the country 's most important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by the economic and social elite followed laissez - faire capitalist policies through the first thirty years of the 20th century.
Living conditions of the native people, who constitute most of the population, remained deplorable. With work opportunities limited to primitive conditions in the mines and in large estates having nearly feudal status, they had no access to education, economic opportunity, and political participation. Bolivia 's defeat by Paraguay in the Chaco War (1932 -- 35), where Bolivia lost a great part of the Gran Chaco region in dispute, marked a turning - point.
The Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR), the most historic political party, emerged as a broad - based party. Denied its victory in the 1951 presidential elections, the MNR led a successful revolution in 1952. Under President Víctor Paz Estenssoro, the MNR, having strong popular pressure, introduced universal suffrage into his political platform and carried out a sweeping land - reform promoting rural education and nationalization of the country 's largest tin mines.
12 years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In 1964, a military junta overthrew President Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The 1969 death of President René Barrientos Ortuño, a former member of the junta who was elected president in 1966, led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed by the rising Popular Assembly and the increase in the popularity of President Juan José Torres, the military, the MNR, and others installed Colonel (later General) Hugo Banzer Suárez as president in 1971. He returned to the presidency in 1997 through 2001.
The United States ' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) had been active in providing finances and training to the Bolivian military dictatorship in the 1960s. The revolutionary leader Che Guevara was killed by a team of CIA officers and members of the Bolivian Army on 9 October 1967, in Bolivia. Félix Rodríguez was a CIA officer on the team with the Bolivian Army that captured and shot Guevara. Rodriguez said that after he received a Bolivian presidential execution order, he told "the soldier who pulled the trigger to aim carefully, to remain consistent with the Bolivian government 's story that Che had been killed in action during a clash with the Bolivian army. '' Rodriguez said the US government had wanted Che in Panama, and "I could have tried to falsify the command to the troops, and got Che to Panama as the US government said they had wanted '', but that he had chosen to "let history run its course '' as desired by Bolivia.
Elections in 1979 and 1981 were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups d'état, counter-coups, and caretaker governments. In 1980, General Luis García Meza Tejada carried out a ruthless and violent coup d'état that did not have popular support. He pacified the people by promising to remain in power only for one year. At the end of the year, he staged a televised rally to claim popular support and announced, "Bueno, me quedo '', or, "All right; I 'll stay (in office). '' After a military rebellion forced out Meza in 1981, three other military governments in 14 months struggled with Bolivia 's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the Congress, elected in 1980, and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October 1982, Hernán Siles Zuazo again became president, 22 years after the end of his first term of office (1956 -- 60).
Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda. The most dramatic reform was the "capitalization '' program, under which investors, typically foreign, acquired 50 % ownership and management control of public enterprises in return for agreed upon capital investments.
In 1993, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada ran for president in alliance with the Tupac Katari Revolutionary Liberation Movement, which inspired indigenous - sensitive and multicultural - aware policies. In 1993, Sanchez de Lozada introduced the Plan de Todos, which led to the decentralization of government, introduction of intercultural bilingual education, implementation of agrarian legislation, and privatization of state owned businesses. The plan explicitly stated that Bolivian citizens would own a minimum of 51 % of enterprises; under the plan, most state - owned enterprises (SOEs), though not mines, were sold. This privatization of SOEs led to a neoliberal structuring.
The Law of Popular Participation gave municipalities the responsibility of maintaining various infrastructures (and offering services): health, education, systems of irrigation, which stripped the responsibility away from the state.
The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly opposed by certain segments of society, which instigated frequent and sometimes violent protests, particularly in La Paz and the Chapare coca - growing region, from 1994 through 1996. During this time, the umbrella labor - organization of Bolivia, the Central Obrera Boliviana (COB), became increasingly unable to effectively challenge government policy. A teachers ' strike in 1995 was defeated because the COB could not marshal the support of many of its members, including construction and factory workers.
In the 1997 elections, General Hugo Banzer, leader of the Nationalist Democratic Action party (ADN) and former dictator (1971 -- 78), won 22 % of the vote, while the MNR candidate won 18 %. At the outset of his government, President Banzer launched a policy of using special police - units to eradicate physically the illegal coca of the Chapare region. The MIR of Jaime Paz Zamora remained a coalition - partner throughout the Banzer government, supporting this policy (called the Dignity Plan). The Banzer government basically continued the free - market and privatization - policies of its predecessor. The relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s continued until about the third year of its term in office. After that, regional, global and domestic factors contributed to a decline in economic growth. Financial crises in Argentina and Brazil, lower world prices for export commodities, and reduced employment in the coca sector depressed the Bolivian economy. The public also perceived a significant amount of public sector corruption. These factors contributed to increasing social protests during the second half of Banzer 's term.
Between January 1999 and April 2000, large - scale protests erupted in Cochabamba, Bolivia 's third largest city, in response to the privatisation of water resources by foreign companies and a subsequent doubling of water prices. On 6 August 2001, Banzer resigned from office after being diagnosed with cancer. He died less than a year later. Vice President Jorge Fernando Quiroga Ramírez completed the final year of his term.
In the June 2002 national elections, former President Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada (MNR) placed first with 22.5 % of the vote, followed by coca - advocate and native peasant - leader Evo Morales (Movement Toward Socialism, MAS) with 20.9 %. A July agreement between the MNR and the fourth - place MIR, which had again been led in the election by former President Jaime Paz Zamora, virtually ensured the election of Sánchez de Lozada in the congressional run - off, and on 6 August he was sworn in for the second time. The MNR platform featured three overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation), anti-corruption, and social inclusion.
In 2003 the Bolivian gas conflict broke out. On 12 October 2003 the government imposed martial law in El Alto after 16 people were shot by the police and several dozen wounded in violent clashes. Faced with the option of resigning or more bloodshed, Sanchez de Lozada offered his resignation in a letter to an emergency session of Congress. After his resignation was accepted and his vice president, Carlos Mesa, invested, he left on a commercially scheduled flight for the United States.
The country 's internal situation became unfavorable for such political action on the international stage. After a resurgence of gas protests in 2005, Carlos Mesa attempted to resign in January 2005, but his offer was refused by Congress. On 22 March 2005, after weeks of new street protests from organizations accusing Mesa of bowing to U.S. corporate interests, Mesa again offered his resignation to Congress, which was accepted on 10 June. The chief justice of the Supreme Court, Eduardo Rodríguez, was sworn as interim president to succeed the outgoing Carlos Mesa.
The indigenous population of the Andean region was not able to benefit from government reforms.
Evo Morales won the 2005 presidential election with 53.7 % of the votes, an absolute majority, unusual in Bolivian elections. On 1 May 2006, Morales caused controversy when he announced his intent to re-nationalize Bolivian hydrocarbon assets. Fulfilling a campaign promise, on 6 August 2006, Morales opened the Bolivian Constituent Assembly to begin writing a new constitution aimed at giving more power to the indigenous majority.
In August 2007, more conflicts arose in Sucre, as the city demanded the discussion of the seat of government inside the assembly, hoping the executive and legislative branches could return to the city, but the assembly and the government said this demand was overwhelmingly impractical and politically undesirable. In May 2008, Evo Morales was a signatory to the UNASUR Constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American Nations. In the 2009 national general elections, Evo Morales was re-elected with 64.22 % of the vote. His party, Movement for Socialism, also won a two - thirds majority in both houses of the National Congress.
Bolivia is located in the central zone of South America, between 57 ° 26 ' -- 69 ° 38'W and 9 ° 38 ' -- 22 ° 53 'S. With an area of 1,098,581 square kilometres (424,164 sq mi), Bolivia is the world 's 28th - largest country, and the fifth largest country in South America, extending from the Central Andes through part of the Gran Chaco as far as the Amazon. The geographic center of the country is the so - called Puerto Estrella ("Star Port '') on the Río Grande, in Ñuflo de Chávez Province, Santa Cruz Department.
The geography of the country exhibits a great variety of terrain and climates. Bolivia has a high level of biodiversity, considered one of the greatest in the world, as well as several ecoregions with ecological sub-units such as the Altiplano, tropical rainforests (including Amazon rainforest), dry valleys, and the Chiquitania, which is a tropical savanna. These areas feature enormous variations in altitude, from an elevation of 6,542 metres (21,463 ft) above sea level in Nevado Sajama to nearly 70 metres (230 ft) along the Paraguay River. Although a country of great geographic diversity, Bolivia has remained a landlocked country since the War of the Pacific.
Bolivia can be divided into three physiographic regions:
Bolivia has three drainage basins:
Deforestation in upper river basins has caused environmental problems, including soil erosion and declining water quality. An innovative project to try and remedy this situation involves landholders in upstream areas being paid by downstream water users to conserve forests. The landholders receive $20 to conserve the trees, avoid polluting livestock practices, and enhance the biodiversity and forest carbon on their land. They receive $30, which purchases a beehive, to compensate for conservation for two hectares of water - sustaining forest for five years. Honey revenue per hectare of forest is $5 per year, so within five years, the landholder has sold $50 of honey. The project is being conducted by Fundación Natura Bolivia and Rare Conservation, with support from the Climate & Development Knowledge Network.
The geology of Bolivia comprises a variety of different lithologies as well as tectonic and sedimentary environments. On a synoptic scale, geological units coincide with topographical units. Most elementally, the country is divided into a mountainous western area affected by the subduction processes in the Pacific and an eastern lowlands of stable platforms and shields.
The climate of Bolivia varies drastically from one eco-region to the other, from the tropics in the eastern llanos to a polar climate in the western Andes. The summers are warm, humid in the east and dry in the west, with rains that often modify temperatures, humidity, winds, atmospheric pressure and evaporation, yielding very different climates in different areas. When the climatological phenomenon known as El Niño takes place, it causes great alterations in the weather. Winters are very cold in the west, and it snows in the mountain ranges, while in the western regions, windy days are more common. The autumn is dry in the non-tropical regions.
Bolivia, with an enormous variety of organisms and ecosystems, is part of the "Like - Minded Megadiverse Countries ''.
Bolivia 's variable altitudes, ranging from 90 -- 6,542 metres (295 -- 21,463 ft) above sea level, allow for a vast biologic diversity. The territory of Bolivia comprises four types of biomes, 32 ecological regions, and 199 ecosystems. Within this geographic area there are several natural parks and reserves such as the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, the Madidi National Park, the Tunari National Park, the Eduardo Avaroa Andean Fauna National Reserve, and the Kaa - Iya del Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management Natural Area, among others.
Bolivia boasts over 17,000 species of seed plants, including over 1,200 species of fern, 1,500 species of marchantiophyta and moss, and at least 800 species of fungus. In addition, there are more than 3,000 species of medicinal plants. Bolivia is considered the place of origin for such species as peppers and chili peppers, peanuts, the common beans, yucca, and several species of palm. Bolivia also naturally produces over 4,000 kinds of potatoes.
Bolivia has more than 2,900 animal species, including 398 mammals, over 1,400 birds (about 14 % of birds known in the world, being the sixth most diverse country in terms of bird species), 204 amphibians, 277 reptiles, and 635 fish, all fresh water fish as Bolivia is a landlocked country. In addition, there are more than 3,000 types of butterfly, and more than 60 domestic animals.
Bolivia has gained global attention for its ' Law of the Rights of Mother Earth ', which accords nature the same rights as humans.
Bolivia has been governed by democratically elected governments since 1982, prior to that it was governed by various dictatorships. Presidents Hernán Siles Zuazo (1982 -- 85) and Víctor Paz Estenssoro (1985 -- 89) began a tradition of ceding power peacefully which has continued, although two presidents have stepped down in the face of popular protests: Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada in 2003 and Carlos Mesa in 2005.
Bolivia 's multiparty democracy has seen a wide variety of parties in the presidency and parliament, although the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement, Nationalist Democratic Action, and the Revolutionary Left Movement predominated from 1985 to 2005. The current president is Evo Morales, the first indigenous Bolivian to serve as head of state. Morales ' Movement for Socialism -- Political Instrument for the Sovereignty of the Peoples party was the first to win an outright presidential majority in four decades, doing so both in 2005 and 2009.
The constitution, drafted in 2006 -- 07 and approved in 2009, provides for balanced executive, legislative, judicial, and electoral powers, as well as several levels of autonomy. The traditionally strong executive branch tends to overshadow the Congress, whose role is generally limited to debating and approving legislation initiated by the executive. The judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court and departmental and lower courts, has long been riddled with corruption and inefficiency. Through revisions to the constitution in 1994, and subsequent laws, the government has initiated potentially far - reaching reforms in the judicial system as well as increasing decentralizing powers to departments, municipalities, and indigenous territories.
The executive branch is headed by a President and Vice President, and consists of a variable number (currently, 20) of government ministries. The president is elected to a five - year term by popular vote, and governs from the Presidential Palace (popularly called the Burnt Palace, Palacio Quemado) in La Paz. In the case that no candidate receives an absolute majority of the popular vote or more than 40 % of the vote with an advantage of more than 10 % over the second - place finisher, a run - off is to be held among the two candidates most voted.
The Asamblea Legislativa Plurinacional (Plurinational Legislative Assembly or National Congress) has two chambers. The Cámara de Diputados (Chamber of Deputies) has 130 members elected to five - year terms, seventy from single - member districts (circunscripciones), sixty by proportional representation, and seven by the minority indigenous peoples of seven departments. The Cámara de Senadores (Chamber of Senators) has 36 members (four per department). Members of the Assembly are elected to five - year terms. The body has its headquarters on the Plaza Murillo in La Paz, but also holds honorary sessions elsewhere in Bolivia. The Vice President serves as titular head of the combined Assembly.
The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, the Constitutional Tribunal, the Judiciary Council, Agrarian and Environmental Tribunal, and District (departmental) and lower courts. In October 2011, Bolivia held its first judicial elections to choose members of the national courts by popular vote, a reform brought about by Evo Morales.
The Plurinational Electoral Organ is an independent branch of government which replaced the National Electoral Court in 2010. The branch consists of the Supreme Electoral Tribunal, the nine Departmental Electoral Tribunals, Electoral Judges, the anonymously selected Juries at Election Tables, and Electoral Notaries. Wilfredo Ovando presides over the seven - member Supreme Electoral Tribunal. Its operations are mandated by the Constitution and regulated by the Electoral Regime Law (Law 026, passed 2010). The Organ 's first elections were the country 's first judicial election in October 2011, and five municipal special elections held in 2011.
Bolivia has its constitutionally recognized capital in Sucre, while La Paz is the seat of government. La Plata (now Sucre) was proclaimed provisional capital of the newly independent Alto Perú (later, Bolivia) on 1 July 1826. On 12 July 1839, President José Miguel de Velasco proclaimed a law naming the city as the capital of Bolivia, and renaming it in honor of the revolutionary leader Antonio José de Sucre. The Bolivian seat of government moved to La Paz at the start of the twentieth century, as a consequence of Sucre 's relative remoteness from economic activity after the decline of Potosí and its silver industry and of the Liberal Party in the War of 1899.
The 2009 Constitution assigns the role of national capital to Sucre, not referring to La Paz in the text. In addition to being the constitutional capital, the Supreme Court of Bolivia is located in Sucre, making it the judicial capital. Nonetheless, the Palacio Quemado (the Presidential Palace and seat of Bolivian executive power) is located in La Paz, as are the National Congress and Plurinational Electoral Organ. La Paz thus continues to be the seat of government.
There are 53 prisons in Bolivia, which incarcerate around 8,700 people as of 2010. The prisons are managed by the Penitentiary Regime Directorate (Spanish: Dirección de Régimen Penintenciario). There are 17 prisons in departmental capital cities and 36 provincial prisons.
Despite losing its maritime coast, the so - called Litoral Department, after the War of the Pacific, Bolivia has historically maintained, as a state policy, a maritime claim to that part of Chile; the claim asks for sovereign access to the Pacific Ocean and its maritime space. The issue has also been presented before the Organization of American States; in 1979, the OAS passed the 426 Resolution, which declared that the Bolivian problem is a hemispheric problem. On 4 April 1884, a truce was signed with Chile, whereby Chile gave facilities of access to Bolivian products through Antofagasta, and freed the payment of export rights in the port of Arica. In October 1904, the Treaty of Peace and Friendship was signed, and Chile agreed to build a railway between Arica and La Paz, to improve access of Bolivian products to the ports.
The Special Economical Zone for Bolivia in Ilo (ZEEBI) is a special economic area of 5 kilometres (3.1 miles) of maritime coast, and a total extension of 358 hectares (880 acres), called Mar Bolivia ("Sea Bolivia ''), where Bolivia may maintain a free port near Ilo, Peru under its administration and operation for a period of 99 years starting in 1992; once that time has passed, all the construction and territory revert to the Peruvian government. Since 1964, Bolivia has had its own port facilities in the Bolivian Free Port in Rosario, Argentina. This port is located on the Paraná River, which is directly connected to the Atlantic Ocean.
The Bolivian military comprises three branches: Ejército (Army), Naval (Navy) and Fuerza Aérea (Air Force). The legal age for voluntary admissions is 18; however, when the numbers are small the government recruits anyone as young as 14. The tour of duty is generally 12 months. The Bolivian government annually spends $130 million on defense.
The Bolivian army has around 31,500 men. There are six military regions (regiones militares -- RMs) in the army. The army is organized into ten divisions.
Though it is landlocked Bolivia keeps a navy. The Bolivian Naval Force (Fuerza Naval Boliviana in Spanish) is a naval force about 5,000 strong in 2008.
The Bolivian Air Force (' Fuerza Aérea Boliviana ' or ' FAB ') has nine air bases, located at La Paz, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, Puerto Suárez, Tarija, Villamontes, Cobija, Riberalta, and Roboré.
Bolivia has nine departments -- Pando, La Paz, Beni, Oruro, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, Potosí, Chuquisaca, Tarija.
According to what is established by the Bolivian Political Constitution, the Law of Autonomies and Decentralization regulates de procedure for the elaboration of Statutes of Autonomy, the transfer and distribution of direct competences between the central government and the autonomous entities.
There are four levels of decentralization: Departmental government, constituted by the Departmental Assembly, with rights over the legislation of the department. The governor is chosen by universal suffrage. Municipal government, constituted by a Municipal Council, with rights over the legislation of the municipality. The mayor is chosen by universal suffrage. Regional government, formed by several provinces or municipalities of geographical continuity within a department. It is constituted by a Regional Assembly. Original indigenous government, self - governance of original indigenous people on the ancient territories where they live.
Bolivia 's estimated 2012 gross domestic product (GDP) totaled $27.43 billion at official exchange rate and $56.14 billion at purchasing power parity. Economic growth was estimated to be at about 5.2 %, and inflation was estimated at about 6.9 %. Bolivia was rated "Repressed '' by The Heritage Foundation 's 2010 Index of Economic Freedom. Despite a series of mostly political setbacks, between 2006 and 2009 the Morales administration has spurred growth higher than at any point in the preceding 30 years. The growth was accompanied by a moderate decrease in inequality. A surplus budget of 1.7 % (GDP) was obtained by 2012, the government runs surpluses since Morales administration reflecting a prudent economic management.
A major blow to the Bolivian economy came with a drastic fall in the price of tin during the early 1980s, which impacted one of Bolivia 's main sources of income and one of its major mining industries. Since 1985, the government of Bolivia has implemented a far - reaching program of macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform aimed at maintaining price stability, creating conditions for sustained growth, and alleviating scarcity. A major reform of the customs service has significantly improved transparency in this area. Parallel legislative reforms have locked into place market - liberal policies, especially in the hydrocarbon and telecommunication sectors, that have encouraged private investment. Foreign investors are accorded national treatment.
In April 2000, Hugo Banzer, the former President of Bolivia, signed a contract with Aguas del Tunari, a private consortium, to operate and improve the water supply in Bolivia 's third - largest city, Cochabamba. Shortly thereafter, the company tripled the water rates in that city, an action which resulted in protests and rioting among those who could no longer afford clean water. Amidst Bolivia 's nationwide economic collapse and growing national unrest over the state of the economy, the Bolivian government was forced to withdraw the water contract.
Bolivia has the second largest natural gas reserves in South America. The government has a long - term sales agreement to sell natural gas to Brazil through 2019. The government held a binding referendum in 2005 on the Hydrocarbon Law.
The US Geological Service estimates that Bolivia has 5.4 million cubic tonnes of lithium, which represent 50 % -- 70 % of world reserves. However, to mine for it would involve disturbing the country 's salt flats (called Salar de Uyuni), an important natural feature which boosts tourism in the region. The government does not want to destroy this unique natural landscape to meet the rising world demand for lithium. On the other hand, sustainable extraction of lithium is attempted by the government. This project is carried out by the public company "Recursos Evaporíticos '' subsidiary of COMIBOL.
Once Bolivia 's government depended heavily on foreign assistance to finance development projects and to pay the public staff. At the end of 2002, the government owed $4.5 billion to its foreign creditors, with $1.6 billion of this amount owed to other governments and most of the balance owed to multilateral development banks. Most payments to other governments have been rescheduled on several occasions since 1987 through the Paris Club mechanism. External creditors have been willing to do this because the Bolivian government has generally achieved the monetary and fiscal targets set by IMF programs since 1987, though economic crises have undercut Bolivia 's normally good record. However, by 2013 the foreign assistance is just a fraction of the government budget thanks to tax collection mainly from the profitable exports to Brazil and Argentina of natural gas.
The income from tourism has become increasingly important. Bolivia 's tourist industry has grown gradually since about 1990.
The amount in reserve currencies and gold held by Bolivia 's Central Bank advanced from 1.085 billion US dollars in 2000, under Hugo Banzer Suarez 's government, to 15.282 billion US dollars in 2014 under Evo Morales ' government.
The General Directorate of Civil Aeronautics (Dirección General de Aeronáutica Civil -- DGAC) formerly part of the FAB, administers a civil aeronautics school called the National Institute of Civil Aeronautics (Instituto Nacional de Aeronáutica Civil -- INAC), and two commercial air transport services TAM and TAB.
TAM -- Transporte Aéreo Militar (the Bolivian Military Airline) is an airline based in La Paz, Bolivia. It is the civilian wing of the ' Fuerza Aérea Boliviana ' (the Bolivian Air Force), operating passenger services to remote towns and communities in the North and Northeast of Bolivia. TAM (a.k.a. TAM Group 71) has been a part of the FAB since 1945.
A similar airline serving the Beni Department with small planes is Línea Aérea Amaszonas, using smaller planes than TAM.
Although a civil transport airline, TAB -- Transportes Aéreos Bolivianos, was created as a subsidiary company of the FAB in 1977. It is subordinate to the Air Transport Management (Gerencia de Transportes Aéreos) and is headed by an FAB general. TAB, a charter heavy cargo airline, links Bolivia with most countries of the Western Hemisphere; its inventory includes a fleet of Hercules C130 aircraft. TAB is headquartered adjacent to El Alto International Airport. TAB flies to Miami and Houston, with a stop in Panama.
The three largest, and main international airports in Bolivia are El Alto International Airport in La Paz, Viru Viru International Airport in Santa Cruz, and Jorge Wilstermann International Airport in Cochabamba.
Bolivia possesses an extensive but aged rail system, all in 1000 mm gauge, consisting of two disconnected networks.
Bolivia owns a communications satellite which was offshored / outsourced and launched by China named Túpac Katari 1. In 2015, it was announced that electrical power advancements include a planned $300 million nuclear reactor developed by the Russian nuclear company Rosatom.
Bolivias 's drinking water and Sanitation coverage has greatly improved since 1990 due to a considerable increase in sectoral investment. However, the country has the continent 's lowest coverage levels and services are of low quality. Political and institutional instability have contributed to the weakening of the sector 's institutions at the national and local levels.
Two concessions to foreign private companies in two of the three largest cities -- Cochabamba and La Paz / El Alto -- were prematurely ended in 2000 and 2006 respectively. The country 's second largest city, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, relatively successfully manages its own water and sanitation system by way of cooperatives. The government of Evo Morales intends to strengthen citizen participation within the sector. Increasing coverage requires a substantial increase of investment financing.
According to the government the main problems in the sector are low access to sanitation throughout the country; low access to water in rural areas; insufficient and ineffective investments; a low visibility of community service providers; a lack of respect of indigenous customs; "technical and institutional difficulties in the design and implementation of projects ''; a lack of capacity to operate and maintain infrastructure; an institutional framework that is "not consistent with the political change in the country ''; "ambiguities in the social participation schemes ''; a reduction in the quantity and quality of water due to climate change; pollution and a lack of integrated water resources management; and the lack of policies and programs for the reuse of wastewater.
Only 27 % of the population has access to improved sanitation, 80 to 88 % has access to improved water sources. Coverage in urban areas is bigger than in rural ones.
According to the last two censuses carried out by the Bolivian National Statistics Institute (Instituto Nacional de Estadística, INE), the population increased from 8,274,325 (from which 4,123,850 were men and 4,150,475 were women) in 2001 to 10,027,254 in 2012.
In the last fifty years the Bolivian population has tripled, reaching a population growth rate of 2.25 %. The growth of the population in the inter-census periods (1950 -- 1976 and 1976 -- 1992) was approximately 2.05 %, while between the last period, 1992 -- 2001, it reached 2.74 % annually.
Some 62.43 % of Bolivians live in urban areas, while the remaining 37.57 % in rural areas. The most part of the population (70 %) is concentrated in the departments of La Paz, Santa Cruz and Cochabamba. In the Andean Altiplano region the departments of La Paz and Oruro hold the largest percentage of population, in the valley region the largest percentage is held by the departments of Cochabamba and Chuquisaca, while in the Llanos region by Santa Cruz and Beni. At national level, the population density is 8.49, with variations marked between 0.8 (Pando Department) and 26.2 (Cochabamba Department).
The largest population center is located in the so - called "central axis '' and in the Llanos region. Bolivia has a young population. According to the 2011 census, 59 % of the population is between 15 and 59 years old, 39 % is less than 15 years old. Almost 60 % of the population is younger than 25 years of age.
According to a genetic study done on Bolivians, average values of Native American, European and African ancestry are 86 %, 12.5 %, and 1.5 %, in individuals from La Paz and 76.8 %, 21.4 %, and 1.8 % in individuals from Chuquisaca; respectively.
The ethnic composition of Bolivia is diverse. There are approximately three dozen native groups totaling approximately half of the Bolivian population -- the largest proportion of indigenous people in Latin America. Exact numbers vary based on the wording of the ethnicity question and the available response choices. For example, the 2001 census did not provide "mestizo '' as a response choice, resulting in a much higher proportion of respondents identifying themselves as belonging to one of the available indigenous ethnicity choices. A 2009 estimate put mestizo (mixed white and Amerindian) at 68 %, indigenous at 20 %, white at 5 %, cholo at 2 %, black at 1 %, other at 1 %, while 3 % were unspecified; 44 % attributed themselves to some indigenous group, predominantly Quechuas or Aymaras.
Indigenous peoples, also called "originarios '' ("native '' or "original '') and less frequently, Amerindians, could be Andean, like the Aymaras and Quechuas (who formed the ancient Inca Empire), who are concentrated in the western departments of La Paz, Potosí, Oruro, Cochabamba and Chuquisaca. There also is an important ethnic population in the east, composed of the Chiquitano, Chane, Guaraní and Moxos, among others, who inhabit the departments of Santa Cruz, Beni, Tarija and Pando.
Mestizos are distributed throughout the entire country and make up 26 % of the Bolivian population. Most people assume their mestizo identity while at the same time identifying themselves with one or more indigenous cultures.
Whites comprised about 14 % of the population in 2006, and are usually concentrated in the largest cities: La Paz, Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Cochabamba, but as well in some minor cities like Tarija. In the Santa Cruz Department, there are several dozen colonies of German - speaking Mennonites totaling around 40,000 inhabitants (as of 2012).
Afro - Bolivians, descendents of African slaves who arrived in the time of the Spanish Empire, inhabit the department of La Paz, and are located mainly in the provinces of Nor Yungas and Sud Yungas. Slavery was abolished in Bolivia in 1831.
There are also important communities of Japanese (14.000) and Lebanese (12.900).
There are small numbers of European citizens from Germany, France, Italy and Portugal, as well as from other American countries, as Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, the United States, Paraguay, Peru, Mexico and Venezuela, among others. There are important Peruvian colonies in La Paz, El Alto and Santa Cruz de la Sierra.
The Indigenous peoples of Bolivia can be divided into two categories of ethnic groups: the Andeans, who are located in the Andean Altiplano and the valley region; and the lowland groups, who inhabit the warm regions of central and eastern Bolivia, including the valleys of Cochabamba Department, the Amazon Basin areas of northern La Paz Department, and the lowland departments of Beni, Pando, Santa Cruz, and Tarija (including the Gran Chaco region in the southeast of the country). Large numbers of Andean peoples have also migrated to form Quechua, Aymara, and intercultural communities in the lowlands.
Bolivia has great linguistic diversity as a result of its multiculturalism. The Constitution of Bolivia recognizes 36 official languages besides Spanish: Aymara, Araona, Baure, Bésiro, Canichana, Cavineño, Cayubaba, Chácobo, Chimán, Ese Ejja, Guaraní, Guarasu'we, Guarayu, Itonama, Leco, Machajuyai - Kallawaya, Machineri, Maropa, Mojeño - Ignaciano, Mojeño - Trinitario, Moré, Mosetén, Movima, Pacawara, Puquina, Quechua, Sirionó, Tacana, Tapieté, Toromona, Uru - Chipaya, Weenhayek, Yaminawa, Yuki, Yuracaré, and Zamuco.
Spanish is the most spoken official language in the country, according to the 2001 census; as it is spoken by more than 60 % of the population. All legal and official documents issued by the State, including the Constitution, the main private and public institutions, the media, and commercial activities, are in Spanish.
The main indigenous languages are: Quechua (21.2 % of the population in the 2001 census), Aymara (14.6 %), Guarani (0.6 %) and others (0.4 %) including the Moxos in the department of Beni.
Plautdietsch, a German dialect, is spoken by about 70,000 Mennonites in Santa Cruz. Portuguese is spoken mainly in the areas close to Brazil.
Bolivia is a constitutionally secular state that guarantees the freedom of religion and the independence of government from religion. ''
According to the 2001 census conducted by the National Institute of Statistics of Bolivia, 78 percent of the population is Roman Catholic, followed by 19 percent Protestant and 3 percent non-religious.
The Association of Religion Data Archives (relying on the World Christian Database) records that in 2010, 92.5 percent of Bolivians identified as Christian (of any denomination), 3.1 percent identified with indigenous religion, 2.2 percent identified as Bahá'í, 1.9 percent identified as agnostic, and all other groups constituted 0.1 percent or less.
Much of the indigenous population adheres to different traditional beliefs marked by inculturation or syncretisim with Christianity. The cult of Pachamama, or "Mother Earth '', is notable. The veneration of the Virgin of Copacabana, Virgin of Urkupiña and Virgin of Socavón, is also an important feature. There also are important Aymaran communities near Lake Titicaca that have a strong devotion to James the Apostle. Deities worshiped in Bolivia include Ekeko, the Aymaran god of abundance and prosperity, whose day is celebrated every 24 January, and Tupá, a god of the Guaraní people.
Approximately 67 percent of Bolivians live in urban areas, among the lowest proportion in South America. Nevertheless, the rate of urbanization is growing steadily, at around 2.5 percent annually. According to the 2012 census, there are total of 3,158,691 households in Bolivia -- an increase of 887,960 from 2001. In 2009, 75.4 percent of homes were classified as a house, hut, or Pahuichi; 3.3 percent were apartments; 21.1 percent were rental residences; and 0.1 percent were mobile homes. Most of the country 's largest cities are located in the highlands of the west and central regions.
Bolivian culture has been heavily influenced by the Quechua, the Aymara, as well as the popular cultures of Latin America as a whole.
The cultural development is divided into three distinct periods: precolumbian, colonial, and republican. Important archaeological ruins, gold and silver ornaments, stone monuments, ceramics, and weavings remain from several important pre-Columbian cultures. Major ruins include Tiwanaku, El Fuerte de Samaipata, Inkallaqta and Iskanawaya. The country abounds in other sites that are difficult to reach and have seen little archaeological exploration.
The Spanish brought their own tradition of religious art which, in the hands of local native and mestizo builders and artisans, developed into a rich and distinctive style of architecture, painting, and sculpture known as "Mestizo Baroque ''. The colonial period produced not only the paintings of Pérez de Holguín, Flores, Bitti, and others but also the works of skilled but unknown stonecutters, woodcarvers, goldsmiths, and silversmiths. An important body of Native Baroque religious music of the colonial period was recovered and has been performed internationally to wide acclaim since 1994.
Bolivian artists of stature in the 20th century include María Luisa Pacheco, Roberto Mamani Mamani, Alejandro Mario Yllanes, Alfredo Da Silva, and Marina Núñez del Prado.
Bolivia has a rich folklore. Its regional folk music is distinctive and varied. The "devil dances '' at the annual carnival of Oruro are one of the great folkloric events of South America, as is the lesser known carnival at Tarabuco. The best known of the various festivals found in the country is the "Carnaval de Oruro '', which was among the first 19 "Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity '', as proclaimed by UNESCO in May 2001.
Entertainment includes football.
Cuisine in Bolivia stems mainly from the combination of Spanish cuisine with traditional indigenous Aymara / Inca ingredients, with the addition of later influences from German, Italian, Basque, Russian, Polish, and Arab immigrants.
The 2011 Caroline Alethia novel Plant Teacher takes place in Bolivia from 2007 to 2008. The novel explores such themes as politics, indigenous religions, and narcotourism.
The 2017 video game Ghost Recon Wildlands is set in a narco - state Bolivia.
In 2008, following UNESCO standards, Bolivia was declared free of illiteracy, making it the fourth country in South America to attain this status.
Bolivia has public and private universities. Among them: Universidad Mayor, Real y Pontificia de San Francisco Xavier de Chuquisaca USFX -- Sucre, founded in 1624; Universidad Mayor de San Andres UMSA -- La Paz, founded in 1830; Universidad Mayor de San Simon UMSS -- Cochabamba, founded in 1832; Universidad Autónoma Gabriel René Moreno UAGRM -- Santa Cruz de la Sierra, founded in 1880; Universidad Tecnica de Oruro UTO -- Oruro, founded in 1892; and Universidad Autónoma Tomás Frías UATF -- Potosi, founded in 1892.
Based on 2013 The World Factbook estimates, Bolivia is ranked 161st in life expectancy with a number of 68.2 years. Life expectancy for men is 65.4 and for women is 71.1. A study by the United Nations Development Programme and United Nations International Emergency Children 's Fund reported over 230 babies died per day in Bolivia through lack of proper care. The majority of the population has no health insurance or access to healthcare. Demographic and Health Surveys has completed five surveys in Bolivia since 1989 on a wide range of topics.
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discuss the results of the war of 1812. what did it mean for america in the coming decades | Results of the war of 1812 - wikipedia
Results of the War of 1812 between Great Britain and the United States, 1812 - 1815, involved with no geographical changes. The main result of the war was two centuries of peace between the United States and Britain. All the causes of the war had disappeared with the end of the war between Britain and France and with the destruction of the power of Indians to block American expansion into the Northwest. American fears of the Native Americans ended, as did British plans to create a buffer Native American state. The American quest for honor after its humiliations by the British were satisfied. The final collapse of the opposition Federalist Party opened an "Era of good feelings '' with lessened partisanship and an exuberant spirit. The British paid little attention to the war, concentrating instead on their final defeat of Napoleon in 1815. The U.S. failed to gain any territory from British North America, contrary to many American politicians ' hopes and expectations, but it did gain land from Spain.
After Napoleon 's defeat in 1814, Britain was no longer at war with France and there were no restrictions on trade; the British suspended their policy of impressment of American sailors, and never resumed it, but they insisted they still had the right to resume it. Americans regained their honour and proclaimed victory in what they called a "second war of independence '' for the decisive defeat of the British invaders at New Orleans seemed to prove that Britain could never regain control of America, and the threat of secession by New England ended with the failure of the Hartford Convention.
In Britain, the importance of the conflict was totally overshadowed by European triumphs: Napoleon had returned from exile in March 1815, and was finally defeated at Waterloo 100 days later.
Upper Canada emerged from the war with a sense of unity and pride as part of the British Empire. Anglophone Canadians claimed the war as a victory for their freedom from American control and credited their militia for the repulse of American invasions. Francophone Canadians largely ignore the war.
Efforts to end the war began in 1812 when the chief U.S. diplomat in London proposed an armistice in return for a renunciation of impressments; the British refused. Later, in 1812, when the British captured Detroit and news of the repeal of the Orders reached Washington, Sir George Prevost arranged an armistice with his counterpart Henry Dearborn. However, President James Madison decided to continue the war. In 1813, Russia offered to mediate a peace, but London rejected the offer, because it might compromise British interests in Europe. Finally, Great Britain and the United States agreed to commence peace negotiations in January 1814: the talks were delayed.
At last in August 1814, peace discussions began in the neutral city of Ghent. Both sides began negotiations with unrealistic demands. The U.S. wanted an end to all British maritime practices it deemed objectionable and also demanded cessions of Canadian territory and guaranteed fishing rights off Newfoundland. The British announced as an essential element of the peace treaty their long - standing goal of creating an Indian barrier state, a large "neutral '' Indian state that would cover most of the Old Northwest. It would be independent of the United States and under the tutelage of the British, who would use it to block American expansion and to build up their control of the fur trade. London dropped the demand when the Americans adamantly refused and indicated it would end the negotiations. The British had been weakened by the collapse of Tecumseh 's Confederacy after the Battle of the Thames in 1813 and no longer controlled adequate supply lines to support an Indian barrier state. Britain also wanted to keep the far - northeastern parts of Maine that had been captured to provide a land corridor to Quebec from the maritime colonies.
After months of negotiations, against the background of changing military victories, defeats and losses, the parties finally realized that their nations wanted peace and there was no real reason to continue the war. Now each side was tired of the war. Export trade was all but paralyzed and after Napoleon fell in 1814 France was no longer an enemy of Britain, so the Royal Navy no longer needed to stop American shipments to France, and it no longer needed more seamen. The British were preoccupied in rebuilding Europe after the apparent final defeat of Napoleon. The negotiators agreed to return to the status quo ante bellum with no changes in boundaries. Both sides signed the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814. The next and final step would be formal ratification by each government.
The British -- but not the Americans -- knew, when they signed, that a battle was imminent at New Orleans (it was fought on January 8, 1815). This treaty finally went into effect when it was formally ratified by both sides in February 1815.
The Treaty of Ghent failed to secure official British acknowledgment of American maritime rights, but in the century of peace between the worlds naval powers from 1815 until World War I these rights were not seriously violated. The British navy ended the practices that angered Americans, for they were no longer needed after Napoleon. American pride and honor was built as a result of the Indian threat being ended, and through rejoicing surrounding American victory at New Orleans. In doing so, the United States had successfully created sense of becoming fully independent from Britain.
A key reason that American frontiersmen were so much in favor of the war in the first place was the threat by various Native American tribes, which they blamed on intervention by British agents in Canada. In addition, they wanted access to lands that the British acknowledged belonged to the U.S. but that the British were blocking by inciting and arming the Native Americans. With the death of Tecumseh in battle in 1813, the First Nation military power ended. The natives were the main losers in the war, losing British protection, and never regained their influence.
In the Southeast, Andrew Jackson 's destruction of Britain 's allies, the Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814, ended the threat of Native American hostilities in that region. It opened vast areas in Georgia and Alabama for settlement as plantations and farmlands. The U.S. occupied all of West Florida during the war and in 1819 purchased the rest of Florida from Spain, thus closing the base of weapons for hostile tribes. Creek Indians who escaped to Spanish Florida joined the Seminoles there, and put up a long resistance known as the Seminole Wars.
In the treaty, the British promised not to arm the Native Americans in the U.S. from Canada (nor even trade with them), and the U.S. - Canada border was largely pacified. However, some Americans assumed that the British continued to conspire with their former Native American allies in an attempt to forestall U.S. hegemony in the Great Lakes region. Such perceptions were faulty, argues Calloway (1987). After the Treaty of Ghent, the Native Americans in the Great Lakes region became an undesirable burden to British policymakers.
Some in Washington had expected the largely American population of Upper Canada to throw off the "British yoke '', but that did not happen. After 1815, British officials, Anglican clergy and Canadians loyal to the Empire tried to spot and root out American ideals, such as democracy and republicanism. Thus, the British and Loyalist elite were able to set the different colonies, of what would later become Canada, on a different course from that of their former enemy. Canada discouraged further American immigration.
When the United States attacked British North America, most of the British forces were engaged in the Napoleonic Wars. Thus, British North America had minimal troops to defend against the United States, who had a much larger (though poorly trained) military force. For most of the war, British North America stood alone against a much stronger American force. Reinforcements from the United Kingdom did not arrive until 1814, the final year of the war. The repelling of the American force helped to foster British loyalties in the colonies that later became Canada.
The nationalistic sentiment caused a suspicion of such American ideas as republicanism, which would frustrate political reform in Upper and Lower Canada until the Rebellions of 1837. However, the War of 1812 started the process that ultimately led to Canadian Confederation in 1867. Canadian writer Pierre Berton has written that, although later events such as the rebellions and the Fenian raids of the 1860s were more important, Canada would have become part of the United States if the War of 1812 had not taken place, because more and more American settlers would have arrived and Canadian nationalism would not have developed.
The War of 1812 was highly significant in Britain 's North American colonies. After the war, British sympathizers portrayed the war as a successful fight for national survival against an American democratic force that threatened the peace and stability the Canadians desired. Throughout the war, most of Canada 's inhabitants assigned the war to an American desire to annex the British colonies, a perception reinforced by American Generals like William Hull, who issued proclamations stating that Canada would be annexed.
An alleged Canadian myth from the war was that Canadian militiamen had performed admirably, while the British officers were largely ineffective. Jack Granatstein has termed this the "militia myth '', and he feels it has had a deep effect on Canadian military thinking, which placed more stress on a citizens ' militia than on a professional standing army. The United States suffered from a similar "frontiersman myth '' at the start of the war, believing falsely that individual initiative and marksmanship could be effective against a well - disciplined British battle line. Granatstein argues that the militia was not particularly effective in the war and that any British military success was the work of British regular forces and the result of British domination over the sea. Isaac Brock, for example, was reluctant to trust the militia with muskets.
Others argue that, in fact, the Canadian militia played important roles in several key engagements, including at the Battle of Chateauguay where they were central to defeating the American advance on Montreal in the fall of 1813. Historian Robert Henderson has referred to this as "The myth of the Militia myth ''. See: Canadian Units of the War of 1812
During the war, British officers constantly worried that the Americans would block the St. Lawrence River, which forms part of the Canada -- U.S. border. If the U.S. military had done so, there would have been no British supply route for Upper Canada, where most of the land battles took place, and British forces would likely have had to withdraw or surrender all western British territory within a few months. British officers ' dispatches after the war exhibited astonishment that the Americans never took such a simple step, but the British were not willing to count on the enemy repeating the mistake: as a result, Britain commissioned the Rideau Canal, an expensive project connecting Kingston, on Lake Ontario, to the Ottawa River, providing an alternative supply route that bypassed the part of the St. Lawrence River along the U.S. border. The settlement at the northeastern end of the canal, where it joins the Ottawa River, later became the city of Ottawa, Canada 's fourth - largest city and its capital (placed inland to protect it from U.S. invasion -- known then as the ' defensible back - country '). Because population away from the St. Lawrence shores was negligible, the British, in the years following the war, took great lengths to ensure that back - country settlement was increased. They settled soldiers and initiated assisted - immigration schemes, offering free land to farmers, mostly tenants of estates in the south of Ireland. The canal project was not completed until 1832 and was never used for its intended purpose.
In contrast to Canada, the War of 1812 is seldom remembered in Britain today, as the conflict was quickly forgotten by the British public. Chiefly, this is because it was overshadowed by the dramatic events of the contemporary Napoleonic wars, and because Britain herself neither gained nor lost anything by the peace settlement, except for the fact that it kept control of Canada.
The Royal Navy was acutely conscious that the United States Navy had won single - ship duels during the war, even though they had no strategic effect. Particular attention was given these battles because American propaganda had projected them as battles of equal force, when actually the only single ship duel where the forces were equal (although the British had fewer men) was the Battle of Boston Harbor which the British won. Furthermore, Britain had effectively won the war on the ocean as almost the entire US Navy was blockaded and unable to fight. British honor was restored when the USS President was captured and taken to Britain for all to see that the American ships that participated in battles of so - called equal force where actually much larger than the British ships they were engaged with.
American privateers and commerce raiders had captured approximately 1200 British merchant ships, sending insurance rates up and embarrassing the Admiralty. Nevertheless, 50 % of all American privateers were captured by the British while the privateers only captured 5 % to 7 % of British commerce. Meanwhile for every 14 American merchant ships that traded before the start of the war only 1 ship dared leave port during the war despite the American effort to double maritime trade. Furthermore of the few ships that left port, a total 1400 were captured. In addition, Britain did win many sea battles. The Royal Navy had been able to deploy overwhelming strength to American waters, annihilating rather than merely denting American maritime trade, and driving the American economy close to bankruptcy. The Royal Navy would emerge unchecked from the conflict.
The British Army regarded the 1812 - 15 conflict in Canada and America as a sideshow. Only one regiment, the 41st, was awarded a battle honor (Detroit) from the war. The army was more interested in the lessons of the Peninsular War in Spain. The battle New Orleans could be conveniently attributed to poor leadership or insuperable physical obstacles and British attention was given to the Royal Navy 's successful capture of the American flagship which the Americans conveniently overlooked. If generalship had been better, it was believed, then British would have been successfully at New Orleans. Due to the huge, overwhelming success and pre-eminence of the Duke of Wellington in Europe, the British army was to make no change to its systems of recruitment, discipline and awards of commissions for more than half a century.
The British suffered 5,000 killed or wounded soldiers and sailors in the war.
The gloom in New England, which staunchly opposed the war, culminated in December 1814, as delegates from five states met secretly in the Hartford Convention. It demanded constitutional amendments to protect New England 's interests against the West and the South. Secession talk was rife and the region might have threatened to secede from the Union, if their demands had been ignored, but the news of peace ended the movement.
The United States had faced near - disaster in 1814, but the victories at the Battle of New Orleans and the Battle of Baltimore and what seemed to be a successful fight against the United Kingdom increased national patriotism and helped to unite the United States into one nation. Meanwhile, the loss of the American flagship USS President was conveniently overlooked by the public. The best - known patriotic legacy of the war was The Star Spangled Banner. The words are by Francis Scott Key, who after the bombardment of Fort McHenry set them to the music of a British drinking song, "To Anacreon in Heaven. '' In 1889 the U.S. Navy began using The Star Spangled Banner at flag - raising ceremonies, a practice copied by the Army. In 1931, Congress made it the U.S. National Anthem.
Although all of the original objectives of the war had failed, the American people saw the War of 1812 as evidence of the success of the democratic experiment. The war ushered in a period of American history that has frequently been called "the Era of Good Feelings, '' a time when, at least on the surface, most Americans felt unified behind a common purpose. The War of 1812 convinced the country that it could fend off any foreign threats and that its focus should be on expansion at home.
With the collapse of the Hartford Convention and news of the triumph at the Battle of New Orleans, Americans had cause for celebration. In February, President James Madison sent Congress the treaty of peace. He congratulated the nation on the close of a war "waged with the success which is the natural result of the wisdom of the legislative councils, of the patriotism of the people, of the public spirit of the militia, and of the velour of the military and naval forces of the country. '' The spirit of nationalism and pride led to the collapse of the nay - sayer Federalist Party and the new Era of Good Feelings.
One indirect result of the War of 1812 was the later election to the presidency of war heroes Andrew Jackson and of William Henry Harrison. Both of these men won military fame which had much to do with their elections. Another indirect result was the decline of Federalist power.
During the war a total of 2,260 American soldiers and sailors were killed. The war cost the United States about $200 million. Neither the United States nor Great Britain gained any military advantage. Indirectly the United States made some gains.
A significant military development was the increased emphasis by General Winfield Scott on professionalism in the U.S. Army officer corps and in particular, the training of officers at the United States Military Academy ("West Point ''). This new professionalism would become apparent during the Mexican - American War (1846 -- 1848). After the Texas Annexation by the U.S., the term Manifest Destiny became a widely used political term for those who propagated American expansionism and military pride.
In a related development, the United States officially abandoned its reliance on the militia for its defense. Moreover, Army Corps of Engineers (which at that time controlled West Point), began building fortifications around New Orleans as a response to the British attack on the city during the war. This effort then grew into numerous civil river works, especially in the 1840s and 1850s under General Pierre Beauregard. The Corps remains the authority over Mississippi (and other) river works.
The embarrassing defeat of Fort Madison in what is now Iowa and Fort McKay in Prairie du Chien led to the fortification of the Mississippi, with the expansion of Fort Belle Fontaine near St. Louis, and the construction of Fort Armstrong (1816) and Fort Edwards (1816) in Illinois, Fort Crawford (1816) in Prairie du Chien, and Fort Snelling (1819) in Minnesota. Removal of all Indians from the Mississippi Valley became a top priority for the U.S. government.
Historian Norman Risjord has emphasized the central importance of honour as a cause the war. Americans of every political stripe saw the need to uphold national honour, and to reject the treatment of the United States by Britain as a third class nonentity. Americans talked incessantly about the need for force in response. This quest for honour was a major cause of the war in the sense that most Americans who were not involved in mercantile interests or threatened by Indian attack strongly endorsed the preservation of national honour. Chesapeake -- Leopard Affair in which the HMS Leopard attacked the USS Chesapeake in June 1807 was a decisive event. Historians have documented the importance of honour in shaping public opinion in a number of states, including Massachusetts, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee, as well as the territory of Michigan. Americans widely celebrated the conclusion of the war as successful, especially the spectacular defeat of the main British invasion army at New Orleans, while conveniently overlooking the loss of their flagship the very next week. For the next century it was often called "the Second American War for Independence '' and it propelled Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison to the White House. Americans felt they had restored their sense of honour.
According to Historians such as Andrew Lambert and William James, British honor was challenged because deserters from the Royal Navy were granted citizenship in the United States. This led to the impressment of American citizens into the Royal Navy. In 1811, the Little Belt Affair would anger the Admiraly and embarrass the United States. This would lead to the British having a particular interest in capturing the United States flagship USS President. Although the British would effectively disable the vast majority of the United States Navy during the war by having the ships blockaded, the single ship actions that the American 's won embarrassed the Admiralty. Specific attention was given to these battles as the American 's claimed there were between ships of equal force.
The British effectively restored their honor by capturing the sloop of war USS Frolic and more importantly the flagship USS President. Both ships were taken to Britain for all to see that the American ships of the so - called engagements of equal force were much larger than the British ships they had fought in single ship duels. Furthermore, the United States failed at abolishing impressment when the treaty was signed, but the British did not continue the practice as the Napoleonic Wars had ended so they no longer needed as many sailors. In doing so British honor was restored, only for the entire conflict to be overshadowed by the defeat of Napoleon.
Although during the War of 1812 the United States ' economy was severely damaged by the British blockade, the aftermath gave a dramatic boost to the manufacturing capabilities of the United States. The British blockade of the American coast created a shortage of cotton cloth in the United States, leading to the creation of a cotton - manufacturing industry, beginning at Waltham, Massachusetts by Francis Cabot Lowell. The war also spurred on construction of the Erie Canal project, which was built to promote commercial links yet was also perceived as having military uses should the need ever arise. As the charter of the First Bank of the United States had been allowed to expire in 1811, the federal government was ill - prepared to finance the war and resorted to such expediencies as the suspension of specie payment and the issuance of Treasury Notes. These actions set a precedent for future Federal responses to financial crises. Also, this exposure of the nation 's financial weaknesses explained in part the Congressional decision to charter the Second Bank of the United States in 1816. The readiness of Southern leaders especially John C. Calhoun to support such a measure also indicates a high degree of national feeling. Perhaps the clearest sign of a new sense of national unity was the victorious Democratic - Republican Party, its long - time foes, the Federalists, vanishing from national politics. The result was an Era of Good Feelings with the lowest level of partisanship ever seen.
Canadians, however, contrasted their post-war economic stagnation to the booming American economy, which Desmond Morton believes led to the Rebellions of 1837. During the war, Bermudian privateers, with their fast Bermuda sloops, were to capture 298 ships (the total captures by all British naval or privateering vessels between the Great Lakes and the West Indies was 1,593 vessels).
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who plays sonny's father in general hospital | Ron Hale - Wikipedia
Ron Hale (born January 2, 1946) is an American actor best known for his role as Dr. Roger Coleridge on the ABC soap opera Ryan 's Hope for its entire run (1975 -- 1989). He played the recurring role of Mike Corbin, the father of mobster Sonny Corinthos in the ABC soap opera General Hospital.
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when did university of south carolina start playing football | South Carolina Gamecocks football - wikipedia
The South Carolina Gamecocks football program represents the University of South Carolina in the sport of American football. The Gamecocks compete in the Football Bowl Subdivision of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and the Eastern Division of the Southeastern Conference. Will Muschamp currently serves as the team 's head coach. They play their home games at Williams - Brice Stadium. Currently, it is the 20th largest stadium in college football.
USC 's SEC tenure has been highlighted by an SEC East title in 2010, Final Top - 25 rankings in 2000, 2001, 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013 (AP No. 19, No. 13, No. 22, No. 9, No. 8 and No. 4), and four wins over Top - 5 SEC opponents, (No. 4 Ole Miss in 2009, No. 1 Alabama in 2010, No. 5 Georgia in 2012 and at No. 5 Missouri in 2013).
From 1953 through 1970, the Gamecocks played in the Atlantic Coast Conference, winning the 1969 ACC championship and finishing No. 15 in the 1958 final AP poll. From 1971 through 1991, they competed as a major independent, producing 1980 Heisman Trophy winner George Rogers, six bowl appearances, and Final Top - 25 rankings in 1984 and 1987 (AP No. 11 and No. 15).
The Gamecocks have produced a National Coach of the Year in Joe Morrison, three SEC coaches of the year in Lou Holtz (2000) and Steve Spurrier (2005, 2010), and one ACC coach of the year in Paul Dietzel (1969). They also have four members of the College Football Hall of Fame in former players George Rogers and Sterling Sharpe, and former coaches Lou Holtz and Steve Spurrier.
Carolina fielded its first football team on Christmas Eve, in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1892 versus Furman. At that time the football team was not sanctioned by the University. They provided their own uniforms and paid their own train fare in order to participate in the game. They were nicknamed the "College Boys '' by The News and Courier and their supporters wore garnet and black.
USC won its first game in its third season, on November 2, 1895 against Columbia AA. The squad designated their first head coach, W.H. "Dixie '' Whaley, the following year. The 1896 season also saw the inaugural game against arch - rival Clemson on November 12, which Carolina won 12 -- 6. From 1902 to 1903, coach Bob Williams led the Gamecocks to a 14 -- 3 record.
In 1902, South Carolina beat Clemson, coached by John Heisman, for the first time since 1896, the first year of the rivalry. "The Carolina fans that week were carrying around a poster with the image of a tiger with a gamecock standing on top of it, holding the tiger 's tail as if he was steering the tiger by the tail '', Jay McCormick said. "Naturally, the Clemson guys did n't take too kindly to that, and on Wednesday and again on Thursday, there were sporadic fistfights involving brass knuckles and other objects and so forth, some of which resulted, according to the newspapers, in blood being spilled and persons having to seek medical assistance. After the game on Thursday, the Clemson guys frankly told the Carolina students that if you bring this poster, which is insulting to us, to the big parade on Friday, you 're going to be in trouble. And naturally, of course, the Carolina students brought the poster to the parade. If you give someone an ultimatum and they 're your rival, they 're going to do exactly what you told them not to do. ''
As expected, another brawl broke out before both sides agreed to mutually burn the poster in an effort to defuse tensions. The immediate aftermath resulted in the stoppage of the rivalry until 1909.
1903 also heralded the program 's first 8 - win season with an overall record of 8 -- 2. Future senator and former star player for South Carolina and UVA, Christie Benet led the Gamecocks from 1904 to 1905 and 1908 to 1909. 1904 's captain Gene Oliver played against Georgia with a broken jaw.
The Board of Trustees banned participation in football for the 1906 season after the faculty complained that the coarseness of chants and cheers, yelled by the students at football games, were not gentlemanly in nature. Within months The Board of Trustees reversed their decision after hearing pleas, and receiving petitions, from students and alumni alike. Play was allowed to resume in 1907. A hastily assembled football team, coached by Board of Trustees member Douglas McKay, competed in an abbreviated season that same year, and the squad won all three games.
In 1910, South Carolina hired John Neff from UVA. Norman Edgerton coached the team from 1912 to 1915. A.B. Stoney played on the team. Yet another UVA grad, W. Rice Warren coached the 1916 team. Frank Dobson led the war - torn 1918 team to a 2 -- 1 -- 1 record.
Coach Sol Metzger led the 1921 team to a 5 -- 1 -- 2 record, losing only to Billy Laval 's Furman. Branch Bocock coached the 1925 and 1926 teams.
Billy Laval, a Columbia, South Carolina native, came to USC from Furman. Laval accepted a three - year contract worth $8,000 per year to coach the Gamecocks, which made him the highest - paid coach in the state. From 1928 to 1934, he led the Gamecocks to seven consecutive winning seasons and a 39 -- 26 -- 6 overall record, which included a perfect 3 -- 0 Southern Conference campaign in 1933. Laval is one of only two South Carolina football coaches to have produced seven consecutive winning seasons (Steve Spurrier is the other, from 2008 - 2014). In 2009, The State called him "the greatest collegiate coach '' in the history of South Carolina. Laval left USC after six seasons to coach multiple sports at Emory and Henry College, partly due to differences over his contract with the USC athletics department. 1934 was the first season that Williams - Brice Stadium was used. Prior to this, South Carolina played its home games on the school 's campus.
Don McCallister led the Gamecocks for three seasons before being replaced. His final record is 13 -- 20 -- 1.
Under coach Rex Enright, who came to USC from his post as an assistant coach at Georgia, the Gamecocks produced another undefeated Southern Conference season, (4 -- 0 -- 1), in 1941. After the 1942 season, Enright joined the United States Navy serving as a lieutenant and working mostly in their athletic program in the United States. After three head coaches (James P. Moran, Williams Newton, John D. McMillan) who had gone 10 -- 10 -- 5 combined in four years with one bowl appearance, Enright returned to the Gamecocks in 1946 as head football coach, and remained until 1955 when he resigned for health reasons. He hired Warren Giese as his successor, and continued as athletic director until 1960. The Rex Enright Athletic Center on the South Carolina campus was named for him and the Rex Enright Award (also known as the Captain 's Cup) given to the football captains of the previous season. Enright gave - up his coaching duties in 1955 due to reasons related to poor health. Enright retired with the distinction of being the head coach with the most wins and losses in school history (64 -- 69 -- 7), and he still retains the record for most school losses and is 2nd in wins.
Warren Giese, who was previously an assistant coach at Maryland, was hired as head coach in 1956, and he led the Gamecocks to a 28 -- 21 -- 1 overall record in his 5 - year tenure. Giese employed a conservative, run - first game strategy, but he enthusiastically adopted the two - point conversion when it was made legal in 1958. That year, he also correctly predicted the rise of special teams after the NCAA relaxed its player substitution rules. The Giese era included two 7 -- 3 campaigns (1956 and 1958), an 18 -- 15 -- 1 ACC record, and a 27 -- 21 victory over Darrell Royal 's 1957 Texas squad in Austin. Griese was replaced after a 3 -- 6 season in 1960.
Marvin Bass was hired away from Georgia Tech, where he served as defensive coordinator, as the Gamecocks head football coach. He posted a 17 -- 29 -- 4 record in his four - year tenure and was replaced after five seasons due to the team 's struggles and low fan support.
Paul Dietzel arrived in Columbia prior to the 1966 season, having previously coached at LSU, where he won a national championship, and Army.
In 1969, he led the Gamecocks to an ACC championship and an appearance in the Peach Bowl. As a result, Dietzel was named ACC Coach of the Year that season. Soon after, South Carolina left the ACC and became an Independent program prior to the 1971 season. Dietzel finished his USC tenure with a 42 -- 53 -- 1 overall record (18 -- 10 -- 1 ACC). In addition to the 1969 ACC title, Dietzel 's legacies at Carolina include his improvement of athletic facilities and his penning of a new fight song, which is still used to this day ("The Fighting Gamecocks Lead the Way ''). Amid growing fan unrest after an upset loss to Duke, Dietzel announced that he would resign at the end of the season, which ended in a 4 -- 7 record.
Jim Carlen, previously head football coach at Texas Tech and West Virginia, took over as coach in 1975. Under his leadership the program achieved a measure of national prominence. Carlen led the Gamecocks to three bowl games, coached 1980 Heisman Trophy winner George Rogers, and produced a 45 -- 36 -- 1 record during his tenure. The Carlen Era included consecutive 8 -- 4 finishes (1979 -- 1980) and only one losing season in seven years. In addition, the 1980 Gamecocks defeated a heavily favored Michigan squad coached by the legendary Bo Schembechler. The 17 -- 14 victory in Ann Arbor, which made Rogers a household name, was one of the biggest wins in both the Carlen Era and the program 's history. Carlen retired from coaching after seven seasons at USC.
Joe Morrison was hired in 1983 following a one - year stint by Richard Bell. After a 5 -- 6 mark in his first year, the "Man in Black '' led South Carolina to a 10 -- 2 record, No. 11 final AP Poll ranking, and a Gator Bowl appearance in 1984. It was also before the 1984 season began that the team removed the Astroturf that had been in place at Williams - Brice Stadium since the early 1970s and reinstalled the natural grass that remains today. The 1984 season included victories over Georgia, Pittsburgh, Notre Dame, Florida State, and Clemson. The 1984 defense was called the "Fire Ant '' defense. In 1987, the Gamecocks posted an 8 -- 4 record, No. 15 Final AP Poll ranking, and another Gator Bowl trip. The 1987 Gamecocks were led by the "Black Death '' defense, which held seven opponents to 10 or fewer points and yielded just 141 points in 12 games played. Morrison coached his last game in the 1988 Liberty Bowl, as he died of a heart attack on February 5, 1989 at the age of 51. He finished his USC tenure with a 39 -- 28 -- 2 overall record, three bowl appearances, and three seasons with 8 or more wins. Due to his on - field success and "Man in Black '' image, Morrison remains a popular figure in Gamecock lore. Morrison also began the tradition at Carolina, with his first game in 1983, of the pre-game entrance of the football team to the beginning of Also sprach Zarathustra, the theme from the film "2001: A Space Odyssey ''. This is still part of the Carolina football game day experience over 30 years later.
Following Morrison 's death, Sparky Woods was hired away from Appalachian State as head coach in 1989 and coached the Gamecocks until the end of the 1993 season. He posted winning seasons in 1989 and 1990, but could not produce another winning campaign during his tenure. Woods led the USC football program through the transition to the SEC and has the distinction of being South Carolina 's first head coach in SEC play, as the Gamecocks entered the conference in 1992. Woods ' overall record at South Carolina was 25 -- 27 -- 3.
Brad Scott left his post as offensive coordinator at Florida State and took over as the Gamecocks head coach in December 1993. Despite modest preseason expectations, he led USC to a 7 -- 5 record and a Carquest Bowl victory over West Virginia in his first season. The bowl win was the first post-season victory in the program 's long history. However, Scott was unable to capitalize on his early success. USC only had one non-losing record in SEC play during his tenure, only one other winning overall record, and won only six games in his final two seasons. Scott was fired by athletics director Mike McGee after a 1 -- 10 season in 1998 in which the Gamecocks lost their final ten games of the season. Scott 's final record at South Carolina was 23 -- 32 -- 1 in five seasons.
Former Notre Dame head coach Lou Holtz came out of retirement and was hired as USC 's head coach in 1999. He inherited a relatively young SEC program (joined in 1992) that posted only three winning seasons from 1990 to 1998. USC won just a single game the year before Holtz 's arrival and, subsequently, went 0 -- 11 in his inaugural campaign.
It did n't take long for Holtz to improve the Gamecocks ' fortunes, however, as he engineered 8 -- 4 and 9 -- 3 records in the 2000 and 2001 seasons. In addition, USC won consecutive Outback Bowls over Ohio State and produced the most successful two - year run in program history (at the time), going 17 -- 7 overall and 10 -- 6 in SEC play. The 2000 and 2001 campaigns also saw USC 's return to the polls, as the Gamecocks turned in No. 19 and No. 13 rankings in the Final AP ballots for those years. After consecutive 5 -- 7 finishes in 2002 and 2003 (in which the team was ranked in the Top 25 during both seasons), Holtz ended his USC tenure on a winning note with a 6 -- 5 record in 2004 before retiring again. Holtz finished with a 33 -- 37 overall record at South Carolina.
In 2005, USC was placed on 3 years probation by the NCAA for actions during the coaching tenure of Lou Holtz, all of which were self - reported by the school. Five of these actions were considered major violations, and included such activities as impermissible tutoring and non-voluntary summer workouts as well as a "lack of institutional control ''. Coach Holtz pointed out following the close of the investigation, "There was no money involved. No athletes were paid. There were no recruiting inducements. No cars. No jobs offered. No ticket scandal, etc. ''
Former Washington Redskins head coach Steve Spurrier, who achieved fame after a very successful stint as head coach at his alma mater Florida, was hired in 2005 to replace the retiring Holtz. Spurrier led the Gamecocks to a 7 -- 5 record and Independence Bowl appearance in his first season. As a result, Spurrier was named the 2005 SEC Coach of the Year. The 2006 season saw continued success under Spurrier, as the Gamecocks posted an 8 -- 5 record and a victory over Houston in the Liberty Bowl. South Carolina posted consecutive 7 -- 6 records in 2008 and 2009, returning to postseason play with appearances in the Outback Bowl and PapaJohns.com Bowl.
In 2010, Spurrier scored another first with the first SEC Eastern Division Championship in school history. On November 13, 2010, the Gamecocks defeated Florida 36 -- 14 to clinch the division. Prior to this contest, USC had an all - time record of 0 -- 12 at The Swamp. Freshman RB Marcus Lattimore rushed for 212 yards and 3 touchdowns in the game. Spurrier got his first win in Gainesville as a Gamecock, received a "Gatorade Bath '' from his players, and became the first coach to win the SEC East with two different teams. Earlier in the season, the Gamecocks posted the program 's first win over a No. 1 team in program history, with a 35 -- 21 victory over top - ranked, defending national champion Alabama.
In 2011, Spurrier led USC to its most successful season in program history. The Gamecocks posted an 11 -- 2 overall record, went 6 -- 2 in SEC play, and defeated No. 20 Nebraska in the Capital One Bowl to earn Final Top 10 rankings in the AP and Coaches ' Polls (No. 9 and No. 8, respectively). Along the way, USC defeated Georgia, Tennessee, Florida, and Clemson in the same season for the first time in program history.
The University of South Carolina was investigated in 2011 -- 12 by the NCAA after it came to light that student - athletes (including some football players) had received an estimated $59,000 in impermissible benefits, mainly the result of discounted living expenses at a local hotel. The school imposed its own punishment, paying $18,500 in fines and cutting three football scholarships in each of the 2013 and 2014 seasons. The school also reduced its official visits for the 2012 -- 13 year, from 56 to 30. The NCAA ruled this self - imposed punishment as adequate, stating that "the violations were limited in scope '' and "there was no unethical conduct in this case '', and went on to praise the school 's handling of the affair, with the chairman of the NCAA infractions committee stating, "This has been one of the best cases I have seen from a process standpoint... In this case, it was obvious to the committee that the university wanted to get to the truth. '' The commissioner went on to state that USC "wanted to ask all the hard questions of all the right people and, in some cases, they even went beyond what the NCAA staff was doing. ''
In 2012 Steve Spurrier, once again, led his South Carolina football team to double - digit wins during the course of the regular season campaign. The 2012 regular season culminated with the annual season - ending game against arch - rival Clemson at Clemson 's Memorial Stadium. Spurrier and his Gamecocks emerged with a fourth consecutive victory over the Tigers -- a victory marked by Spurrier winning his 65th game at Carolina and, in doing so, becoming the winningest coach in Gamecock football history surpassing Rex Enright 's 64 - win total. Spurrier led the Gamecocks to a thrilling 33 -- 28 victory in the Outback Bowl against the winningest program in college football, Michigan. The victory elevated the Gamecocks to an 11 -- 2 record for the second consecutive season. Additionally, by finishing 8th in the Associated Press poll and 7th in the Coaches poll, South Carolina finished in Top 10 of both polls for the second consecutive year.
In 2013, Spurrier and the Gamecocks finished with another extremely successful 11 -- 2 season. The season started off with a convincing 27 -- 10 win over North Carolina, although they fell to Georgia for the first time in four years, 41 -- 30. Carolina went on a four - game winning streak before falling to Tennessee in Knoxville after starting quarterback Connor Shaw left the game with a knee injury. In the following game against division - leading # 5 Missouri, Shaw was sidelined due to injury, and backup Dylan Thompson got the start. After a weak performance from the Gamecocks in the first three quarters, Shaw was put in the game in the fourth quarter with South Carolina down 0 -- 17. Shaw went on to lead a historic comeback in which the Gamecocks beat Missouri in double overtime, 27 -- 24. That game was the first of a six - game winning streak in which Spurrier and Carolina won the rest of their games, posting another 11 -- 2 season. In the highest - ranked meeting of rivals, the # 9 Gamecocks defeated # 4 Clemson for the fifth year in a row, a school record, by a score of 31 -- 17. Spurrier led the Gamecocks to a 34 -- 22 victory over the # 19 Wisconsin in the 2014 Capital One Bowl. South Carolina finished with the highest ranking in school history in the AP poll, ranked at # 4 in the country.
South Carolina opened the 2014 season at home against Texas A&M, and the Aggies ' 52 -- 28 upset over the # 9 Gamecocks snapped college football 's longest active home winning streak. Carolina earned a measure of redemption two weeks later, knocking off the # 6 Georgia Bulldogs at home. Two weeks later, the 13th - ranked Gamecocks would again suffer a home upset, falling to Missouri, 21 -- 20. This loss dropped USC out of the top 25 for the first time since the 2010 season. The Gamecocks closed out the regular season with their first loss in six years to their in - state rival, # 21 Clemson, 35 -- 17. Spurrier and his team finished the 2014 campaign with the program 's fourth - straight bowl win, a victory over the Miami Hurricanes in the 2014 Independence Bowl and a 7 -- 6 overall record.
On October 12, 2015, after a 2 -- 4 start to the season, Spurrier announced to his team that he would be resigning, effective immediately. Offensive line coach / co-offensive coordinator Shawn Elliott was named the team 's interim head coach. Elliott led the Gamecocks to victory the following week against Vanderbilt but lost the final five games of the season; including a 23 -- 22 loss to FCS opponent The Citadel, their first since 1990, and ended the season with a 3 -- 9 overall record.
Many of South Carolina 's most successful seasons came during the Steve Spurrier era, including a SEC East Division championship in 2010 and three consecutive eleven win seasons (2011 -- 13). Spurrier also boasted a 6 -- 4 record against the school 's in - state rival, Clemson, including five consecutive wins during the 2009 -- 2013 seasons.
Auburn defensive coordinator and former Florida head coach Will Muschamp was named as South Carolina 's new head coach on December 6, 2015. On September 1, 2016, the Will Muschamp era began with a win, as the Gamecocks defeated Vanderbilt by a score of 13 -- 10. After a 2 - 4 start, Carolina won four of their final six regular season contests, including a 24 - 21 victory over 18th - ranked Tennessee. The Gamecocks ' 2016 campaign ended with a 46 - 39 overtime loss to the # 25 South Florida Bulls in the Birmingham Bowl, and USC finished 6 - 7, their first back - to - back losing seasons since 2002 - 2003.
South Carolina has affiliated with three conferences and twice been an independent.
The Clemson -- South Carolina rivalry is the largest annual sporting event by ticket sales in the state of South Carolina. Clemson holds a 69 -- 42 -- 4 lead in the series which dates back to 1896. Historically the final score in the game on average has been decided by less than a touchdown.
From 1896 to 1959, the Carolina - Clemson game was played on the fairgrounds in Columbia, South Carolina and was referred to as "Big Thursday. '' In 1960 an alternating - site format was implemented utilizing both teams ' home stadiums. The annual game has since been designated "The Palmetto Bowl ''. The last nine contests between the programs have been nationally televised (5 on ESPN, 4 on ESPN2).
The South Carolina - Georgia Rivalry, a "border rivalry '', back to 1894, with Georgia holding a 50 -- 18 -- 2 overall lead in the series. However, the series has been far more competitive since USC joined the SEC in 1990, with Georgia holding a 14 -- 9 advantage.
The 1980 game was between future Heisman Trophy winners George Rogers and Herschel Walker. Led by Walker 's 219 rushing yards, Georgia won 13 -- 10 and would go on to capture the National Championship. Rogers turned in 168 rushing yards during the course of the battle, setting the stage for a successful finish to his senior season and eventual Heisman Trophy award. The last 17 match - ups between the schools have been nationally televised, dating back to 1997 (6 on ESPN2, 5 on ESPN and 5 on CBS).
The "Battle of the Carolinas '' rivalry began in 1903. North Carolina holds a 34 -- 19 -- 4 overall lead in the series. While no longer a conference rivalry, since South Carolina left the ACC in 1971, the teams still meet occasionally. In the 2010s decade the series has always been played on a Thursday. It was announced in September 2015 that USC and UNC will play every four years in 2019 and 2023.
The rivalry was born when former Florida player (1963 -- 1966) and head football coach (1990 -- 2001) Steve Spurrier was hired as USC 's head football coach in 2005. In Spurrier 's first season at the helm in South Carolina, USC spoiled UF 's SEC championship hopes by upsetting the Gators in Columbia, South Carolina, and thus igniting the rivalry almost instantly. In 2010, South Carolina clinched their first SEC Eastern Division title with a commanding 36 -- 14 win in The Swamp in Gainesville, Florida. Florida currently holds a 24 -- 8 -- 3 lead in the series, while Spurrier holds a 5 -- 5 record versus his alma mater while wearing the garnet and black colors of the Gamecocks. Current Gamecocks head coach Will Muschamp also served as the Florida Gators head coach from 2011 -- 2014.
The rivalry known as the Battle of Columbia started when Missouri was added to the SEC in 2012. Both of Missouri and South Carolina campuses are located in cities named Columbia. Before 2012, the schools met twice in 1979 and in 2005 in post season play. Whoever wins the matchup brings home the Mayors ' Cup, which was inaugurated in 2012. Though the overall series is tied at 4 -- 4, The Gamecocks lead the Tigers 4 -- 2 in the Battle of Columbia matchups.
The new rivalry of Texas A&M vs. South Carolina, which began with the first meeting in 2014, was one of the byproducts of conference expansion by the South Eastern Conference. The permanent cross-divisional rivalry means that under the current scheduling framework, Texas A&M will play South Carolina every year, even though the Aggies only play two SEC East teams per year. South Carolina and Texas A&M have only met four times, but the first meeting of the teams and fan bases provided quite a launching point for a great rivalry moving forward. The teams compete for the James Bonham Trophy, named after James Butler Bonham, who was a soldier that died at the Battle of the Alamo who also attended South Carolina College, which later became University of South Carolina. Texas A&M currently leads the series 4 -- 0.
South Carolina has 22 bowl appearances, with a 9 -- 13 record overall.
South Carolina has played four teams multiple times in bowl games.
In 1933, under the direction of the legendary Billy Laval, the Gamecocks went undefeated in conference play. However, Duke would finish with a better conference record by one win and be awarded the championship.
In 1969, the Gamecocks won the ACC Championship by going undefeated in conference play. In its six ACC matchups, USC outscored its opponents by a 130 -- 61 margin. The squad posted a 7 -- 4 overall record with a Peach Bowl appearance against West Virginia to close the season (14 -- 3 loss). Two years later, South Carolina left the ACC and competed as an Independent for two decades before joining the SEC in 1992.
Led by Coach Morrison, the 1984 Gamecocks became the first team in school history to win 10 games (10 -- 2 record) and were ranked as high as No. 2 in the polls... The Gamecocks finished No. 11 in the Final AP Poll. Along the way, they defeated Georgia, Pittsburgh, Notre Dame, Florida State, and Clemson to earn an appearance in the Gator Bowl against Oklahoma State (21 -- 14 loss). At the time, the No. 11 final ranking was the highest ever achieved by South Carolina.
In 2010, the Gamecocks won their first SEC Eastern Division Championship, going 5 -- 3 in conference play. For the first time in school history, they defeated the No. 1 ranked team in the country (Alabama) and won at Florida in the division - clinching game. The season also included victories over division foes Georgia, Tennessee, and Vanderbilt as well as instate Atlantic Coast Conference rival Clemson. In their first appearance in the SEC Championship Game, the Gamecocks lost to No. 1 Auburn, 56 -- 17.
Led by Coach Spurrier, the 2011 Gamecocks achieved its most wins in a single season and finished in the Top 10 for the first time in program history. USC posted an 11 -- 2 overall record, went 6 -- 2 in SEC play, and won the Capital One Bowl to finish No. 9 / 8 in the Final AP and Coaches ' Polls (respectively). Along the way, USC defeated Georgia, Tennessee, Florida, and Clemson to extend its winning streak over its biggest rivals to 3 games. This was also the first season that USC posted a 5 -- 0 record against their SEC Eastern Division opponents.
Again led by Coach Spurrier, the 2012 -- 13 Gamecocks squad went 11 -- 2, with their only losses coming at LSU and at Florida in consecutive weeks. USC finished 2012 by defeating rival Clemson 27 -- 17, in Death Valley, to end the regular season. They were invited to play in the Outback Bowl, with the Gamecocks defeating the Michigan Wolverines, 33 -- 28, in a close game decided by a 28 - yard touchdown pass from Dylan Thompson to Bruce Ellington with under a minute to go. The Gamecocks finished the season ranked No. 8 / 7 in the Final AP and Coaches ' Polls (respectively)
Coach Spurrier worked his magic once again during the 2013 -- 14 season by leading the Gamecocks to their third consecutive eleven - win season, their two losses coming at the hands of Georgia in Athens and Tennessee in Knoxville. By the end of the 2013 campaign, Carolina held the longest home winning streak in the nation at 18. The 2013 regular season culminated with a fifth consecutive victory over instate rival Clemson, in Williams - Brice Stadium, and an invitation to play in the Capital One Bowl in Orlando versus the Wisconsin Badgers. Connor Shaw led the Gamecocks to a 34 -- 24 victory and was named the MVP of the bowl. Carolina became only the twelfth program in NCAA D1 history to record three consecutive 11 - win seasons, (Miami (FL), Nebraska, Florida State, Alabama, Southern California, LSU, Oklahoma, Boise State, Oregon, Stanford, Northern Illinois), and finished the season ranked No. 4 in both the AP and Coaches ' Polls, the highest final ranking in program history.
The SEC has been split into two divisions since the 1992 season with USC competing in the SEC East since that time.
USC 's 1980 season was headlined by senior running back George Rogers ("Big George ''), who led the nation in rushing with 1,894 yards. For his efforts, the Downtown Athletic Club named Rogers the winner of the 1980 Heisman Trophy award. Rogers beat out a strong group of players, including Georgia running back Herschel Walker. Rogers also earned spots on eight All - American teams, all First - team honors. Behind the Rogers - led rushing attack, the Gamecocks went 8 -- 4 overall and earned an appearance in the Gator Bowl. Rogers is also the recipient of the 1980 Chic Harley Award, the 2004 Walter Camp Alumni of the Year award, a Pro-Bowl selection, an SEC Football Legend, a Super Bowl champion and an NFL Rookie of the Year.
From 2003 to 2006, Syvelle Newton played multiple positions for the Gamecocks and left his mark on the national record books in the process. He became one of only four players in college football history to record 600 + yards passing, rushing, and receiving (each) in a collegiate career. In Newton 's four seasons, he posted 2,474 passing yards (20 TD, 13 INT), 786 rushing yards (10 TD), and 673 receiving yards (3 TD). He also returned 6 kickoffs for 115 yards (19.2 average) and made 18 tackles and an assisted sack in limited defensive action.
In the 2009 season, USC wore a special uniform against Florida in support of the Wounded Warrior Project. This was repeated in the 2011 season against Auburn, and during the 2012 season against LSU.
Before the start of the 2013 season, USC debuted new uniforms made by Under Armour. The stripes on the front of the shoulders were moved to the top of the shoulder. The uniforms contain 11 total stripes -- the same number of buildings as the national historic landmark that is The Horseshoe on the campus of the university.
The following is a list of Gamecock players currently in the NFL:
South Carolina plays Texas A&M as a permanent non-division opponent annually and rotates around the West division among the other six schools.
Announced schedules as of March 31, 2017
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what are the rules to be president of the united states | President of the United States - Wikipedia
The President of the United States (abbreviated as POTUS (POE - tus)) is the head of state and head of government of the United States of America. The president directs the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander - in - chief of the United States Armed Forces.
In contemporary times, the U.S. President is looked upon as the world 's most powerful political figure; he is the leader of the only current global superpower. The role includes responsibility for the world 's most expensive military that has the second largest nuclear arsenal; the President also leads the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The chief executive possesses significant domestic and international hard and soft power.
Article II of the Constitution establishes the executive branch of the federal government. It vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The power includes the execution and enforcement of federal law, alongside the responsibility of appointing federal executive, diplomatic, regulatory and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the Senate. The president is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves, and to convene and adjourn either or both houses of Congress under extraordinary circumstances. The president is largely responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policies of the United States. In addition, as part of the system of checks and balances, Article One of the United States Constitution gives the president the power to sign or veto federal legislation. Since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole.
Through the Electoral College, the registered voters indirectly elect the president and vice president to a four - year term. This is the only national federal election and the only election that is not decided by popular vote. Nine vice presidents became president by virtue of a president 's intra-term death or resignation.
The Twenty - second Amendment precludes any United States citizen from being elected president for a third term. It also prohibits a person from being elected to the presidency more than once if that person previously had served as president, or acting president, for more than two years of another person 's term as president. In all, 44 individuals have served 45 presidencies (counting Grover Cleveland 's two non-consecutive terms separately) spanning 57 full four - year terms. Incumbent Donald Trump was inaugurated on January 20, 2017.
During the American Revolution in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain. The new states were independent of each other as nation states and recognized the necessity of closely coordinating their efforts against the British. Congress desired to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy and negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish an alliance between the states. Under the Articles, Congress was a central authority without any legislative power. It could make its own resolutions, determinations, and regulations, but not any laws, and could not impose any taxes or enforce local commercial regulations upon its citizens. This institutional design reflected how Americans believed the deposed British system of Crown and Parliament ought to have functioned with respect to the royal dominion: a superintending body for matters that concerned the entire empire. The states were out from under any monarchy and assigned some formerly royal prerogatives (e.g., making war, receiving ambassadors, etc.) to Congress; the remaining prerogatives were lodged within their own respective state governments. The states agreed to a resolution that settled competing western land claims. The Articles took effect on March 1, 1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them.
In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies. With peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. By 1786, Americans found their continental borders besieged and weak and their respective economies in crises as neighboring states agitated trade rivalries with one another. They witnessed their hard currency pouring into foreign markets to pay for imports, their Mediterranean commerce preyed upon by North African pirates, and their foreign - financed Revolutionary War debts unpaid and accruing interest. Civil and political unrest loomed.
Following the successful resolution of commercial and fishing disputes between Virginia and Maryland at the Mount Vernon Conference in 1785, Virginia called for a trade conference between all the states, set for September 1786 in Annapolis, Maryland, with an aim toward resolving further - reaching interstate commercial antagonisms. When the convention failed for lack of attendance due to suspicions among most of the other states, Alexander Hamilton led the Annapolis delegates in a call for a convention to offer revisions to the Articles, to be held the next spring in Philadelphia. Prospects for the next convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washington 's attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia.
When the Constitutional Convention convened in May 1787, the 12 state delegations in attendance (Rhode Island did not send delegates) brought with them an accumulated experience over a diverse set of institutional arrangements between legislative and executive branches from within their respective state governments. Most states maintained a weak executive without veto or appointment powers, elected annually by the legislature to a single term only, sharing power with an executive council, and countered by a strong legislature. New York offered the greatest exception, having a strong, unitary governor with veto and appointment power elected to a three - year term, and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of terms thereafter. It was through the closed - door negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U.S. Constitution emerged.
The Presentment Clause requires that any bill passed by Congress must be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options:
In 1996, Congress attempted to enhance the president 's veto power with the Line Item Veto Act. The legislation empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law while simultaneously striking certain spending items within the bill, particularly any new spending, any amount of discretionary spending, or any new limited tax benefit. Congress could then repass that particular item. If the president then vetoed the new legislation, Congress could override the veto by its ordinary means, a two - thirds vote in both houses. In Clinton v. City of New York, 524 U.S. 417 (1998), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled such a legislative alteration of the veto power to be unconstitutional.
One of the most important of all executive powers is the president 's role as commander - in - chief of the United States Armed Forces. The power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress, but the president has ultimate responsibility for the direction and disposition of the military. The present - day operational command of the Armed Forces is delegated to the Department of Defense and is normally exercised through the Secretary of Defense. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Combatant Commands assist with the operation as outlined in the presidentially approved Unified Command Plan (UCP). The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president 's powers regarding the military; Alexander Hamilton explained this in Federalist No. 69:
The President is to be commander - in - chief of the army and navy of the United States... It would amount to nothing more than the supreme command and direction of the military and naval forces... while that (the power) of the British king extends to the DECLARING of war and to the RAISING and REGULATING of fleets and armies, all (of) which... would appertain to the legislature. (Emphasis in the original.)
Pursuant to the War Powers Resolution, Congress must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed, rendering it ineffectual. Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation. Presidents have historically initiated the process for going to war, but critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations, including Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the invasions of Grenada in 1983 and Panama in 1990.
The president also directs U.S. foreign policy. Through the Department of State and the Department of Defense, the president is responsible for the protection of Americans abroad and of foreign nationals in the United States. The president decides whether to recognize new nations and new governments, and negotiates treaties with other nations, which become binding on the United States when approved by two - thirds vote of the Senate.
The president is the head of the executive branch of the federal government and is constitutionally obligated to "take care that the laws be faithfully executed ''. The executive branch has over four million employees, including members of the military.
Presidents make numerous executive branch appointments: an incoming president may make up to 6,000 before taking office and 8,000 more while serving. Ambassadors, members of the Cabinet, and other federal officers, are all appointed by a president with the "advice and consent '' of a majority of the Senate. When the Senate is in recess for at least ten days, the president may make recess appointments. Recess appointments are temporary and expire at the end of the next session of the Senate.
The power of a president to fire executive officials has long been a contentious political issue. Generally, a president may remove executive officials purely at will. However, Congress can curtail and constrain a president 's authority to fire commissioners of independent regulatory agencies and certain inferior executive officers by statute.
The president possesses additional powers to direct the executive branch through executive orders that are grounded in federal law or executive power that is constitutionally vested. Executive orders are reviewable by federal courts and can be superseded by federal legislation and Supreme Court decisions.
To manage the growing federal bureaucracy, Presidents have gradually surrounded themselves with many layers of staff, who were eventually organized into the Executive Office of the President of the United States. Within the Executive Office, the President 's innermost layer of aides (and their assistants) are located in the White House Office.
President also has "unreviewable authority '' over the matters of immigration and can ban entry to the USA of foreign nationals who have no "credible claim of a bona fide relationship with a person or entity in the United States '' at will.
The president also has the power to nominate federal judges, including members of the United States courts of appeals and the Supreme Court of the United States. However, these nominations require Senate confirmation. Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance. When nominating judges to U.S. district courts, presidents often respect the long - standing tradition of senatorial courtesy. Presidents may also grant pardons and reprieves. Gerald Ford pardoned Richard Nixon a month after taking office. Bill Clinton pardoned Patty Hearst on his last day in office, as is often done just before the end of a presidential term, but not without controversy.
Historically, two doctrines concerning executive power have developed that enable the president to exercise executive power with a degree of autonomy. The first is executive privilege, which allows the president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to the president in the performance of executive duties. George Washington first claimed the privilege when Congress requested to see Chief Justice John Jay 's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great Britain. While not enshrined in the Constitution, or any other law, Washington 's action created the precedent for the privilege. When Richard Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during the Watergate scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683 (1974), that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution. When President Bill Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding the Lewinsky scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in Clinton v. Jones, 520 U.S. 681 (1997), that the privilege also could not be used in civil suits. These cases established the legal precedent that executive privilege is valid, although the exact extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined. Additionally, federal courts have allowed this privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees, but have weakened that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve the president.
The state secrets privilege allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information or documents from discovery in legal proceedings if such release would harm national security. Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when Thomas Jefferson refused to release military documents in the treason trial of Aaron Burr and again in Totten v. United States 92 U.S. 105 (1876), when the Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy. However, the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court until United States v. Reynolds 345 U.S. 1 (1953), where it was held to be a common law evidentiary privilege. Before the September 11 attacks, use of the privilege had been rare, but increasing in frequency. Since 2001, the government has asserted the privilege in more cases and at earlier stages of the litigation, thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before reaching the merits of the claims, as in the Ninth Circuit 's ruling in Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan, Inc. Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions.
The Constitution 's Ineligibility Clause prevents the President (and all other executive officers) from simultaneously being a member of Congress. Therefore, the president can not directly introduce legislative proposals for consideration in Congress. However, the president can take an indirect role in shaping legislation, especially if the president 's political party has a majority in one or both houses of Congress. For example, the president or other officials of the executive branch may draft legislation and then ask senators or representatives to introduce these drafts into Congress. The president can further influence the legislative branch through constitutionally mandated, periodic reports to Congress. These reports may be either written or oral, but today are given as the State of the Union address, which often outlines the president 's legislative proposals for the coming year. Additionally, the president may attempt to have Congress alter proposed legislation by threatening to veto that legislation unless requested changes are made.
In the 20th century, critics charged that too many legislative and budgetary powers that should have belonged to Congress had slid into the hands of presidents. As the head of the executive branch, presidents control a vast array of agencies that can issue regulations with little oversight from Congress. One critic charged that presidents could appoint a "virtual army of ' czars ' -- each wholly unaccountable to Congress yet tasked with spearheading major policy efforts for the White House ''. Presidents have been criticized for making signing statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it. This practice has been criticized by the American Bar Association as unconstitutional. Conservative commentator George Will wrote of an "increasingly swollen executive branch '' and "the eclipse of Congress ''.
According to Article II, Section 3 of the Constitution, the president may convene either or both houses of Congress. If both houses can not agree on a date of adjournment, the president may appoint a date for Congress to adjourn. For example, Franklin Delano Roosevelt convened a special session of Congress immediately after the December 7, 1941, Japanese sneak attack on Pearl Habor and asked for a declaration of war.
As head of state, the president can fulfill traditions established by previous presidents. William Howard Taft started the tradition of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch in 1910 at Griffith Stadium, Washington, D.C., on the Washington Senators ' Opening Day. Every president since Taft, except for Jimmy Carter, threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch for Opening Day, the All - Star Game, or the World Series, usually with much fanfare.
The President of the United States has served as the honorary president of the Boy Scouts of America since the founding of the organization.
Other presidential traditions are associated with American holidays. Rutherford B. Hayes began in 1878 the first White House egg rolling for local children. Beginning in 1947, during the Harry S. Truman administration, every Thanksgiving the president is presented with a live domestic turkey during the annual National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation held at the White House. Since 1989, when the custom of "pardoning '' the turkey was formalized by George H.W. Bush, the turkey has been taken to a farm where it will live out the rest of its natural life.
Presidential traditions also involve the president 's role as head of government. Many outgoing presidents since James Buchanan traditionally give advice to their successor during the presidential transition. Ronald Reagan and his successors have also left a private message on the desk of the Oval Office on Inauguration Day for the incoming president.
During a state visit by a foreign head of state, the president typically hosts a State Arrival Ceremony held on the South Lawn, a custom begun by John F. Kennedy in 1961. This is followed by a state dinner given by the president which is held in the State Dining Room later in the evening.
The modern presidency holds the president as one of the nation 's premier celebrities. Some argue that images of the presidency have a tendency to be manipulated by administration public relations officials as well as by presidents themselves. One critic described the presidency as "propagandized leadership '' which has a "mesmerizing power surrounding the office ''. Administration public relations managers staged carefully crafted photo - ops of smiling presidents with smiling crowds for television cameras. One critic wrote the image of John F. Kennedy was described as carefully framed "in rich detail '' which "drew on the power of myth '' regarding the incident of PT 109 and wrote that Kennedy understood how to use images to further his presidential ambitions. As a result, some political commentators have opined that American voters have unrealistic expectations of presidents: voters expect a president to "drive the economy, vanquish enemies, lead the free world, comfort tornado victims, heal the national soul and protect borrowers from hidden credit - card fees ''.
The nation 's Founding Fathers expected the Congress -- which was the first branch of government described in the Constitution -- to be the dominant branch of government; they did not expect a strong executive department. However, presidential power has shifted over time, which has resulted in claims that the modern presidency has become too powerful, unchecked, unbalanced, and "monarchist '' in nature. Critic Dana D. Nelson believes presidents over the past thirty years have worked towards "undivided presidential control of the executive branch and its agencies ''. She criticizes proponents of the unitary executive for expanding "the many existing uncheckable executive powers -- such as executive orders, decrees, memorandums, proclamations, national security directives and legislative signing statements -- that already allow presidents to enact a good deal of foreign and domestic policy without aid, interference or consent from Congress ''. Activist Bill Wilson opined that the expanded presidency was "the greatest threat ever to individual freedom and democratic rule ''.
Article II, Section 1, Clause 5 of the Constitution sets the following qualifications for holding the presidency:
A person who meets the above qualifications is still disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions:
The modern presidential campaign begins before the primary elections, which the two major political parties use to clear the field of candidates before their national nominating conventions, where the most successful candidate is made the party 's nominee for president. Typically, the party 's presidential candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee, and this choice is rubber - stamped by the convention. The most common previous profession of U.S. presidents is lawyer.
Nominees participate in nationally televised debates, and while the debates are usually restricted to the Democratic and Republican nominees, third party candidates may be invited, such as Ross Perot in the 1992 debates. Nominees campaign across the country to explain their views, convince voters and solicit contributions. Much of the modern electoral process is concerned with winning swing states through frequent visits and mass media advertising drives.
The president is elected indirectly. A number of electors, collectively known as the Electoral College, officially select the president. On Election Day, voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors. Each state is allocated a number of electors, equal to the size of its combined delegation in both Houses of Congress. Generally, the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state 's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College.
The winning slate of electors meet at its state 's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election, to vote. They then send a record of that vote to Congress. The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president -- acting in that role 's capacity as President of the Senate -- and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress, which was elected at the same time as the president.
Pursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the president 's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election. This date, known as Inauguration Day, marks the beginning of the four - year terms of both the president and the vice president. Before executing the powers of the office, a president is constitutionally required to take the presidential oath:
I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States.
Presidents have traditionally palmed a Bible while taking the oath and have added, "So help me God! '' to the end of the oath. Although the oath may be administered by any person authorized by law to administer oaths, presidents are traditionally sworn in by the Chief Justice of the United States, except when vice presidents have succeeded to the presidency due to a president 's death or resignation.
The term of office for the president is four years. As the first president, George Washington set an unofficial precedent by serving only two terms. Prior to Franklin D. Roosevelt, Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt both unsuccessfully sought a third term. In 1940, FDR was elected to a third term after being "drafted '' by his party. In 1941, the United States entered World War II, which led voters to elect Roosevelt to a fourth term in 1944 despite his declining physical health; he died 82 days later on April 12, 1945.
In response to Roosevelt being elected to four terms, the Twenty - second Amendment was adopted six years after the war ended. The amendment bars anyone from being elected president more than twice, or once if that person served more than half of another president 's term. Harry S. Truman, president when this amendment was adopted, was exempted from its limitations and briefly sought a third (a second full) term before he withdrew from the 1952 election.
Since the amendment 's adoption, five presidents have served two full terms: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama. Jimmy Carter and George H.W. Bush sought a second term, but were defeated. Richard Nixon was elected to a second term, but resigned before completing it. Lyndon B. Johnson was the only president under the amendment to be eligible to serve more than two terms in total, having served for only fourteen months following John F. Kennedy 's assassination. However, Johnson withdrew from the 1968 Democratic Primary, which surprised many Americans. After Gerald Ford served out the last two years and five months of Nixon 's second term, he sought a full term on his own but was defeated by Jimmy Carter.
Succession to or vacancies in the office of President may arise under several possible circumstances: death, resignation, and removal from office. Deaths have occurred a number of times, resignation has occurred only once, and removal from office has never occurred.
Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution allows for the removal of high federal officials, including the president, from office for "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. '' Article I, Section 2, Clause 5 gives the House of Representatives the power to impeach such officials by a majority vote. Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 gives the Senate the power to remove impeached officials from office, given a two - thirds vote to convict. The House has thus far impeached two presidents: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998. Neither was convicted by the Senate. Johnson was acquitted by just one vote and Clinton by 17 votes.
Under Section 3 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment, the president may transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice president, who then becomes acting president, by transmitting a statement to the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate stating the reasons for the transfer. The president resumes the discharge of the presidential powers and duties upon transmitting, to those two officials, a written declaration stating that resumption. This transfer of power may occur for any reason the president considers appropriate; in 2002 and again in 2007, President George W. Bush briefly transferred presidential authority to Vice President Dick Cheney. In both cases, this was done to accommodate a medical procedure that required Bush to be sedated; both times, Bush returned to duty later the same day.
Under Section 4 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment, the vice president, in conjunction with a majority of the Cabinet, may transfer the presidential powers and duties from the president to the vice president by transmitting a written declaration to the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate that the president is unable to discharge the presidential powers and duties. If this occurs, then the vice president will assume the presidential powers and duties as acting president; however, the president can declare that no such inability exists and resume the discharge of the presidential powers and duties. If the vice president and Cabinet contest this claim, it is up to Congress, which must meet within two days if not already in session, to decide the merit of the claim.
The United States Constitution mentions the resignation of the president, but does not regulate its form or the conditions for its validity. Pursuant to federal law, the only valid evidence of the president 's resignation is a written instrument to that effect, signed by the president and delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. This has only occurred once, when Richard Nixon delivered a letter to Henry Kissinger to that effect.
Section 1 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment states that the vice president becomes president upon the removal from office, death, or resignation of the preceding president. The Presidential Succession Act of 1947 provides that if the offices of President and Vice President are each either vacant or are held by a disabled person, the next officer in the presidential line of succession, the Speaker of the House, becomes acting president. The line then extends to the President pro tempore of the Senate, followed by every member of the Cabinet. The constitutionality of having congressional officials in the line of succession has been questioned. A person must fulfill all eligibility requirements of the office of President to be eligible to become acting president; ineligible individuals are skipped.
Throughout most of its history, politics of the United States have been dominated by political parties. Political parties had not been anticipated when the U.S. Constitution was drafted in 1787, nor did they exist at the time of the first presidential election in 1788 -- 1789. Organized political parties developed in the U.S. in the mid -- 1790s, but political factions, from which organized parties evolved, began to appear almost immediately after the Federal government came into existence. Those who supported the Washington administration were referred to as "pro-administration '' and would eventually form the Federalist Party, while those in opposition joined the emerging Democratic - Republican Party.
Greatly concerned about the very real capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or party throughout his eight - year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never to be affiliated with a political party. Since George Washington, 43 persons have been sworn into office as President, and all have been affiliated with a political party at the time they assumed office. The number of presidents per political party are:
Since 2001, the president has earned a $400,000 annual salary, along with a $50,000 annual expense account, a $100,000 nontaxable travel account, and $19,000 for entertainment. The most recent raise in salary was approved by Congress and President Bill Clinton in 1999 and went into effect in 2001.
The White House in Washington, D.C. serves as the official residence of the president. Facilities that are available to the president include access to the White House staff, medical care, recreation, housekeeping, and security services. The government pays for state dinners and other official functions, but the president pays for personal, family, and guest dry cleaning and food; the high food bill often amazes new residents. Camp David, officially titled Naval Support Facility Thurmont, is a mountain - based military camp in Frederick County, Maryland, used as a country retreat and for high alert protection of the president and guests. Blair House, located next to the Eisenhower Executive Office Building at the White House Complex and Lafayette Park, is a complex of four connected townhouses exceeding 70,000 square feet (6,500 m) of floor space that serves as the president 's official guest house and as a secondary residence for the president if needed.
The primary means of long distance air travel for the president is one of two identical Boeing VC - 25 aircraft, which are extensively modified Boeing 747 airliners and are referred to as Air Force One while the president is on board (although any U.S. Air Force aircraft the President is aboard is designated as "Air Force One '' for the duration of the flight). In - country trips are typically handled with just one of the two planes, while overseas trips are handled with both, one primary and one backup. The president also has access to smaller Air Force aircraft, most notably the Boeing C - 32, which are used when the president must travel to airports that can not support a jumbo jet. Any civilian aircraft the President is aboard is designated Executive One for the flight.
For short distance air travel, the president has access to a fleet of U.S. Marine Corps helicopters of varying models, designated Marine One when the president is aboard any particular one in the fleet. Flights are typically handled with as many as five helicopters all flying together and frequently swapping positions as to disguise which helicopter the President is actually aboard to any would - be threats.
For ground travel, the president uses the presidential state car, which is an armored limousine designed to look like a Cadillac sedan, but built on a truck chassis. The US Secret Service operates and maintains the fleet of several limousines. The president also has access to two armored motorcoaches, which are primarily used for touring trips.
The U.S. Secret Service is charged with protecting the president and the first family. As part of their protection, presidents, first ladies, their children and other immediate family members, and other prominent persons and locations are assigned Secret Service codenames. The use of such names was originally for security purposes and dates to a time when sensitive electronic communications were not routinely encrypted; today, the names simply serve for purposes of brevity, clarity, and tradition.
The White House
Camp David
Blair House
State car
Air Force One
Marine One
Under the Former Presidents Act, all living former presidents are granted a pension, an office, and a staff. The pension has increased numerous times with Congressional approval. Retired presidents now receive a pension based on the salary of the current administration 's cabinet secretaries, which was $199,700 each year in 2012. Former presidents who served in Congress may also collect congressional pensions. The act also provides former presidents with travel funds and franking privileges. Prior to 1997, all former presidents, their spouses, and their children until age 16 were protected by the Secret Service until the president 's death. In 1997, Congress passed legislation limiting secret service protection to no more than 10 years from the date a president leaves office. On January 10, 2013, President Obama signed legislation reinstating lifetime secret service protection for him, George W. Bush, and all subsequent presidents. A spouse who remarries is no longer eligible for secret service protection.
Some presidents have had significant careers after leaving office. Prominent examples include William Howard Taft 's tenure as Chief Justice of the United States and Herbert Hoover 's work on government reorganization after World War II. Grover Cleveland, whose bid for reelection failed in 1888, was elected president again four years later in 1892. Two former presidents served in Congress after leaving the White House: John Quincy Adams was elected to the House of Representatives, serving there for seventeen years, and Andrew Johnson returned to the Senate in 1875. John Tyler served in the provisional Congress of the Confederate States during the Civil War and was elected to the Confederate House of Representatives, but died before that body first met.
Presidents may use their predecessors as emissaries to deliver private messages to other nations or as official representatives of the United States to state funerals and other important foreign events. Richard Nixon made multiple foreign trips to countries including China and Russia and was lauded as an elder statesman. Jimmy Carter has become a global human rights campaigner, international arbiter, and election monitor, as well as a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. Bill Clinton has also worked as an informal ambassador, most recently in the negotiations that led to the release of two American journalists, Laura Ling and Euna Lee, from North Korea. Clinton has also been active politically since his presidential term ended, working with his wife Hillary on her 2008 and 2016 presidential bids and President Obama on his 2012 reelection campaign.
Every president Since Herbert Hoover has created a repository known as a presidential library for preserving and making available his papers, records, and other documents and materials. Completed libraries are deeded to and maintained by the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA); the initial funding for building and equipping each library must come from private, non-federal sources. There are currently thirteen presidential libraries in the NARA system. There are also presidential libraries maintained by state governments and private foundations and Universities of Higher Education, such as the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the State of Illinois, the George W. Bush Presidential library and Museum, which is run by Southern Methodist University, the George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by Texas A&M University, and the Lyndon Baines Johnson Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the University of Texas at Austin.
A number of presidents have lived for many years after leaving office, and several of them have personally overseen the building and opening of their own presidential libraries. Some have even made arrangements for their own burial at the site. Several presidential libraries contain the graves of the president they document, including the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home in Abilene, Kansas, Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum in Yorba Linda, California, and the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California. These gravesites are open to the general public.
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who plays henry on when calls the heart | When Calls the Heart - wikipedia
When Calls the Heart is a Canadian - American television drama series, inspired by Janette Oke 's book of the same name from her Canadian West series, and developed by Michael Landon Jr. The series began airing on the Hallmark Channel in the United States on January 11, 2014, and on April 16, 2014 on Super Channel in Canada.
The series originally debuted as a two - hour television movie pilot in October 2013, starring Maggie Grace as young teacher Elizabeth Thatcher and Stephen Amell as North West Mounted Police officer Wynn Delaney. In the television series Erin Krakow is cast as her niece, whose name is also Elizabeth Thatcher (played by Poppy Drayton in the movie), and Daniel Lissing plays a Mountie named Jack Thornton, with Lori Loughlin reprising her role as coal mine widow Abigail Stanton.
On April 24, 2017, Krakow announced via the Hallmark Channel website that the show would return for a fifth season, which premiered with a two - hour Christmas special broadcast as part of Hallmark 's Countdown to Christmas event and resumed in February 2018, ending in April. On March 21, 2018, Hallmark renewed the series for a sixth season.
When Calls the Heart tells the story of Elizabeth Thatcher (Erin Krakow), a young teacher accustomed to her high - society life. She receives her first classroom assignment in Coal Valley, a small coal - mining town in Western Canada which is located just south of Robb, Alberta. There, life is simple -- but often fraught with challenges. Elizabeth charms most everyone in Coal Valley, except Royal North West Mounted Police Constable Jack Thornton (Daniel Lissing). He believes Thatcher 's wealthy father has doomed the lawman 's career by insisting he be assigned in town to protect the shipping magnate 's daughter. The town of Coal Valley was renamed Hope Valley in Episode 2, Season 2 after the coal mine was closed.
Living in this 1910 coal town, Elizabeth must learn the ways of the Canadian frontier movement if she wishes to thrive in the rural west on her own. Lori Loughlin portrays Abigail Stanton, whose husband, the foreman of the mine, and her only son -- along with 45 other miners -- have recently been killed in an explosion, which turns out to have been a tragic accident waiting to happen -- a result of the mining - company site manager 's irresponsible management and lack of due care in his management of the mine. The newly widowed women find their faith tested when they must go to work in the mine to keep a roof over their heads, food on the table, and compile a wage for the town 's teacher.
The series, originally planned to be filmed in Colorado, is filmed south of Vancouver, British Columbia, on a farm surrounded by vineyards. The fictional frontier town of Coal Valley was erected in late 2013. Some of the set trimmings and a stage coach came from the Hell on Wheels set. The Thatcher home is the University Women 's Club of Vancouver.
The series was renewed for a second season, which aired from April 25 to June 13, 2015. Hallmark Channel announced in July 2015 that the series had been renewed for a third season, which aired from February 21 to April 10, 2016, with a sneak peek airing during the 2015 Christmas season.
In mid-2016, it was announced that Season 4 would premiere on the Hallmark Channel Christmas Day with a two - hour special. On April 11, 2016, Lissing and Krakow announced via the series ' Facebook page that Hallmark Channel had renewed the series for a fourth season, which aired from February 19 to April 23, 2017.
Filming for season five began in Vancouver on August 22, 2017, and ended on December 21, 2017.
The first season of the series was subsequently picked up by CBC Television for rebroadcast as a summer series in 2015. The network has since aired all five seasons. The series became available internationally on Netflix in August 2017.
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what is the name of the shark in finding dory | Finding Dory - Wikipedia
Finding Dory is a 2016 American 3D computer - animated adventure film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. Directed by Andrew Stanton with co-direction by Angus MacLane, the screenplay was written by Stanton and Victoria Strouse. The film is a sequel / spinoff to 2003 's Finding Nemo and features the returning voices of Ellen DeGeneres and Albert Brooks, with Hayden Rolence (replacing Alexander Gould), Ed O'Neill, Kaitlin Olson, Ty Burrell, Diane Keaton, and Eugene Levy joining the cast. The film focuses on the amnesiac fish Dory, who journeys to be reunited with her parents.
The film premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles on June 8, 2016, and was released in the United States on June 17, 2016. Upon release, the film was well - received by critics and grossed over $1 billion worldwide, becoming the second Pixar film to cross $1 billion after 2010 's Toy Story 3, the third highest - grossing film of 2016 and the 22nd - highest - grossing of all - time at the time of its theatrical run. The film set numerous box office records, including the biggest opening for an animated film in North America, and the highest - grossing animated film in North America.
Dory, a regal blue tang, gets separated from her parents as a child. As she grows up, Dory attempts to search for them, but gradually forgets them due to her short - term memory loss. In the flashback of the previous film, Finding Nemo, she joins Marlin -- a clownfish looking for his missing son Nemo -- after accidentally swimming into him.
One year later, Dory is living with Marlin and Nemo on their reef. One day, Dory has a flashback and remembers that she has parents. She decides to look for them, but her memory problem is an obstacle. She eventually remembers that they lived at the Jewel of Morro Bay across the ocean in California, thanks to Nemo mentioning its name.
Marlin and Nemo accompany Dory. With the help of Crush, their sea turtle friend, they ride a water current to California. Upon arrival, they explore a shipwreck full of destroyed cargo, where Dory accidentally awakens a giant squid, who immediately pursues them and almost devours Nemo. Marlin berates Dory for endangering them. Her feelings hurt, Dory travels to the surface to seek help and is captured by staff members from the nearby Marine Life Institute after getting entangled in six pack rings.
Dory is placed in the quarantine section and tagged. There she meets a grouchy, but well - meaning octopus named Hank. Dory 's tag shows that she will be sent to an aquarium in Cleveland. Due to a traumatic ocean life, Hank wants to live in the aquarium instead of being released back into the ocean, so he agrees to help Dory find her parents in exchange for her tag. In one exhibit, Dory encounters her childhood friend Destiny, a nearsighted whale shark, who used to communicate with Dory through pipes, and Bailey, a beluga whale, who mistakenly believes he has lost his ability to echolocate. Dory subsequently has flashbacks of life with her parents, and struggles to recall details. She finally remembers how she was separated from her parents: she overheard her mother crying one night, left to retrieve a shell to cheer her up, and was pulled away by an undertow current.
Marlin and Nemo attempt to rescue Dory. With the help of two California sea lions named Fluke and Rudder and a disfigured common loon named Becky, they manage to get into the institute and find her in the pipe system. Other blue tangs tell them that Dory 's parents escaped from the institute a long time ago to search for her and never came back, leaving Dory believing that they have died. Hank retrieves Dory from the tank, accidentally leaving Marlin and Nemo behind. He is then apprehended by one of the employees and unintentionally drops Dory into the drain, flushing her out to the ocean. While wandering aimlessly, she comes across a trail of shells; remembering that when she was young, her parents had set out a similar trail to help her find her way back home, she follows it. At the end of the trail, Dory finds an empty brain coral with multiple shell trails leading to it. As she turns to leave, she sees her parents Jenny and Charlie in the distance. They tell her they spent years laying down the trails for her to follow in the hopes that she would eventually find them.
Marlin, Nemo, and Hank end up in the truck taking various aquatic creatures to Cleveland. Destiny and Bailey escape from their exhibit to help Dory rescue them. Once on board the truck, Dory persuades Hank to return to the sea with her, and together, they hijack the truck and drive it over busy highways, creating havoc, before crashing it into the sea, freeing all the fish. Dory, along with her parents and new friends, return to the reef with Marlin and Nemo.
In a post-credits scene, the tank gang from the first film, still trapped inside their (now algae - covered) plastic bags, reach California one year after floating across the Pacific Ocean. They are eventually picked up by staff members from the Marine Life Institute.
Prior to work on Finding Dory, Disney had planned to make a Finding Nemo sequel without Pixar 's involvement, through Circle 7 Animation, a studio Disney announced in 2005 with the intention to make sequels to Pixar properties. However, due to the 2006 acquisition of Pixar by Disney, Circle 7 was shut down by Disney without ever having produced a film.
In July 2012, it was reported that Andrew Stanton was developing a sequel to Finding Nemo, with Victoria Strouse writing the script and a release date scheduled for 2016. However, the same day the news of a potential sequel broke, Stanton posted a message on his personal Twitter calling into question the accuracy of these reports. The message said, "Did n't you all learn from Chicken Little? Everyone calm down. Do n't believe everything you read. Nothing to see here now. # skyisnotfalling. '' According to a report by The Hollywood Reporter published in August 2012, Ellen DeGeneres was in negotiations to reprise her role of Dory. In September 2012, it was confirmed by Stanton, saying: "What was immediately on the list was writing a second Carter movie. When that went away, everything slid up. I know I 'll be accused by more sarcastic people that it 's a reaction to Carter not doing well, but only in its timing, but not in its conceit. '' In February 2013, it was confirmed by the press that Albert Brooks would reprise the role of Marlin in the sequel.
In April 2013, Disney announced the sequel, Finding Dory, for November 25, 2015, confirming that DeGeneres and Brooks would be reprising their roles as Dory and Marlin, respectively. Following a long campaign for a sequel on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, DeGeneres stated:
I have waited for this day for a long, long, long, long, long, long time. I 'm not mad it took this long. I know the people at Pixar were busy creating Toy Story 16. But the time they took was worth it. The script is fantastic. And it has everything I loved about the first one: It 's got a lot of heart, it 's really funny, and the best part is -- it 's got a lot more Dory.
In a July 2013 interview with Los Angeles Times, Stanton spoke of the sequel 's origin: "There was polite inquiry from Disney (about a Finding Nemo sequel). I was always ' No sequels, no sequels. ' But I had to get on board from a VP standpoint. (Sequels) are part of the necessity of our staying afloat, but we do n't want to have to go there for those reasons. We want to go there creatively, so we said (to Disney), ' Can you give us the timeline about when we release them? Because we 'd like to release something we actually want to make, and we might not come up with it the year you want it. ' ''
In a 2016 interview Stanton stated how the film 's story came to be; "I do n't watch my films that often after they 're done because I have to watch them so many times before they come out. So about 2010 when we were getting Finding Nemo ready for the 10 - year re-release in 3D, it was interesting to watch again after all that time. Something kind of got lodged in the back of my brain and started to sort of stew. I started to think about how easily Dory could get lost and not find Marlin and Nemo again. She basically was in the same state that she was when Marlin found her. I did n't know where she was from. I knew that she had spent most of her youth wandering the ocean alone, and I wanted to know that she could find her new family, if she ever got lost again. It 's almost like the parental side of me was worried. '' Stanton additionally stated: "I knew if I ever said Finding Dory or mentioned a sequel to Finding Nemo out loud, I 'd be done, (T) here would be no way I 'd be able to put that horse back in the barn. So I kept it very quiet until I knew I had a story that I thought would hold, and that was in early 2012. So I pitched it to John Lasseter and he was all into it. Then I got a writer, and once we had a treatment that we kind of liked, I felt comfortable calling Ellen. ''
Stanton selected Victoria Strouse to write the screenplay. She later said, "It was always collaborative with Andrew, but really the screenwriting was me. Of course, Andrew would do passes, and he and I would brainstorm a lot together and then we would bring it to the group of story artists. People would weigh in and share ideas. '' She pointed to Dory 's forgetfulness as a challenge when writing the script, adding, "You do n't realize until you sit down to write a character who ca n't remember things how integral memory is to absolutely everything we do, and that 's what creates a narrative that people can follow. When a main character ca n't self - reflect and ca n't tell a story, that character is very difficult to design because she ca n't really lead. To get her to be able to lead and to get an audience to be able to trust her was the hardest thing to do. ''
The fictional Marine Life Institute depicted extensively in the film is based on the production team 's research trips to the Monterey Bay Aquarium, the Marine Mammal Center and the Vancouver Aquarium.
The film 's ending was revised after Pixar executives viewed Blackfish, a 2013 documentary film which focuses on the dangers of keeping orca whales in captivity. Initially, some of the characters were to end up in a SeaWorld - like marine park, but the revision gave them an option to leave. On September 18, 2013, it was announced that the film would be pushed back to a June 17, 2016, release. Pixar 's The Good Dinosaur was moved to the November 25, 2015, release window to allow more time for production of the film.
Angus MacLane was one of the first people to whom Stanton revealed his idea for the sequel. Together, with Bob Peterson, they discussed about different ideas for places Dory would visit during her journey -- one of those ideas was the touch pool sequence. Later, during the Brave (2012) wrap party, Stanton invited Angus to join him in his first co-directing duty. Stanton described Angus ' role as a "jack of all trades '', particularly utilizing his experience in animation and story, as well as in production, having created a few short films himself.
In August 2015, at Disney 's D23 Expo, it was announced that Hayden Rolence would voice Nemo, replacing Alexander Gould from the first film, whose voice has deepened since reaching adulthood (Gould voiced a minor character in the sequel instead). At the D23 expo they also announced that Ed O'Neill would be the voice of Hank.
To make the light more realistic, RenderMan was completely re-engineered, its biggest change in 25 years.
The film 's soundtrack entitled Finding Dory was composed by Thomas Newman and released on June 17, 2016. Louis Armstrong 's version of "What a Wonderful World '' is played during the scene in which fish are released into the ocean as the truck Dory and Hank are driving crashes into the water. On May 20, 2016, Sia performed a cover of Nat King Cole 's "Unforgettable '' on The Ellen DeGeneres Show following an announcement that it would be featured in the film.
Finding Dory premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles on June 8, 2016, and was theatrically released in the United States on June 17, 2016, in 2D, Disney Digital 3 - D and RealD 3D. It was also released to select IMAX 3D theaters. In April 2016, it was announced that a new Pixar short, Piper, directed by Alan Barillaro and with music by Adrian Belew, would be shown in front of the film. It had its UK premiere at the Edinburgh International Film Festival on June 18, 2016.
The film was re-released for Labor Day weekend in 2016.
Finding Dory was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu - ray (2D and 3D) and DVD in the United States on November 15, 2016, with a digital release on October 25. In addition to Piper, the bonus features also included a short film, titled Marine Life Interviews, featuring interviews with the inhabitants of the Marine Life Institute about their encounters with Dory.
Finding Dory grossed $486.3 million in the U.S. and Canada and $542.3 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $1.029 billion, against a budget of $200 million. It had a worldwide opening of $185.7 million, which is the third - biggest of all time for an animated film behind Incredibles 2 ($235.8 million) and Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs ($218.4 million), and an IMAX global opening of $6.4 million. On August 16, it became the fourth film of 2016 to earn $900 million in ticket sales, and on October 9 -- its seventeenth weekend -- it passed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the third film of 2016 after Captain America: Civil War and Zootopia to reach that mark, the second Pixar film (after Toy Story 3), the fifth animated film (after Toy Story 3, Frozen, Minions, and Zootopia), the twelfth Disney film (fourth Disney animated film), and the twenty - seventh film overall in cinematic history.
Worldwide, it is the third - highest - grossing film of 2016 (behind Civil War and Rogue One), the highest - grossing animated film of 2016, the third - highest - grossing Pixar film ever (behind Toy Story 3 and Incredibles 2), the sixth - highest - grossing animated film of all time, and the 31st - highest - grossing film of all time. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $296.6 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it the fourth-most profitable release of 2016.
In the United States and Canada, Finding Dory opened on June 17, 2016, alongside Central Intelligence, with projections having the film grossing $110 -- 120 million in its opening weekend, with some estimates going as high as $130 million. It received the widest release for a Pixar film (4,305 theaters, breaking Brave 's record), of which 3,200 venues were in 3D, along with 425 premium large format locales, approximately 100 IMAX theaters and a handful of Dolby Cinema sites. It was Fandango 's top pre-selling animated film of all time, outselling the previous record - holder, Minions. The film grossed $9.2 million from Thursday night previews, a record for both Pixar and any animated film, and $54.7 million on its opening day, marking both the biggest opening day and single - day for an animated film. This also marks the first time that an animated film has grossed over $50 million in a single day. It went on to gross $135.1 million in its opening weekend, finishing first at the box office and setting the record for the highest opening weekend for both Pixar (breaking Toy Story 3 's record) and any animated film (out - grossing Shrek the Third 's record, later out - grossed by Incredibles 2) and became the third - biggest adjusted for inflation. It is also the third - highest opening (excluding Marvel and Star Wars films) for Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures behind Beauty and the Beast ($174.8 million) and Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man 's Chest ($135.6 million), and is the studio 's ninth - biggest debut overall. It also became the fifth animated film and the fifth film of 2016 to open above $100 million. Moreover, its opening also marked the second - biggest for the month of June, behind only Jurassic World. Its opening was 93.8 % above Finding Nemo 's $70.3 million debut. It further broke the record for the biggest PLF and Cinemark XD opening for an animated film with $10.4 million and $2.6 million, respectively. In IMAX, it made $5 million from 211 theaters, the third - best animated IMAX opening behind Zootopia ($5.2 million) and Toy Story 3 ($8.4 million).
Following its record - breaking openings, it scored the biggest Monday for Pixar by grossing $19.6 million (breaking Toy Story 3 's $15.6 million) and the best Monday in June for an animated film. However, among all animated films, it is ranked second -- behind 2004 's Shrek 2, which made $23.4 million on its first Monday, and it is also the biggest Tuesday for an animated film with $23.2 million, besting Minions ' $16.8 million. It jumped 18.5 % over its Monday gross, a rare achievement for a film. It crossed the $200 million mark in its first seven days, becoming the first (and fastest) animated film to pass the said milestone in just a week. It fell only 46 % in its second weekend earning $73 million to record the biggest second weekend for an animated film (breaking Shrek 2 's $72.2 million previous record), the biggest for Disney and 2016 (surpassing Captain America: Civil War 's $72.6 million), and the eighth - biggest second weekend gross of all time overall. This was despite facing stiff competition from newcomer Independence Day: Resurgence. It crossed $300 million in 12 days -- a new record for an animated film, surpassing the previous record held by Shrek 2 and Toy Story 3 (both of which took 18 days), and became the second animated film of 2016 (after Zootopia), the fourth Disney film of 2016, and the sixth overall film of the year to cross the milestone. It continued to dominate the box office for the third straight weekend, despite competitions from three new wide releases -- The Legend of Tarzan, The Purge: Election Year, and fellow Disney release The BFG -- after witnessing a 42 % decline to $41.8 million in three days and $51.4 million in four days, respectively, during the Independence Day holiday frame. This made it the second time in two years and just the third time since 1992, the July 4 holiday box office was topped by a film in its third weekend of release. It broke another record as it passed the $400 million mark in 21 days, which is the fastest for an animated film, the fastest of 2016, the fastest for the studio, and the fifth - fastest of all time overall. Morever, it became the second film of 2016 (after Captain America: Civil War), the fifth animated film, the ninth film for the studio, and the twenty - fourth film overall to pass the milestone. On the following day (July 8), it surpassed Civil War to become the biggest film of the year up until Rogue One took that title in January 2017. It dropped out of the top ten in its eighth week.
Although the film was finally overtaken by The Secret Life of Pets (and The Legend of Tarzan in second place) in its fourth weekend, it nevertheless passed The Lion King to become the highest - grossing Disney animated film of all time in the same weekend, surpassing the latter which held the record for 15 non-consecutive years. In just 30 days, it overtook Shrek 2 ($441.2 million) to become the highest - grossing animated film of all time, breaking the latter 's record of 12 years. Four days later, on July 20, it became the first - ever animated film in cinematic history to cross the $450 million mark. As with its predecessor Finding Nemo, the studio expanded the theater count for the film during the Labor Day weekend from 345 theaters to 2,075 theaters, an addition of 1,730 theaters. In 2003, Nemo was expanded from 838 sites to 1,053 locations.
It became the second - highest - grossing film of 2016 (behind Rogue One), the highest - grossing Pixar film, the second - highest - grossing Walt Disney Pictures release (behind Beauty and the Beast), the highest - grossing Disney animated film, the highest - grossing animated film overall, and the ninth - highest - grossing film of all time.
Internationally, Finding Dory received a staggered release in a span of four months from June to September, with Germany being the last country. This was done in order take advantage of key holidays and competitive dates around the world. It was released across 29 countries -- which is 32 % of its entire international release territories -- the same weekend as its U.S. premiere. It made an estimated $50.7 million to take the No. 1 spot at the international box office. In its second weekend, it added $38.7 million from 37 markets, falling in third place behind Independence Day: Resurgence and Now You See Me 2. In the same weekend along with its $73 million take in North America, the film helped Pixar cross the $10 billion mark worldwide since Toy Story (1995). By its fourth weekend, the animated film helped Disney push past the $3 billion mark internationally and $5 billion globally.
It had the biggest opening for an animated film in Brazil ($7.1 million) and the Netherlands ($2.1 million), and the biggest of all time for a Disney animated or Pixar film in Australia ($7.7 million), the Philippines ($2.1 million), Singapore ($1.3 million), India ($1 million), Indonesia, Peru and Central America, and in Russia it opened with $3.2 million, and the second - biggest in the United Kingdom and Ireland ($10.7 million), Mexico ($9.4 million) and Argentina ($3.5 million), and that 's despite amidst the latter country 's Copa America soccer match, and Colombia ($2.1 million), behind Monsters University. In the UK and Ireland, the film recorded the second - biggest animated opening of the year with £ 8.1 million ($10.7 million) from 580 theaters, behind only The Secret Life of Pets. However, if previews are excluded, Finding Dory is ahead. Moreover, it also posted the second - biggest Disney / Pixar opening, behind only Toy Story 3 (fourth - biggest if previews are included), and the seventh - biggest animated opening of all time overall based on pure Friday - to - Sunday gross alone. It added an additional 43 theaters in its second weekend, after which it added another £ 3.98 million ($5.1 million) at the weekend, thereby passing the £ 20 million mark in just 10 days (among Pixar films, only Toy Story 3 reached £ 20 million faster). It made an impressive £ 8.15 million during weekdays, from Monday to Thursday resulting in a £ 2.03 million daily - average gross. According to The Guardian, this was because of the school holidays that prevailed on the weekdays. Otherwise, family films earn the vast majority of their takings on Saturday and Sunday, and showtimes typically reduce on weekdays. It returned to the top of the box office in its fourth weekend and went on to become the highest - grossing film of the summer that year. In Brazil, in addition to recording the biggest Disney / Pixar opening ever, almost twice the previous record held by The Good Dinosaur, it also set a new record for an all - time animated opening, on par with Minions in local currency. In South Korea, it had the biggest opening for a Pixar film with $7.1 million, which is also the second - biggest for a Disney animated film, behind Frozen. In Japan, the film had a two - day weekend opening of $7 million on Saturday and Sunday from 511 screens on 571,000 admissions. For the entire three - day holiday weekend, including Marine Day on Monday July 18, the film earned $11 million on 922,000 admissions. This made it the top western release of the weekend and the biggest foreign opening - weekend in the country of that year. It had further number - one openings in Spain ($4.9 million), France ($4.7 million), Hong Kong ($1.9 million; $2.8 million including previews), Taiwan ($1.9 million), Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. It topped the box office in the Netherlands for three and in Spain and Australia for four consecutive weekends. In Italy, it scored the biggest animated opening of the year with $5.8 million.
In China, where Pixar films have been struggling to find broad audiences and accrue lucrative revenues, the film was projected to make around $30 million in its opening weekend. The film ended up grossing $17.7 million -- the highest Pixar opening in the country 's history -- debuting in second place behind Warcraft. It surpassed Monsters University in just seven days to become the biggest Pixar film there with $38.1 million. It opened in Germany -- its last market -- on September 29, where the film delivered a robust opening of $8.4 million, the biggest for any film of 2016 in the country. The film continued to benefit from German Unity Day on October 3. It went on to top the box office there for three straight weekends, tying with Inferno in its third weekend.
It is now the highest - grossing Disney animated or Pixar film in Australia (where it is also the second - highest - grossing animated film of all time behind Shrek 2), Bolivia, Brazil, Central America, Colombia, India, Indonesia, New Zealand, Peru, the Philippines, and Trinidad. It also became the second - highest - grossing Pixar release of all time in South Korea behind Inside Out. Elsewhere, the biggest markets in terms of total earnings were Japan ($66 million), followed by the UK ($56.3 million), China ($38.1 million), Australia ($36.3 million), and Brazil ($34.5 million).
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, Finding Dory has an approval rating of 94 % based on 302 reviews and an average rating of 7.6 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Funny, poignant, and thought - provoking, Finding Dory delivers a beautifully animated adventure that adds another entertaining chapter to its predecessor 's classic story. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 77 out of 100, based on 48 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it a 91 % overall positive score and an 81 % "definite recommend ''.
Mike Ryan of Uproxx gave the film a positive review, saying: "I never thought I wanted a sequel to Finding Nemo, but here we are and I 'm pretty happy it exists. And, for me, it was a more emotional experience than the first film. Finding Dory got me -- it made me cry. '' A.O. Scott of The New York Times said that while the film lacks "dazzling originality '', he overall wrote, "it more than makes up for in warmth, charm and good humor ''. In his review for Variety, Owen Gleiberman wrote, "It 's a film that spills over with laughs (most of them good, a few of them shticky) and tears (all of them earned), supporting characters who are meant to slay us (and mostly do) with their irascible sharp tongues, and dizzyingly extended flights of physical comedy. '' Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal said that "Finding Dory can be touching, sweet and tender, but it 's compulsively, preposterously and steadfastly funny. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film three - and - a-half stars out of four and said that the film "brims with humor, heart and animation miracles '', despite lacking "the fresh surprise of its predecessor ''.
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a negative review, writing, "Its heroine may suffer from short - term memory loss, but viewers with any memory at all will realize that Finding Dory falls rather short of its wondrous progenitor. '' Writing for the Los Angeles Times, Kenneth Turan said that, "As the 13 - year gap between "Nemo '' and "Dory '' indicates, this was not a concept that cried out to be made. ''
Conservationists warned that, very much like Finding Nemo, the film could lead to uninformed customers buying blue tangs for home aquariums. Blue tangs can not be bred in captivity and have to be caught in the wild. They are related to surgeonfish and exhibit razor - sharp spines on both sides of the tail that can inflict formidable wounds.
While promoting the film, actress Ellen DeGeneres reminded audiences that Nemo and Dory 's real - life home, the Great Barrier Reef, is under enormous threat, mostly due to coral bleaching, a process induced by climate change, which has killed coral reefs on an enormous scale.
In June 2016, director Andrew Stanton talked about the possibility of a sequel, saying that he would never exclude it because of the introduction of new characters, citing the Toy Story films as guides for how to expand a world through sequels.
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no silver bullet – essence and accidents of software engineering | No Silver Bullet - wikipedia
"No Silver Bullet -- Essence and Accident in Software Engineering '' is a widely discussed paper on software engineering written by Turing Award winner Fred Brooks in 1986. Brooks argues that "there is no single development, in either technology or management technique, which by itself promises even one order of magnitude (tenfold) improvement within a decade in productivity, in reliability, in simplicity. '' He also states that "we can not expect ever to see two-fold gains every two years '' in software development, as there is in hardware development (Moore 's law).
Brooks distinguishes between two different types of complexity: accidental complexity and essential complexity. Accidental complexity relates to problems which engineers create and can fix; for example, the details of writing and optimizing assembly code or the delays caused by batch processing. Essential complexity is caused by the problem to be solved, and nothing can remove it; if users want a program to do 30 different things, then those 30 things are essential and the program must do those 30 different things.
Brooks claims that the accidental complexity has decreased substantially, and today 's programmers spend most of their time addressing essential complexity. Brooks argues that this means that shrinking all the accidental activities to zero will not give the same order - of - magnitude improvement as attempting to decrease essential complexity. While Brooks insists that there is no one silver bullet, he believes that a series of innovations attacking essential complexity could lead to significant improvements. One technology that had made significant improvement in the area of accidental complexity was the invention of high - level programming languages, such as Fortran at that time. Today 's languages, such as C, C++, C# and Java, are considered to be improvements, but not of the same order of magnitude.
Brooks advocates "growing '' software organically through incremental development. He suggests devising and implementing the main and subprograms right at the beginning, filling in the working sub-sections later. He believes that programming this way excites the engineers and provides a working system at every stage of development.
Brooks goes on to argue that there is a difference between "good '' designers and "great '' designers. He postulates that as programming is a creative process, some designers are inherently better than others. He suggests that there is as much as a tenfold difference between an ordinary designer and a great one. He then advocates treating star designers equally well as star managers, providing them not just with equal remuneration, but also all the perks of higher status: large office, staff, travel funds, etc.
The article, and Brooks 's later reflections on it, ' No Silver Bullet ' Refired, can be found in the anniversary edition of The Mythical Man - Month.
Brooks ' paper has been sometimes cited in connection with Wirth 's law, to argue that "software systems grow faster in size and complexity than methods to handle complexity are invented ''.
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who is clara on when calls the heart | When Calls the Heart - wikipedia
When Calls the Heart is a Canadian - American television drama series, inspired by Janette Oke 's book of the same name from her Canadian West series, and developed by Michael Landon Jr. The series began airing on the Hallmark Channel in the United States on January 11, 2014, and on April 16, 2014 on Super Channel in Canada.
The series originally debuted as a two - hour television movie pilot in October 2013, starring Maggie Grace as young teacher Elizabeth Thatcher and Stephen Amell as North West Mounted Police officer Wynn Delaney. In the television series Erin Krakow is cast as her niece, whose name is also Elizabeth Thatcher (played by Poppy Drayton in the movie), and Daniel Lissing plays a Mountie named Jack Thornton, with Lori Loughlin reprising her role as coal mine widow Abigail Stanton.
On April 24, 2017, Krakow announced via the Hallmark Channel website that the show would return for a fifth season, which premiered with a two - hour Christmas special broadcast as part of Hallmark 's Countdown to Christmas event and resumed in February 2018, ending in April. On March 21, 2018, Hallmark renewed the series for a sixth season.
When Calls the Heart tells the story of Elizabeth Thatcher (Erin Krakow), a young teacher accustomed to her high - society life. She receives her first classroom assignment in Coal Valley, a small coal - mining town in Western Canada which is located just south of Robb, Alberta. There, life is simple -- but often fraught with challenges. Elizabeth charms most everyone in Coal Valley, except Royal North West Mounted Police Constable Jack Thornton (Daniel Lissing). He believes Thatcher 's wealthy father has doomed the lawman 's career by insisting he be assigned in town to protect the shipping magnate 's daughter. The town of Coal Valley was renamed Hope Valley in Episode 2, Season 2 after the coal mine was closed.
Living in this 1910 coal town, Elizabeth must learn the ways of the Canadian frontier movement if she wishes to thrive in the rural west on her own. Lori Loughlin portrays Abigail Stanton, whose husband, the foreman of the mine, and her only son -- along with 45 other miners -- have recently been killed in an explosion, which turns out to have been a tragic accident waiting to happen -- a result of the mining - company site manager 's irresponsible management and lack of due care in his management of the mine. The newly widowed women find their faith tested when they must go to work in the mine to keep a roof over their heads, food on the table, and compile a wage for the town 's teacher.
The series, originally planned to be filmed in Colorado, is filmed south of Vancouver, British Columbia, on a farm surrounded by vineyards. The fictional frontier town of Coal Valley was erected in late 2013. Some of the set trimmings and a stage coach came from the Hell on Wheels set. The Thatcher home is the University Women 's Club of Vancouver.
The series was renewed for a second season, which aired from April 25 to June 13, 2015. Hallmark Channel announced in July 2015 that the series had been renewed for a third season, which aired from February 21 to April 10, 2016, with a sneak peek airing during the 2015 Christmas season.
In mid-2016, it was announced that Season 4 would premiere on the Hallmark Channel Christmas Day with a two - hour special. On April 11, 2016, Lissing and Krakow announced via the series ' Facebook page that Hallmark Channel had renewed the series for a fourth season, which aired from February 19 to April 23, 2017.
Filming for season five began in Vancouver on August 22, 2017, and ended on December 21, 2017.
The first season of the series was subsequently picked up by CBC Television for rebroadcast as a summer series in 2015. The network has since aired all five seasons. The series became available internationally on Netflix in August 2017.
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what does region 2 mean on a dvd | DVD region code - Wikipedia
DVD (digital versatile disc) region codes are a digital rights management technique designed to allow rights holders to control the international distribution of a DVD release, including its content, release date, and price, all according to the appropriate region.
This is achieved by way of region - locked DVD players, which will play back only DVDs encoded to their region (plus those without any region code). The American DVD Copy Control Association also requires that DVD player manufacturers incorporate the regional - playback control (RPC) system. However, region - free DVD players, which ignore region coding, are also commercially available, and many DVD players can be modified to be region - free, allowing playback of all discs.
DVDs may use one code, a combination of codes (multi-region), every code (all region) or no codes (region free).
Any combination of regions can be applied to a single disc. For example, a DVD designated Region 2 / 4 is suitable for playback in Western Europe, Oceania, and any other Region 2 or Region 4 area. So - called "Region 0 '' and "ALL '' discs are meant to be playable worldwide.
Most DVDs sold in Mexico and Latin America carry both region 1 and 4 codes.
DVDs sold in the Baltic states use both region 2 and 5 codes, having previously been in region 5 (due to historic links with the USSR) but EU single market law concerning the free movement of goods causing a switch to region 2.
North Korea and South Korea have different DVD region codes (North Korea: region 5, South Korea: region 3), but the same Blu - ray region code (region A).
Egypt and South Africa are in DVD region 2, while all other African countries are in region 5, but all African countries have the same Blu - ray region code (region B).
In China, two DVD region codes are used: Mainland China has region 6, but Hong Kong and Macau have region 3. There are also two Blu - ray regions used: Mainland China has region C, but Hong Kong and Macau have region A.
Region 0 (playable in all regions except 7 and 8) is widely used by China and the Philippines.
Most DVDs in India combine the region 2, region 4, and region 5 codes, or are region 0; Indian Disney discs contain only the region 3 code (India has region 5, so region - 3 DVDs can not be played there).
European region 2 DVDs may be sub-coded "D1 '' to "D4 ''. "D1 '' are the UK only releases; "D2 '' and "D3 '' are not sold in the UK and Ireland; "D4 '' are distributed throughout Europe.
Overseas territories of the United Kingdom and France (both in region 2) often have other regions (4 or 5, depending on geographical situation) than their homelands.
The term "Region 0 '' also describes the DVD players designed or modified to incorporate Regions 1 -- 6, thereby providing compatibility with most discs, regardless of region. This apparent solution was popular in the early days of the DVD format, but studios quickly responded by adjusting discs to refuse to play in such machines. This system is known as "Regional Coding Enhancement '' (RCE).
Region - code enhanced, also known as just "RCE '' or "REA '', was a retroactive attempt to prevent the playing of one region 's discs in another region, even if the disc was played in a region - free player. The scheme was deployed on only a handful of discs. The disc contained the main program material region coded as region 1. But it also contained a short video loop of a map of the world showing the regions, which was coded as region 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. The intention was that when the disc was played in a non-region 1 player, the player would default to playing the material for its native region. This played the aforementioned video loop of a map, which was impossible to escape from, as the user controls were disabled.
The scheme was fundamentally flawed, as a region - free player tries to play a disc using the last region that worked with the previously inserted disc. If it can not play the disc, then it tries another region until one is found that works. RCE could be defeated by briefly playing a "normal '' region 1 disc, and then inserting the RCE protected region 1 disc, which would now play. RCE caused a few problems with genuine region 1 players.
Many "multi-region '' DVD players defeated regional lockout and RCE by automatically identifying and matching a disc 's region code or allowing the user to manually select a particular region. Some manufacturers of DVD players now freely supply information on how to disable regional lockout, and on some recent models, it appears to be disabled by default. Computer programs such as DVD Shrink, Digiarty WinX DVD Ripper Platinum can make copies of region - coded DVDs without RCE restriction.
One purpose of region coding is controlling release dates. A practice of movie marketing threatened by the advent of digital home video is to release a movie to cinemas, and then for general sale, later in some countries than in others. This is common partly because releasing a movie at the same time worldwide used to be prohibitively expensive. For example, a physical film copy for a cinema is expensive and the most copies are required for the first weeks after release, so a spread release allows for reuse of some copies in other regions. Videotapes were inherently regional since formats had to match those of the encoding system used by television stations in that particular region, such as NTSC and PAL, although from early 1990s PAL machines increasingly offered NTSC playback. DVDs are less restricted in this sense, and region coding allows movie studios to better control the global release dates of DVDs.
Also, the copyright in a title may be held by different entities in different territories. Region coding enables copyright holders to (attempt to) prevent a DVD from a region from which they do not derive royalties from being played on a DVD player inside their region. Region coding attempts to dissuade importing of DVDs from one region into another.
DVDs are also formatted for use on two conflicting regional television systems: 480i / 60 Hz and 576i / 50 Hz, which in analog contexts are often referred to as 525 / 60 (NTSC) and 625 / 50 (PAL / SECAM) respectively. Strictly speaking, PAL and SECAM are analog color television signal formats which have no relevance in the digital domain (as evident in the conflation of PAL and SECAM, which are actually two distinct analog color systems). However, the DVD system was originally designed to encode the information necessary to reproduce signals in these formats, and the terms continue to be used (incorrectly) as a method of identifying refresh rates and vertical resolution. However, an "NTSC '', "PAL '' or "SECAM '' DVD player that has one or more analog composite video output (baseband or modulated) will only produce NTSC, PAL or SECAM signals, respectively, from those outputs, and may only play DVDs identified with the corresponding format.
NTSC is the analog TV format historically associated with the United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Mexico, Philippines, Taiwan, and other countries. PAL is the analog color TV format historically associated with most of Europe, most of Africa, China, India, Australia, New Zealand, Israel, North Korea, and other countries (Brazil adopted the variant PAL - M, which uses the refresh rate and resolution commonly associated with NTSC). SECAM, a format associated with French - speaking Europe, while using the same resolution and refresh rate as PAL, is a distinct format which uses a very different system of color encoding. Some DVD players can only play discs identified as NTSC, PAL or SECAM, while others can play multiple standards.
In general, it is easier for consumers in PAL / SECAM countries to view NTSC DVDs than vice versa. Almost all DVD players sold in PAL / SECAM countries are capable of playing both kinds of discs, and most modern PAL TVs can handle the converted signal. NTSC discs may be output from a PAL DVD player in three different ways:
However, most NTSC players can not play PAL discs, and most NTSC TVs do not accept 576i video signals as used on PAL / SECAM DVDs. Those in NTSC countries, such as the United States, generally require both a region - free, multi-standard player and a multi-standard television to view PAL discs, or a converter box, whereas those in PAL countries generally require only a region - free player to view NTSC discs. There are also differences in pixel aspect ratio (720 × 480 vs. 720 × 576 with the same image aspect ratio) and display frame rate (29.97 vs. 25).
Most computer - based DVD software and hardware can play both NTSC and PAL video and both audio standards.
Usually a configuration flag is set in each player 's firmware at the factory. This flag holds the region number that the machine is allowed to play. Region - free players are DVD players shipped without the ability to enforce regional lockout (usually by means of a chip that ignores any region coding), or without this flag set.
However, if the player is not region - free, it can often be unlocked with an unlock code entered via the remote control. This code simply allows the user to change the factory - set configuration flag to another region, or to the special region "0 ''. Once unlocked this way, the DVD player allows the owner to watch DVDs from any region. Many websites exist on the Internet offering these codes, often known informally as hacks. Many websites provide instructions for different models of standalone DVD players, to hack, and their factory codes.
Older DVD drives use RPC - 1 ("Regional Playback Control '') firmware, which means the drive allows DVDs from any region to play. Newer drives use RPC - 2 firmware, which enforces the DVD region coding at the hardware level. These drives can often be reflashed or hacked with RPC - 1 firmware, effectively making the drive region - free. This may void the drive warranty.
Some drives may come set as region - free, so the user is expected to assign their region when they buy it. In this case, some DVD programs may prompt the user to select a region, while others may actually assign the region automatically based on the locale set in the operating system.
In most computer drives, users are allowed to change the region code up to five times. If the number of allowances reaches zero, the region last used will be permanent even if the drive is transferred to another computer. This limit is built into the drive 's controller software, called firmware. Resetting the firmware count can be done with first - or third - party software tools, or by reflashing (see above) to RPC - 1 firmware.
Since some software does not work correctly with RPC - 1 drives, there is also the option of reflashing the drive with a so - called auto - reset firmware. This firmware appears as RPC - 2 firmware to software, but will reset the region changes counter whenever power is cycled, reverting to the state of a drive that has never had its region code changed.
Most freeware and open source DVD players ignore region coding. VLC, for example, does not attempt to enforce region coding; however, it requires access to the DVD 's raw data to overcome CSS encryption, and such access may not be available on some drives with RPC - 2 firmware when playing a disc from a different region than the region to which the drive is locked. Most commercial players are locked to a region code, but can be easily changed with software.
Other software, known as DVD region killers, transparently remove (or hide) the DVD region code from the software player. Some can also work around locked RPC - 2 firmware.
The region coding of a DVD can be circumvented by making a copy that adds flags for all region codes, creating an all - region DVD. DVD backup software can do this, and some can also remove Macrovision, CSS, and disabled user operations (UOps).
In common region - locked DVDs (but not in RCE - DVDs), the region code is stored in the file "VIDEO_TS. IFO '' (table "VMGM_MAT ''), byte offsets 34 and 35. The eight regions each correspond to a value which is a power of 2: Region 1 corresponds to 1 (2), Region 2 to 2 (2), Region 3 to 4 (2), and so on through Region 8, which corresponds to 128 (2). The values of each region that the disc is not encoded for are added together to give the value in the file. For example, a disc that is encoded for Region 1 but not Regions 2 -- 8 will have the value 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 + 128 = 254. A disc encoded for Regions 1, 2 and 4 will have the value 4 + 16 + 32 + 64 + 128 = 244. A region - free or RCE - protected DVD will carry the value zero, since no regions are excluded.
The Xbox, Xbox 360, PlayStation 2 and PlayStation 3 consoles are all region - locked for DVD playback. The PlayStation 2 can be modified to have its regional - locking disabled through the use of modchips. Although region locked on film DVDs and film Blu - ray Discs, the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One are region free for video games, though Add - on content on the online store is region locked and must match the region of the disc.
Blu - ray Discs use a much simpler region - code system than DVD with only three regions, labeled A, B and C. As with DVDs many Blu - rays are encoded region 0 (region free), making them suitable for players worldwide.
Unlike DVD regions, Blu - ray regions are verified only by the player software, not by the computer system or the drive. The region code is stored in a file and / or the registry, and there are hacks to reset the region counter of the player software. In stand - alone players, the region code is part of the firmware.
For bypassing region codes, there are software and multi-regional players available.
A new form of Blu - ray region coding tests not only the region of the player / player software, but also its country code. This means, for example, although both USA and Japan are Region A, some American discs will not play on devices / software installed in Japan or vice versa, since the two countries have different country codes (the United States has 21843 or Hex 5553 ("US '' in ASCII, according to ISO 3166 - 1), and Japan has 19024, or Hex 4a50 ("JP ''); Canada has 17217 or Hex 4341 ("CA '')). Although there are only three Blu - ray regions, the country code allows a much more precise control of the regional distribution of Blu - ray discs than the six (or eight) DVD regions. In Blu - ray discs, there are no "special regions '' such as the regions 7 and 8 in DVDs.
For the UMD, a disc type used for the PlayStation Portable, UMD movies are region - locked, and use roughly the same regions as DVDs do, but UMD video games are region - free.
Region - code enforcement has been discussed as a possible violation of World Trade Organization free trade agreements or competition law. The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) has warned that DVD players that enforce region - coding may violate their Competition and Consumer Act 2010. Under New Zealand copyright law, DVD region codes and the mechanisms in DVD players to enforce them have no legal protection. The practice has also been criticized by the European Commission which as of 2001 March 14 is investigating whether the resulting price discrimination amounts to a violation of EU competition law.
The only entities that seem to be really benefiting from DVD Region Coding are the movie studios, the marketers of Code - Free DVD players and DVD decrypters. The Washington Post has highlighted how DVD region - coding has been a major inconvenience for travelers who wish to legally purchase DVDs abroad and return with them to their countries of origin, students of foreign languages, immigrants who want to watch films from their homeland and foreign film enthusiasts. Another criticism is that region - coding allows for local censorship. For example, the Region 1 DVD of the 1999 drama film Eyes Wide Shut contains the digital manipulations necessary for the film to secure an MPAA R - rating, whereas these manipulations are not evident in non -- region 1 discs.
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structural adjustment policy was introduced by india on taking loan from | Structural adjustment - wikipedia
Structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) consist of loans provided by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB) to countries that experienced economic crises. The two Bretton Woods Institutions require borrowing countries to implement certain policies in order to obtain new loans (or to lower interest rates on existing ones). The conditionality clauses attached to the loans have been criticized because of their effects on the social sector.
SAPs are created with the goal of reducing the borrowing country 's fiscal imbalances in the short and medium term or in order to adjust the economy to long - term growth. The bank from which a borrowing country receives its loan depends upon the type of necessity. The IMF usually implements stabilization policies and the WB is in charge of adjustment measures.
SAPs are supposed to allow the economies of the developing countries to become more market oriented. This then forces them to concentrate more on trade and production so it can boost their economy. Through conditions, SAPs generally implement "free market '' programmes and policy. These programs include internal changes (notably privatization and deregulation) as well as external ones, especially the reduction of trade barriers. Countries that fail to enact these programmes may be subject to severe fiscal discipline. Critics argue that the financial threats to poor countries amount to blackmail, and that poor nations have no choice but to comply.
Since the late 1990s, some proponents of structural adjustment, such as the World Bank, have spoken of "poverty reduction '' as a goal. SAPs were often criticized for implementing generic free - market policy and for their lack of involvement from the borrowing country. To increase the borrowing country 's involvement, developing countries are now encouraged to draw up Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs), which essentially take the place of SAPs. Some believe that the increase of the local government 's participation in creating the policy will lead to greater ownership of the loan programs and thus better fiscal policy. The content of PRSPs has turned out to be similar to the original content of bank - authored SAPs. Critics argue that the similarities show that the banks and the countries that fund them are still overly involved in the policy - making process. Within the IMF, the Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility was succeeded by the Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility, which is in turn succeeded by the Extended Credit Facility.
Typical stabilisation policies include:
Long - term adjustment policies usually include:
These conditions have also been sometimes labeled as the Washington Consensus.
Structural adjustment policies emerged from two of the Bretton Woods institutions, the IMF and the World Bank. They emerged from the conditionality that IMF and World Bank have been attaching to their loans since the early 1950s. Initially, these conditions focused on a country 's macroeconomic policy.
From the 1950s onward, the United States doled out loans and other forms of financial assistance to Third World nations (now commonly referred to as least developed countries, or LDCs). Free - market economics were encouraged in the Third World, not only as a measure of countering the spread of socialist ideology during the Cold War, but also as a means of fostering foreign direct investment (FDI) and promoting the access of foreign companies within the OECD nations to certain sectors of target economies. In particular, Western companies sought to gain access to the extraction of raw commodities, especially minerals and agricultural products. Where loans were negotiated on the basis of implementing large infrastructural projects such as roads and electrical dams, Western countries stood to gain by employing their domestic businesses and by broadening the means by which Western companies could more easily extract these resources.
Loans made under SAP conditions at the time were advised by the top economists of both the IMF and World Bank.
After the run on the dollar of 1979 -- 80, the United States adjusted its monetary policy and instituted other measures so it could begin competing aggressively for capital on a global scale. This was successful, as can be seen from the current account of the country 's balance of payments. Enormous capital flows to the United States had the corollary of dramatically depleting the availability of capital to poor and middling countries. Giovanni Arrighi has observed that this scarcity of capital, which was heralded by the Mexican default of 1982,
created a propitious environment for the counterrevolution in development thought and practice that the neoliberal Washington Consensus began advocating at about the same time. Taking advantage of the financial straits of many low - and middle - income countries, the agencies of the consensus foisted on them measures of "structural adjustment '' that did nothing to improve their position in the global hierarchy of wealth but greatly facilitated the redirection of capital flows toward sustaining the revival of US wealth and power.
During the 1980s the IMF and WB created loan packages for the majority of countries in Sub-Saharan Africa as they experienced economic crises.
To this day, economists can point to few, if any, examples of substantial economic growth among the LDCs under SAPs. Moreover, very few of the loans have been paid off. Pressure mounts to forgive these debts, some of which demand substantial portions of government expenditures to service.
Structural adjustment policies, as they are known today, originated due to a series of global economic disasters during the late 1970s: the oil crisis, debt crisis, multiple economic depressions, and stagflation. These fiscal disasters led policy makers to decide that deeper intervention was necessary to improve a country 's overall well - being.
In 2002, SAPs underwent another transition, the introduction of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers. PRSPs were introduced as a result of the bank 's beliefs that "successful economic policy programs must be founded on strong country ownership ''. In addition, SAPs with their emphasis on poverty reduction have attempted to further align themselves with the Millennium Development Goals. As a result of PRSPs, a more flexible and creative approach to policy creation has been implemented at the IMF and World Bank.
While the main focus of SAPs has continued to be the balancing of external debts and trade deficits, the reasons for those debts have undergone a transition. Today, SAPs and their lending institutions have increased their sphere of influence by providing relief to countries experiencing economic problems due to natural disasters or economic mismanagement. Since their inception, SAPs have been adopted by a number of other international financial institutions.
There are multiple criticisms that focus on different elements of SAPs.
Critics claim that SAPs threaten the sovereignty of national economies because an outside organization is dictating a nation 's economic policy. Critics argue that the creation of good policy is in a sovereign nation 's own best interest. Thus, SAPs are unnecessary given the state is acting in its best interest. However, supporters consider that in many developing countries, the government will favour political gain over national economic interests; that is, it will engage in rent - seeking practices to consolidate political power rather than address crucial economic issues. In many countries in sub-Saharan Africa, political instability has gone hand in hand with gross economic decline.
SAPS are viewed by some postcolonialists as the modern procedure of colonization. By minimizing a government 's ability to organise and regulate its internal economy, pathways are created for multinational companies to enter states and extract their resources. Upon independence from colonial rule, many nations that took on foreign debt were unable to repay it, limited as they were to production and exportation of cash crops, and restricted from control of their own more valuable natural resources (oil, minerals) by SAP free - trade and low - regulation requirements. In order to repay interest, these postcolonial countries are forced to acquire further foreign debt, in order to pay off previous interests, resulting in an endless cycle of financial subjugation.
Osterhammel 's The Dictionary of Human Geography defines colonialism as the "enduring relationship of domination and mode of dispossession, usually (or at least initially) between an indigenous (or enslaved) majority and a minority of interlopers (colonizers), who are convinced of their own superiority, pursue their own interests, and exercise power through a mixture of coercion, persuasion, conflict and collaboration ''. The definition adopted by The Dictionary of Human Geography suggests that Washington Consensus SAPs resemble modern, financial colonisation.
Investigating Immanuel Kant 's conception of liberal internationalism and his opposition to commercial empires, Beate Jahn said:
... private interests within liberal capitalist states continue to pursue the opening up of markets abroad, and they continue to enlist their governments ' support, through multilateral and bilateral arrangements -- conditional aid, International Monetary Fund (IMF), and World Trade Organization (WTO). While the latter agreements are formally "voluntary, '' in light of the desperate economic dependence of many developing states, they are to all intents and purposes "imposed. '' Moreover, the beneficiaries of these agreements - sometimes intentionally so, often unintentionally - turn out to be the rich countries. The Agreement on Trade - Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), it has been argued, turned the WTO into a "royalty collection agency '' for the rich countries. The Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) connected to IMF loans have proven singularly disastrous for the poor countries but provide huge interest payments to the rich. In both cases, the "voluntary '' signatures of poor states do not signify consent to the details of the agreement, but need. Obviously, trade -- with liberal or nonliberal states -- is not a moral obligation, yet conditional aid, like IMF and WTO policies, aims at changing the cultural, economic, and political constitution of a target state clearly without its consent.
A common policy required in structural adjustment is the privatization of state - owned industries and resources. This policy aims to increase efficiency and investment and to decrease state spending. State - owned resources are to be sold whether they generate a fiscal profit or not.
Critics have condemned these privatization requirements, arguing that when resources are transferred to foreign corporations and / or national elites, the goal of public prosperity is replaced with the goal of private accumulation. Furthermore, state - owned firms may show fiscal losses because they fulfill a wider social role, such as providing low - cost utilities and jobs. Some scholars have argued that SAPs and neoliberal policies have negatively affected many developing countries.
Critics hold SAPs responsible for much of the economic stagnation that has occurred in borrowing countries. SAPs emphasize maintaining a balanced budget, which forces austerity programs. The casualties of balancing a budget are often social programs.
For example, if a government cuts education funding, universality is impaired, and therefore long - term economic growth. Similarly, cuts to health programs have allowed diseases such as AIDS to devastate some areas ' economies by destroying the workforce. A 2009 book by Rick Rowden entitled The Deadly Ideas of Neoliberalism: How the IMF has Undermined Public Health and the Fight Against AIDS claims that the IMF 's monetarist approach towards prioritizing price stability (low inflation) and fiscal restraint (low budget deficits) was unnecessarily restrictive and has prevented developing countries from being able to scale up long - term public investment as a percentage of GDP in the underlying public health infrastructure. The book claims the consequences have been chronically underfunded public health systems, leading to dilapidated health infrastructure, inadequate numbers of health personnel, and demoralizing working conditions that have fueled the "push factors '' driving the brain drain of nurses migrating from poor countries to rich ones, all of which has undermined public health systems and the fight against HIV / AIDS in developing countries. A counter-argument is that it is illogical to assume that reducing funding to a program automatically reduces its quality. There may be factors within these sectors that are susceptible to corruption or over-staffing that causes the initial investment to not be used as efficiently as possible.
Recent studies have shown strong connections between SAPs and tuberculosis rates in developing nations.
Countries with native populations living traditional lifestyles face with unique challenges in regards to structural adjustment. Authors Ikubolajeh Bernard Logan and Kidane Mengisteab make the case in their article "IMF - World Bank Adjustment and Structural Transformation on Sub-Saharan Africa '' for the ineffectiveness of structural adjustment in part being attributed to the disconnect between the informal sector of the economy as generated by traditional society and the formal sector generated by a modern, urban society. The rural and urban scales and the different needs of each are a factor that usually goes unexamined when analyzing the effects of structural adjustment. In some rural, traditional communities, the absence of landownership and ownership of resources, land tenure, and labor practices due to custom and tradition provides a unique situation in regard to the structural economic reform of a state. Kinship - based societies, for example, operate under the rule that collective group resources are not to serve individual purposes. Gender roles and obligations, familial relations, lineage, and household organization all play a part in the functioning of traditional society. It would then appear difficult to formulate effective economic reform policies by considering only the formal sector of society and the economy, leaving out more traditional societies and ways of life.
There are some serious problems in measuring the empirical success of Fund programs. It is extremely difficult to calculate the counterfactual; that is, what would have happened had the Fund not intervened. Even so, a study in the journal World Development found that the programs "often do not work '', citing "high rates of recidivism, low rates of completion, and an insignificant catalytic effect on other capital flows ''.
While both the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank loan to depressed and developing countries, their loans are intended to address different problems. The IMF mainly lends to countries that have balance of payment problems (they can not pay their international debts), while the World bank offers loans to fund particular development projects. However, the World Bank also provides balance of payments support, usually through adjustment packages jointly negotiated with the IMF.
IMF loans focus on temporarily fixing problems that countries face as a whole. Traditionally IMF loans were meant to be repaid in a short duration between 21⁄2 and 4 years. Today, there are a few longer term options available, which go up to 7 years. as well as options that lend to countries in times of crises such as natural disasters or conflicts.
The IMF is supported solely by its member states, while the World Bank funds its loans with a mix of member contributions and corporate bonds. Currently there are 185 Members of the IMF (As Of February 2007) and 184 members of the World Bank. Members are assigned a quota to be reevaluated and paid on a rotating schedule. The assessed quota is based upon the donor country 's portion of the world economy. One of the critiques of SAPs is that the highest donating countries hold too much influence over which countries receive the loans and the SAPs that accompany them.
Some of the largest donors are:
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where is the sahara located on a map | Sahara - wikipedia
The Sahara (Arabic: الصحراء الكبرى , al - ṣaḥrāʼ al - kubrá, ' the Greatest Desert ') is the largest hot desert and the third largest desert in the world after Antarctica and the Arctic. Its area of 9,200,000 square kilometres (3,600,000 sq mi) is comparable to the area of China or the United States.
The desert comprises much of North Africa, excluding the fertile region on the Mediterranean Sea coast, the Atlas Mountains of the Maghreb, and the Nile Valley in Egypt and Sudan. It stretches from the Red Sea in the east and the Mediterranean in the north to the Atlantic Ocean in the west, where the landscape gradually changes from desert to coastal plains. To the south, it is bounded by the Sahel, a belt of semi-arid tropical savanna around the Niger River valley and the Sudan Region of Sub-Saharan Africa.
The Sahara can be divided into several regions including: the western Sahara, the central Ahaggar Mountains, the Tibesti Mountains, the Aïr Mountains, the Ténéré desert, and the Libyan Desert.
The name ' Sahara ' is derived from ṣaḥārá ( صحارى , pronounced / ˈsʕaħaːraː /), the plural of the Arabic word for "desert ''.
The Sahara covers large parts of Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Western Sahara, Sudan and Tunisia. It covers 9 million square kilometres (3,500,000 sq mi), amounting to 31 % of Africa. If all areas with a mean annual precipitation of less than 250 mm were included, the Sahara would be 11 million square kilometres (4,200,000 sq mi). It is one of three distinct physiographic provinces of the African massive physiographic division.
The Sahara is mainly rocky hamada (stone plateaus), Ergs (sand seas - large areas covered with sand dunes) form only a minor part, but many of the sand dunes are over 180 metres (590 ft) high. Wind or rare rainfall shape the desert features: sand dunes, dune fields, sand seas, stone plateaus, gravel plains (reg), dry valleys (wadi), dry lakes (oued), and salt flats (shatt or chott). Unusual landforms include the Richat Structure in Mauritania.
Several deeply dissected mountains, many volcanic, rise from the desert, including the Aïr Mountains, Ahaggar Mountains, Saharan Atlas, Tibesti Mountains, Adrar des Iforas, and the Red Sea hills. The highest peak in the Sahara is Emi Koussi, a shield volcano in the Tibesti range of northern Chad.
The central Sahara is hyperarid, with sparse vegetation. The northern and southern reaches of the desert, along with the highlands, have areas of sparse grassland and desert shrub, with trees and taller shrubs in wadis, where moisture collects. In the central, hyperarid region, there are many subdivisions of the great desert: Tanezrouft, the Ténéré, the Libyan Desert, the Eastern Desert, the Nubian Desert and others. These extremely arid areas often receive no rain for years.
To the north, the Sahara skirts the Mediterranean Sea in Egypt and portions of Libya, but in Cyrenaica and the Maghreb, the Sahara borders the Mediterranean forest, woodland, and scrub eco-regions of northern Africa, all of which have a Mediterranean climate characterized by hot summers and cool and rainy winters. According to the botanical criteria of Frank White and geographer Robert Capot - Rey, the northern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the northern limit of date palm cultivation and the southern limit of the range of esparto, a grass typical of the Mediterranean climate portion of the Maghreb and Iberia. The northern limit also corresponds to the 100 mm (3.9 in) isohyet of annual precipitation.
To the south, the Sahara is bounded by the Sahel, a belt of dry tropical savanna with a summer rainy season that extends across Africa from east to west. The southern limit of the Sahara is indicated botanically by the southern limit of Cornulaca monacantha (a drought - tolerant member of the Chenopodiaceae), or northern limit of Cenchrus biflorus, a grass typical of the Sahel. According to climatic criteria, the southern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the 150 mm (5.9 in) isohyet of annual precipitation (this is a long - term average, since precipitation varies annually).
Important cities located in the Sahara include Nouakchott, the capital of Mauritania; Tamanrasset, Ouargla, Béchar, Hassi Messaoud, Ghardaïa, and El Oued in Algeria; Timbuktu in Mali; Agadez in Niger; Ghat in Libya; and Faya - Largeau in Chad.
The Sahara is the world 's largest low - latitude hot desert. The area is located in the horse latitudes under the subtropical ridge, a significant belt of semi-permanent subtropical warm - core high pressure where the air from upper levels of the troposphere tends to sink towards the ground. This steady descending airflow causes a warming and a drying effect in the upper troposphere. The sinking air prevents evaporating water from rising and, therefore, prevents the adiabatic cooling, which makes cloud formation extremely difficult to nearly impossible.
The permanent dissolution of clouds allows unhindered light and thermal radiation. The stability of the atmosphere above the desert prevents any convective overturning, thus making rainfall virtually non-existent. As a consequence, the weather tends to be sunny, dry and stable with a minimal risk of rainfall. Subsiding, diverging, dry air masses associated with subtropical high - pressure systems are extremely unfavorable for the development of convectional showers. The subtropical ridge is the predominate factor that explains the hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) of this vast region. The lowering of air is the strongest and the most effective over the eastern part of the Great Desert, in the Libyan Desert which is the sunniest, driest and the most nearly "rain-less '' place on the planet rivaling the Atacama Desert, lying in Chile and Peru.
The rainfall inhibition and the dissipation of cloud cover are most accentuated over the eastern section of the Sahara rather than the western. The prevailing air mass lying above the Sahara is the continental tropical (cT) air mass, which is hot and dry. Hot, dry air masses primarily form over the North - African desert from the heating of the vast continental land area, and it affects the whole desert during most of the year. Because of this extreme heating process, a thermal low is usually noticed near the surface, and is the strongest and the most developed during the summertime. The Sahara High represents the eastern continental extension of the Azores High, centered over the North Atlantic Ocean. The subsidence of the Sahara High nearly reaches the ground during the coolest part of the year while it is confined to the upper troposphere during the hottest periods.
The effects of local surface low pressure are extremely limited because upper - level subsidence still continues to block any form of air ascent. Also, to be protected against rain - bearing weather systems by the atmospheric circulation itself, the desert is made even drier by his geographical configuration and location. Indeed, the extreme aridity of the Sahara can not be only explained by the subtropical high pressure. The Atlas Mountains, found in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia also help to enhance the aridity of the northern part of the desert. These major mountain ranges act as a barrier causing a strong rain shadow effect on the leeward side by dropping much of the humidity brought by atmospheric disturbances along the polar front which affects the surrounding Mediterranean climates.
The primary source of rain in the Sahara is the Intertropical Convergence Zone, a continuous belt of low - pressure systems near the equator which bring the brief, short and irregular rainy season to the Sahel and southern Sahara. Rainfall in this giant desert has to overcome the physical and atmospheric barriers that normally prevent the production of precipitation. The harsh climate of the Sahara is characterized by: extremely low, unreliable, highly erratic rainfall; extremely high sunshine duration values; high temperatures year - round; negligible rates of relative humidity; a significant diurnal temperature variation; and extremely high levels of potential evaporation which are the highest recorded worldwide.
The sky is usually clear above the desert and the sunshine duration is extremely high everywhere in the Sahara. Most of the desert enjoys more than 3,600 h of bright sunshine annually or over 82 % of the time, and a wide area in the eastern part experiences in excess of 4,000 h of bright sunshine a year or over 91 % of the time. The highest values are very close to the theoretical maximum value. A value of 4,300 h or 98 % of the time would be recorded in Upper Egypt (Aswan, Luxor) and in the Nubian Desert (Wadi Halfa). The annual average direct solar irradiation is around 2,800 kWh / (m year) in the Great Desert. The Sahara has a huge potential for solar energy production.
The constantly high position of the sun, the extremely low relative humidity, and the lack of vegetation and rainfall make the Great Desert the hottest continuously large area worldwide, and the hottest place on Earth during summer in some spots. The average high temperature exceeds 38 to 40 ° C or 100.4 to 104.0 ° F during the hottest month nearly everywhere in the desert except at very high altitudes. The highest officially recorded average high temperature was 47 ° C or 116.6 ° F in a remote desert town in the Algerian Desert called Bou Bernous with an elevation of 378 metres (1,240 ft) meters above sea level. It is the world 's highest recorded average high temperature and only Death Valley, California rivals it. Other hot spots in Algeria such as Adrar, Timimoun, In Salah, Ouallene, Aoulef, Reggane with an elevation between 200 and 400 metres (660 and 1,310 ft) above sea level get slightly lower summer average highs around 46 ° C or 114.8 ° F during the hottest months of the year. Salah, well known in Algeria for its extreme heat, has average high temperatures of 43.8 ° C or 110.8 ° F, 46.4 ° C or 115.5 ° F, 45.5 ° C or 113.9 ° F and 41.9 ° C or 107.4 ° F in June, July, August and September respectively. There are even hotter spots in the Sahara, but they are located in extremely remote areas, especially in the Azalai, lying in northern Mali. The major part of the desert experiences around three to five months when the average high strictly exceeds 40 ° C or 104 ° F. The southern central part of the desert experiences up to six or seven months when the average high temperature strictly exceeds 40 ° C or 104 ° F which shows the constancy and the length of the really hot season in the Sahara. Some examples of this are: Bilma, Niger and Faya - Largeau, Chad. The annual average daily temperature exceeds 20 ° C or 68 ° F everywhere and can approach 30 ° C or 86 ° F in the hottest regions year - round. However, most of the desert has a value in excess of 25 ° C or 77 ° F.
Sand and ground temperatures are even more extreme. During daytime, the sand temperature is extremely high as it can easily reach 80 ° C or 176 ° F or more. A sand temperature of 83.5 ° C (182.3 ° F) has been recorded in Port Sudan. Ground temperatures of 72 ° C or 161.6 ° F have been recorded in the Adrar of Mauritania and a value of 75 ° C (167 ° F) has been measured in Borkou, northern Chad.
Due to lack of cloud cover and very low humidity, the desert usually features high diurnal temperature variations between days and nights. However, it is a myth that the nights are cold after extremely hot days in the Sahara. The average diurnal temperature range is typically between 13 and 20 ° C or 23.4 and 36.0 ° F. The lowest values are found along the coastal regions due to high humidity and are often even lower than 10 ° C or 18 ° F, while the highest values are found in inland desert areas where the humidity is the lowest, mainly in the southern Sahara. Still, it is true that winter nights can be cold as it can drop to the freezing point and even below, especially in high - elevation areas. The frequency of subfreezing winter nights in the Sahara is strongly influenced by the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), with warmer winter temperatures during negative NAO events and cooler winters with more frosts when the NAO is positive. This is because the weaker clockwise flow around the eastern side of the subtropical anticyclone during negative NAO winters, although too dry to produce more than negligible precipitation, does reduce the flow of dry, cold air from higher latitudes of Eurasia into the Sahara significantly.
The average annual rainfall ranges from very low in the northern and southern fringes of the desert to nearly non-existent over the central and the eastern part. The thin northern fringe of the desert receives more winter cloudiness and rainfall due to the arrival of low pressure systems over the Mediterranean Sea along the polar front, although very attenuated by the rain shadow effects of the mountains and the annual average rainfall ranges from 100 millimetres (4 in) to 250 millimetres (10 in). For example, Biskra, Algeria and Ouarzazate, Morocco are found in this zone. The southern fringe of the desert along the border with the Sahel receives summer cloudiness and rainfall due to the arrival of the Intertropical Convergence Zone from the south and the annual average rainfall ranges from 100 millimetres (4 in) to 250 millimetres (10 in). For example, Timbuktu, Mali and Agadez, Niger are found in this zone. The vast central hyper - arid core of the desert is virtually never affected by northerly or southerly atmospheric disturbances and permanently remains under the influence of the strongest anticyclonic weather regime, and the annual average rainfall can drop to less than 1 millimetre (0.04 in). In fact, most of the Sahara receives less than 20 millimetres (0.8 in). Of the 9,000,000 square kilometres (3,500,000 sq mi) of desert land in the Sahara, an area of about 2,800,000 square kilometres (1,100,000 sq mi) (about 31 % of the total area) receives an annual average rainfall amount of 10 millimetres (0.4 in) or less, while some 1,500,000 square kilometres (580,000 sq mi) (about 17 % of the total area) receives an average of 5 millimetres (0.2 in) or less. The annual average rainfall is virtually zero over a wide area of some 1,000,000 square kilometres (390,000 sq mi) in the eastern Sahara comprising deserts of: Libya, Egypt and Sudan (Tazirbu, Kufra, Dakhla, Kharga, Farafra, Siwa, Asyut, Sohag, Luxor, Aswan, Abu Simbel, Wadi Halfa) where the long - term mean approximates 0.5 millimetres (0.02 in) per year. Rainfall is very unreliable and erratic in the Sahara as it may vary considerably year by year. In full contrast to the negligible annual rainfall amounts, the annual rates of potential evaporation are extraordinarily high, roughly ranging from 2,500 millimetres (100 in) per year to more than 6,000 millimetres (240 in) per year in the whole desert. Nowhere else on Earth has air been found as dry and evaporative as in the Sahara region. However, at least two instances of snowfall have been recorded in Sahara, in February 1979 and December 2016, both in the town of Ain Sefra.
The Sahara comprises several distinct ecoregions. With their variations in temperature, rainfall, elevation, and soil, these regions harbor distinct communities of plants and animals.
The Atlantic coastal desert is a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast where fog generated offshore by the cool Canary Current provides sufficient moisture to sustain a variety of lichens, succulents, and shrubs. It covers an area of 39,900 square kilometers (15,400 sq mi) in the south of Morocco and Mauritania.
The North Saharan steppe and woodlands is along the northern desert, next to the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregions of the northern Maghreb and Cyrenaica. Winter rains sustain shrublands and dry woodlands that form a transition between the Mediterranean climate regions to the north and the hyper - arid Sahara proper to the south. It covers 1,675,300 square kilometers (646,840 sq mi) in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia.
The Sahara Desert ecoregion covers the hyper - arid central portion of the Sahara where rainfall is minimal and sporadic. Vegetation is rare, and this ecoregion consists mostly of sand dunes (erg, chech, raoui), stone plateaus (hamadas), gravel plains (reg), dry valleys (wadis), and salt flats. It covers 4,639,900 square kilometres (1,791,500 sq mi) of: Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Sudan.
The South Saharan steppe and woodlands ecoregion is a narrow band running east and west between the hyper - arid Sahara and the Sahel savannas to the south. Movements of the equatorial Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) bring summer rains during July and August which average 100 to 200 mm (4 to 8 in) but vary greatly from year to year. These rains sustain summer pastures of grasses and herbs, with dry woodlands and shrublands along seasonal watercourses. This ecoregion covers 1,101,700 square kilometres (425,400 sq mi) in Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Sudan.
In the West Saharan montane xeric woodlands, several volcanic highlands provide a cooler, moister environment that supports Saharo - Mediterranean woodlands and shrublands. The ecoregion covers 258,100 square kilometres (99,650 sq mi), mostly in the Tassili n'Ajjer of Algeria, with smaller enclaves in the Aïr of Niger, the Dhar Adrar of Mauritania, and the Adrar des Iforas of Mali and Algeria.
The Tibesti - Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands ecoregion consists of the Tibesti and Jebel Uweinat highlands. Higher and more regular rainfall and cooler temperatures support woodlands and shrublands of Date palm, acacias, myrtle, oleander, tamarix, and several rare and endemic plants. The ecoregion covers 82,200 square kilometres (31,700 sq mi) in the Tibesti of Chad and Libya, and Jebel Uweinat on the border of Egypt, Libya, and Sudan.
The Saharan halophytics is an area of seasonally flooded saline depressions which is home to halophytic (salt - adapted) plant communities. The Saharan halophytics cover 54,000 square kilometres (21,000 sq mi) including: the Qattara and Siwa depressions in northern Egypt, the Tunisian salt lakes of central Tunisia, Chott Melghir in Algeria, and smaller areas of Algeria, Mauritania, and the southern part of Morocco.
The Tanezrouft is one of the harshest regions on Earth as well as one of the hottest and driest parts of the Sahara, with no vegetation and very little life. It is along the borders of Algeria, Niger)) and Mali, west of the Hoggar mountains.
The flora of the Sahara is highly diversified based on the bio-geographical characteristics of this vast desert. Floristically, the Sahara has three zones based on the amount of rainfall received -- the Northern (Mediterranean), Central and Southern Zones. There are two transitional zones -- the Mediterranean - Sahara transition and the Sahel transition zone.
The Saharan flora comprises around 2800 species of vascular plants. Approximately a quarter of these are endemic. About half of these species are common to the flora of the Arabian deserts.
The central Sahara is estimated to include five hundred species of plants, which is extremely low considering the huge extent of the area. Plants such as acacia trees, palms, succulents, spiny shrubs, and grasses have adapted to the arid conditions, by growing lower to avoid water loss by strong winds, by storing water in their thick stems to use it in dry periods, by having long roots that travel horizontally to reach the maximum area of water and to find any surface moisture, and by having small thick leaves or needles to prevent water loss by evapotranspiration. Plant leaves may dry out totally and then recover.
Several species of fox live in the Sahara including: the fennec fox, pale fox and Rüppell 's fox. The addax, a large white antelope, can go nearly a year in the desert without drinking. The dorcas gazelle is a north African gazelle that can also go for a long time without water. Other notable gazelles include the rhim gazelle and dama gazelle.
The Saharan cheetah (northwest African cheetah) lives in Algeria, Togo, Niger, Mali, Benin, and Burkina Faso. There remain fewer than 250 mature cheetahs, which are very cautious, fleeing any human presence. The cheetah avoids the sun from April to October, seeking the shelter of shrubs such as balanites and acacias. They are unusually pale. The other cheetah subspecies (northeast African cheetah) lives in Chad, Sudan and the eastern region of Niger. However, it is currently extinct in the wild in Egypt and Libya. There are approximately 2000 mature individuals left in the wild.
Other animals include the monitor lizards, hyrax, sand vipers, and small populations of African wild dog, in perhaps only 14 countries and red - necked ostrich. Other animals exist in the Sahara (birds in particular) such as African silverbill and black - faced firefinch, among others. There are also small desert crocodiles in Mauritania and the Ennedi Plateau of Chad.
The deathstalker scorpion can be 10 cm (3.9 in) long. Its venom contains large amounts of agitoxin and scyllatoxin and is very dangerous; however, a sting from this scorpion rarely kills a healthy adult. The Saharan silver ant is unique in that due to the extreme high temperatures of their habitat, and the threat of predators, the ants are active outside their nest for only about ten minutes per day.
Dromedary camels and goats are the domesticated animals most commonly found in the Sahara. Because of its qualities of endurance and speed, the dromedary is the favourite animal used by nomads.
Human activities are more likely to affect the habitat in areas of permanent water (oases) or where water comes close to the surface. Here, the local pressure on natural resources can be intense. The remaining populations of large mammals have been greatly reduced by hunting for food and recreation. In recent years development projects have started in the deserts of Algeria and Tunisia using irrigated water pumped from underground aquifers. These schemes often lead to soil degradation and salinization.
Researchers from Hacettepe University (Yücekutlu, N. et al., 2011) have reported that Saharan soil may have bio-available iron and also some essential macro and micro nutrient elements suitable for use as fertilizer for growing wheat.
People lived on the edge of the desert thousands of years ago since the end of the last glacial period. The Sahara was then a much wetter place than it is today. Over 30,000 petroglyphs of river animals such as crocodiles survive, with half found in the Tassili n'Ajjer in southeast Algeria. Fossils of dinosaurs, including Afrovenator, Jobaria and Ouranosaurus, have also been found here. The modern Sahara, though, is not lush in vegetation, except in the Nile Valley, at a few oases, and in the northern highlands, where Mediterranean plants such as the olive tree are found to grow. It was long believed that the region had been this way since about 1600 BCE, after shifts in the Earth 's axis increased temperatures and decreased precipitation, which led to the abrupt desertification of North Africa about 5,400 years ago. However, this theory has recently been called into dispute, when samples taken from several 7 million year old sand deposits led scientists to reconsider the timeline for desertification.
The Kiffian culture is a prehistoric industry, or domain, that existed between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago in the Sahara, during the Neolithic Subpluvial. Human remains from this culture were found in 2000 at a site known as Gobero, located in Niger in the Ténéré Desert. The site is known as the largest and earliest grave of Stone Age people in the Sahara desert. The Kiffians were skilled hunters. Bones of many large savannah animals that were discovered in the same area suggest that they lived on the shores of a lake that was present during the Holocene Wet Phase, a period when the Sahara was verdant and wet. The Kiffian people were tall, standing over six feet in height. Craniometric analysis indicates that this early Holocene population was closely related to the Late Pleistocene Iberomaurusians and early Holocene Capsians of the Maghreb, as well as mid-Holocene Mechta groups. Traces of the Kiffian culture do not exist after 8,000 years ago, as the Sahara went through a dry period for the next thousand years. After this time, the Tenerian culture colonized the area.
Gobero was discovered in 2000 during an archaeological expedition led by Paul Sereno, which sought dinosaur remains. Two distinct prehistoric cultures were discovered at the site: the early Holocene Kiffian culture, and the middle Holocene Tenerian culture. The Kiffians were a prehistoric people who preceded the Tenerians and vanished approximately 8000 years ago, when the desert became very dry. The desiccation lasted until around 4600 BC, when the earliest artefacts associated with the Tenerians have been dated to. Some 200 skeletons have been discovered at Gobero. The Tenerians were considerably shorter in height and less robust than the earlier Kiffians. Craniometric analysis also indicates that they were osteologically distinct. The Kiffian skulls are akin to those of the Late Pleistocene Iberomaurusians, early Holocene Capsians, and mid-Holocene Mechta groups, whereas the Tenerian crania are more like those of Mediterranean groups. Graves show that the Tenerians observed spiritual traditions, as they were buried with artifacts such as jewelry made of hippo tusks and clay pots. The most interesting find is a triple burial, dated to 5300 years ago, of an adult female and two children, estimated through their teeth as being five and eight years old, hugging each other. Pollen residue indicates they were buried on a bed of flowers. The three are assumed to have died within 24 hours of each other, but as their skeletons hold no apparent trauma (they did not die violently) and they have been buried so elaborately - unlikely if they had died of a plague - the cause of their deaths is a mystery.
Uan Muhuggiag appears to have been inhabited from at least the 6th millennium BC to about 2700 BC, although not necessarily continuously. The most noteworthy find at Uan Muhuggiag is the well - preserved mummy of a young boy of approximately 2 1 / 2 years old. The child was in a fetal position, then embalmed, then placed in a sack made of antelope skin, which was insulated by a layer of leaves. The boy 's organs were removed, as evidenced by incisions in his stomach and thorax, and an organic preservative was inserted to stop his body from decomposing. An ostrich eggshell necklace was also found around his neck. Radiocarbon dating determined the age of the mummy to be approximately 5600 years old, which makes it about 1000 years older than the earliest previously recorded mummy in ancient Egypt. In 1958 - 1959, an archaeological expedition led by Antonio Ascenzi conducted anthropological, radiological, histological and chemical analyses on the Uan Muhuggiag mummy. The specimen was determined to be that of a 30 - month old child of uncertain sex, who possessed Negroid features. A long incision on the specimen 's abdominal wall also indicated that the body had been initially mummified by evisceration and later underwent natural desiccation. One other individual, an adult, was found at Uan Muhuggiag, buried in a crouched position. However, the body showed no evidence of evisceration or any other method of preservation. The body was estimated to date from about 7500 BP.
During the Neolithic Era, before the onset of desertification around 9500 BCE, the central Sudan had been a rich environment supporting a large population ranging across what is now barren desert, like the Wadi el - Qa'ab. By the 5th millennium BCE, the people who inhabited what is now called Nubia, were full participants in the "agricultural revolution '', living a settled lifestyle with domesticated plants and animals. Saharan rock art of cattle and herdsmen suggests the presence of a cattle cult like those found in Sudan and other pastoral societies in Africa today. Megaliths found at Nabta Playa are overt examples of probably the world 's first known archaeoastronomy devices, predating Stonehenge by some 2,000 years. This complexity, as observed at Nabta Playa, and as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there, likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt.
By 6000 BCE predynastic Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and constructing large buildings. Subsistence in organized and permanent settlements in predynastic Egypt by the middle of the 6th millennium BCE centered predominantly on cereal and animal agriculture: cattle, goats, pigs and sheep. Metal objects replaced prior ones of stone. Tanning of animal skins, pottery and weaving were commonplace in this era also. There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the Al Fayyum in the 6th millennium BCE, with food activities centering on fishing, hunting and food - gathering. Stone arrowheads, knives and scrapers from the era are commonly found. Burial items included pottery, jewelry, farming and hunting equipment, and assorted foods including dried meat and fruit. Burial in desert environments appears to enhance Egyptian preservation rites, and the dead were buried facing due west.
By 3400 BCE, the Sahara was as dry as it is today, due to reduced precipitation and higher temperatures resulting from a shift in the Earth 's orbit. As a result of this aridification, it became a largely impenetrable barrier to humans, with the remaining settlements mainly being concentrated around the numerous oases that dot the landscape. Little trade or commerce is known to have passed through the interior in subsequent periods, the only major exception being the Nile Valley. The Nile, however, was impassable at several cataracts, making trade and contact by boat difficult.
The people of Phoenicia, who flourished from 1200 -- 800 BCE, created a confederation of kingdoms across the entire Sahara to Egypt. They generally settled along the Mediterranean coast, as well as the Sahara, among the people of ancient Libya, who were the ancestors of people who speak Berber languages in North Africa and the Sahara today, including the Tuareg of the central Sahara.
The Phoenician alphabet seems to have been adopted by the ancient Libyans of north Africa, and Tifinagh is still used today by Berber - speaking Tuareg camel herders of the central Sahara.
Sometime between 633 BCE and 530 BCE, Hanno the Navigator either established or reinforced Phoenician colonies in Western Sahara, but all ancient remains have vanished with virtually no trace.
By 500 BCE, Greeks arrived in the desert. Greek traders spread along the eastern coast of the desert, establishing trading colonies along the Red Sea. The Carthaginians explored the Atlantic coast of the desert, but the turbulence of the waters and the lack of markets caused a lack of presence further south than modern Morocco. Centralized states thus surrounded the desert on the north and east; it remained outside the control of these states. Raids from the nomadic Berber people of the desert were of constant concern to those living on the edge of the desert.
An urban civilization, the Garamantes, arose around 500 BCE in the heart of the Sahara, in a valley that is now called the Wadi al - Ajal in Fezzan, Libya. The Garamantes achieved this development by digging tunnels far into the mountains flanking the valley to tap fossil water and bring it to their fields. The Garamantes grew populous and strong, conquering their neighbors and capturing many slaves (who were put to work extending the tunnels). The ancient Greeks and the Romans knew of the Garamantes and regarded them as uncivilized nomads. However, they traded with them, and a Roman bath has been found in the Garamantes ' capital of Garama. Archaeologists have found eight major towns and many other important settlements in the Garamantes ' territory. The Garamantes ' civilization eventually collapsed after they had depleted available water in the aquifers and could no longer sustain the effort to extend the tunnels further into the mountains.
The Berber people occupied (and still occupy) much of the Sahara. The Garamantes Berbers built a prosperous empire in the heart of the desert. The Tuareg nomads continue to inhabit and move across wide Sahara surfaces to the present day.
The Byzantine Empire ruled the northern shores of the Sahara from the 5th to the 7th centuries. After the Muslim conquest of Arabia, specifically the Arabian peninsula, the Muslim conquest of North Africa began in the mid-7th to early 8th centuries and Islamic influence expanded rapidly on the Sahara. By the end of 641 all of Egypt was in Muslim hands. Trade across the desert intensified, and a significant slave trade crossed the desert. It has been estimated that from the 10th to 19th centuries some 6,000 to 7,000 slaves were transported north each year.
In the 16th century the northern fringe of the Sahara, such as coastal regencies in present - day Algeria and Tunisia, as well as some parts of present - day Libya, together with the semi-autonomous kingdom of Egypt, were occupied by the Ottoman Empire. From 1517 Egypt was a valued part of the Ottoman Empire, ownership of which provided the Ottomans with control over the Nile Valley, the east Mediterranean and North Africa. The benefit of the Ottoman Empire was the freedom of movement for citizens and goods. Traders exploited the Ottoman land routes to handle the spices, gold and silk from the East, manufactured goods from Europe, and the slave and gold traffic from Africa. Arabic continued as the local language and Islamic culture was much reinforced. The Sahel and southern Sahara regions were home to several independent states or to roaming Tuareg clans.
European colonialism in the Sahara began in the 19th century. France conquered the regency of Algiers from the Ottomans in 1830, and French rule spread south from Algeria and eastwards from Senegal into the upper Niger to include present - day Algeria, Chad, Mali then French Sudan including Timbuktu, Mauritania, Morocco (1912), Niger, and Tunisia (1881). By the beginning of the 20th century, the trans - Saharan trade had clearly declined because goods were moved through more modern and efficient means, such as airplanes, rather than across the desert.
The French Colonial Empire was the dominant presence in the Sahara. It established regular air links from Toulouse (HQ of famed Aéropostale), to Oran and over the Hoggar to Timbuktu and West to Bamako and Dakar, as well as trans - Sahara bus services run by La Companie Transsaharienne (est. 1927). A remarkable film shot by famous aviator Captain René Wauthier documents the first crossing by a large truck convoy from Algiers to Tchad, across the Sahara.
Egypt, under Muhammad Ali and his successors, conquered Nubia in 1820 -- 22, founded Khartoum in 1823, and conquered Darfur in 1874. Egypt, including the Sudan, became a British protectorate in 1882. Egypt and Britain lost control of the Sudan from 1882 to 1898 as a result of the Mahdist War. After its capture by British troops in 1898, the Sudan became an Anglo - Egyptian condominium.
Spain captured present - day Western Sahara after 1874, although Rio del Oro remained largely under Sahrawi influence. In 1912, Italy captured parts of what was to be named Libya from the Ottomans. To promote the Roman Catholic religion in the desert, Pope Pius IX appointed a delegate Apostolic of the Sahara and the Sudan in 1868; later in the 19th century his jurisdiction was reorganized into the Vicariate Apostolic of Sahara.
Egypt became independent of Britain in 1936, although the Anglo - Egyptian treaty of 1936 allowed Britain to keep troops in Egypt and to maintain the British - Egyptian condominium in the Sudan. British military forces were withdrawn in 1954.
Most of the Saharan states achieved independence after World War II: Libya in 1951; Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia in 1956; Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger in 1960; and Algeria in 1962. Spain withdrew from Western Sahara in 1975, and it was partitioned between Mauritania and Morocco. Mauritania withdrew in 1979; Morocco continues to hold the territory.
In the post-World War II era, several mines and communities have developed to utilize the desert 's natural resources. These include large deposits of oil and natural gas in Algeria and Libya, and large deposits of phosphates in Morocco and Western Sahara.
A number of Trans - African highways have been proposed across the Sahara, including the Cairo -- Dakar Highway along the Atlantic coast, the Trans - Sahara Highway from Algiers on the Mediterranean to Kano in Nigeria, the Tripoli -- Cape Town Highway from Tripoli in Libya to N'Djamena in Chad, and the Cairo -- Cape Town Highway which follows the Nile. Each of these highways is partially complete, with significant gaps and unpaved sections.
The people of the Sahara are of various origins. Among them the Amaziɣ including the Turūq, various Arabized Amaziɣ groups such as the Hassaniya - speaking Sahrawis, whose populations include the Znaga, a tribe whose name is a remnant of the pre-historic Zenaga language. Other major groups of people include the: Toubou, Nubians, Zaghawa, Kanuri, Hausa, Songhai, Beja, and Fula / Fulani (French: Peul; Fula: Fulɓe).
Arabic dialects are the most widely spoken languages in the Sahara. Arabic, Berber and its variants now regrouped under the term Amazigh (which includes the Guanche language spoken by the original Berber inhabitants of the Canary Islands) and Beja languages are part of the Afro - Asiatic or Hamito - Semitic family. Unlike neighboring West Africa and the central governments of the states that comprise the Sahara, the French language bears little relevance to inter-personal discourse and commerce within the region, its people retaining staunch ethnic and political affiliations with Tuareg and Berber leaders and culture. The legacy of the French colonial era administration is primarily manifested in the territorial reorganization enacted by the Third and Fourth republics, which engendered artificial political divisions within a hitherto isolated and porous region. Diplomacy with local clients was conducted primarily in Arabic, which was the traditional language of bureaucratic affairs. Mediation of disputes and inter-agency communication was served by interpreters contracted by the French government, who, according to Keenan, "documented a space of intercultural mediation, '' contributing much to preserving the indigenous cultural identities in the region.
Coordinates: 23 ° N 13 ° E / 23 ° N 13 ° E / 23; 13
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when did peurto rico become part of the united states | Puerto Rico - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 18 ° 12 ′ N 66 ° 30 ′ W / 18.2 ° N 66.5 ° W / 18.2; - 66.5
Puerto Rican (formal) American (since 1917)
Puerto Rico (Spanish for "Rich Port ''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Spanish: Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit. "Free Associated State of Puerto Rico '') and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea.
An archipelago among the Greater Antilles, Puerto Rico includes the main island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones, such as Mona, Culebra, and Vieques. The capital and most populous city is San Juan. Its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The island 's population is approximately 3.4 million. Puerto Rico 's history, tropical climate, natural scenery, traditional cuisine, and tax incentives make it a destination for travelers from around the world.
Originally populated by the indigenous Taíno people, the island was claimed in 1493 by Christopher Columbus for Spain during his second voyage. Later it endured invasion attempts from the French, Dutch, and British. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government influenced the island 's cultural landscapes with waves of African slaves, Canarian, and Andalusian settlers. In the Spanish Empire, Puerto Rico played a secondary, but strategic role when compared to wealthier colonies like Peru and the mainland parts of New Spain. Spain 's distant administrative control continued up to the end of the 19th century, helping to produce a distinctive creole Hispanic culture and language that combined elements from the Native Americans, Africans, and Iberians. In 1898, following the Spanish -- American War, the United States acquired Puerto Rico under the terms of the Treaty of Paris.
Puerto Ricans are by law natural - born citizens of the United States and may move freely between the island and the mainland. As it is not a state, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U.S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the national level and do not vote for president and vice president of the United States, and do not pay federal income tax on Puerto Rican income. Congress approved a local constitution, allowing U.S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A 2012 referendum showed a majority (54 % of those who voted) disagreed with "the present form of territorial status ''. A second question asking about a new model, had full statehood the preferred option among those who voted for a change of status, although a significant number of people did not answer the second question of the referendum. Another fifth referendum was held on June 11, 2017, with "Statehood '' and "Independence / Free Association '' initially as the only available choices. At the recommendation of the Department of Justice, an option for the "current territorial status '' was added. The referendum showed an overwhelming support for statehood, with 97.18 % voting for it, although the voter turnout had a historically low figure of only 22.99 % of the registered voters casting their ballots.
In early 2017, the Puerto Rican government - debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt had climbed to $70 billion at a time with 12.4 % unemployment. The debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. This was the second major financial crisis to affect the island after the Great Depression when the U.S. government, in 1935, provided relief efforts through the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration. On May 3, 2017, Puerto Rico 's financial oversight board in the U.S. District Court for Puerto Rico filed the debt restructuring petition which was made under Title III of PROMESA. By early August 2017, the debt was $72 billion with a 45 % poverty rate.
In late September 2017, the category 5 Hurricane Maria hit Puerto Rico causing devastating damage. The island 's electrical grid was largely destroyed, with repairs expected to take months to complete, provoking the largest power outage in American history.
Puerto Rico means "rich port '' in Spanish. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquén -- a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, which means "Land of the Valiant Lord ''. The terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also popularly known in Spanish as la isla del encanto, meaning "the island of enchantment ''.
Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, while the capital city was named Ciudad de Puerto Rico ("Rich Port City ''). Eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading / shipping port and the capital city.
The island 's name was changed to "Porto Rico '' by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898. The anglicized name was used by the U.S. government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931.
The official name of the entity in Spanish is Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico ("free associated state of Puerto Rico ''), while its official English name is Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.
The ancient history of the archipelago which is now Puerto Rico is not well known. Unlike other indigenous cultures in the New World (Aztec, Maya and Inca) which left behind abundant archeological and physical evidence of their societies, scant artifacts and evidence remain of the Puerto Rico 's indigenous population. Scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish accounts from the colonial era constitute all that is known about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, nearly three centuries after the first Spaniards landed on the island.
The first known settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland. Some scholars suggest their settlement dates back about 4,000 years. An archeological dig in 1990 on the island of Vieques found the remains of a man, designated as the "Puerto Ferro Man '', which was dated to around 2000 BC. The Ortoiroid were displaced by the Saladoid, a culture from the same region that arrived on the island between 430 and 250 BC.
The Igneri tribe migrated to Puerto Rico between 120 and 400 AD from the region of the Orinoco river in northern South America. The Arcaico and Igneri co-existed on the island between the 4th and 10th centuries.
Between the 7th and 11th centuries, the Taíno culture developed on the island. By approximately 1000 AD, it had become dominant. At the time of Columbus ' arrival, an estimated 30,000 to 60,000 Taíno Amerindians, led by the cacique (chief) Agüeybaná, inhabited the island. They called it Boriken, meaning "the great land of the valiant and noble Lord ''. The natives lived in small villages, each led by a cacique. They subsisted by hunting and fishing, done generally by men, as well as by the women 's gathering and processing of indigenous cassava root and fruit. This lasted until Columbus arrived in 1493.
When Columbus arrived in Puerto Rico during his second voyage on November 19, 1493, the island was inhabited by the Taíno. They called it Borikén (Borinquen in Spanish transliteration). Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of St John the Baptist. Having reported the findings of his first travel, Columbus brought with him this time a letter from King Ferdinand empowered by a papal bull that authorized any course of action necessary for the expansion of the Spanish Empire and the Christian faith. Juan Ponce de León, a lieutenant under Columbus, founded the first Spanish settlement, Caparra, on August 8, 1508. He later served as the first governor of the island. Eventually, traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, and San Juan became the name of the main trading / shipping port.
At the beginning of the 16th century, the Spanish people began to colonize the island. Despite the Laws of Burgos of 1512 and other decrees for the protection of the indigenous population, some Taíno Indians were forced into an encomienda system of forced labor in the early years of colonization. The population suffered extremely high fatalities from epidemics of European infectious diseases.
In 1520, King Charles I of Spain issued a royal decree collectively emancipating the remaining Taíno population. By that time, the Taíno people were few in number. Enslaved Africans had already begun to compensate for the native labor loss, but their numbers were proportionate to the diminished commercial interest Spain soon began to demonstrate for the island colony. Other nearby islands, like Cuba, Saint - Domingue, and Guadeloupe, attracted more of the slave trade than Puerto Rico, probably because of greater agricultural interests in those islands, on which colonists had developed large sugar plantations and had the capital to invest in the Atlantic slave trade.
From the beginning of the country, the colonial administration relied heavily on the industry of enslaved Africans and creole blacks for public works and defenses, primarily in coastal ports and cities, where the tiny colonial population had hunkered down. With no significant industries or large - scale agricultural production as yet, enslaved and free communities lodged around the few littoral settlements, particularly around San Juan, also forming lasting Afro - creole communities. Meanwhile, in the island 's interior, there developed a mixed and independent peasantry that relied on a subsistence economy. This mostly unsupervised population supplied villages and settlements with foodstuffs and, in relative isolation, set the pattern for what later would be known as the Puerto Rican Jíbaro culture. By the end of the 16th Century, the Spanish Empire was diminishing and, in the face of increasing raids from European competitors, the colonial administration throughout the Americas fell into a "bunker mentality ''. Imperial strategists and urban planners redesigned port settlements into military posts with the objective of protecting Spanish territorial claims and ensuring the safe passing of the king 's silver - laden Atlantic Fleet to the Iberian Peninsula. San Juan served as an important port - of - call for ships driven across the Atlantic by its powerful trade winds. West Indies convoys linked Spain to the island, sailing between Cádiz and the Spanish West Indies. The colony 's seat of government was on the forested Islet of San Juan and for a time became one of the most heavily fortified settlements in the Spanish Caribbean earning the name of the "Walled City ''. The islet is still dotted with the various forts and walls, such as La Fortaleza, Castillo San Felipe del Morro, and Castillo San Cristóbal, designed to protect the population and the strategic Port of San Juan from the raids of the Spanish European competitors.
In 1625, in the Battle of San Juan, the Dutch commander Boudewijn Hendricksz tested the defenses ' limits like no one else before. Learning from Francis Drake 's previous failures here, he circumvented the cannons of the castle of San Felipe del Morro and quickly brought his 17 ships into the San Juan Bay. He then occupied the port and attacked the city while the population hurried for shelter behind the Morro 's moat and high battlements. Historians consider this event the worst attack on San Juan. Though the Dutch set the village on fire, they failed to conquer the Morro, and its batteries pounded their troops and ships until Hendricksz deemed the cause lost. Hendricksz 's expedition eventually helped propel a fortification frenzy. Constructions of defenses for the San Cristóbal Hill were soon ordered so as to prevent the landing of invaders out of reach of the Morro 's artillery. Urban planning responded to the needs of keeping the colony in Spanish hands.
During the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Spain concentrated its colonial efforts on the more prosperous mainland North, Central, and South American colonies. With the advent of the lively Bourbon Dynasty in Spain in the 1700s, the island of Puerto Rico began a gradual shift to more imperial attention. More roads began connecting previously isolated inland settlements to coastal cities, and coastal settlements like Arecibo, Mayaguez, and Ponce began acquiring importance of their own, separate from San Juan. By the end of the 18th century, merchant ships from an array of nationalities threatened the tight regulations of the Mercantilist system, which turned each colony solely toward the European metropole and limited contact with other nations. U.S. ships came to surpass Spanish trade and with this also came the exploitation of the island 's natural resources. Slavers, which had made but few stops on the island before, began selling more enslaved Africans to growing sugar and coffee plantations. The increasing number of Atlantic wars in which the Caribbean islands played major roles, like the War of Jenkins ' Ear, the Seven Years ' War and the Atlantic Revolutions, ensured Puerto Rico 's growing esteem in Madrid 's eyes. On April 17, 1797, Sir Ralph Abercromby fleet invaded the island with a force of 6,000 -- 13,000 men, which included German soldiers and Royal Marines and 60 to 64 ships. Fierce fighting continued for the next days with Spanish troops. Both sides suffered heavy losses. On Sunday April 30 the British ceased their attack and began their retreat from San Juan. By the time independence movements in the larger Spanish colonies gained success, new waves of loyal creole immigrants began to arrive in Puerto Rico, helping to tilt the island 's political balance toward the Crown.
In 1809, to secure its political bond with the island and in the midst of the European Peninsular War, the Supreme Central Junta based in Cádiz recognized Puerto Rico as an overseas province of Spain. This gave the island residents the right to elect representatives to the recently convened Spanish parliament (Cádiz Cortes), with equal representation to mainland Iberian, Mediterranean (Balearic Islands) and Atlantic maritime Spanish provinces (Canary Islands).
Ramón Power y Giralt, the first Spanish parliamentary representative from the island of Puerto Rico, died after serving a three - year term in the Cortes. These parliamentary and constitutional reforms were in force from 1810 to 1814, and again from 1820 to 1823. They were twice reversed during the restoration of the traditional monarchy by Ferdinand VII. Immigration and commercial trade reforms in the 19th century increased the island 's ethnic European population and economy and expanded the Spanish cultural and social imprint on the local character of the island.
Minor slave revolts had occurred on the island throughout the years, with the revolt planned and organized by Marcos Xiorro in 1821 being the most important. Even though the conspiracy was unsuccessful, Xiorro achieved legendary status and is part of Puerto Rico 's folklore.
In the early 19th century, Puerto Rico spawned an independence movement that, due to harsh persecution by the Spanish authorities, convened in the island of St. Thomas. The movement was largely inspired by the ideals of Simón Bolívar in establishing a United Provinces of New Granada and Venezuela, that included Puerto Rico and Cuba. Among the influential members of this movement were Brigadier General Antonio Valero de Bernabé and María de las Mercedes Barbudo. The movement was discovered, and Governor Miguel de la Torre had its members imprisoned or exiled.
With the increasingly rapid growth of independent former Spanish colonies in the South and Central American states in the first part of the 19th century, the Spanish Crown considered Puerto Rico and Cuba of strategic importance. To increase its hold on its last two New World colonies, the Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 as a result of which 450,000 immigrants, mainly Spaniards, settled on the island in the period up until the American conquest. Printed in three languages -- Spanish, English, and French -- it was intended to also attract non-Spanish Europeans, with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity if new settlers had stronger ties to the Crown. Hundreds of non Spanish families, mainly from Corsica, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy and Scotland, also immigrated to the island.
Free land was offered as an incentive to those who wanted to populate the two islands, on the condition that they swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. The offer was very successful, and European immigration continued even after 1898. Puerto Rico still receives Spanish and European immigration.
Poverty and political estrangement with Spain led to a small but significant uprising in 1868 known as Grito de Lares. It began in the rural town of Lares, but was subdued when rebels moved to the neighboring town of San Sebastián.
Leaders of this independence movement included Ramón Emeterio Betances, considered the "father '' of the Puerto Rican independence movement, and other political figures such as Segundo Ruiz Belvis. Slavery was abolished in Puerto Rico in 1873, "with provisions for periods of apprenticeship ''.
Leaders of "El Grito de Lares '' went into exile in New York City. Many joined the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee, founded on December 8, 1895, and continued their quest for Puerto Rican independence. In 1897, Antonio Mattei Lluberas and the local leaders of the independence movement in Yauco organized another uprising, which became known as the Intentona de Yauco. They raised what they called the Puerto Rican flag, which was adopted as the national flag. The local conservative political factions opposed independence. Rumors of the planned event spread to the local Spanish authorities who acted swiftly and put an end to what would be the last major uprising in the island to Spanish colonial rule.
In 1897, Luis Muñoz Rivera and others persuaded the liberal Spanish government to agree to grant limited self - government to the island by royal decree in the Autonomic Charter, including a bicameral legislature. In 1898, Puerto Rico 's first, but short - lived, quasi-autonomous government was organized as an "overseas province '' of Spain. This bilaterally agreed - upon charter maintained a governor appointed by the King of Spain -- who held the power to annul any legislative decision -- and a partially elected parliamentary structure. In February, Governor - General Manuel Macías inaugurated the new government under the Autonomic Charter. General elections were held in March and the new government began to function on July 17, 1898.
In 1890, Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker, published a book titled The Influence of Sea Power upon History in which he argued for the establishment of a large and powerful navy modeled after the British Royal Navy. Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean, which would serve as coaling and naval stations. They would serve as strategic points of defense with the construction of a canal through the Isthmus of Panama, to allow easier passage of ships between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
William H. Seward, the former Secretary of State under presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson, had also stressed the importance of building a canal in Honduras, Nicaragua or Panama. He suggested that the United States annex the Dominican Republic and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba. The U.S. Senate did not approve his annexation proposal, and Spain rejected the U.S. offer of 160 million dollars for Puerto Rico and Cuba.
Since 1894, the United States Naval War College had been developing contingency plans for a war with Spain. By 1896, the U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan that included military operations in Puerto Rican waters. Except for one 1895 plan, which recommended annexation of the island then named Isle of Pines (later renamed as Isla de la Juventud), a recommendation dropped in later planning, plans developed for attacks on Spanish territories were intended as support operations against Spain 's forces in and around Cuba. Recent research suggests that the U.S. did consider Puerto Rico valuable as a naval station, and recognized that it and Cuba generated lucrative crops of sugar -- a valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked, before the development of the Sugar Beet industry in the United States.
On July 25, 1898, during the Spanish -- American War, the U.S. invaded Puerto Rico with a landing at Guánica. As an outcome of the war, Spain ceded Puerto Rico, along with the Philippines and Guam, then under Spanish sovereignty, to the U.S. under the Treaty of Paris. Spain relinquished sovereignty over Cuba, but did not cede it to the U.S.
The United States and Puerto Rico began a long - standing metropolis - colony relationship. In the early 20th century, Puerto Rico was ruled by the military, with officials including the governor appointed by the President of the United States. The Foraker Act of 1900 gave Puerto Rico a certain amount of civilian popular government, including a popularly elected House of Representatives. The upper house and governor were appointed by the United States.
Its judicial system was constructed to follow the American legal system; a Puerto Rico Supreme Court and a United State District Court for the territory were established. It was authorized a non-voting member of Congress, by the title of "Resident Commissioner '', who was appointed. In addition, this Act extended all U.S. laws "not locally inapplicable '' to Puerto Rico, specifying, in particular, exemption from U.S. Internal Revenue laws.
The Act empowered the civil government to legislate on "all matters of legislative character not locally inapplicable '', including the power to modify and repeal any laws then in existence in Puerto Rico, though the U.S. Congress retained the power to annul acts of the Puerto Rico legislature. During an address to the Puerto Rican legislature in 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt recommended that Puerto Ricans become U.S. citizens.
In 1914, the Puerto Rican House of Delegates voted unanimously in favor of independence from the United States, but this was rejected by the U.S. Congress as "unconstitutional '', and in violation of the 1900 Foraker Act.
In 1917, the U.S. Congress passed the Jones -- Shafroth Act, popularly called the Jones Act, which granted Puerto Ricans, born on or after, April 25, 1898, U.S. citizenship. Opponents, which included all of the Puerto Rican House of Delegates, who voted unanimously against it, said that the U.S. imposed citizenship in order to draft Puerto Rican men into the army as American entry into World War I became likely.
The same Act provided for a popularly elected Senate to complete a bicameral Legislative Assembly, as well as a bill of rights. It authorized the popular election of the Resident Commissioner to a four - year term.
Natural disasters, including a major earthquake and tsunami in 1918, and several hurricanes, and the Great Depression impoverished the island during the first few decades under U.S. rule. Some political leaders, such as Pedro Albizu Campos, who led the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, demanded change in relations with the United States. He organized a protest at the University of Puerto Rico in 1935, in which four were killed by police.
In 1936, U.S. Senator Millard Tydings introduced a bill supporting independence for Puerto Rico, but it was opposed by Luis Muñoz Marín of the Liberal Party of Puerto Rico. (Tydings had co-sponsored the Tydings -- McDuffie Act, which provided independence to the Philippines after a 10 - year transition under a limited autonomy.) All the Puerto Rican parties supported the bill, but Muñoz Marín opposed it. Tydings did not gain passage of the bill.
In 1937, Albizu Campos ' party organized a protest in which numerous people were killed by police in Ponce. The Insular Police, resembling the National Guard, opened fire upon unarmed cadets and bystanders alike. The attack on unarmed protesters was reported by the U.S. Congressman Vito Marcantonio and confirmed by the report of the Hays Commission, which investigated the events. The commission was led by Arthur Garfield Hays, counsel to the American Civil Liberties Union.
Nineteen people were killed and over 200 were badly wounded, many in their backs while running away. The Hays Commission declared it a massacre and police mob action, and it has since been known as the Ponce massacre. In the aftermath, on April 2, 1943, Tydings introduced a bill in Congress calling for independence for Puerto Rico. This bill ultimately was defeated.
During the latter years of the Roosevelt -- Truman administrations, the internal governance was changed in a compromise reached with Luis Muñoz Marín and other Puerto Rican leaders. In 1946, President Truman appointed the first Puerto Rican - born governor, Jesús T. Piñero.
Since 2007, the Puerto Rico State Department has developed a protocol to issue certificates of Puerto Rican citizenship to Puerto Ricans. In order to be eligible, applicants must have been born in Puerto Rico; born outside of Puerto Rico to a Puerto Rican -- born parent; or be an American citizen with at least one year of residence in Puerto Rico.
In 1947, the U.S. granted Puerto Ricans the right to democratically elect their own governor. In 1948, Luis Muñoz Marín became the first popularly elected governor of Puerto Rico.
A bill was introduced before the Puerto Rican Senate which would restrain the rights of the independence and nationalist movements in the island. The Senate at the time was controlled by the Popular Democratic Party (PPD), and was presided over by Luis Muñoz Marín. The bill, also known as the Gag Law (Spanish: Ley de la Mordaza), was approved by the legislature on May 21, 1948. It made it illegal to display a Puerto Rican flag, to sing a pro-independence tune, to talk of independence, or to campaign for independence.
The bill, which resembled the Smith Act passed in the United States, was signed and made into law on June 10, 1948, by the U.S. appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Jesús T. Piñero, and became known as "Law 53 '' (Spanish: Ley 53).
In accordance with this law, it would be a crime to print, publish, sell, exhibit, organize or help anyone organize any society, group or assembly of people whose intentions are to paralyze or destroy the insular government. Anyone accused and found guilty of disobeying the law could be sentenced to ten years of prison, be fined $10,000 (U.S.), or both. According to Dr. Leopoldo Figueroa, a member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives, the law was repressive and in violation of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, which guarantees Freedom of Speech. He asserted that the law as such was a violation of the civil rights of the people of Puerto Rico. The law was repealed in 1957.
In 1950, the U.S. Congress granted Puerto Ricans the right to organize a constitutional convention via a referendum that gave them the option of voting their preference, "yes '' or "no '', on a proposed U.S. law that would organize Puerto Rico as a "commonwealth '' that would continue United States sovereignty over Puerto Rico and its people. Puerto Rico 's electorate expressed its support for this measure in 1951 with a second referendum to ratify the constitution. The Constitution of Puerto Rico was formally adopted on July 3, 1952. The Constitutional Convention specified the name by which the body politic would be known.
On February 4, 1952, the convention approved Resolution 22 which chose in English the word Commonwealth, meaning a "politically organized community '' or "state '', which is simultaneously connected by a compact or treaty to another political system. Puerto Rico officially designates itself with the term "Commonwealth of Puerto Rico '' in its constitution, as a translation into English of the term to "Estado Libre Asociado '' (ELA).
In 1967 Puerto Rico 's Legislative Assembly polled the political preferences of the Puerto Rican electorate by passing a plebiscite act that provided for a vote on the status of Puerto Rico. This constituted the first plebiscite by the Legislature for a choice among three status options (commonwealth, statehood, and independence). In subsequent plebiscites organized by Puerto Rico held in 1993 and 1998 (without any formal commitment on the part of the U.S. Government to honor the results), the current political status failed to receive majority support. In 1993, Commonwealth status won by a plurality of votes (48.6 % versus 46.3 % for statehood), while the "none of the above '' option, which was the Popular Democratic Party - sponsored choice, won in 1998 with 50.3 % of the votes (versus 46.5 % for statehood). Disputes arose as to the definition of each of the ballot alternatives, and Commonwealth advocates, among others, reportedly urged a vote for "none of the above ''.
In 1950, the U.S. Congress approved Public Law 600 (P.L. 81 - 600), which allowed for a democratic referendum in Puerto Rico to determine whether Puerto Ricans desired to draft their own local constitution. This Act was meant to be adopted in the "nature of a compact ''. It required congressional approval of the Puerto Rico Constitution before it could go into effect, and repealed certain sections of the Organic Act of 1917. The sections of this statute left in force were entitled the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act. U.S. Secretary of the Interior Oscar L. Chapman, under whose Department resided responsibility of Puerto Rican affairs, clarified the new commonwealth status in this manner:
On October 30, 1950, Pedro Albizu Campos and other nationalists led a three - day revolt against the United States in various cities and towns of Puerto Rico, in what is known as the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts of the 1950s. The most notable occurred in Jayuya and Utuado. In the Jayuya revolt, known as the Jayuya Uprising, the Puerto Rican governor declared martial law, and attacked the insurgents in Jayuya with infantry, artillery and bombers under control of the Puerto Rican commander. The Utuado uprising culminated in what is known as the Utuado massacre.
On November 1, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists from New York City, Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo, attempted to assassinate President Harry S. Truman at his temporary residence of Blair House. Torresola was killed during the attack, but Collazo was wounded and captured. He was convicted of murder and sentenced to death, but President Truman commuted his sentence to life. After Collazo served 29 years in a federal prison, President Jimmy Carter commuted his sentence to times served and he was released in 1979.
Pedro Albizu Campos served many years in a federal prison in Atlanta, for seditious conspiracy to overthrow the U.S. government in Puerto Rico.
The Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by a Constitutional Convention on February 6, 1952, and 82 % of the voters in a March referendum. It was modified and ratified by the U.S. Congress, approved by President Truman on July 3 of that year, and proclaimed by Gov. Muñoz Marín on July 25, 1952. This was the anniversary of July 25, 1898, landing of U.S. troops in the Puerto Rican Campaign of the Spanish -- American War, until then celebrated as an annual Puerto Rico holiday.
Puerto Rico adopted the name of Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico (literally "Associated Free State of Puerto Rico ''), officially translated into English as Commonwealth, for its body politic. "The United States Congress legislates over many fundamental aspects of Puerto Rican life, including citizenship, the currency, the postal service, foreign policy, military defense, communications, labor relations, the environment, commerce, finance, health and welfare, and many others. ''
During the 1950s and 1960s, Puerto Rico experienced rapid industrialization, due in large part to Operación Manos a la Obra ("Operation Bootstrap ''), an offshoot of FDR 's New Deal. It was intended to transform Puerto Rico 's economy from agriculture - based to manufacturing - based to provide more jobs. Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination, as well as a global center for pharmaceutical manufacturing.
Four referendums have been held since the late 20th century to resolve the political status. The 2012 referendum showed a majority (54 % of the voters) in favor of a change in status, with full statehood the preferred option of those who wanted a change. Because there were almost 500,000 blank ballots in the 2012 referendum, creating confusion as to the voters ' true desire, Congress decided to ignore the vote.
The first three plebiscites provided voters with three options: statehood, free association, and independence. The Puerto Rican status referendum, 2017 in June 2017 was going to offer only two options: Statehood and Independence / Free Association. However, a letter from the Donald Trump administration recommended adding the Commonwealth, the current status, in the plebiscite. The option had been removed from this plebiscite in response to the results of the plebiscite in 2012 which asked whether to remain in the current status and No had won. The Trump administration cited changes in demographics during the past 5 years to add the option once again. Amendments to the plebiscite bill were adopted making ballot wording changes requested by the Department of Justice, as well as adding a "current territorial status '' option. While 97 percent voted in favor of statehood, the turnout was low; only some 23 percent voted. After the ballots were counted the Justice Department was non-committal. The Justice Department had asked for the 2017 plebiscite to be postponed but the Rosselló government chose not to do so. After the outcome was announced, the department told the Associated Press that it had "not reviewed or approved the ballot 's language ''.
Former Governor Aníbal Acevedo Vilá (2005 -- 2009) is convinced that statehood is not the solution for either the U.S. or for Puerto Rico "for economic, identity and cultural reasons ''. He pointed out that voter turnout for the 2017 referendum was extremely low, and suggests that a different type of mutually - beneficial relationship should be found.
If the federal government agrees to discuss an association agreement, the conditions would be negotiated between the two entities. The agreement might cover topics such as the role of the U.S. military in Puerto Rico, the use of the U.S. currency, free trade between the two entities, and whether Puerto Ricans would be U.S. citizens.
The three current Free Associated States (Marshall Islands, Micronesia and Palau) use the American dollar, receive some financial support and the promise of military defense if they refuse military access to any other country. Their citizens are allowed to work in the U.S. and serve in its military.
Governor Ricardo Rosselló is strongly in favor of statehood to help develop the economy and help to "solve our 500 - year - old colonial dilemma... Colonialism is not an option... It 's a civil rights issue... 3.5 million citizens seeking an absolute democracy, '' he told the news media. Benefits of statehood include an additional $10 billion per year in federal funds, the right to vote in presidential elections, higher Social Security and Medicare benefits, and a right for its government agencies and municipalities to file for bankruptcy. The latter is currently prohibited.
Statehood might be useful as a means of dealing with the financial crisis, since it would allow for bankruptcy and the relevant protection. According to the Government Development Bank, this might be the only solution to the debt crisis. Congress has the power to vote to allow Chapter 9 protection without the need for statehood, but in late 2015 there was very little support in the House for this concept. Other benefits to statehood include increased disability benefits and Medicaid funding, the right to vote in Presidential elections and the higher (federal) minimum wage.
Subsequent to the 2017 referendum, Puerto Rico 's legislators are also expected to vote on a bill that would allow the Governor to draft a state constitution and hold elections to choose senators and representatives to the federal Congress. In spite of the outcome of the referendum, and the so - called Tennessee Plan (above), action by the United States Congress would be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution.
Since 1953, the UN has been considering the political status of Puerto Rico and how to assist it in achieving "independence '' or "decolonization ''. In 1978, the Special Committee determined that a "colonial relationship '' existed between the U.S. and Puerto Rico.
The UN 's Special Committee on Decolonization has often referred to Puerto Rico as a "nation '' in its reports, because, internationally, the people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity. Most recently, in a June 2016 report, the Special Committee called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self - determination in Puerto Rico. More specifically, the group called on the United States to expedite a process that would allow the people of Puerto Rico to exercise fully their right to self - determination and independence... allow the Puerto Rican people to take decisions in a sovereign manner, and to address their urgent economic and social needs, including unemployment, marginalization, insolvency and poverty ".
On November 27, 1953, shortly after the establishment of the Commonwealth, the General Assembly of the United Nations approved Resolution 748, removing Puerto Rico 's classification as a non-self - governing territory. The General Assembly did not apply the full list of criteria which was enunciated in 1960 when it took favorable note of the cessation of transmission of information regarding the non-self - governing status of Puerto Rico.
According to the White House Task Force on Puerto Rico 's Political Status in its December 21, 2007 report, the U.S., in its written submission to the UN in 1953, never represented that Congress could not change its relationship with Puerto Rico without the territory 's consent. It stated that the U.S. Justice Department in 1959 reiterated that Congress held power over Puerto Rico pursuant to the Territorial Clause of the U.S. Constitution.
In 1993 the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit stated that Congress may unilaterally repeal the Puerto Rican Constitution or the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act and replace them with any rules or regulations of its choice. In a 1996 report on a Puerto Rico status political bill, the U.S. House Committee on Resources stated, "Puerto Rico 's current status does not meet the criteria for any of the options for full self - government under Resolution 1541 '' (the three established forms of full self - government being stated in the report as (1) national independence, (2) free association based on separate sovereignty, or (3) full integration with another nation on the basis of equality). The report concluded that Puerto Rico "... remains an unincorporated colony and does not have the status of ' free association ' with the United States as that status is defined under United States law or international practice '', that the establishment of local self - government with the consent of the people can be unilaterally revoked by the U.S. Congress, and that U.S. Congress can also withdraw the U.S. citizenship of Puerto Rican residents of Puerto Rico at any time, for a legitimate Federal purpose. The application of the U.S. Constitution to Puerto Rico is limited by the Insular Cases.
In 2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, and 2011 the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization passed resolutions calling on the United States to expedite a process "that would allow Puerto Ricans to fully exercise their inalienable right to self - determination and independence '', and to release all Puerto Rican political prisoners in U.S. prisons, to clean up, decontaminate and return the lands in the islands of Vieques and Culebra to the people of Puerto Rico, to perform a probe into U.S. human rights violations on the island and a probe into the killing by the FBI of pro-independence leader Filiberto Ojeda Rios.
On July 15, 2009, the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization approved a draft resolution calling on the Government of the United States to expedite a process that would allow the Puerto Rican people to exercise fully their inalienable right to self - determination and independence.
On April 29, 2010, the U.S. House voted 223 -- 169 to approve a measure for a federally sanctioned process for Puerto Rico 's self - determination, allowing Puerto Rico to set a new referendum on whether to continue its present form of commonwealth, or to have a different political status. If Puerto Ricans voted to continue as a commonwealth, the Government of Puerto Rico was authorized to conduct additional plebiscites at intervals of every eight years from the date on which the results of the prior plebiscite were certified; if Puerto Ricans voted to have a different political status, a second referendum would determine whether Puerto Rico would become a U.S. state, an independent country, or a sovereign nation associated with the U.S. that would not be subject to the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution. During the House debate, a fourth option, to retain its present form of commonwealth (sometimes referred to as "the status quo '') political status, was added as an option in the second plebiscite.
Immediately following U.S. House passage, H.R. 2499 was sent to the U.S. Senate, where it was given two formal readings and referred to the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources. On December 22, 2010, the 111th United States Congress adjourned without any Senate vote on H.R. 2499, killing the bill.
The latest Task Force report was released on March 11, 2011. The report suggested a two - plebiscite process, including a "first plebiscite that requires the people of Puerto Rico to choose whether they wish to be part of the United States (either via Statehood or Commonwealth) or wish to be independent (via Independence or Free Association). If continuing to be part of the United States were chosen in the first plebiscite, a second vote would be taken between Statehood and Commonwealth. ''
On June 14, 2011, President Barack Obama "promised to support ' a clear decision ' by the people of Puerto Rico on statehood ''. That same month, the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization passed a resolution and adopted a consensus text introduced by Cuba 's delegate on June 20, 2011, calling on the United States to expedite a process "that would allow Puerto Ricans to fully exercise their inalienable right to self - determination and independence ''.
On November 6, 2012, a two - question referendum took place, simultaneous with the general elections. The first question asked voters whether they wanted to maintain the current status under the territorial clause of the U.S. Constitution. The second question posed three alternate status options if the first question was approved: statehood, independence or free association. For the first question, 54 percent voted against the current Commonwealth status. For the second question, 61.16 % voted for statehood, 33.34 % for a sovereign free associated state, and 5.49 % for independence.
There were also 515,348 blank and invalidated ballots, which are not reflected in the final tally, as they are not considered cast votes under Puerto Rico law. On December 11, 2012, Puerto Rico 's Legislature passed a concurrent resolution to request to the President and the U.S. Congress action on November 6, 2012 plebiscite results. But on April 10, 2013, with the issue still being widely debated, the White House announced that it will seek $2.5 million to hold another referendum, this next one being the first Puerto Rican status referendum to be financed by the U.S. Federal government.
In December 2015, the U.S. Government submitted a brief as Amicus Curiae to the U.S. Supreme Court related to the case Commonwealth of Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle. The U.S. Government official position is that the U.S. Constitution does not contemplate "sovereign territories ''. That the Court has consistently recognized that "there is no sovereignty in a Territory of the United States but that of the United States itself ''. and a U.S. territory has "no independent sovereignty comparable to that of a state. That is because "the Government of a territory owes its existence wholly to the United States ''. Congress 's plenary authority over federal territories includes the authority to permit self - government, whereby local officials administer a territory 's internal affairs.
On June 9, 2016, in Commonwealth of Puerto Rico vs Sanchez Valle, an 6 -- 2 majority of the Supreme Court of the United States determined that Puerto Rico is a territory and lacks Sovereignty.
On June 30, 2016, the President of the United States of America signed a new law approved by U.S. Congress, H.R. 5278: PROMESA, establishing a Control Board over the Puerto Rico Government. This board will have a significant degree of federal control involved in its establishment and operations. In particular, the authority to establish the control board derives from the federal government 's constitutional power to "make all needful rules and regulations '' regarding U.S. territories; The President would appoint all seven voting members of the board; and the board would have broad sovereign powers to effectively overrule decisions by Puerto Rico 's legislature, governor, and other public authorities.
The latest referendum on statehood, independence, or an associated republic was held on November 6, 2012. The people of Puerto Rico made history by requesting, for the first time ever, the conclusion of the island 's current territorial status. Almost 78 % of registered voters participated in a plebiscite held to resolve Puerto Rico 's status, and a slim but clear majority (54 %) disagreed with Puerto Rico maintaining its present territorial status. Furthermore, among the possible alternatives, sixty - one percent (61 %) of voters chose the statehood option, while one third of the ballots were submitted blank.
On December 11, 2012, the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico enacted a concurrent resolution requesting the President and the Congress of the United States to respond to the referendum of the people of Puerto Rico, held on November 6, 2012, to end its current form of territorial status and to begin the process to admit Puerto Rico as a State. The initiative has not made Puerto Rico into a state.
In May, 2017, the Natural Resources Defense Council reported that Puerto Rico 's water system was the worst as measured by the Clean Water Act. 70 % of the population drank water that violated U.S. law.
Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including Vieques, Culebra, Mona, Desecheo, and Caja de Muertos. Of these five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year - round. Mona, which has played a key role in maritime history, is uninhabited most of the year except for employees of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources. There are many other even smaller islets, like Monito, which is near to Mona, Isla de Cabras and La Isleta de San Juan, both located on the San Juan Bay. The latter is the only inhabited islet with communities like Old San Juan and Puerta de Tierra, and connected to the main island by bridges.
The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has an area of 13,790 square kilometers (5,320 sq mi), of which 8,870 km (3,420 sq mi) is land and 4,921 km (1,900 sq mi) is water. Puerto Rico is larger than two U.S. states, Delaware and Rhode Island. The maximum length of the main island from east to west is 180 km (110 mi), and the maximum width from north to south is 65 km (40 mi). Puerto Rico is the smallest of the Greater Antilles. It is 80 % of the size of Jamaica, just over 18 % of the size of Hispaniola and 8 % of the size of Cuba, the largest of the Greater Antilles.
The island is mostly mountainous with large coastal areas in the north and south. The main mountain range is called "La Cordillera Central '' (The Central Range). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico, Cerro de Punta 1,338 meters (4,390 ft), is located in this range.
Another important peak is El Yunque, one of the highest in the Sierra de Luquillo at the El Yunque National Forest, with an elevation of 1,065 m (3,494 ft).
Puerto Rico has 17 lakes, all man - made, and more than 50 rivers, most originating in the Cordillera Central. Rivers in the northern region of the island are typically longer and of higher water flow rates than those of the south, since the south receives less rain than the central and northern regions.
Puerto Rico is composed of Cretaceous to Eocene volcanic and plutonic rocks, overlain by younger Oligocene and more recent carbonates and other sedimentary rocks. Most of the caverns and karst topography on the island occurs in the northern region in the carbonates. The oldest rocks are approximately 190 million years old (Jurassic) and are located at Sierra Bermeja in the southwest part of the island. They may represent part of the oceanic crust and are believed to come from the Pacific Ocean realm.
Puerto Rico lies at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates and is being deformed by the tectonic stresses caused by their interaction. These stresses may cause earthquakes and tsunamis. These seismic events, along with landslides, represent some of the most dangerous geologic hazards in the island and in the northeastern Caribbean.
The most recent major earthquake occurred on October 11, 1918, and had an estimated magnitude of 7.5 on the Richter scale. It originated off the coast of Aguadilla, several kilometers off the northern coast, and was accompanied by a tsunami. It caused extensive property damage and widespread losses, damaging infrastructure, especially bridges. It resulted in an estimated 116 deaths and $4 million in property damage. The failure of the government to move rapidly to provide for the general welfare contributed to political activism by opponents and eventually to the rise of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party.
The Puerto Rico Trench, the largest and deepest trench in the Atlantic, is located about 115 km (71 mi) north of Puerto Rico at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates. It is 280 km (170 mi) long. At its deepest point, named the Milwaukee Deep, it is almost 8,400 m (27,600 ft) deep.
The climate of Puerto Rico in the Köppen climate classification is tropical rainforest. Temperatures are warm to hot year round, averaging near 85 ° F (29 ° C) in lower elevations and 70 ° F (21 ° C) in the mountains. Easterly trade winds pass across the island year round. Puerto Rico has a rainy season which stretches from April into November. The mountains of the Cordillera Central are the main cause of the variations in the temperature and rainfall that occur over very short distances. The mountains can also cause wide variation in local wind speed and direction due to their sheltering and channeling effects adding to the climatic variation.
The island has an average temperature of 82.4 ° F (28 ° C) throughout the year, with an average minimum temperature of 66.9 ° F (19 ° C) and maximum of 85.4 ° F (30 ° C). Daily temperature changes seasonally are quite small in the lowlands and coastal areas. The temperature in the south is usually a few degrees higher than the north and temperatures in the central interior mountains are always cooler than those on the rest of the island.
Between the dry and wet season, there is a temperature change of around 6 ° F (3.3 ° C). This is mainly due to the warm waters of the tropical Atlantic Ocean, which significantly modify cooler air moving in from the north and northwest. Coastal waters temperatures around the years are about 75 ° F (24 ° C) in February to 85 ° F (29 ° C) in August. The highest temperature ever recorded was 99 ° F (37 ° C) at Arecibo, while the lowest temperature ever recorded was 40 ° F (4 ° C) in the mountains at Adjuntas, Aibonito, and Corozal. The average yearly precipitation is 1,687 mm (66 in).
Puerto Rico experiences the Atlantic hurricane season, similar to the remainder of the Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic oceans. On average, a quarter of its annual rainfall is contributed from tropical cyclones, which are more prevalent during periods of La Niña than El Niño. A cyclone of tropical storm strength passes near Puerto Rico, on average, every five years. A hurricane passes in the vicinity of the island, on average, every seven years. Since 1851, the Lake Okeechobee Hurricane of September 1928 is the only hurricane to make landfall as a Category 5 hurricane.
In the busy 2017 Atlantic hurricane season, Puerto Rico avoided a direct hit by the Category 5 Hurricane Irma on September 8, 2017, but high winds caused a loss of electrical power to some one million residents. Almost 50 % of hospitals were operating with power provided by generators. The Category 4 Hurricane Jose, as expected, veered away from Puerto Rico. A short time later, the devastating Hurricane Maria made landfall in Puerto Rico as a Category 4 hurricane, with sustained 155 mph (249 km / h) winds, powerful rains and widespread flooding causing tremendous destruction, including the electrical grid, which could remain out for 4 -- 6 months. With such widespread destruction and a great need for supplies - everything from drinking water, food, medicine and personal care items to fuel for generators and construction materials for rebuilding the island - Gov. Rossello and several Congressmen called on the federal government to waive the WWI - era Jones Act (protectionist provisions: ships made and owned in U.S., and with U.S. crews), which essentially double Puerto Rico 's cost for shipped goods relative to neighboring islands. On September 28, U.S. President Donald Trump waived the Act for ten days.
Species endemic to the archipelago number 239 plants, 16 birds and 39 amphibians / reptiles, recognized as of 1998. Most of these (234, 12 and 33 respectively) are found on the main island. The most recognizable endemic species and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the coquí, a small frog easily identified by the sound of its call, from which it gets its name. Most coquí species (13 of 17) live in the El Yunque National Forest, a tropical rainforest in the northeast of the island previously known as the Caribbean National Forest. El Yunque is home to more than 240 plants, 26 of which are endemic to the island. It is also home to 50 bird species, including the critically endangered Puerto Rican amazon.
Across the island in the southwest, the 40 km (15 sq mi) of dry land at the Guánica Commonwealth Forest Reserve contain over 600 uncommon species of plants and animals, including 48 endangered species and 16 endemic to Puerto Rico.
The population of Puerto Rico has been shaped by Amerindian settlement, European colonization, slavery, economic migration, and Puerto Rico 's status as unincorporated territory of the United States.
The estimated population of Puerto Rico as of July 1, 2015, was 3,474,182, a 6.75 % decrease since the 2010 United States Census. From 2000 to 2010, the population decreased, the first such decrease in census history for Puerto Rico. It went from the 3,808,610 residents registered in the 2000 Census to 3,725,789 in the 2010 Census.
A declining and aging population presents additional problems for the society. The U.S. Census Bureau 's estimate for July 1, 2016 was 3,411,307 people, down substantially from the 2010 data which had indicated 3,725,789 people.
Continuous European immigration and high natural increase helped the population of Puerto Rico grow from 155,426 in 1800, to almost a million by the close of the 19th century.
A census conducted by royal decree on September 30, 1858 gave the following totals of the Puerto Rican population at that time: 341,015 were Free colored; 300,430 identified as Whites; and 41,736 were slaves.
During the 19th century hundreds of families arrived in Puerto Rico, primarily from the Canary Islands and Andalusia, but also from other parts of Spain such as Catalonia, Asturias, Galicia and the Balearic Islands and numerous Spanish loyalists from Spain 's former colonies in South America. Settlers from outside Spain also arrived in the islands, including from Corsica, France, Lebanon, China, Portugal, Ireland, Scotland, Germany and Italy. This immigration from non-Hispanic countries was the result of the Real Cedula de Gracias de 1815 ("Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 ''), which allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with land allotments in the interior of the island, provided they paid taxes and continued to support the Catholic Church.
Between 1960 and 1990 the census questionnaire in Puerto Rico did not ask about race or ethnicity. The 2000 United States Census included a racial self - identification question in Puerto Rico. According to the census, most Puerto Ricans identified as White and Hispanic; few identified as Black or some other race.
A recent population genetics study conducted in Puerto Rico suggests that between 52.6 % and 84 % of the population possess some degree of Amerindian mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in their maternal ancestry, usually in a combination with other ancestries such as aboriginal Guanche North - West African ancestry brought by Spanish settlers from the Canary Islands.
In addition, these DNA studies show Amerindian ancestry in addition to the Taíno.
One genetic study on the racial makeup of Puerto Ricans (including all races) found them to be roughly around 61 % West Eurasian / North African (overwhelmingly of Spanish provenance), 27 % Sub-Saharan African and 11 % Native American. Another genetic study from 2007, claimed that "the average genomewide individual (ie. Puerto Rican) ancestry proportions have been estimated as 66 %, 18 %, and 16 %, for European, West African, and Native American, respectively. '' Other study estimates 63.7 % European, 21.2 % (Sub-Saharan) African, and 15.2 % Native American; European ancestry is more prevalent in the West and in Central Puerto Rico, African in Eastern Puerto Rico, and Native American in Northern Puerto Rico.
A Pew Research survey indicated a literacy rate of 90.4 % (adult population) in 2012 based on data from the United Nations and a life expectancy of 79.3 years.
Puerto Rico has recently become the permanent home of over 100,000 legal residents. The vast majority of recent immigrants, both legal and illegal, come from the Dominican Republic and Haiti. Other sources sending in significant numbers of recent immigrants include Cuba, Mexico, Colombia, Panama, Jamaica, Venezuela, Spain, and Nigeria. Also, there are many non-Puerto Rican U.S. citizens settling in Puerto Rico, from the mainland United States and the U.S. Virgin Islands, as well as Nuyoricans (stateside Puerto Ricans) coming back to Puerto Rico. Most recent immigrants settle in and around San Juan.
Emigration is a major part of contemporary Puerto Rican history. Starting soon after World War II, poverty, cheap airfares, and promotion by the island government caused waves of Puerto Ricans to move to the United States, particularly to the Northeastern states, and Florida. This trend continued even as Puerto Rico 's economy improved and its birth rate declined. Puerto Ricans continue to follow a pattern of "circular migration '', with some migrants returning to the island. In recent years, the population has declined markedly, falling nearly 1 % in 2012 and an additional 1 % (36,000 people) in 2013 due to a falling birthrate and emigration.
According to the 2010 Census, the number of Puerto Ricans living in the United States outside of Puerto Rico far exceeds those living in Puerto Rico. Emigration exceeds immigration. As those who leave tend to be better educated than those that remain, this accentuates the drain on Puerto Rico 's economy.
Based on the July 1, 2016 estimate by the U.S. Census Bureau, the population of the Commonwealth had declined by 314,482 people since the 2010 Census data had been tabulated.
The most populous city is the capital, San Juan, with approximately 371,400 people based on a 2015 estimate by the Census Bureau. Other major cities include Bayamón, Carolina, Ponce, and Caguas. Of the ten most populous cities on the island, eight are located within what is considered San Juan 's metropolitan area, while the other two are located in the south (Ponce) and west (Mayagüez) of the island.
The official languages of the executive branch of government of Puerto Rico are Spanish and English, with Spanish being the primary language. Spanish is, and has been, the only official language of the entire Commonwealth judiciary system, despite a 1902 English - only language law. All official business of the U.S. District Court for the District of Puerto Rico is conducted in English. English is the primary language of less than 10 % of the population. Spanish is the dominant language of business, education and daily life on the island, spoken by nearly 95 % of the population.
The U.S. Census Bureau 's 2015 update provides the following facts: 94.1 % of adults speak Spanish, 5.8 % speak only English, 78.3 % do not speak English "very well ''.
In Puerto Rico, public school instruction is conducted almost entirely in Spanish. There have been pilot programs in about a dozen of the over 1,400 public schools aimed at conducting instruction in English only. Objections from teaching staff are common, perhaps because many of them are not fully fluent in English. English is taught as a second language and is a compulsory subject from elementary levels to high school. The languages of the deaf community are American Sign Language and its local variant, Puerto Rican Sign Language.
The Spanish of Puerto Rico has evolved into having many idiosyncrasies in vocabulary and syntax that differentiate it from the Spanish spoken elsewhere. As a product of Puerto Rican history, the island possesses a unique Spanish dialect. Puerto Rican Spanish utilizes many Taíno words, as well as English words. The largest influence on the Spanish spoken in Puerto Rico is that of the Canary Islands. The Spanish of Puerto Rico also includes Taíno words, typically in the context of vegetation, natural phenomena or primitive musical instruments. Similarly, words attributed to primarily West African languages were adopted in the contexts of foods, music or dances, particularly in coastal towns with concentrations of descendants of Sub-Saharan Africans.
Religious Affiliation (2014)
The Roman Catholic Church was brought by Spanish colonists and gradually became the dominant religion in Puerto Rico. The first dioceses in the Americas, including that of Puerto Rico, were authorized by Pope Julius II in 1511. One Pope, John Paul II, visited Puerto Rico in October 1984. All municipalities in Puerto Rico have at least one Catholic Church, most of which are located at the town center or "plaza ''. African slaves brought and maintained various ethnic African religious practices associated with different peoples; in particular, the Yoruba beliefs of Santería and / or Ifá, and the Kongo - derived Palo Mayombe. Some aspects were absorbed into syncretic Christianity.
Protestantism, which was suppressed under the Spanish Catholic regime, has slightly reemerged under United States rule, making contemporary Puerto Rico more interconfessional than in previous centuries, although Catholicism continues to be the dominant religion. The first Protestant church, Iglesia de la Santísima Trinidad, was established in Ponce by the Anglican Diocese of Antigua in 1872. It was the first non-Roman Catholic Church in the entire Spanish Empire in the Americas.
Pollster Pablo Ramos stated in 1998 that the population was 38 % Roman Catholic, 28 % Pentecostal, and 18 % were members of independent churches, which would give a Protestant percentage of 46 % if the last two populations are combined. Protestants collectively added up to almost two million people. Another researcher gave a more conservative assessment of the proportion of Protestants:
Puerto Rico, by virtue of its long political association with the United States, is the most Protestant of Latin American countries, with a Protestant population of approximately 33 to 38 percent, the majority of whom are Pentecostal. David Stoll calculates that if we extrapolate the growth rates of evangelical churches from 1960 -- 1985 for another twenty - five years Puerto Rico will become 75 percent evangelical. (Ana Adams: "Brincando el Charco... '' in Power, Politics and Pentecostals in Latin America, Edward Cleary, ed., 1997. p. 164).
The data provided for 2014 by Pew Research Center, is summarized in the chart to the right. An Associated Press article in March 2014 stated that "more than 70 percent of whom identify themselves as Catholic '' but provided no source for this information.
The CIA World Factbook reports that 85 % of the population of Puerto Rico identifies as Roman Catholic, while 15 % identify as Protestant and Other. Neither a date or a source for that information is provided and may not be recent. A 2013 Pew Research survey found that only about 45 % of Puerto Rican adults identified themselves as Catholic, 29 % as Protestant and 20 % as unaffiliated with a religion. The people surveyed by Pew consisted of Puerto Ricans living in the 50 states and DC and may not be indicative of those living in the Commonwealth.
By 2014, a Pew Research report, with the sub-title Widespread Change in a Historically Catholic Region, indicated that only 56 % of Puerto Ricans were Catholic and that 33 % were Protestant; this survey was completed between October 2013 and February 2014.
An Eastern Orthodox community, the Dormition of the Most Holy Theotokos / St. Spyridon 's Church is located in Trujillo Alto, and serves the small Orthodox community. This affiliation accounted for under 1 % of the population in 2010 according to the Pew Research report. In 1940, Juanita García Peraza founded the Mita Congregation, the first religion of Puerto Rican origin. Taíno religious practices have been rediscovered / reinvented to a degree by a handful of advocates. Similarly, some aspects of African religious traditions have been kept by some adherents. In 1952, a handful of American Jews established the island 's first synagogue; this religion accounts for under 1 % of the population in 2010 according to the Pew Research report. The synagogue, called Sha'are Zedeck, hired its first rabbi in 1954. Puerto Rico has the largest Jewish community in the Caribbean, numbering 3000 people (date not stated), and is the only Caribbean island in which the Conservative, Reform and Orthodox Jewish movements all are represented. In 2007, there were about 5,000 Muslims in Puerto Rico, representing about 0.13 % of the population. Eight mosques are located throughout the island, with most Muslims living in Río Piedras and Caguas, most of these Muslims are of Palestinian and Jordanian descent. In 2015, the 25,832 Jehovah 's Witnesses represented about 0.70 % of the population, with 324 congregations. The Padmasambhava Buddhist Center, whose followers practice Tibetan Buddhism, has a branch in Puerto Rico.
Roman Catholic Cathedral of San Juan Bautista.
Anglican Iglesia Santísima Trinidad in Ponce
Islamic Center at Ponce
Inside Sha'are Zedeck in San Juan
Puerto Rico has 8 senatorial districts, 40 representative districts and 78 municipalities. It has a republican form of government with separation of powers subject to the jurisdiction and sovereignty of the United States. Its current powers are all delegated by the United States Congress and lack full protection under the United States Constitution. Puerto Rico 's head of state is the President of the United States.
The government of Puerto Rico, based on the formal republican system, is composed of three branches: the executive, legislative, and judicial branch. The executive branch is headed by the governor, currently Ricky Rosselló. The legislative branch consists of a bicameral legislature called the Legislative Assembly, made up of a Senate as its upper chamber and a House of Representatives as its lower chamber. The Senate is headed by the President of the Senate, currently Thomas Rivera Schatz, while the House of Representatives is headed by the Speaker of the House, currently Johnny Méndez. The governor and legislators are elected by popular vote every four years with the last election held in November 2016.
The judicial branch is headed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico, currently Maite Oronoz Rodríguez. Members of the judicial branch are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the Senate.
Puerto Rico is represented in the United States Congress by a nonvoting delegate, the Resident Commissioner, currently Jenniffer González. Current congressional rules have removed the Commissioner 's power to vote in the Committee of the Whole, but the Commissioner can vote in committee.
Puerto Rican elections are governed by the Federal Election Commission and the State Elections Commission of Puerto Rico. While residing in Puerto Rico, Puerto Ricans can not vote in U.S. presidential elections, but they can vote in primaries. Puerto Ricans who become residents of a U.S. state can vote in presidential elections.
Puerto Rico hosts consulates from 41 countries, mainly from the Americas and Europe, with most located in San Juan. As an unincorporated territory of the United States, Puerto Rico does not have any first - order administrative divisions as defined by the U.S. government, but has 78 municipalities at the second level. Mona Island is not a municipality, but part of the municipality of Mayagüez.
Municipalities are subdivided into wards or barrios, and those into sectors. Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected for a four - year term. The municipality of San Juan (previously called "town ''), was founded first, in 1521, San Germán in 1570, Coamo in 1579, Arecibo in 1614, Aguada in 1692 and Ponce in 1692. An increase of settlement saw the founding of 30 municipalities in the 18th century and 34 in the 19th. Six were founded in the 20th century; the last was Florida in 1971.
Since 1952, Puerto Rico has had three main political parties: the Popular Democratic Party (PPD in Spanish), the New Progressive Party (PNP in Spanish) and the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP). The three parties stand for different political status. The PPD, for example, seeks to maintain the island 's status with the U.S. as a commonwealth, while the PNP, on the other hand, seeks to make Puerto Rico a state of the United States. The PIP, in contrast, seeks a complete separation from the United States by seeking to make Puerto Rico a sovereign nation. In terms of party strength, the PPD and PNP usually hold about 47 % of the vote each while the PIP holds only about 5 %.
After 2007, other parties emerged on the island. The first, the Puerto Ricans for Puerto Rico Party (PPR in Spanish) was registered that same year. The party claims that it seeks to address the islands ' problems from a status - neutral platform. But it ceased to remain as a registered party when it failed to obtain the required number of votes in the 2008 general election. Four years later, the 2012 election saw the emergence of the Movimiento Unión Soberanista (MUS; English: Sovereign Union Movement) and the Partido del Pueblo Trabajador (PPT; English: Working People 's Party) but none obtained more than 1 % of the vote.
Other non-registered parties include the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, the Socialist Workers Movement, and the Hostosian National Independence Movement.
The insular legal system is a blend of civil law and the common law systems.
Puerto Rico is the only current U.S. possession whose legal system operates primarily in a language other than American English: namely, Spanish. Because the U.S. federal government operates primarily in English, all Puerto Rican attorneys must be bilingual in order to litigate in English in U.S. federal courts, and litigate federal preemption issues in Puerto Rican courts.
Title 48 of the United States Code outlines the role of the United States Code to United States territories and insular areas such as Puerto Rico. After the U.S. government assumed control of Puerto Rico in 1901, it initiated legal reforms resulting in the adoption of codes of criminal law, criminal procedure, and civil procedure modeled after those then in effect in California. Although Puerto Rico has since followed the federal example of transferring criminal and civil procedure from statutory law to rules promulgated by the judiciary, several portions of its criminal law still reflect the influence of the California Penal Code.
The judicial branch is headed by the Chief Justice of the Puerto Rico Supreme Court, which is the only appellate court required by the Constitution. All other courts are created by the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico. There is also a Federal District Court for Puerto Rico. Someone accused of a criminal act at the federal level may not be accused for the same act in a Commonwealth court, unlike a state court, since Puerto Rico as a territory lacks sovereignty separate from Congress as a state does. Such a parallel accusation would constitute double jeopardy.
The nature of Puerto Rico 's political relationship with the U.S. is the subject of ongoing debate in Puerto Rico, the United States Congress, and the United Nations. Specifically, the basic question is whether Puerto Rico should remain a U.S. territory, become a U.S. state, or become an independent country.
Constitutionally, Puerto Rico is subject to the plenary powers of the United States Congress under the territorial clause of Article IV of the U.S. Constitution. Laws enacted at the federal level in the United States apply to Puerto Rico as well, regardless of its political status. Their residents do not have voting representation in the U.S. Congress. Like the different states of the United States, Puerto Rico lacks "the full sovereignty of an independent nation '', for example, the power to manage its "external relations with other nations '', which is held by the U.S. federal government. The Supreme Court of the United States has indicated that once the U.S. Constitution has been extended to an area (by Congress or the courts), its coverage is irrevocable. To hold that the political branches may switch the Constitution on or off at will would lead to a regime in which they, not this Court, say "what the law is ''.
Puerto Ricans "were collectively made U.S. citizens '' in 1917 as a result of the Jones - Shafroth Act. U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico can not vote for the U.S. president, though both major parties, Republican and Democratic, run primary elections in Puerto Rico to send delegates to vote on a presidential candidate. Since Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory (see above) and not a U.S. state, the United States Constitution does not fully enfranchise U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico.
Only fundamental rights under the American federal constitution and adjudications are applied to Puerto Ricans. Various other U.S Supreme Court decisions have held which rights apply in Puerto Rico and which ones do not. Puerto Ricans have a long history of service in the U.S. Armed Forces and, since 1917, they have been included in the U.S. compulsory draft whensoever it has been in effect.
Though the Commonwealth government has its own tax laws, Puerto Ricans are also required to pay many kinds of U.S. federal taxes, not including the federal personal income tax for Puerto Rico - sourced income, but only under certain circumstances. In 2009, Puerto Rico paid $3.742 billion into the U.S. Treasury. Residents of Puerto Rico pay into Social Security, and are thus eligible for Social Security benefits upon retirement. They are excluded from the Supplemental Security Income (SSI), and the island actually receives a smaller fraction of the Medicaid funding it would receive if it were a U.S. state. Also, Medicare providers receive less - than - full state - like reimbursements for services rendered to beneficiaries in Puerto Rico, even though the latter paid fully into the system.
While a state may try an individual for the same crime he / she was tried in federal court, this is not the case in Puerto Rico. Being a U.S. territory, Puerto Rico 's authority to enact a criminal code derives from Congress and not from local sovereignty as with the states. Thus, such a parallel accusation would constitute double jeopardy and is constitutionally impermissible.
In 1992, President George H.W. Bush issued a memorandum to heads of executive departments and agencies establishing the current administrative relationship between the federal government and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. This memorandum directs all federal departments, agencies, and officials to treat Puerto Rico administratively as if it were a state, insofar as doing so would not disrupt federal programs or operations.
Many federal executive branch agencies have significant presence in Puerto Rico, just as in any state, including the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Transportation Security Administration, Social Security Administration, and others. While Puerto Rico has its own Commonwealth judicial system similar to that of a U.S. state, there is also a U.S federal district court in Puerto Rico, and Puerto Ricans have served as judges in that Court and in other federal courts on the U.S. mainland regardless of their residency status at the time of their appointment. Sonia Sotomayor, a New Yorker of Puerto Rican descent, serves as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Puerto Ricans have also been frequently appointed to high - level federal positions, including serving as United States Ambassadors to other nations.
Puerto Rico is subject to the Commerce and Territorial Clause of the Constitution of the United States and, therefore, is restricted on how it can engage with other nations, sharing the opportunities and limitations that state governments have albeit not being one. As is the case with state governments, regardless, it has established several trade agreements with other nations, particularly with Hispanic American countries such as Colombia and Panamá.
It has also established trade promotion offices in many foreign countries, all Spanish - speaking, and within the United States itself, which now include Spain, the Dominican Republic, Panama, Colombia, Washington, D.C., New York City and Florida, and has included in the past offices in Chile, Costa Rica, and Mexico. Such agreements require permission from the U.S. Department of State; most, are simply allowed by existing laws or trade treaties between the United States and other nations which supersede trade agreements pursued by Puerto Rico and different U.S. states.
At the local level, Puerto Rico established by law that the international relations which states and territories are allowed to engage must be handled by the Department of State of Puerto Rico, an executive department, headed by the Secretary of State of Puerto Rico, who also serves as the territory 's lieutenant governor. It is also charged to liaise with general consuls and honorary consuls based in Puerto Rico. The Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration, along with the Office of the Resident Commissioner, manage all its intergovernmental affairs before entities of or in the United States (including the federal government of the United States, local and state governments of the United States, and public or private entities in the United States).
Both entities frequently assist the Department of State of Puerto Rico in engaging with Washington, D.C. - based ambassadors and federal agencies that handle Puerto Rico 's foreign affairs, such as the U.S. Department of State, the Agency for International Development, and others. The current Secretary of State is Víctor Suárez Meléndez from the Popular Democratic Party and member of the Democratic Party of the United States, while the current Director of the Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration is Juan Eugenio Hernández Mayoral also from the Popular Democratic and member of the Democratic Party.
The Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, the delegate elected by Puerto Ricans to represent them before the federal government, including the U.S. Congress, sits in the United States House of Representatives, serves and votes on congressional committees, and functions in every respect as a legislator except being denied a vote on the final disposition of legislation on the House floor, also engages in foreign affairs to the same extent as other members of Congress. The current Resident Commissioner is Pedro Pierluisi from the New Progressive Party and member of the Democratic Party of the United States.
Many Puerto Ricans have served as United States ambassadors to different nations and international organizations, such as the Organization of American States, mostly but not exclusively in Latin America. For example, Maricarmen Aponte, a Puerto Rican and now an Acting Assistant Secretary of State, previously served as U.S. ambassador to El Salvador.
As it is a territory of the United States of America, the defense of Puerto Rico is provided by the United States as part of the Treaty of Paris with the President of the United States as its commander - in - chief. Puerto Rico has its own Puerto Rico National Guard, and its own state defense force, the Puerto Rico State Guard, which by local law is under the authority of the Puerto Rico National Guard.
The commander - in - chief of both local forces is the governor of Puerto Rico who delegates his authority to the Puerto Rico Adjutant General, currently Colonel Marta Carcana. The Adjutant General, in turn, delegates the authority over the State Guard to another officer but retains the authority over the Puerto Rico National Guard as a whole.
U.S. military installations in Puerto Rico were part of the U.S. Atlantic Command (LANTCOM after 1993 USACOM), which had authority over all U.S. military operations that took place throughout the Atlantic. Puerto Rico had been seen as crucial in supporting LANTCOM 's mission until 1999, when U.S. Atlantic Command was renamed and given a new mission as United States Joint Forces Command. Puerto Rico is currently under the responsibility of United States Northern Command.
Both the Naval Forces Caribbean (NFC) and the Fleet Air Caribbean (FAIR) were formerly based at the Roosevelt Roads Naval Station. The NFC had authority over all U.S. Naval activity in the waters of the Caribbean while FAIR had authority over all U.S. military flights and air operations over the Caribbean. With the closing of the Roosevelt Roads and Vieques Island training facilities, the U.S. Navy has basically exited from Puerto Rico, except for the ships that steam by, and the only significant military presence in the island is the U.S. Army at Ft Buchanan, the Puerto Rican Army and Air National Guards, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Protests over the noise of bombing practice forced the closure of the naval base. This resulted in a loss of 6,000 jobs and an annual decrease in local income of $300 million.
A branch of the U.S. Army National Guard is stationed in Puerto Rico -- known as the Puerto Rico Army National Guard -- which performs missions equivalent to those of the Army National Guards of the different states of the United States, including ground defense, disaster relief, and control of civil unrest. The local National Guard also incorporates a branch of the U.S. Air National Guard -- known as the Puerto Rico Air National Guard -- which performs missions equivalent to those of the Air National Guards of each one of the U.S. states.
At different times in the 20th century, the U.S. had about 25 military or naval installations in Puerto Rico, some very small ones, as well as large installations. The largest of these installations were the former Roosevelt Roads Naval Station in Ceiba, the Atlantic Fleet Weapons Training Facility (AFWTF) on Vieques, the National Guard training facility at Camp Santiago in Salinas, Fort Allen in Juana Diaz, the Army 's Fort Buchanan in San Juan, the former U.S. Air Force Ramey Air Force Base in Aguadilla, and the Puerto Rico Air National Guard at Muñiz Air Force base in San Juan.
The former U.S. Navy facilities at Roosevelt Roads, Vieques, and Sabana Seca have been deactivated and partially turned over to the local government. Other than U.S. Coast Guard and Puerto Rico National Guard facilities, there are only two remaining military installations in Puerto Rico: the U.S. Army 's small Ft. Buchanan (supporting local veterans and reserve units) and the PRANG (Puerto Rico Air National Guard) Muñiz Air Base (the C - 130 Fleet). In recent years, the U.S. Congress has considered their deactivations, but these have been opposed by diverse public and private entities in Puerto Rico -- such as retired military who rely on Ft. Buchanan for the services available there.
Puerto Ricans have participated in many of the military conflicts in which the United States has been involved. For example, they participated in the American Revolution, when volunteers from Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Mexico fought the British in 1779 under the command of General Bernardo de Gálvez (1746 -- 1786), and have continued to participate up to the present - day conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan.
A significant number of Puerto Ricans participate as members and work for the U.S. Armed Services, largely as National Guard members and civilian employees. The size of the overall military - related community in Puerto Rico is estimated to be 100,000 individuals. This includes retired personnel. Fort Buchanan has about 4,000 military and civilian personnel. In addition, approximately 17,000 people are members of the Puerto Rico Army and Air National Guards, or the U.S. Reserve forces. Puerto Rican soldiers have served in every U.S. military conflict from World War I to the current military engagement known by the United States and its allies as the War against Terrorism.
The 65th Infantry Regiment, nicknamed "The Borinqueneers '' from the original Taíno name of the island (Borinquen), is a Puerto Rican regiment of the United States Army. The regiment 's motto is Honor et Fidelitas, Latin for Honor and Fidelity. The 65th Infantry Regiment participated in World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and the War on Terror and in 2014 was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal, presented by President Barack Obama, for its heroism during the Korean War.
There are no counties, as there are in the 50 United States. There are 78 municipalities. Municipalities are subdivided into barrios, and those into sectors. Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected to four - year terms.
The economy of Puerto Rico is classified as a high income economy by the World Bank and as the most competitive economy in Latin America by the World Economic Forum but Puerto Rico currently has a public debt of $72.204 billion (equivalent to 103 % of GNP), and a government deficit of $2.5 billion. According to World Bank, gross national income per capita of Puerto Rico in 2013 is $23,830 (PPP, International Dollars), ranked as 63rd among all sovereign and dependent territories entities in the world. Its economy is mainly driven by manufacturing (primarily pharmaceuticals, textiles, petrochemicals and electronics) followed by the service industry (primarily finance, insurance, real estate and tourism). In recent years, the territory has also become a popular destination for MICE (meetings, incentives, conferencing, exhibitions), with a modern convention centre district overlooking the Port of San Juan.
The geography of Puerto Rico and its political status are both determining factors on its economic prosperity, primarily due to its relatively small size as an island; its lack of natural resources used to produce raw materials, and, consequently, its dependence on imports; as well as its territorial status with the United States, which controls its foreign policy while exerting trading restrictions, particularly in its shipping industry.
Puerto Rico experienced a recession from 2006 to 2011, interrupted by 4 quarters of economic growth, and entered into recession again in 2013, following growing fiscal imbalance and the expiration of the IRS Section 936 corporate incentives that the U.S. Internal Revenue Code had applied to Puerto Rico. This IRS section was critical to the economy, as it established tax exemptions for U.S. corporations that settled in Puerto Rico, and allowed their insular subsidiaries to send their earnings to the parent corporation at any time, without paying federal tax on corporate income. Puerto Rico has surprisingly been able to maintain a relatively low inflation in the past decade while maintaining a purchasing power parity per capita higher than 80 % of the rest of the world.
Academically, most of Puerto Rico 's economic woes stem from federal regulations that expired, have been repealed, or no longer apply to Puerto Rico; its inability to become self - sufficient and self - sustainable throughout history; its highly politicized public policy which tends to change whenever a political party gains power; as well as its highly inefficient local government which has accrued a public debt equal to 68 % of its gross domestic product throughout time.
In comparison to the different states of the United States, Puerto Rico is poorer than Mississippi (the poorest state of the U.S.) with 41 % of its population below the poverty line. When compared to Latin America, Puerto Rico has the highest GDP per capita in the region. Its main trading partners are the United States itself, Ireland, and Japan, with most products coming from East Asia, mainly from China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. At a global scale, Puerto Rico 's dependency on oil for transportation and electricity generation, as well as its dependency on food imports and raw materials, makes Puerto Rico volatile and highly reactive to changes in the world economy and climate. Puerto Rico 's agricultural sector represents less than 1 % of GNP.
In early 2017, the Puerto Rican government - debt crisis posed serious problems for the government which was saddled with outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion at a time with a 45 percent poverty rate and 12.4 % unemployment that is more than twice the mainland U.S. average. The debt had been increasing during a decade long recession.
The Commonwealth had been defaulting on many debts, including bonds, since 2015. With debt payments due, the Governor was facing the risk of a government shutdown and failure to fund the managed health care system. "Without action before April, Puerto Rico 's ability to execute contracts for Fiscal Year 2018 with its managed care organizations will be threatened, thereby putting at risk beginning July 1, 2017 the health care of up to 900,000 poor U.S. citizens living in Puerto Rico '', according to a letter sent to Congress by the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of Health and Human Services. They also said that "Congress must enact measures recommended by both Republicans and Democrats that fix Puerto Rico 's inequitable health care financing structure and promote sustained economic growth. ''
Initially, the oversight board created under PROMESA called for Puerto Rico 's governor Ricardo Rosselló to deliver a fiscal turnaround plan by January 28. Just before that deadline, the control board gave the Commonwealth government until February 28 to present a fiscal plan (including negotiations with creditors for restructuring debt) to solve the problems. A moratorium on lawsuits by debtors was extended to May 31. It is essential for Puerto Rico to reach restructuring deals to avoid a bankruptcy - like process under PROMESA. An internal survey conducted by the Puerto Rican Economists Association revealed that the majority of Puerto Rican economists reject the policy recommendations of the Board and the Rosselló government, with more than 80 % of economists arguing in favor of auditing the debt.
In early August 2017, the island 's financial oversight board (created by PROMESA) planned to institute two days off without pay per month for government employees, down from the original plan of four days per month; the latter had been expected to achieve $218 million in savings. Governor Rossello rejected this plan as unjustified and unnecessary. Pension reforms were also discussed including a proposal for a 10 % reduction in benefits to begin addressing the $50 billion in unfunded pension liabilities.
Puerto Rico has an operating budget of about U.S. $9.8 billion with expenses at about $10.4 billion; creating a structural deficit of $775 million (about 7.9 % of the budget). The practice of approving budgets with a structural deficit has been done for 17 consecutive years starting in 2000. Throughout those years, including present time, all budgets contemplated issuing bonds to cover said projected deficits rather than make proper adjustments. This practice eroded Puerto Rico 's treasury as the government had already been issuing bonds to balance its actual budget for four decades since 1973.
Projected deficits added substantial burdens to an already indebted nation which accrued a public debt of $71 B or about 70 % of Puerto Rico 's gross domestic product. This sparked an ongoing government - debt crisis after Puerto Rico 's general obligation bonds were downgraded to speculative non-investment grade ("junk status '') by three credit rating agencies. In terms of financial control, almost 9.6 % -- or about $1.5 billion -- of Puerto Rico 's central government budget expenses for FY2014 is expected to be spent on debt service. Harsher budget cuts are expected as Puerto Rico must now repay larger chunks of debts in the following years.
For practical reasons the budget is divided into two aspects: a "general budget '' which comprises the assignments funded exclusively by the Department of Treasury of Puerto Rico, and the "consolidated budget '' which comprises the assignments funded by the general budget, by Puerto Rico 's government - owned corporations, by revenue expected from loans, by the sale of government bonds, by subsidies extended by the federal government of the United States, and by other funds.
Both budgets contrast each other drastically, with the consolidated budget being usually thrice the size of the general budget; currently $29 B and $9.0 B respectively. Almost one out of every four dollars in the consolidated budget comes from U.S. federal subsidies while government - owned corporations compose more than 31 % of the consolidated budget.
The critical aspects come from the sale of bonds, which comprise 7 % of the consolidated budget; a ratio that increased annually due to the government 's inability to prepare a balanced budget in addition to being incapable of generating enough income to cover all its expenses. In particular, the government - owned corporations add a heavy burden to the overall budget and public debt as not a single one is self - sufficient, all of them carrying extremely inefficient operations. For example, in FY2011 the government - owned corporations reported aggregated losses of more than $1.3 B with the Puerto Rico Highways and Transportation Authority (PRHTA) reporting losses of $409 M, the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA; the government monopoly that controls all electricity on the island) reporting losses of $272 M, while the Puerto Rico Aqueducts and Sewers Authority (PRASA; the government monopoly that controls all water utilities on the island) reported losses of $112 M.
Losses by government - owned corporations have been defrayed through the issuance of bonds compounding more than 40 % of Puerto Rico 's entire public debt today. Holistically, from FY2000 -- FY2010 Puerto Rico 's debt grew at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 9 % while GDP remained stagnant. This has not always provided a long - term solution. In early July 2017 for example, the PREPA power authority was effectively bankrupt after defaulting in a plan to restructure $9 billion in bond debt; the agency planned to seek Court protection.
In terms of protocol, the governor, together with the Puerto Rico Office of Management and Budget (OGP in Spanish), formulates the budget he believes is required to operate all government branches for the ensuing fiscal year. He then submits this formulation as a budget request to the Puerto Rican legislature before July 1, the date established by law as the beginning of Puerto Rico 's fiscal year. While the constitution establishes that the request must be submitted "at the beginning of each regular session '', the request is typically submitted during the first week of May as the regular sessions of the legislature begin in January and it would be unpractical to submit a request so far ahead. Once submitted the budget is then approved by the legislature, typically with amendments, through a joint resolution and referred back to the governor for his approval. The governor then either approves it or vetoes it. If vetoed the legislature can then either refer it back with amendments for the governor 's approval, or approve it without the governor 's consent by two - thirds of the bodies of each chamber.
Once approved the Department of Treasury disburses funds to the Office of Management and Budget which in turn disburses the funds to the respective agencies, all while the Puerto Rico Government Development Bank (the government 's intergovernmental bank) manages all related banking affairs including those related to the government - owned corporations.
The cost of living in Puerto Rico is high and has increased over the past decade. San Juan 's in particular is higher than Atlanta, Dallas, and Seattle but lower than Boston, Chicago, and New York City. One factor is housing prices which are comparable to Miami and Los Angeles, although property taxes are considerably lower than most places in the United States.
Statistics used for cost of living sometimes do not take into account certain costs, such as the high cost of electricity, which has hovered in the 24 ¢ to 30 ¢ range per kilowatt / hour, two to three times the national average, increased travel costs for longer flights, additional shipping fees, and the loss of promotional participation opportunities for customers "outside the continental United States ''. While some online stores do offer free shipping on orders to Puerto Rico, many merchants exclude Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico and other United States territories.
The household median income is stated as $19,350 and the mean income as $30,463 in the U.S. Census Bureau 's 2015 update. The report also indicates that 45.5 % of individuals are below the poverty level. The median home value in Puerto Rico ranges from U.S. $100,000 to U.S. $214,000, while the national median home value sits at $119,600.
One of the most cited contributors to the high cost of living in Puerto Rico is the Merchant Marine Act of 1920, also known as the Jones Act, which prevents foreign - flagged ships from carrying cargo between two American ports, a practice known as cabotage. Because of the Jones Act, foreign ships inbound with goods from Central and South America, Western Europe, and Africa can not stop in Puerto Rico, offload Puerto Rico - bound goods, load mainland - bound Puerto Rico - manufactured goods, and continue to U.S. ports. Instead, they must proceed directly to U.S. ports, where distributors break bulk and send Puerto Rico - bound manufactured goods to Puerto Rico across the ocean by U.S. - flagged ships.
The local government of Puerto Rico has requested several times to the U.S. Congress to exclude Puerto Rico from the Jones Act restrictions without success. The most recent measure has been taken by the 17th Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico through R. Conc. del S. 21. These measures have always received support from all the major local political parties.
In 2013 the Government Accountability Office published a report which concluded that "repealing or amending the Jones Act cabotage law might cut Puerto Rico shipping costs '' and that "shippers believed that opening the trade to non-U.S. - flag competition could lower costs ''. However, the same GAO report also found that "(shippers) doing business in Puerto Rico that GAO contacted reported that the freight rates are often -- although not always -- lower for foreign carriers going to and from Puerto Rico and foreign locations than the rates shippers pay to ship similar cargo to and from the United States, despite longer distances. Data were not available to allow us to validate the examples given or verify the extent to which this difference occurred. '' Ultimately, the report concluded that "(the) effects of modifying the application of the Jones Act for Puerto Rico are highly uncertain '' for both Puerto Rico and the United States, particularly for the U.S. shipping industry and the military preparedness of the United States.
The first school in Puerto Rico was the Escuela de Gramática (Grammar School). It was established by Bishop Alonso Manso in 1513, in the area where the Cathedral of San Juan was to be constructed. The school was free of charge and the courses taught were Latin language, literature, history, science, art, philosophy and theology.
Education in Puerto Rico is divided in three levels -- Primary (elementary school grades 1 -- 6), Secondary (intermediate and high school grades 7 -- 12), and Higher Level (undergraduate and graduate studies). As of 2002, the literacy rate of the Puerto Rican population was 94.1 %; by gender, it was 93.9 % for males and 94.4 % for females. According to the 2000 Census, 60.0 % of the population attained a high school degree or higher level of education, and 18.3 % has a bachelor 's degree or higher.
Instruction at the primary school level is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 18. As of 2010, there are 1539 public schools and 806 private schools.
The largest and oldest university system is the public University of Puerto Rico (UPR) with 11 campuses. The largest private university systems on the island are the Sistema Universitario Ana G. Mendez which operates the Universidad del Turabo, Metropolitan University and Universidad del Este. Other private universities include the multi-campus Inter American University, the Pontifical Catholic University, Universidad Politécnica de Puerto Rico, and the Universidad del Sagrado Corazón. Puerto Rico has four schools of Medicine and three ABA - approved Law Schools.
As of 2015 medical care in Puerto Rico had been heavily impacted by emigration of doctors to the mainland and underfunding of the Medicare and Medicaid programs which serve 60 % of the island 's population. Affordable medical insurance under the Affordable Care Act is not available in Puerto Rico as, since Puerto Ricans pay no income tax, no subsidies are available.
The city of San Juan has a system of triage, hospital, and preventive care health services. The municipal government sponsors regular health fairs in different areas of the city focusing on health care for the elderly and the disabled.
In 2017, there were 69 hospitals in Puerto Rico. There are twenty hospitals in San Juan, half of which are operated by the government. The largest hospital is the Centro Médico de Río Piedras (the Río Piedras Medical Center). Founded in 1956, it is operated by the Medical Services Administration of the Department of Health of Puerto Rico, and is actually a network of eight hospitals:
The city of San Juan operates nine other hospitals. Of these, eight are Diagnostic and Treatment Centers located in communities throughout San Juan. These nine hospitals are:
There are also ten private hospitals in San Juan. These are:
The city of Ponce is served by several clinics and hospitals. There are four comprehensive care hospitals: Hospital Dr. Pila, Hospital San Cristobal, Hospital San Lucas, and Hospital de Damas. In addition, Hospital Oncológico Andrés Grillasca specializes in the treatment of cancer, and Hospital Siquiátrico specializes in mental disorders. There is also a U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs Outpatient Clinic that provides health services to U.S. veterans. The U.S. Veterans Administration will build a new hospital in the city to satisfy regional needs. Hospital de Damas is listed in the U.S. News & World Report as one of the best hospitals under the U.S. flag. Ponce has the highest concentration of medical infrastructure per inhabitant of any municipality in Puerto Rico.
On the island of Culebra, there is a small hospital in the island called Hospital de Culebra. It also offers pharmacy services to residents and visitors. For emergencies, patients are transported by plane to Fajardo on the main island.
The town of Caguas has three hospitals: Hospital Hima San Pablo, Menonita Caguas Regional Hospital, and the San Juan Bautista Medical Center.
The town of Cayey is served by the Hospital Menonita de Cayey, and the Hospital Municipal de Cayey.
Reforma de Salud de Puerto Rico (Puerto Rico Health Reform) -- locally referred to as La Reforma (The Reform) -- is a government - run program which provides medical and health care services to the indigent and impoverished, by means of contracting private health insurance companies, rather than employing government - owned hospitals and emergency centers. The Reform is administered by the Puerto Rico Health Insurance Administration.
The overall rate of crime is low in Puerto Rico. The territory has a high firearm homicide rate. The homicide rate of 19.2 per 100,000 inhabitants was significantly higher than any U.S. state in 2014. Most homicide victims are gang members and drug traffickers with about 80 % of homicides in Puerto Rico being drug related.
Modern Puerto Rican culture is a unique mix of cultural antecedents: including people European (predominantly Spanish, Italian, French, German and Irish), African, and, more recently, some North American and lots of South Americans. A large number of Cubans and Dominican have relocated to the island in the past few decades.
From the Spanish, Puerto Rico received the Spanish language, the Catholic religion and the vast majority of their cultural and moral values and traditions. The United States added English - language influence, the university system and the adoption of some holidays and practices. On March 12, 1903, the University of Puerto Rico was officially founded, branching out from the "Escuela Normal Industrial '', a smaller organization that was founded in Fajardo three years before.
Much of Puerto Rican culture centers on the influence of music and has been shaped by other cultures combining with local and traditional rhythms. Early in the history of Puerto Rican music, the influences of Spanish and African traditions were most noticeable. The cultural movements across the Caribbean and North America have played a vital role in the more recent musical influences which have reached Puerto Rico.
The official symbols of Puerto Rico are the reinita mora or Puerto Rican spindalis (a type of bird), the flor de maga (a type of flower), and the ceiba or kapok (a type of tree). The unofficial animal and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the coquí, a small frog. Other popular symbols of Puerto Rico are the jíbaro (the "countryman ''), and the carite.
The architecture of Puerto Rico demonstrates a broad variety of traditions, styles and national influences accumulated over four centuries of Spanish rule, and a century of American rule. Spanish colonial architecture, Ibero - Islamic, art deco, post-modern, and many other architectural forms are visible throughout the island. From town to town, there are also many regional distinctions.
Old San Juan is one of the two barrios, in addition to Santurce, that made up the municipality of San Juan from 1864 to 1951, at which time the former independent municipality of Río Piedras was annexed. With its abundance of shops, historic places, museums, open air cafés, restaurants, gracious homes, tree - shaded plazas, and its old beauty and architectonical peculiarity, Old San Juan is a main spot for local and internal tourism. The district is also characterized by numerous public plazas and churches including San José Church and the Cathedral of San Juan Bautista, which contains the tomb of the Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León. It also houses the oldest Catholic school for elementary education in Puerto Rico, the Colegio de Párvulos, built in 1865.
The oldest parts of the district of Old San Juan remain partly enclosed by massive walls. Several defensive structures and notable forts, such as the emblematic Fort San Felipe del Morro, Fort San Cristóbal, and El Palacio de Santa Catalina, also known as La Fortaleza, acted as the primary defenses of the settlement which was subjected to numerous attacks. La Fortaleza continues to serve also as the executive mansion for the Governor of Puerto Rico. Many of the historic fortifications are part of San Juan National Historic Site.
During the 1940s, sections of Old San Juan fell into disrepair, and many renovation plans were suggested. There was even a strong push to develop Old San Juan as a "small Manhattan ''. Strict remodeling codes were implemented to prevent new constructions from affecting the common colonial Spanish architectural themes of the old city. When a project proposal suggested that the old Carmelite Convent in San Juan be demolished to erect a new hotel, the Institute had the building declared as a historic building, and then asked that it be converted to a hotel in a renewed facility. This was what became the Hotel El Convento in Old San Juan. The paradigm to reconstruct and renovate the old city and revitalize it has been followed by other cities in the Americas, particularly Havana, Lima and Cartagena de Indias.
Ponce Creole is an architectural style created in Ponce, Puerto Rico, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This style of Puerto Rican buildings is found predominantly in residential homes in Ponce that developed between 1895 and 1920. Ponce Creole architecture borrows heavily from the traditions of the French, the Spaniards, and the Caribbean to create houses that were especially built to withstand the hot and dry climate of the region, and to take advantage of the sun and sea breezes characteristic of the southern Puerto Rico 's Caribbean Sea coast. It is a blend of wood and masonry, incorporating architectural elements of other styles, from Classical revival and Spanish Revival to Victorian.
Puerto Rican art reflects many influences, much from its ethnically diverse background. A form of folk art, called santos evolved from the Catholic Church 's use of sculptures to convert indigenous Puerto Ricans to Christianity. Santos depict figures of saints and other religious icons and are made from native wood, clay, and stone. After shaping simple, they are often finished by painting them in vivid colors. Santos vary in size, with the smallest examples around eight inches tall and the largest about twenty inches tall. Traditionally, santos were seen as messengers between the earth and Heaven. As such, they occupied a special place on household altars, where people prayed to them, asked for help, or tried to summon their protection.
Also popular, caretas or vejigantes are masks worn during carnivals. Similar masks signifying evil spirits were used in both Spain and Africa, though for different purposes. The Spanish used their masks to frighten lapsed Christians into returning to the church, while tribal Africans used them as protection from the evil spirits they represented. True to their historic origins Puerto Rican caretas always bear at least several horns and fangs. While usually constructed of papier - mâché, coconut shells and fine metal screening are sometimes used as well. Red and black were the typical colors for caretas but their palette has expanded to include a wide variety of bright hues and patterns.
Puerto Rican literature evolved from the art of oral story telling to its present - day status. Written works by the native islanders of Puerto Rico were prohibited and repressed by the Spanish colonial government. Only those who were commissioned by the Spanish Crown to document the chronological history of the island were allowed to write.
Diego de Torres Vargas was allowed to circumvent this strict prohibition for three reasons: he was a priest, he came from a prosperous Spanish family, and his father was a Sergeant Major in the Spanish Army, who died while defending Puerto Rico from an invasion by the Dutch armada. In 1647, Torres Vargas wrote Descripción de la Ciudad e Isla de Puerto Rico ("Description of the Island and City of Puerto Rico ''). This historical book was the first to make a detailed geographic description of the island.
The book described all the fruits and commercial establishments of the time, mostly centered in the towns of San Juan and Ponce. The book also listed and described every mine, church, and hospital in the island at the time. The book contained notices on the State and Capital, plus an extensive and erudite bibliography. Descripción de la Ciudad e Isla de Puerto Rico was the first successful attempt at writing a comprehensive history of Puerto Rico.
Some of Puerto Rico 's earliest writers were influenced by the teachings of Rafael Cordero. Among these was Dr. Manuel A. Alonso, the first Puerto Rican writer of notable importance. In 1849 he published El Gíbaro, a collection of verses whose main themes were the poor Puerto Rican country farmer. Eugenio María de Hostos wrote La peregrinación de Bayoán in 1863, which used Bartolomé de las Casas as a spring board to reflect on Caribbean identity. After this first novel, Hostos abandoned fiction in favor of the essay which he saw as offering greater possibilities for inspiring social change.
In the late 19th century, with the arrival of the first printing press and the founding of the Royal Academy of Belles Letters, Puerto Rican literature began to flourish. The first writers to express their political views in regard to Spanish colonial rule of the island were journalists. After the United States invaded Puerto Rico during the Spanish -- American War and the island was ceded to the Americans as a condition of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, writers and poets began to express their opposition to the new colonial rule by writing about patriotic themes.
Alejandro Tapia y Rivera, also known as the Father of Puerto Rican Literature, ushered in a new age of historiography with the publication of The Historical Library of Puerto Rico. Cayetano Coll y Toste was another Puerto Rican historian and writer. His work The Indo - Antillano Vocabulary is valuable in understanding the way the Taínos lived. Dr. Manuel Zeno Gandía in 1894 wrote La Charca and told about the harsh life in the remote and mountainous coffee regions in Puerto Rico. Dr. Antonio S. Pedreira, described in his work Insularismo the cultural survival of the Puerto Rican identity after the American invasion.
With the Puerto Rican diaspora of the 1940s, Puerto Rican literature was greatly influenced by a phenomenon known as the Nuyorican Movement. Puerto Rican literature continued to flourish and many Puerto Ricans have since distinguished themselves as authors, journalists, poets, novelists, playwrights, screenwriters, essayists and have also stood out in other literary fields. The influence of Puerto Rican literature has transcended the boundaries of the island to the United States and the rest of the world. Over the past fifty years, significant writers include Ed Vega, Luis Rafael Sánchez, Piri Thomas, Giannina Braschi, and Miguel Piñero. Esmeralda Santiago has written an autobiographical trilogy about growing up in modern Puerto Rico as well as an historical novel, Conquistadora, about life on a sugar plantation during the mid-19th century.
The media in Puerto Rico includes local radio stations, television stations and newspapers, the majority of which are conducted in Spanish. There are also three stations of the U.S. Armed Forces Radio and Television Service. Newspapers with daily distribution are El Nuevo Dia, El Vocero and Indice, Metro, and Primera Hora. El Vocero is distributed free of charge as well as Indice and Metro.
Newspapers distributed on a weekly or regional basis include Claridad, La Perla del Sur, La Opinion, Vision, and La Estrella del Norte, among others. Several television channels provide local content in the island. These include WIPR - TV, Telemundo, Univision Puerto Rico, WAPA - TV, and WKAQ - TV.
The music of Puerto Rico has evolved as a heterogeneous and dynamic product of diverse cultural resources. The most conspicuous musical sources have been Spain and West Africa, although many aspects of Puerto Rican music reflect origins elsewhere in Europe and the Caribbean and, over the last century, from the U.S. Puerto Rican music culture today comprises a wide and rich variety of genres, ranging from indigenous genres like bomba, plena, aguinaldo, danza and salsa to recent hybrids like reggaeton.
Puerto Rico has some national instruments, like the Cuatro (Spanish for Four). The cuatro is a local instrument that was made by the "Jibaro '' or people from the mountains. Originally, the Cuatro consisted of four steel strings, hence its name, but currently the Cuatro consists of five double steel strings. It is easily confused with a guitar, even by locals. When held upright, from right to left, the strings are G, D, A, E, B.
In the realm of classical music, the island hosts two main orchestras, the Orquesta Sinfónica de Puerto Rico and the Orquesta Filarmónica de Puerto Rico. The Casals Festival takes place annually in San Juan, drawing in classical musicians from around the world.
With respect to opera, the legendary Puerto Rican tenor Antonio Paoli was so celebrated, that he performed private recitals for Pope Pius X and the Czar Nicholas II of Russia. In 1907, Paoli was the first operatic artist in world history to record an entire opera -- when he participated in a performance of Pagliacci by Ruggiero Leoncavallo in Milan, Italy.
Over the past fifty years, Puerto Rican artists such as Jorge Emmanuelli, Yomo Toro, Ramito, Jose Feliciano, Bobby Capo, Rafael Cortijo, Ismael Rivera, Chayanne, Tito Puente, Eddie Palmieri, Ray Barreto, Dave Valentin, Omar Rodríguez - López, Hector Lavoe, Ricky Martin, Marc Anthony and Luis Fonsi have thrilled audiences around the world.
Puerto Rican cuisine has its roots in the cooking traditions and practices of Europe (Spain), Africa and the native Taínos. In the latter part of the 19th century, the cuisine of Puerto Rico was greatly influenced by the United States in the ingredients used in its preparation. Puerto Rican cuisine has transcended the boundaries of the island, and can be found in several countries outside the archipelago. Basic ingredients include grains and legumes, herbs and spices, starchy tropical tubers, vegetables, meat and poultry, seafood and shellfish, and fruits. Main dishes include mofongo, arroz con gandules, pasteles, alcapurrias and pig roast (or lechón). Beverages include maví and piña colada. Desserts include flan, arroz con dulce (sweet rice pudding), piraguas, brazo gitanos, tembleque, polvorones, and dulce de leche.
Locals call their cuisine cocina criolla. The traditional Puerto Rican cuisine was well established by the end of the 19th century. By 1848 the first restaurant, La Mallorquina, opened in Old San Juan. El Cocinero Puertorriqueño, the island 's first cookbook was published in 1849.
From the diet of the Taíno people come many tropical roots and tubers like yautía (taro) and especially Yuca (cassava), from which thin cracker - like casabe bread is made. Ajicito or cachucha pepper, a slightly hot habanero pepper, recao / culantro (spiny leaf), achiote (annatto), peppers, ají caballero (the hottest pepper native to Puerto Rico), peanuts, guavas, pineapples, jicacos (cocoplum), quenepas (mamoncillo), lerenes (Guinea arrowroot), calabazas (tropical pumpkins), and guanabanas (soursops) are all Taíno foods. The Taínos also grew varieties of beans and some maize / corn, but maize was not as dominant in their cooking as it was for the peoples living on the mainland of Mesoamerica. This is due to the frequent hurricanes that Puerto Rico experiences, which destroy crops of maize, leaving more safeguarded plants like conucos (hills of yuca grown together).
Spanish / European influence is also seen in Puerto Rican cuisine. Wheat, chickpeas (garbanzos), capers, olives, olive oil, black pepper, onions, garlic, cilantrillo (cilantro), oregano, basil, sugarcane, citrus fruit, eggplant, ham, lard, chicken, beef, pork, and cheese all came to Borikén (Puerto Rico 's native Taino name) from Spain. The tradition of cooking complex stews and rice dishes in pots such as rice and beans are also thought to be originally European (much like Italians, Spaniards, and the British). Early Dutch, French, Italian, and Chinese immigrants influenced not only the culture but Puerto Rican cooking as well. This great variety of traditions came together to form La Cocina Criolla.
Coconuts, coffee (brought by the Arabs and Corsos to Yauco from Kafa, Ethiopia), okra, yams, sesame seeds, gandules (pigeon peas in English) sweet bananas, plantains, other root vegetables and Guinea hen, all come to Puerto Rico from Africa.
Puerto Rico has been commemorated on four U.S. postal stamps and four personalities have been featured. Insular Territories were commemorated in 1937, the third stamp honored Puerto Rico featuring ' La Fortaleza ', the Spanish Governor 's Palace. The first free election for governor of the U.S. colony of Puerto Rico was honored on April 27, 1949, at San Juan, Puerto Rico. ' Inauguration ' on the 3 - cent stamp refers to the election of Luis Munoz Marin, the first democratically elected governor of Puerto Rico. San Juan, Puerto Rico was commemorated with an 8 - cent stamp on its 450th anniversary issued September 12, 1971, featuring a sentry box from Castillo San Felipe del Morro. In the "Flags of our nation series '' 2008 -- 2012, of the fifty - five, five territorial flags were featured. Forever stamps included the Puerto Rico Flag illustrated by a bird issued 2011.
Four Puerto Rican personalities have been featured on U.S. postage stamps. These include Roberto Clemente in 1984 as an individual and in the Legends of Baseball series issued in 2000. Luis Muñoz Marín in the Great Americans series, on February 18, 1990. Julia de Burgos in the Literary Arts series, issued 2010., and José Ferrer in the Distinguished American series, issued 2012.
Baseball was one of the first sports to gain widespread popularity in Puerto Rico. The Puerto Rico Baseball League serves as the only active professional league, operating as a winter league. No Major League Baseball franchise or affiliate plays in Puerto Rico, however, San Juan hosted the Montreal Expos for several series in 2003 and 2004 before they moved to Washington, D.C. and became the Washington Nationals.
The Puerto Rico national baseball team has participated in the World Cup of Baseball winning one gold (1951), four silver and four bronze medals, the Caribbean Series (winning fourteen times) and the World Baseball Classic. On March 2006, San Juan 's Hiram Bithorn Stadium hosted the opening round as well as the second round of the newly formed World Baseball Classic. Puerto Rican baseball players include Hall of Famers Roberto Clemente, Orlando Cepeda and Roberto Alomar, enshrined in 1973, 1999, and 2011 respectively.
Boxing, basketball, and volleyball are considered popular sports as well. Wilfredo Gómez and McWilliams Arroyo have won their respective divisions at the World Amateur Boxing Championships. Other medalists include José Pedraza, who holds a silver medal, and three boxers who finished in third place, José Luis Vellón, Nelson Dieppa and McJoe Arroyo. In the professional circuit, Puerto Rico has the third-most boxing world champions and it is the global leader in champions per capita. These include Miguel Cotto, Félix Trinidad, Wilfred Benítez and Gómez among others.
The Puerto Rico national basketball team joined the International Basketball Federation in 1957. Since then, it has won more than 30 medals in international competitions, including gold in three FIBA Americas Championships and the 1994 Goodwill Games August 8, 2004, became a landmark date for the team when it became the first team to defeat the United States in an Olympic tournament since the integration of National Basketball Association players. Winning the inaugural game with scores of 92 -- 73 as part of the 2004 Summer Olympics organized in Athens, Greece. Baloncesto Superior Nacional acts as the top - level professional basketball league in Puerto Rico, and has experienced success since its beginning in 1930.
Puerto Rico is also a member of FIFA and CONCACAF. In 2008, the archipelago 's first unified league, the Puerto Rico Soccer League, was established.
Other sports include professional wrestling and road running. The World Wrestling Council and International Wrestling Association are the largest wrestling promotions in the main island. The World 's Best 10K, held annually in San Juan, has been ranked among the 20 most competitive races globally. The "Puerto Rico All Stars '' team, which has won twelve world championships in unicycle basketball.
Organized Streetball has gathered some exposition, with teams like "Puerto Rico Street Ball '' competing against established organizations including the Capitanes de Arecibo and AND1 's Mixtape Tour Team. Six years after the first visit, AND1 returned as part of their renamed Live Tour, losing to the Puerto Rico Streetballers. Consequently, practitioners of this style have earned participation in international teams, including Orlando "El Gato '' Meléndez, who became the first Puerto Rican born athlete to play for the Harlem Globetrotters. Orlando Antigua, whose mother is Puerto Rican, in 1995 became the first Hispanic and the first non-black in 52 years to play for the Harlem Globetrotters.
Puerto Rico has representation in all international competitions including the Summer and Winter Olympics, the Pan American Games, the Caribbean World Series, and the Central American and Caribbean Games. Puerto Rico hosted the Pan Am Games in 1979 (officially in San Juan), and The Central American and Caribbean Games were hosted in 1993 in Ponce and in 2010 in Mayagüez.
Puerto Rican athletes have won nine medals in Olympic competition (one gold, two silver, six bronze), the first one in 1948 by boxer Juan Evangelista Venegas. Monica Puig won the first gold medal for Puerto Rico in the Olympic Games by winning the Women 's Tennis singles title in Rio 2016.
Cities and towns in Puerto Rico are interconnected by a system of roads, freeways, expressways, and highways maintained by the Highways and Transportation Authority under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and patrolled by the Puerto Rico Police Department. The island 's metropolitan area is served by a public bus transit system and a metro system called Tren Urbano (in English: Urban Train). Other forms of public transportation include seaborne ferries (that serve Puerto Rico 's archipelago) as well as Carros Públicos (private mini buses).
Puerto Rico has three international airports, the Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in Carolina, Mercedita Airport in Ponce, and the Rafael Hernández Airport in Aguadilla, and 27 local airports. The Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport is the largest aerial transportation hub in the Caribbean.
Puerto Rico has nine ports in different cities across the main island. The San Juan Port is the largest in Puerto Rico, and the busiest port in the Caribbean and the 10th busiest in the United States in terms of commercial activity and cargo movement, respectively. The second largest port is the Port of the Americas in Ponce, currently under expansion to increase cargo capacity to 1.5 million twenty - foot containers (TEUs) per year.
The Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA) -- Spanish: Autoridad de Energía Eléctrica (AEE) -- is an electric power company and the government - owned corporation of Puerto Rico responsible for electricity generation, power transmission, and power distribution in Puerto Rico. PREPA is the only entity authorized to conduct such business in Puerto Rico, effectively making it a government monopoly. The Authority is ruled by a Governing Board appointed by the Governor with the advice and consent of the Senate of Puerto Rico, and is run by an Executive Director.
Telecommunications in Puerto Rico includes radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Broadcasting in Puerto Rico is regulated by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC). As of 2007, there were 30 TV stations, 125 radio stations and roughly 1 million TV sets on the island. Cable TV subscription services are available and the U.S. Armed Forces Radio and Television Service also broadcast on the island.
Geography
United States government
United Nations (U.N.) Declaration on Puerto Rico
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what is the average depth of the north sea | North Sea - wikipedia
The North Sea is a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean located between Great Britain, Scandinavia, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. An epeiric (or "shelf '') sea on the European continental shelf, it connects to the ocean through the English Channel in the south and the Norwegian Sea in the north. It is more than 970 kilometres (600 mi) long and 580 kilometres (360 mi) wide, with an area of around 570,000 square kilometres (220,000 sq mi).
The North Sea has long been the site of important European shipping lanes as well as a major fishery. The sea is a popular destination for recreation and tourism in bordering countries and more recently has developed into a rich source of energy resources including fossil fuels, wind, and early efforts in wave power.
Historically, the North Sea has featured prominently in geopolitical and military affairs, particularly in Northern Europe. It was also important globally through the power northern Europeans projected worldwide during much of the Middle Ages and into the modern era. The North Sea was the centre of the Vikings ' rise. Subsequently, the Hanseatic League, the Netherlands, and the British each sought to dominate the North Sea and thus the access to the markets and resources of the world. As Germany 's only outlet to the ocean, the North Sea continued to be strategically important through both World Wars.
The coast of the North Sea presents a diversity of geological and geographical features. In the north, deep fjords and sheer cliffs mark the Norwegian and Scottish coastlines, whereas in the south the coast consists primarily of sandy beaches and wide mudflats. Due to the dense population, heavy industrialization, and intense use of the sea and area surrounding it, there have been a number of environmental issues affecting the sea 's ecosystems. Adverse environmental issues -- commonly including overfishing, industrial and agricultural runoff, dredging, and dumping among others -- have led to a number of efforts to prevent degradation of the sea while still making use of its economic potential.
The North Sea is bounded by the Orkney Islands and east coast of Great Britain to the west and the northern and central European mainland to the east and south, including Norway, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean. In the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively. In the north it is bordered by the Shetland Islands, and connects with the Norwegian Sea, which lies in the very north - eastern part of the Atlantic.
The North Sea is more than 970 kilometres (600 mi) long and 580 kilometres (360 mi) wide, with an area of 570,000 square kilometres (220,000 sq mi) and a volume of 54,000 cubic kilometres (13,000 cu mi). Around the edges of the North Sea are sizeable islands and archipelagos, including Shetland, Orkney, and the Frisian Islands. The North Sea receives freshwater from a number of European continental watersheds, as well as the British Isles. A large part of the European drainage basin empties into the North Sea, including water from the Baltic Sea. The largest and most important rivers flowing into the North Sea are the Elbe and the Rhine -- Meuse watershed. Around 185 million people live in the catchment area of the rivers discharging into the North Sea encompassing some highly industrialized areas.
For the most part, the sea lies on the European continental shelf with a mean depth of 90 metres (300 ft). The only exception is the Norwegian trench, which extends parallel to the Norwegian shoreline from Oslo to an area north of Bergen. It is between 20 and 30 kilometres (12 and 19 mi) wide and has a maximum depth of 725 metres (2,379 ft).
The Dogger Bank, a vast moraine, or accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris, rises to a mere 15 to 30 metres (50 -- 100 ft) below the surface. This feature has produced the finest fishing location of the North Sea. The Long Forties and the Broad Fourteens are large areas with roughly uniform depth in fathoms, (forty fathoms and fourteen fathoms or 73 and 26 m deep respectively). These great banks and others make the North Sea particularly hazardous to navigate, which has been alleviated by the implementation of satellite navigation systems. The Devil 's Hole lies 200 miles (320 km) east of Dundee, Scotland. The feature is a series of asymmetrical trenches between 20 and 30 kilometres (12 and 19 mi) long, 1 and 2 kilometres (0.62 and 1.24 mi) wide and up to 230 metres (750 ft) deep.
Other areas which are less deep are Cleaver Bank, Fisher Bank and Noordhinder Bank.
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the North Sea as follows:
On the Southwest. A line joining the Walde Lighthouse (France, 1 ° 55'E) and Leathercoat Point (England, 51 ° 10'N).
On the Northwest. From Dunnet Head (3 ° 22'W) in Scotland to Tor Ness (58 ° 47'N) in the Island of Hoy, thence through this island to the Kame of Hoy (58 ° 55'N) on to Breck Ness on Mainland (58 ° 58'N) through this island to Costa Head (3 ° 14'W) and to Inga Ness (59'17'N) in Westray through Westray, to Bow Head, across to Mull Head (North point of Papa Westray) and on to Seal Skerry (North point of North Ronaldsay) and thence to Horse Island (South point of the Shetland Islands).
On the North. From the North point (Fethaland Point) of the Mainland of the Shetland Islands, across to Graveland Ness (60 ° 39'N) in the Island of Yell, through Yell to Gloup Ness (1 ° 04'W) and across to Spoo Ness (60 ° 45'N) in Unst island, through Unst to Herma Ness (60 ° 51'N), on to the SW point of the Rumblings and to Muckle Flugga (60 ° 51 ′ N 0 ° 53 ′ W / 60.850 ° N 0.883 ° W / 60.850; - 0.883) all these being included in the North Sea area; thence up the meridian of 0 ° 53 ' West to the parallel of 61 ° 00 ' North and eastward along this parallel to the coast of Norway, the whole of Viking Bank being thus included in the North Sea.
The average temperature in summer is 17 ° C (63 ° F) and 6 ° C (43 ° F) in the winter. The average temperatures have been trending higher since 1988, which has been attributed to climate change. Air temperatures in January range on average between 0 to 4 ° C (32 to 39 ° F) and in July between 13 to 18 ° C (55 to 64 ° F). The winter months see frequent gales and storms.
The salinity averages between 34 to 35 grams of salt per litre of water. The salinity has the highest variability where there is fresh water inflow, such as at the Rhine and Elbe estuaries, the Baltic Sea exit and along the coast of Norway.
The main pattern to the flow of water in the North Sea is an anti-clockwise rotation along the edges.
The North Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean receiving the majority of ocean current from the northwest opening, and a lesser portion of warm current from the smaller opening at the English Channel. These tidal currents leave along the Norwegian coast. Surface and deep water currents may move in different directions. Low salinity surface coastal waters move offshore, and deeper, denser high salinity waters move in shore.
The North Sea located on the continental shelf has different waves from those in deep ocean water. The wave speeds are diminished and the wave amplitudes are increased. In the North Sea there are two amphidromic systems and a third incomplete amphidromic system. In the North Sea the average tide difference in wave amplitude is between 0 to 8 metres (0 to 26 ft).
The Kelvin tide of the Atlantic ocean is a semidiurnal wave that travels northward. Some of the energy from this wave travels through the English Channel into the North Sea. The wave still travels northward in the Atlantic Ocean, and once past the northern tip of Great Britain, the Kelvin wave turns east and south and once again enters into the North Sea.
The eastern and western coasts of the North Sea are jagged, formed by glaciers during the ice ages. The coastlines along the southernmost part are covered with the remains of deposited glacial sediment. The Norwegian mountains plunge into the sea creating deep fjords and archipelagos. South of Stavanger, the coast softens, the islands become fewer. The eastern Scottish coast is similar, though less severe than Norway. From north east of England, the cliffs become lower and are composed of less resistant moraine, which erodes more easily, so that the coasts have more rounded contours. In the Netherlands, Belgium and in East Anglia the littoral is low and marshy. The east coast and south - east of the North Sea (Wadden Sea) have coastlines that are mainly sandy and straight owing to longshore drift, particularly along Belgium and Denmark.
The southern coastal areas were originally amphibious flood plains and swampy land. In areas especially vulnerable to storm surges, people settled behind elevated levees and on natural areas of high ground such as spits and geestland. As early as 500 BC, people were constructing artificial dwelling hills higher than the prevailing flood levels. It was only around the beginning of the High Middle Ages, in 1200 AD, that inhabitants began to connect single ring dikes into a dike line along the entire coast, thereby turning amphibious regions between the land and the sea into permanent solid ground.
The modern form of the dikes supplemented by overflow and lateral diversion channels, began to appear in the 17th and 18th centuries, built in the Netherlands. The North Sea Floods of 1953 and 1962 were impetus for further raising of the dikes as well as the shortening of the coast line so as to present as little surface area as possible to the punishment of the sea and the storms. Currently, 27 % of the Netherlands is below sea level protected by dikes, dunes, and beach flats.
Coastal management today consists of several levels. The dike slope reduces the energy of the incoming sea, so that the dike itself does not receive the full impact. Dikes that lie directly on the sea are especially reinforced. The dikes have, over the years, been repeatedly raised, sometimes up to 9 metres (30 ft) and have been made flatter to better reduce wave erosion. Where the dunes are sufficient to protect the land behind them from the sea, these dunes are planted with beach grass (Ammophila arenaria) to protect them from erosion by wind, water, and foot traffic.
Storm surges threaten, in particular, the coasts of the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, and Denmark and low lying areas of eastern England particularly around The Wash and Fens. Storm surges are caused by changes in barometric pressure combined with strong wind created wave action.
The first recorded storm tide flood was the Julianenflut, on 17 February 1164. In its wake the Jadebusen, (a bay on the coast of Germany), began to form. A storm tide in 1228 is recorded to have killed more than 100,000 people. In 1362, the Second Marcellus Flood, also known as the Grote Manndrenke, hit the entire southern coast of the North Sea. Chronicles of the time again record more than 100,000 deaths as large parts of the coast were lost permanently to the sea, including the now legendary lost city of Rungholt. In the 20th century, the North Sea flood of 1953 flooded several nations ' coasts and cost more than 2,000 lives. 315 citizens of Hamburg died in the North Sea flood of 1962.
Though rare, the North Sea has been the site of a number of historically documented tsunamis. The Storegga Slides were a series of underwater landslides, in which a piece of the Norwegian continental shelf slid into the Norwegian Sea. The immense landslips occurred between 8150 BCE and 6000 BCE, and caused a tsunami up to 20 metres (66 ft) high that swept through the North Sea, having the greatest effect on Scotland and the Faeroe Islands. The Dover Straits earthquake of 1580 is among the first recorded earthquakes in the North Sea measuring between 5.6 and 5.9 on the Richter scale. This event caused extensive damage in Calais both through its tremors and possibly triggered a tsunami, though this has never been confirmed. The theory is a vast underwater landslide in the English Channel was triggered by the earthquake, which in turn caused a tsunami. The tsunami triggered by the 1755 Lisbon earthquake reached Holland, although the waves had lost their destructive power. The largest earthquake ever recorded in the United Kingdom was the 1931 Dogger Bank earthquake, which measured 6.1 on the Richter magnitude scale and caused a small tsunami that flooded parts of the British coast.
Shallow epicontinental seas like the current North Sea have since long existed on the European continental shelf. The rifting that formed the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, from about 150 million years ago, caused tectonic uplift in the British Isles. Since then, a shallow sea has almost continuously existed between the uplands of the Fennoscandian Shield and the British Isles. This precursor of the current North Sea has grown and shrunk with the rise and fall of the eustatic sea level during geologic time. Sometimes it was connected with other shallow seas, such as the sea above the Paris Basin to the south - west, the Paratethys Sea to the south - east, or the Tethys Ocean to the south.
During the Late Cretaceous, about 85 million years ago, all of modern mainland Europe except for Scandinavia was a scattering of islands. By the Early Oligocene, 34 to 28 million years ago, the emergence of Western and Central Europe had almost completely separated the North Sea from the Tethys Ocean, which gradually shrank to become the Mediterranean as Southern Europe and South West Asia became dry land. The North Sea was cut off from the English Channel by a narrow land bridge until that was breached by at least two catastrophic floods between 450,000 and 180,000 years ago. Since the start of the Quaternary period about 2.6 million years ago, the eustatic sea level has fallen during each glacial period and then risen again. Every time the ice sheet reached its greatest extent, the North Sea became almost completely dry. The present - day coastline formed after the Last Glacial Maximum when the sea began to flood the European continental shelf.
In 2006 a bone fragment was found while drilling for oil in the north sea. Analysis indicated that it was a Plateosaurus from 199 to 216 million years ago. This was the deepest dinosaur fossil ever found and the first find for Norway.
Copepods and other zooplankton are plentiful in the North Sea. These tiny organisms are crucial elements of the food chain supporting many species of fish. Over 230 species of fish live in the North Sea. Cod, haddock, whiting, saithe, plaice, sole, mackerel, herring, pouting, sprat, and sandeel are all very common and are fished commercially. Due to the various depths of the North Sea trenches and differences in salinity, temperature, and water movement, some fish such as blue - mouth redfish and rabbitfish reside only in small areas of the North Sea.
Crustaceans are also commonly found throughout the sea. Norway lobster, deep - water prawns, and brown shrimp are all commercially fished, but other species of lobster, shrimp, oyster, mussels and clams all live in the North Sea. Recently non-indigenous species have become established including the Pacific oyster and Atlantic jackknife clam.
The coasts of the North Sea are home to nature reserves including the Ythan Estuary, Fowlsheugh Nature Preserve, and Farne Islands in the UK and the Wadden Sea National Parks in Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands. These locations provide breeding habitat for dozens of bird species. Tens of millions of birds make use of the North Sea for breeding, feeding, or migratory stopovers every year. Populations of black legged kittiwakes, Atlantic puffins, northern fulmars, and species of petrels, gannets, seaducks, loons (divers), cormorants, gulls, auks, and terns, and many other seabirds make these coasts popular for birdwatching.
The North Sea is also home to marine mammals. Common seals, and harbour porpoises can be found along the coasts, at marine installations, and on islands. The very northern North Sea islands such as the Shetland Islands are occasionally home to a larger variety of pinnipeds including bearded, harp, hooded and ringed seals, and even walrus. North Sea cetaceans include various porpoise, dolphin and whale species.
Plant species in the North Sea include species of wrack, among them bladder wrack, knotted wrack, and serrated wrack. Algae, macroalgal, and kelp, such as oarweed and laminaria hyperboria, and species of maerl are found as well. Eelgrass, formerly common in the entirety of the Wadden Sea, was nearly wiped out in the 20th century by a disease. Similarly, sea grass used to coat huge tracts of ocean floor, but have been damaged by trawling and dredging have diminished its habitat and prevented its return. Invasive Japanese seaweed has spread along the shores of the sea clogging harbours and inlets and has become a nuisance.
Due to the heavy human populations and high level of industrialization along its shores, the wildlife of the North Sea has suffered from pollution, overhunting, and overfishing. Flamingos and pelicans were once found along the southern shores of the North Sea, but became extinct over the 2nd millennium. Walruses frequented the Orkney Islands through the mid-16th century, as both Sable Island and Orkney Islands lay within its normal range. Gray whales also resided in the North Sea but were driven to extinction in the Atlantic in the 17th century Other species have dramatically declined in population, though they are still found. North Atlantic right whales, sturgeon, shad, rays, skates, salmon, and other species were common in the North Sea until the 20th century, when numbers declined due to overfishing. Other factors like the introduction of non-indigenous species, industrial and agricultural pollution, trawling and dredging, human - induced eutrophication, construction on coastal breeding and feeding grounds, sand and gravel extraction, offshore construction, and heavy shipping traffic have also contributed to the decline.
The OSPAR commission manages the OSPAR convention to counteract the harmful effects of human activity on wildlife in the North Sea, preserve endangered species, and provide environmental protection. All North Sea border states are signatories of the MARPOL 73 / 78 Accords, which preserve the marine environment by preventing pollution from ships. Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands also have a trilateral agreement for the protection of the Wadden Sea, or mudflats, which run along the coasts of the three countries on the southern edge of the North Sea.
Whaling was an important economic activity from the 9th until the 13th century for Flemish whalers. The medieval Flemish, Basque and Norwegian whalers who were replaced in the 16th century by Dutch, English, Danes and Germans, took massive numbers of whales and dolphins and nearly depleted the right whales. This activity likely led to the extinction of the Atlantic population of the once common gray whale. By 1902 the whaling had ended. After being absent for 300 years a single gray whale returned, it probably was the first of many more to find its way through the now ice - free Northwest Passage. Once 16 - metre (50 ft) "fish '' were taken in large quantities at the mouth of the River Seine. Perhaps the gray whale will someday return to its former Seine estuary breeding grounds and to the feeding grounds of the Wadden Sea where it will again roil the sediments and release its benthic nutrients that will benefit the ecosystem.
Through history various names have been used for the North Sea. One of the earliest recorded names was Septentrionalis Oceanus, or "Northern Ocean, '' which was cited by Pliny. The name "North Sea '' probably came into English, however, via the Dutch "Noordzee '', who named it thus either in contrast with the Zuiderzee ("South Sea ''), located south of Frisia, or because the sea is generally to the north of the Netherlands. Before the adoption of "North Sea, '' the names used in English were "German Sea '' or "German Ocean '', referred to the Latin names "Mare Gemanicum '' and "Oceanus Germanicus '', and these persisted in use until the First World War.
Other common names in use for long periods were the Latin terms "Mare Frisicum '', as well as their English equivalents, "Frisian Sea ''.
The modern names of the sea in local languages are: Danish: Nordsøen, Dutch: Noordzee, Dutch Low Saxon: Noordzee, French: Mer du Nord, West Frisian: Noardsee, German: Nordsee, Low German: Noordsee, Northern Frisian: Weestsiie (literally meaning "West Sea ''), Norwegian: Nordsjøen, Nynorsk: Nordsjøen, Scots: German Ocean, Swedish: Nordsjön, Scottish Gaelic: An Cuan a Tuath, West Flemish: Nôordzêe and Zeeuws: Noôrdzeê.
The North Sea has provided waterway access for commerce and conquest. Many areas have access to the North Sea because of its long coastline and the European rivers that empty into it. The British Isles had been protected from invasion by the North Sea waters until the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 CE. The Romans established organised ports, which increased shipping, and began sustained trade. When the Romans abandoned Britain in 410, the Germanic Angles, Saxons, and Jutes began the next great migration across the North Sea during the Migration Period. They made successive invasions of the island.
The Viking Age began in 793 with the attack on Lindisfarne; for the next quarter - millennium the Vikings ruled the North Sea. In their superior longships, they raided, traded, and established colonies and outposts along the coasts of the sea. From the Middle Ages through the 15th century, the northern European coastal ports exported domestic goods, dyes, linen, salt, metal goods and wine. The Scandinavian and Baltic areas shipped grain, fish, naval necessities, and timber. In turn the North Sea countries imported high - grade cloths, spices, and fruits from the Mediterranean region. Commerce during this era was mainly conducted by maritime trade due to underdeveloped roadways.
In the 13th century the Hanseatic League, though centred on the Baltic Sea, started to control most of the trade through important members and outposts on the North Sea. The League lost its dominance in the 16th century, as neighbouring states took control of former Hanseatic cities and outposts. Their internal conflict prevented effective cooperation and defence. As the League lost control of its maritime cities, new trade routes emerged that provided Europe with Asian, American, and African goods.
The 17th century Dutch Golden Age during which Dutch herring, cod and whale fisheries reached an all time high saw Dutch power at its zenith. Important overseas colonies, a vast merchant marine, powerful navy and large profits made the Dutch the main challengers to an ambitious England. This rivalry led to the first three Anglo - Dutch Wars between 1652 and 1673, which ended with Dutch victories. After the Glorious Revolution the Dutch prince William ascended to the English throne. With both countries united, commercial, military, and political power shifted from Amsterdam to London. The British did not face a challenge to their dominance of the North Sea until the 20th century.
Tensions in the North Sea were again heightened in 1904 by the Dogger Bank incident. During the Russo - Japanese War, several ships of the Russian Baltic Fleet, which was on its way to the Far East, mistook British fishing boats for Japanese ships and fired on them, and then upon each other, near the Dogger Bank, nearly causing Britain to enter the war on the side of Japan.
During the First World War, Great Britain 's Grand Fleet and Germany 's Kaiserliche Marine faced each other in the North Sea, which became the main theatre of the war for surface action. Britain 's larger fleet and North Sea Mine Barrage were able to establish an effective blockade for most of the war, which restricted the Central Powers ' access to many crucial resources. Major battles included the Battle of Heligoland Bight, the Battle of the Dogger Bank, and the Battle of Jutland. World War I also brought the first extensive use of submarine warfare, and a number of submarine actions occurred in the North Sea.
The Second World War also saw action in the North Sea, though it was restricted more to aircraft reconnaissance, and action by fighter / bomber aircraft, submarines, and smaller vessels such as minesweepers and torpedo boats.
In the aftermath of the war, hundreds of thousands of tons of chemical weapons were disposed of by being dumped in the North Sea.
After the war, the North Sea lost much of its military significance because it is bordered only by NATO member - states. However, it gained significant economic importance in the 1960s as the states around the North Sea began full - scale exploitation of its oil and gas resources. The North Sea continues to be an active trade route.
Countries that border the North Sea all claim the 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) of territorial waters, within which they have exclusive fishing rights. The Common Fisheries Policy of the European Union (EU) exists to coordinate fishing rights and assist with disputes between EU states and the EU border state of Norway.
After the discovery of mineral resources in the North Sea, the Convention on the Continental Shelf established country rights largely divided along the median line. The median line is defined as the line "every point of which is equidistant from the nearest points of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is measured. '' The ocean floor border between Germany, the Netherlands, and Denmark was only reapportioned after protracted negotiations and a judgement of the International Court of Justice.
As early as 1859, oil was discovered in onshore areas around the North Sea and natural gas as early as 1910.
Test drilling began in 1966 and then, in 1969, Phillips Petroleum Company discovered the Ekofisk oil field distinguished by valuable, low - sulphur oil. Commercial exploitation began in 1971 with tankers and, after 1975, by a pipeline, first to Teesside, England and then, after 1977, also to Emden, Germany.
The exploitation of the North Sea oil reserves began just before the 1973 oil crisis, and the climb of international oil prices made the large investments needed for extraction much more attractive.
Although the production costs are relatively high, the quality of the oil, the political stability of the region, and the proximity of important markets in western Europe has made the North Sea an important oil producing region. The largest single humanitarian catastrophe in the North Sea oil industry was the destruction of the offshore oil platform Piper Alpha in 1988 in which 167 people lost their lives.
Besides the Ekofisk oil field, the Statfjord oil field is also notable as it was the cause of the first pipeline to span the Norwegian trench. The largest natural gas field in the North Sea, Troll gas field, lies in the Norwegian trench dropping over 300 metres (980 ft) requiring the construction of the enormous Troll A platform to access it.
The price of Brent Crude, one of the first types of oil extracted from the North Sea, is used today as a standard price for comparison for crude oil from the rest of the world. The North Sea contains western Europe 's largest oil and natural gas reserves and is one of the world 's key non-OPEC producing regions.
In the UK sector of the North Sea, the oil industry invested £ 14.4 billion in 2013, and was on track to spend £ 13 billion in 2014. Industry body Oil & Gas UK put the decline down to rising costs, lower production, high tax rates, and less exploration.
The North Sea is Europe 's main fishery accounting for over 5 % of international commercial fish caught. Fishing in the North Sea is concentrated in the southern part of the coastal waters. The main method of fishing is trawling. In 1995, the total volume of fish and shellfish caught in the North Sea was approximately 3.5 million tonnes. Besides fish, it is estimated that one million tonnes of unmarketable by - catch is caught and discarded each year.
In recent decades, overfishing has left many fisheries unproductive, disturbing marine food chain dynamics and costing jobs in the fishing industry. Herring, cod and plaice fisheries may soon face the same plight as mackerel fishing, which ceased in the 1970s due to overfishing. The objective of the European Union Common Fisheries Policy is to minimize the environmental impact associated with resource use by reducing fish discards, increasing productivity of fisheries, stabilising markets of fisheries and fish processing, and supplying fish at reasonable prices for the consumer.
In addition to oil, gas, and fish, the states along the North Sea also take millions of cubic metres per year of sand and gravel from the ocean floor. These are used for beach nourishment, land reclamation and construction. Rolled pieces of amber may be picked up on the east coast of England.
Due to the strong prevailing winds, and shallow water, countries on the North Sea, particularly Germany and Denmark, have used the shore for wind power since the 1990s. The North Sea is the home of one of the first large - scale offshore wind farms in the world, Horns Rev 1, completed in 2002. Since then many other wind farms have been commissioned in the North Sea (and elsewhere). As of 2013 the 630 megawatt (MW) London Array is the largest offshore wind farm in the world, with the 504 (MW) Greater Gabbard wind farm the second largest, followed by the 367 MW Walney Wind Farm. All are off the coast of the UK. These projects will be dwarfed by subsequent wind farms that are in the pipeline, including Dogger Bank at 4,800 MW, Norfolk Bank (7,200 MW), and Irish Sea (4,200 MW). At the end of June 2013 total European combined offshore wind energy capacity was 6,040 MW. UK installed 513.5 MW offshore windpower in the first half year of 2013.
The expansion of offshore wind farms has met with some resistance. Concerns have included shipping collisions and environmental effects on ocean ecology and wildlife such as fish and migratory birds, however, these concerns were found to be negligible in a long - term study in Denmark released in 2006 and again in a UK government study in 2009. There are also concerns about reliability, and the rising costs of constructing and maintaining offshore wind farms. Despite these, development of North Sea wind power is continuing, with plans for additional wind farms off the coasts of Germany, the Netherlands, and the UK. There have also been proposals for a transnational power grid in the North Sea to connect new offshore wind farms.
Energy production from tidal power is still in a pre-commercial stage. The European Marine Energy Centre has installed a wave testing system at Billia Croo on the Orkney mainland and a tidal power testing station on the nearby island of Eday. Since 2003, a prototype Wave Dragon energy converter has been in operation at Nissum Bredning fjord of northern Denmark.
The beaches and coastal waters of the North Sea are destinations for tourists. The Belgian, Dutch, German and Danish coasts are developed for tourism. The North Sea coast of the United Kingdom has tourist destinations with beach resorts and golf courses. Fife in Scotland is famous for its links golf courses. The coastal City of St. Andrews being renowned as the "Home of Golf ''. The coast of North East England has several tourist towns such as Scarborough, Bridlington, Seahouses, Whitby, Robin Hood 's Bay and Seaton Carew. The coast of North East England has long sandy beaches and links golfing locations such as Seaton Carew Golf Club and Goswick Golf Club. The North Sea Trail is a long - distance trail linking seven countries around the North Sea. Windsurfing and sailing are popular sports because of the strong winds. Mudflat hiking, recreational fishing and birdwatching are among other activities.
The climatic conditions on the North Sea coast have been claimed to be healthful. As early as the 19th century, travellers used their stays on the North Sea coast as curative and restorative vacations. The sea air, temperature, wind, water, and sunshine are counted among the beneficial conditions that are said to activate the body 's defences, improve circulation, strengthen the immune system, and have healing effects on the skin and the respiratory system.
The North Sea is important for marine transport and its shipping lanes are among the busiest in the world. Major ports are located along its coasts: Rotterdam, the busiest port in Europe and the fourth busiest port in the world by tonnage as of 2013, Antwerp (was 16th) and Hamburg (was 27th), Bremen / Bremerhaven and Felixstowe, both in the top 30 busiest container seaports, as well as the Port of Bruges - Zeebrugge, Europe 's leading ro - ro port.
Fishing boats, service boats for offshore industries, sport and pleasure craft, and merchant ships to and from North Sea ports and Baltic ports must share routes on the North Sea. The Dover Strait alone sees more than 400 commercial vessels a day. Because of this volume, navigation in the North Sea can be difficult in high traffic zones, so ports have established elaborate vessel traffic services to monitor and direct ships into and out of port.
The North Sea coasts are home to numerous canals and canal systems to facilitate traffic between and among rivers, artificial harbours, and the sea. The Kiel Canal, connecting the North Sea with the Baltic Sea, is the most heavily used artificial seaway in the world reporting an average of 89 ships per day not including sporting boats and other small watercraft in 2009. It saves an average of 250 nautical miles (460 km; 290 mi), instead of the voyage around the Jutland peninsula. The North Sea Canal connects Amsterdam with the North Sea.
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mmsis for coast stations start with which number | Maritime mobile service identity - wikipedia
A Maritime Mobile Service Identity (MMSI) is a series of nine digits which are sent in digital form over a radio frequency channel in order to uniquely identify ship stations, ship earth stations, coast stations, coast earth stations, and group calls. These identities are formed in such a way that the identity or part thereof can be used by telephone and telex subscribers connected to the general telecommunications network to call ships automatically.
There are now six kinds of maritime mobile service identities:
An MID consists of three digits, always starting with a number from 2 to 7 (assigned regionally). A second MID can be assigned once the first or subsequently allocated MID is more than 80 % exhausted, and the rate of assignments is such that 90 % exhaustion is foreseen. A listing of MIDs assigned to each country is written in Table 1 of ITU Radio Regulations Appendix 43.
The initial digits of an MMSI categorize the identity, as defined in by Recommendation M. 585. The meaning of the first digit is:
The 9 - digit code constituting a ship station identity is formed as follows:
where MID represent the Maritime Identification Digits and X is any figure from 0 to 9. If the ship is fitted with an Inmarsat B, C or M ship earth station, or it is expected to be so equipped in the foreseeable future, then the identity should have three trailing zeros:
If the ship is fitted with an Inmarsat C ship earth station, or it is expected to be so equipped in the foreseeable future, then the identity could have one trailing zero:
If the ship is fitted with an Inmarsat A ship earth station, or has satellite equipment other than Inmarsat, then the identity needs no trailing zero.
Group ship station call identities for calling simultaneously more than one ship are formed as follows:
where the first figure is zero, and X is any figure from 0 to 9. The particular MID represents only the country assigning the group ship station call identity and so does not prevent group calls to fleets containing more than one ship nationality.
Coast station identities are formed as follows:
where the first two figures are zeros, and X is any figure from 0 to 9. The MID reflects the country in which the coast station or coast earth station is located.
Group coast station call identities for calling simultaneously more than one coast station have the same format as individual coast station IDs: two leading zeros, the MID, and the four digits. They are formed as a subset of coast station identities, as follows:
US Coast Guard stations use a non-standard MMSI: 003669999 - any US Coast Guard Base station Note that administrations in other countries may use different formats.
Reference: ITU - R Recommendations M. 585 - 7
AIS Search and Rescue Transmitters (AIS - SART) have an identifier related to the manufacturer, rather than a country 's MID:
The digitals represented by the two Y characters are assigned by the International Association for Marine Electronics Companies and refer to the SART manufacturer, while the Xs are sequential digits assigned by the manufacturer identifying the SART.
In the United States (one of whose MIDs is 366), federal MMSIs are assigned by the National Telecommunications and Information Administration, and are normally (but not always) formed as 3669xxxxx. Non-federal MMSIs are assigned by the Federal Communications Commission normally as part of the ship station license application, and are formed as 366xxx000 for ships on international voyages and ships needing an Inmarsat mobile earth station, or 366xxxxx0 for all other ships.
The United States Coast Guard group ship station call identity is 036699999, and group coast station call identity is 003669999.
In the U.S., MMSIs are primarily used for digital selective calling and for assigning Inmarsat identities.
Because all ships on international voyages, as well as all ships fitted with an Inmarsat B or M ship earth station, are assigned MMSIs of the format MIDxxx000, a serious problem has arisen internationally in assigning sufficient numbers of MIDs to all administrations that need them. For example, a country having 10,000 Inmarsat - equipped ships would require 10 MIDs just to accommodate those 10,000 ships. If 50,000 boaters decided to fit small Inmarsat M terminals, 50 additional MIDs would be required to accommodate them.
The problem exists with Inmarsat - equipped ships because ITU - T recommendations require that Inmarsat ship earth stations be assigned the identity (MESIN) TMIDxxxYY, where T indicates the type of Inmarsat station, YY indicates the Inmarsat station extension (e.g. "00 '' might indicate a telephone in the bridge, "01 '' might indicate a fax machine in the radio room, etc.), and MIDxxx indicates the ship station number, which relates to the assigned ship station identity MIDxxx000.
The MMSI was meant to be an all - inclusive ship electronic identity, used in one form or another by every GMDSS or telecommunications instrument on the ship. Questions have been raised, however, whether the MMSI can in practice totally fulfill that role. ITU may eventually end the practice of relating Inmarsat MESIN identities with the ship MMSI identity.
The World Radio Conference, Geneva, 1997 (WRC - 97), adopted Resolution 344 concerning the exhaustion of the maritime mobile service identity resource. In view of improvements to public switched telephone networks, and new capabilities of the Inmarsat system other than Inmarsat B or M, previous restrictions should no longer be applicable. All nine digits of the MMSI can be used in such cases, and no longer need to end in trailing zeros.
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what happened to the ark in raiders of the lost ark | Raiders of the Lost Ark - Wikipedia
Raiders of the Lost Ark (also known as Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the Lost Ark) is a 1981 American action adventure fantasy film directed by Steven Spielberg, written by Lawrence Kasdan from a story by George Lucas and Philip Kaufman. It was produced by Frank Marshall for Lucasfilm Ltd., with Lucas and Howard Kazanjian as executive producers.
The first installment in the Indiana Jones film franchise, it stars Harrison Ford as archaeologist Indiana Jones, who battles a group of Nazis searching for the Ark of the Covenant. It co-stars Karen Allen as Indiana 's former lover, Marion Ravenwood; Paul Freeman as Indiana 's rival, French archaeologist René Belloq; John Rhys - Davies as Indiana 's sidekick, Sallah; Ronald Lacey as Gestapo agent Arnold Toht; and Denholm Elliott as Indiana 's colleague, Marcus Brody.
The film originated from Lucas ' desire to create a modern version of the serials of the 1930s and 1940s. Production was based at Elstree Studios, England, but filming also took place in La Rochelle, France, Tunisia, Hawaii, and California from June to September 1980.
Raiders of the Lost Ark became 1981 's top - grossing film and remains one of the highest - grossing films. It was nominated for eight Academy Awards in 1982, including Best Picture, and won for Best Art Direction, Film Editing, Sound, and Visual Effects with a fifth Academy Award: a Special Achievement Award for Sound Effects Editing. It is often considered one of the greatest films ever made. In 1999, it was included in the U.S. Library of Congress ' National Film Registry as "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. The film began a franchise including several sequels, a television series, The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles (1992 -- 1996), and numerous video games.
In 1936, archaeologist Indiana Jones braves an ancient booby - trapped temple in Peru and retrieves a golden idol. He is confronted by rival archaeologist René Belloq and the indigenous Hovito people. Surrounded and outnumbered, Jones surrenders the idol to Belloq and escapes aboard a waiting floatplane.
Jones returns to his teaching position at Marshall College, where he is interviewed by two Army Intelligence agents. They inform Jones that the Nazis are searching for his old mentor, Abner Ravenwood, under whom Jones studied at the University of Chicago. The Nazis know that Ravenwood is the leading expert on the ancient city of Tanis in Egypt, and that he possesses the headpiece of an ancient Egyptian object known as "the Staff of Ra ''... Jones deduces that the Nazis are searching for the Ark of the Covenant -- the Nazis believe that if they acquire the Ark, their armies will become invincible. The Staff of Ra (used to project a beam of sunlight on a building in a diorama of the city) is the key to finding the Well of Souls, a secret chamber in Tanis, Egypt, in which the Ark is buried.
The agents authorize Jones to recover the Ark to prevent the Nazis from obtaining it. He travels to Nepal and discovers that Ravenwood has died, and the headpiece is in the possession of Ravenwood 's daughter Marion. Jones visits Marion at her tavern, where she reveals her bitter feelings toward him from a previous romantic affair. She physically rebuffs his offer to buy the headpiece, and Jones leaves. Shortly after, a group of thugs arrive with their Nazi commander Arnold Toht. Toht threatens Marion to get the headpiece but Jones returns to the bar and fights the Nazis to save Marion. During the fight the bar is set ablaze and the headpiece lands in the flames. Toht severely burns his hand trying to take the hot headpiece and flees the tavern screaming. Jones and Marion escape with the headpiece, and Marion decides to accompany Jones in his search for the Ark so he can repay his debt to her.
The pair travels to Cairo, where they meet up with Jones ' friend and skilled digger Sallah. Sallah informs them that Belloq and the Nazis are digging for the Well of Souls with a replica of the headpiece (created from the scar on Toht 's hand). They quickly realize the Nazi headpiece is incomplete and that the Nazis are digging in the wrong place. The Nazis kidnap Marion and it appears to Jones that she is killed in an exploding truck. After a confrontation with Belloq in a local bar, Jones and Sallah infiltrate the Nazi dig site and use their staff to correctly locate the Ark. Jones discovers Marion is alive when he finds her bound and gagged in a tent. He refuses to release her out of fear of alerting the Nazis. Jones, Sallah, and a small group of diggers unearth the Well of Souls and acquire the Ark. Belloq and Nazi officer Colonel Dietrich arrive and seize the Ark from Jones, throwing Marion into the Well of Souls with him before sealing it back up. Jones and Marion escape to a local airstrip, where Jones has a fistfight with a Nazi mechanic and destroys the flying wing that was to transport the Ark to Berlin. The panicked Nazis remove the Ark in a truck and set off for Cairo, but Jones catches them and retakes it. He makes arrangements to take the Ark to London aboard a tramp steamer.
The next day, a Nazi U-boat appears and intercepts the ship. Belloq and Dietrich seize the Ark and Marion but can not locate Jones, who stows away aboard the U-boat and travels with them to an island in the Aegean Sea. Once there, Belloq plans to test the power of the Ark before presenting it to Hitler. Jones reveals himself and threatens to destroy the Ark with an RPG - 2, but Belloq calls his bluff and Jones surrenders rather than destroy such an important historical artifact and kill Marion in the process. The Nazis take Jones and Marion to an area where the Ark will be opened and tie them to a post to observe. Belloq, dressed as an Israelite high priest, performs a ceremonial opening of the Ark and finds it full of sand. Angelic specters emerge from the Ark, destroying the equipment the Nazis are using to film the opening, and Jones tells Marion to close her eyes and not look. Belloq and the others look on in astonishment as the apparitions are suddenly revealed to be angels of death. A vortex of flame forms above the Ark and shoots bolts of fiery energy into the gathered Nazi soldiers, killing them all. Belloq, Toht and Dietrich all scream in terror as the Ark turns its fury on them: Dietrich 's head shrivels up, Toht 's face is melted off his skull and Belloq 's head explodes. Flames then engulf the remains of the doomed assembly, save for Jones and Marion, and the pillar of fire rises into the sky. The Ark 's lid is blasted high into the air before dropping back down onto the Ark and sealing it. Jones and Marion find their ropes burned off and embrace.
In Washington, D.C., the Army Intelligence agents inform Jones and Marcus Brody that the Ark is someplace safe and will be studied by "top men ''. The Ark is then shown being stored in a giant government warehouse among countless similar crates.
Producer Frank Marshall played a pilot in the airplane fight sequence. The stunt team was ill, so he took the role instead. The result was three days in a hot cockpit, which he joked was over "140 degrees ''. Pat Roach plays the Nazi mechanic with whom Jones brawls in this sequence, as well as a massive sherpa who battles Jones in Marion 's bar. He had the rare opportunity to be killed twice in one film. Special - effects supervisor Dennis Muren made a cameo as a Nazi spy on the seaplane Jones takes from San Francisco to Manila.
In 1973, George Lucas wrote The Adventures of Indiana Smith. Like Star Wars, which he also wrote, it was an opportunity to create a modern version of the film serials of the 1930s and 1940s. Lucas discussed the concept with Philip Kaufman, who worked with him for several weeks and came up with the Ark of the Covenant as the plot device. Kaufman was told about the Ark by his dentist when he was a child. The project stalled when Clint Eastwood hired Kaufman to direct The Outlaw Josey Wales. Lucas shelved the idea, deciding to concentrate on his outer space adventure that would become Star Wars. In late May 1977, Lucas was in Hawaii, trying to escape the enormous success of Star Wars. Friend and colleague Steven Spielberg was also there, on vacation from work on Close Encounters of the Third Kind. While building a sand castle at the Mauna Kea Beach Hotel, Spielberg expressed an interest in directing a James Bond film. Lucas convinced his friend Spielberg that he had conceived a character "better than James Bond '' and explained the concept of Raiders of the Lost Ark. Spielberg loved it, calling it "a James Bond film without the hardware '', although he told Lucas that the surname ' Smith ' was not right for the character. Lucas replied, "OK. What about ' Jones '? '' Indiana was the name of Lucas ' Alaskan Malamute, whose habit of riding in the passenger seat as Lucas drove was also the inspiration for Star Wars ' Chewbacca. Spielberg was at first reluctant to sign on, as Lucas had told him that he would want Spielberg for an entire trilogy, and Spielberg did not want to work on two more scripts. Lucas told him, however, that he already had the next two movies written, so Spielberg agreed. But when the time came for the first sequel, it was revealed that Lucas had nothing written for either sequel.
The following year, Lucas focused on developing Raiders and the Star Wars sequel The Empire Strikes Back, during which Lawrence Kasdan and Frank Marshall joined the project as screenwriter and producer respectively. Between January 23 -- 27, 1978, for nine hours a day, Lucas, Kasdan, and Spielberg discussed the story and visual ideas. Spielberg came up with Jones being chased by a boulder, which was inspired by Carl Barks ' Uncle Scrooge comic "The Seven Cities of Cibola ''. Lucas later acknowledged that the idea for the idol mechanism in the opening scene and deadly traps later in the film were inspired by several Uncle Scrooge comics. Lucas came up with a submarine, a monkey giving the Hitler salute, and Marion punching Jones in Nepal. Kasdan used a 100 - page transcript of their conversations for his first script draft, which he worked on for six months. Ultimately, some of their ideas were too grand and had to be cut: a mine chase, an escape in Shanghai using a rolling gong as a shield, and a jump from an airplane in a raft, all of which made it into the prequel, Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom.
Spielberg and Lucas disagreed on the character: although Spielberg saw him as a Bondian playboy, Lucas felt the character 's academic and adventurer elements made him complex enough. Spielberg had a darker vision of Jones, interpreting him as an alcoholic similar to Humphrey Bogart 's character Fred C. Dobbs in The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948). This characterization fell away during the later drafts, though elements survive in Jones 's reaction when he believes Marion to be dead. Costume designer Deborah Nadoolman credits Secret of the Incas (1954), starring Charlton Heston, as an influence on the development of the character, noting that the crew watched the film together several times. Nadoolman based the look of Ford 's costume on that of Heston 's, and observed that Indiana is a "kinder and gentler '' Harry Steele.
Initially, the film was rejected by every major studio in Hollywood, mostly due to the $20 million budget and the deal Lucas was offering. Eventually Paramount agreed to finance the film, with Lucas negotiating a five - picture deal. By April 1980, Kasdan 's fifth draft was produced, and production was getting ready to shoot at Elstree Studios, with Lucas trying to keep costs down. With four illustrators, Raiders of the Lost Ark was Spielberg 's most storyboarded film of his career to date, further helping the film economically. He and Lucas agreed on a tight schedule to keep costs down and to follow the "quick and dirty '' feel of the old Saturday matinée serials. Special effects were done using puppets, miniature models, animation, and camera trickery. "We did n't do 30 or 40 takes; usually only four. It was like silent film -- shoot only what you need, no waste '', Spielberg said. "Had I had more time and money, it would have turned out a pretentious movie. ''
Principal photography began on June 23, 1980, at La Rochelle, France, with scenes involving the Nazi submarine, which had been rented from the production of Das Boot. The U-boat pen was a real one from World War II. The crew moved to Elstree Studios for the Well of Souls scenes, the opening sequence temple interiors and Marion Ravenwood 's bar. The Well of Souls scene required 7,000 snakes. The only venomous snakes were the cobras, but one crew member was bitten on set by a python. The bulk of the snakes ' numbers were made up with giant but harmless legless lizards known as Scheltopusiks (Pseudopus apodus) which occur from the Balkan Peninsula of southeastern Europe to Central Asia. Growing to 1.3 m they are the largest legless lizards in the world and are often mistaken for snakes despite some very obvious differences such as the presence of eyelids and external ear openings, which are both absent from all snakes, and a notched rather than forked tongue. In the finished film, during the scene in which Indiana comes face - to - face with the cobra, a reflection in the glass screen that protected Ford from the snake was seen, an issue that was corrected in the 2003 digitally - enhanced re-release. Unlike Indiana, neither Ford nor Spielberg has a fear of snakes, but Spielberg said that seeing all the snakes on the set writhing around made him "want to puke ''.
The opening scene in the Peruvian jungle was filmed on the island of Kauai, one of the islands of Hawaii, to which Spielberg would return for Jurassic Park. The first shot features a misty view of Kalalea Mountain, the culminating point in Anahola, Hawaii. The "temple '' location is on the Huleia River, on the Kipu Ranch, south from Kaumualii Highway on the east coast, just south of Lihue, the island 's main town. Kipu is a working cattle ranch, not generally open to the public. The Peruvian section (but actually filmed in Hawaii) featured live tarantulas of a Mexican species (Brachypelma) on Harrison Ford and Alfred Molina, and are harmless to humans, and in fact of a species which are commonly kept as exotic pets. A fiberglass boulder 22 feet (7 m) in diameter was made for the scene where Indiana escapes from the temple; Spielberg was so impressed by production designer Norman Reynolds ' realization of his idea that he gave the boulder a more prominent role in the film and told Reynolds to let the boulder roll another 50 feet (15 m).
The scenes set in Egypt were filmed in Tunisia, and the canyon where Indiana threatens to blow up the Ark was shot in Sidi Bouhlel, just outside Tozeur. The canyon location had been used for the Tatooine scenes from 1977 's Star Wars (many of the location crew members were the same for both films) where R2 - D2 was attacked by Jawas. The Tanis scenes were filmed in nearby Sedala, a harsh place due to heat and disease. Several cast and crew members fell ill and Rhys - Davies defecated in his costume during one shot. Spielberg averted disease by eating only canned foods from England, but did not like the area and quickly condensed the scheduled six - week shoot to four - and - a-half weeks. Much was improvised: the scene where Marion puts on her dress and attempts to leave Belloq 's tent was improvised as was the entire plane fight. During that scene 's shooting, a wheel went over Ford 's knee and tore his left leg 's cruciate ligament, but he refused local medical help and simply put ice on it.
The fight scenes in the town were filmed in Kairouan, while Ford was suffering from dysentery. Stuntman Terry Richards had practiced for weeks with his sword to create the scripted fight scene, choreographing a fight between the swordsman and Jones ' whip. However, after filming the initial shots of the scene, after lunch due to Ford 's dysentery, Ford and Spielberg agreed to cut the scene down to a gunshot, with Ford saying to Spielberg "Let 's just shoot the sucker ''. It was later voted in at No. 5 on Playboy magazine 's list of best all time scenes. Most of the truck chase was shot by second unit director Michael D. Moore following Spielberg 's storyboards, including Indiana being dragged by the truck (performed by stuntman Terry Leonard), in tribute to a famous Yakima Canutt stunt. Spielberg then filmed all the shots with Ford himself in and around the truck cab. Lucas directed a few other second unit shots, in particular the monkey giving the Nazi salute.
The interior staircase set in Washington, D.C. was filmed in San Francisco 's City Hall. The University of the Pacific 's campus in Stockton, California, stood in for the exterior of the college where Jones works, while his classroom and the hall where he meets the American intelligence agents was filmed at the Royal Masonic School for Girls in Rickmansworth, Hertfordshire, England, which was again used in The Last Crusade. His home exteriors were filmed in San Rafael, California. Opening sequence exteriors were filmed in Kauai, Hawaii, with Spielberg wrapping in September in 73 days, finishing under schedule in contrast to his previous film, 1941. The Washington, D.C. coda, although it appeared in the script 's early drafts, was not included in early edits but was added later when it was realized that there was no resolution to Jones ' relationship with Marion. Shots of the Douglas DC - 3 Jones flies on to Nepal were taken from Lost Horizon, and a street scene was from a shot in The Hindenburg. Filming of Jones boarding a Boeing Clipper flying - boat was complicated by the lack of a surviving aircraft. Eventually, a post-war British Short Solent flying - boat formerly owned by Howard Hughes was located in California and substituted.
The special visual effects for Raiders were provided by Industrial Light & Magic and include: a matte shot to establish the Pan Am flying boat in the water and miniature work to show the plane taking off and flying, superimposed over a map; animation effects for the beam in the Tanis map room; and a miniature car and passengers superimposed over a matte painting for a shot of a Nazi car being forced off a cliff. The bulk of effects shots were featured in the climactic sequence wherein the Ark of the Covenant is opened and God 's wrath is unleashed. This sequence featured animation, a woman to portray a beautiful spirit 's face, rod puppet spirits moved through water to convey a sense of floating, a matte painting of the island, and cloud tank effects to portray clouds. The melting of Toht 's head was done by exposing a gelatine and plaster model of Ronald Lacey 's head to a heat lamp with an under - cranked camera, while Dietrich 's crushed head was a hollow model from which air was withdrawn. When the film was originally submitted to the Motion Picture Association of America, it received an R rating because of the scene in which Belloq 's head explodes. The filmmakers were able to receive a PG rating when they added a veil of fire over the exploding head scene. (PG - 13 rating was not created until 1984.) The firestorm that cleanses the canyon at the finish was a miniature canyon filmed upside down. Brian Muir and Keith Short created the Ark prop based on the paintings of James Tissot.
Ben Burtt, the sound effects supervisor, made extensive use of traditional foley work in yet another of the production 's throwbacks to days of the Republic serials. He selected a. 30 - 30 Winchester rifle for the sound of Jones ' pistol. Sound effects artists struck leather jackets and baseball gloves with a baseball bat to create a variety of punching noises and body blows. For the snakes in the Well of Souls sequence, fingers running through cheese casserole and sponges sliding over concrete were used for the slithering noises. The sliding lid on a toilet cistern provided the sound for the opening of the Ark, and the sound of the boulder in the opening is a car rolling down a gravel driveway in neutral. Burtt also used, as he did in many of his films, the ubiquitous Wilhelm scream when a Nazi falls from a truck. In addition to his use of such time - honored foley work, Burtt also demonstrated the modern expertise honed during his award - winning work on Star Wars. He employed a synthesizer for the sounds of the Ark, and mixed dolphins ' and sea lions ' screams for those of the spirits within.
The final scene, where the Ark is placed in a vast warehouse, was Spielberg 's homage to Citizen Kane, where Kane 's lost childhood sled, "Rosebud '', is similarly treated.
John Williams composed the score for Raiders of the Lost Ark, which was the only score in the series performed by the London Symphony Orchestra, the same orchestra that performed the scores for the Star Wars saga. The score most notably features the well - known "Raiders March ''. This piece came to symbolize Indiana Jones and was later used in the scores for the other three films. Williams originally wrote two different candidates for Jones 's theme, but Spielberg enjoyed them so much that he insisted that both be used together in what became the "Raiders March ''. The alternately eerie and apocalyptic theme for the Ark of the Covenant is also heard frequently in the score, with a more romantic melody representing Marion and, more broadly, her relationship with Jones. The score as a whole received an Oscar nomination for Best Original Score, but lost to the score to Chariots of Fire composed by Vangelis.
The only video game based exclusively on the film is Raiders of the Lost Ark, released in 1982 by Atari for their Atari 2600 console. The first third of the video game Indiana Jones ' Greatest Adventures, released in 1994 by JVC for Nintendo 's Super Nintendo Entertainment System, is based entirely on the film. Several of the film 's sequences are reproduced (the boulder run and the showdown with the Cairo Swordsman among them); however, several inconsistencies with the film are present in the game, such as Nazi soldiers and bats being present in the Well of Souls sequence, for example. The game was developed by LucasArts and Factor 5. In the 1999 game Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine, a bonus level brings Jones back to the Peruvian temple of the film 's opening scene. In 2008, to coincide with the release of Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, Lego released the Lego Indiana Jones line -- which included building sets based on Raiders of the Lost Ark -- and LucasArts published a video game based on the toyline, Lego Indiana Jones: The Original Adventures, which was developed by Traveller 's Tales.
Marvel Comics published a comic book adaptation of the film by writer Walt Simonson and artists John Buscema and Klaus Janson. It was published as Marvel Super Special # 18 and as a three - issue limited series. This was followed with the comic book series The Further Adventures of Indiana Jones which was published monthly from January 1983 through March 1986.
In 1981, Kenner released a 12 - inch (30 cm) doll of Indiana Jones, and the following year they released nine action figures of the film 's characters, three playsets, as well as toys of the Nazi truck and Jones ' horse. They also released a board game. In 1984, miniature metal versions of the characters were released for a role playing game, The Adventures of Indiana Jones, and in 1995 Micro Machines released die - cast toys of the film 's vehicles. Hasbro released action figures based on the film, ranging from 3 to 12 inches (7.6 to 30.5 cm), to coincide with Kingdom of the Crystal Skull on May 1, 2008. Later in 2008, and in 2011, two high - end sixth scale (1: 6) collectible action figures were released by Sideshow Collectibles, and Hot Toys, Ltd. respectively. A novelization by Ryder Windham was released in April 2008 by Scholastic to tie in with the release of Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. A previous novelization by Scottish author Campbell Armstrong (under the pseudonym Campbell Black) was concurrently released with the film in 1981. A book about the making of the film was also released, written by Derek Taylor.
The film was released on VHS, Betamax and VideoDisc in pan and scan only, and on laserdisc in both pan and scan and widescreen. For its 1999 VHS re-issue, the film was remastered in THX and made available in widescreen. The outer package was retitled Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the Lost Ark for consistency with the film 's prequel and sequel. The subsequent DVD release in 2003 features this title as well. The title in the film itself remains unchanged, even in the restored DVD print. In the DVD, two subtle digital revisions were added. First, a connecting rod from the giant boulder to an offscreen guidance track in the opening scene was removed from behind the running Harrison Ford; second, a reflection in the glass partition separating Ford from the cobra in the Well of Souls was removed. Shortly before the theatrical release of Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, Raiders (along with The Temple of Doom and The Last Crusade) was re-released on DVD with additional extra features not included on the previous set on May 13, 2008. The film was released on Blu - ray Disc in September 2012. Previously, only Kingdom of the Crystal Skull had been available on Blu - ray.
Raiders of the Lost Ark opened at # 14 and grossed $1,673,731 from 267 theaters ($6,269 theater average) during its opening weekend. In total, the IMAX release grossed $3,125,613 domestically. The film, made on an $ 18 million budget, grossed $384 million worldwide throughout its theatrical releases. In North America, it was by some distance the highest - grossing film of 1981, It also became Paramount Pictures ' most successful film at that time. and remains one of the top twenty - five highest - grossing films ever made when adjusted for inflation. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold more than 70 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run.
The film was highly acclaimed by critics and audiences alike. In his review for The New York Times, Vincent Canby praised the film, calling it, "one of the most deliriously funny, ingenious and stylish American adventure movies ever made. '' Roger Ebert in his review for the Chicago Sun - Times wrote, "Two things, however, make Raiders of the Lost Ark more than just a technological triumph: its sense of humor and the droll style of its characters (...) We find ourselves laughing in surprise, in relief, in incredulity at the movie 's ability to pile one incident upon another in an inexhaustible series of inventions. '' He later added it to his list of "Great Movies ''. Rolling Stone said the film was "the ultimate Saturday action matinee -- a film so funny and exciting it can be enjoyed any day of the week. '' Bruce Williamson of Playboy claimed: "There 's more excitement in the first ten minutes of Raiders than any movie I have seen all year. By the time the explosive misadventures end, any movie - goer worth his salt ought to be exhausted. '' Stephen Klain of Variety also praised the film. Yet, making an observation that would revisit the franchise with its next film, he felt that the film was surprisingly violent and bloody for a PG - rated film.
There were some dissenting voices: Sight & Sound described it as an "expensively gift - wrapped Saturday afternoon pot - boiler '', and New Hollywood champion Pauline Kael, who once contended that she only got "really rough '' on large films that were destined to be hits but were nonetheless "atrocious '', found the film to be a "machine - tooled adventure '' from a pair of creators who "think just like the marketing division ''. (Lucas later named a villain, played by Raiders Nazi strongman Pat Roach, in his 1988 fantasy film Willow after Kael.) Years later, screenwriter Paul Schrader, of Taxi Driver acclaim, considers the date of the decline of American cinema as the release of Raiders of the Lost Ark, viewing it to be simply a bad movie.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 95 % "Certified Fresh '' rating with a 9.2 / 10 average rating. The sites critical consensus stating: "Featuring bravura set pieces, sly humor, and white - knuckle action, Raiders of the Lost Ark is one of the most consummately entertaining adventure pictures of all time. '', as well as an 85 % rating on Metacritic, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
The film was subsequently nominated for nine Academy Awards, including Best Picture, in 1982 and won four (Best Sound, Best Film Editing, Best Visual Effects, and Best Art Direction - Set Decoration (Norman Reynolds, Leslie Dilley, and Michael D. Ford). It also received a Special Achievement Award for Sound Effects Editing. It won numerous other awards, including a Grammy Award and Best Picture at the People 's Choice Awards. Spielberg was also nominated for a Golden Globe Award.
Following the success of Raiders, a prequel, The Temple of Doom, and two sequels, The Last Crusade and Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, were produced, with a third sequel set for release in 2020. A television series, entitled The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, was also spun off from this film, and details the character 's early years. Numerous other books, comics, and video games have also been produced.
In 1998, the American Film Institute placed the film at number 60 on its top 100 films of the first century of cinema. In 2007, AFI updated the list and placed it at number 66. They also named it as the 10th most thrilling film, and named Indiana Jones as the second greatest hero. In 1999, the film was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant '' by the U.S. Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. Indiana Jones has become an icon, being listed as Entertainment Weekly 's third favorite action hero, while noting "some of the greatest action scenes ever filmed are strung together like pearls '' in this film.
An amateur, near shot - for - shot remake was made by Chris Strompolos, Eric Zala, and Jayson Lamb, then children in Ocean Springs, Mississippi. It took the boys seven years to finish, from 1982 to 1989. After production of the film, called Raiders of the Lost Ark: The Adaptation, it was shelved and forgotten until 2003, when it was discovered by Eli Roth and acclaimed by Spielberg himself, who congratulated the boys on their hard work and said he looked forward to seeing their names on the big screen. Scott Rudin and Paramount Pictures purchased the trio 's life rights with the goal of producing a film based on their adventures making their remake.
In 2014, film director Steven Soderbergh published an experimental black - and - white version of the film, with the original soundtrack and dialogue replaced by an electronic soundtrack. Soderbergh said his intention was to encourage viewers to focus on Spielberg 's extraordinary staging and editing: "This filmmaker forgot more about staging by the time he made his first feature than I know to this day. ''
Assessing the film 's legacy in 1997, Bernard Weinraub, film critic for The New York Times, which had initially reviewed the film as "deliriously funny, ingenious, and stylish '', maintained that "the decline in the traditional family G - rated film, for ' general ' audiences, probably began '' with the appearance of Raiders of the Lost Ark. "Whether by accident or design, '' found Weinraub, "the filmmakers made a comic nonstop action film intended mostly for adults but also for children. '' Eight years later, in 2005, viewers of Channel 4 rated the film as the 20th - best family film of all time, with Spielberg taking best over-all director honors.
On Empire magazine 's list of the 500 Greatest Movies of All Time, Raiders ranked second, beaten only by The Godfather. The film was ranked at number 11 in a list of the 25 best action and war films of all time by The Guardian.
In conjunction with the Blu - ray release, a limited one - week release in IMAX theaters was announced for September 7, 2012. Steven Spielberg and sound designer Ben Burtt supervised the format conversion. No special effects or other visual elements were altered, but the audio was enhanced for surround sound.
In December 2012, the University of Chicago 's admissions department received a package in the mail addressed to Henry Walton Jones, Jr., Indiana Jones ' full name. The address on the stamped package was listed for a hall that was the former home of the university 's geology and geography department. Inside the manila envelope was a detailed replica journal similar to the one Jones used in the movie, as well as postcards and pictures of Marion Ravenwood. The admissions department posted pictures of the contents on its Internet blog, looking for any information about the package. It was discovered that the package was part of a set to be shipped from Guam to Italy that had been sold on eBay. The package with the journal had fallen out in transit and a postal worker had sent it to the university, as it had a complete address and postage, which turned out to be fake. All contents were from a Guam "prop replicator '' who sells them all over the world. The university will display its replica in the main lobby of the Oriental Institute.
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who play the hormone monster in big mouth | Big Mouth (tv series) - wikipedia
Big Mouth is an American adult animated sitcom created by Nick Kroll, Andrew Goldberg, Mark Levin, and Jennifer Flackett based on Kroll and Goldberg 's tweenage years growing up in the suburbs of New York, with Kroll voicing his fictional self. The first season consists of 10 episodes, and premiered on Netflix on September 29, 2017. On October 24, 2017 it was confirmed that a second season has been ordered to air in 2018.
On October 24, 2017, Netflix announced it has renewed Big Mouth for a second season set to be released in 2018.
Big Mouth has received critical acclaim since its official release. On Rotten Tomatoes, the show has a 100 % approval rating based on 12 reviews, with the critical consensus "Big Mouth 's simplistic animation and scatalogical humor belie its finely sketched characters and smart, empathetic approach to the messiness of adolescence. '' At Metacritic, the show currently holds a rating of 80, indicating generally favorable reviews. Vox described the show as sharp, and as jarringly depicting the awkwardness of pubescence, postpubescence and prepubescence.
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the nmda receptor is a type of receptor for the neurotransmitter | NMDA receptor - wikipedia
The N - methyl - D - aspartate receptor (also known as the NMDA receptor or NMDAR), is a glutamate receptor and ion channel protein found in nerve cells. The NMDA receptor is one of three types of ionotropic glutamate receptors, the others being the AMPA and kainate receptors. It is activated when glutamate and glycine (or D - serine) bind to it, and when activated it allows positively charged ions to flow through the cell membrane. The NMDA receptor is very important for controlling synaptic plasticity and memory function.
The NMDAR is a specific type of ionotropic glutamate receptor. The NMDA receptor is so named because the agonist molecule N - methyl - D - aspartate (NMDA) binds selectively to it, and not to other glutamate receptors. Activation of NMDA receptors results in the opening of an ion channel that is nonselective to cations, with a combined reversal potential near 0 mV. While the opening and closing of the ion channel is primarily gated by ligand binding, the current flow through the ion channel is voltage dependent. Extracellular magnesium (Mg) and zinc (Zn) ions can bind to specific sites on the receptor, blocking the passage of other cations through the open ion channel. Depolarization of the cell dislodges and repels the Mg and Zn ions from the pore, thus allowing a voltage - dependent flow of sodium (Na) and small amounts of calcium (Ca) ions into the cell and potassium (K) out of the cell.
Ca flux through NMDARs is thought to be critical in synaptic plasticity, a cellular mechanism for learning and memory. The opening and closing (gating) of the NMDA receptor is complex. While it is primarily a ligand - gated channel, it does display weaker voltage - dependence modulation of the ligand - dependent gating. The ligand gating requires co-activation by two ligands: glutamate and either D - serine or glycine. The voltage - dependence of current through the channel is mainly due to binding of Mg or Zn ions to the protein as described above.
The activity of the NMDA receptor is affected by many psychoactive drugs such as phencyclidine (PCP), alcohol (ethanol) and dextromethorphan (DXM). The anaesthetic and analgesic effects of the drugs ketamine and nitrous oxide are partially because of their effects on NMDA receptor activity.
In 1972 a possible therapeutic importance of memantine, an adamantane derivative, was discovered for treating neurodegenerative disorders. Since 1989 memantine has been recognized to be an uncompetitive antagonist of the N - methyl - D - aspartate receptor (NMDA receptor), entering the channel of the receptor after it has been activated and thereby blocking the flow of ions.
The NMDA receptor channels play an important role in synaptic plasticity and synapse formation underlying memory, learning and formation of neural networks during development in the central nervous system (CNS). Overactivation of the receptor, causing excessive influx of Ca can lead to excitotoxicity which is implied to be involved in some neurodegenerative disorders. Blocking of NMDA receptors could therefore, in theory, be useful in treating such diseases.
The main problem with the development of NMDA receptor antagonist for neuroprotection is that the physiological NMDA receptor activity is essential for normal neuronal function. To be clinically accepted the antagonists must block excessive activation without blocking the normal function.
The discovery of NMDA receptors was followed by the synthesis and study of N - Methyl - D - aspartic acid (NMDA) in the 1960s by Jeff Watkins and colleagues. In the early 1980s, NMDA receptors were shown to be involved in several central synaptic pathways. Receptor subunit selectivity was discovered in the early 1990s, which led to recognition of a new class of compounds that selectively inhibit the NR2B subunit. These findings led to vigorous campaign in the pharmaceutical industry. From this it was considered that NMDA receptors were associated with a variety of neurological disorders such as epilepsy, Parkinson _́ s, Alzheimer _́ s, Huntington _́ s and other CNS disorders.
A fortuitous finding was made in 1968 when a woman was taking amantadine as flu medicine and experienced remarkable remission of her Parkinson 's symptoms. This finding, reported by Scawab et al., was the beginning of medicinal chemistry of adamantane derivatives in the context of diseases affecting the CNS. Before this finding, memantine, another adamantane derivative, had been synthesized by Eli Lilly and Company in 1963. The purpose was to develop hypoglycemic drug, but it showed no such efficacy. It was not until 1972 that a possible therapeutic importance of memantine for treating neurodegenerative disorders was discovered. From 1989 memantine has been recognized to be an uncompetitive antagonist of the NMDA receptor.
The NMDA receptor is a glutamate and ion channel protein receptor that is activated when glycine and glutamate bind to it. The receptor is a heteromeric complex that interacts with multiple intracellular proteins by three different subunits: NR1, NR2 and NR3. NR1 has eight different subunits generated by alternative splicing from a single gene. There are four different NR2 subunits (A-D) and late in the 20 century NR3A and NR3B subunits have been reported. Six separate genes encode for NR2 and NR3. All the subunits share a common membrane topology that is dominated by a large extracellular N - terminus, a membrane region comprising three transmembrane segments, a re-entrant pore loop, an extracellular loop between the transmembrane segments that are structurally not well known, and an intracellular C - terminus, which are different in size depending on the subunit and provide multiple sites of interaction with many intracellular proteins. Figure 1 shows a basic structure of NR1 / NR2 subunits that forms the binding site for memantine, Mg, MK - 801, ketamine and amantadine.
Mg block the NMDA receptor channels in voltage dependent manner but they are highly permeable to Ca. Activation of the receptor depends on glutamate binding, D - serine or glycine binding at its NR1 - linked binding site and AMPA receptor - mediated depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane, which relieves the voltage - dependent channel block by Mg. Activation and opening of the receptors channel thus allows the flow of K, Na and Ca ions, and the influx of Ca triggers intracellular signaling pathways. Allosteric receptor binding sites for zinc, proteins and the polyamines spermidine and spermine are also modulators for the NMDA receptor channels.
The NR2B subunit has been involved in modulating activity such as learning, memory, processing and feeding behaviors, as well as being implicated in number of human derangement. The basic structure and functions associated with the NMDA receptor can be attributed to the NR2B subunit. For example, the glutamate binding site and the control of the Mg block are formed by the NR2B subunit. The high affinity sites for glycine antagonist are also exclusively displayed by the NR1 / NR2B receptor.
NR1 / NR2B transmembrane segments are considered to be the part of the receptor that forms the binding pockets for uncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonists, but the transmembrane segments structures are not fully known as stated above. It is claimed that three binding sites within the receptor, A644 on the NR2B subunit and A645 and N616 on the NR1 subunit, are important for binding of memantine and related compounds as seen in figure 2.
The NMDA receptor forms a heterotetramer between two GluN1 and two GluN2 subunits (the subunits were previously denoted as NR1 and NR2), two obligatory NR1 subunits and two regionally localized NR2 subunits. A related gene family of NR3 A and B subunits have an inhibitory effect on receptor activity. Multiple receptor isoforms with distinct brain distributions and functional properties arise by selective splicing of the NR1 transcripts and differential expression of the NR2 subunits.
Each receptor subunit has modular design and each structural module also represents a functional unit:
The glycine - binding modules of the NR1 and NR3 subunits and the glutamate - binding module of the NR2A subunit have been expressed as soluble proteins, and their three - dimensional structure has been solved at atomic resolution by x-ray crystallography. This has revealed a common fold with amino acid - binding bacterial proteins and with the glutamate - binding module of AMPA - receptors and kainate - receptors.
Overactivation of NMDA receptors, relieving the Mg block and causing excessive influx of Ca can lead to excitotoxicity. Excitotoxicity is implied to be involved in some neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer 's disease, Parkinson 's disease and Huntington 's disease. Blocking of NMDA receptors could therefore, in theory, be useful in treating such diseases. It is, however, important to preserve physiological NMDA receptor activity while trying to block its excessive, excitotoxic activity. This can possibly be achieved by uncompetitive antagonists, blocking the receptors ion channel when excessively open.
Uncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonists, or channel blockers, enter the channel of the NMDA receptor after it has been activated and thereby block the flow of ions. MK - 801, ketamine, amantadine and memantine are examples of such antagonists, see figure 1. The off - rate of an antagonist from the receptors channel is an important factor as too slow off - rate can interfere with normal function of the receptor and too fast off - rate may give ineffective blockade of an excessively open receptor.
Memantine is an example of an uncompetitive channel blocker of the NMDA receptor, with a relatively rapid off - rate and low affinity. At physiological pH its amine group is positively charged and its block of the channel is voltage - dependent. It thereby mimics the physiological function of Mg as channel blocker. Memantine only blocks NMDA receptor associated channels during prolonged activation of the receptor, as it occurs under excitotoxic conditions, by replacing magnesium at the binding site. During normal receptor activity the channels only stay open for several milliseconds and under those circumstances memantine is unable to bind within the channels and therefore does n't interfere with normal synaptic activity.
There are eight variants of the NR1 subunit produced by alternative splicing of GRIN1:
While a single NR2 subunit is found in invertebrate organisms, four distinct isoforms of the NR2 subunit are expressed in vertebrates and are referred to with the nomenclature NR2A through NR2D (encoded by GRIN2A, GRIN2B, GRIN2C, GRIN2D). Strong evidence shows that the genes encoding the NR2 subunits in vertebrates have undergone at least two rounds of gene duplication. They contain the binding - site for the neurotransmitter glutamate. More importantly, each NR2 subunit has a different intracellular C - terminal domain that can interact with different sets of signalling molecules. Unlike NR1 subunits, NR2 subunits are expressed differentially across various cell types and control the electrophysiological properties of the NMDA receptor. One particular subunit, NR2B, is mainly present in immature neurons and in extrasynaptic locations, and contains the binding - site for the selective inhibitor ifenprodil.
Whereas NR2B is predominant in the early postnatal brain, the number of NR2A subunits grows, and eventually NR2A subunits outnumber NR2B. This is called the NR2B - NR2A developmental switch, and is notable because of the different kinetics each NR2 subunit lends to the receptor. For instance, greater ratios of the NR2B subunit leads to NMDA receptors which remain open longer compared to those with more NR2A. This may in part account for greater memory abilities in the immediate postnatal period compared to late in life, which is the principle behind genetically altered ' doogie mice '. The detailed time course of this switch in the human cerebellum has been estimated using expression microarray and RNA seq and is shown in the figure on the right.
There are three hypothetical models to describe this switch mechanism:
The NR2B and NR2A subunits also have differential roles in mediating excitotoxic neuronal death. The developmental switch in subunit composition is thought to explain the developmental changes in NMDA neurotoxicity. Disruption of the gene for NR2B in mice causes perinatal lethality, whereas the disruption of NR2A gene produces viable mice, although with impaired hippocampal plasticity. One study suggests that reelin may play a role in the NMDA receptor maturation by increasing the NR2B subunit mobility.
Granule cell precursors (GCPs) of the cerebellum, after undergoing symmetric cell division in the external granule - cell layer (EGL), migrate into the internal granule - cell layer (IGL) where they downregulate NR2B and activate NR2C, a process that is independent of neuregulin beta signaling through ErbB2 and ErbB4 receptors.
NMDA receptors have been implicated by a number of studies to be strongly involved with excitotoxicity. Because NMDA receptors play an important role in the health and function of neurons, there has been much discussion on how these receptors can affect both cell survival and cell death. Recent evidence supports the hypothesis that overstimulation of extrasynaptic NMDA receptors has more to do with excitotoxicity than stimulation of their synaptic counterparts. In addition, while stimulation of extrasynaptic NMDA receptors appear to contribute to cell death, there is evidence to suggest that stimulation of synaptic NMDA receptors contributes to the health and longevity of the cell. There is ample evidence to support the dual nature of NMDA receptors based on location, and the hypothesis explaining the two differing mechanisms is known as the "localization hypothesis ''.
In order to support the localization hypothesis, it would be necessary to show differing cellular signaling pathways are activated by NMDA receptors based on its location within the cell membrane. Experiments have been designed to stimulate either synaptic or non-synaptic NMDA receptors exclusively. These types of experiments have shown that different pathways are being activated or regulated depending on the location of the signal origin. Many of these pathways use the same protein signals, but are regulated oppositely by NMDARs depending on its location. For example, synaptic NMDA excitation caused a decrease in the intracellular concentration of p38 mitogen - activated protein kinase (p38MAPK). Extrasynaptic stimulation NMDARs regulated p38MAPK in the opposite fashion, causing an increase in intracellular concentration. Experiments of this type have since been repeated with the results indicating these differences stretch across many pathways linked to cell survival and excitotoxicity.
Two specific proteins have been identified as a major pathway responsible for these different cellular responses ERK1 / 2, and Jacob. ERK1 / 2 is responsible for phosphorylation of Jacob when excited by synaptic NMDARs. This information is then transported to the nucleus. Phosphorylation of Jacob does not take place with extrasynaptic NMDA stimulation. This allows the transcription factors in the nucleus to respond differently based in the phosphorylation state of Jacob.
NMDA receptors are also associated with synaptic plasticity. The idea that both synaptic and extrasynaptic NMDA receptors can affect long - term potentiation (LTP) and long - term depression (LTD) differently has also been explored. Experimental data suggest that extrasynaptic NMDA receptors inhibit LTP while producing LTD. Inhibition of LTP can be prevented with the introduction of a NMDA antagonist. A theta burst stimulation that usually induces LTP with synaptic NMDARs, when applied selectively to extrasynaptic NMDARs produces a LTD. Experimentation also indicates that extrasynaptic activity is not required for the formation of LTP. In addition, both synaptic and extrasynaptic are involved in expressing a full LTD.
Another factor that seems to affect NMDAR induced toxicity is the observed variation in subunit makeup. NMDA receptors are heterotetramers with two GluN1 subunits and two variable subunits. Two of these variable subunits, GluN2A and GluN2B, have been shown to preferentially lead to cell survival and cell death cascades respectively. Although both subunits are found in synaptic and extrasynaptic NMDARs there is some evidence to suggest that the GluN2B subunit occurs more frequently in extrasynaptic receptors. This observation could help explain the dualistic role that NMDA receptors play in excitotoxicity.
Despite the compelling evidence and the relative simplicity of these two theories working in tandem, there is still disagreement about the significance of these claims. Some problems in proving these theories arise with the difficulty of using pharmacological means to determine the subtypes of specific NMDARs. In addition, the theory of subunit variation does not explain how this effect might predominate, as it is widely held that the most common tetramer, made from two GluN1 subunits and one of each subunit GluN2A and GluN2B, makes up a high percentage of the NMDARs.
Excitotoxicity has been thought to play a role in the degenerative properties of neurodegenerative conditions since the late 1950s. NMDA receptors seem to play an important role in many of these degenerative diseases affecting the brain. Most notably excitotoxic events involving NMDA receptors have been linked to Alzheimer 's disease and Huntington 's disease as well as with other medical conditions such as strokes and epilepsy. Treating these conditions with one of the many known NMDA receptor antagonists, however, lead to a variety of unwanted side effects, some of which can be quite severe. These side effects are, in part, observed because the NMDA receptors do not just signal for cell death but also play an important role in its vitality. Treatment for these conditions might be found in blocking NDMA receptors not found at the synapse.
Activation of NMDA receptors requires binding of glutamate or aspartate (aspartate does not stimulate the receptors as strongly). In addition, NMDARs also require the binding of the co-agonist glycine for the efficient opening of the ion channel, which is a part of this receptor.
D - Serine has also been found to co-agonize the NMDA receptor with even greater potency than glycine. It is produced by serine racemase, and is enriched in the same areas as NMDA receptors. Removal of D - serine can block NMDA - mediated excitatory neurotransmission in many areas. Recently, it has been shown that D - serine can be released both by neurons and astrocytes to regulate NMDA receptors.
NMDA receptor (NMDAR) - mediated currents are directly related to membrane depolarization. NMDA agonists therefore exhibit fast Mg unbinding kinetics, increasing channel open probability with depolarization. This property is fundamental to the role of the NMDA receptor in memory and learning, and it has been suggested that this channel is a biochemical substrate of Hebbian learning, where it can act as a coincidence detector for membrane depolarization and synaptic transmission.
Some known NMDA receptor agonists include:
Positive allosteric modulators include:
An example of memantine derivative is neramexane which was discovered by studying number of aminoalkyl cyclohexanes, with memantine as the template, as NMDA receptor antagonists. Neramexane, which can be seen in figure 6, binds to the same site as memantine within the NMDA receptor associated channel and with comparable affinity. It does also show very similar bioavailability and blocking kinetics in vivo as memantine. Neramexane went to clinical trials for four indications, including Alzheimer 's disease.
N - Methyl - D - aspartic acid (NMDA), which the NMDA receptor was named after, is a partial agonist of the active or glutamate recognition site.
Weak partial agonists of the glycine site of the NMDA receptor such as rapastinel (GLYX - 13) and apimostinel (NRX - 1074) are now viewed for the development of new drugs with antidepressant and analgesic effects without obvious psychotomimetic activities.
Positive allosteric modulators include:
Antagonists of the NMDA receptor are used as anesthetics for animals and sometimes humans, and are often used as recreational drugs due to their hallucinogenic properties, in addition to their unique effects at elevated dosages such as dissociation. When certain NMDA receptor antagonists are given to rodents in large doses, they can cause a form of brain damage called Olney 's lesions. NMDA receptor antagonists that have been shown to induce Olney 's lesions include ketamine, phencyclidine, and dextrorphan (a metabolite of dextromethorphan), as well as some NMDA receptor antagonists used only in research environments. So far, the published research on Olney 's lesions is inconclusive in its occurrence upon human or monkey brain tissues with respect to an increase in the presence of NMDA receptor antagonists.
Most NMDAR antagonists are uncompetitive or noncompetitive blockers of the channel pore or are antagonists of the glycine co-regulatory site rather than antagonists of the active / glutamate site.
Common agents in which NMDA receptor antagonism is the primary or a major mechanism of action:
Some common agents in which weak NMDA receptor antagonism is a secondary or additional action include:
The NMDA receptor is regulated via nitrosylation and aminoadamantane can be used as a target - directed shuttle to bring nitrogen oxide (NO) close to the site within the NMDA receptor where it can nitrosylate and regulate the ion channel conductivity. A NO donor that can be used to decrease NMDA receptor activity is the alkyl nitrate nitroglycerin. Unlike many other NO donors, alkyl nitrates do not have potential NO associated neurotoxic effects. Alkyl nitrates donate NO in the form of a nitro group as seen in figure 7, - NO -, which is a safe donor that avoids neurotoxicity. The nitro group must be targeted to the NMDA receptor, otherwise other effects of NO such as dilatation of blood vessels and consequent hypotension could result. Nitromemantine is a second - generation derivative of memantine, it reduces excitotoxicity mediated by overactivation of the glutamatergic system by blocking NMDA receptor without sacrificing safety. Provisional studies in animal models show that nitromemantines are more effective than memantine as neuroprotectants, both in vitro and in vivo. Memantine and newer derivatives could become very important weapons in the fight against neuronal damage.
Negative allosteric modulators include:
The NMDA receptor is modulated by a number of endogenous and exogenous compounds:
The main problem with the development of NMDA antagonist for neuroprotection is that the physiological NMDA receptor activity is essential for normal neuronal function. Complete blocking of all NMDA receptor activity therefore results in adverse side effects such as hallucination, agitation and anesthesia. To be clinically accepted the NMDA receptor antagonist must block excessive activation without blocking the normal function. Figure 3 shows simplified models of various types of NMDA receptor antagonists, which will be discussed further.
Competitive NMDA receptor antagonists, which were developed first, are not a good option because they compete and bind to the same site (NR2 subunit) on the receptor as the agonist, glutamate, and therefore block normal function also. They will block healthy areas of the brain prior to having an impact on pathological areas, because healthy areas contain lower levels of agonist than pathological areas. These antagonists can be displaced from the receptor by high concentration of glutamate which can exist under excitotoxic circumstances.
Uncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonists however block within the ion channel at the Mg site (pore region) and in that way prevent excessive influx of Ca. Uncompetitive block refers to a type of block that increased concentration of glutamate can not overcome and is dependent upon prior activation of the receptor by the agonist, i.e. it only enters the channel when it is opened by agonist. The Mg block itself is too transient and flickery and therefore does n't block excessive Ca influx to the extent necessary to prevent neurological toxicity. High affinity antagonists for the Mg site are on the other hand good excitotoxicity blockers, such as MK - 801. They block open ion channels but the problem is when the ion channels close they get trapped inside resulting in undesirable side effects because of blocking normal as well as excessive activity. MK - 801 can not be given to humans because of that long dwell time in the channels and its blocking causes drowsiness and even coma. It 's therefore considered to be clinically unacceptable. Phencyclidine, which has slightly shorter dwell time but still too excessive, causes hallucination and is therefore not a good agent either for neurodegenerative diseases. Ketamine is another example of drug with slightly shorter dwell time but still excessive and it is used as anesthetic. Chemical structures of MK - 801, Phencyclidine and Ketamine can be seen in figure 4.
Because of these adverse side effects of high affinity blockers the search for clinically successful NMDA receptor antagonists for neurodegenerative diseases continued and focused on developing low affinity blockers. However the affinity could not be too low and dwell time not too short (as seen with Mg) where membrane depolarization relieves the block. The discovery was thereby development of uncompetitive antagonist with longer dwell time than Mg in the channel but shorter than MK - 801. That way the drug obtained would only block excessively open NMDA receptor associated channels but not normal neurotransmission. Memantine is that drug. It is a derivative of amantadine which was first an anti-influenza agent but was later discovered by coincidence to have efficacy in Parkinson 's disease. Chemical structures of memantine and amantadine can be seen in figure 5. The compound was first thought to be dopaminergic or anticholinergic but was later found to be an NMDA receptor antagonist.
Memantine is the first drug approved for treatment of severe and more advanced Alzheimer 's disease, which for example anticholinergic drugs do not do much good for. It helps recovery of synaptic function and in that way improves impaired memory and learning. In 2015 memantine is also in trials for therapeutic importance in additional neurological disorders.
Many second - generation memantine derivatives have been in development that may show even better neuroprotective effects, where the main thought is to use other safe but effective modulatory sites on the NMDA receptor in addition to its associated ion channel.
Memantine (1 - amino - 3, 5 - dimethyladamantane) is an aminoalkyl cyclohexane derivative and an atypical drug compound with non-planar, three dimensional tricyclic structure. Figure 8 shows SAR for aminoalkyl cyclohexane derivative. Memantine has several important features in its structure for its effectiveness:
Despite the small structural difference between memantine and amantadine, two adamantane derivatives, the affinity for the binding site of NR1 / NR2B subunit is much greater for memantine. In patch - clamp measurements memantine has an IC of (2.3 + 0.3) μM while amantadine has an IC of (71.0 + 11.1) μM. The binding site with the highest affinity is called the dominant binding site. It involves a connection between the amine group of memantine and the NR1 - N161 binding pocket of the NR1 / NR2B subunit. The methyl side groups play an important role in increasing the affinity to the open NMDA receptor channels and making it a much better neuroprotective drug than amantadine. The binding pockets for the methyl groups are considered to be at the NR1 - A645 and NR2B - A644 of the NR1 / NR2B. The binding pockets are shown in figure 2. Memantine binds at or near to the Mg site inside the NMDA receptor associated channel. The - NH group on memantine, which is protonated under physiological pH of the body, represents the region that binds at or near to the Mg site. Adding two methyl groups to the - N on the memantine structure has shown to decrease affinity, giving an IC value of (28.4 + 1.4) μM.
Several derivatives of Nitromemantine, a second - generation derivative of memantine, have been synthesized in order to perform a detailed structure activity relationship (SAR) of these novel drugs. One class, containing a nitro (NO) group opposite to the bridgehead amine (NH), showed a promising outcome. Nitromemantine utilizes memantine binding site on the NMDA receptor to target the NO (X = 1 or 2) group for interaction with the S - nitrosylation / redox site external to the memantine binding site. Lengthening the side chains of memantine compensates for the worse drug affinity in the channel associated with the addition of the -- ONO group
Excitotoxicity is implied to be involved in some neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer 's disease, Parkinson 's disease, Huntington 's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Blocking of NMDA receptors could therefore, in theory, be useful in treating such diseases. It is, however, important to preserve physiological NMDA receptor activity while trying to block its excessive, excitotoxic activity. This can possibly be achieved by uncompetitive antagonists, blocking the receptors ion channel when excessively open
Memantine is an example of uncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist that has approved indication for the neurodegenerative disease Alzheimer 's disease. In 2015 memantine is still in clinical trials for additional neurological diseases.
The NMDA receptor is a non-specific cation channel that can allow the passage of Ca and Na into the cell and K out of the cell. The excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) produced by activation of an NMDA receptor increases the concentration of Ca in the cell. The Ca can in turn function as a second messenger in various signaling pathways. However, the NMDA receptor cation channel is blocked by Mg at resting membrane potential. Magnesium unblock is not instantaneous, to unblock all available channels, the postsynaptic cell must be depolarized for a sufficiently long period of time (in the scale of milliseconds).
Therefore, the NMDA receptor functions as a "molecular coincidence detector ''. Its ion channel opens only when the following two conditions are met: glutamate is bound to the receptor, and the postsynaptic cell is depolarized (which removes the Mg blocking the channel). This property of the NMDA receptor explains many aspects of long - term potentiation (LTP) and synaptic plasticity.
NMDA receptors are modulated by a number of endogenous and exogenous compounds and play a key role in a wide range of physiological (e.g., memory) and pathological processes (e.g., excitotoxicity).
NMDAR antagonists like ketamine, esketamine, tiletamine, phencyclidine, nitrous oxide, and xenon are used as general anesthetics. These and similar drugs like dextromethorphan and methoxetamine also produce dissociative, hallucinogenic, and euphoriant effects and are used as recreational drugs.
NMDAR inhibitors, including ketamine, esketamine (JNJ - 54135419), rapastinel (GLYX - 13), apimostinel (NRX - 1074), 4 - chlorokynurenine (AV - 101), and rislenemdaz (CERC - 301, MK - 0657), are under development for the treatment of mood disorders, including major depressive disorder and treatment - resistant depression. In addition, ketamine is already employed for this purpose as an off - label therapy in some clinics.
Memantine, a low - trapping NMDAR antagonist, is approved in the United States and Europe for the treatment of moderate - to - severe Alzheimer 's disease, and has now received a limited recommendation by the UK 's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence for patients who fail other treatment options.
Cochlear NMDARs are the target of intense research to find pharmacological solutions to treat tinnitus. NMDARs are associated with a rare autoimmune disease, anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis, that usually occurs due to cross-reactivity of antibodies produced by the immune system against ectopic brain tissues, such as those found in teratoma. These are known as anti-glutamate receptor antibodies.
Compared to dopaminergic stimulants like methamphetamine, the NMDAR antagonist phencyclidine can produce a wider range of symptoms that resemble schizophrenia in healthy volunteers, in what has led to the glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia. Experiments in which rodents are treated with NMDA receptor antagonist are today the most common model when it comes to testing of novel schizophrenia therapies or exploring the exact mechanism of drugs already approved for treatment of schizophrenia.
NMDAR antagonists, for instance eliprodil, gavestinel, licostinel, and selfotel have been extensively investigated for the treatment of excitotoxicity - mediated neurotoxicity in situations like ischemic stroke and traumatic brain injury, but were unsuccessful in clinical trials.
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how much does the owner of the cleveland cavaliers make | Cleveland Cavaliers - wikipedia
The Cleveland Cavaliers, often referred to as the Cavs, are an American professional basketball team based in Cleveland, Ohio. The Cavs compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the league 's Eastern Conference Central Division. The team began play as an expansion team in 1970, along with the Portland Trail Blazers and Buffalo Braves. Home games were first held at Cleveland Arena from 1970 to 1974, followed by the Richfield Coliseum from 1974 to 1994. Since 1994, the Cavs have played home games at Quicken Loans Arena in downtown Cleveland, which is shared with the Cleveland Gladiators of the Arena Football League and the Cleveland Monsters of the American Hockey League. Dan Gilbert has owned the team since March 2005.
The Cavaliers opened their inaugural season losing their first 15 games and struggled in their early years, placing no better than sixth in the Eastern Conference during their first five seasons. The team won their first Central Division title in 1976, which also marked the first winning season and playoff appearance in franchise history, where they advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals. The franchise was purchased by Ted Stepien in 1980. Stepien 's tenure as owner was marked by six coaching changes, questionable trades and draft decisions, and poor attendance, leading to $15 million in financial losses. The Cavs went 66 -- 180 in that time and endured a 24 - game losing streak spanning the 1981 -- 82 and 1982 -- 83 seasons.
George and Gordon Gund purchased the franchise in 1983. During the latter half of the 1980s and through much of the 1990s, the Cavs were a regular playoff contender, led by players such as Mark Price and Brad Daugherty, and advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals in 1992. After the team 's playoff appearance in 1998, however, the Cavs had six consecutive losing seasons with no playoff action. Cleveland was awarded with the top overall pick in the 2003 draft, and they selected LeBron James. Behind James and Zydrunas Ilgauskas, the Cavaliers again became a regular playoff contender by 2005. They made their first appearance in the NBA Finals in 2007 after winning the first Eastern Conference championship in franchise history. After failing to return to the NBA Finals in the ensuing three seasons, James joined the Miami Heat in 2010. As a result, the Cavaliers finished the 2010 -- 11 season last in the conference, enduring a 26 - game losing streak that, as of 2017, ranks as the longest in NBA history for a single season and second overall. Between 2010 and 2014, however, the team won the top pick in the NBA draft lottery three times, first in 2011 where they selected Kyrie Irving, and again in 2013 and 2014.
LeBron James returned to the Cavs in 2014 and led the team to four straight NBA Finals appearances. In 2016, the Cavaliers won their first NBA Championship, marking Cleveland 's first major sports title since 1964. The 2016 NBA Finals victory over the Golden State Warriors marked the first time in Finals history a team had come back to win the series after trailing three games to one. The Cavaliers have made 22 playoff appearances, and won seven Central Division titles, five Eastern Conference titles, and one NBA title.
The Cavaliers began play in the 1970 -- 71 NBA season as an expansion team. They set losing records in each of their first five seasons before winning their first division title in 1976. That team was led by Austin Carr, Bobby "Bingo '' Smith, Jim Chones, Dick Snyder, Nate Thurmond, and head coach Bill Fitch, and was remembered most for the "Miracle at Richfield '', in which the Cavaliers defeated the Washington Bullets 4 -- 3 in the Eastern Conference Semifinals. They won Game 7, 87 -- 85, on a shot by Snyder with four seconds to go. The Cavaliers moved on to the Eastern Conference Finals for the first time, but were without Chones after he broke his foot in a practice right before the series opener. As a result, the Cavaliers went on to lose 4 -- 2 to the Boston Celtics. They made playoff appearances in the following two seasons before going on a six - year playoff hiatus.
The early 1980s were marked by Ted Stepien 's ownership, who had a disastrous run as owner and de facto general manager between 1980 and 1983. During Stepien 's reign, the Cavaliers made a practice of trading future draft picks for marginal veteran players. His most notable deal sent a 1982 first - round pick to the Los Angeles Lakers in exchange for Dan Ford and the 22nd overall pick in 1980. As a result of Stepien 's dealings, the NBA introduced the "Stepien Rule '', which prohibits teams from trading first - round draft picks in successive seasons. The Cavaliers went 66 -- 180, dropped to the bottom of the league in attendance and lost $15 million during Stepien 's three years as the owner. The Cavs went through six coaches during that span, including four during the 1981 -- 82 season. The team finished 15 -- 67, and between March and November 1982, the team had a 24 - game losing streak, which at the time, was the NBA 's longest losing streak. George and Gordon Gund purchased the Cavaliers from Stepien in 1983.
The Cavaliers made the playoffs ten times between 1984 -- 85 and 1997 -- 98. In 1988 -- 89, the Cavaliers had their best season to date, finishing the regular season with 57 -- 25 record behind the likes of Brad Daugherty, Mark Price, Ron Harper and Larry Nance, and head coach Lenny Wilkens. They had their second 57 - win season in 1991 -- 92 and reached the Eastern Conference Finals that year. However, between 1998 -- 99 and 2004 -- 05, the Cavaliers failed to make a playoff appearance. The 2002 -- 03 season saw the Cavaliers finish 17 -- 65, tied for the worst record in the NBA.
The Cavaliers ' luck changed as they landed the number 1 pick in the 2003 NBA draft. The team selected heralded forward and future NBA MVP LeBron James, a native of nearby Akron who had already risen to national stardom at St. Vincent - St. Mary High School. In 2005, the team would be sold to businessman Dan Gilbert. That year, the team also hired head coach Mike Brown and general manager Danny Ferry. The Cavaliers built a team around James and Žydrūnas Ilgauskas by adding players including Drew Gooden, Larry Hughes, and Anderson Varajao. Under this new leadership, the Cavaliers made five straight playoffs from 2006 to 2010, advancing to at least the second round each time. The 2006 -- 07 Cavaliers advanced to the franchise 's first NBA Finals, but were swept by the more experienced San Antonio Spurs. The 2008 -- 09 Cavaliers won a franchise record 66 games, including a franchise - best 39 -- 2 record at home, but lost the Eastern Conference Finals to the Orlando Magic. Despite the addition of four - time NBA champion Shaquille O'Neal, the 2009 -- 10 Cavaliers were unable to return to the Eastern Conference Finals after losing to the Boston Celtics in the second round.
With the Cavaliers out of the playoffs, the focus turned to James ' impending free agency. On July 8, 2010, James announced in a nationally televised one - hour special titled The Decision that he would be signing with the Miami Heat. The repercussions of this announcement left many in the city of Cleveland infuriated and feeling betrayed. After a 19 -- win season in 2010 -- 11 (the 42 - win difference being the biggest single - season drop in NBA history), the Cavaliers began a rebuild around Kyrie Irving, who they selected first overall in the 2011 NBA Draft.
In 2014, James returned to the Cavaliers after four seasons in Miami. While the Heat had a 224 -- 88 record during James ' four - year tenure and won NBA titles in 2012 and 2013, the Cavaliers went 97 -- 215 and missed the playoffs each season. The Cavaliers made several moves to build a championship - contender around James, most notably acquiring power forward Kevin Love from the Minnesota Timberwolves, which created what many fans and media referred to a "Big Three '' with James, Love, and Irving. The Lebron - led Cavaliers made four consecutive finals appearances in from 2015 to 2018, all against the Golden State Warriors, winning in 2016. The 2016 NBA Championship marked the Cavaliers ' first title in franchise history, as they became the first team to come back from a 3 -- 1 deficit to win the Finals. It was also Cleveland 's first championship in major professional sports since the 1964 Browns, signaling the end of the so - called Cleveland sports curse.
The Cavaliers ' roster went through many changes in the 2017 -- 18 season, most notably the trade of Irving to the Boston Celtics in exchange for Isaiah Thomas and other assets. Thomas was later traded to the Los Angeles Lakers as part of a trade deadline overhaul that saw the Cavaliers add several young players. The following offseason, James declined his player option to rejoin the team, instead signing with the Lakers.
When the Cleveland Cavaliers debuted in the NBA in 1970, the team 's original jerseys were wine and gold. The first jerseys featured the feathered treatment of the letter C in Cavaliers. In 1974, they changed into the classic block lettering and checkerboard pattern that was synonymous to the ' Miracle of Richfield ' teams of 1976. In 1980, the gold shade was changed from yellowish to metallic, and the uniforms removed the checkerboard pattern and placed the stripes above Cleveland and below the uniform number, the only time the city name was featured in both home and away jerseys.
The original logo was that of swashbuckling cavalier looking right with a sword pointing, surrounded by the team name and a basketball. A modernized swashbuckling cavalier logo was later used by the Cavaliers ' NBA Development League affiliates, the Canton Charge. The gold checkerboard uniforms were used as throwbacks in the 2004 -- 05 season to commemorate the 30th anniversary of the ' Miracle of Richfield ' team, while the gold ' Feathered C ' uniforms were used again in the 2008 -- 09 season, as a buildup to the then - upcoming 40th season of the Cavaliers. The ' Miracle of Richfield ' gold uniforms were used again in the 2015 -- 16 season on special "Hardwood Classic '' nights to commemorate the Miracle of Richfield teams 's 40th anniversary celebration.
In the 1983 -- 84 season, the colors were changed to burnt orange, blue and white. The first Cavaliers uniform under the new scheme featured the Cavaliers logo (with a V in the shape of a hoop and circle above as basketball) in an arched pattern and the player name sewn onto the back shoulder as a patch, with orange being the primary color in both the away and home uniforms. However, in the 1987 -- 88 season, orange was relegated as a secondary color, and blue was used instead as the primary for the away and home uniforms; minor changes in the 1989 -- 90 season include the city name on the blue away uniforms. The drop shadows were also removed. The orange version of the uniform was used again in the 2006 -- 07 and 2016 -- 17 seasons, as part of the respective 20th and 30th anniversaries of the 1986 -- 87 team. The blue versions were worn in the 2009 -- 10 season as part of the franchise 's 40th anniversary and as a tribute to the 1988 -- 89 team.
Coinciding with the move to Gund Arena in the 1994 -- 95 season, the Cavaliers changed logos and uniforms, adding black in addition to the already existing blue, orange and white colors. The uniforms feature a blue splash in the abdomen area in front. From 1994 to 1997 the word ' CAVS ' on the home uniforms was orange with black line, while the numbers are in black with white line, while ' CLEVELAND ' on the road uniforms was also orange with black lines, while the numbers are in white with a black line. From 1997 to 1999 the numbers and lettering were slightly tweaked. The word ' CAVS ' and the numbers on the home uniforms are in black with orange lines, while the word ' CLEVELAND ' and the numbers on the road uniforms are in white with orange lines. In the latter iteration, the blue splash was moved from the right leg to the left leg, surrounding ' CLEVELAND ' on the home uniforms and ' CAVS ' on the road uniforms, with a minor change in striping.
In the 1999 -- 2000 season, the Cavaliers opted to go for a cleaner look, eliminating the splash and adding an orange and blue line that runs through the shorts. The home jerseys feature the team nickname and the uniform numbers are in blue with black lines, while on the away jerseys, they feature the city name and the uniform numbers in white with blue lines. They were used until the 2002 -- 03 season. The logo used in this period was of a basketball on its way down the net, surrounded by a black square and the word ' CAVS ' in blue with black line below.
The Cavaliers switched to a modified version of the team 's classic wine and gold scheme in the 2003 -- 04 season (metallic gold and crimson shade of wine), with navy blue added to the color scheme. The home uniform was white, with the word "Cavaliers '' in wine lettering with gold trim on the front, the player 's name in wine lettering with gold trim on the back, the player 's numbers in navy blue, and wine and gold trim on the sides. The team 's standard road uniform was wine - colored, with the word "Cleveland '', the player 's name, and the player 's numbers all in white lettering with gold trim, as well as white and gold trim on the sides. The team 's third / alternate uniform was navy blue with the word "Cleveland '', the player 's name, and the player 's numbers all in white lettering with gold trim, as well as a wine, gold, and navy blue checkerboard trim. The checkerboard trim was a tribute to the original Cavaliers uniforms from the 1970s. The logo used was a gold sword piercing to the words ' Cleveland Cavaliers ' in white and navy trim, with a wine basketball surrounding it.
The Cavaliers debuted new uniforms before the start of the 2010 -- 11 NBA season, to coincide with the team returning to the original shades of wine and gold used from 1970 to 1983. The home uniform is white with a wine and gold horizontal stripe trim on the collar, sleeves, waistband, and pant legs, "Cavaliers '' (in block style lettering) in wine on the front of the jersey, with wine lettering for the name and number, and white shoes and socks. The road uniform is wine colored with the same stripe trim, "Cleveland '' in gold on the front of the jersey, and gold lettering on the name and number, with black shoes and socks. An alternate third uniform was added for the 2012 -- 13 season, which is gold with "CAVS '' in wine on the front of the jersey, wine lettering on the name and number, white socks and shoes, and the same stripe trim as the other uniforms. All uniforms have the team motto "All For One, One for All '' stitched on the inside of the collar, and the secondary "Sword C '' logo on the side of the pant legs. The logo used is the same piercing sword logo, updated to the classic wine and gold scheme.
For the 2014 -- 15 season, a second alternate uniform (and fourth uniform overall) was added, which is navy blue (a callback to the 1987 -- 94 style) with "CAVS '' and the player 's number in wine with gold trim, the player 's name on the back of the jersey in gold, and the "Sword C '' logo on the side of the pant legs. Two alternate jerseys were unveiled prior to the start of the 2015 -- 16 season. The second wine uniform is similar to their regular road threads, except that it features the arched mid-1980s Cavs logo and white numerals in gold trim. A black sleeved uniform features the wine ' C ' logo in front, and was famously worn in the title - clinching Game 7 of the 2016 NBA Finals. Their new logos for the 2017 -- 18 season newly include the color black to commemorate the victory.
From the 2008 -- 09 to the 2011 -- 12 seasons, the Cavaliers wore special "mash - up '' uniforms (combining the style from one era with the color scheme of another) on select "Cavs Fanatic '' Nights.
Beginning in the 2017 -- 18 season, all NBA teams will wear Nike - designed white "Association '' uniforms and "Icon '' uniforms in the respective team 's primary color. For the Cavs, their Icon uniforms will be wine colored with "Cleveland '' across the front and the player 's name in gold lettering with black numerals both in the front and in the back. The white Association uniforms will have "Cavs '' across the front, with wine color letters and numbers both front and back. All teams have the choice of which uniform to wear for any home game. Also new will be a small Goodyear wingfoot logo on the Cavs uniforms, as part of a sponsorship deal with the team.
Nike also announced that each team will have a third, alternate uniform called the "Statement '' uniform for the 2017 -- 18 season. The Cavaliers ' Statement uniform will be black with dark gray pinstripes, a wine colored "C '' trimmed in gold on the front, names in gold letters on the back, wine colored / gold trimmed numbers on the front and back, and gold colored Nike and Goodyear logos on the front. The black uniform is a nod to the team 's former black sleeved jerseys that they wore when they won Game 7 in the 2016 Finals.
Late in 2017, Nike unveiled a fourth uniform design for the Cavs called the "City Edition '', which honors the city of Cleveland as well as the state of Ohio. This uniform is grey with dark grey trim, "The Land '' (a popular Cleveland nickname) across the front of the uniform in white letters trimmed in dark grey and gold (as is the number on the front of the jersey), with the player 's name and number in white lettering on the back. The "City Edition '' also features a special design going down the sides of the uniform that is a tribute to the Guardians of Transportation (part of the Hope Memorial Bridge in downtown Cleveland). Outlines of the state of Ohio and a small Ohio flag are also part of the uniform.
Cleveland Clinic Courts, the team 's practice facility and team headquarters, is located in suburban Independence, Ohio. The 50,000 - square - foot (4,600 m) building opened in 2007 and includes two full - size basketball courts, weight room, team room, offices, medical facilities, and kitchen and dining facilities. Naming rights are held by the Cleveland Clinic, which is the team 's official healthcare partner. Prior to the opening of Cleveland Clinic Courts, the team used the practice court located on the club level of Quicken Loans Arena. In honor of the Cavs winning the NBA Championship, the city of Independence renamed the section of Brecksville Road leading to the team 's practice facility "Cavaliers Way '' in November 2016.
Roster Transactions Last transaction: 2018 -- 08 -- 07
The Cavaliers hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.
The following is a list of past Cavaliers players and other personnel who have been honored as "Cavs Legends '' either by retiring their number or having commemorative banners placed in the rafters at Quicken Loans Arena.
Notes:
The following is a list of players and other personnel who have spent at least part of their careers with the Cavaliers that have been inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame.
Notes:
Bold denotes still active with team. Italic denotes still active but not with team.
Points scored (regular season -- as of the end of the 2017 -- 18 season)
Other statistics (regular season) (as of July 20, 2018)
NBA Most Valuable Player
NBA Rookie of the Year
NBA Coach of the Year
NBA Executive of the Year
NBA Sportsmanship Award
J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award
NBA Finals Most Valuable Player
NBA All - Rookie First Team
NBA All - Rookie Second Team
All - NBA First Team
All - NBA Second Team
All - NBA Third Team
NBA All - Defensive First Team
NBA All - Defensive Second Team
NBA All - Star Game
* Starter
NBA All - Star Game head coaches
NBA All - Star Game MVP
Three - point Shootout
Slam Dunk Contest
Skills Challenge
Rookie / Rising Stars Challenge
Rookie / Rising Stars Challenge MVP
Two Ball Contest
WTAM (1100 AM) and WMMS (100.7 FM) currently serve as the flagship stations for the Cavaliers Radio Network. John Michael (play by play) and former Cavaliers star Jim Chones (analyst) are the radio team, with WTAM morning co-host / sports director Mike Snyder hosting the pregame / halftime / postgame shows. Either Chones (home games) or former Ohio State standout and NBA player Brad Sellers (road games) will join Snyder for the postgame show.
WLFM - LP (87.7 FM) serves as the Spanish - language radio home of the Cavaliers, with the 2014 -- 15 season marking the first time the Cavaliers have been broadcast in a second language. Rafael Hernández Brito serves as the Spanish language play - by - play announcer, as well as hosting pregame and postgame shows.
The Cavaliers air on Fox Sports Ohio, with select games simulcast on WUAB (TV channel 43). The broadcast team includes play - by - play announcer Fred McLeod; analyst Austin Carr, a former Cavalier; and sideline reporter Allie Clifton. Jeff Phelps and former Cavalier Campy Russell host the pregame, halftime, and postgame shows.
The Cavaliers have two official mascots, Moondog and Sir C.C. The character has a unique connection not just to the team, but to the city and surrounding area. Cleveland is known worldwide as the rock and roll city, due to Cleveland radio disc jockey Alan Freed, who popularized the phrase "rock and roll '', breaking new ground and sparking a music explosion. Freed called himself the "Moondog '', and his listeners were "Moondoggers ''. When the Cavaliers looked to create a new mascot which represents the city, Moondog was a natural selection. Moondog was an NBA All - Star selection in 2003 and 2004. His first appearance was on November 5, 2003. Sir C.C., a swashbuckler character, debuted during a game on November 27, 2010. During the 1990s and early 2000s, the Cavs had a polar bear mascot named Whammer, who was introduced November 9, 1995. He still makes occasional appearances throughout the season at Cavaliers games.
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who plays prince phillip on once upon a time | Julian Morris - wikipedia
Julian David Morris (born 13 January 1983) is an English actor. After appearing in the British television series The Knock (1996) and Fish (2000) during his teenage years, he had his first starring role in the American horror film Cry Wolf (2005). He subsequently had supporting roles in the thriller Donkey Punch (2008), the historical drama Valkyrie (2008), and the slasher film Sorority Row (2009).
Morris has also appeared in American television as a series regular on Pretty Little Liars and Hand of God. He also had recurring roles on Once Upon a Time and New Girl.
Morris was born in Crouch End, North London, and grew up in Muswell Hill. He is the son of South African - born Glen and Zimbabwean - born Andrea Morris, and spent a lot of time in both countries growing up. He has a younger sister, Amy, and is from a Jewish family.
Morris began acting at the Anna Scher Theatre in London. It was there, when he was 13, that a director on the British drama series The Knock spotted him and asked him to play a boy pushed into the drug trade. Morris continued his intensive training under Anna Scher for the next eight years. In this period more opportunities arose, and after appearing in several television shows, films and commercials, he went on to spend three seasons with the Royal Shakespeare Company, working with directors such as Steven Pimlott, Tim Albery and Elijah Moshinsky, and alongside actors like Simon Russell Beale, Samuel West and Roger Allam. Morris made his US debut in the 2005 horror film Cry Wolf as lead character Owen Matthews, followed by the role of James Edwards in the 2006 drama film Whirlygirl.
Morris was next seen in the independent horror film Donkey Punch as Josh, critically honoured after its screening at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival. He also appeared in the Tom Cruise - starring Valkyrie and the Sugababes video "Freak Like Me ''. Morris next had a supporting role in the slasher film Sorority Row as Andy. In 2010, he played the recurring role of Agent Owen in 24.
Morris was part of the main cast of the 2010 ABC documentary - style dramedy series My Generation, playing "The Rich Kid '' Anders Holt. Morris also starred in the teen drama Pretty Little Liars as Dr. Wren Kingston. In July 2012, Morris joined the ABC series Once Upon a Time as Prince Phillip.
Morris starred as Victor in the film Kelly + Victor, which premiered on 16 October 2012 at the BFI London Film Festival, and was released theatrically in the UK on 20 September 2013. The film won the BAFTA Award for Outstanding Debut by a British Writer, Director or Producer in 2014. The following year, Morris portrayed the lead role of Gareth in the fantasy adventure film Dragonheart 3: The Sorcerer 's Curse.
In March 2014, Morris was cast as Reverend Paul Curtis in the Amazon Studios pilot Hand of God. The pilot was ordered to full series by Amazon Studios in October 2014. In August 2014, he landed a recurring guest role on the Fox sitcom New Girl, playing Ryan Geauxinue.
In May 2016, Morris landed a major role in the film The Silent Man playing Bob Woodward, the Washington Post reporter who teamed with Carl Bernstein to expose the Watergate dealings.
In 2017 he played the part of Adam Berryman in the two - part TV drama Man In An Orange Shirt (part of BBC television 's Gay Britannia season), opposite Vanessa Redgrave.
Morris resides in Los Angeles, California, United States.
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who won the 2017 world figure skating championships | 2017 World Figure Skating Championships - wikipedia
The 2017 World Figure Skating Championships were held 29 March -- 2 April 2017 in Helsinki, Finland. The host was named in June 2014. Medals were awarded in the disciplines of men 's singles, ladies ' singles, pairs, and ice dancing. The event also determined the number of entries for each country at the 2018 World Championships and the 2018 Winter Olympics.
Hartwall Arena 's main arena, with an ice surface measuring 60 mx 30 m, was used for all competitions and several practice sessions. The rest of the practice sessions took place at Hartwall Arena 's practice rink (58 mx 28 m) and Pirkkola ice rink (for pairs, 60 mx 30 m). Hartwall Arena 's main rink and practice rink facilities are in the same venue. Pirkkola practice rink is about four kilometres from Hartwall Arena.
The following new ISU best scores were set during this competition:
Participants were required to have attained minimum technical element scores at an earlier senior international competition. The scores had to be obtained at least 21 days before the first official practice day of the championships.
Based on the results of the 2016 World Championships, each ISU member nation was allowed to field one to three entries per discipline.
Countries began publishing their selections as early as December 2016. The International Skating Union published a complete list on 9 March 2017.
Yuzuru Hanyu set a new world record for the free skating (223.20 points).
Evgenia Medvedeva set a new world record for the free skating (154.40 points) and for the combined total (233.41 points).
Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir set a new world record for the short dance (82.43 points) and for the combined total (198.62 points). Gabriella Papadakis and Guillaume Cizeron set a new world record for the free dance (119.15 points).
Medals for overall placement:
Small medals for placement in the short segment:
Small medals for placement in the free segment:
Table of medals for overall placement:
Table of small medals for placement in the short segment:
Table of small medals for placement in the free segment:
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when was the last time easter was on april 5 | List of dates for Easter - wikipedia
This is a list of dates for Easter. The Easter dates also affect when Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, Holy Saturday, Maundy Thursday, the Ascension of the Lord and Pentecost occur. Easter may occur on different dates in the Gregorian Calendar and the Julian Calendar. The accompanying table provides both sets of dates, for recent decades and forthcoming years -- see the computus article for more details on the calculation.
In 1818 the Paschal Full Moon fell on Saturday, March 21 (the equinox). Therefore, the following day, March 22, was Easter. It will not fall as early again until 2285, a span of 467 years. The next earliest Easter between 1818 and 2285 (March 23) occurred in 1845, 1856, 1913 and 2008, and will occur again in 2160 -- an 11, 57, 95 and 152 - year gap, respectively.
The earliest dates for Easter in the Eastern Orthodox Church between 1875 and 2099 are April 4, 1915 and April 4, 2010 (Gregorian). Both dates are equivalent to March 22 in the Julian Calendar.
In 1943 Easter fell on Sunday, April 25. The ecclesiastical full moon did not occur until Saturday, March 20; because it came before the vernal equinox, the paschal full moon did not happen until Sunday, April 18. Consequently, Easter was the following Sunday (April 25). Easter will not fall as late again until 2038 -- a span of 95 years. The second latest date for Easter, April 24, occurred in 2011. The last time this occurred was in 1859 and will not happen again until 2095 -- spans of 152 and 84 years. However between years 5121 and 6482, Easter will be no later than April 24.
The latest dates for Orthodox Easter between 1875 and 2099 are May 8, 1983, and May 8, 2078 (Gregorian). Both dates are equivalent to April 25 in the Julian Calendar. Orthodox Easter has never fallen on Gregorian May 7 yet; it will happen in 2051 unless these churches change to another calendar.
Despite using calendars that are apart by 13 days, Easter 2014 fell on the same date. According to the Western (Gregorian) calendar, the first Paschal Full Moon after the Spring Equinox (March 20) fell on Monday, April 14, 2014. The following Sunday, April 20, was, therefore, Easter Day.
According to the Orthodox (Julian) calendar (which is 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar), the Spring Equinox also falls on March 21. However, in the Gregorian Calendar, this is April 3. The first Orthodox Full Moon after the Equinox falls on (Julian) Tuesday, April 2, 2014 (Gregorian April 15). The following Sunday, (Julian) April 7, is, therefore, Easter Day (Gregorian April 20).
Both calendars (Gregorian and Julian) calculate Easter as falling on dates between March 22 and April 25 on their calendars. However, because of the 13 - day difference, any member of an Orthodox church would observe that the Western Easter falls between March 10 and April 12 on the Julian calendar. Conversely, any member of a Western church would observe that Orthodox Easter falls between April 4 and May 8 on the Gregorian calendar.
Beginning March 14, 2100 (February 29, 2100, in the Julian Calendar), the difference between the Julian and Gregorian calendars will increase to 14 days.
In Hungary, the United Kingdom except Scotland, Australia, Canada, South Africa, Germany, Switzerland and New Zealand, Easter comprises two public holidays, Good Friday and Easter Monday, making a four - day weekend. The moveable date of Easter sometimes brings it into conflict with other, fixed, public holidays.
Easter is not a federal holiday in the United States. In North Carolina, however, it was a public holiday from 1935 to 1987.
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when does hand foot and mouth disease peak | Hand, foot, and mouth disease - wikipedia
Hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) is a common infection caused by a group of viruses. It typically begins with a fever and feeling generally unwell. This is followed a day or two later by flat discolored spots or bumps that may blister, on the hands, feet, and mouth, and occasionally buttocks and groin. Signs and symptoms normally appear 3 -- 6 days after exposure to the virus. The rash generally goes away on its own in about a week. Fingernail and toenail loss may occur a few weeks later, but will regrow with time.
The viruses that cause HFMD are spread through close personal contact, through the air from coughing, and the feces of an infected person. Contaminated objects can also spread the disease. Coxsackievirus A16 is the most common cause and Enterovirus 71 is the second-most common cause. Other strains of coxsackievirus and enterovirus can also be responsible. Some people may carry and pass on the virus despite having no symptoms of disease. Other animals are not involved. Diagnosis can often be made based on symptoms. Occasionally a throat or stool sample may be tested for the virus.
Handwashing may prevent spread and those infected should not go to work, daycare, or school. No antiviral medication or vaccine is available, but development efforts are underway. Most cases require no specific treatment. Simple pain medication such as ibuprofen or numbing mouth gel may be used. Occasionally intravenous fluids are given to children who are unable to drink enough. Rarely viral meningitis or encephalitis may complicate the disease.
HFMD occurs in all areas of the world. It often occurs in small outbreaks in nursery schools or kindergartens. Large outbreaks have been occurring in Asia since 1997. It usually occurs during the spring, summer, and fall months. Typically it occurs in children less than five years old, but can occasionally occur in adults. HFMD should not be confused with foot - and - mouth disease (also known as hoof - and - mouth disease) which mostly affects livestock.
Common constitutional signs and symptoms of the HFMD include fever, nausea, vomiting, feeling tired, generalized discomfort, loss of appetite, and irritability in infants and toddlers. Skin lesions frequently develop in the form of a rash of flat discolored spots and bumps which may be followed by vesicular sores with blisters on palms of the hands, soles of the feet, buttocks, and sometimes on the lips. The rash is rarely itchy for children, but can be extremely itchy for adults. Painful facial ulcers, blisters, or lesions may also develop in or around the nose or mouth. HFMD usually resolves on its own after 7 -- 10 days. Most cases of the disease are relatively harmless, but complications including encephalitis, meningitis, and paralysis that mimics the neurological symptoms of polio can occur.
The viruses that cause the disease are of the Picornaviridae family. Coxsackievirus A16 is the most common cause of HFMD. Enterovirus 71 (EV - 71) is the second-most common cause. Many other strains of coxsackievirus and enterovirus can also be responsible.
HFMD is highly contagious and is transmitted by nasopharyngeal secretions such as saliva or nasal mucus, by direct contact, or by fecal - oral transmission.
Child care settings are the most common places for HMFD to be contracted because of the bathroom training, diaper changes, and that children often put their hands into their mouths. Children that do not attend a preschool or kindergarten were found to be more susceptible to the disease. HFMD is contracted through nose and throat secretions such as saliva, sputum, nasal mucus and as well as fluid in blisters, and stool.
A diagnosis usually can be made by the presenting signs and symptoms alone. If the diagnosis is unclear, a throat swab or stool specimen may be taken to identify the virus by culture. The common incubation period (the time between infection and onset of symptoms) ranges from three to six days. Early detection of HFMD is important in preventing an outbreak in the pediatric population.
Preventive measures include avoiding direct contact with infected individuals (including keeping infected children home from school), proper cleaning of shared utensils, disinfecting contaminated surfaces, and proper hand hygiene. These measures have been shown to be effective in decreasing the transmission of the viruses responsible for HFMD.
Protective habits include hand washing and disinfecting surfaces in play areas. Breast - feeding has also shown to decrease rates of severe HFMD, though does not reduce the risk for the infection of the disease.
A vaccine known as the EV71 vaccine is available to prevent HFMD in China as of December 2015. No vaccine is currently available in the United States.
Medications are usually not needed as hand, foot, and mouth disease is a viral disease that typically resolves on its own. Currently, there is no specific curative treatment for hand, foot and mouth disease. Disease management typically focuses on achieving symptomatic relief. Pain from the sores may be eased with the use of analgesic medications. Infection in older children, adolescents, and adults is typically mild and lasts approximately 1 week, but may occasionally run a longer course. Fever reducers and lukewarm baths can help decrease body temperature.
A minority of individuals with hand, foot and mouth disease may require hospital admission due to complications such as inflammation of the brain, inflammation of the meninges, or acute flaccid paralysis. Non-neurologic complications such as inflammation of the heart, fluid in the lungs, or bleeding into the lungs may also occur.
Complications from the viral infections that cause HFMD are rare, but require immediate medical treatment if present. HFMD infections caused by Enterovirus 71 tend to be more severe and are more likely to have neurologic or cardiac complications including death than infections caused by Coxsackievirus A16. Viral or aseptic meningitis can occur with HFMD in rare cases and is characterized by fever, headache, stiff neck, or back pain. The condition is usually mild and clears without treatment; however, hospitalization for a short time may be needed. Other serious complications of HFMD include encephalitis (swelling of the brain), or flaccid paralysis in rare circumstances.
Fingernail and toenail loss have been reported in children 4 -- 8 weeks after having HFMD. The relationship between HFMD and the reported nail loss is unclear; however, it is temporary and nail growth resumes without treatment.
Minor complications due to symptoms can occur such as dehydration, due to mouth sores causing discomfort with intake of foods and fluid.
Hand, foot and mouth disease most commonly occurs in children under the age of 10. It tends to occur in outbreaks during the spring, summer, and autumn seasons. This is believed to be due to heat and humidity improving spread. HFMD is more common in rural areas than urban areas, however, socioeconomic status and hygiene levels need to considered. Poor hygiene is a risk factor for HFMD.
Outbreaks have occurred in China, Japan, Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Taiwan and Vietnam. HFMD most commonly affects young children under the age of 10 and more often under the age of 5, but can also affect adults with varying symptoms.
Since 1997 there have been 71 large enterovirus outbreaks reported, mostly in East and South East Asia, primarily affecting children. From the years 2008 to 2014, more than 1 million HFMD cases have been reported in China each year.
HFMD cases were first described clinically in Canada and New Zealand in 1957. The disease was termed ' Hand Foot and Mouth Disease ' after a similar outbreak in 1959.
Novel antiviral agents to prevent and treat infection with the viruses responsible for HFMD are currently under development. Preliminary studies have shown inhibitors of the EV - 71 viral capsid to have potent antiviral activity.
Media related to Hand, foot and mouth disease at Wikimedia Commons News related to Highly contagious Hand, foot and mouth disease killing China 's children at Wikinews
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who did representatives from the seceded states choose to be president of the confederacy | President of the Confederate States of America - wikipedia
The President of the Confederate States of America was the elected head of state and government of the Confederate States. The president also headed the executive branch of government and was commander - in - chief of the Army and Navy, and of the militia of the several states when called into Confederate service.
Article II of the Confederate States Constitution vested the executive power of the Confederacy in the president. The power included the execution of law, alongside the responsibility of appointing executive, diplomatic, regulatory and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the senate. He was further empowered to grant reprieves and pardons, and convene and adjourn either or both houses of Congress under extraordinary circumstances.
The president was indirectly elected by the people through the Electoral College to a six - year term, and was one of only two nationally elected Confederate officers, the other being the Vice President. On February 18, 1861, Jefferson Davis became president of the provisional government. On February 22, 1862, he became president of the permanent government and served in that capacity until being captured by elements of the United States Cavalry in 1865.
The constitutional powers of the President of the Confederate States of America were similar to those of the President of the United States of America. The permanent Confederate States Constitution made him commander - in - chief of the Army and Navy, and of the militia of the confederated states when called into service of the Confederate States. He was also empowered to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the Confederate States. He was authorized to make treaties; to nominate and appoint diplomatic representatives, judges, and other officers of the Confederate States (including the heads of the executive departments) by and with the consent of the Confederate States Senate; and to remove such representatives and officers. He could fill vacancies during a recess of the Senate, but he could not reappoint, during a recess, persons previously rejected by it. He was to supply Congress with information, recommend legislation, receive ambassadors and other public ministers, see that the federal laws were faithfully executed, and commission all officers of the military and naval forces of the Confederate States.
On February 9, 1861, the provisional congress at Montgomery unanimously elected Jefferson Davis president and Alexander H. Stephens vice president. Stephens, who was a delegate to Congress from Georgia, was inaugurated on February 11. Davis was inaugurated on February 18 upon his arrival from Mississippi, where he had gone upon his resignation from the U.S. Senate. Davis and Stephens were elected on Wednesday November 6, 1861, for six - years terms, as provided by the permanent constitution. The Capital had been moved in June 1861, to Richmond, and the inauguration took place at the statue of Washington, on the public square, on February 22, 1862.
Before Davis entered on the execution of his office as President of the Confederate States, he was constitutionally required to take the following oath or affirmation:
"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the Confederate States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution thereof. ''
In 1861, the President of the Confederate States earned a CS $ 25,000 annual salary, along with an expense account, and a nontaxable travel account. The President 's Office was located on the second floor of the Custom House on Main Street, a structure which also housed the Cabinet Room and the State and Treasury Department. The City of Richmond purchased the Brockenbrough house for presentation to the Confederate government for use as an executive mansion. Davis declined to accept the gift, but the mansion was leased for his use. Referred to as the "White House of the Confederacy '' or the "Grey House, '' the mansion was used by President Davis throughout the existence of his presidency. Later it became a repository for documents, relics, and pictures, and in 1896 it was redesignated the Confederate Museum.
Late on the evening of April 2, 1865, President Davis, his aides, and members of the Cabinet, except Secretary of War Breckinridge, departed from Richmond on the Richmond and Danville Railroad. The Cabinet stayed at Danville, 140 miles (225 km) southwest of Richmond, until April 10, when, hearing of Lee 's surrender, it continued farther south. At Greensboro, North Carolina, on April 12 the Cabinet met with Generals Johnston and Beauregard and discussed surrender of Johnston 's army to General Sherman. As the railroad south of Greensboro had been destroyed, the flight from that location was on horseback and in ambulances, wagons, and carriages. The last Cabinet meetings took place at Charlotte, on April 24, and 26, and on May 4; when Davis left Washington, Georgia, the party consisted only of his aides and Postmaster General Reagan. Elements of the United States Cavalry captured Davis and his companions at an encampment near Irwinville, May 10, 1865.
Jefferson Davis was imprisoned at Fort Monroe, Virginia, until his release on bail on May 13, 1867. During his confinement, the United States Government prepared to bring him to trial for treason and for complicity in the assassination of United States President Abraham Lincoln. He could not be tried in Virginia until the Federal court was reestablished there, but by the time the circuit judges were prepared in May 1867, the United States Government decided the outcome of a trial before a local jury was far too uncertain and dropped the proceedings. In November 1868, Davis was brought to trial under a new indictment, but the judges disagreed and the case was referred to the Supreme Court. President Johnson issued a general amnesty in December 1868 and the Supreme Court entered a nolle prosequi, thus freeing Davis.
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who does meredith grey date in season 14 | Grey 's Anatomy (season 14) - wikipedia
The fourteenth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy was ordered on February 10, 2017, by American Broadcasting Company (ABC), and premiered on September 28, 2017 with a special two - hour premiere. The season consists of 24 episodes, with the season 's seventh episode marking the 300th episode for the series overall. The season is produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunners being Krista Vernoff and William Harper.
The fourteenth season is the first not to feature Jerrika Hinton as Dr. Stephanie Edwards since her introduction in the ninth season, following her departure at the conclusion of the previous season. The season marks the last appearance of Martin Henderson, Jason George, Jessica Capshaw, and Sarah Drew as series regulars, as well as the first appearance of Jaina Lee Ortiz as Andy Herrera, the lead character of Grey 's Anatomy 's second spin - off series, Station 19.
On April 20, 2018, ABC officially renewed Grey 's Anatomy for a network primetime drama record - setting fifteenth season.
The season follows the story of surgical residents, fellows, and attendings as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen. It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington.
After the explosion at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, Chief Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) finds it the perfect time to give the place a much needed upgrade in look and functionality. During the construction, Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) struggles with the shocking reunion with his sister, Megan (Abigail Spencer), who was recently found in a hostage camp overseas. The discovery also welcomes back Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), the former chief cardiothoracic surgery and Owen 's best friend, which leads to awkward moments with Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone). Of course, Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson), who was once in love with Megan, is torn between his love for her and his most recent interest in Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo). Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) learns what "ghosting '' is after Eliza Minnick (Marika Dominczyk) vanishes without a trace, but she quickly finds company in an Italian girl she met at the bar, Carina DeLuca (Stefania Spampinato), sister to Andrew DeLuca (Giacomo Gianniotti). Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington) struggles to patch her relationship with Alex Karev (Justin Chambers), but when her attempts fail, she finds herself sleeping with one of the new interns.
When Carina finds that Amelia has a brain tumor, she brings her former mentor / professor Dr Tom Koracek (Greg Germann) to create a treatment plan. But when he points out how the tumor has affected her judgment, she fears that it might have ruined her patient 's lives or put them in more danger -- specifically Dr Nicole Herman (Geena Davis), who despite saving her life, was left blind. After the tumor is removed, Amelia and Owen reflect on their marriage and decide that everything up to that point has been misguided; the tumor made Amelia someone she was not, and they ultimately decide to get a divorce. With all the changes happening at Grey Sloan, Harper Avery (Chelcie Ross) shows up to discuss everything with Bailey and then ends up firing her. Shortly after, he immediately dies from cardiac arrest. Before they have to find another chief, Catherine (Debbie Allen) and Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) reinstate Bailey to her position. At a family dinner hosted by Catherine and Richard Weber (James Pickens Jr.), Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary) and Jackson learn that he 'll be receiving his grandfather 's inheritance, a quarter billion dollars, which he 'll eventually use to fund a medical research contest.
Now that Megan is healthy again, Meredith and Nathan work together to bring her son over to the United States. Upon arrival, Nathan, Megan, and Farouk all move to California to start a life together, which officially ends Nathan 's relationship with Meredith. Despite the breakup, Meredith has more exciting news on the horizon when she learns at the intern mixer that a ground breaking surgery has earned her a nomination for the highly - esteemed Harper Avery Foundation Award, which she goes on to win. While the joyous news spreads around the hospital, Bailey learns that Ben Warren (Jason George) wants to leave surgery to join the Seattle Fire Department. With Jo and Alex now living together again, she realizes how much control her estranged husband, Dr Paul Stadler (Matthew Morrison), has over her. Now in the running for chief resident, Jo decides to file for divorce. With her mind on her secret relationship with Paul, she 's surprised to find him in the hospital. Jo attempts to steer clear of him, but at the same time also believes she has a duty to inform Paul 's fiancé of what type of man he really is. As Paul keeps trying to find Jo, Meredith pretends to call security to have him removed, but he leaves before they can get there. However, he winds up back in the ER as a victim of a hit and run accident. With everyone running around the ER, April Kepner (Sarah Drew) sees a familiar face in Matthew (Justin Bruening), the paramedic she left at the altar for Jackson. He 's there with his wife who is now pregnant. After Jo talks to Jenny (Bethany Joy Lenz), Paul 's fiancé, they venture to Paul 's room to tell him they 're taking him to court. Upon receiving the news, he tries to attack them in a bout of rage; however, he falls out of bed and hits his head knocking him unconscious, rendering him brain dead. Still legally his wife, Jo decides to have them remove all life - sustaining support. April struggles with the idea that the man she left to pursue her own happiness is now married and expecting a child, while she 's alone and a single mother. As she begins to question her faith, she acts out and sleeps with an intern.
With all the stress and work that comes with being Chief of Surgery, Bailey begins to show signs of a heart attack. She winds up at Seattle Presbyterian Hospital, where the doctors take her concerns less than seriously. They see in her chart a history of OCD and believe that is the underlying issue, since the tests they are running are coming back negative. Bailey calls on Maggie to save her, and after she does, Bailey decides to support Ben 's decision to become a firefighter, as she realizes life is too short to do anything than what makes you happy.
With the medical research contest, funded by Jackson 's money, getting underway, the doctors begin to team up and brainstorm ideas that will help them win the top prize of a grant that will fund their research even further. Meredith learns that for her project, she 'll need to acquire a patent that is owned by Marie Cerone... a former friend of her mother 's. When Marie denies access to the patent, Meredith is forced to investigate further into the reason why. According to Richard, there was a falling out of some sort, but he never knew what happened between the two women. At a dinner party hosted by Amelia, Maggie brings her new boyfriend around to meet her friends. However, it 's soon revealed that her boyfriend is a married man. Quick to call it off, Jackson sees his opportunity to invest in his love interest with Maggie. In Meredith 's search for answers, she learns that Ellis Grey left Marie 's name off the surgical method they created together. If she is to acquire the patent, she must publicly announce a change the method 's name to the Grey - Cerone Method. Meredith denies the ultimatum. While Maggie and Jackson try to get past the quirks of their relationship and the fact that their step - siblings, Jo shockingly asks Alex to marry him. He quickly accepts.
With the research projects humming along, Owen and Amelia continue to take advantage of their "friends with benefits '' relationship, that is until Amelia learns how close Owen is with Teddy. She advises him to go after her if she 's the love of his life. The advice sends him to Germany where he surprises Teddy. The two talk all night and make plans to stay together, but when she learns that Amelia had just told him the night before to pursue her, she refuses to be his backup plan and kicks him out.
Bailey is surprised to learn that one of her interns, Sam Bello (Jeanine Mason), is a "Dreamer '' protected by (DACA). Meredith designs a plan to keep from being deported. Despite pleas from Andrew (Sam 's boyfriend), Meredith sends to work under Dr Cristina Yang in Switzerland. While the research contest reaches the next milestone, presentation day, Catherine confronts Jackson about a major secret concerning his grandfather. The man had 13 cases of sexual harassment filed against him, and she herself paid the women major settlements to keep it all covered up. Meredith learns of this truth and also that Marie Cerone was one of the 13. Disgusted with the whole situation, Meredith decides to return her and her mother 's Harper Avery awards and Bailey shuts down the research contest. In the meantime, Catherine tries with all her might to save the face of the foundation since the news has spread. While in surgery, Jackson and Meredith come up with their own plan, which is to rename the foundation in honor of Catherine (née Fox) to the Catherine Fox Foundation.
When Alex learns that his mom has n't been cashing the checks he 's been sending, he and Jo take off to Iowa to check on her. He surprisingly finds that she is doing well and even works her old job at the library. The two extend an invitation to the wedding, but she declines stating it would be too much for her. While Owen and Amelia struggle with adjusting to being foster parents -- Owen to a baby and Amelia to the baby 's teenaged mother on drugs, Arizona continues to battle with Sofia who wants to move back to New York to be with her other mom, Callie. After calling Callie to tell her they 're moving to the east coast to be closer to her, Arizona announced her impeding departure to Bailey. However, an unexpected visit from Nicole Herman changes those plans just slightly. Nicole has been following Arizona 's work and she would like to partner with her in creating the Robbins - Herman Center for Women 's Health. Knowing that she 's headed to New York, Arizona asks that it be there, and Nicole obliges.
Matthew winds up in the ER again, but this time for himself, after he rolled his car. Trying to get information from him about what happened, he mentions April 's name, which sends the doctors into a frenzy trying to make sure she 's safe. Owen finds her unconscious at the site of the accident, down in a ravine nearby. After he rushes her back to the hospital, the team rallies to save her, and after extreme measures have been taken to bring her back to life, she wakes up, fully functional. Alex and Jo 's wedding day has arrived, and though most details have come together, April (who has been planning the wedding) panics when multiple guests go to the wrong ceremony. While trying to escape, the mother of the bride faints, keeping Ben and Bailey behind. Once at the hospital, Bailey struggles to find an available cardio surgeon until Teddy unexpectedly arrives looking for a job. Jo learns she 's been accepted into Mass Gen 's fellowship program, but fearful of losing Alex, Meredith offers Jo the general surgery attending position. The wedding is delayed when the wedding planner goes into anaphylactic shock and an emergency tracheotomy is performed to save her. After the guests leave thinking there 'll be no wedding, the pastor finally arrives in time to marry April and Matthew after a surprise re-engagement. On a ferry back to the main land, Maggie has the idea to have Meredith ordained online to officiate the wedding right there on the ferry. Bailey, wanting to take a break from being chief to focus on her passions, offers Teddy the chance to be interim chief. Watching the wedding happening at the hospital on a tablet, in the ICU with the bride 's mother, Teddy reveals she 's pregnant. Arizona says her sad goodbyes before heading to New York, but is giddy to be closer to Callie who is recently single.
Series regular Jerrika Hinton does not appear for the first time since her introduction at the start of the 9th season, after it was announced she landed a starring role in Alan Ball 's new HBO drama series Here and Now. Hinton had previously been in talks of leaving the show at the end of the 12th season when she was cast in the Shondaland comedy pilot Toast, but ABC passed on the project. Renewing her contract for another three seasons as Dr. Arizona Robbins after the eleventh season, Jessica Capshaw returned for the 14th season. On June 20, 2017, it was announced that Kim Raver would reprise her role as Dr. Teddy Altman for a guest arc. In August 2017, it was announced that Abigail Spencer would replace Bridget Regan as Megan Hunt for a multi-episode arc this season. After recurring in the previous season as the controversial character, Eliza Minnick, it was announced in August 2017 that Marika Dominczyk would not return to the show. On September 13, 2017, another guest star was announced in Greg Germann (Ally McBeal), and later it was revealed that his character would be Tom Koracick, Amelia 's neurosurgery mentor.
On October 9, 2017, the new group of interns to join the cast in the fourth episode "Ai n't That a Kick in the Head '' was announced to include Jeanine Mason (So You Think You Can Dance) as Sam, Alex Blue Davis as Casey, Rushi Kota as Vik, Jaicy Elliot as Taryn, Sophia Ali as Dahlia, and Jake Borelli as Levi. On October 26, 2017, it was announced that Martin Henderson 's appearance in the fifth episode titled "Danger Zone '' would be his last.
On January 31, 2018, it was announced that Candis Cayne would be joining the show as Dr. Michelle Velez for a multi-episode arc revolving around a transgender character receiving a ground breaking surgery. On March 8, 2018, it was announced that both Jessica Capshaw and Sarah Drew would leave the series following the conclusion of the season.
It was released on April 4, 2018 that a familiar character would be returning to the set later on in the season as Sarah Utterback 's Nurse Olivia Harper would be revisiting Grey Sloan, not as a nurse but as mom of a patient. Details of her storyline or duration of arc have yet to be released. On April 20, 2018, it was released that Geena Davis would return for the episode "Cold as Ice '' as Dr. Herman to present a new opportunity for Arizona.
Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a 14th season on February 10, 2017. It premiered on September 28, 2017, with a two - hour premiere. Ellen Pompeo announced that she would be directing several episodes in the 14th season. On April 28, 2017, veteran writer Krista Vernoff announced that she would return to the show as a writer after leaving the show after the seventh season. On January 11, 2018, ABC released a six - episode web series following the new surgical interns at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. The web series was written by Barbara Kaye Friend and directed by series regular Sarah Drew.
The number in the "No. overall '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live.
While the staff of the hospital fawns over Dr. Paul Stadler and his legendary work as a surgeon, Jo tries to steer clear of him. Alex and Meredith team up to do their best to protect Jo during the process of filing for divorce. Drenched in blood, Jackson and Maggie save their patient 's life and then bond in the locker room after showers; April and Owen use their trauma skills to work on patients in less than ideal and extremely hot conditions, very similar to when they were overseas. Bailey works with an exceptionally computer - savvy intern to take back the power against those who hacked the hospital; this intern later outs himself as "a proud trans man ''. After Paul 's fiancée, Jenny, tells him about her secret exchange with Jo, Meredith pretends to call in security to remove Paul from the hospital. However, he soon winds back up in the ER as a victim of a hit - and - run.
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what episode does gohan turn super saiyan 2 against cell | List of Dragon Ball Z episodes (season 6) - wikipedia
The Cell Games Saga is the sixth season of Dragon Ball Z anime series. The episodes are produced by Toei Animation, and are based on the final 26 volumes of the Dragon Ball manga series by Akira Toriyama.
The 29 - episode season originally ran from November 1992 to July 1993 in Japan on Fuji Television. The first English airing of the series was on Cartoon Network where Funimation Entertainment 's dub of the series ran from November to December 2000. The episodes also aired in Australia and New Zealand. The Netherlands, the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, and Canada, all received a different English dub: one made in Canada.
Funimation released the season in a box set on September 16, 2008 and in June 2009, announced that they would be re-releasing Dragon Ball Z in a new seven volume set called the "Dragon Boxes ''. Based on the original series masters with frame - by - frame restoration, the first set was released November 10, 2009.
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do you get anything for 2 lucky stars on the euromillions | EuroMillions - wikipedia
EuroMillions is a transnational lottery requiring 7 correct numbers to win the jackpot. It was launched on 7 February 2004 by France 's Française des Jeux, Spain 's Loterías y Apuestas del Estado and the United Kingdom 's Camelot. The first draw was held on Friday 13 February 2004 in Paris. Initially, only the UK, France and Spain participated, with the Austrian, Belgian, Irish, Luxembourgish, Portuguese and Swiss lotteries joining for the 8 October 2004 drawing.
Draws are held every Tuesday and Friday night at 20: 45 CET in Paris. A standard EuroMillions ticket costs € 2.50, £ 2.50 or CHF 3.50 per line played, depending on the local currency. An option called Plus is currently available only in Ireland, adds € 1.00 per line; as of February 2014, a non-optional addition called "My Million '' in France adds € 0.50 per line, while in Portugal it 's called "M1lhão '' and represents € 0.30 of the whole € 2.50 bet. The cost of playing in the UK increased from £ 1.50 to £ 2.00 per line on 7 November 2009, due to the combination of the EUR / GBP exchange rate, and an automatic entry in its Millionaire Raffle. From 24 September 2016 the cost per line increased from £ 2.00 to £ 2.50 in the UK.
From September 24, 2016 the amount of lucky stars changed from a pool of 11 to a pool of 12 numbers. Decreasing the jackpot winning odds from 1: 117million to 1: 140million.
From September 24, 2016 the cost of entry in Ireland and Spain rose to € 2.50 per line.
All prizes, including the jackpot, are tax - free (except in Switzerland, Spain and Portugal since 2013) and are paid as a lump sum.
Draws take place at 20: 45 every Tuesday and Friday in Paris. The results are published shortly after the draw on associated and independent websites around 23: 00 hours.
To participate in the EuroMillions Lotto, tickets can be purchased from many outlets, namely at licensed stores and online websites.
The gameplay changed on Tuesday 10 May 2011 with a second weekly draw and the number of "lucky stars '' in the Pacquerette machine increasing from 9 to 11. A prize for matching two main numbers and no lucky stars was also introduced on the same date.
On Saturday 24 September 2016 the number of "lucky stars '' increased again, from 11 to 12.
As of 24 September 2016 the structure of the draw was changed, with the Lucky Star being drawn from a pool of 12 numbers instead of the old 11. The prize structure as of Tuesday 27 September 2016 is as follows:
The booster fund is available to contribute to the jackpot, for example to boost the initial jackpot in a sequence of growing jackpots. The amount utilized each week is determined in advance by the participating lotteries.
Effective 7 November 2009 new rules were put in place regarding rollovers.
A new rule change of 12 January 2012 locks the Jackpot cap at € 190,000,000 permanently and if the jackpot is not won after two draws, the prize money will be distributed amongst the winners at the next level. A new rule change of 24 September 2016: if the jackpot is not won after five draws, the prize money will be distributed amongst the winners at the next level.
The participating national lotteries in the EuroMillions game have each established a EuroMillions Trust account. This is used for the settlement of all amounts due and for holding amounts in respect of future prizes. This trust arrangement protects the participating lotteries between them from a default from one of the national companies and ultimately the players ' interests.
Super Draws and Event draws are special drawings when the Jackpot is set to a guaranteed amount - often € 100,000,000. The difference being that a Super Draw jackpot will roll over to the next drawing if not won but an Event Draw jackpot will be distributed amongst the winners in the next lower tier (i.e. match 5 + 1). So far there has not been an event draw, until now, jackpots in a Super Draw have rolled over to the next drawing if not won
The first Super draw of 2011 took place on Tuesday 10 May to mark the introduction of the second weekly Euromillions draw and changes to the game format (11 lucky stars instead of 9 and a new "match 2 main numbers and no lucky stars '' prize tier).
The first Super draw of 2016 took place on Friday 30 September to introduce the change to the game format (12 lucky stars instead of 11 and increased price).
Super draws have been held to date on
(A € 100,000,000 Super draw was planned for 6 June 2014 but was cancelled when the jackpot rolled over to € 105,000,000).
(This is a change to the game rules as of 4 April 2011 when the Event Draw was added.)
In the UK, the total EuroMillions revenue is broken down as follows:
When Chris and Colin Weir, one couple who won the EuroMillions, pledged to donate their prize money to good causes, cyber criminals started using the couple 's name in their email scams to fool the general public and ultimately cheat them of money.
In June 2007, with the success of the main EuroMillions game, the Irish National Lottery launched EuroMillions Plus. For an extra € 1 per line, players could enter the additional draw with the top prize each week of € 500,000. Sales of the main EuroMillions in Ireland for 2006 were over € 145 million; this success led to the introduction of ' Plus '.
Since November 2009 at least one UK player every week has won a guaranteed million Pounds Sterling. With the introduction of the Tuesday EuroMillions Draw on Tuesday 10 May 2011 there were 2 Millionaire Raffle winners each week. The latest changes to Euromillions in September 2016 now mean that two guaranteed Millionaire Raffle winners are made per draw, or 4 per week across the two draws.
According to the Euromillions website, the chances of winning the UK Millionaire Maker game on a Tuesday can be estimated as 1 in 1,900,000 but can shrink to 1 in 2,250,000 in the events of rollovers. On a Friday, it can be calculated as 1 in 2,950,000 but again the odds can fall to 1 in 3,400,000 in the events of a 4 times rollover. Winning in this game depends entirely on the number of the playslips sold so the odds fluctuate. The odds may also fluctuate during a super draw or a special event in the UK Millionaire Raffle.
Prices per line in the UK increased by 50 pence to £ 2.00. The 50 pence was added due to weak exchange rates between the pound and euro and to cover the expense of the new Millionaire Maker. On 24 September 2016 the price per line in the UK was increased by an additional 50 pence to £ 2.50.
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what kind of charge does an object that has an excess of electrons have | Electric charge - wikipedia
Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. There are two types of electric charges: positive and negative (commonly carried by protons and electrons respectively). Like charges repel and unlike attract. An object with an absence of net charge is referred to as neutral. The SI derived unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C). In electrical engineering, it is also common to use the ampere - hour (Ah), and, in chemistry, it is common to use the elementary charge (e) as a unit. The symbol Q often denotes charge. Early knowledge of how charged substances interact is now called classical electrodynamics, and is still accurate for problems that do n't require consideration of quantum effects.
Electric charge is a conserved property; the net charge of an isolated system, the amount of positive charge minus the amount of negative charge, can not change. Electric charge is carried by subatomic particles. In ordinary matter, negative charge is carried by electrons, and positive charge is carried by the protons in the nuclei of atoms. If there are more electrons than protons in a piece of matter, it will have a negative charge, if there are less it will have a positive charge, and if there are equal numbers it will be neutral. Charge is quantized; it comes in integer multiples of individual small units called the elementary charge, e, about 6981160200000000000 ♠ 1.602 × 10 coulombs, which is the smallest charge which can exist free (particles called quarks have smaller charges, multiples of 1 / 3e but they are only found in combination). The proton has a charge of + e, and the electron has a charge of − e.
Electric charges create an electric field, if they are moving they also generate a magnetic field. The combination of the electric and magnetic field is called the electromagnetic field, and its interaction with charges is the source of the electromagnetic force, which is one of the four fundamental forces in physics. The study of charged particles, and how their interactions are mediated by photons, is called quantum electrodynamics.
Charge is the fundamental property of forms of matter that exhibit electrostatic attraction or repulsion in the presence of other matter. Electric charge is a characteristic property of many subatomic particles. The charges of free - standing particles are integer multiples of the elementary charge e; we say that electric charge is quantized. Michael Faraday, in his electrolysis experiments, was the first to note the discrete nature of electric charge. Robert Millikan 's oil drop experiment demonstrated this fact directly, and measured the elementary charge. It has been discovered that one type of particle, quarks, have fractional charges of either − 1 / 3 or + 2 / 3, but it is believed they always occur in multiples of integral charge; free - standing quarks have never been observed.
By convention, the charge of an electron is negative, − e, while that of a proton is positive, + e. Charged particles whose charges have the same sign repel one another, and particles whose charges have different signs attract. Coulomb 's law quantifies the electrostatic force between two particles by asserting that the force is proportional to the product of their charges, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The charge of an antiparticle equals that of the corresponding particle, but with opposite sign.
The electric charge of a macroscopic object is the sum of the electric charges of the particles that make it up. This charge is often small, because matter is made of atoms, and atoms typically have equal numbers of protons and electrons, in which case their charges cancel out, yielding a net charge of zero, thus making the atom neutral.
An ion is an atom (or group of atoms) that has lost one or more electrons, giving it a net positive charge (cation), or that has gained one or more electrons, giving it a net negative charge (anion). Monatomic ions are formed from single atoms, while polyatomic ions are formed from two or more atoms that have been bonded together, in each case yielding an ion with a positive or negative net charge.
During formation of macroscopic objects, constituent atoms and ions usually combine to form structures composed of neutral ionic compounds electrically bound to neutral atoms. Thus macroscopic objects tend toward being neutral overall, but macroscopic objects are rarely perfectly net neutral.
Sometimes macroscopic objects contain ions distributed throughout the material, rigidly bound in place, giving an overall net positive or negative charge to the object. Also, macroscopic objects made of conductive elements, can more or less easily (depending on the element) take on or give off electrons, and then maintain a net negative or positive charge indefinitely. When the net electric charge of an object is non-zero and motionless, the phenomenon is known as static electricity. This can easily be produced by rubbing two dissimilar materials together, such as rubbing amber with fur or glass with silk. In this way non-conductive materials can be charged to a significant degree, either positively or negatively. Charge taken from one material is moved to the other material, leaving an opposite charge of the same magnitude behind. The law of conservation of charge always applies, giving the object from which a negative charge is taken a positive charge of the same magnitude, and vice versa.
Even when an object 's net charge is zero, charge can be distributed non-uniformly in the object (e.g., due to an external electromagnetic field, or bound polar molecules). In such cases the object is said to be polarized. The charge due to polarization is known as bound charge, while charge on an object produced by electrons gained or lost from outside the object is called free charge. The motion of electrons in conductive metals in a specific direction is known as electric current.
The SI unit of quantity of electric charge is the coulomb, which is equivalent to about 7018624200000000000 ♠ 6.242 × 10 e (e is the charge of a proton). Hence, the charge of an electron is approximately 3018839800000000000 ♠ − 1.602 × 10 C. The coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge that has passed through the cross section of an electrical conductor carrying one ampere within one second. The symbol Q is often used to denote a quantity of electricity or charge. The quantity of electric charge can be directly measured with an electrometer, or indirectly measured with a ballistic galvanometer.
After finding the quantized character of charge, in 1891 George Stoney proposed the unit ' electron ' for this fundamental unit of electrical charge. This was before the discovery of the particle by J.J. Thomson in 1897. The unit is today treated as nameless, referred to as "elementary charge '', "fundamental unit of charge '', or simply as "e ''. A measure of charge should be a multiple of the elementary charge e, even if at large scales charge seems to behave as a real quantity. In some contexts it is meaningful to speak of fractions of a charge; for example in the charging of a capacitor, or in the fractional quantum Hall effect.
The unit faraday is sometimes used in electrochemistry. One faraday of charge is the magnitude of the charge of one mole of electrons, i.e. 96485.33289 (59) C.
In systems of units other than SI such as cgs, electric charge is expressed as combination of only three fundamental quantities (length, mass, and time), and not four, as in SI, where electric charge is a combination of length, mass, time, and electric current.
As reported by the ancient Greek mathematician Thales of Miletus around 600 BC, charge (or electricity) could be accumulated by rubbing fur on various substances, such as amber. The Greeks observed that the charged amber buttons could attract light objects such as hair. They also found that if they rubbed the amber for long enough, they could even get an electric spark to jump. This property derives from the triboelectric effect.
In 1600, the English scientist William Gilbert returned to the subject in De Magnete, and coined the New Latin word electricus from ἤλεκτρον (ēlektron), the Greek word for amber, which soon gave rise to the English words "electric '' and "electricity ''. He was followed in 1660 by Otto von Guericke, who invented what was probably the first electrostatic generator. Other European pioneers were Robert Boyle, who in 1675 stated that electric attraction and repulsion can act across a vacuum; Stephen Gray, who in 1729 classified materials as conductors and insulators; and C.F. du Fay, who proposed in 1733 that electricity comes in two varieties that cancel each other, and expressed this in terms of a two - fluid theory. When glass was rubbed with silk, du Fay said that the glass was charged with vitreous electricity, and, when amber was rubbed with fur, the amber was charged with resinous electricity. In 1839, Michael Faraday showed that the apparent division between static electricity, current electricity, and bioelectricity was incorrect, and all were a consequence of the behavior of a single kind of electricity appearing in opposite polarities. It is arbitrary which polarity is called positive and which is called negative. Positive charge can be defined as the charge left on a glass rod after being rubbed with silk.
One of the foremost experts on electricity in the 18th century was Benjamin Franklin, who argued in favour of a one - fluid theory of electricity. Franklin imagined electricity as being a type of invisible fluid present in all matter; for example, he believed that it was the glass in a Leyden jar that held the accumulated charge. He posited that rubbing insulating surfaces together caused this fluid to change location, and that a flow of this fluid constitutes an electric current. He also posited that when matter contained too little of the fluid it was "negatively '' charged, and when it had an excess it was "positively '' charged. For a reason that was not recorded, he identified the term "positive '' with vitreous electricity and "negative '' with resinous electricity. William Watson independently arrived at the same explanation at about the same time (1746).
Static electricity and electric current are two separate phenomena. They both involve electric charge, and may occur simultaneously in the same object. Static electricity refers to the electric charge of an object and the related electrostatic discharge when two objects are brought together that are not at equilibrium. An electrostatic discharge creates a change in the charge of each of the two objects. In contrast, electric current is the flow of electric charge through an object, which produces no net loss or gain of electric charge.
When a piece of glass and a piece of resin -- neither of which exhibit any electrical properties -- are rubbed together and left with the rubbed surfaces in contact, they still exhibit no electrical properties. When separated, they attract each other.
A second piece of glass rubbed with a second piece of resin, then separated and suspended near the former pieces of glass and resin causes these phenomena:
This attraction and repulsion is an electrical phenomena, and the bodies that exhibit them are said to be electrified, or electrically charged. Bodies may be electrified in many other ways, as well as by friction. The electrical properties of the two pieces of glass are similar to each other but opposite to those of the two pieces of resin: The glass attracts what the resin repels and repels what the resin attracts.
If a body electrified in any manner whatsoever behaves as the glass does, that is, if it repels the glass and attracts the resin, the body is said to be vitreously electrified, and if it attracts the glass and repels the resin it is said to be resinously electrified. All electrified bodies are either vitreously or resinously electrified.
An established convention in the scientific community defines vitreous electrification as positive, and resinous electrification as negative. The exactly opposite properties of the two kinds of electrification justify our indicating them by opposite signs, but the application of the positive sign to one rather than to the other kind must be considered as a matter of arbitrary convention -- just as it is a matter of convention in mathematical diagram to reckon positive distances towards the right hand.
No force, either of attraction or of repulsion, can be observed between an electrified body and a body not electrified.
Actually, all bodies are electrified, but may appear not electrified because of the relatively similar charge of neighboring objects in the environment. An object further electrified + or -- creates an equivalent or opposite charge by default in neighboring objects, until those charges can equalize. The effects of attraction can be observed in high - voltage experiments, while lower voltage effects are merely weaker and therefore less obvious. The attraction and repulsion forces are codified by Coulomb 's law (attraction falls off at the square of the distance, which has a corollary for acceleration in a gravitational field, suggesting that gravitation may be merely electrostatic phenomenon between relatively weak charges in terms of scale). See also Casimir effect.
It is now known that the Franklin - Watson model was fundamentally correct. There is only one kind of electrical charge, and only one variable is required to keep track of the amount of charge. On the other hand, just knowing the charge is not a complete description of the situation. Matter is composed of several kinds of electrically charged particles, and these particles have many properties, not just charge.
The most common charge carriers are the positively charged proton and the negatively charged electron. The movement of any of these charged particles constitutes an electric current. In many situations, it suffices to speak of the conventional current without regard to whether it is carried by positive charges moving in the direction of the conventional current or by negative charges moving in the opposite direction. This macroscopic viewpoint is an approximation that simplifies electromagnetic concepts and calculations.
At the opposite extreme, if one looks at the microscopic situation, one sees there are many ways of carrying an electric current, including: a flow of electrons; a flow of electron "holes '' that act like positive particles; and both negative and positive particles (ions or other charged particles) flowing in opposite directions in an electrolytic solution or a plasma.
Beware that, in the common and important case of metallic wires, the direction of the conventional current is opposite to the drift velocity of the actual charge carriers; i.e., the electrons. This is a source of confusion for beginners.
The total electric charge of an isolated system remains constant regardless of changes within the system itself. This law is inherent to all processes known to physics and can be derived in a local form from gauge invariance of the wave function. The conservation of charge results in the charge - current continuity equation. More generally, the net change in charge density ρ within a volume of integration V is equal to the area integral over the current density J through the closed surface S = ∂ V, which is in turn equal to the net current I:
Thus, the conservation of electric charge, as expressed by the continuity equation, gives the result:
The charge transferred between times t i (\ displaystyle t_ (\ mathrm (i))) and t f (\ displaystyle t_ (\ mathrm (f))) is obtained by integrating both sides:
where I is the net outward current through a closed surface and Q is the electric charge contained within the volume defined by the surface.
Aside from the properties described in articles about electromagnetism, charge is a relativistic invariant. This means that any particle that has charge Q, no matter how fast it goes, always has charge Q. This property has been experimentally verified by showing that the charge of one helium nucleus (two protons and two neutrons bound together in a nucleus and moving around at high speeds) is the same as two deuterium nuclei (one proton and one neutron bound together, but moving much more slowly than they would if they were in a helium nucleus).
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how do you cite wikipedia in apa in text | Wikipedia: citing Wikipedia - Wikipedia
We advise special caution when using Wikipedia as a source for research projects. Normal academic usage of Wikipedia and other encyclopedias is for getting the general facts of a problem and to gather keywords, references and bibliographical pointers, but not as a source in itself. Remember that Wikipedia is a wiki. Anyone in the world can edit an article, deleting accurate information or adding false information, which the reader may not recognize. Thus, you probably should n't be citing Wikipedia. This is good advice for all tertiary sources such as encyclopedias, which are designed to introduce readers to a topic, not to be the final point of reference. Wikipedia, like other encyclopedias, provides overviews of a topic and indicates sources of more extensive information. See researching with Wikipedia and academic use of Wikipedia for more information.
If you do decide to cite Wikipedia, remember that its articles are constantly changing: cite exact time, date, and the article version you are using. Page history and toolbox features "cite this article '' and "permanent link '' are very useful for finding that information.
As with any source, especially one of unknown authorship, you should be wary and independently verify the accuracy of Wikipedia information if possible. For many purposes, but particularly in academe, Wikipedia may not be an acceptable source; indeed, some professors and teachers may reject Wikipedia - sourced material completely. This is especially true when it is used without corroboration. Most educators and professionals do not consider it appropriate to use tertiary sources such as encyclopedias as a sole source for any information -- citing an encyclopedia as an important reference in footnotes or bibliographies may result in censure or a failing grade. However, much of the content on Wikipedia is itself referenced, so an alternative is to cite the reliable source rather than the article itself.
A wiki is an unusual medium, and as such does n't conform well to the usual book - citation formats. Wiki is not paper, so you will need to use an electronic - citation format instead. The exact format will depend upon the citation guide that you are following, but here are a few general principles to consider:
Some Wikipedia articles (list) have been published in peer reviewed academic literature. In that case, it is possible to cite the published article. eg:
Wikipedia has a tool to generate citations for particular articles. For the cite tool, see Special: Cite, or follow the "Cite this page '' link in the toolbox on the left of the page in the article you wish to cite.
The following examples assume you are citing the Wikipedia article on Plagiarism, using the version that was submitted on July 22, 2004, at 10: 55 UTC, and that you retrieved the article on August 10, 2004, except as otherwise noted.
Citation in APA style, as recommended by the American Psychological Association:
Note that in APA 5th Edition style, the following rules apply for the reference:
The proper in - text citation is ("Plagiarism, '' 2004) for a paraphrased passage or ("Plagiarism, '' 2004, para. #) if you directly quote the material. Note that para. # represents the paragraph number in the page where the information appears. If there are multiple headings on the page, it is also acceptable to place the subheading and then a paragraph number within that heading.
For example, proper in - text citation for a direct quote of fewer than 40 words is:
"Plagiarism is the use of another person 's work (this could be his or her words, products or ideas) for personal advantage, without proper acknowledgment of the original work '' ("Plagiarism, '' 2004, "Definition, '' para. 1).
If the quoted material is more than 40 words, use the block quote format instead.
As another example, the proper in - text citation for a paraphrased passage is:
Plagiarism is stealing the works of others ("Plagiarism, '' 2004).
APA Style requires that you provide a separate reference entry for each term you are citing in your paper because 1) you must provide a URL for each term that goes directly to the term, and 2) you must provide the publication date for each term separately. However, if you are discussing the "online encyclopedia '' itself, not a term in the encyclopedia, you might need to reference the site itself. The proper citation of Wikipedia, the site, as referenced in APA 5th Edition Style is:
The in - text citation formation would be (Wikipedia, 2004).
Citation in MLA style, as recommended by the Modern Language Association, 8th edition:
The eighth edition published in 2016 calls for urls to omit "http: / / '' or "https: / / ''.
Note that MLA style calls for both the date of publication (or its latest update) and the date on which the information was retrieved.
Be sure to double check the exact syntax your institution requires.
For citation of Wikipedia as a site, use:
Citation in MHRA style, as recommended by the Modern Humanities Research Association:
Citation in Chicago style:
Note that the Chicago Manual of Style states that "Well - known reference books, such as major dictionaries and encyclopedias, are normally cited in notes rather than bibliographies. ''
Citation in CBE / CSE style, as recommended by the Council of Science Editors:
The following are examples of how to cite Wikipedia articles according to A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, 6th edition, by Kate L. Turabian (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). ISBN 0226816265 (cloth), ISBN 0226816273 (paper).
Note on Turabian style: Please understand that Turabian does not have rules that cover anything like Wikipedia. These examples are based on "reading between the lines '' and assimilating rules from various not - so - similar cases that Turabian does cover. If the party to which you are submitting your paper is particularly strict, you might want to find out if they have their own adaptation of Turabian that would apply in this case. Alternately, you could always consult with the party before the deadline to make sure it 's acceptable.
"Plagiarism, '' in Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia; (Wikimedia Foundation Inc., updated 22 July 2004, 10: 55 UTC) (encyclopedia on - line); available from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism; Internet; retrieved 10 August 2004.
Wikipedia contributors, "Marketing. '' Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing (Accessed August 10, 2004)
Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. Updated 22 July 2004, 10: 55 UTC. Encyclopedia on - line. Available from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered Species. Internet. Retrieved 10 August 2004.
("Plagiarism, '' Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia)
(Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia, s.v. "Plagiarism '')
Plagiarism. 22 July 2003, 10: 55 UTC. In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. Encyclopedia on - line. Available from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism. Internet. Retrieved 10 August 2004.
The Harvard Journal of Law & Technology has adopted the following format for citations to articles in Wikipedia:
Here is an example:
This format reflects Rule 18.2 of the 18th and 19th edition of the Bluebook, but uses "as of '' rather than "last updated '' / "last visited '' in the date parenthetical. This change allows specification of the exact version of the article to which the author is referring.
The date and time used should correspond exactly to the latest version listed in the article 's Wikipedia history page that states the proposition for which you are citing it. Use of GMT conforms to the timestamp format used in those history entries (e.g., use 24 - hour notation to avoid AM / PM).
When using LaTeX, the "url '' package can be used to improve web address formatting by putting "\ usepackage (url) '' somewhere in the LaTeX source preamble, then using this syntax:
Citation in AMA style, as recommended by the American Medical Association:
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who is known as americas most popular poet | Ballad - wikipedia
A ballad / ˈbæləd / is a form of verse, often a narrative set to music. Ballads derive from the medieval French chanson balladée or ballade, which were originally "danced songs ' '. Ballads were particularly characteristic of the popular poetry and song of the British Isles from the later medieval period until the 19th century. They were widely used across Europe, and later in the Americas, Australia and North Africa. Ballads are often 13 lines with an ABABBCBC form, consisting of couplets (two lines) of rhymed verse, each of 14 syllables. Another common form is ABAB or ABCB repeated, in alternating 8 and 6 syllable lines.
Many ballads were written and sold as single sheet broadsides. The form was often used by poets and composers from the 18th century onwards to produce lyrical ballads. In the later 19th century, the term took on the meaning of a slow form of popular love song and is now often used for any love song, particularly the sentimental ballad of pop or rock.
The ballad derives its name from medieval French dance songs or "ballares '' (L: ballare, to dance), from which ' ballet ' is also derived, as did the alternative rival form that became the French ballade. As a narrative song, their theme and function may originate from Scandinavian and Germanic traditions of storytelling that can be seen in poems such as Beowulf. Musically they were influenced by the Minnesinger. The earliest example of a recognizable ballad in form in England is "Judas '' in a 13th - century manuscript. This means that the two words, ballad and ballet, are both derived from the French language.
Ballads were originally written to accompany dances, and so were composed in couplets with refrains in alternate lines. These refrains would have been sung by the dancers in time with the dance. Most northern and west European ballads are written in ballad stanzas or quatrains (four - line stanzas) of alternating lines of iambic (an unstressed followed by a stressed syllable) tetrameter (eight syllables) and iambic trimeter (six syllables), known as ballad meter. Usually, only the second and fourth line of a quatrain are rhymed (in the scheme a, b, c, b), which has been taken to suggest that, originally, ballads consisted of couplets (two lines) of rhymed verse, each of 14 syllables. This can be seen in this stanza from "Lord Thomas and Fair Annet '':
The horse fair Ann et rode upon He amb led like the wind, With sil ver he was shod before, With burn ing gold behind.
There is considerable variation on this pattern in almost every respect, including length, number of lines and rhyming scheme, making the strict definition of a ballad extremely difficult. In southern and eastern Europe, and in countries that derive their tradition from them, ballad structure differs significantly, like Spanish romanceros, which are octosyllabic and use consonance rather than rhyme.
Ballads usually are heavily influenced by the regions in which they originate and use the common dialect of the people. Scotland 's ballads in particular, both in theme and language, are strongly characterised by their distinctive tradition, even exhibiting some pre-Christian influences in the inclusion of supernatural elements such as travel to the Fairy Kingdom in the Scots ballad "Tam Lin ''. The ballads do not have any known author or correct version; instead, having been passed down mainly by oral tradition since the Middle Ages, there are many variations of each. The ballads remained an oral tradition until the increased interest in folk songs in the 18th century led collectors such as Bishop Thomas Percy (1729 -- 1811) to publish volumes of popular ballads.
In all traditions most ballads are narrative in nature, with a self - contained story, often concise, and rely on imagery, rather than description, which can be tragic, historical, romantic or comic. Themes concerning rural laborers and their sexuality are common, and there are many ballads based on the Robin Hood legend. Another common feature of ballads is repetition, sometimes of fourth lines in succeeding stanzas, as a refrain, sometimes of third and fourth lines of a stanza and sometimes of entire stanzas.
Scholars of ballads have been divided into "communalists '', such as Johann Gottfried Herder (1744 -- 1803) and the Brothers Grimm, who argue that ballads are originally communal compositions, and "individualists '' such as Cecil Sharp, who assert that there was one single original author. Communalists tend to see more recent, particularly printed, broadside ballads of known authorship as a debased form of the genre, while individualists see variants as corruptions of an original text. More recently scholars have pointed to the interchange of oral and written forms of the ballad.
The transmission of ballads comprises a key stage in their re-composition. In romantic terms this process is often dramatized as a narrative of degeneration away from the pure ' folk memory ' or ' immemorial tradition '. In the introduction to The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border (1802) the romantic poet and historical novelist Walter Scott argued a need to ' remove obvious corruptions ' in order to attempt to restore a supposed original. For Scott, the process of multiple recitations ' incurs the risk of impertinent interpolations from the conceit of one rehearser, unintelligible blunders from the stupidity of another, and omissions equally to be regretted, from the want of memory of a third. ' Similarly, John Robert Moore noted ' a natural tendency to oblivescence '. According to Scott, transcribed ballads often have a ' flatness and insipidity ' compared to their oral counterparts.
European Ballads have been generally classified into three major groups: traditional, broadside and literary. In America a distinction is drawn between ballads that are versions of European, particularly British and Irish songs, and ' Native American ballads ', developed without reference to earlier songs. A further development was the evolution of the blues ballad, which mixed the genre with Afro - American music. For the late 19th century the music publishing industry found a market for what are often termed sentimental ballads, and these are the origin of the modern use of the term ' ballad ' to mean a slow love song.
The traditional, classical or popular (meaning of the people) ballad has been seen as beginning with the wandering minstrels of late medieval Europe. From the end of the 15th century there are printed ballads that suggest a rich tradition of popular music. A reference in William Langland 's Piers Plowman indicates that ballads about Robin Hood were being sung from at least the late 14th century and the oldest detailed material is Wynkyn de Worde 's collection of Robin Hood ballads printed about 1495.
Early collections of English ballads were made by Samuel Pepys (1633 -- 1703) and in the Roxburghe Ballads collected by Robert Harley, 1st (1784), which paralleled the work in Scotland by Walter Scott and Robert Burns. Inspired by his reading as a teenager of Reliques of Ancient English Poetry by Thomas Percy, Scott began collecting ballads while he attended Edinburgh University in the 1790s. He published his research from 1802 to 1803 in a three - volume work, The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border. Burns collaborated with James Johnson on the multi-volume Scots Musical Museum, a miscellany of folk songs and poetry with original work by Burns. Around the same time, he worked with George Thompson on A Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs for the Voice.
Both Northern English and Southern Scots shared in the identified tradition of Border ballads, particularly evinced by the cross-border narrative in versions of "The Ballad of Chevy Chase '' sometimes associated with the Lancashire - born sixteenth - century minstrel Richard Sheale.
It has been suggested that the increasing interest in traditional popular ballads during the eighteenth century was prompted by social issues such as the enclosure movement as many of the ballads deal with themes concerning rural laborers. James Davey has suggested that the common themes of sailing and naval battles may also have prompted the use (at least in England) of popular ballads as naval recruitment tools.
Key work on the traditional ballad was undertaken in the late 19th century in Denmark by Svend Grundtvig and for England and Scotland by the Harvard professor Francis James Child. They attempted to record and classify all the known ballads and variants in their chosen regions. Since Child died before writing a commentary on his work it is uncertain exactly how and why he differentiated the 305 ballads printed that would be published as The English and Scottish Popular Ballads. There have been many different and contradictory attempts to classify traditional ballads by theme, but commonly identified types are the religious, supernatural, tragic, love ballads, historic, legendary and humorous. The traditional form and content of the ballad were modified to form the basis for twenty - three bawdy pornographic ballads that appeared in the underground Victorian magazine The Pearl, which ran for eighteen issues between 1879 and 1880. Unlike the traditional ballad, these obscene ballads aggressively mocked sentimental nostalgia and local lore.
Broadside ballads (also known as ' broadsheet ', ' stall ', ' vulgar ' or ' come all ye ' ballads) were a product of the development of cheap print in the 16th century. They were generally printed on one side of a medium to large sheet of poor quality paper. In the first half of the 17th century, they were printed in black - letter or gothic type and included multiple, eye - catching illustrations, a popular tune title, as well as an alluring poem. By the 18th century, they were printed in white letter or roman type and often without much decoration (as well as tune title). These later sheets could include many individual songs, which would be cut apart and sold individually as "slip songs. '' Alternatively, they might be folded to make small cheap books or "chapbooks '' which often drew on ballad stories. They were produced in huge numbers, with over 400,000 being sold in England annually by the 1660s. Tessa Watt estimates the number of copies sold may have been in the millions. Many were sold by travelling chapmen in city streets or at fairs. The subject matter varied from what has been defined as the traditional ballad, although many traditional ballads were printed as broadsides. Among the topics were love, marriage, religion, drinking - songs, legends, and early journalism, which included disasters, political events and signs, wonders and prodigies.
Literary or lyrical ballads grew out of an increasing interest in the ballad form among social elites and intellectuals, particularly in the Romantic movement from the later 18th century. Respected literary figures Robert Burns and Walter Scott in Scotland collected and wrote their own ballads. Similarly in England William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge produced a collection of Lyrical Ballads in 1798 that included Coleridge 's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Keats were attracted to the simple and natural style of these folk ballads and tried to imitate it. At the same time in Germany Goethe cooperated with Schiller on a series of ballads, some of which were later set to music by Schubert. Later important examples of the poetic form included Rudyard Kipling 's "Barrack - Room Ballads '' (1892 - 6) and Oscar Wilde 's The Ballad of Reading Gaol (1897). Victorian poet Christina Rossetti used ballad forms to explore spiritual and moral issues and to discuss the stereotypical treatment and representation of men and women 's roles in society.
In the 18th century ballad operas developed as a form of English stage entertainment, partly in opposition to the Italian domination of the London operatic scene. It consisted of racy and often satirical spoken (English) dialogue, interspersed with songs that are deliberately kept very short to minimize disruptions to the flow of the story. Rather than the more aristocratic themes and music of the Italian opera, the ballad operas were set to the music of popular folk songs and dealt with lower - class characters. Subject matter involved the lower, often criminal, orders, and typically showed a suspension (or inversion) of the high moral values of the Italian opera of the period. The first, most important and successful was The Beggar 's Opera of 1728, with a libretto by John Gay and music arranged by John Christopher Pepusch, both of whom probably influenced by Paris ian vaudeville and the burlesques and musical plays of Thomas d'Urfey (1653 -- 1723), a number of whose collected ballads they used in their work. Gay produced further works in this style, including a sequel under the title Polly. Henry Fielding, Colley Cibber, Arne, Dibdin, Arnold, Shield, Jackson of Exeter, Hook and many others produced ballad operas that enjoyed great popularity. Ballad opera was attempted in America and Prussia. Later it moved into a more pastoral form, like Isaac Bickerstaffe 's Love in a Village (1763) and Shield 's Rosina (1781), using more original music that imitated, rather than reproduced, existing ballads. Although the form declined in popularity towards the end of the 18th century its influence can be seen in light operas like that of Gilbert and Sullivan 's early works like The Sorcerer as well as in the modern musical. In the 20th century, one of the most influential plays, Kurt Weill and Bertolt Brecht 's (1928) The Threepenny Opera was a reworking of The Beggar 's Opera, setting a similar story with the same characters, and containing much of the same satirical bite, but only using one tune from the original. The term ballad opera has also been used to describe musicals using folk music, such as The Martins and the Coys in 1944, and Peter Bellamy 's The Transports in 1977. The satiric elements of ballad opera can be seen in some modern musicals such as Chicago and Cabaret.
Native American ballads are ballads that are native to North America (not to be confused with ballads performed by Native Americans). Some 300 ballads sung in North America have been identified as having origins in British traditional or broadside ballads. Examples include ' The Streets of Laredo ', which was found in Britain and Ireland as ' The Unfortunate Rake '; however, a further 400 have been identified as originating in North America, including among the best known, ' The Ballad of Davy Crockett ' and ' Jesse James '. They became an increasing area of interest for scholars in the 19th century and most were recorded or catalogued by George Malcolm Laws, although some have since been found to have British origins and additional songs have since been collected. They are usually considered closest in form to British broadside ballads and in terms of style are largely indistinguishable, however, they demonstrate a particular concern with occupations, journalistic style and often lack the ribaldry of British broadside ballads.
The blues ballad has been seen as a fusion of Anglo - American and Afro - American styles of music from the 19th century. Blues ballads tend to deal with active protagonists, often anti-heroes, resisting adversity and authority, but frequently lacking a strong narrative and emphasising character instead. They were often accompanied by banjo and guitar which followed the blues musical format. The most famous blues ballads include those about John Henry and Casey Jones.
The ballad was taken to Australia by early settlers from Britain and Ireland and gained particular foothold in the rural outback. The rhyming songs, poems and tales written in the form of ballads often relate to the itinerant and rebellious spirit of Australia in The Bush, and the authors and performers are often referred to as bush bards. The 19th century was the golden age of bush ballads. Several collectors have catalogued the songs including John Meredith whose recording in the 1950s became the basis of the collection in the National Library of Australia. The songs tell personal stories of life in the wide open country of Australia. Typical subjects include mining, raising and droving cattle, sheep shearing, wanderings, war stories, the 1891 Australian shearers ' strike, class conflicts between the landless working class and the squatters (landowners), and outlaws such as Ned Kelly, as well as love interests and more modern fare such as trucking. The most famous bush ballad is "Waltzing Matilda '', which has been called "the unofficial national anthem of Australia ''.
Sentimental ballads, sometimes called "tear - jerkers '' or "drawing - room ballads '' owing to their popularity with the middle classes, had their origins in the early "Tin Pan Alley '' music industry of the later 19th century. They were generally sentimental, narrative, strophic songs published separately or as part of an opera (descendants perhaps of broadside ballads, but with printed music, and usually newly composed). Such songs include "Little Rosewood Casket '' (1870), "After the Ball '' (1892) and "Danny Boy ''. The association with sentimentality led to the term "ballad '' being used for slow love songs from the 1950s onwards. Modern variations include "jazz ballads '', "pop ballads '' and "power ballads ''.
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when is i am frankie season 2 coming out | I Am Frankie - wikipedia
I Am Frankie is an American drama television series created by Marcela Citterio that first aired a sneak peek of the pilot on September 4, 2017, and later officially premiered on Nickelodeon on September 11, 2017. The series stars Alex Hook in the titular role of Frankie Gaines, who is an android attempting to pass herself off as a normal school girl.
Sigourney is a scientist working for the company EGG who has developed a teenage android girl named Frankie. When the head of EGG, Mr. Kingston, plans to use Frankie for the military company WARPA for Project Q, Sigourney quits her job, smuggles Frankie out of EGG, and moves her family as far away from EGG as possible so that Frankie can live a normal life. As Frankie adapts to a normal life as a high school student at Sepulveda High, she befriends a girl named Dayton and gains a rival named Tammy. While she and her family work to keep her secret safe so that EGG does n't find her, Mr. Kingston is determined to do whatever it takes to locate Frankie. Unbeknownst to Mr. Kingston, he 's not the only one who 's after her.
On January 20, 2016, Nickelodeon announced that it had green - lit I Am Frankie to series with its first season to contain 20 episodes. The series is the first global series to be produced at the new Viacom International Studio in Miami, Florida. The series was originally produced as Yo Soy Franky by Nickelodeon Latin America in Colombia and Catharina Ledeboer, who has previously worked on Every Witch Way and Talia in the Kitchen, is adapting the series into English for global audiences. It was stated that production of the series would begin sometime in 2016. The series officially debuted on September 11, 2017, after a special sneak peek of the premiere aired on September 4, 2017. The premiere episode was made available on Nickelodeon streaming platforms starting on August 21, 2017.
EGG scientist Sigourney Gaines invents an android called Frankie and sneaks her out of EGG to be a birthday present for her daughter, Jenny, as a way to keep Mr. Gilford Kingston from having WARPA use her for Project Q. In order to keep Frankie from being found by EGG, Sigourney moves her family to the next town over and they settle in with the help of former EGG employee James Peters. Once enrolled in school, Frankie befriends a girl named Dayton and gains a girl named Tammy as a rival.
Guest stars: JC Casely as Casey, Victor Jones as Mr. Manhart, Kevin Harrison as Night Guard 1, Michael Sanchez as Night Guard 2
EGG scientist Sigourney Gaines invents an android called Frankie and sneaks her out of EGG to be a birthday present for her daughter, Jenny, as a way to keep Mr. Gilford Kingston from having WARPA use her for Project Q. In order to keep Frankie from being found by EGG, Sigourney moves her family to the next town over and they settle in with the help of former EGG employee James. Once enrolled in school, Frankie befriends a girl named Dayton and gains a girl named Tammy as a rival. Later, after Cole saves Frankie from the rain, Sigourney works to dry her out and finds that some of her circuits got fused together. Meanwhile, Mr. Kingston sends PEGS1 to search Sigourney 's old house to find the whereabouts of the Gaines family.
Guest stars: JC Casely as Casey, Victor Jones as Mr. Manhart, Kevin Harrison as Night Guard 1, Michael Sanchez as Night Guard 2
Guest stars: Katelyn Adair as Student 1, Brian Dijols as Student 2
Guest stars: Victor Jones as Mr. Manhart, Justin Jarzombeck as John, Rachael Thompson as Engineer
Guest stars: Jeanne Bennett as Ms. Kagan, Justin Jarzombeck as John, Victor Jones as Mr. Manhart, Rachael Thompson as Engineer, Zachery Robbins as Football Player
Guest stars: Bob Schenkel as Elderly Man, Fern Katz as Elderly Woman
Guest stars: Victor Jones as Mr. Manhart, Rachael Thompson as Engineer Anderson
Guest stars: Justin Jarzombeck as John, Victor Jones as Mr. Manhart, Rachael Thompson as Engineer Anderson
Guest stars: JC Casely as Casey, Justin Jarzombeck as John, Katherine McDonald as Mrs. Mulligan, Rachael Thompson as Engineer Anderson
As Sepulveda High 's halls have been vandalized by an unknown person, Frankie discovers that she has two dates to the prom. To help her blend in with her dates, Dayton works with Frankie and Sigourney into making an E-Stomach so that Frankie can eat food easily. Meanwhile at EGG, Mr. Kingston and PEGS1 start to put their plans to reclaim Frankie into motion.
Guest stars: Rachael Thompson as Engineer Anderson, Welder Santos as Busboy
In light of the recent actions at Sepulvada High, Ms. Hough blames Frankie and has her suspended from school for the recent violent conduct. James orchestrates events that involves him deleting specific files from Frankie which leads to Sigourney having to take an action to keep Frankie from becoming a violent android. Meanwhile, representatives from WARPA confiscate PEGS1 upon Mr. Kingston 's failure to reclaim Frankie as he finds a clue on where Sigourney is hiding Frankie. At the same time, Tammy is still wanting to prove that Frankie is a robot and plans to get her unsuspended by pinning the blame of recent happenings at Sepulvada High on someone else.
Guest stars: Justin Jarzombeck as John, Victor Jones as Mr. Manhart, David Kelley as Warpa Agent, Rachael Thompson as Engineer Anderson
Now that Tammy 's plot to get Frankie unsuspended has succeeded, she still makes plans to expose Frankie as a robot where she, Lucia, and Mikayla work on a pulley - activated device that will enable her to spill water on Frankie at the Emoji - themed dance. Suspicious at the bounty fliers that Mr. Kingston has printed out, Sigourney forbids Frankie to go to the dance just in case someone catches her.
Guest stars: Justin Jarzombeck as John, Elgin Aponte as DJ
Now that Frankie and Dayton know that Andrew is an android, they plan to find out who created him. Ms. Hough begins an investigation on who attempted the water prank on Frankie. Meanwhile, operatives from WARPA plan to use PEGS1 as leverage on Mr. Kingston in order to reclaim Frankie, but PEGS1 plans his escape from WARPA.
Guest stars: Justin Jarzombeck as John, Elgin Aponte as DJ, Susan Dean as Ms. Fleckenstein, David Kelley as Warpa Agent
Andrew begs Frankie not to tell Sigourney about him. After her Sepulveda High School 's Brain Squad rejects her upon learning the truth, Tammy comes clean to Ms. Hough about falsely accusing Robbie of the school vandalism. Ms. Hough announces to the school that Robbie is exonerated, but she threatens to punish the entire school if the person responsible for the vandalism does n't come forward. Meanwhile, Frankie plays minigolf with Cole. Also, James orders Andrew to lure Frankie into a trap that James and Mr. Kingston have devised.
WARPA has started making threats to Mr. Kingston and James to get them Frankie or else. This causes James to have Andrew lure Frankie to a position where he must get Frankie near WARPA 's clutches or else be deactivated. After Mr. Kingston visits his children in his true name of Tom Reyes, Dayton enlists Jenny to help warn Frankie as Cole wonders if Tammy is right about Frankie being a robot.
Guest stars: Richard Litz as Large Student, South Miami Senior High School Cobra Band and Color Guard as Marching Band, Rachael Thompson as Engineer Anderson, Dan Johnson as Mechanic, David Kelley as Warpa Agent
After Cole figures out that Frankie is a robot, Dayton frantically tries to warn Frankie that her father and WARPA are closing in. Upon hearing about what happened when Cole visited Frankie, Sigourney considers moving the family again to keep Frankie safe. In addition, Dayton persuades Tammy to help her get into WARPA 's classified website in order to find out more about WARPA.
Guest star: David Kelley as Warpa Agent
Before the competition starts Tammy returns to the team after being taken by WARPA, who did something to her so that the team question her actions. During the Brain Squad competition, Dayton and Cole work to try to warn Frankie that WARPA is closing in on her as Andrew starts to reveal his true allegiance. Meanwhile, a girl arrives at the Gaines residence who is revealed to be Eliza, an android that Doctor Gaines made before Frankie who has a evil agenda, as Sigourney and Will look for possible places to relocate.
Guest stars: Alex Hook as Eliza, David Kelley as Warpa Agent 1, Eric Gaunaurd as Stage Manager, Jake Little as Morlock Player 1, Natalia Patino as Morlock Player 2, Ame Livinston as Head Judge, Rob Iberg as Brain Squad Security 1
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my chemical romance 3 cheers for sweet revenge song list | Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge - wikipedia
Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge is the second studio album by American rock band My Chemical Romance, released on June 8, 2004 by Reprise Records. With this album, produced a cleaner sound than that of their 2002 debut I Brought You My Bullets, You Brought Me Your Love. It was the band 's final release to feature drummer Matt Pelissier, who would later be replaced by Bob Bryar.
Gerard Way, the lead singer of the band, who also designed its artwork, has described the album as a "pseudo-conceptual horror story '', stating that it is "the story of a man and a woman who are separated by death in a gunfight and he goes to hell only to realize by the devil telling him that she 's still alive. The devil says he can be with her again if he brings the devil the souls of a thousand evil men and the man agrees to do it, and so the devil hands him a gun. That was the idea behind the concept, the record ended up being much more about loss and real life than anything, so I would say it 's a good split. ''
The album was a success for both the band and the label, although it only received mixed reception from critics. The four singles from the album included "I 'm Not Okay (I Promise) '', "Helena '', "The Ghost of You '', and in the United Kingdom, "Thank You for the Venom ''. It was certified platinum less than a year after its release, and has sold over three million copies in the United States.
Musically, "Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge '' has been described as alternative rock, emo, pop punk, post-hardcore, and punk rock. While I Brought You My Bullets, You Brought Me Your Love was considered "a particularly strident entry in that shifty genre of bands tortuously slamming together elements of emo, hardcore, and even metal '', Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge "both showcased their songwriting skills and gave them much - deserved attention ''. Moving away from the "screamo parts '' and "the more complicated structures '' of their first record in favor of a sound that "skirts the line between pop punk and edgy, theatrical, emo '' while being "strongly influenced by hardcore punk '', Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge has been variously compared to The Misfits, AFI, and Thursday.
Lead singer Gerard Way has referred to the first single "I 'm Not Okay (I Promise) '' as a "self help pop song '' while also being called "a surging piece of emo - pop with a hook as ridiculously catchy as it was ridiculous '' and a "moving anthem for the young and depressed '' by AllMusic and Rolling Stone respectively. This single went on to be nominated for the Kerrang! award for best single and reached number 86 on the US Billboard Hot 100.
The album opener "Helena '' has been referred to as an "album highlight and smash hit ''. Gerard has claimed that the song "shaped what the album is about '' and "revealed their darkside '' in comparison to the first single. Its lyrics mourn the loss of Gerard and Mikey 's grandmother, Elena Lee Rush, and was their first entry into the top 40.
Johnny Loftus of AllMusic wrote that "with the aid of production major - leaguer Howard Benson, they 've edited the slight rookie excesses of I Brought You My Bullets You Brought Me Your Love, resulting in a rewarding, pretty damn relentless product. '' Andy Greenwald of Blender noted Way 's integration of elements of his life into the songs on the album and remarked that his "gulping, gasping whine turns stompers like ' I 'm Not Okay (I Promise) ' into after - school poetry ''. Ian Mathers of Stylus Magazine felt that the album contained "twelve near - flawless songs and an interlude in thirty - nine minutes '' and that "even when it lets up, (it) does n't let up '', while Kirk Miller of Rolling Stone described it as "a hell of a good time. '' IGN critic JR was more reserved in his praise, calling Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge "a good album '' that nonetheless "is n't nearly as varied or daring as it could have been ''. In The Village Voice, Robert Christgau gave it a "dud '' rating.
NME listed the album as one of "20 Emo Albums That Have Resolutely Stood the Test of Time ''. The album was ranked at number 260 on Spin 's "The 300 Best Albums of the Past 30 Years (1985 -- 2014) '' list. Rock Sound wrote that the album is "an era - defining release '', striking "a nerve both musically and emotionally with millions around the world. ''
In 2016, Rolling Stone declared Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge the tenth greatest emo album out of 40, saying that "Three Cheers was n't just a concept record, it was a concept sequel, expanding the small - screen story of 2002 's I Brought You My Bullets, You Brought Me Your Love into a big - budget production, complete with ruminations on life and death ('' Helena ") biting kiss - offs ('' I 'm Not Okay ") and a series of dramatic music videos that made them MTV darlings. ''
Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge has sold over one million copies to date in the United States and has been certified platinum by the RIAA. By February 2006, the album had sold over 1,356,000 copies in the US. It has also been certified Double Platinum in Canada, Platinum in the UK and Gold in Ireland, Chile and Argentina.
All tracks written by My Chemical Romance.
Additional tracks
My Chemical Romance
Additional musicians
Production
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Citations
Sources
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who is the big russian in the punisher | Russian (Comics) - wikipedia
The Russian is a fictional character, a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He is an enemy of the Punisher.
Created by Garth Ennis and Steve Dillon, the character made his first appearance in The Punisher Vol. 5, # 8 (November 2000).
The Russian debuted off - panel in The Punisher Vol. 5, # 8, was fully introduced in the following issue, and appeared in every subsequent one up until his death in Issue # 11. In the following series, the character was resurrected as a cyborg, and was featured in The Punisher Vol. 6, # 1 - 5.
The Russian received profiles in Marvel Encyclopedia # 5, All - New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe # 9, and Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe A-Z # 9
The earliest known sightings of the Russian occurred while he was vacationing in Afghanistan in the 1980s. He subsequently traveled the world, inserting himself into various conflicts for fun and profit; locations he is said to have fought in include Lebanon, Iraq, Rwanda, East Timor, Chechnya, the Balkans, and Belfast (where he consumed a man on a bet). The Russian 's activities led to him being wanted dead or alive by numerous law enforcement agencies, as well as criminal organizations such as the Yakuza.
The Russian is contacted at his home in Kazakhstan by American crime lord Ma Gnucci, who offers him ten million dollars to kill the Punisher. The Russian agrees to the deal, boards a Russian airliner to North America, crashes it above Canada, and crosses the border into New York City, where he is briefed by Gnucci. The Russian is then brought to the Punisher 's current address, and engages the vigilante, their fight (which the Russian dominates) bringing them into the apartment of the Punisher 's morbidly obese neighbor, Mr. Bumpo. The Punisher burns the Russian 's face with a hot pizza that Bumpo had been dining on, trips him, and then throws Bumpo on top of him. The Russian asphyxiates under Bumpo, and has his head cut off by the Punisher, who uses it to intimidate what remains of Ma Gnucci 's forces into surrendering.
The Russian 's remains are recovered by General Kreigkopf, who resurrects him as a cyborg using technology stolen from S.H.I.E.L.D.. Side - effects of the experimental hormone treatments he is given to stabilize his reinvigorated and improved body cause the Russian to develop breasts (which he adores) and an implied form of menstruation, which prompts him to begin wearing women 's clothing, including high heels. To test the Russian 's capabilities, Kreigkopf approves his request to return to New York City to kill the Punisher, who the Russian throws off of the Empire State Building. The Punisher is saved by Spider - Man, and in the battle that ensues he wields the superhero as a human shield, and uses his web - shooters to knock the Russian off of the skyscraper. The Russian survives crashing through the street below and being hit by a subway train, and retreats to Kreigkopf 's base on Grand Nixon Island. The Russian is repaired, and denied another chance to face the Punisher.
The Russian is placed on a Boeing 747 full of soldiers that Kreigkopf intends to have attack the European Union in Brussels. The Punisher, who had tracked the Russian down, forces the airplane to crash into Grand Nixon Island 's fuel depot; the Russian emerges from the wreckage as the only survivor. When Kreigkopf improvises his attack plan by ordering that a French airplane carrying a nuclear warhead be hijacked, the Punisher boards the aircraft, followed by the Russian. The Punisher blows out the back of the Russian 's head by shoving a gun into his mouth, then chains him to the atomic bomb and drops it on Grand Nixon. The island and all of the criminals on it are obliterated, as is the Russian, whose last words are, "Dosvidanja, Big Boy! The Russian really has to hand it to you! ''
In his first storyline, the Russian possessed tremendous strength and durability; he singlehandedly wipes out a Bravo Force team, unintentionally crushes a man with a friendly gesture, smacks the Punisher with a toilet he had ripped out of its foundation, and tears apart a handgun, while also being unfazed by being kicked in the crotch, stabbed in the stomach, and bludgeoned with a chair. Additionally, he alludes to surviving freefalling from an airplane, and being repeatedly shot in the head. Despite his nigh - invulnerability, the Russian was sensitive to heat, becoming enraged when the Punisher successfully injured him with a stove, and a hot pizza.
When General Kreigkopf resurrected the Russian, he had his body augmented with plastics and adamantium, replaced most of his organs with ones taken from animals, and gave him olfactory sensors that increased his sense of smell to the level of a bloodhound 's.
In his initial comic appearances, the Russian was shown to have an obsession with American pop culture. His first thoughts upon being offered $10 million to kill the Punisher was a realization of how many pairs of Levi 's and Compact Discs he could buy with that amount. The Russian is also a self - confessed superhero fan. He is the president of "The Daredevil, Man Without Fear, Fan Club '' of Smolensk. He also wished to gain autographs from the X-Men, the Fantastic Four, and Spider - Man. He also believes Thor would make a good communist because of his big hammer.
A flashback sequence in The Punisher Vol. 7, # 75 depicts the Punisher fighting the Russian, who tries to break his back. The circumstances surrounding the battle, as well as how it is resolved, are not revealed.
In Punisher Noir, the Russian is a soldier turned independent mercenary who, after World War I, is sent after Frank Castelione, who is on a locomotive headed for England. A fight ensues and moves to the top of the train, where Frank shoves a grenade into the crotch of the Russian 's pants, and pushes him off of the vehicle. Years later, the Russian, now identifying as female, helps Jigsaw and Barracuda murder Frank at the behest of mob boss Dutch Schultz.
Frank 's son, Frank Castelione Jr., grows up to become the Punisher, and discovers the Russian 's connection to his father 's death after tracking down and killing Barracuda and Jigsaw. The Punisher confronts the Russian at the Bronx Zoo, and their fight brings them into the reptile exhibit, where the Russian is mauled by alligators. Despite losing an arm, the Russian continues to try to attack the Punisher, who finishes him off by emptying two fully loaded guns into him. Frank, Jr. then stages the scene to make it look like the Russian was the Punisher all along.
The Russian appears in the 2004 live - action film The Punisher, portrayed by Kevin Nash. He has no onscreen dialogue and is sent by mob boss Howard Saint to dispose of Punisher. Powering through everything that the vigilante throws at him, the Russian beats the Punisher to near death with his bare hands, and numerous objects. The Punisher gains the upper hand when he hurls a pot of boiling oil into the Russian 's face; while the Russian is incapacitated by pain, he is knocked down a flight of stairs, the fall breaking his neck.
The Russian appears in The Punisher video game, voiced by Darryl Kurylo. In the game, he is working for General Kreigkopf, has lines (most of them relating to his favorite superheroes). The Russian is fought twice as a boss, the second battle ending with him being blown up by a nuclear device that was smuggled onto Grand Nixon Island.
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what was the longest major league baseball game in history | Extra innings - wikipedia
Extra innings is the extension of a baseball or softball game in order to break a tie.
Ordinarily, a baseball game consists of nine innings (in softball and high school baseball games there are typically seven innings; in Little League, six), each of which is divided into halves: the visiting team bats first, after which the home team takes its turn at bat. However, if the score remains tied at the end of the regulation number of complete innings, the rules provide that "play shall continue until (1) the visiting team has scored more total runs than the home team at the end of a completed inning; or (2) the home team scores the winning run in an uncompleted inning. ''
The rules of the game, including the batting order, availability of substitute players and pitchers, etc., remain intact in extra innings. Managers must display caution to avoid using all their substitute players, in case the game reaches extensive extra innings. The rules call for a forfeiture if a team is unable to field a full team of nine players.
In Major League Baseball, home teams won about 52 % of extra-inning games from 1957 to 2007. During this same time period, home teams have won about 54 % of all baseball games. So while the home team has some advantage in extra-inning games, this advantage is less noticeable than the initial home - field advantage. Home teams tend to have the greatest advantage in run - scoring during the first 3 innings.
For the visiting team to win, it must score as many runs as possible in the first (or "top '') half of the inning and then prevent the home team from tying or taking the lead in the second (or "bottom '') half. Because it bats in the bottom half of an inning, a home team wins the game by taking the lead at any point in the final inning. Normally in such a situation, the moment the winning run scores for whatever reason (base hit, sacrifice, wild pitch), the game immediately ends and no other runs are allowed. The term for winning in this scenario is a "walk - off '' win (as everyone can walk off the field as soon as the winning run is scored). The exception is if the winning hit is a walk - off home run; all runners on base and the batter must circle the bases on a home run, so all their runs count for the final score. Each extra inning simply repeats this scenario.
The East Asian professional leagues, NPB, KBO, and CPBL have a 12 - inning limit before the game is declared a draw.
Additionally, NPB games have a total time limit of three and a half hours during the regular season before being counted as a tie. In postseason play, the limit for number of innings is extended to 15, and the last game is completely replayed if drawn, leading to seven - game series that can go on for eight games. There are no limits on the number of innings in the eighth game of the Japan Series.
The KBO does not play extra innings in the first game of a double - header. Tie games are discarded when calculating winning percentages since 2002, except for 2008 when it was counted as a loss in the league 's standings. Before 2002, they counted as half a win.
In the 11th inning, the manager selects anywhere in the batting order to start the inning, regardless of the last player put out. The batter immediately preceding this newly designated leadoff man becomes a runner on first base, and the next preceding batter is placed on second base. In subsequent innings, the batting order continues as normal, but the two players preceding the player scheduled to lead off the inning start on second and first.
This has also been adopted by European leagues Division de Honor (Spain), Italian Baseball League, and Honkbal Hoofdklasse (Netherlands).
Since 2009, a modified form of the rule has been used for the World Baseball Classic. Unlike the standard rule, the batting order may not start from a different place. Through the 2013 edition, the first inning in which teams started with runners on first and second was the 13th. The rule was not used in either the 2009 or 2013 editions because no game lasted more than 11 innings. For the 2017 World Baseball Classic, the rule was modified to use extra runners for the first time in the 11th inning, and it would see its first use in a second - round game between Japan and the Netherlands at the Tokyo Dome. Japan won that game thanks to a sacrifice bunt and a 2 - run hit.
Other methods include the following:
In international softball, a special extra innings rule starts immediately after regulation. Each team begins their half of the inning with a runner on second base (the last player to be put out). This increases the odds that teams will score and ensures a faster resolution. There is a drawback, though, in that the home team has a big advantage in going second. Should the visiting team fail to score, all the home team must do to win is, for example, get a successful bunt and sacrifice fly to score the winning run. This rule is also used in certain NCAA college conferences, usually applied after one or two extra innings where the "international tiebreaker '' is not used.
During spring training in Major League Baseball, whenever a game remains tied after ten innings, it is declared to end in a tie. This is done because teams often travel on a daily basis, and also to reduce chances for injuries because the games do not officially count in the standings.
There are nine innings in a professional baseball game.
The record for the most innings ever played in a single professional game is 33 which occurred in a 1981 minor - league game between the Pawtucket Red Sox and the Rochester Red Wings, Triple - A affiliates of the Boston Red Sox and the Baltimore Orioles, respectively. Interestingly, each team had a future Hall of Famer on its roster: Wade Boggs for Pawtucket and Cal Ripken Jr. for Rochester.
The longest game by innings in Major League Baseball was a 1 -- 1 tie in the National League between the Boston Braves and the Brooklyn Robins in 26 innings, at Braves Field in Boston on May 1, 1920. It had become too dark to see the ball (fields did not have lights yet and the sun was setting), and the game was considered a draw. Played rapidly by modern standards, those 26 innings were completed in 3 hours and 50 minutes. As was the custom, the first pitch was thrown at 3: 00 p.m.; home plate umpire Barry McCormick called the game as lights began appearing in the windows of buildings across the Charles River, just before 7: 00 p.m.
The longest American League game, and tied for the longest major league game by innings which ended with one team winning, was a 7 -- 6 victory by the Chicago White Sox over the Milwaukee Brewers in 25 innings, at Comiskey Park in Chicago in 1984. The game began at 7: 30 p.m. on May 8, 1984, and after scoring early runs both teams scored twice in the 8th inning; but the game was suspended after 17 innings with the score tied 3 -- 3 due to a league curfew rule prohibiting an inning from beginning after 12: 59 a.m. The game was continued the following evening, May 9, 1984, and both teams scored three times in the 21st inning to make the score 6 -- 6; finally, in the bottom of the 25th, the White Sox ' Harold Baines hit a home run to end the contest. Tom Seaver was the winning pitcher in relief. A regularly scheduled game followed, meaning both nights saw 17 innings played; Seaver also started, and won, the second game. The official time of the entire 25 - inning game was 8 hours, 6 minutes, also a major league record.
On September 11, 1974, the St. Louis Cardinals won a marathon night game against the New York Mets, after 7 hours 4 minutes, and 25 innings, also tied for the longest game to a decision in major league history. Two Mets ' errors led to the Cardinals ' winning run, starting with an errant pickoff throw that allowed Bake McBride to scamper all the way around from first. St. Louis won, 4 -- 3. The Mets went to the plate 103 times, a record in a major league game; the Cards were not far behind with 99 plate appearances. All told, a record 175 official at - bats were recorded, with a major - league record 45 runners stranded. Only a thousand fans were still at Shea Stadium when the game ended at 3: 13 a.m. ET. (Unlike the American League, the National League did not have a curfew.) This was the longest game played to a decision without a suspension.
On April 15, 1968, the Houston Astros defeated the Mets 1 - 0 in a 24 - inning game at the Houston Astrodome. The 6 - hour, 6 - minute contest, which ended with the Astros ' Bob Aspromonte hitting a grounder through the legs of Mets shortstop Al Weis in the bottom of the 24th, remains the longest shutout game in Major League history. It also had the most scoreless innings (23) in a major - league game.
The longest American League game to end in a tie was a 24 - inning contest between the Detroit Tigers and Philadelphia Athletics on July 21, 1945. The teams were tied 1 -- 1 when the game was called due to darkness at Shibe Park; the Tigers ' Les Mueller had pitched a record 19 ⁄ innings (and only given up one run) before being taken out in the 20th inning.
The longest game to end in a scoreless tie was a National League contest between the Cincinnati Reds and Brooklyn Dodgers on September 11, 1946. The teams went 19 innings before darkness fell at Brooklyn 's Ebbets Field, forcing the game to be called on account of darkness. In the American League, the longest 0 -- 0 game was played between the Washington Senators and Detroit Tigers on July 16, 1909. The game was called after 18 innings due to darkness at Bennett Park in Detroit. The longest scoreless period within a completed game came in the April 15, 1968 game between the Astros and Mets which remained scoreless after 23 innings.
The Washington Senators became the first team in Major League history to play multiple games of at least 20 innings in a season when they defeated the Minnesota Twins 9 -- 7 on August 9, 1967, in 20 innings, having set a franchise record for innings played with a 22 - inning win over the Chicago White Sox on June 12 of that year. This feat would later be accomplished by the 1971 Oakland Athletics who had games of 21 and 20 innings and the 1989 Los Angeles Dodgers who played two 22 - inning games, against the Houston Astros in June (a game which they lost 5 - 4) and the Montreal Expos in August.
The longest doubleheader in Major League history came on May 31, 1964. The San Francisco Giants beat the New York Mets 5 -- 3 in nine innings in the day 's first game at Shea Stadium, and then won the nightcap 8 -- 6 after 23 innings (despite a rare triple play turned by the Mets in the 14th). The two games lasted a combined nine hours, 52 minutes. The Mets ' Ed Kranepool played in all 32 innings of the two games; Kranepool had been called up to the team that day after having played in both games of a doubleheader the day before for their Triple - A farm club in Buffalo.
On April 5, 2012, the Toronto Blue Jays beat the Cleveland Indians 7 -- 4 in 16 innings. The five - hour, 14 - minute game was the longest Opening Day game in Major League history.
On June 8, 2013, the Toronto Blue Jays beat the Texas Rangers 4 -- 3 in 18 innings while the Miami Marlins beat the New York Mets 2 -- 1 in 20 innings. This was the second time in Major League history that two games of 18 innings or more were played on same day; the first was August 15, 2006.
On September 21, 2013, just past 2: 00 a.m. ET, the Tampa Bay Rays defeated the Baltimore Orioles 5 -- 4 in 18 innings in a game that had started at 7: 10 p.m. the night before. Both teams were in contention for an American League wild card slot, with Boston having won the AL East division while this game was being played.
On September 24, 2013, the Arizona Diamondbacks set a major league record by playing their 77th extra inning of the season when their game against the San Diego Padres at Petco Park went into the 11th inning. This broke the record of 76 extra innings played by the Minnesota Twins in 1969.
On August 10, 2014, at 12: 39 AM, the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim defeated the Boston Red Sox 5 -- 4 in 19 innings in a game that had started at 6 PM the night before. Albert Pujols ' walk - off homer was quickly reviewed, per Boston 's request, but the call was confirmed. That same day the Toronto Blue Jays defeated the Detroit Tigers 6 -- 5 in a 19 - inning game of their own, Both teams used all their available bench reserves as well as their entire available bullpen, Toronto even used starting pitcher Marcus Stroman as a pinch runner at one point. Tigers starter Rick Porcello would be credited with the loss after coming into the game in the 18th inning. Toronto reliever Chad Jenkins would get the win after pitching 6 innings of relief (an unusually long outing for a reliever) With José Bautista hitting a walk - off single to score Munenori Kawasaki to win the game. Toronto starter R.A. Dickey had begun warming up in the bullpen in the top of the 19th and likely would have come on in relief had the game gone to 20 innings. The game was the then longest in franchise history for Toronto. It is now tied with another 19 - inning game, a 2 -- 1 loss to the Cleveland Indians on July 1, 2016.
On April 11, 2015, the Boston Red Sox defeated their historic AL East division rivals the New York Yankees 6 -- 5 in 19 innings at Yankee Stadium. The game began at 7: 05 PM on April 10, and ended at 2: 13 AM, after 6 hours and 49 minutes of play. The game also included a 16 - minute delay due to a brief power outage. It was the longest game between the two teams since the 20 - inning, 4 - 3 Yankees win on August 29, 1967. The length of the game prompted a Twitter joke during the game by Yankees ' media personality Mark Feinsand at 12: 10 AM on the 11th regarding Mark Teixeira 's birthday: Mark Teixeira was 34 when this game began. He 's now 35. # TrueStory.
On May 28, 2017, the Tampa Bay Rays defeated the Minnesota Twins 8 -- 6, in a 15 - inning, 6 - hour - and - 26 - minute game. Both teams combined had 115 at - bats, 33 hits and 21 strikeouts. This would be the second longest game in Tampa Bay Rays history.
The longest major league postseason game was the second game of the 2014 National League Division Series, with the visiting San Francisco Giants winning 2 -- 1 in 18 innings over the Washington Nationals. The game ended just after midnight on October 5, 2014 and lasted 6 hours 23 minutes. The Nationals had been leading 1 -- 0 with two out in the ninth inning, with starter Jordan Zimmermann one out away from a complete - game shutout, but following a decision by manager Matt Williams to remove Zimmermann with two out after the latter walked Joe Panik, Washington closer Drew Storen gave up a single to Giants catcher Buster Posey and an RBI double to Pablo Sandoval, scoring Panik to tie the game 1 -- 1. Posey was thrown out at the plate trying to score the second San Francisco run on Sandoval 's double. Bruce Bochy challenged the call but the call stood and it ended the top of the ninth. After Sergio Romo retired the Nationals in order in the bottom half, the game went into extra innings. There was no further scoring until Giants first baseman Brandon Belt led off the top of the 18th inning with a home run. Hunter Strickland, a September call - up, recorded the save.
Another 18 - inning contest was played between the Atlanta Braves and the Houston Astros on October 9, 2005. In the 4th game of a National League Division Series at Minute Maid Park in Houston, the Braves (who were trailing the series two games to one and facing elimination) took a 6 -- 1 lead into the 8th inning. A grand slam by Lance Berkman in the bottom of the 8th brought the score to 6 -- 5, and with two outs in the bottom of the 9th, Brad Ausmus homered to tie the game and send it to extra innings. The score remained deadlocked at 6 -- 6 until the 18th, when the Astros ' Chris Burke (who entered the game in the 9th inning as a pinch runner) homered to left field to win the game and send Houston to the National League Championship Series against the St. Louis Cardinals. Roger Clemens, who was brought in to pinch - hit in the 15th and pitched the last three innings in relief, was credited as the winning pitcher in the 5 - hour, 50 - minute contest. In a somewhat odd coincidence, Adam LaRoche and Tim Hudson played in both 18 - inning games. This one as Atlanta Braves and the other one as opposing sides of one another with Hudson pitching in both games as the visiting team 's starting pitcher. It is the longest winner in a potential clinching game in baseball history.
Exactly two weeks later on October 23, 2005, the same Houston Astros team lost to the Chicago White Sox in the longest World Series game by time, Game 3 of the 2005 Series, played at Minute Maid Park, which lasted 5 hours 41 minutes, breaking the previous record of 4 hours 51 minutes in Game 1 of the 2000 World Series. It also shared the record for the longest World Series game by innings at 14, tied with Game 2 of the 1916 World Series, played on October 9, 1916 between the Brooklyn Robins and Boston Red Sox at Braves Field, and Game 1 of the 2015 World Series, played on October 27, 2015 between the New York Mets and Kansas City Royals at Kauffman Stadium.
The 1986 National League Championship Series, which also involved the Astros, was notable for its two climactic extra-inning games. After the Astros and the New York Mets split the first four games of the series, the Mets won Game 5 in 12 innings and Game 6 in 16 innings to claim the pennant.
The 1986 American League Championship Series between the Boston Red Sox and the then named California Angels featured a dramatic game where The Angels were leading 3 games to 1 and leading 5 -- 4 in game 5, one strike away from the first ever pennant in franchise history, only for Red Sox 's Dave Henderson hit a two - run homer off Angel closer Donnie Moore in the top of the ninth inning to give the Red Sox the lead. The Angels tied it in the bottom half but in the top of the 11th, Henderson 's sac fly off Moore proved to be the winning margin and the Angels lost the game. The series returned to Boston and the Angels were outscored a combined 18 -- 5 in games 6 and 7 to lose the pennant.
The 1986 World Series between the New York Mets and Boston Red Sox went into extra innings in Game 6 as well. The Red Sox scored 2 runs in the top of the 10th inning to take a 5 - 3 lead and then got two quick outs with no one on base in the bottom of the 10th. With the Red Sox one out away from their first world championship in 86 years, reliever Calvin Schiraldi gives up three straight singles to cut the lead to one run with runners on first and third. Red Sox manager John McNamara replaces Schiraldi with Bob Stanley, who then throws a two - strike wild pitch to Mookie Wilson to allow the tying run to score and move the other runner to second base. The wild pitch was particularly notable in that it completely turned the tables on the Red Sox from what they had done while facing the Angels weeks earlier, as they themselves had now blown a situation in which they were one strike away from winning the series. Wilson subsequently hits a ground ball to first base that rolls through the legs of first baseman Bill Buckner to allow the winning run to score from second base, sending the World Series to a Game 7. Had Buckner not committed this error, the game would have either remained tied with runners on first and third for the next batter (if Wilson was safe) or would have gone to an 11th inning (if Wilson had been out).
The 1980 National League Championship Series, played between the Houston Astros and the Philadelphia Phillies, had four of its five games go to extra innings. The Astros won the second and third games in 10 and 11 innings respectively, while the Phillies took Games 4 and 5 in 10 innings each.
The 2012 American League Division Series between the Baltimore Orioles and the New York Yankees had back - to - back extra-inning games, going 12 and 13 innings respectively. The Yankees won Game 3 on a walk - off home run by Raúl Ibañez and the Orioles returned the favor the next night by winning Game 4.
In the 1995 American League Division Series, the Seattle Mariners and Yankees battled in Game 2 in 15 innings. The Yankees won the game on a two - run walk - off home run by Jim Leyritz, setting the record for longest game in MLB postseason history by time until 2005. In Game 5, the Mariners won the game and the series in 11 innings on Edgar Martínez 's famous double that scored Ken Griffey Jr. Until 2011, this was the only LDS game 5 in either league to go into extra innings.
The 2014 American League Wild Card Game featured the first extra-inning game in just its third year of postseason existence, was won by the Kansas City Royals over the Oakland Athletics in 12 innings.
The longest "winner take all '' game (defined as the final game of a postseason series, in which the winning team clinches the title or advances to the next round while the loser is eliminated from the postseason) in MLB postseason history is Game 7 of the 1924 World Series, won by the Washington Senators over the New York Giants in 12 innings.
The longest major league All - Star Game by time was played on July 15, 2008 at Yankee Stadium, with the American League winning 4 -- 3 in 15 innings after four hours, 50 minutes. This was the first time in All - Star game history that the AL won an All - Star Game in extra innings. The previous nine times The National League went 8 -- 0 -- 1 in extra-inning games.
The All - Star Game of July 11, 1967 at Anaheim Stadium also lasted 15 innings, but was considerably shorter in terms of elapsed time. The All - Star Game of July 9, 2002 at Miller Park was controversially declared a 7 -- 7 tie after 11 innings, when both teams ran out of available pitchers.
The following section lists a group of closely related, yet distinct World Series records relating to innings, extra innings, and games and series variously containing record numbers of innings and extra innings.
The largest number of innings played in a World Series game is 14. Game 2 of 1916, game 3 of 2005, and game 1 of 2015 all went for 14 innings, a three - way record. Hence, the largest number of extra innings played in a World Series game is 5, a record equivalent to the above.
The largest number of innings played in a World Series is 75. Despite nominally being a best - of - seven contest, the 1912 series contained one highly unusual tie game (game 2) which went for 11 innings, as well as a series - deciding game 8 which went for 10 innings, padding the series ' grand total innings to 75, a record unique to the 1912 series, and unmatched even by the series ' four true best - of - nine contests: 1903 (72 innings), 1919 (73 innings), 1920 (63 innings), and 1921 (72 innings).
The largest number of extra innings played in a World Series is 8. The 2015 series contained the aforementioned 14 - inning game 1, as well as a series - deciding 12 - inning game 5, for a total of 8 extra innings, a record unique to the 2015 series.
The largest number of games played in a World Series is 8, a four - way record shared by the best - of - nine contests 1903, 1919 and 1921, as well as by the best - of - seven 1912 series, which included the aforementioned tie game. Unsurprisingly, these four series are also precisely the top four series with the largest numbers of innings played (see above).
The largest number of games played in a World Series, which went to extra innings, is 3. The 1991 series contained a game 3 which went for 12 innings, a game 6 which went for 11 innings, and a series - deciding game 7 which went for 10 innings, giving the series three games which went to extra innings, a record unique to the 1991 series.
Leaving aside unusual best - of - nine series and series containing tie games, the largest number of innings played in a "standard '', best - of - seven World Series is 69. This occurred in the 1924 series and also in the 1991 series: both series went for 7 games, and both series had 6 extra innings apiece, for a grand total of 69 innings played in each series.. 1924 and 1991 also previously shared the record for most extra innings played in a World Series, 6, until the aforementioned 2015 series ' 8 extra innings eclipsed them.
World Series - deciding games have gone to extra innings just 10 times: 1912 's game 8, 1924 's game 7, 1933 's game 5, 1939 's game 4, 1991 's game 7, 1992 's game 6, 1997 's game 7, 2012 's game 4, 2015 's game 5, and 2016 's game 7 all went past 9 innings before a champion was determined.
On November 6, 2010, the record for longest Japan Series game was set in Game 6. The Chiba Lotte Marines and the Chunichi Dragons played 15 innings totaling 5 hours and 43 minutes. The game ended a 2 - 2 tie leading to a Game 7 in which the Marines won the game and the championship.
The longest college baseball game was played between Texas and Boston College on May 30, 2009, in a regional NCAA Division I Baseball Championship tournament game at Austin, Texas. Texas won the game, 3 - 2, in 25 innings as the visiting team under NCAA tournament rules on home - team declaration during a tournament. The game lasted seven hours and three minutes. Three years later, another NCAA tournament game passed the 20 - inning mark when Kent State defeated Kentucky, 7 - 6, in 21 innings in an opening round game at the Gary Regional in Gary, Indiana.
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where does the state of mississippi rank in size | Mississippi - Wikipedia
Mississippi / ˌmɪsɪˈsɪpi / (listen) is a state in the southern region of the United States, with part of its southern border formed by the Gulf of Mexico. Its western border is formed by the Mississippi River.
The state has a population of approximately 3 million. It is the 32nd most extensive and the 32nd most populous of the 50 United States. Located in the center of the state, Jackson is the state capital and largest city, with a population of approximately 175,000 people.
The state is heavily forested outside of the Mississippi Delta area, between the Mississippi and Yazoo rivers. Before the American Civil War, most development in the state was along riverfronts, where slaves worked on cotton plantations. After the war, the bottomlands to the interior were cleared, mostly by freedmen. By the end of the 19th century, African Americans made up two - thirds of the Delta 's property owners, but timber and railroad companies acquired much of the land after a financial crisis.
Clearing altered the Delta 's ecology, increasing the severity of flooding along the Mississippi. Much land is now held by agribusinesses. A largely rural state with agricultural areas dominated by industrial farms, Mississippi is ranked low or last among the states in such measures as health, educational attainment, and median household income. The state 's catfish aquaculture farms produce the majority of farm - raised catfish consumed in the United States.
Since the 1930s and the Great Migration, Mississippi has been majority white, albeit with the highest percentage of black residents of any U.S. state. From the early 19th century to the 1930s, its residents were mostly black, a population that before the American Civil War was composed largely of African American slaves. Democratic whites retained political power through Jim Crow laws. In the first half of the 20th century, nearly 400,000 rural blacks left the state for work and opportunities in northern and midwestern cities, with another wave of migration around World War II to West Coast cities. In 2010, 37 % of Mississippians were African Americans, the highest percentage of African Americans in any U.S. state. Since gaining enforcement of their voting franchise in the late 1960s, most African Americans support Democratic candidates in local, state and national elections. Conservative whites have shifted to the Republican Party. African Americans are a majority in many counties of the Mississippi - Yazoo Delta, an area of historic settlement during the plantation era. Since 2011, Mississippi has been ranked as the most religious state in the country.
The state 's name is derived from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary. Settlers named it after the Ojibwe word misi - ziibi ("Great River '').
Mississippi is bordered to the north by Tennessee, to the east by Alabama, to the south by Louisiana and a narrow coast on the Gulf of Mexico; and to the west, across the Mississippi River, by Louisiana and Arkansas.
In addition to its namesake, major rivers in Mississippi include the Big Black River, the Pearl River, the Yazoo River, the Pascagoula River, and the Tombigbee River. Major lakes include Ross Barnett Reservoir, Arkabutla Lake, Sardis Lake, and Grenada Lake with the largest lake being Sardis Lake.
Mississippi is entirely composed of lowlands, the highest point being Woodall Mountain, in the foothills of the Cumberland Mountains, 807 feet (246 m) above sea level. The lowest point is sea level at the Gulf coast. The state 's mean elevation is 300 feet (91 m) above sea level.
Most of Mississippi is part of the East Gulf Coastal Plain. The coastal plain is generally composed of low hills, such as the Pine Hills in the south and the North Central Hills. The Pontotoc Ridge and the Fall Line Hills in the northeast have somewhat higher elevations. Yellow - brown loess soil is found in the western parts of the state. The northeast is a region of fertile black earth that extends into the Alabama Black Belt.
The coastline includes large bays at Bay St. Louis, Biloxi, and Pascagoula. It is separated from the Gulf of Mexico proper by the shallow Mississippi Sound, which is partially sheltered by Petit Bois Island, Horn Island, East and West Ship Islands, Deer Island, Round Island, and Cat Island.
The northwest remainder of the state consists of the Mississippi Delta, a section of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain. The plain is narrow in the south and widens north of Vicksburg. The region has rich soil, partly made up of silt which had been regularly deposited by the flood waters of the Mississippi River.
Areas under the management of the National Park Service include:
Mississippi City Population Rankings of at least 50,000 (United States Census Bureau as of 2010):
Mississippi City Population Rankings of at least 20,000 but fewer than 50,000 (United States Census Bureau as of 2010):
Mississippi City Population Rankings of at least 10,000 but fewer than 20,000 (United States Census Bureau as of 2010):
(See: Lists of cities, towns and villages, census - designated places, metropolitan areas, micropolitan areas, and counties in Mississippi)
Mississippi has a humid subtropical climate with long summers and short, mild winters. Temperatures average about 81 ° F (about 27 ° C) in July and about 48 ° F (about 9 ° C) in January. The temperature varies little statewide in the summer; however, in winter, the region near Mississippi Sound is significantly warmer than the inland portion of the state. The recorded temperature in Mississippi has ranged from − 19 ° F (− 28 ° C), in 1966, at Corinth in the northeast, to 115 ° F (46 ° C), in 1930, at Holly Springs in the north. Heavy snowfall is possible across the state, such as during the New Year 's Eve 1963 snowstorm. Yearly precipitation generally increases from north to south, with the regions closer to the Gulf being the most humid. Thus, Clarksdale, in the northwest, gets about 50 inches (about 1,270 mm) of precipitation annually and Biloxi, in the south, about 61 inches (about 1,550 mm). Small amounts of snow fall in northern and central Mississippi; snow is occasional in the southern part of the state.
The late summer and fall is the seasonal period of risk for hurricanes moving inland from the Gulf of Mexico, especially in the southern part of the state. Hurricane Camille in 1969 and Hurricane Katrina in 2005, which killed 238 people in the state, were the most devastating hurricanes to hit the state. Both caused nearly total storm surge destruction of structures in and around Gulfport, Biloxi, and Pascagoula.
As in the rest of the Deep South, thunderstorms are common in Mississippi, especially in the southern part of the state. On average, Mississippi has around 27 tornadoes annually; the northern part of the state has more tornadoes earlier in the year and the southern part a higher frequency later in the year. Two of the five deadliest tornadoes in U.S. history have occurred in the state. These storms struck Natchez, in southwest Mississippi (see The Great Natchez Tornado) and Tupelo, in the northeast corner of the state. About seven F5 tornadoes have been recorded in the state.
Mississippi is heavily forested, with over half of the state 's area covered by wild trees, including mostly pine, as well as cottonwood, elm, hickory, oak, pecan, sweetgum and tupelo.
Due to seasonal flooding, possible from December to June, the Mississippi and Yazoo rivers and their tributaries created a fertile floodplain in the Mississippi Delta. The river 's flooding created natural levees, which planters had built higher to try to prevent flooding of land cultivated for cotton crops. Temporary workers built levees along the Mississippi River on top of the natural levees that formed from dirt deposited after the river flooded.
From 1858 to 1861, the state took over levee building, accomplishing it through contractors and hired labor. In those years, planters considered their slaves too valuable to hire out for such dangerous work. Contractors hired gangs of Irish immigrant laborers to build levees and sometimes clear land. Many of the Irish were relatively recent immigrants from the famine years who were struggling to get established. Before the American Civil War, the earthwork levees averaged six feet in height, although in some areas they reached twenty feet.
Flooding has been an integral part of Mississippi history, but clearing of the land for cultivation and to supply wood fuel for steamboats took away the absorption of trees and undergrowth. The banks of the river were denuded, becoming unstable and changing the character of the river. After the Civil War, major floods swept down the valley in 1865, 1867, 1874 and 1882. Such floods regularly overwhelmed levees damaged by Confederate and Union fighting during the war, as well as those constructed after the war. In 1877, the state created the Mississippi Levee District for southern counties.
In 1879, the United States Congress created the Mississippi River Commission, whose responsibilities included aiding state levee boards in the construction of levees. Both white and black transient workers were hired to build the levees in the late 19th century. By 1882, levees averaged seven feet in height, but many in the southern Delta were severely tested by the flood that year. After the 1882 flood, the levee system was expanded. In 1884, the Yazoo - Mississippi Delta Levee District was established to oversee levee construction and maintenance in the northern Delta counties; also included were some counties in Arkansas which were part of the Delta.
Flooding overwhelmed northwestern Mississippi in 1912 -- 1913, causing heavy damage to the levee districts. Regional losses and the Mississippi River Levee Association 's lobbying for a flood control bill helped gain passage of national bills in 1917 and 1923 to provide federal matching funds for local levee districts, on a scale of 2: 1. Although U.S. participation in World War I interrupted funding of levees, the second round of funding helped raise the average height of levees in the Mississippi - Yazoo Delta to 22 feet (6.7 m) in the 1920s. Scientists now understand the levees have increased the severity of flooding by increasing the flow speed of the river and reducing the area of the floodplains. The region was severely damaged due to the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, which broke through the levees. There were losses of millions of dollars in property, stock and crops. The most damage occurred in the lower Delta, including Washington and Bolivar counties.
Even as scientific knowledge about the Mississippi River has grown, upstream development and the consequences of the levees have caused more severe flooding in some years. Scientists now understand that the widespread clearing of land and building of the levees have changed the nature of the river. Such work removed the natural protection and absorption of wetlands and forest cover, strengthening the river 's current. The state and federal governments have been struggling for the best approaches to restore some natural habitats in order to best interact with the original riverine ecology.
Near 10,000 BC Native Americans or Paleo - Indians arrived in what today is referred to as the American South. Paleoindians in the South were hunter - gatherers who pursued the megafauna that became extinct following the end of the Pleistocene age. In the Mississippi Delta, Native American settlements and agricultural fields were developed on the natural levees, higher ground in the proximity of rivers. The Native Americans developed extensive fields near their permanent villages. Together with other practices, they created some localized deforestation but did not alter the ecology of the Mississippi Delta as a whole.
After thousands of years, succeeding cultures of the Woodland and Mississippian culture eras developed rich and complex agricultural societies, in which surplus supported the development of specialized trades. Both were mound builder cultures. Those of the Mississippian culture were the largest and most complex, constructed beginning about 950CE. The peoples had a trading network spanning the continent from the Great Lakes to the Gulf Coast. Their large earthworks, which expressed their cosmology of political and religious concepts, still stand throughout the Mississippi and Ohio River valleys.
Descendant Native American tribes of the Mississippian culture in the Southeast include the Chickasaw and Choctaw. Other tribes who inhabited the territory of Mississippi (and whose names were honored by colonists in local towns) include the Natchez, the Yazoo, and the Biloxi.
The first major European expedition into the territory that became Mississippi was that of the Spanish explorer, Hernando de Soto, who passed through the northeast part of the state in 1540, in his second expedition to the New World.
In April 1699, French colonists established the first European settlement at Fort Maurepas (also known as Old Biloxi), built in the vicinity of present - day Ocean Springs on the Gulf Coast. It was settled by Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville. In 1716, the French founded Natchez on the Mississippi River (as Fort Rosalie); it became the dominant town and trading post of the area. The French called the greater territory "New France ''; the Spanish continued to claim part of the Gulf coast area (east of Mobile Bay) of present - day southern Alabama, in addition to the entire area of present - day Florida.
Through the 18th century, the area was ruled variously by Spanish, French, and British colonial governments. The colonists imported African slaves as laborers. Under French and Spanish rule, there developed a class of free people of color (gens de couleur libres), mostly multiracial descendants of European men and enslaved women, and their children. In the early days the French and Spanish colonists were chiefly men. Even as more European women joined the settlements, the men had interracial unions among women of African descent (and increasingly, multiracial descent), both before and after marriages to European women. Often the European men would help their multiracial children get educated or gain apprenticeships for trades, and sometimes they settled property on them; they often freed the mothers and their children if enslaved, as part of contracts of plaçage. With this social capital, the free people of color became artisans, and sometimes educated merchants and property owners, forming a third class between the Europeans and most enslaved Africans in the French and Spanish settlements, although not so large a free community as in the city of New Orleans, Louisiana. After Great Britain 's victory in the French and Indian War (Seven Years ' War), the French surrendered the Mississippi area to them under the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1763). They also ceded their areas to the north that were east of the Mississippi River, including the Illinois Country and Quebec.
After the American Revolution (1765 -- 83), Britain ceded this area to the new United States of America. The Mississippi Territory was organized on April 7, 1798, from territory ceded by Georgia and South Carolina to the United States. Their original colonial charters theoretically extended west to the Pacific Ocean. The Mississippi Territory was later twice expanded to include disputed territory claimed by both the United States and Spain.
From 1800 to about 1830, the United States purchased some lands (Treaty of Doak 's Stand) from Native American tribes for new settlements of European Americans; they were mostly migrants from other Southern states, particularly Virginia and North Carolina, where soils were exhausted. On September 27, 1830, the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek was signed between the U.S. Government and the Choctaw. The Choctaw agreed to sell their traditional homelands in Mississippi and Alabama, for compensation and removal to reservations in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma). This opened up land for sale to European - American immigrant settlement. Article 14 in the treaty allowed those Choctaw who chose to remain in the state to become U.S. citizens, the second major non-European ethnic group to do so (the Cherokee were the first). Today approximately 9,500 Choctaw live in Neshoba, Newton, Leake, and Jones counties. Federally recognized tribes include the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians.
Many slaveholders brought slaves with them or purchased them through the domestic slave trade, especially in New Orleans. Through the trade, nearly one million slaves were transported to the Deep South, including Mississippi, in a forced internal migration that broke up many slave families of the Upper South, where planters were selling excess slaves. The Southerners imposed slave laws and restricted the rights of free blacks, according to their view of white supremacy.
Beginning in 1822, slaves in Mississippi were protected by law from cruel and unusual punishment by their owners. Southern slave codes made the willful killing of a slave illegal in most cases. For example, the 1860 Mississippi case of Oliver v. State charged the defendant with murdering his own slave.
On December 10, 1817, Mississippi was the 20th state admitted to the Union. David Holmes was elected the first governor of the state. Plantations were developed primarily along the major rivers, where the waterfront provided access to the major transportation routes. This is also where early towns developed, linked by the steamboats that carried commercial products and crops to markets. The backcountry remained largely undeveloped frontier until it was cleared by freedmen during Reconstruction and later.
When cotton was king during the 1850s, Mississippi plantation owners -- especially those of the Delta and Black Belt central regions -- became wealthy due to the high fertility of the soil, the high price of cotton on the international market, and their assets in slaves. They used the profits to buy more cotton land and more slaves. The planters ' dependence on hundreds of thousands of slaves for labor and the severe wealth imbalances among whites, played strong roles both in state politics and in planters ' support for secession. The state was thinly settled, with population concentrated in the riverfront areas and towns.
By 1860, the enslaved African - American population numbered 436,631 or 55 % of the state 's total of 791,305. There were fewer than 1000 free people of color. The relatively low population of the state before the Civil War reflected the fact that land and villages were developed only along the riverfronts, which formed the main transportation corridors. Ninety percent of the Delta bottomlands were frontier and undeveloped. The state needed many more settlers for development.
On January 9, 1861, Mississippi became the second state to declare its secession from the Union, and it was one of the founding members of the Confederate States. The first six states to secede were those with the highest number of slaves. During the war, Union and Confederate forces struggled for dominance on the Mississippi River, critical to supply routes and commerce. More than 80,000 Mississippians fought in the Civil War, and casualties were extremely heavy. Union General Ulysses S. Grant 's long siege of Vicksburg finally gained the Union control of the river in 1863.
In the postwar period, freedmen withdrew from white - run churches to set up independent congregations. The majority of blacks left the Southern Baptist Church, sharply reducing its membership. They created independent black Baptist congregations. By 1895 they had established numerous black Baptist state associations and the National Baptist Convention of black churches.
In addition, independent black denominations, such as the African Methodist Episcopal Church (established in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) and the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (established in New York City), sent missionaries to the South in the postwar years. They quickly attracted hundreds of thousands of converts and founded new churches across the South. Southern congregations brought their own influences to those denominations as well.
During Reconstruction, the first Mississippi constitutional convention in 1868, with delegates both black and white, framed a constitution whose major elements would be maintained for 22 years. The convention was the first political organization in the state to include African - American representatives, 17 among the 100 members (32 counties had black majorities at the time). Some among the black delegates were freedmen, but others were educated free blacks who had migrated from the North. The convention adopted universal suffrage; did away with property qualifications for suffrage or for office, a change that also benefited both blacks and poor whites; provided for the state 's first public school system; forbade race distinctions in the possession and inheritance of property; and prohibited limiting civil rights in travel. Under the terms of Reconstruction, Mississippi was restored to the Union on February 23, 1870.
Because the Mississippi Delta contained so much fertile bottomland that had not been developed before the Civil War, 90 percent of the land was still frontier. After the Civil War, tens of thousands of migrants were attracted to the area by higher wages offered by planters trying to develop land. In addition, black and white workers could earn money by clearing the land and raising timber, and eventually advance to ownership. The new farmers included many freedmen, who achieved unusually high rates of land ownership in the Mississippi bottomlands by the late 19th century. In the 1870s and 1880s, many black farmers succeeded in gaining land ownership.
Around the start of the 20th century, two - thirds of the Mississippi farmers who owned land in the Delta were African American. Many had become overextended with debt during the falling cotton prices of the difficult years of the late 19th century. Cotton prices fell throughout the decades following the Civil War. As another agricultural depression lowered cotton prices into the 1890s, however, numerous African - American farmers finally had to sell their land to pay off debts, thus losing the land which they had developed by personal labor.
Democrats regained control of the state legislature in 1875, after a year of expanded violence against blacks and intimidation of whites in what was called the "white line '' campaign, based on asserting white supremacy. Democratic whites became well armed and formed paramilitary organizations such as the Red Shirts to suppress black voting. From 1874 to the elections of 1875, they pressured whites to join the Democrats, and conducted violence against blacks in at least 15 known "riots '' in cities around the state to intimidate blacks and suppress their voting. They killed a total of 150 blacks, although other estimates place the death toll at twice as many. A total of three white Republicans and five white Democrats were reported killed. In rural areas, deaths of blacks could be covered up. Riots (better described as massacres of blacks) took place in Vicksburg, Clinton, Macon, and in their counties, as well - armed whites broke up black meetings and lynched known black leaders, destroying local political organizations. Seeing the success of this deliberate "Mississippi Plan '', South Carolina and other states followed it and also achieved white dominance. In 1877 the last of federal troops were withdrawn from the region.
Even in this environment, black Mississippians continued to be elected into local office. However, black residents were deprived of all political power after white legislators passed a new state constitution in 1890 specifically to "eliminate the nigger from politics '', according to the state 's Democratic governor, James K. Vardaman. It erected barriers to voter registration and electoral provisions that effectively disenfranchised most black Mississippians and many poor whites. Estimates are that 100,000 black and 50,000 white men were removed from voter registration rolls in the state over the next few years.
The loss of political influence contributed to the difficulties of African Americans in their attempts to obtain extended credit in the late 19th century. Together with imposition of Jim Crow and racial segregation laws, whites committed an increased rate of lynchings of blacks, mostly men, beginning in the 1890s and extending to 1930. Cotton crops failed due to boll weevil infestation and successive severe flooding in 1912 and 1913, creating crisis conditions for many African Americans. With control of the ballot box and more access to credit, white planters bought out such farmers, expanding their ownership of Delta bottomlands. They also took advantage of new railroads sponsored by the state.
In 1900, blacks made up more than half of the state 's population. By 1910, a majority of black farmers in the Delta had lost their land and become sharecroppers. By 1920, the third generation after freedom, most African Americans in Mississippi were landless laborers again facing poverty. Starting about 1913, tens of thousands of black Americans left Mississippi for the North in the Great Migration to industrial cities such as St. Louis, Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Philadelphia and New York. They sought jobs, better education for their children, the right to vote, relative freedom from discrimination, and better living. In the migration of 1910 -- 1940, they left a society that had been steadily closing off opportunity. Most migrants from Mississippi took trains directly north to Chicago and often settled near former neighbors.
Blacks also faced violence in the form of lynching, shooting, and the burning of churches. In 1923, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People stated "the Negro feels that life is not safe in Mississippi and his life may be taken with impunity at any time upon the slightest pretext or provocation by a white man ''.
In the early 20th century, some industries were established in Mississippi, but jobs were generally restricted to whites, including child workers. The lack of jobs also drove some southern whites north to cities such as Chicago and Detroit, seeking employment, where they also competed with European immigrants. The state depended on agriculture, but mechanization put many farm laborers out of work.
By 1900, many white ministers, especially in the towns, subscribed to the Social Gospel movement, which attempted to apply Christian ethics to social and economic needs of the day. Many strongly supported Prohibition, believing it would help alleviate and prevent many sins.
African - American Baptist churches grew to include more than twice the number of members as their white Baptist counterparts. The African - American call for social equality resonated throughout the Great Depression in the 1930s and World War II in the 1940s.
The Second Great Migration from the South started in the 1940s, lasting until 1970. Almost half a million people left Mississippi in the second migration, three - quarters of them black. Nationwide during the first half of the 20th century, African Americans became rapidly urbanized and many worked in industrial jobs. The Second Great Migration included destinations in the West, especially California, where the buildup of the defense industry offered higher paying jobs to both African Americans and whites.
Blacks and whites in Mississippi generated rich, quintessentially American music traditions: gospel music, country music, jazz, blues and rock and roll. All were invented, promulgated or heavily developed by Mississippi musicians, many of them African American, and most came from the Mississippi Delta. Many musicians carried their music north to Chicago, where they made it the heart of that city 's jazz and blues.
So many African Americans left in the Great Migration that after the 1930s, they became a minority in Mississippi. In 1960 they made up 42 % of the state 's population. The whites maintained their discriminatory voter registration processes established in 1890, preventing most blacks from voting, even if they were well educated. Court challenges were not successful until later in the century. After World War II, African - American veterans returned with renewed commitment to be treated as full citizens of the United States and increasingly organized to gain enforcement of their constitutional rights.
The Civil Rights Movement had many roots in religion, and the strong community of churches helped supply volunteers and moral purpose for their activism. Mississippi was a center of activity, based in black churches, to educate and register black voters, and to work for integration. In 1954 the state had created the Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission, a tax - supported agency, chaired by the Governor, that claimed to work for the state 's image but effectively spied on activists and passed information to the local White Citizens ' Councils to suppress black activism. White Citizens Councils had been formed in many cities and towns to resist integration of schools following the unanimous 1954 United States Supreme Court ruling (Brown v. Board of Education) that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional. They used intimidation and economic blackmail against activists and suspected activists, including teachers and other professionals. Techniques included loss of jobs and eviction from rental housing.
In the summer of 1964 students and community organizers from across the country came to help register black voters in Mississippi and establish Freedom Schools. The Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party was established to challenge the all - white Democratic Party of the Solid South. Most white politicians resisted such changes. Chapters of the Ku Klux Klan and its sympathizers used violence against activists, most notably the murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner in 1964 during the Freedom Summer campaign. This was a catalyst for Congressional passage the following year of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Mississippi earned a reputation in the 1960s as a reactionary state.
After decades of disenfranchisement, African Americans in the state gradually began to exercise their right to vote again for the first time since the 19th century, following the passage of federal civil rights legislation in 1964 and 1965, which ended de jure segregation and enforced constitutional voting rights. Registration of African - American voters increased and black candidates ran in the 1967 elections for state and local offices. The Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party fielded some candidates. Teacher Robert G. Clark of Holmes County was the first African American to be elected to the State House since Reconstruction. He continued as the only African American in the state legislature until 1976 and was repeatedly elected into the 21st century, including three terms as Speaker of the House.
In 1966, the state was the last to repeal officially statewide prohibition of alcohol. Before that, Mississippi had taxed the illegal alcohol brought in by bootleggers. Governor Paul Johnson urged repeal and the sheriff "raided the annual Junior League Mardi Gras ball at the Jackson Country Club, breaking open the liquor cabinet and carting off the Champagne before a startled crowd of nobility and high - ranking state officials ''.
On August 17, 1969, Category 5 Hurricane Camille hit the Mississippi coast, killing 248 people and causing US $1.5 billion in damage (1969 dollars).
In 1987, 20 years after the U.S. Supreme Court had ruled in 1967 's Loving v. Virginia that a similar Virginian law was unconstitutional, Mississippi repealed its ban on interracial marriage (also known as miscegenation), which had been enacted in 1890. It also repealed the segregationist - era poll tax in 1989. In 1995, the state symbolically ratified the Thirteenth Amendment, which had abolished slavery in 1865. Though ratified in 1995, the state never officially notified the U.S. archivist, which kept the ratification unofficial until 2013, when Ken Sullivan contacted the office of Secretary of State of Mississippi, Delbert Hosemann, who agreed to file the paperwork and make it official. In 2009, the legislature passed a bill to repeal other discriminatory civil rights laws, which had been enacted in 1964, the same year as the federal Civil Rights Act, but ruled unconstitutional in 1967 by federal courts. Republican Governor Haley Barbour signed the bill into law.
The end of legal segregation and Jim Crow led to the integration of some churches, but most today remain divided along racial and cultural lines, having developed different traditions. After the Civil War, most African Americans left white churches to establish their own independent congregations, particularly Baptist churches, establishing state associations and a national association by the end of the century. They wanted to express their own traditions of worship and practice. In more diverse communities, such as Hattiesburg, some churches have multiracial congregations.
On August 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina, though a Category 3 storm upon final landfall, caused even greater destruction across the entire 90 miles (145 km) of the Mississippi Gulf Coast from Louisiana to Alabama.
The center of population of Mississippi is located in Leake County, in the town of Lena.
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Mississippi was 2,992,333 on July 1, 2015, a 0.84 % increase since the 2010 United States Census. The state 's economist characterized the state as losing population as job markets elsewhere have caused 3.2 per 1000 to migrate recently.
From 2000 to 2010, the United States Census Bureau reported that Mississippi had the highest rate of increase in people identifying as mixed - race, up 70 percent in the decade; it amounts to a total of 1.1 percent of the population. In addition, Mississippi led the nation for most of the last decade in the growth of mixed marriages among its population. The total population has not increased significantly, but is young. Some of the above change in identification as mixed race is due to new births. But, it appears mostly to reflect those residents who have chosen to identify as more than one race, who in earlier years may have identified by just one ethnicity. A binary racial system had been in place since slavery times and the days of racial segregation. In the civil rights era, people of African descent banded together in an inclusive community to achieve political power and gain restoration of their civil rights.
As the demographer William Frey noted, "In Mississippi, I think it 's (identifying as mixed race) changed from within. '' Historically in Mississippi, after Indian removal in the 1830s, the major groups were designated as black (African American), who were then mostly enslaved, and white (primarily European American). Matthew Snipp, also a demographer, commented on the increase in the 21st century in the number of people identifying as being of more than one race: "In a sense, they 're rendering a more accurate portrait of their racial heritage that in the past would have been suppressed. ''
After having comprised a majority of the state 's population since well before the Civil War and through the 1930s, today African Americans comprise approximately 37 percent of the state 's population. Most have ancestors who were enslaved, with many forcibly transported from the Upper South in the 19th century to work on the area 's new plantations. Some of these slaves were mixed race, with European ancestors, as there were many children born into slavery with white fathers. Some also have Native American ancestry. During the first half of the 20th century, a total of nearly 400,000 African Americans left the state during the Great Migration, for opportunities in the North, Midwest and West. They became a minority in the state for the first time since early in its development.
The state has had conservative laws related to sexuality. The state 's sodomy law criminalized consensual sex between adults of the same gender until 2003 (but was seldom enforced), when such laws were voided by the Supreme Court case Lawrence v. Texas. In 2004, voters in Mississippi approved Amendment 1, amending the state 's constitution to prohibit same - sex marriage; the measure passed with 86 % of the vote, the highest margin of victory in the nation. This law was overturned by Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), the decision of the U.S. Supreme Court making same - sex marriage a constitutional right.
Despite conservative laws, same - sex couples were forming families in the state. According to the 2010 census, approximately 33 % of households led by same - sex couples in Mississippi included at least one child, the highest such percentage in the nation.
At the 2010 U.S. census, the racial makeup of the population was:
Ethnically, 2.7 % of the total population, among all racial groups, was of Hispanic or Latino origin (they may be of any race). As of 2011, 53.8 % of Mississippi 's population younger than age 1 were minorities, meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white. For more information on racial and ethnic classifications in the United States see race and ethnicity in the United States Census.
Americans of Scots - Irish, English and Scottish ancestry are present throughout the state. It is believed that there are more people with such ancestry than identify as such on the census, in part because their immigrant ancestors are more distant in their family histories. English, Scottish and Scots - Irish are generally the most under - reported ancestry groups in both the South Atlantic States and the East South Central States. The historian David Hackett Fischer estimated that a minimum 20 % of Mississippi 's population is of English ancestry, though the figure is probably much higher, and another large percentage is of Scottish ancestry. Many Mississippians of such ancestry identify simply as American on questionnaires, because their families have been in North America for centuries. In the 1980 census 656,371 Mississippians of a total of 1,946,775 identified as being of English ancestry, making them 38 % of the state at the time.
The state in 2010 had the highest proportion of African Americans in the nation. The African - American percentage of population has begun to increase due mainly to a younger population than the whites (the total fertility rates of the two races are approximately equal). Due to patterns of settlement and whites putting their children in private schools, in almost all of Mississippi 's public school districts, a majority of students are African American. African Americans are the majority ethnic group in the northwestern Yazoo Delta, and the southwestern and the central parts of the state. These are areas where, historically, African Americans owned land as farmers in the 19th century following the Civil War, or worked on cotton plantations and farms.
People of French Creole ancestry form the largest demographic group in Hancock County on the Gulf Coast. The African - American; Choctaw, mostly in Neshoba County; and Chinese - American portions of the population are also almost entirely native born.
Chinese came to Mississippi as indentured laborers from Cuba during the 1870s, with others coming from mainland China in the later 19th century. The majority entering the state immigrated directly from China to Mississippi between 1910 and 1930, when they were recruited by planters as laborers. While most first worked as sharecroppers, the Chinese worked as families to improve their lives. Many became small merchants and especially grocers in small towns throughout the Delta. In these roles, the ethnic Chinese carved out a niche in the state between black and white, where they were concentrated in the Delta. These small towns have declined since the late 20th century, and many ethnic Chinese have joined the exodus to larger cities, including Jackson. Their population in the state overall has increased in the 21st century.
In the early 1980s many Vietnamese immigrated to Mississippi and other states along the Gulf of Mexico, where they became employed in fishing - related work.
In 2000, 96.4 % of Mississippi residents five years old and older spoke only English in the home, a decrease from 97.2 % in 1990. English is largely Southern American English, with some South Midland speech in northern and eastern Mississippi. There is a common absence of final / r / and the lengthening and weakening of the diphthongs / aɪ / and / ɔɪ / as in ' ride ' and ' oil '. South Midland terms in northern Mississippi include: tow sack (burlap bag), dog irons (andirons), plum peach (clingstone peach), snake doctor (dragonfly), and stone wall (rock fence).
Under French and Spanish rule beginning in the 17th century, European colonists were mostly Roman Catholics. The growth of the cotton culture after 1815 brought in tens of thousands of Anglo - American settlers each year, most of whom were Protestants from Southeastern states. Due to such migration, there was rapid growth in the number of Protestant churches, especially Methodist, Presbyterian and Baptist.
The revivals of the Great Awakening in the late 18th and early 19th centuries initially attracted the "plain folk '' by reaching out to all members of society, including women and blacks. Both slaves and free blacks were welcomed into Methodist and Baptist churches. Independent black Baptist churches were established before 1800 in Virginia, Kentucky, South Carolina and Georgia, and later developed in Mississippi as well.
In the post-Civil War years, religion became more influential as the South became known as the "Bible Belt ''.
Since the 1970s, fundamentalist conservative churches have grown rapidly, fueling Mississippi 's conservative political trends among whites. In 1973 the Presbyterian Church in America attracted numerous conservative congregations. As of 2010 Mississippi remained a stronghold of the denomination, which originally was brought by Scots immigrants. The state has the highest adherence rate of the PCA in 2010, with 121 congregations and 18,500 members. It is among the few states where the PCA has higher membership than the PC (USA). According to the Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA), in 2010 the Southern Baptist Convention had 907,384 adherents and was the largest religious denomination in the state, followed by the United Methodist Church with 204,165, and the Roman Catholic Church with 112,488. Other religions have a small presence in Mississippi; as of 2010, there were 5,012 Muslims; 4,389 Hindus; and 816 Bahá'í.
Public opinion polls have consistently ranked Mississippi as the most religious state in the United States, with 59 % of Mississippians considering themselves "very religious ''. The same survey also found that 11 % of the population were non-Religious. In a 2009 Gallup poll, 63 % of Mississippians said that they attended church weekly or almost weekly -- the highest percentage of all states (U.S. average was 42 %, and the lowest percentage was in Vermont at 23 %). Another 2008 Gallup poll found that 85 % of Mississippians considered religion an important part of their daily lives, the highest figure among all states (U.S. average 65 %).
Note: Births in table do n't add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.
The 2010 United States census counted 6,286 same - sex unmarried - partner households in Mississippi, an increase of 1,512 since the 2000 United States census. 33 % contained at least one child, giving Mississippi the distinction of leading the nation in the percentage of same - sex couples raising children. Mississippi has the largest percentage of African - American same - sex couples among total households. The state capital, Jackson, ranks tenth in the nation in concentration of African - American same - sex couples. The state ranks fifth in the nation in the percentage of Hispanic same - sex couples among all Hispanic households and ninth in the highest concentration of same - sex couples who are seniors. With the passing of HB 1523 in April 2016, from July it became legal in Mississippi to refuse service to same - sex couples, based on one 's religious beliefs. The bill has become the subject of controversy.
The state is ranked 50th or last place among all the states for health care, according to the Commonwealth Fund, a nonprofit foundation working to advance performance of the health care system.
Mississippi has the highest rate of infant and neonatal deaths of any U.S. state. Age - adjusted data also shows Mississippi has the highest overall death rate, and the highest death rate from heart disease, hypertension and hypertensive renal disease, influenza and pneumonia.
In 2011, Mississippi (and Arkansas) had the least number of dentists in the United States.
For three years in a row, more than 30 percent of Mississippi 's residents have been classified as obese. In a 2006 study, 22.8 percent of the state 's children were classified as such. Mississippi had the highest rate of obesity of any U.S. state from 2005 to 2008, and also ranks first in the nation for high blood pressure, diabetes, and adult inactivity. In a 2008 study of African - American women, contributing risk factors were shown to be: lack of knowledge about body mass index (BMI), dietary behavior, physical inactivity and lack of social support, defined as motivation and encouragement by friends. A 2002 report on African - American adolescents noted a 1999 survey which suggests that a third of children were obese, with higher ratios for those in the Delta.
The study stressed that "obesity starts in early childhood extending into the adolescent years and then possibly into adulthood. '' It noted impediments to needed behavioral modification, including the Delta likely being "the most underserved region in the state '' with African Americans the major ethnic group; lack of accessibility and availability of medical care; and an estimated 60 % of residents living below the poverty level. Additional risk factors were that most schools had no physical education curriculum and nutrition education is not emphasized. Previous intervention strategies may have been largely ineffective due to not being culturally sensitive or practical. A 2006 survey found nearly 95 percent of Mississippi adults considered childhood obesity to be a serious problem.
The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that Mississippi 's total state product in 2010 was $98 billion. GDP growth was. 5 percent in 2015 and is estimated to be 2.4 in 2016 according to Dr. Darrin Webb, the state 's chief economist, who noted it would make two consecutive years of positive growth since the recession. Per capita personal income in 2006 was $26,908, the lowest per capita personal income of any state, but the state also has the nation 's lowest living costs. 2015 data records the adjusted per capita personal income at $40,105. Mississippians consistently rank as one of the highest per capita in charitable contributions.
At 56 percent, the state has one of the lowest workforce participation rates in the country. Approximately 70,000 adults are disabled which is 10 percent of the workforce.
Mississippi 's rank as one of the poorest states is related to its dependence on cotton agriculture before and after the Civil War, late development of its frontier bottomlands in the Mississippi Delta, repeated natural disasters of flooding in the late 19th and early 20th century that required massive capital investment in levees, and ditching and draining the bottomlands, and slow development of railroads to link bottomland towns and river cities. In addition, when Democrats regained control of the state legislature, they passed the 1890 constitution that discouraged corporate industrial development in favor of rural agriculture, a legacy that would slow the state 's progress for years.
Before the Civil War, Mississippi was the fifth - wealthiest state in the nation, its wealth generated by the labor of slaves in cotton plantations along the rivers. Slaves were counted as property and the rise in the cotton markets since the 1840s had increased their value. By 1860, a majority -- 55 percent -- of the population of Mississippi was enslaved. Ninety percent of the Delta bottomlands were undeveloped and the state had low overall density of population.
Largely due to the domination of the plantation economy, focused on the production of agricultural cotton, the state 's elite was reluctant to invest in infrastructure such as roads and railroads. They educated their children privately. Industrialization did not reach many areas until the late 20th century. The planter aristocracy, the elite of antebellum Mississippi, kept the tax structure low for their own benefit, making only private improvements. Before the war the most successful planters, such as Confederate President Jefferson Davis, owned riverside properties along the Mississippi and Yazoo rivers in the Mississippi Delta. Away from the riverfronts, most of the Delta was undeveloped frontier.
During the Civil War, 30,000 Mississippi soldiers, mostly white, died from wounds and disease, and many more were left crippled and wounded. Changes to the labor structure and an agricultural depression throughout the South caused severe losses in wealth. In 1860 assessed valuation of property in Mississippi had been more than $500 million, of which $218 million (43 percent) was estimated as the value of slaves. By 1870, total assets had decreased in value to roughly $177 million.
Poor whites and landless former slaves suffered the most from the postwar economic depression. The constitutional convention of early 1868 appointed a committee to recommend what was needed for relief of the state and its citizens. The committee found severe destitution among the laboring classes. It took years for the state to rebuild levees damaged in battles. The upset of the commodity system impoverished the state after the war. By 1868 an increased cotton crop began to show possibilities for free labor in the state, but the crop of 565,000 bales produced in 1870 was still less than half of prewar figures.
Blacks cleared land, selling timber and developing bottomland to achieve ownership. In 1900, two - thirds of farm owners in Mississippi were blacks, a major achievement for them and their families. Due to the poor economy, low cotton prices and difficulty of getting credit, many of these farmers could not make it through the extended financial difficulties. Two decades later, the majority of African Americans were sharecroppers. The low prices of cotton into the 1890s meant that more than a generation of African Americans lost the result of their labor when they had to sell their farms to pay off accumulated debts.
After the Civil War, the state refused for years to build human capital by fully educating all its citizens. In addition, the reliance on agriculture grew increasingly costly as the state suffered loss of cotton crops due to the devastation of the boll weevil in the early 20th century, devastating floods in 1912 -- 1913 and 1927, collapse of cotton prices after 1920, and drought in 1930.
It was not until 1884, after the flood of 1882, that the state created the Mississippi - Yazoo Delta District Levee Board and started successfully achieving longer term plans for levees in the upper Delta. Despite the state 's building and reinforcing levees for years, the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 broke through and caused massive flooding of 27,000 square miles (70,000 km) throughout the Delta, homelessness for hundreds of thousands, and millions of dollars in property damages. With the Depression coming so soon after the flood, the state suffered badly during those years. In the Great Migration, hundreds of thousands of African Americans migrated North and West for jobs and chances to live as full citizens.
The legislature 's 1990 decision to legalize casino gambling along the Mississippi River and the Gulf Coast has led to increased revenues and economic gains for the state. Gambling towns in Mississippi have attracted increased tourism: they include the Gulf Coast resort towns of Bay St. Louis, Gulfport and Biloxi, and the Mississippi River towns of Tunica (the third largest gaming area in the United States), Greenville, Vicksburg and Natchez.
Before Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast, Mississippi was the second - largest gambling state in the Union, after Nevada and ahead of New Jersey. An estimated $500,000 per day in tax revenue was lost following Hurricane Katrina 's severe damage to several coastal casinos in Biloxi in August 2005. Because of the destruction from this hurricane, on October 17, 2005, Governor Haley Barbour signed a bill into law that allows casinos in Hancock and Harrison counties to rebuild on land (but within 800 feet (240 m) of the water). The only exception is in Harrison County, where the new law states that casinos can be built to the southern boundary of U.S. Route 90.
In 2012, Mississippi had the sixth largest gambling revenue of any state, with $2.25 billion. The federally recognized Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians has established a gaming casino on its reservation, which yields revenue to support education and economic development.
Momentum Mississippi, a statewide, public -- private partnership dedicated to the development of economic and employment opportunities in Mississippi, was adopted in 2005.
Mississippi, like the rest of its southern neighbors, is a right - to - work state. It has some major automotive factories, such as the Toyota Mississippi Plant in Blue Springs and a Nissan Automotive plant in Canton. The latter produces the Nissan Titan.
Mississippi collects personal income tax in three tax brackets, ranging from 3 % to 5 %. The retail sales tax rate in Mississippi is 7 %. Tupelo levies a local sales tax of 2.5 %. State sales tax growth was 1.4 percent in 2016 and estimated to be slightly less in 2017. For purposes of assessment for ad valorem taxes, taxable property is divided into five classes.
On August 30, 2007, a report by the United States Census Bureau indicated that Mississippi was the poorest state in the country. Major cotton farmers in the Delta have large, mechanized plantations, and they receive the majority of extensive federal subsidies going to the state, yet many other residents still live as poor, rural, landless laborers. The state 's sizable poultry industry has faced similar challenges in its transition from family - run farms to large mechanized operations. Of $1.2 billion from 2002 -- 2005 in federal subsidies to farmers in the Bolivar County area of the Delta, only 5 % went to small farmers. There has been little money apportioned for rural development. Small towns are struggling. More than 100,000 people have left the region in search of work elsewhere. The state had a median household income of $34,473.
As of March 2016, the state 's unemployment rate was 6.5 %, the third highest in the country after Alaska and West Virginia.
With Mississippi 's fiscal conservatism, in which Medicaid, welfare, food stamps, and other social programs are often cut, eligibility requirements are tightened, and stricter employment criteria are imposed, Mississippi ranks as having the second - highest ratio of spending to tax receipts of any state. In 2005, Mississippi citizens received approximately $2.02 per dollar of taxes in the way of federal spending. This ranks the state 2nd highest nationally, and represents an increase from 1995, when Mississippi received $1.54 per dollar of taxes in federal spending and was 3rd highest nationally. This figure is based on federal spending after large portions of the state were devastated by Hurricane Katrina, requiring large amounts of federal aid from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). However, from 1981 to 2005, it was at least number four in the nation for federal spending vs. taxes received.
A proportion of federal spending in Mississippi is directed toward large federal installations such as Camp Shelby, John C. Stennis Space Center, Meridian Naval Air Station, Columbus Air Force Base, and Keesler Air Force Base. Three of these installations are located in the area affected by Hurricane Katrina.
As with all other U.S. states and the federal government, Mississippi 's government is based on the separation of legislative, executive and judicial power. Executive authority in the state rests with the Governor, currently Phil Bryant (R). The Lieutenant Governor, currently Tate Reeves (R), is elected on a separate ballot. Both the governor and lieutenant governor are elected to four - year terms of office. Unlike the federal government, but like many other U.S. States, most of the heads of major executive departments are elected by the citizens of Mississippi rather than appointed by the governor.
Mississippi is one of five states that elects its state officials in odd - numbered years (the others are Kentucky, Louisiana, New Jersey and Virginia). Mississippi holds elections for these offices every four years, always in the year preceding Presidential elections.
In 2004, Mississippi voters approved a state constitutional amendment banning same - sex marriage and prohibiting Mississippi from recognizing same - sex marriages performed elsewhere. The amendment passed 86 % to 14 %, the largest margin in any state. Same - sex marriage became legal in Mississippi on June 26, 2015, when the United States Supreme Court invalidated all state - level bans on same - sex marriage as unconstitutional in the landmark case Obergefell v. Hodges.
Mississippi is one of 32 states which have capital punishment as a legal sentence (see Capital punishment in Mississippi).
Section 265 of the Constitution of the State of Mississippi declares that "No person who denies the existence of a Supreme Being shall hold any office in this state. '' This religious test restriction was held to be unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in Torcaso v. Watkins (1961).
Mississippi led the South in developing a disfranchising constitution, passing it in 1890. By raising barriers to voter registration, the state legislature disenfranchised most blacks and many poor whites, excluding them from politics until the late 1960s. It established a one - party state dominated by white Democrats.
In the mid-20th century, Mississippi white voters together with other southern white voters shifted their allegiance to the Republican Party, first for national and then for state offices, but may still vote for Democrats at the local level. Mississippi was the last state to have presidential elections in which one candidate gained a popular vote exceeding 90 % and 85 %, in 1944 and 1964, respectively. In both years, the voting reflected essentially only white voters in the state, as most African Americans were overwhelmingly still disenfranchised under the state 's 1890 constitution and discriminatory practices. In 1944, Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt won nearly 94 % of Mississippi 's popular vote. In 1964, Republican Barry M. Goldwater carried the state with 87 % of votes, reflecting the shift among conservative white voters to supporting Republican candidates. Most blacks were still disenfranchised, as they were until after passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and concerted grassroots efforts to achieve registration and encourage voting.
Mississippi has two international airports, one in Jackson (Jackson - Evers International Airport) and one in Gulfport (Gulfport - Biloxi International Airport)
Mississippi is served by nine interstate highways:
and fourteen main U.S. Routes:
as well as a system of State Highways.
For more information, visit the Mississippi Department of Transportation website.
Amtrak provides scheduled passenger service along two routes, the Crescent and City of New Orleans. Prior to severe damage from Hurricane Katrina, the Sunset Limited traversed the far south of the state; the route originated in Los Angeles, California and it terminated in Florida.
All but two of the United States Class I railroads serve Mississippi (the exceptions are the Union Pacific and Canadian Pacific):
Until the Civil War era, Mississippi had a small number of schools and no educational institutions for African Americans. The first school for black students was not established until 1862.
During Reconstruction in 1871, black and white Republicans drafted a constitution that was the first to provide for a system of free public education in the state. The state 's dependence on agriculture and resistance to taxation limited the funds it had available to spend on any schools. In the early 20th century, there were still few schools in rural areas, particularly for black children. With seed money from the Julius Rosenwald Fund, many rural black communities across Mississippi raised matching funds and contributed public funds to build new schools for their children. Essentially, many black adults taxed themselves twice and made significant sacrifices to raise money for the education of children in their communities, in many cases donating land and / or labor to build such schools.
Blacks and whites attended segregated and separate public schools in Mississippi until the late 1960s, although such segregation had been declared unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court in its 1954 ruling in Brown v. Board of Education. In the majority - black Mississippi Delta counties, white parents worked through White Citizens ' Councils to set up private segregation academies, where they enrolled their children. Often funding declined for the public schools.
But in the state as a whole, only a small minority of white children were withdrawn from public schools. State officials believed they needed to maintain public education to attract new businesses. After several years of integration, whites often dominated local systems anyway, maintaining white supremacy. Many black parents complained that they had little representation in school administration, and that many of their former administrators and teachers had been pushed out. They have had to work to have their interests and children represented.
In the late 1980s, the state had 954 public elementary and secondary schools, with a total yearly enrollment of about 369,500 elementary pupils and about 132,500 secondary students. Some 45,700 students attended private schools.
In the 21st century, 91 % of white children in the state attend public schools and most of the black children. In 2008, Mississippi was ranked last among the fifty states in academic achievement by the American Legislative Exchange Council 's Report Card on Education, with the lowest average ACT scores and sixth - lowest spending per pupil in the nation. In contrast, Mississippi had the 17th - highest average SAT scores in the nation. As an explanation, the Report noted that 92 % of Mississippi high school graduates took the ACT, but only 3 % of graduates took the SAT, apparently a self - selection of higher achievers. This breakdown compares to the national average of high school graduates taking the ACT and SAT, of 43 % and 45 %, respectively.
Although unusual in the West, school corporal punishment is common in Mississippi, with 31,236 public school students paddled at least one time. A greater percentage of students were paddled in Mississippi than in any other state, according to government data for the 2011 -- 2012 school year.
In 2007, Mississippi students scored the lowest of any state on the National Assessments of Educational Progress in both math and science.
Jackson, the state 's capital city, is the site of the state residential school for deaf and hard of hearing students. The Mississippi School for the Deaf was established by the state legislature in 1854 before the civil war.
The Mississippi School for Mathematics and Science (MSMS) is a public residential high school for academically gifted students. It is located in Columbus, Mississippi on the campus of the Mississippi University for Women. MSMS was founded in 1987 by appropriations from the Mississippi Legislature and it is the fourth public, residential high school for academically gifted students in the United States. (3) The school enrolls students only in the last two years of high school. Rising tenth - grade students from across the state apply and are selected on a competitive basis.
The Mississippi School of the Arts (MSA) is an upper high school of literary, visual, and performing arts on the historic Whitworth College Campus in Brookhaven, Mississippi, about sixty miles (97 km) south of Jackson, Mississippi. (1) MSA teaches 11th and 12th grade students. The campus has six buildings designated as Mississippi Landmarks, and is itself an historic district listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. (1)
The Mississippi School of the Arts provides advanced, residential programs of study in visual arts, vocal music, theatre, dance, and literary arts for "artistically gifted '' 11th / 12th grade students from throughout Mississippi. (3) (1) The comprehensive residential and academic curriculum prepares students for further studies or to pursue employment. Some non-arts courses (some math, science, etc.) are taught in conjunction with Brookhaven High School, 6 blocks away, to provide a wider curriculum. (1) Students apply for admission during their sophomore year. (1)
While Mississippi has been especially known for its music and literature, it has embraced other forms of art. Its strong religious traditions have inspired striking works by outsider artists who have been shown nationally.
Jackson established the USA International Ballet Competition, which is held every four years. This ballet competition attracts the most talented young dancers from around the world.
The Magnolia Independent Film Festival, still held annually in Starkville, is the first and oldest in the state.
George Ohr, known as the "Mad Potter of Biloxi '' and the father of abstract expressionism in pottery, lived and worked in Biloxi, MS.
Musicians of the state 's Delta region were historically significant to the development of the blues. Although by the end of the 19th century, two - thirds of the farm owners were black, continued low prices for cotton and national financial pressures resulted in most of them losing their land. More problems built up with the boll weevil infestation, when thousands of agricultural jobs were lost.
Jimmie Rodgers, a native of Meridian and guitarist / singer / songwriter known as the "Father of Country Music '', played a significant role in the development of the blues. He and Chester Arthur Burnett were friends and admirers of each other 's music. Their friendship and respect is an important example of Mississippi 's musical legacy. While the state has had a reputation for being the most racist in the United States, individual musicians created an integrated music community. Mississippi musicians created new forms by combining and creating variations on musical traditions from Africa with the musical traditions of white Southerners, a tradition largely rooted in Scots -- Irish music.
The state is creating a Mississippi Blues Trail, with dedicated markers explaining historic sites significant to the history of blues music, such as Clarksdale 's Riverside Hotel, where Bessie Smith died after her auto accident on Highway 61. The Riverside Hotel is just one of many historical blues sites in Clarksdale. The Delta Blues Museum there is visited by tourists from all over the world. Close by is "Ground Zero '', a contemporary blues club and restaurant co-owned by actor Morgan Freeman.
Elvis Presley, who created a sensation in the 1950s as a crossover artist and contributed to rock ' n ' roll, was a native of Tupelo. From opera star Leontyne Price to the alternative rock band 3 Doors Down, to gulf and western singer Jimmy Buffett, modern rock / jazz / world music guitarist - producer Clifton Hyde, to rappers David Banner, Big K.R.I.T. and Afroman, Mississippi musicians have been significant in all genres.
Coordinates: 33 ° N 90 ° W / 33 ° N 90 ° W / 33; - 90
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where did the black death kill the most | Black Death - wikipedia
The Black Death, also known as the Black Plague, Great Plague or simply Plague, was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 75 to 200 million people in Eurasia and peaking in Europe from 1347 to 1351. The bacterium Yersinia pestis, which results in several forms of plague, is believed to have been the cause. The plague created a series of religious, social, and economic upheavals, which had profound effects on the course of European history.
The Black Death is thought to have originated in the dry plains of Central Asia, where it then travelled along the Silk Road, reaching Crimea by 1343. From there, it was most likely carried by Oriental rat fleas living on the black rats that were regular passengers on merchant ships, spreading throughout the Mediterranean and Europe.
The Black Death is estimated to have killed 30 -- 60 % of Europe 's total population. In total, the plague may have reduced the world population from an estimated 450 million down to 350 -- 375 million in the 14th century. It took 200 years for the world population to recover to its previous level. The plague recurred as outbreaks in Europe until the 19th century.
The plague disease, caused by Yersinia pestis, is enzootic (commonly present) in populations of fleas carried by ground rodents, including marmots, in various areas including Central Asia, Kurdistan, Western Asia, Northern India and Uganda. Due to climate change in Asia, rodents began to flee the dried out grasslands to more populated areas, spreading the disease. Nestorian graves dating to 1338 -- 1339 near Lake Issyk Kul in Kyrgyzstan have inscriptions referring to plague and are thought by many epidemiologists to mark the outbreak of the epidemic, from which it could easily have spread to China and India. In October 2010, medical geneticists suggested that all three of the great waves of the plague originated in China. In China, the 13th - century Mongol conquest caused a decline in farming and trading. However, economic recovery had been observed at the beginning of the 14th century. In the 1330s, a large number of natural disasters and plagues led to widespread famine, starting in 1331, with a deadly plague arriving soon after. Epidemics that may have included plague killed an estimated 25 million Chinese and other Asians during the 15 years before it reached Constantinople in 1347.
The disease may have travelled along the Silk Road with Mongol armies and traders or it could have come via ship. By the end of 1346, reports of plague had reached the seaports of Europe: "India was depopulated, Tartary, Mesopotamia, Syria, Armenia were covered with dead bodies ''.
Plague was reportedly first introduced to Europe via Genoese traders at the port city of Kaffa in the Crimea in 1347. After a protracted siege, during which the Mongol army under Jani Beg was suffering from the disease, the army catapulted infected corpses over the city walls of Kaffa to infect the inhabitants. The Genoese traders fled, taking the plague by ship into Sicily and the south of Europe, whence it spread north. Whether or not this hypothesis is accurate, it is clear that several existing conditions such as war, famine, and weather contributed to the severity of the Black Death.
Geoffrey the Baker, Chronicon Angliae
There appear to have been several introductions into Europe. The plague reached Sicily in October 1347, carried by twelve Genoese galleys, and rapidly spread all over the island. Galleys from Kaffa reached Genoa and Venice in January 1348, but it was the outbreak in Pisa a few weeks later that was the entry point to northern Italy. Towards the end of January, one of the galleys expelled from Italy arrived in Marseille.
From Italy, the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking France, Spain, Portugal and England by June 1348, then turned and spread east through Germany and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350. It was introduced in Norway in 1349 when a ship landed at Askøy, then spread to Bjørgvin (modern Bergen) and Iceland. Finally it spread to northwestern Russia in 1351. The plague was somewhat less common in parts of Europe that had smaller trade relations with their neighbours, including the majority of the Basque Country, isolated parts of Belgium and the Netherlands, and isolated alpine villages throughout the continent.
Modern researchers do not think that the plague ever became endemic in Europe or its rat population. The disease repeatedly wiped out the rodent carriers so that the fleas died out until a new outbreak from Central Asia repeated the process. The outbreaks have been shown to occur roughly 15 years after a warmer and wetter period in areas where plague is endemic in other species such as gerbils.
The plague struck various regions in the Middle East during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures. As it spread from China with the Mongols to a Chinese trading post in Crimea, called Kaffa, used by the Republic of Genoa. From there the disease, infected rodents infecting new rodents, entered the region from southern Russia also. By autumn 1347, the plague reached Alexandria in Egypt, through the port 's trade with Constantinople, and ports on the Black Sea. During 1347, the disease travelled eastward to Gaza, and north along the eastern coast to cities in Lebanon, Syria and Palestine, including Ashkelon, Acre, Jerusalem, Sidon, Damascus, Homs, and Aleppo. In 1348 -- 1349, the disease reached Antioch. The city 's residents fled to the north, However most of them ended up dying during the journey.
Mecca became infected in 1349. During the same year, records show the city of Mawsil (Mosul) suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease.
Contemporary accounts of the plague are often varied or imprecise. The most commonly noted symptom was the appearance of buboes (or gavocciolos) in the groin, the neck and armpits, which oozed pus and bled when opened. Boccaccio 's description is graphic:
In men and women alike it first betrayed itself by the emergence of certain tumours in the groin or armpits, some of which grew as large as a common apple, others as an egg... From the two said parts of the body this deadly gavocciolo soon began to propagate and spread itself in all directions indifferently; after which the form of the malady began to change, black spots or livid making their appearance in many cases on the arm or the thigh or elsewhere, now few and large, now minute and numerous. As the gavocciolo had been and still was an infallible token of approaching death, such also were these spots on whomsoever they showed themselves.
The only medical detail that is questionable in Boccaccio 's description is that the gavocciolo was an ' infallible token of approaching death ', as, if the bubo discharges, recovery is possible.
This was followed by acute fever and vomiting of blood. Most victims died two to seven days after initial infection. Freckle - like spots and rashes, which could have been caused by flea - bites, were identified as another potential sign of the plague.
Some accounts, like that of Lodewijk Heyligen, whose master the Cardinal Colonna died of the plague in 1348, noted a distinct form of the disease that infected the lungs and led to respiratory problems and is identified with pneumonic plague.
It is said that the plague takes three forms. In the first people suffer an infection of the lungs, which leads to breathing difficulties. Whoever has this corruption or contamination to any extent can not escape but will die within two days. Another form... in which boils erupt under the armpits,... a third form in which people of both sexes are attacked in the groin.
Medical knowledge had stagnated during the Middle Ages. The most authoritative account at the time came from the medical faculty in Paris in a report to the king of France that blamed the heavens, in the form of a conjunction of three planets in 1345 that caused a "great pestilence in the air ''. This report became the first and most widely circulated of a series of plague tracts that sought to give advice to sufferers. That the plague was caused by bad air became the most widely accepted theory. Today, this is known as the miasma theory. The word plague had no special significance at this time, and only the recurrence of outbreaks during the Middle Ages gave it the name that has become the medical term.
The importance of hygiene was recognised only in the nineteenth century; until then it was common that the streets were filthy, with live animals of all sorts around and human parasites abounding. A transmissible disease will spread easily in such conditions. One development as a result of the Black Death was the establishment of the idea of quarantine in Dubrovnik in 1377 after continuing outbreaks.
The dominant explanation for the Black Death is the plague theory, which attributes the outbreak to Yersinia pestis, also responsible for an epidemic that began in southern China in 1865, eventually spreading to India. The investigation of the pathogen that caused the 19th - century plague was begun by teams of scientists who visited Hong Kong in 1894, among whom was the French - Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin, after whom the pathogen was named Yersinia pestis. The mechanism by which Y. pestis was usually transmitted was established in 1898 by Paul - Louis Simond and was found to involve the bites of fleas whose midguts had become obstructed by replicating Y. pestis several days after feeding on an infected host. This blockage results in starvation and aggressive feeding behaviour by the fleas, which repeatedly attempt to clear their blockage by regurgitation, resulting in thousands of plague bacteria being flushed into the feeding site, infecting the host. The bubonic plague mechanism was also dependent on two populations of rodents: one resistant to the disease, which act as hosts, keeping the disease endemic, and a second that lack resistance. When the second population dies, the fleas move on to other hosts, including people, thus creating a human epidemic.
The historian Francis Aidan Gasquet wrote about the Great Pestilence in 1893 and suggested that "it would appear to be some form of the ordinary Eastern or bubonic plague ''. He was able to adopt the epidemiology of the bubonic plague for the Black Death for the second edition in 1908, implicating rats and fleas in the process, and his interpretation was widely accepted for other ancient and medieval epidemics, such as the Justinian plague that was prevalent in the Eastern Roman Empire from 541 to 700 CE.
An estimate of the mortality rate for the modern bubonic plague, following the introduction of antibiotics, is 11 %, although it may be higher in underdeveloped regions. Symptoms of the disease include fever of 38 -- 41 ° C (100 -- 106 ° F), headaches, painful aching joints, nausea and vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise. Left untreated, of those that contract the bubonic plague, 80 per cent die within eight days. Pneumonic plague has a mortality rate of 90 to 95 per cent. Symptoms include fever, cough, and blood - tinged sputum. As the disease progresses, sputum becomes free - flowing and bright red. Septicemic plague is the least common of the three forms, with a mortality rate near 100 %. Symptoms are high fevers and purple skin patches (purpura due to disseminated intravascular coagulation). In cases of pneumonic and particularly septicemic plague, the progress of the disease is so rapid that there would often be no time for the development of the enlarged lymph nodes that were noted as buboes.
A number of alternative theories -- implicating other diseases in the Black Death pandemic -- have also been proposed by some modern scientists (see below -- "Alternative Explanations '').
In October 2010, the open - access scientific journal PLoS Pathogens published a paper by a multinational team who undertook a new investigation into the role of Yersinia pestis in the Black Death following the disputed identification by Drancourt and Raoult in 1998. They assessed the presence of DNA / RNA with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques for Y. pestis from the tooth sockets in human skeletons from mass graves in northern, central and southern Europe that were associated archaeologically with the Black Death and subsequent resurgences. The authors concluded that this new research, together with prior analyses from the south of France and Germany, "ends the debate about the cause of the Black Death, and unambiguously demonstrates that Y. pestis was the causative agent of the epidemic plague that devastated Europe during the Middle Ages ''.
The study also found that there were two previously unknown but related clades (genetic branches) of the Y. pestis genome associated with medieval mass graves. These clades (which are thought to be extinct) were found to be ancestral to modern isolates of the modern Y. pestis strains Y. p. orientalis and Y. p. medievalis, suggesting the plague may have entered Europe in two waves. Surveys of plague pit remains in France and England indicate the first variant entered Europe through the port of Marseille around November 1347 and spread through France over the next two years, eventually reaching England in the spring of 1349, where it spread through the country in three epidemics. Surveys of plague pit remains from the Dutch town of Bergen op Zoom showed the Y. pestis genotype responsible for the pandemic that spread through the Low Countries from 1350 differed from that found in Britain and France, implying Bergen op Zoom (and possibly other parts of the southern Netherlands) was not directly infected from England or France in 1349 and suggesting a second wave of plague, different from those in Britain and France, may have been carried to the Low Countries from Norway, the Hanseatic cities or another site.
The results of the Haensch study have since been confirmed and amended. Based on genetic evidence derived from Black Death victims in the East Smithfield burial site in England, Schuenemann et al. concluded in 2011 "that the Black Death in medieval Europe was caused by a variant of Y. pestis that may no longer exist. '' A study published in Nature in October 2011 sequenced the genome of Y. pestis from plague victims and indicated that the strain that caused the Black Death is ancestral to most modern strains of the disease.
DNA taken from 25 skeletons from the 14th century found in London have shown the plague is a strain of Y. pestis that is almost identical to that which hit Madagascar in 2013.
The plague theory was first significantly challenged by the work of British bacteriologist J.F.D. Shrewsbury in 1970, who noted that the reported rates of mortality in rural areas during the 14th - century pandemic were inconsistent with the modern bubonic plague, leading him to conclude that contemporary accounts were exaggerations. In 1984 zoologist Graham Twigg produced the first major work to challenge the bubonic plague theory directly, and his doubts about the identity of the Black Death have been taken up by a number of authors, including Samuel K. Cohn, Jr. (2002 and 2013), David Herlihy (1997), and Susan Scott and Christopher Duncan (2001).
It is recognised that an epidemiological account of the plague is as important as an identification of symptoms, but researchers are hampered by the lack of reliable statistics from this period. Most work has been done on the spread of the plague in England, and even estimates of overall population at the start vary by over 100 % as no census was undertaken between the time of publication of the Domesday Book and the year 1377. Estimates of plague victims are usually extrapolated from figures from the clergy.
In addition to arguing that the rat population was insufficient to account for a bubonic plague pandemic, sceptics of the bubonic plague theory point out that the symptoms of the Black Death are not unique (and arguably in some accounts may differ from bubonic plague); that transference via fleas in goods was likely to be of marginal significance; and that the DNA results may be flawed and might not have been repeated elsewhere, despite extensive samples from other mass graves. Other arguments include the lack of accounts of the death of rats before outbreaks of plague between the 14th and 17th centuries; temperatures that are too cold in northern Europe for the survival of fleas; that, despite primitive transport systems, the spread of the Black Death was much faster than that of modern bubonic plague; that mortality rates of the Black Death appear to be very high; that, while modern bubonic plague is largely endemic as a rural disease, the Black Death indiscriminately struck urban and rural areas; and that the pattern of the Black Death, with major outbreaks in the same areas separated by 5 to 15 years, differs from modern bubonic plague -- which often becomes endemic for decades with annual flare - ups.
McCormick has suggested that earlier archaeologists were simply not interested in the "laborious '' processes needed to discover rat remains. Walløe complains that all of these authors "take it for granted that Simond 's infection model, black rat → rat flea → human, which was developed to explain the spread of plague in India, is the only way an epidemic of Yersinia pestis infection could spread '', whilst pointing to several other possibilities. Similarly, Green has argued that greater attention is needed to the range of (especially non-commensal) animals that might be involved in the transmission of plague.
A variety of alternatives to the Y. pestis have been put forward. Twigg suggested that the cause was a form of anthrax, and Norman Cantor thought it may have been a combination of anthrax and other pandemics. Scott and Duncan have argued that the pandemic was a form of infectious disease that they characterise as hemorrhagic plague similar to Ebola. Archaeologist Barney Sloane has argued that there is insufficient evidence of the extinction of a large number of rats in the archaeological record of the medieval waterfront in London and that the plague spread too quickly to support the thesis that the Y. pestis was spread from fleas on rats; he argues that transmission must have been person to person. This theory is supported by research in 2018 which suggested transmission was more likely by body lice and human fleas during the Second Pandemic.
However, no single alternative solution has achieved widespread acceptance. Many scholars arguing for the Y. pestis as the major agent of the pandemic suggest that its extent and symptoms can be explained by a combination of bubonic plague with other diseases, including typhus, smallpox and respiratory infections. In addition to the bubonic infection, others point to additional septicemic (a type of "blood poisoning '') and pneumonic (an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body) forms of the plague, which lengthen the duration of outbreaks throughout the seasons and help account for its high mortality rate and additional recorded symptoms. In 2014, scientists with Public Health England announced the results of an examination of 25 bodies exhumed from the Clerkenwell area of London, as well as of wills registered in London during the period, which supported the pneumonic hypothesis.
There are no exact figures for the death toll; the rate varied widely by locality. In urban centres, the greater the population before the outbreak, the longer the duration of the period of abnormal mortality. It killed some 75 to 200 million people in Eurasia. According to medieval historian Philip Daileader in 2007:
The trend of recent research is pointing to a figure more like 45 -- 50 % of the European population dying during a four - year period. There is a fair amount of geographic variation. In Mediterranean Europe, areas such as Italy, the south of France and Spain, where plague ran for about four years consecutively, it was probably closer to 75 -- 80 % of the population. In Germany and England... it was probably closer to 20 %.
A death rate as high as 60 % in Europe has been suggested by Norwegian historian Ole Benedictow:
Detailed study of the mortality data available points to two conspicuous features in relation to the mortality caused by the Black Death: namely the extreme level of mortality caused by the Black Death, and the remarkable similarity or consistency of the level of mortality, from Spain in southern Europe to England in north - western Europe. The data is sufficiently widespread and numerous to make it likely that the Black Death swept away around 60 per cent of Europe 's population. It is generally assumed that the size of Europe 's population at the time was around 80 million. This implies that around 50 million people died in the Black Death.
The most widely accepted estimate for the Middle East, including Iraq, Iran and Syria, during this time, is for a death rate of about a third. The Black Death killed about 40 % of Egypt 's population. Half of Paris 's population of 100,000 people died. In Italy, the population of Florence was reduced from 110,000 -- 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 down to 50,000 in 1351. At least 60 % of the population of Hamburg and Bremen perished, and a similar percentage of Londoners may have died from the disease as well. In London approximately 62,000 people died between the years between 1346 and 1353. While contemporary reports account of mass burial pits being created in response to the large numbers of dead, recent scientific investigations of a burial pit in Central London found well - preserved individuals to be buried in isolated, evenly spaced graves, suggesting at least some pre-planning and Christian burials at this time. Before 1350, there were about 170,000 settlements in Germany, and this was reduced by nearly 40,000 by 1450. In 1348, the plague spread so rapidly that before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins, about a third of the European population had already perished. In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as 50 % of the population to die. The disease bypassed some areas, and the most isolated areas were less vulnerable to contagion. Monks and priests were especially hard - hit since they cared for victims of the Black Death.
Renewed religious fervour and fanaticism bloomed in the wake of the Black Death. Some Europeans targeted "various groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims '', lepers, and Romani, thinking that they were to blame for the crisis. Lepers, and other individuals with skin diseases such as acne or psoriasis, were singled out and exterminated throughout Europe.
Because 14th - century healers were at a loss to explain the cause, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes, and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for the plague 's emergence. The governments of Europe had no apparent response to the crisis because no one knew its cause or how it spread. The mechanism of infection and transmission of diseases was little understood in the 14th century; many people believed the epidemic was a punishment by God for their sins. This belief led to the idea that the cure to the disease was to win God 's forgiveness
There were many attacks against Jewish communities. In February 1349, the citizens of Strasbourg murdered 2,000 Jews. In August 1349, the Jewish communities in Mainz and Cologne were annihilated. By 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed. These massacres eventually died out in Western Europe, only to continue on in Eastern Europe. During this period many Jews relocated to Poland and Russia, receiving a warm welcome from King Casimir.
The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries. According to Biraben, the plague was present somewhere in Europe in every year between 1346 and 1671. The Second Pandemic was particularly widespread in the following years: 1360 -- 1363; 1374; 1400; 1438 -- 1439; 1456 -- 1457; 1464 -- 1466; 1481 -- 1485; 1500 -- 1503; 1518 -- 1531; 1544 -- 1548; 1563 -- 1566; 1573 -- 1588; 1596 -- 1599; 1602 -- 1611; 1623 -- 1640; 1644 -- 1654; and 1664 -- 1667. Subsequent outbreaks, though severe, marked the retreat from most of Europe (18th century) and northern Africa (19th century). According to Geoffrey Parker, "France alone lost almost a million people to the plague in the epidemic of 1628 -- 31. ''
In England, in the absence of census figures, historians propose a range of preincident population figures from as high as 7 million to as low as 4 million in 1300, and a postincident population figure as low as 2 million. By the end of 1350, the Black Death subsided, but it never really died out in England. Over the next few hundred years, further outbreaks occurred in 1361 -- 1362, 1369, 1379 -- 1383, 1389 -- 1393, and throughout the first half of the 15th century. An outbreak in 1471 took as much as 10 -- 15 % of the population, while the death rate of the plague of 1479 -- 1480 could have been as high as 20 %. The most general outbreaks in Tudor and Stuart England seem to have begun in 1498, 1535, 1543, 1563, 1589, 1603, 1625, and 1636, and ended with the Great Plague of London in 1665.
In 1466, perhaps 40,000 people died of the plague in Paris. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the plague was present in Paris around 30 per cent of the time. The Black Death ravaged Europe for three years before it continued on into Russia, where the disease was present somewhere in the country 25 times between 1350 and 1490. Plague epidemics ravaged London in 1563, 1593, 1603, 1625, 1636, and 1665, reducing its population by 10 to 30 % during those years. Over 10 % of Amsterdam 's population died in 1623 -- 1625, and again in 1635 -- 1636, 1655, and 1664. Plague occurred in Venice 22 times between 1361 and 1528. The plague of 1576 -- 1577 killed 50,000 in Venice, almost a third of the population. Late outbreaks in central Europe included the Italian Plague of 1629 -- 1631, which is associated with troop movements during the Thirty Years ' War, and the Great Plague of Vienna in 1679. Over 60 % of Norway 's population died in 1348 -- 1350. The last plague outbreak ravaged Oslo in 1654.
In the first half of the 17th century, a plague claimed some 1.7 million victims in Italy, or about 14 % of the population. In 1656, the plague killed about half of Naples ' 300,000 inhabitants. More than 1.25 million deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th - century Spain. The plague of 1649 probably reduced the population of Seville by half. In 1709 -- 1713, a plague epidemic that followed the Great Northern War (1700 -- 1721, Sweden v. Russia and allies) killed about 100,000 in Sweden, and 300,000 in Prussia. The plague killed two - thirds of the inhabitants of Helsinki, and claimed a third of Stockholm 's population. Europe 's last major epidemic occurred in 1720 in Marseille.
The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world. Plague was present in at least one location in the Islamic world virtually every year between 1500 and 1850. Plague repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost 30,000 -- 50,000 inhabitants to it in 1620 -- 1621, and again in 1654 -- 1657, 1665, 1691, and 1740 -- 1742. Plague remained a major event in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century. Between 1701 and 1750, thirty - seven larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in Constantinople, and an additional thirty - one between 1751 and 1800. Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague, and sometimes two - thirds of its population has been wiped out.
The third plague pandemic (1855 -- 1859) started in China in the mid-19th century, spreading to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone. Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 resulted in well over 1,000 deaths, chiefly in Sydney. This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading - edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus Yersinia pestis.
The first North American plague epidemic was the San Francisco plague of 1900 -- 1904, followed by another outbreak in 1907 -- 1908.
Modern treatment methods include insecticides, the use of antibiotics, and a plague vaccine. The plague bacterium could develop drug resistance and again become a major health threat. One case of a drug - resistant form of the bacterium was found in Madagascar in 1995. A further outbreak in Madagascar was reported in November 2014. In October 2017 the deadliest outbreak of the plague in modern times hit Madagascar, killing 170 people and infecting thousands.
The phrase "black death '' (mors nigra) was used in 1350 by Simon de Covino or Couvin, a Belgian astronomer, who wrote the poem "On the Judgment of the Sun at a Feast of Saturn '' (De judicio Solis in convivio Saturni), which attributes the plague to a conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn. In 1908, Gasquet claimed that use of the name atra mors for the 14th - century epidemic first appeared in a 1631 book on Danish history by J. I. Pontanus: "Commonly and from its effects, they called it the black death '' (Vulgo & ab effectu atram mortem vocatibant). The name spread through Scandinavia and then Germany, gradually becoming attached to the mid 14th - century epidemic as a proper name. However, atra mors is used to refer to a pestilential fever (febris pestilentialis) already in the 12th - century On the Signs and Symptoms of Diseases (Latin: De signis et sinthomatibus egritudinum) by French physician Gilles de Corbeil. In England, the phrase "Black Death '' is first used to refer to the 14th - century epidemic in 1823. Writers contemporary with the plague described the event as "great plague '' or "great pestilence ''.
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gland located at the base of the brain in the sella turcica | Pituitary gland - wikipedia
In vertebrate anatomy, the pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 grams (0.018 oz) in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain. The hypophysis rests upon the hypophysial fossa of the sphenoid bone in the center of the middle cranial fossa and is surrounded by a small bony cavity (sella turcica) covered by a dural fold (diaphragma sellae). The anterior pituitary (or adenohypophysis) is a lobe of the gland that regulates several physiological processes (including stress, growth, reproduction, and lactation). The intermediate lobe synthesizes and secretes melanocyte - stimulating hormone. The posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis) is a lobe of the gland that is functionally connected to the hypothalamus by the median eminence via a small tube called the pituitary stalk (also called the infundibular stalk or the infundibulum).
Hormones secreted from the pituitary gland help control: growth, blood pressure, management of energy, all functions of the sex organs, thyroid glands and metabolism as well as some aspects of pregnancy, childbirth, nursing, water / salt concentration at the kidneys, temperature regulation and pain relief.
The pituitary gland, in humans, is a pea - sized gland that sits in a protective bony enclosure called the sella turcica. It is composed of three lobes: anterior, intermediate, and posterior. In many animals, these three lobes are distinct. The intermediate is avascular and almost absent in human beings. The intermediate lobe is present in many lower animal species, in particular in rodents, mice and rats, that have been used extensively to study pituitary development and function. In all animals, the fleshy, glandular anterior pituitary is distinct from the neural composition of the posterior pituitary, which is an extension of the hypothalamus.
The anterior pituitary arises from an invagination of the oral ectoderm and forms Rathke 's pouch. This contrasts with the posterior pituitary, which originates from neuroectoderm.
Endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary are controlled by regulatory hormones released by parvocellular neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamic capillaries leading to infundibular blood vessels, which in turn lead to a second capillary bed in the anterior pituitary. This vascular relationship constitutes the hypothalamo - hypophyseal portal system. Diffusing out of the second capillary bed, the hypothalamic releasing hormones then bind to anterior pituitary endocrine cells, upregulating or downregulating their release of hormones.
The anterior lobe of the pituitary can be divided into the pars tuberalis (pars glandularis) and pars distalis (pars glandularis) that constitutes ~ 80 % of the gland. The pars intermedia (the intermediate lobe) lies between the pars distalis and the pars tuberalis, and is rudimentary in the human, although in other species it is more developed. It develops from a depression in the dorsal wall of the pharynx (stomal part) known as Rathke 's pouch.
The anterior pituitary contains several different types of cells that synthesize and secrete hormones. Usually there is one type of cell for each major hormone formed in anterior pituitary. With special stains attached to high - affinity antibodies that bind with distinctive hormone, at least 5 types of cells can be differentiated.
The posterior lobe develops as an extension of the hypothalamus. The Posterior pituitary hormones are synthesized by cell bodies in the hypothalamus. The magnocellular neurosecretory cells of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei located in the hypothalamus that project axons down the infundibulum to terminals in the posterior pituitary. This simple arrangement differs sharply from that of the adjacent anterior pituitary, which does not develop from the hypothalamus.
The release of pituitary hormones by both the anterior and posterior lobes is under the control of the hypothalamus, albeit in different ways.
The anterior pituitary synthesizes and secretes hormones. All releasing hormones (- RH) referred to, can also be referred to as releasing factors (- RF).
Somatotropes:
Corticotropes:
Thyrotropes:
Gonadotropes:
Lactotropes:
These hormones are released from the anterior pituitary under the influence of the hypothalamus. Hypothalamic hormones are secreted to the anterior lobe by way of a special capillary system, called the hypothalamic - hypophysial portal system.
There is also a non-endocrine cell population called folliculostellate cells.
The intermediate lobe synthesizes and secretes the following important endocrine hormone:
The posterior pituitary stores and secretes (but does not synthesize) the following important endocrine hormones:
Magnocellular neurons:
Hormones secreted from the pituitary gland help control the following body processes:
Some of the diseases involving the pituitary gland are:
All of the functions of the pituitary gland can be adversely affected by an over - or under - production of associated hormones.
The pituitary gland is important for mediating the stress response, via the hypothalamic -- pituitary -- adrenal axis (HPA axis) Critically, pituitary gland growth during adolescence can be altered by early life stress such as childhood maltreatment or maternal dysphoric behavior.
It has been demonstrated that, after controlling for age, sex, and BMI, larger quantities of DHEA and DHEA - S tended to be linked to larger pituitary volume. Additionally, a correlation between pituitary gland volume and Social Anxiety subscale scores was identified which provided a basis for exploring mediation. Again controlling for age, sex, and BMI, DHEA and DHEA - S have been found to be predictive of larger pituitary gland volume, which was also associated with increased ratings of social anxiety. This research provides evidence that pituitary gland volume mediates the link between higher DHEA (S) levels (associated with relatively early adrenarche) and traits associated with social anxiety. Children who experience early adrenarcheal development tend to have larger pituitary gland volume compared to children with later adrenarcheal development.
The Greek physician Galen referred to the pituitary gland by only using the (Ancient Greek) name ἀδήν, gland. He described the pituitary gland as part of a series of secretory organs for the excretion of nasal mucus. Anatomist Andreas Vesalius translated ἀδήν with glans, in quam pituita destillat, "gland in which slime (pituita) drips ''. Besides this ' descriptive ' name, Vesalius used glandula pituitaria, from which the English name pituitary gland is ultimately derived.
The expression glandula pituitaria is still used as official synonym beside hypophysis in the official Latin nomenclature Terminologia Anatomica. In the seventeenth century the supposed function of the pituitary gland to produce nasal mucus was debunked. The expression glandula pituitaria and its English equivalent pituitary gland can only be justified from a historical point of view. The inclusion of this synonym is merely justified by noting that the main term hypophysis is a much less popular term.
The anatomist Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring coined the name hypophysis. This name consists of ὑπό (' under ') and φύειν (' to grow '). In later Greek ὑπόφυσις is used differently by Greek physicians as outgrowth. Sömmering also used the equivalent expression appendix cerebri, with appendix as appendage. In various languages, Hirnanhang in German and hersenaanhangsel in Dutch, the terms are derived from appendix cerebri.
The pituitary gland is found in all vertebrates, but its structure varies among different groups.
The division of the pituitary described above is typical of mammals, and is also true, to varying degrees, of all tetrapods. However, only in mammals does the posterior pituitary have a compact shape. In lungfish, it is a relatively flat sheet of tissue lying above the anterior pituitary, but in amphibians, reptiles, and birds, it becomes increasingly well developed. The intermediate lobe is, in general, not well developed in any species and is entirely absent in birds.
The structure of the pituitary in fish, apart from the lungfish, is generally different from that in other animals. In general, the intermediate lobe tends to be well developed, and may equal the remainder of the anterior pituitary in size. The posterior lobe typically forms a sheet of tissue at the base of the pituitary stalk, and in most cases sends irregular finger - like projection into the tissue of the anterior pituitary, which lies directly beneath it. The anterior pituitary is typically divided into two regions, a more anterior rostral portion and a posterior proximal portion, but the boundary between the two is often not clearly marked. In elasmobranchs there is an additional, ventral lobe beneath the anterior pituitary proper.
The arrangement in lampreys, which are among the most primitive of all fish, may indicate how the pituitary originally evolved in ancestral vertebrates. Here, the posterior pituitary is a simple flat sheet of tissue at the base of the brain, and there is no pituitary stalk. Rathke 's pouch remains open to the outside, close to the nasal openings. Closely associated with the pouch are three distinct clusters of glandular tissue, corresponding to the intermediate lobe, and the rostral and proximal portions of the anterior pituitary. These various parts are separated by meningial membranes, suggesting that the pituitary of other vertebrates may have formed from the fusion of a pair of separate, but associated, glands.
Most armadillos also possess a neural secretory gland very similar in form to the posterior pituitary, but located in the tail and associated with the spinal cord. This may have a function in osmoregulation.
There is a structure analogous to the pituitary in the octopus brain.
Although rudimentary in humans (and often considered part of the anterior pituitary), the intermediate lobe located between the anterior and posterior pituitary is important to many animals. For instance, in fish, it is believed to control physiological color change. In adult humans, it is just a thin layer of cells between the anterior and posterior pituitary. The intermediate lobe produces melanocyte - stimulating hormone (MSH), although this function is often (imprecisely) attributed to the anterior pituitary.
The intermediate lobe is, in general, not well developed in tetrapods, and is entirely absent in birds.
Location of the pituitary gland in the human brain
Pituitary and pineal glands
The arteries of the base of the brain.
Mesal aspect of a brain sectioned in the median sagittal plane.
Pituitary
Pituitary gland
Cerebrum. Inferior view. Deep dissection.
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when did the tower of london stop being used as a prison | Tower of London - wikipedia
The Tower of London, officially Her Majesty 's Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic castle located on the north bank of the River Thames in central London. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the eastern edge of the square mile of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest of England. The White Tower, which gives the entire castle its name, was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 and was a resented symbol of oppression, inflicted upon London by the new ruling elite. The castle was used as a prison from 1100 (Ranulf Flambard) until 1952 (Kray twins), although that was not its primary purpose. A grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As a whole, the Tower is a complex of several buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat. There were several phases of expansion, mainly under Kings Richard the Lionheart, Henry III, and Edward I in the 12th and 13th centuries. The general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site.
The Tower of London has played a prominent role in English history. It was besieged several times, and controlling it has been important to controlling the country. The Tower has served variously as an armoury, a treasury, a menagerie, the home of the Royal Mint, a public record office, and the home of the Crown Jewels of England. From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II, a procession would be led from the Tower to Westminster Abbey on the coronation of a monarch. In the absence of the monarch, the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle. This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period. In the late 15th century, the castle was the prison of the Princes in the Tower. Under the Tudors, the Tower became used less as a royal residence, and despite attempts to refortify and repair the castle, its defences lagged behind developments to deal with artillery.
The peak period of the castle 's use as a prison was the 16th and 17th centuries, when many figures who had fallen into disgrace, such as Elizabeth I before she became queen, Sir Walter Raleigh, and Elizabeth Throckmorton, were held within its walls. This use has led to the phrase "sent to the Tower ''. Despite its enduring reputation as a place of torture and death, popularised by 16th - century religious propagandists and 19th - century writers, only seven people were executed within the Tower before the World Wars of the 20th century. Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle, with 112 occurring there over a 400 - year period. In the latter half of the 19th century, institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations, leaving many buildings empty. Anthony Salvin and John Taylor took the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance, clearing out many of the vacant post-medieval structures. In the First and Second World Wars, the Tower was again used as a prison and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage. After the Second World War, damage caused during the Blitz was repaired, and the castle reopened to the public. Today, the Tower of London is one of the country 's most popular tourist attractions. Under the ceremonial charge of the Constable of the Tower, it is cared for by the charity Historic Royal Palaces and is protected as a World Heritage Site.
The Tower was orientated with its strongest and most impressive defences overlooking Saxon London, which archaeologist Alan Vince suggests was deliberate. It would have visually dominated the surrounding area and stood out to traffic on the River Thames. The castle is made up of three "wards '', or enclosures. The innermost ward contains the White Tower and is the earliest phase of the castle. Encircling it to the north, east, and west is the inner ward, built during the reign of Richard the Lionheart (1189 -- 1199). Finally, there is the outer ward which encompasses the castle and was built under Edward I. Although there were several phases of expansion after William the Conqueror founded the Tower of London, the general layout has remained the same since Edward I completed his rebuild in 1285. The castle encloses an area of almost 12 acres (4.9 hectares) with a further 6 acres (2.4 ha) around the Tower of London constituting the Tower Liberties -- land under the direct influence of the castle and cleared for military reasons. The precursor of the Liberties was laid out in the 13th century when Henry III ordered that a strip of land adjacent to the castle be kept clear. Despite popular fiction, the Tower of London never had a permanent torture chamber, although the basement of the White Tower housed a rack in later periods. Tower Wharf was built on the bank of the Thames under Edward I and was expanded to its current size during the reign of Richard II (1377 -- 1399).
The White Tower is a keep (also known as a donjon), which was often the strongest structure in a medieval castle, and contained lodgings suitable for the lord -- in this case the king or his representative. According to military historian Allen Brown, "The great tower (White Tower) was also, by virtue of its strength, majesty and lordly accommodation, the donjon par excellence ''. As one of the largest keeps in the Christian world, the White Tower has been described as "the most complete eleventh - century palace in Europe ''.
The White Tower, not including its projecting corner towers, measures 36 by 32 metres (118 by 105 ft) at the base, and is 27 m (90 ft) high at the southern battlements. The structure was originally three storeys high, comprising a basement floor, an entrance level, and an upper floor. The entrance, as is usual in Norman keeps, was above ground, in this case on the south face, and accessed via a wooden staircase which could be removed in the event of an attack. It was probably during Henry II 's reign (1154 -- 1189) that a forebuilding was added to the south side of the tower to provide extra defences to the entrance, but it has not survived. Each floor was divided into three chambers, the largest in the west, a smaller room in the north - east, and the chapel taking up the entrance and upper floors of the south - east. At the western corners of the building are square towers, while to the north - east a round tower houses a spiral staircase. At the south - east corner there is a larger semi-circular projection which accommodates the apse of the chapel. As the building was intended to be a comfortable residence as well as a stronghold, latrines were built into the walls, and four fireplaces provided warmth.
The main building material is Kentish rag - stone, although some local mudstone was also used. Caen stone was imported from northern France to provide details in the Tower 's facing, although little of the original material survives as it was replaced with Portland stone in the 17th and 18th centuries. As most of the Tower 's windows were enlarged in the 18th century, only two original -- albeit restored -- examples remain, in the south wall at the gallery level.
The tower was terraced into the side of a mound, so the northern side of the basement is partially below ground level. As was typical of most keeps, the bottom floor was an undercroft used for storage. One of the rooms contained a well. Although the layout has remained the same since the tower 's construction, the interior of the basement dates mostly from the 18th century when the floor was lowered and the pre-existing timber vaults were replaced with brick counterparts. The basement is lit through small slits.
The entrance floor was probably intended for the use of the Constable of the Tower, Lieutenant of the Tower of London and other important officials. The south entrance was blocked during the 17th century, and not reopened until 1973. Those heading to the upper floor had to pass through a smaller chamber to the east, also connected to the entrance floor. The crypt of St John 's Chapel occupied the south - east corner and was accessible only from the eastern chamber. There is a recess in the north wall of the crypt; according to Geoffrey Parnell, Keeper of the Tower History at the Royal Armouries, "the windowless form and restricted access, suggest that it was designed as a strong - room for safekeeping of royal treasures and important documents ''.
The upper floor contained a grand hall in the west and residential chamber in the east -- both originally open to the roof and surrounded by a gallery built into the wall -- and St John 's Chapel in the south - east. The top floor was added in the 15th century, along with the present roof. St John 's Chapel was not part of the White Tower 's original design, as the apsidal projection was built after the basement walls. Due to changes in function and design since the tower 's construction, except for the chapel little is left of the original interior. The chapel 's current bare and unadorned appearance is reminiscent of how it would have been in the Norman period. In the 13th century, during Henry III 's reign, the chapel was decorated with such ornamentation as a gold - painted cross, and stained glass windows that depicted the Virgin Mary and the Holy Trinity.
The innermost ward encloses an area immediately south of the White Tower, stretching to what was once the edge of the River Thames. As was the case at other castles, such as the 11th - century Hen Domen, the innermost ward was probably filled with timber buildings from the Tower 's foundation. Exactly when the royal lodgings began to encroach from the White Tower into the innermost ward is uncertain, although it had happened by the 1170s. The lodgings were renovated and elaborated during the 1220s and 1230s, becoming comparable with other palatial residences such as Windsor Castle. Construction of Wakefield and Lanthorn Towers -- located at the corners of the innermost ward 's wall along the river -- began around 1220. They probably served as private residences for the queen and king respectively. The earliest evidence for how the royal chambers were decorated comes from Henry III 's reign: the queen 's chamber was whitewashed, and painted with flowers and imitation stonework. A great hall existed in the south of the ward, between the two towers. It was similar to, although slightly smaller than, that also built by Henry III at Winchester Castle. Near Wakefield Tower was a postern gate which allowed private access to the king 's apartments. The innermost ward was originally surrounded by a protective ditch, which had been filled in by the 1220s. Around this time, a kitchen was built in the ward. Between 1666 and 1676, the innermost ward was transformed and the palace buildings removed. The area around the White Tower was cleared so that anyone approaching would have to cross open ground. The Jewel House was demolished, and the Crown Jewels moved to Martin Tower.
The inner ward was created during Richard the Lionheart 's reign, when a moat was dug to the west of the innermost ward, effectively doubling the castle 's size. Henry III created the ward 's east and north walls, and the ward 's dimensions remain to this day. Most of Henry 's work survives, and only two of the nine towers he constructed have been completely rebuilt. Between the Wakefield and Lanthorn Towers, the innermost ward 's wall also serves as a curtain wall for the inner ward. The main entrance to the inner ward would have been through a gatehouse, most likely in the west wall on the site of what is now Beauchamp Tower. The inner ward 's western curtain wall was rebuilt by Edward I. The 13th - century Beauchamp Tower marks the first large - scale use of brick as a building material in Britain, since the 5th - century departure of the Romans. The Beauchamp Tower is one of 13 towers that stud the curtain wall. Anti-clockwise from the south - west corner they are: Bell, Beauchamp, Devereux, Flint, Bowyer, Brick, Martin, Constable, Broad Arrow, Salt, Lanthorn, Wakefield, and the Bloody Tower. While these towers provided positions from which flanking fire could be deployed against a potential enemy, they also contained accommodation. As its name suggests, Bell Tower housed a belfry, its purpose to raise the alarm in the event of an attack. The royal bow - maker, responsible for making longbows, crossbows, catapults, and other siege and hand weapons, had a workshop in the Bowyer Tower. A turret at the top of Lanthorn Tower was used as a beacon by traffic approaching the Tower at night.
As a result of Henry 's expansion, St Peter ad Vincula, a Norman chapel which had previously stood outside the Tower, was incorporated into the castle. Henry decorated the chapel by adding glazed windows, and stalls for himself and his queen. It was rebuilt by Edward I at a cost of over £ 300 and again by Henry VIII in 1519; the current building dates from this period, although the chapel was refurbished in the 19th century. Immediately west of Wakefield Tower, the Bloody Tower was built at the same time as the inner ward 's curtain wall, and as a water-gate provided access to the castle from the River Thames. It was a simple structure, protected by a portcullis and gate. The Bloody Tower acquired its name in the 16th century, as it was believed to be the site of the murder of the Princes in the Tower. Between 1339 and 1341, a gatehouse was built into the curtain wall between Bell and Salt Towers. During the Tudor period, a range of buildings for the storage of munitions was built along the inside of the north inner ward. The castle buildings were remodelled during the Stuart period, mostly under the auspices of the Office of Ordnance. In 1663 just over £ 4,000 was spent building a new storehouse (now known as the New Armouries) in the inner ward. Construction of the Grand Storehouse north of the White Tower began in 1688, on the same site as the dilapidated Tudor range of storehouses; it was destroyed by fire in 1841. The Waterloo Block, a former barracks in the castellated Gothic Revival style with Domestic Tudor details, was built on the site and remains to this day, housing the Crown Jewels on the ground floor.
A third ward was created during Edward I 's extension to the Tower, as the narrow enclosure completely surrounded the castle. At the same time a bastion known as Legge 's Mount was built at the castle 's north - west corner. Brass Mount, the bastion in the north - east corner, was a later addition. The three rectangular towers along the east wall 15 metres (49 ft) apart were dismantled in 1843. Although the bastions have often been ascribed to the Tudor period, there is no evidence to support this; archaeological investigations suggest that Legge 's Mount dates from the reign of Edward I. Blocked battlements (also known as crenellations) in the south side of Legge 's Mount are the only surviving medieval battlements at the Tower of London (the rest are Victorian replacements). A new 50 - metre (160 ft) moat was dug beyond the castle 's new limits; it was originally 4.5 metres (15 ft) deeper in the middle than it is today. With the addition of a new curtain wall, the old main entrance to the Tower of London was obscured and made redundant; a new entrance was created in the south - west corner of the external wall circuit. The complex consisted of an inner and an outer gatehouse and a barbican, which became known as the Lion Tower as it was associated with the animals as part of the Royal Menagerie since at least the 1330s. The Lion Tower itself no longer survives. Edward extended the south side of the Tower of London onto land that had previously been submerged by the River Thames. In this wall, he built St Thomas 's Tower between 1275 and 1279; later known as Traitors ' Gate, it replaced the Bloody Tower as the castle 's water-gate. The building is unique in England, and the closest parallel is the now demolished water-gate at the Louvre in Paris. The dock was covered with arrowslits in case of an attack on the castle from the River; there was also a portcullis at the entrance to control who entered. There were luxurious lodgings on the first floor. Edward also moved the Royal Mint into the Tower; its exact location early on is unknown, although it was probably in either the outer ward or the Lion Tower. By 1560, the Mint was located in a building in the outer ward near Salt Tower. Between 1348 and 1355, a second water-gate, Cradle Tower, was added east of St Thomas 's Tower for the king 's private use.
Victorious at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066, the invading Duke of Normandy, William the Conqueror, spent the rest of the year securing his holdings, by fortifying key positions. He founded several castles along the way, but took a circuitous route toward London; only when he reached Canterbury did he turn towards England 's largest city. As the fortified bridge into London was held by Saxon troops, he decided instead to ravage Southwark before continuing his journey around southern England. A series of Norman victories along the route cut the city 's supply lines and in December 1066, isolated and intimidated, its leaders yielded London without a fight. Between 1066 and 1087, William established 36 castles, although references in the Domesday Book indicate that many more were founded by his subordinates. The new ruling elite undertook what has been described as "the most extensive and concentrated programme of castle - building in the whole history of feudal Europe ''. They were multi-purpose buildings, serving as fortifications (used as a base of operations in enemy territory), centres of administration, and residences.
William sent an advance party to prepare the city for his entrance, to celebrate his victory and found a castle; in the words of William 's biographer, William of Poitiers, "certain fortifications were completed in the city against the restlessness of the huge and brutal populace. For he (William) realised that it was of the first importance to overawe the Londoners ''. At the time, London was the largest town in England; the foundation of Westminster Abbey and the old Palace of Westminster under Edward the Confessor had marked it as a centre of governance, and with a prosperous port it was important for the Normans to establish control over the settlement. The other two castles in London -- Baynard 's Castle and Montfichet 's Castle -- were established at the same time. The fortification that would later become known as the Tower of London was built onto the south - east corner of the Roman town walls, using them as prefabricated defences, with the River Thames providing additional protection from the south. This earliest phase of the castle would have been enclosed by a ditch and defended by a timber palisade, and probably had accommodation suitable for William.
Most of the early Norman castles were built from timber, but by the end of the 11th century a few, including the Tower of London, had been renovated or replaced with stone. Work on the White Tower -- which gives the whole castle its name -- is usually considered to have begun in 1078, however the exact date is uncertain. William made Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester, responsible for its construction, although it may not have been completed until after William 's death in 1087. The White Tower is the earliest stone keep in England, and was the strongest point of the early castle. It also contained grand accommodation for the king. At the latest, it was probably finished by 1100 when Bishop Ranulf Flambard was imprisoned there. Flambard was loathed by the English for exacting harsh taxes. Although he is the first recorded prisoner held in the Tower, he was also the first person to escape from it, using a smuggled rope secreted in a butt of wine. He was held in luxury and permitted servants, but on 2 February 1101 he hosted a banquet for his captors. After plying them with drink, when no one was looking he lowered himself from a secluded chamber, and out of the Tower. The escape came as such a surprise that one contemporary chronicler accused the bishop of witchcraft.
The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle records that in 1097 King William II ordered a wall to be built around the Tower of London; it was probably built from stone as a replacement for the timber palisade that arced around the north and west sides of the castle, between the Roman wall and the Thames. The Norman Conquest of London manifested itself not only with a new ruling class, but in the way the city was structured. Land was confiscated and redistributed amongst the Normans, who also brought over hundreds of Jews, for financial reasons. The Jews arrived under the direct protection of the Crown, as a result of which Jewish communities were often found close to castles. The Jews used the Tower as a retreat, when threatened by anti-Jewish violence.
The death in 1135 of Henry I left England with a disputed succession; although the king had persuaded his most powerful barons to swear support for the Empress Matilda, just a few days after Henry 's death Stephen of Blois arrived from France to lay claim to the throne. The importance of the city and its Tower is marked by the speed at which he secured London. The castle, which had not been used as a royal residence for some time, was usually left in the charge of a Constable, a post held at this time by Geoffrey de Mandeville. As the Tower was considered an impregnable fortress in a strategically important position, possession was highly valued. Mandeville exploited this, selling his allegiance to Matilda after Stephen was captured in 1141 at the Battle of Lincoln. Once her support waned, the following year he resold his loyalty to Stephen. Through his role as Constable of the Tower, Mandeville became "the richest and most powerful man in England ''. When he tried the same ploy again, this time holding secret talks with Matilda, Stephen had him arrested, forced him to cede control of his castles, and replaced him with one of his most loyal supporters. Until then the position had been hereditary, originally held by Geoffrey de Mandeville (a friend of William the Conqueror 's and ancestor of the Geoffrey that Stephen and Matilda dealt with), but the position 's authority was such that from then on it remained in the hands of an appointee of the monarch. The position was usually given to someone of great importance, who might not always be at the castle due to other duties. Although the Constable was still responsible for maintaining the castle and its garrison, from an early stage he had a subordinate to help with this duty: the Lieutenant of the Tower. Constables also had civic duties relating to the city. Usually they were given control of the city and were responsible for levying taxes, enforcing the law and maintaining order. The creation in 1191 of the position of Lord Mayor of London removed many of the Constable 's civic powers, and at times led to friction between the two.
The castle probably retained its form as established by 1100 until the reign of Richard the Lionheart (1189 -- 1199). The castle was extended under William Longchamp, King Richard 's Lord Chancellor and the man in charge of England while he was on crusade. The Pipe Rolls record £ 2,881 1s 10d spent at the Tower of London between 3 December 1189 and 11 November 1190, from an estimated £ 7,000 spent by Richard on castle building in England. According to the contemporary chronicler Roger of Howden, Longchamp dug a moat around the castle and tried in vain to fill it from the Thames. Longchamp was also Constable of the Tower, and undertook its expansion while preparing for war with King Richard 's younger brother, Prince John, who in Richard 's absence arrived in England to try to seize power. As Longchamp 's main fortress, he made the Tower as strong as possible. The new fortifications were first tested in October 1191, when the Tower was besieged for the first time in its history. Longchamp capitulated to John after just three days, deciding he had more to gain from surrender than prolonging the siege.
John succeeded Richard as king in 1199, but his rule proved unpopular with many of his barons, who in response moved against him. In 1214, while the king was at Windsor Castle, Robert Fitzwalter led an army into London and laid siege to the Tower. Although under - garrisoned, the Tower resisted and the siege was lifted once John signed the Magna Carta. The king reneged on his promises of reform, leading to the outbreak of the First Barons ' War. Even after the Magna Carta was signed, Fitzwalter maintained his control of London. During the war, the Tower 's garrison joined forces with the barons. John was deposed in 1216 and the barons offered the English throne to Prince Louis, the eldest son of the French king. However, after John 's death in October 1216, many began to support the claim of his eldest son, Prince Henry. War continued between the factions supporting Louis and Henry, with Fitzwalter supporting Louis. Fitzwalter was still in control of London and the Tower, both of which held out until it was clear that Henry 's supporters would prevail.
In the 13th century, Kings Henry III (1216 -- 1272) and Edward I (1272 -- 1307) extended the castle, essentially creating it as it stands today. Henry was disconnected from his barons, and a mutual lack of understanding led to unrest and resentment towards his rule. As a result, he was eager to ensure the Tower of London was a formidable fortification; at the same time Henry was an aesthete and wished to make the castle a comfortable place to live. From 1216 to 1227 nearly £ 10,000 was spent on the Tower of London; in this period, only the work at Windsor Castle cost more (£ 15,000). Most of the work was focused on the palatial buildings of the innermost ward. The tradition of whitewashing the White Tower (from which it derives its name) began in 1240.
Beginning around 1238, the castle was expanded to the east, north, and north - west. The work lasted through the reign of Henry III and into that of Edward I, interrupted occasionally by civil unrest. New creations included a new defensive perimeter, studded with towers, while on the west, north, and east sides, where the wall was not defended by the river, a defensive ditch was dug. The eastern extension took the castle beyond the bounds of the old Roman settlement, marked by the city wall which had been incorporated into the castle 's defences. The Tower had long been a symbol of oppression, despised by Londoners, and Henry 's building programme was unpopular. So when the gatehouse collapsed in 1240, the locals celebrated the setback. The expansion caused disruption locally and £ 166 was paid to St Katherine 's Hospital and the prior of Holy Trinity in compensation.
Henry III often held court at the Tower of London, and held parliament there on at least two occasions (1236 and 1261) when he felt that the barons were becoming dangerously unruly. In 1258, the discontented barons, led by Simon de Montfort, forced the King to agree to reforms including the holding of regular parliaments. Relinquishing the Tower of London was among the conditions. Henry III resented losing power and sought permission from the pope to break his oath. With the backing of mercenaries, Henry installed himself in the Tower in 1261. While negotiations continued with the barons, the King ensconced himself in the castle, although no army moved to take it. A truce was agreed with the condition that the King hand over control of the Tower once again. Henry won a significant victory at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, allowing him to regain control of the country and the Tower of London. Cardinal Ottobuon came to England to excommunicate those who were still rebellious; the act was deeply unpopular and the situation was exacerbated when the cardinal was granted custody of the Tower. Gilbert de Clare, 6th Earl of Hertford, marched on London in April 1267 and laid siege to the castle, declaring that custody of the Tower was "not a post to be trusted in the hands of a foreigner, much less of an ecclesiastic ''. Despite a large army and siege engines, Gilbert de Clare was unable to take the castle. The Earl retreated, allowing the King control of the capital, and the Tower experienced peace for the rest of Henry 's reign.
Although he was rarely in London, Edward I undertook an expensive remodelling of the Tower, costing £ 21,000 between 1275 and 1285, over double that spent on the castle during the whole of Henry III 's reign. Edward I was a seasoned castle builder, and used his experience of siege warfare during the crusades to bring innovations to castle building. His programme of castle building in Wales heralded the introduction of the widespread use of arrowslits in castle walls across Europe, drawing on Eastern influences. At the Tower of London, Edward filled in the moat dug by Henry III and built a new curtain wall along its line, creating a new enclosure. A new moat was created in front of the new curtain wall. The western part of Henry III 's curtain wall was rebuilt, with Beauchamp Tower replacing the castle 's old gatehouse. A new entrance was created, with elaborate defences including two gatehouses and a barbican. In an effort to make the castle self - sufficient, Edward I also added two watermills. Six hundred Jews were imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1278, charged with coin clipping. Persecution of the country 's Jewish population under Edward began in 1276 and culminated in 1290 when he issued the Edict of Expulsion, forcing the Jews out of the country.
During Edward II 's reign (1307 -- 1327) there was relatively little activity at the Tower of London. However, it was during this period that the Privy Wardrobe was founded. The institution was based at the Tower and responsible for organising the state 's arms. In 1321, Margaret de Clare, Baroness Badlesmere became the first woman imprisoned in the Tower of London after she refused Queen Isabella admittance to Leeds Castle and ordered her archers to fire upon Isabella, killing six of the royal escort. Generally reserved for high - ranking inmates, the Tower was the most important royal prison in the country. However it was not necessarily very secure, and throughout its history people bribed the guards to help them escape. In 1322 Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March, was aided in his escape from the Tower by the Sub-Lieutenant of the Tower who let Mortimer 's men inside. They hacked a hole in his cell wall and Mortimer escaped to a waiting boat. He fled to France where he encountered Edward 's Queen. They began an affair and plotted to overthrow the King. One of Mortimer 's first acts on entering England was to capture the Tower and release the prisoners held there. For three years he ruled while Edward III was too young to do so himself; in 1330, Edward and his supporters captured Mortimer and threw him in the Tower. Under Edward III 's rule (1312 -- 1377) England experienced renewed success in warfare after his father 's reign had put the realm on the backfoot against the Scots and French. Amongst Edward 's successes were the battles of Crécy and Poitiers where King John II of France was taken prisoner, and the capture of the King David II of Scotland at Neville 's Cross. During this period, the Tower of London held many noble prisoners of war. Edward II had allowed the Tower of London to fall into a state of disrepair, and by the reign of Edward III the castle was an uncomfortable place. The nobility held captive within its walls were unable to engage in activities such as hunting which were permissible at other royal castles used as prisons, for instance Windsor. Edward III ordered that the castle should be renovated.
When Richard II was crowned in 1377, he led a procession from the Tower to Westminster Abbey. This tradition began in at least the early 14th century and lasted until 1660. During the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 the Tower of London was besieged with the King inside. When Richard rode out to meet with Wat Tyler, the rebel leader, a crowd broke into the castle without meeting resistance and looted the Jewel House. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Simon Sudbury, took refuge in St John 's Chapel, hoping the mob would respect the sanctuary. However, he was taken away and beheaded on Tower Hill. Six years later there was again civil unrest, and Richard spent Christmas in the security of the Tower rather than Windsor as was more usual. When Henry Bolingbroke returned from exile in 1399, Richard was imprisoned in the White Tower. He abdicated and was replaced on the throne by Bolingbroke, who became King Henry IV. In the 15th century, there was little building work at the Tower of London, yet the castle still remained important as a place of refuge. When supporters of the late Richard II attempted a coup, Henry IV found safety in the Tower of London. During this period, the castle also held many distinguished prisoners. The heir to the Scottish throne, later King James I of Scotland, was kidnapped while journeying to France in 1406 and held in the Tower. The reign of Henry V (1413 -- 1422) renewed England 's fortune in the Hundred Years ' War against France. As a result of Henry 's victories, such as the Battle of Agincourt, many high - status prisoners were held in the Tower of London until they were ransomed.
Much of the latter half of the 15th century was occupied by the Wars of the Roses between the claimants to the throne, the houses of Lancaster and York. The castle was once again besieged in 1460, this time by a Yorkist force. The Tower was damaged by artillery fire but only surrendered when Henry VI was captured at the Battle of Northampton. With the help of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick (nicknamed "the Kingmaker '') Henry recaptured the throne for a short time in 1470. However, Edward IV soon regained control and Henry VI was imprisoned in the Tower of London, where he was probably murdered. During the wars, the Tower was fortified to withstand gunfire, and provided with loopholes for cannons and handguns: an enclosure was created for this purpose to the south of Tower Hill, although it no longer survives.
Shortly after the death of Edward IV in 1483, the notorious murder of the Princes in the Tower is traditionally believed to have taken place. The incident is one of the most infamous events associated with the Tower of London. Edward V 's uncle Richard Duke of Gloucester was declared Lord Protector while the prince was too young to rule. Traditional accounts have held that the 12 - year - old Edward was confined to the Tower of London along with his younger brother Richard. The Duke of Gloucester was proclaimed King Richard III in July. The princes were last seen in public in June 1483; it has traditionally been thought that the most likely reason for their disappearance is that they were murdered late in the summer of 1483. Bones thought to belong to them were discovered in 1674 when the 12th - century forebuilding at the entrance to the White Tower was demolished; however, the reputed level at which the bones were found (10 ft or 3 m) would put the bones at a depth similar to that of the recently discovered Roman graveyard found 12 ft (4 m) underneath the Minories a few hundred yards to the north. Opposition to Richard escalated until he was defeated at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 by the Lancastrian Henry Tudor, who ascended to the throne as Henry VII.
The beginning of the Tudor period marked the start of the decline of the Tower of London 's use as a royal residence. As 16th - century chronicler Raphael Holinshed said the Tower became used more as "an armouries and house of munition, and thereunto a place for the safekeeping of offenders than a palace roiall for a king or queen to sojourne in ''. The Yeoman Warders have been the Royal Bodyguard since at least 1509. During the reign of Henry VIII, the Tower was assessed as needing considerable work on its defences. In 1532, Thomas Cromwell spent £ 3,593 on repairs and imported nearly 3,000 tons of Caen stone for the work. Even so, this was not sufficient to bring the castle up to the standard of contemporary military fortifications which were designed to withstand powerful artillery. Although the defences were repaired, the palace buildings were left in a state of neglect after Henry 's death. Their condition was so poor that they were virtually uninhabitable. From 1547 onwards, the Tower of London was only used as a royal residence when its political and historic symbolism was considered useful, for instance each of Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I briefly stayed at the Tower before their coronations.
In the 16th century, the Tower acquired an enduring reputation as a grim, forbidding prison. This had not always been the case. As a royal castle, it was used by the monarch to imprison people for various reasons, however these were usually high - status individuals for short periods rather than common citizenry as there were plenty of prisons elsewhere for such people. Contrary to the popular image of the Tower, prisoners were able to make their life easier by purchasing amenities such as better food or tapestries through the Lieutenant of the Tower. As holding prisoners was originally an incidental role of the Tower -- as would have been the case for any castle -- there was no purpose - built accommodation for prisoners until 1687 when a brick shed, a "Prison for Soldiers '', was built to the north - west of the White Tower. The Tower 's reputation for torture and imprisonment derives largely from 16th - century religious propagandists and 19th - century romanticists. Although much of the Tower 's reputation is exaggerated, the 16th and 17th centuries marked the castle 's zenith as a prison, with many religious and political undesirables locked away. The Privy Council had to sanction the use of torture, so it was not often used; between 1540 and 1640, the peak of imprisonment at the Tower, there were 48 recorded cases of the use of torture. The three most common forms used were the infamous rack, the Scavenger 's daughter, and manacles. The rack was introduced to England in 1447 by the Duke of Exeter, the Constable of the Tower; consequentially it was also known as the Duke of Exeter 's daughter. One of those tortured at the Tower was Guy Fawkes, who was brought there on 6 November 1605; after torture he signed a full confession to the Gunpowder Plot.
Among those held and executed at the Tower was Anne Boleyn. Although the Yeoman Warders were once the Royal Bodyguard, by the 16th and 17th centuries their main duty had become to look after the prisoners. The Tower was often a safer place than other prisons in London such as the Fleet, where disease was rife. High - status prisoners could live in conditions comparable to those they might expect outside; one such example was that while Walter Raleigh was held in the Tower his rooms were altered to accommodate his family, including his son who was born there in 1605. Executions were usually carried out on Tower Hill rather than in the Tower of London itself, and 112 people were executed on the hill over 400 years. Before the 20th century, there had been seven executions within the castle on Tower Green; as was the case with Lady Jane Grey, this was reserved for prisoners for whom public execution was considered dangerous. After Lady Jane Grey 's execution on 12 February 1554, Queen Mary I imprisoned her sister Elizabeth, later Queen Elizabeth I, in the Tower under suspicion of causing rebellion as Sir Thomas Wyatt had led a revolt against Mary in Elizabeth 's name.
The Office of Ordnance and Armoury Office were founded in the 15th century, taking over the Privy Wardrobe 's duties of looking after the monarch 's arsenal and valuables. As there was no standing army before 1661, the importance of the royal armoury at the Tower of London was that it provided a professional basis for procuring supplies and equipment in times of war. The two bodies were resident at the Tower from at least 1454, and by the 16th century they had moved to a position in the inner ward. The Board of Ordnance (successor to these Offices) had its headquarters in the White Tower and used surrounding buildings for storage. In 1855 the Board was abolished; its successor (the Military Store Department of the War Office) was also based there until 1869, after which its headquarters staff were relocated to the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich (where the recently closed Woolwich Dockyard was converted into a vast ordnance store).
Political tensions between Charles I and Parliament in the second quarter of the 17th century led to an attempt by forces loyal to the King to secure the Tower and its valuable contents, including money and munitions. London 's Trained Bands, a militia force, were moved into the castle in 1640. Plans for defence were drawn up and gun platforms were built, readying the Tower for war. The preparations were never put to the test. In 1642, Charles I attempted to arrest five members of parliament. When this failed he fled the city, and Parliament retaliated by removing Sir John Byron, the Lieutenant of the Tower. The Trained Bands had switched sides, and now supported Parliament; together with the London citizenry, they blockaded the Tower. With permission from the King, Byron relinquished control of the Tower. Parliament replaced Byron with a man of their own choosing, Sir John Conyers. By the time the English Civil War broke out in November 1642, the Tower of London was already in Parliament 's control.
The last monarch to uphold the tradition of taking a procession from the Tower to Westminster to be crowned was Charles II in 1660. At the time, the castle 's accommodation was in such poor condition that he did not stay there the night before his coronation. Under the Stuart kings the Tower 's buildings were remodelled, mostly under the auspices of the Office of Ordnance. Just over £ 4,000 was spent in 1663 on building a new storehouse, now known as the New Armouries in the inner ward. In the 17th century there were plans to enhance the Tower 's defences in the style of the trace italienne, however they were never acted on. Although the facilities for the garrison were improved with the addition of the first purpose - built quarters for soldiers (the "Irish Barracks '') in 1670, the general accommodations were still in poor condition.
When the Hanoverian dynasty ascended the throne, their situation was uncertain and with a possible Scottish rebellion in mind, the Tower of London was repaired. Gun platforms added under the Stuarts had decayed. The number of guns at the Tower was reduced from 118 to 45, and one contemporary commentator noted that the castle "would not hold out four and twenty hours against an army prepared for a siege ''. For the most part, the 18th - century work on the defences was spasmodic and piecemeal, although a new gateway in the southern curtain wall permitting access from the wharf to the outer ward was added in 1774. The moat surrounding the castle had become silted over the centuries since it was created despite attempts at clearing it. It was still an integral part of the castle 's defences, so in 1830 the Constable of the Tower, the Duke of Wellington, ordered a large - scale clearance of several feet of silt. However this did not prevent an outbreak of disease in the garrison in 1841 caused by poor water supply, resulting in several deaths. To prevent the festering ditch posing further health problems, it was ordered that the moat should be drained and filled with earth. The work began in 1843 and was mostly complete two years later. The construction of the Waterloo Barracks in the inner ward began in 1845, when the Duke of Wellington laid the foundation stone. The building could accommodate 1,000 men; at the same time, separate quarters for the officers were built to the north - east of the White Tower. The building is now the headquarters of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers. The popularity of the Chartist movement between 1828 and 1858 led to a desire to refortify the Tower of London in the event of civil unrest. It was the last major programme of fortification at the castle. Most of the surviving installations for the use of artillery and firearms date from this period.
During the First World War, eleven men were tried in private and shot by firing squad at the Tower for espionage. During the Second World War, the Tower was once again used to hold prisoners of war. One such person was Rudolf Hess, Adolf Hitler 's deputy, albeit just for four days in 1941. He was the last state prisoner to be held at the castle. The last person to be executed at the Tower was German spy Josef Jakobs who was shot on 15 August 1941. The executions for espionage during the wars took place in a prefabricated miniature rifle range which stood in the outer ward and was demolished in 1969. The Second World War also saw the last use of the Tower as a fortification. In the event of a German invasion, the Tower, together with the Royal Mint and nearby warehouses, was to have formed one of three "keeps '' or complexes of defended buildings which formed the last - ditch defences of the capital.
The Tower of London has become established as one of the most popular tourist attractions in the country. It has been a tourist attraction since at least the Elizabethan period, when it was one of the sights of London that foreign visitors wrote about. Its most popular attractions were the Royal Menagerie and displays of armour. The Crown Jewels also garner much interest, and have been on public display since 1669. The Tower steadily gained popularity with tourists through the 19th century, despite the opposition of the Duke of Wellington to visitors. Numbers became so high that by 1851 a purpose - built ticket office was erected. By the end of the century, over 500,000 were visiting the castle every year.
Over the 18th and 19th centuries, the palatial buildings were slowly adapted for other uses and demolished. Only the Wakefield and St Thomas 's Towers survived. The 18th century marked an increasing interest in England 's medieval past. One of the effects was the emergence of Gothic Revival architecture. In the Tower 's architecture, this was manifest when the New Horse Armoury was built in 1825 against the south face of the White Tower. It featured elements of Gothic Revival architecture such as battlements. Other buildings were remodelled to match the style and the Waterloo Barracks were described as "castellated Gothic of the 15th century ''. Between 1845 and 1885 institutions such as the Mint which had inhabited the castle for centuries moved to other sites; many of the post-medieval structures left vacant were demolished. In 1855, the War Office took over responsibility for manufacture and storage of weapons from the Ordnance Office, which was gradually phased out of the castle. At the same time, there was greater interest in the history of the Tower of London.
Public interest was partly fuelled by contemporary writers, of whom the work of William Harrison Ainsworth was particularly influential. In The Tower of London: A Historical Romance he created a vivid image of underground torture chambers and devices for extracting confessions that stuck in the public imagination. Harrison also played another role in the Tower 's history, as he suggested that Beauchamp Tower should be opened to the public so they could see the inscriptions of 16th - and 17th - century prisoners. Working on the suggestion, Anthony Salvin refurbished the tower and led a further programme for a comprehensive restoration at the behest of Prince Albert. Salvin was succeeded in the work by John Taylor. When a feature did not meet his expectations of medieval architecture Taylor would ruthlessly remove it; as a result, several important buildings within the castle were pulled down and in some cases post-medieval internal decoration removed.
Although only one bomb fell on the Tower of London in the First World War (it landed harmlessly in the moat), the Second World War left a greater mark. On 23 September 1940, during the Blitz, high - explosive bombs damaged the castle, destroying several buildings and narrowly missing the White Tower. After the war, the damage was repaired and the Tower of London was reopened to the public.
In 1974, there was a bomb explosion in the Mortar Room in the White Tower, leaving one person dead and 35 injured. No one claimed responsibility for the blast, but the police investigated suspicions that the IRA was behind it.
In the 21st century, tourism is the Tower 's primary role, the remaining routine military activities, under the Royal Logistic Corps, having wound down in the latter half of the 20th century and moved out of the castle. However, the Tower is still home to the ceremonial regimental headquarters of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers, and the museum dedicated to it and its predecessor, the Royal Fusiliers. Also, a detachment of the unit providing the Queen 's Guard at Buckingham Palace still mounts a guard at the Tower, and with the Yeomen Warders, takes part in the Ceremony of the Keys each day. On several occasions through the year gun salutes are fired from the Tower by the Honourable Artillery Company, these consist of 62 rounds for royal occasions, and 41 on other occasions.
Since 1990, the Tower of London has been cared for by an independent charity, Historic Royal Palaces, which receives no funding from the Government or the Crown. In 1988, the Tower of London was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites, in recognition of its global importance and to help conserve and protect the site. However, recent developments, such as the construction of skyscrapers nearby, have pushed the Tower towards being added to the United Nations ' Heritage in Danger List. The remains of the medieval palace have been open to the public since 2006. Visitors can explore the chambers restored to their former glory, once used by past kings and queens. Although the position of Constable of the Tower remains the highest position held at the Tower, the responsibility of day - to - day administration is delegated to the Resident Governor. At least six ravens are kept at the Tower at all times, in accordance with the belief that if they are absent, the kingdom will fall. They are under the care of the Yeomen Warders. The earliest known reference to a Tower raven is a picture from 1883. As well as having ceremonial duties, the Yeoman Warders provide guided tours around the Tower. Just over 2.7 million people visited the Tower of London in 2016.
The tradition of housing the Crown Jewels in the Tower of London probably dates from the reign of Henry III (1216 -- 1272). The Jewel House was built specifically to house the royal regalia, including jewels, plate, and symbols of royalty such as the crown, sceptre, and sword. When money needed to be raised, the treasure could be pawned by the monarch. The treasure allowed the monarch independence from the aristocracy, and consequently was closely guarded. A new position for "keeper of the jewels, armouries and other things '' was created, which was well rewarded; in the reign of Edward III (1312 -- 1377) the holder was paid 12d a day. The position grew to include other duties including purchasing royal jewels, gold, and silver, and appointing royal goldsmiths and jewellers.
In 1649, during the English Civil War, the contents of the Jewel House were disposed of along with other royal properties, as decreed by Cromwell. Metal items were sent to the Mint to be melted down and re-used, and the crowns were "totallie broken and defaced ''.
When the monarchy was restored in 1660, the only surviving items of the coronation regalia were a 12th - century spoon and three ceremonial swords. (Some pieces that had been sold were later returned to the Crown.) Detailed records of old regalia survived, and replacements were made for the coronation of Charles II in 1661 based on drawings from the time of Charles I. For the coronation of Charles II, gems were rented because the treasury could not afford to replace them.
In 1669, the Jewel House was demolished and the Crown Jewels moved into Martin Tower (until 1841). They were displayed here for viewing by the paying public. This was exploited two years later when Colonel Thomas Blood attempted to steal them. Blood and his accomplices bound and gagged the Jewel House keeper. Although they laid their hands on the Imperial State Crown, Sceptre and Orb, they were foiled when the keeper 's son turned up unexpectedly and raised the alarm.
Since 1994, the Crown Jewels have been on display in the Jewel House in the Waterloo Block. Some of the pieces are used regularly by the Queen. The display includes 23,578 gemstones, the 800 - year - old Coronation Spoon, St. Edward 's Crown (worn during all crownings at Westminster Abbey) and the Imperial State Crown.
There is evidence that King John (1166 -- 1216) first started keeping wild animals at the Tower. Records of 1210 -- 1212 show payments to lion keepers.
The Royal Menagerie is frequently referenced during the reign of Henry III. Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II presented Henry with three leopards, circa 1235, which were kept in the Tower. In 1251, the sheriffs were ordered to pay fourpence a day towards the upkeep of the King 's polar bear, a gift from Haakon IV of Norway in the same year; the bear attracted a great deal of attention from Londoners when it went fishing in the Thames while tied to the land by a chain. In 1254 or 1255, Henry III received an African elephant from Louis IX of France depicted by Matthew Paris in his Chronica Majora. A wooden structure was built to house the elephant, 12.2 m (40 ft) long by 6.1 m (20 ft) wide. The animal died in 1258, possibly because it was given red wine, but also perhaps because of the cold climate of England.
In 1288, Edward I added a lion and a lynx and appointed the first official Keeper of the animals. Edward III added other types of animals, two lions, a leopard and two wildcats. Under subsequent kings, the number of animals grew to include additional cats of various types, jackals, hyenas, and an old brown bear, Max, gifted to Henry VIII by Emperor Maximilian. In 1436, during the time of Henry V, all the lions died and the employment of Keeper William Kerby was terminated.
Historical records indicate that a semi-circular structure or barbican was built by Edward I in 1277; this area was later named the Lion Tower, to the immediate west of the Middle Tower. Records from 1335 indicate the purchase of a lock and key for the lions and leopards, also suggesting they were located near the western entrance of the Tower. By the 1500s that area was called the Menagerie. Between 1604 and 1606 the Menagerie was extensive refurbished and an exercise yard was created in the moat area beside the Lion Tower. An overhead platform was added for viewing of the lions by the royals, during lion baiting, for example in the time of James I. Reports from 1657 include mention of six lions, increasing to 11 by 1708, in addition to other types of cats, eagles, owls and a jackal.
By the 18th century, the menagerie was open to the public; admission cost three half - pence or the supply of a cat or dog to be fed to the lions. By the end of the century, that had increased to 9 pence. A particularly famous inhabitant was Old Martin, a large grizzly bear given to George III by the Hudson 's Bay Company in 1811. An 1800 inventory also listed a tiger, leopards, a hyena, a large baboon, various types of monkeys, wolves and "other animals ''. By 1822, however, the collection included only a grizzly bear, an elephant and some birds. Additional animals were then introduced. In 1828 there were over 280 representing at least 60 species as the new keeper Alfred Copps was actively acquiring animals.
After the death of George IV in 1830, a decision was made to close down the Menagerie. In 1831, most of the stock was moved to the London Zoo which had opened in 1828. The last of the animals left in 1835, relocated to Regent 's Park. This decision was made after an incident, although sources vary as to the specifics: either a lion was accused of biting a soldier, or a sailor, Ensign Seymour, had been bitten by a monkey. The Menagerie buildings were removed in 1852 but the Keeper of the Royal Menagerie was entitled to use the Lion Tower as a house for life. Consequently, even though the animals had long since left the building, the tower was not demolished until the death of Copps, the last keeper, in 1853.
In 1999, physical evidence of lion cages was found, one being 3x3 meters (6.5 x10 feet) in size, very small for a lion that can grow to be 2.5 meters (approximately 8 feet) long. In 2008, the skulls of two male Barbary lions (now extinct in the wild) from northwest Africa were found in the moat area of the Tower. Radiocarbon tests dated them from 1280 -- 1385 and 1420 -- 1480. During 2011 an exhibition was hosted at the Tower with fine wire sculptures by Kendra Haste.
Anne Boleyn was beheaded in 1536 for treason against Henry VIII; her ghost supposedly haunts the chapel of St Peter ad Vincula, where she is buried, and has been said to walk around the White Tower carrying her head under her arm. This haunting is commemorated in the 1934 comic song "With Her Head Tucked Underneath Her Arm ''. Other reported ghosts include Henry VI, Lady Jane Grey, Margaret Pole, and the Princes in the Tower. In January 1816, a sentry on guard outside the Jewel House claimed to have witnessed an apparition of a bear advancing towards him, and reportedly died of fright a few days later. In October 1817, a tubular, glowing apparition was claimed to have been seen in the Jewel House by the Keeper of the Crown Jewels, Edmund Lenthal Swifte. He said that the apparition hovered over the shoulder of his wife, leading her to exclaim: "Oh, Christ! It has seized me! '' Other nameless and formless terrors have been reported, more recently, by night staff at the Tower.
Notes
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is it illegal to be in public without id | Stop and identify statutes - wikipedia
"Stop and identify '' statutes are statutory laws in the United States that authorize police to legally obtain the identification of someone whom they reasonably suspect of having committed a crime. If there is no reasonable suspicion that a crime has been committed, is being committed, or is about to be committed, an individual is not required to provide identification, even in "Stop and ID '' states.
The Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures and requires any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause. Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968) established that it is constitutionally permissible for police to temporarily detain a person based on an articulable reasonable suspicion that a crime has been committed, and to conduct a patdown for weapons based on a reasonable belief that the person is armed. The question whether it is constitutionally permissible for the police to demand that a detainee provide his or her name was considered by the U.S. Supreme Court in Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada, 542 U.S. 177 (2004), which held that the name disclosure did not violate the Fourth Amendment prohibition on unreasonable searches and seizures. The Hiibel case also held that, because Hiibel had no reasonable belief that his name would be used to incriminate him, the name disclosure did not violate the Fifth Amendment right against self - incrimination; however, the Court left open the possibility that Fifth Amendment right might apply in situations where there was a reasonable belief that giving a name could be incriminating. The Court accepted the Nevada supreme court interpretation of the Nevada statute that a detained person could satisfy the Nevada law by simply stating his name. The Court did not rule on whether particular identification cards could be required, though it did mention one state law requiring "credible and reliable '' identification had been struck down for vagueness.
In the United States, interactions between police and citizens fall into three general categories: consensual ("contact '' or "conversation ''), detention (often called a Terry stop, after Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968)), or arrest. "Stop and identify '' laws pertain to detentions.
Different obligations apply to drivers of motor vehicles, who generally are required by state vehicle codes to present a driver 's license to police upon request.
At any time, police may approach a person and ask questions. The objective may simply be a friendly conversation; however, the police also may suspect involvement in a crime, but lack "specific and articulable facts '' that would justify a detention or arrest, and hope to obtain these facts from the questioning. The person approached is not required to identify himself or answer any other questions, and may leave at any time. Police are not usually required to tell a person that he is free to decline to answer questions and go about his business; however, a person can usually determine whether the interaction is consensual by asking, "Am I free to go? ''
A person is detained when circumstances are such that a reasonable person would believe he is not free to leave.
Police may briefly detain a person if they have reasonable suspicion that the person has committed, is committing, or is about to commit a crime. Many state laws explicitly grant this authority. In Terry v. Ohio, the U.S. Supreme Court established that police may conduct a limited search for weapons (known as a "frisk '') if they reasonably suspect that the person to be detained may be armed and dangerous.
Police may question a person detained in a Terry stop, but in general, the detainee is not required to answer. However, many states have "stop and identify '' laws that explicitly require a person detained under the conditions of Terry to identify himself to police, and in some cases, provide additional information.
Before Hiibel, it was unresolved whether a detainee could be arrested and prosecuted for refusing to disclose his name. Authority on this issue was split among the federal circuit courts of appeal, and the U.S. Supreme Court twice expressly refused to address the question. In Hiibel, the Court held, in a 5 -- 4 decision, that a Nevada "stop and identify '' law did not violate the United States Constitution. The Court opinion implied that a detainee was not required to produce written identification, but could satisfy the requirement merely by stating his name. Some "stop and identify '' laws do not require that a detainee identify himself, but allow refusal to do so to be considered along with other factors in determining whether there is probable cause to arrest. In some states, providing a false name is an offense.
As of February 2011, the Supreme Court has not addressed the validity of requirements that a detainee provide information other than his name, however some states such as Arizona have specifically codified that a detained person is not required to provide any information aside from their full name.
A detention requires only that police have reasonable suspicion that a person is involved in criminal activity. However, to make an arrest, an officer must have probable cause to believe that the person has committed a crime. Some states require police to inform the person of the intent to make the arrest and the cause for the arrest. But it is not always obvious when a detention becomes an arrest. After making an arrest, police may search a person, his or her belongings, and his or her immediate surroundings.
Whether an arrested person must identify himself may depend on the jurisdiction in which the arrest occurs. If a person is under arrest and police wish to question him, they are required to inform the person of his Fifth - Amendment right to remain silent by giving a Miranda warning. However, Miranda does not apply to biographical data necessary to complete booking. It is not clear whether a "stop and identify '' law could compel giving one 's name after being arrested, although some states have laws that specifically require an arrested person to give his name and other biographical information, and some state courts have held that refusal to give one 's name constitutes obstructing a public officer. As a practical matter, an arrested person who refused to give his name would have little chance of obtaining a prompt release.
States not listed do not have a requirement to show Identification to law enforcement officers. Some states listed have "Stop and ID '' laws which may or may not require someone to identify themselves during an investigative detention.
While Wisconsin statutes allow law enforcement officers to "demand '' ID, there is no statutory requirement to provide them ID nor is there a penalty for refusing to, hence Wisconsin is not a must ID state. Henes v. Morrissey, 194 Wis. 2d 338, 353 - 54 (1995). Annotations for Wisconsin § 968.24, however, state "The principles of Terry permit a state to require a suspect to disclose his or her name in the course of a Terry stop and allow imposing criminal penalties for failing to do so '', citing Hiibel as authority. Hiibel held that statutes requiring suspects to disclose their names during police investigations did not violate the Fourth Amendment if the statute first required reasonable and articulable suspicion of criminal involvement. The Wisconsin Supreme Court held in Henes v. Morrissey that "A crime is made up of two parts: proscribed conduct and a prescribed penalty. "The former without the latter is no crime... In this case no statute penalizes a refusal to identify oneself to a law enforcement officer, and no penalty is set forth in the statute for refusing to identify oneself. This statute is part of Chapter 968 entitled "Commencement of Criminal Proceedings. By its very terms sec. 968.24 empowers a law enforcement officer to stop and question "in the vicinity where the person was stopped. '' The statute does not authorize a law enforcement officer to make an arrest. '' Additionally Henes v. Morrissey held that a detained person not providing their name is n't on its own a violation of 946.41 Resisting or obstructing officer as the act of not identifying ones self is n't a false statement with intent to mislead the officer in the performance of his or her duty.
Neither is Illinois, since the Illinois Second District Appellate Court Decision in People v. Fernandez, 2011 IL App (2d) 100473, which specifically states that section 107 - 14 is found in the Code of Criminal Procedure of 1963, not the Criminal Code of 1961, and governs the conduct of police officers. The fact remains that there is no corresponding duty in the Criminal Code of 1961 for a suspect to identify himself or herself.
By contrast, in Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada, 542 U.S. 177, 181 (2004), a Nevada statute (Nev. Rev. Stat. § 171.123 (2003)) specifically required that a person subjected to a Terry stop "shall identify himself. '' The Supreme Court held that the statute was constitutional.
As of February 2011, there is no U.S. federal law requiring that an individual identify himself during a Terry stop, but Hiibel held that states may enact such laws, provided the law requires the officer to have reasonable and articulable suspicion of criminal involvement, and 24 states have done so. The opinion in Hiibel implied that persons detained by police in jurisdictions with constitutional "stop and identify '' laws listed are obligated to identify themselves, and that persons detained in other jurisdictions are not. The issue may not be that simple, however, for several reasons:
As of February 2011, the validity of a law requiring that a person detained provide anything more than stating his or her name has not come before the U.S. Supreme Court.
In states whose "stop and identify laws '' do not directly impose penalties, a lawful arrest must be for violation of some other law, such as one to the effect of "resisting, obstructing, or delaying a peace officer ''. For example, the Nevada "stop and identify '' law challenged in Hiibel did not impose a penalty on a person who refused to comply, but the Justice Court of Union Township, Nevada, determined that Hiibels refusal to identify himself constituted a violation of Nevada "obstructing '' law. A similar conclusion regarding the interaction between Utah "stop and identify '' and "obstructing '' laws was reached in Oliver v. Woods (10th Cir. 2000).
"Stop and identify '' laws in different states that appear to be nearly identical may be different in effect because of interpretations by state courts. For example, California "stop and identify '' law, Penal Code § 647 (e) had wording similar to the Nevada law upheld in Hiibel, but a California appellate court, in People v. Solomon (1973), 33 Cal. App. 3d 429 construed the law to require "credible and reliable '' identification that carries a "reasonable assurance '' of its authenticity. Using this construction, the U.S. Supreme Court held the law to be void for vagueness in Kolender v. Lawson, 461 U.S. 352 (1983).
Some courts have recognized a distinction authorizing police to demand identifying information and specifically imposing an obligation of a suspect to respond. Other courts have apparently interpreted demand to impose an obligation on the detainee to comply.
Wording and interpretation by state courts of "obstructing '' laws also varies; for example, New York "obstructing '' law apparently requires physical rather than simply verbal obstruction; likewise, a violation of the Colorado "obstructing '' law appears to require use or threat of use of physical force. However, the Colorado Supreme Court held in Dempsey v. People, No. 04SC362 (2005) (PDF) that refusing to provide identification was an element in the "totality of the circumstances '' that could constitute obstructing an officer, even when actual physical interference was not employed. Utah "obstructing '' law does not require a physical act, but merely a failure to follow a "lawful order... necessary to effect the... detention ''; a divided court in Oliver v. Woods concluded that failure to present identification constituted a violation of that law.
It is not universally agreed that, absent a "stop and identify law '', there is no obligation for a detainee to identify himself. For example, as the U.S. Supreme Court noted in Hiibel, California "stop and identify '' statute was voided in Kolender v. Lawson. But in People v. Long, decided four years after Kolender, a California appellate court found no constitutional impropriety in a police officer 's demand for written identification from a detainee. The issue before the Long court was a request for suppression of evidence uncovered in a search of the defendant 's wallet, so the issue of refusal to present identification was not directly addressed; however, the author of the Long opinion had apparently concluded in a 1980 case that failure to identify oneself did not provide a basis for arrest. Nonetheless, some cite Long in maintaining that refusal to present written identification constitutes obstructing an officer. Others disagree, and maintain that persons detained by police in California can not be compelled to identify themselves.
Some courts, e.g., State v. Flynn (Wis. 1979) and People v. Loudermilk (Calif. 1987) have held that police may perform a search for written identification if a suspect refuses to provide it; a later California decision, People v. Garcia (2006) strongly disagreed.
In the case of Utah v. Strieff (2016), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that an officer 's stop of Edward Strieff and his demand for identification from Strieff was unlawful under Utah state law, but that the evidence collected pursuant to the stop was admissible due to the determination that Strieff was subject to a pre-existing arrest warrant. Therefore, the pre-existing warrant "attenuated '' the unlawful stop - and - identify.
Some legal organizations, such as the National Lawyers Guild and the ACLU of Northern California, recommend to either remain silent or to identify oneself whether or not a jurisdiction has a "stop and identify '' law:
In a more recent pamphlet, the ACLU of Northern California elaborated on this further, recommending that a person detained by police should:
Many countries allow police to demand identification and arrest people who do not carry any. Normally these countries provide all residents with national identity cards, which have the identity information the police would want to know, including citizenship. Foreign visitors need to have their passport available to show at all times. In some cases national identity cards from certain other countries are accepted.
For example, in Portugal it is compulsory to carry the state ID card at all times. This card named Cartão de Cidadão - Citizen Card is an electronic card which includes biometric information, id number, social security number, fiscal information, place of birth, etc. Police can only ask for the ID card in public or a place open to public and only if there is a reasonable suspicion the person committed a crime. A certified copy of the ID card can be presented in such situations. If a citizen does not carry the ID card or its certified copy, the police will escort the person to the police department to remain detained until clear identification can be obtained.
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where is the parathyroid gland located and how does it function | Parathyroid gland - wikipedia
Parathyroid glands are small endocrine glands in the neck of humans and other tetrapods that produce parathyroid hormone. Humans usually have four parathyroid glands, variably located on the back of the thyroid gland. Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin (one of the hormones made by the thyroid gland) have key roles in regulating the amount of calcium in the blood and within the bones.
Parathyroid glands share a similar blood supply, venous drainage, and lymphatic drainage to the thyroid glands. Parathyroid glands are derived from the epithelial lining of the third and fourth pharyngeal pouches, with the superior glands arising from the fourth pouch, and the inferior glands arising from the higher third pouch. The relative position of the inferior and superior glands, which are named according to their final location, changes because of the migration of embryological tissues.
Hyperparathyroidism and hypoparathyroidism, characterized by alterations in the blood calcium levels and bone metabolism, are states of either surplus or deficient parathyroid function,.
The parathyroid glands are two pairs of glands usually positioned behind the left and right lobes of the thyroid. Each gland is a yellowish - brown flat ovoid that resembles a lentil seed, usually about 6 mm long and 3 to 4 mm wide, and 1 to 2 mm anteroposteriorly. There are typically four parathyroid glands. The two parathyroid glands on each side which are positioned higher are called the superior parathyroid glands, while the lower two are called the inferior parathyroid glands. Healthy parathyroid glands generally weigh about 30 mg in men and 35 mg in women. These glands are not visible or able to be felt during examination of the neck.
The blood supply, drainage, and lymphatic drainage of the parathyroid glands correspond to the thyroid overlying gland.
The superior parathyroid glands receive their blood from the inferior thyroid arteries. The inferior parathyroid glands receive a variable blood supply, from either the ascending branch of the inferior thyroid arteries or the thyroid ima artery. The inferior thyroid artery arises from the subclavian arteries.
Each parathyroid vein drains into the superior, middle and inferior thyroid veins. The superior and middle thyroid veins drain into the internal jugular vein, and the inferior thyroid vein drains into the brachiocephalic vein.
Lymphatic vessels from the parathyroid glands drain into deep cervical lymph nodes and paratracheal lymph nodes.
The parathyroid glands are variable in number: three or more small glands, and can usually be located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. Occasionally, some individuals may have six, eight, or even more parathyroid glands. Rarely, the parathyroid glands may be within the thyroid gland itself, the chest, or even the thymus.
The parathyroid glands are named for their proximity to the thyroid -- and serve a completely different role than the thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands are quite easily recognizable from the thyroid as they have densely packed cells, in contrast with the follicular structure of the thyroid. Two unique types of cells are present in the parathyroid gland:
Intermediate magnification micrograph. H&E stain. The white round structures are fat cells. Adipose tissue comprises 25 -- 40 % of normal parathyroid gland tissue.
High magnification micrograph. H&E stain. The small, dark cells are chief cells, which are responsible for secreting parathyroid hormone.
High magnification micrograph. H&E stain. The cells with orange / pink staining cytoplasm are oxyphil cells
In the early development of the human embryo, a series of five pharyngeal arches and four pharyngeal pouches form that give rise to the face, neck, and surrounding structures. The pouches are numbered such that the first pouch is the closest to the top of the embryo 's head and the fourth is the furthest from it. The parathyroid glands originate from the interaction of the endoderm of the third and fourth pouch and neural crest mesenchyme. The position of the glands reverses during embryological life. The pair of glands which is ultimately inferior develops from the third pouch with the thymus, whereas the pair of glands which is ultimately superior develops from the fourth pouch. During embryological development, the thymus migrates downwards, dragging the inferior glands with it. The superior pair are not dragged downwards by the fourth pouch to the same degree. The glands are named after their final, not embryological, positions. Since the thymus 's ultimate destination is in the mediastinum of the chest, it is occasionally possible to have ectopic parathyroids derived from the third pouch within the chest cavity if they fail to detach in the neck.
Parathyroid development is regulated by a number of genes, including those coding for several transcription factors.
The major function of the parathyroid glands is to maintain the body 's calcium and phosphate levels within a very narrow range, so that the nervous and muscular systems can function properly. The parathyroid glands do this by secreting parathyroid hormone (PTH).
Parathyroid hormone (also known as parathormone) is a small protein that takes part in the control of calcium and phosphate homeostasis, as well as bone physiology. Parathyroid hormone has effects antagonistic to those of calcitonin.
Parathyroid disease is conventionally divided into states where the parathyroid is overactive (hyperparathyroidism), and states where the parathyroid is under - or hypoactive (hypoparathyroidism). Both states are characterised by their symptoms, which relate to the excess or deficiency of parathyroid hormone in the blood.
Hyperparathyroidism is the state in which there is excess parathyroid hormone circulating. This may cause bone pain and tenderness, due to increased bone resorption. Due to increased circulating calcium, there may be other symptoms associated with hypercalcemia, most commonly dehydration. Hyperparathyroidism is most commonly caused by a benign proliferation of chief cells in single gland, and rarely MEN syndrome. This is known as primary hyperparathyroidism, which is generally managed by surgical removal of the abnormal parathyroid gland.
Renal disease may lead to hyperparathyroidism. When too much calcium is lost, there is a compensation by the parathyroid, and parathyroid hormone is released. The glands hypertrophy to synthesise more parathyroid hormone. This is known as secondary hyperparathyroidism. If this situation exists for a prolonged period of time, the parathyroid tissue may become unresponsive to the blood calcium levels, and begin to autonomously release parathyroid hormone. This is known as tertiary hyperparathyroidism.
The state of decreased parathyroid activity is known as hypoparathyroidism. This is most commonly associated with damage to the glands or their blood supply during thyroid surgery -- it may be associated with rarer genetic syndromes such as DiGeorge syndrome, which is inherited as an autosomal dominant syndrome. Hypoparathyroidism will occur after surgical removal of the parathyroid glands.
Occasionally, an individual 's tissues are resistant to the effects of parathyroid hormone. This is known as pseudohypoparathyroidism. In this case the parathyroid glands are fully functional, and the hormone itself is not able to function, resulting in a decrease in blood calcium levels. Pseudohypoparathyroidism is often associated with the genetic condition Albright 's hereditary osteodystrophy. Pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism, one of the longest words in the English language, is used to describe an individual with Albright 's hereditary osteodystrophy; with normal parathyroid hormone and serum calcium levels.
Hypoparathyroidism may present with symptoms associated with decreased calcium, and is generally treated with Vitamin D analogues.
The parathyroid glands were first discovered in the Indian Rhinoceros by Richard Owen in 1852. In his description of the neck anatomy, Owen referred to the glands as "a small compact yellow glandular body attached to the thyroid at the point where the veins emerged ''. The glands were first discovered in humans by Ivar Viktor Sandström (1852 -- 1889), a Swedish medical student, in 1880 at Uppsala University. Unaware of Owen 's description, he described the glands in his monograph "On a New Gland in Man and Fellow Animals '' as the "glandulae parathyroidae '', noting its existence in dogs, cats, rabbits, oxen, horses and humans. For several years, Sandström 's description received little attention.
Physiologist Eugene Gley first documented the putative function of the glands in 1891, noting the connection between their removal and the development of muscular tetany. William G. MacCallum in 1908, investigating tumours of the parathyroid, proposed their role in calcium metabolism. He noted that "Tetany occurs spontaneously in many forms and may be produced by the destruction of the parathyroid glands ''.
The first successful removal of the parathyroid may have been carried out in 1928 by medical doctor Isaac Y Olch, whose intern had noticed elevated calcium levels in an elderly patient with muscle weakness. Prior to this surgery, patients with removed parathyroid glands typically died from muscular tetany.
Parathyroid hormone was isolated in 1923 by Adolph M. Hanson and 1925 by James B. Collip. Studies of parathyroid hormone levels by Roger Guillemin, Andrew Schally and Rosalyn Sussman Yalow led to the development of immunoassays capable of measuring body substances and a Nobel Prize in 1977.
Parathyroid glands are found in all adult tetrapods; they vary in their number and position. Mammals typically have four parathyroid glands, while other types of animals typically have six. The removal of parathyroid glands in animals produces a condition resembling acute poisoning with irregular muscle contractions.
Fish do not possess parathyroid glands; several species have been found to express parathyroid hormone. Developmental genes and calcium - sensing receptors in fish gills are similar to those within the parathyroid glands of birds and mammals. It has been suggested that the tetrapod glands may have been evolutionarily derived from these fish gills.
Scheme showing development of branchial epithelial bodies. I, II, III, IV. Branchial pouches.
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when was the last time the avalanche won the stanley cup | Colorado Avalanche - Wikipedia
The Colorado Avalanche are a professional ice hockey team based in Denver, Colorado. They are members of the Central Division of the Western Conference of the National Hockey League (NHL). The Avalanche are the only team in their division not based in the Central Time Zone; the team is situated in the Mountain Time Zone. Their home arena is Pepsi Center. Their general manager is Joe Sakic.
The Avalanche were founded in 1972 as the Quebec Nordiques and were one of the charter franchises of the World Hockey Association. The franchise joined the NHL in 1979 as a result of the NHL -- WHA merger. Following the 1994 -- 95 season, they were sold to the COMSAT Entertainment Group and relocated to Denver.
In the club 's first season in Denver, the Avalanche won the Pacific Division and went on to sweep the Florida Panthers in the 1996 Stanley Cup Finals, becoming the first NHL team to win the Stanley Cup in the season following a relocation. Among teams in the major North American professional sports leagues, only the National Football League (NFL) 's Washington Redskins have also accomplished the feat. This was the first major professional sports championship a Denver - based team would bring to the city.
In the 2001 Stanley Cup Finals, the Avalanche defeated the New Jersey Devils 4 -- 3 to win their second and most recent championship. As a result, they are the only active NHL team that has won all of its Stanley Cup Final appearances.
The Avalanche have won nine division titles (including their first eight in a row in Denver, the longest such streak in NHL history) and qualified for the playoffs in each of their first ten seasons in Denver; this streak ended in 2007.
The Quebec Nordiques were one of the World Hockey Association 's original teams when the league began play in 1972. Though first awarded to a group in San Francisco, the team quickly moved to Quebec City when the California deal soured because of financial and arena problems. During their seven WHA seasons, the Nordiques won the Avco World Trophy once, in 1977 and lost the finals once, in 1975. In 1979, the franchise entered the NHL, along with the WHA 's Edmonton Oilers, Hartford Whalers, and Winnipeg Jets.
After making the postseason for seven consecutive years, from 1981 to 1987, the Nordiques became one of the worst teams in the league. From 1987 -- 88 to 1991 -- 92, the team finished last in their division every season, and three of those times they finished dead last in the league. This included a dreadful 12 - win season in 1989 -- 90 that is still the worst in franchise history. As a result, the team earned three consecutive first overall draft picks, used to select Mats Sundin (1989), Owen Nolan (1990) and Eric Lindros (1991). Lindros made it clear he did not wish to play for the Nordiques, to the extent that he did not wear the team 's jersey for the press photographs, only holding it when it was presented to him. On advice from his mother, he refused to sign a contract and began a holdout that lasted over a year. On June 30, 1992, he was traded to the Philadelphia Flyers in exchange for five players, the rights to Swedish prospect Peter Forsberg, two first round draft picks and US $15 million. The Eric Lindros trade turned the moribund Nordiques into a Stanley Cup contender almost overnight, and in hindsight is seen as one of the most one - sided deals in sports history. In the first season after the trade, 1992 -- 93, the Nordiques reached the playoffs for the first time in six years. Two years later, they won the Northeast Division and had the second best regular - season record during the strike - shortened season.
While the team experienced on - ice success, it spent most of its first 23 years struggling financially. Quebec City was by far the smallest market in the league, and the second - smallest to host a team in the four major sports. The changing financial environment in the NHL made things even more difficult. In 1995, team owner Marcel Aubut asked for a bailout from Quebec 's provincial government as well as a new publicly funded arena. The bailout fell through, and Aubut subsequently began talks with COMSAT Entertainment Group in Denver, which already owned the National Basketball Association (NBA) 's Denver Nuggets. In May 1995, COMSAT announced an agreement in principle to purchase the team. The deal became official on July 1, 1995, and 12,000 season tickets were sold in the 37 days after the announcement of the move to Denver. Even though the team was losing money, when the team relocated, it still made a profit, it was sold so outgoing owner Marcel Aubut could make a profit off of the franchise.
COMSAT considered several names for the team, including Extreme, Blizzards and Black Bears. It also debated whether to brand the team as a Denver team or as a regional franchise representing either Colorado or the entire Rocky Mountain region. After initially filing copyright protection for "Black Bears '', The team decided on Rocky Mountain eXtreme but was ridiculed for huge backlash. COMSAT opted to name the team the Colorado Avalanche after the public reaction to the eXtreme name. The new name was revealed on August 10, 1995. With the move, the newly relocated team transferred to the Pacific Division of the Western Conference.
After buying the team, COMSAT organized its Denver sports franchises under a separate subsidiary, Ascent Entertainment Group Inc., which went public in 1995, with 80 % of its stock bought by COMSAT and the other 20 % available on NASDAQ. The Colorado Avalanche played their first game in the McNichols Sports Arena in Denver (where the Denver Nuggets also played) on October 6, 1995, winning 3 -- 2 against the Detroit Red Wings. It marked a return of the NHL to Denver after an absence of 13 years, when the Colorado Rockies (not to be confused with the MLB team of the same name) moved to New Jersey to become the New Jersey Devils. Valeri Kamensky scored the first goal as the Avalanche. Led by captain Joe Sakic, forward Peter Forsberg and defenseman Adam Foote on the ice and Pierre Lacroix as the general manager and Marc Crawford as the head coach, the Avalanche became stronger when All - Star Montreal Canadiens goalie Patrick Roy joined the team. Feeling humiliated for being left in the net after having let in nine goals in 26 shots during a Canadiens game against the Red Wings, Roy joined the Avalanche on December 6, 1995, together with ex-Montreal captain Mike Keane in a trade for Jocelyn Thibault, Martin Ručinský and Andrei Kovalenko. Roy would prove a pivotal addition for Colorado in the years to come.
The Avalanche finished the regular season with a 47 -- 25 -- 10 record for 104 points, won the Pacific Division and finished second in the Western Conference. Colorado progressed to the playoffs, defeating the Vancouver Canucks and the Chicago Blackhawks in the first two rounds, both in six games and the Presidents ' Trophy - winning Detroit Red Wings in the Western Conference Finals in six games as well. In the Stanley Cup Finals, the Avalanche met the Florida Panthers, who were also in their first Finals. The Avalanche swept the series 4 -- 0. In Game 4, during the third overtime and after more than 100 minutes of play with no goals, defenseman Uwe Krupp scored to claim the franchise 's first Stanley Cup. Joe Sakic was the playoff 's scoring leader with 34 points (18 goals and 16 assists) and won the Conn Smythe Trophy, awarded to the most valuable player to his team during the playoffs. The 1995 -- 96 Cup was the first major professional championship won by a Denver team and the Avalanche are the only team (expansion or brand new) in NHL history to win the Stanley Cup their first season after a relocation, and only the second team to win a championship their first season after a relocation in any of the four major North American sports leagues, following the Washington Redskins of the NFL. They also became the second team from the WHA to win the Cup. With the Cup win, Russians Alexei Gusarov and Valeri Kamensky and Swede Peter Forsberg became members of the Triple Gold Club, the exclusive group of ice hockey players who have won Olympic gold, World Championship gold, and the Stanley Cup.
In 1996 -- 97, Colorado won the Pacific Division again, as well as the Presidents ' Trophy for finishing the regular season with the best record in the league: 49 -- 24 -- 9 for 107 points. The team was also the league 's best scoring with an average of 3.38 goals scored per game. The Avalanche met the two lowest seeds of the Western Conference in the first two rounds of the playoffs: the Chicago Blackhawks and the Edmonton Oilers, and defeated them in six games and five games, respectively. During a rematch of the previous year Western Conference Finals, the Avalanche lost to the Detroit Red Wings in six games. Detroit went on to sweep the Stanley Cup Finals just as the Avalanche had done the year before. Sandis Ozolinsh was elected for the league 's first All - Star team at the end of the season.
As a free agent during the summer of 1997, Joe Sakic signed a three - year, $21 million offer sheet with the New York Rangers. Under the collective bargaining agreement at the time, the Avalanche had one week to match the Rangers ' offer or let go of Sakic. Colorado would match the offer, which instigated a salary raise for NHL players.
In the following season, Colorado won the Pacific Division with a 39 -- 26 -- 17 record for 95 points. The Avalanche sent the largest delegation of the NHL to the 1998 Winter Olympics ice hockey tournament in Nagano, Japan: 10 players representing seven countries and coach Marc Crawford for Canada. Milan Hejduk won the gold medal for Czech Republic, Alexei Gusarov and Valeri Kamensky got the silver medal for Russia and Jari Kurri won the bronze medal for Finland. Colorado lost in the Western Conference Quarter - finals against the Edmonton Oilers in seven games, after having led the series 3 -- 1. Peter Forsberg was the league 's second highest scorer in the regular season with 91 points (25 goals and 66 assists) and was elected for the league 's first all star team. After the end of the season, head coach Marc Crawford rejected the team 's offer of a two - year deal. Bob Hartley was hired to the head coach position in June 1998.
In 1998 -- 99, with the addition of the Nashville Predators to the league, the NHL realigned their divisions and the Colorado Avalanche were put in the new Northwest Division. Despite a slow 2 -- 6 -- 1 start, Colorado finished with a 44 -- 28 -- 10 record for 98 points, won the Northwest Division and finished second in the Western Conference. Between January 10 and February 7, the Avalanche had their longest winning streak ever with 12 games. Following the Columbine High School massacre, Colorado postponed their first two playoff games to a later date; they would wear patches in honor of the Columbine victims on their jerseys during the playoffs. After defeating both the San Jose Sharks and the Detroit Red Wings in six games in the first two rounds, Colorado met the Presidents ' Trophy - winning Dallas Stars in the Western Conference Finals, where they lost in seven games. Peter Forsberg, the playoffs leading scorer with 24 points (8 goals and 16 assists), was again elected to the league 's first All - Star team and Chris Drury won the Calder Memorial Trophy for the best rookie of the season. Together with Milan Hejduk, both were elected for the NHL All - Rookie Team at the end of the season.
It was in the 1999 -- 2000 season that the Colorado Avalanche played their first game in the new Pepsi Center that cost US $ 160 million. Milan Hejduk scored the first goal of a 2 -- 1 victory against the Boston Bruins on October 13, 1999. The Avalanche finished the season with a 42 -- 28 -- 11 -- 1 record for 96 points and won the Northwest Division. Before the playoffs, the Avalanche strengthened their defense for a run towards the Stanley Cup. On March 6, 2000, the Boston Bruins traded future Hockey Hall of Fame defenseman Ray Bourque and forward Dave Andreychuk to Colorado for Brian Rolston, Martin Grenier, Samuel Pahlsson and a first round draft pick. Bourque, who had been a Bruin since 1979, requested a trade to a contender for a chance to win the Stanley Cup. However, and just as the year before, Colorado lost in the Conference Finals against the Dallas Stars in a seven games after beating the Phoenix Coyotes and Detroit Red Wings in five games.
The Avalanche 's success came amid considerable turmoil in the front office. COMSAT 's diversification into sports ownership was proving a drain on the company. In particular, cost overruns associated with the construction of Pepsi Center had shareholders up in arms. Finally, in 1997, COMSAT agreed in principle to sell Ascent to Liberty Media. However, Liberty was not interested in sports ownership at the time (though it has since bought Major League Baseball 's Atlanta Braves), and made the deal contingent upon Ascent selling the Avalanche and Nuggets.
After almost two years, Ascent sold the Avalanche and Nuggets to Wal - Mart heirs Bill and Nancy Laurie for $400 million. However, a group of Ascent shareholders sued, claiming that the sale price was several million dollars too low. Ascent then agreed to sell the Avalanche and Nuggets to Denver banking tycoon Donald Sturm for $461 million.
However, a new wrinkle appeared when the City of Denver refused to transfer the parcel of land on which Pepsi Center stood unless Sturm promised to keep the Avalanche and Nuggets in Denver for at least 25 years. Sturm had made his bid in his own name, and the City wanted to protect itself in case Sturm either died or sold the teams before the 25 years ran out. While Sturm was willing to make a long - term commitment to the city, he was n't willing to be held responsible if he died or sold the teams. After negotiations fell apart, Liberty bought all of Ascent, but kept the Nuggets and Avalanche on the market.
Finally, in July 2000, the Avalanche, Nuggets and Pepsi Center were finally bought by real estate entrepreneur Stan Kroenke in a $450 million deal. Kroenke is the brother - in - law of the Lauries; his wife Ann is Nancy Laurie 's sister. Liberty retained only a 6.5 % stake of the sports franchises. As part of the deal, Kroenke placed the teams into a trust that would ensure the teams will stay in Denver until at least 2025. After the deal, Kroenke organized his sports assets under Kroenke Sports Enterprises.
The 2000 -- 01 season was the best season the team has ever had due to phenomenal play by all - time leading scorer in Avalanche history, Joe Sakic. The Avalanche won the Northwest Division and captured their second Presidents ' Trophy after having finished the regular season with 52 -- 16 -- 10 -- 4 for 118 points. Sakic finished the regular season with 118 points (54 goals and 64 assists), only three behind Jaromir Jagr 's 121 points. On February 4, 2001, the Avalanche hosted the 51st NHL All - Star Game. Patrick Roy, Ray Bourque and Joe Sakic played for the North America team, who won 14 -- 12 against the World team, that featured Milan Hejduk and Peter Forsberg. All but Hejduk were part of the starting lineups. Before the playoffs, the Avalanche acquired star defenseman Rob Blake and center Steven Reinprecht from the Los Angeles Kings in exchange for Adam Deadmarsh, Aaron Miller and their first round 2001 Draft pick.
In the playoffs, Colorado swept their Western Conference Quarter - finals against the Vancouver Canucks. In the Western Conference Semi-finals, the Avalanche defeated the Los Angeles Kings in seven games, after having wasted a 3 -- 1 lead. After the last game of the series, Peter Forsberg underwent surgery to remove a ruptured spleen and it was announced that he would not play until the following season. The injury was a huge upset for the team; former NHL goaltender Darren Pang considered it "devastating... to the Colorado Avalanche. '' The team would overcome Forsberg 's injury; in the Western Conference Finals, Colorado beat the St. Louis Blues 4 -- 1 and progressed to the Stanley Cup Finals, where they faced the defending champion New Jersey Devils. The Avalanche came back from a 3 -- 2 series deficit and won the series 4 -- 3, marking the second year in a row that defending champions lost in the Finals, as the Devils themselves defeated the Dallas Stars in 2000. After being handed the Cup from NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman, captain Joe Sakic immediately turned, and gave it to Ray Bourque, capping off Bourque 's 22 - year career with his only championship. Sakic was the playoffs ' leading scorer with 26 points (13 goals and 13 assists). He won the Hart Memorial Trophy, given to the league 's most valuable player during the regular season; the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy, awarded to the player that has shown the best sportsmanship and gentlemanly conduct combined with performance in play; the Lester B. Pearson Award; and shared the NHL Plus / Minus Award with Patrik Elias of the Devils. Patrick Roy won the Conn Smythe Trophy as the MVP of the playoffs. Shjon Podein was awarded the King Clancy Memorial Trophy for significant humanitarian contributions to his community, namely his work on charitable organizations and his own children foundation. Ray Bourque and Joe Sakic were elected to the league 's first All - Star team. Rob Blake was elected to the second All - Star team.
In the 2001 -- 02 season, the team finished the regular season with 99 points from a 45 -- 28 -- 8 -- 1 record and won the Northwest Division. Colorado had the league 's lowest goals conceded: 169, an average of 2.06 per game. The NHL season was interrupted once again for the 2002 Winter Olympics, in Salt Lake City. The Avalanche had nine players representing six countries. Canada won the ice hockey tournament and Rob Blake, Adam Foote and Joe Sakic won gold medals. American Chris Drury got a silver medal. With the win, Blake and Sakic became members of the Triple Gold Club. The Avalanche advanced through the first two rounds of the playoffs winning 4 -- 3 against the Los Angeles Kings and 4 -- 3 against the San Jose Sharks. Patrick Roy had a shutout on the decisive game of each series. The Avalanche made the Western Conference Finals for the fourth consecutive season (and sixth overall in the last seven seasons), meeting the Detroit Red Wings in the playoffs for the fifth time in seven years. Colorado had a 3 -- 2 lead after five games, but lost Game 6 at home 2 -- 0 and then the Red Wings won the deciding game at Detroit, 7 -- 0. As in 1997, Detroit went on to win the Stanley Cup. Peter Forsberg was the playoffs scoring leader with 27 points (9 goals, 18 assists). Patrick Roy won the William M. Jennings Trophy, given to the goaltenders of the team with fewest goals scored against. Roy was elected for the league 's first All - Star team, together with Joe Sakic. Rob Blake was elected for the second All - Star team.
The following season, 2002 -- 03, saw the Avalanche claim the NHL record for most consecutive division titles, nine, breaking the Montreal Canadiens streak of eight, won between 1974 -- 82. The division title came after a bad start by the team, that led to the exit of head coach Bob Hartley, in December. General Manager Pierre Lacroix promoted assistant coach Tony Granato, who had only three months of coaching experience as an assistant, to the head coach position. The team 's playoff spot seemed in doubt at one point, but the Avalanche managed to finish with 105 points, ahead of the Vancouver Canucks by one. The race to the title was exciting, namely the second - to - last game of the season, as the Avalanche needed to win the game to stay in the race, and Milan Hejduk scored with 10 seconds left in overtime to beat Anaheim. The title was guaranteed in the final day of the regular season, when the Avalanche beat the St. Louis Blues 5 -- 2 and the Vancouver Canucks lost against the Los Angeles Kings 2 -- 0. In the Western Conference Quarter - finals, the Avalanche blew a 3 -- 1 series lead over the Minnesota Wild, and lost in overtime in Game 7. Peter Forsberg won the Art Ross Trophy for the leading scorer of the regular season, which he finished with 106 points (29 goals, 77 assists). Forsberg also won the Hart Memorial Trophy for the regular season 's most valuable player and shared the NHL Plus / Minus Award with teammate Milan Hejduk. Hejduk scored 50 goals to win the Maurice ' Rocket ' Richard Trophy, awarded annually to the leading goal scorer in the NHL. Forsberg was elected to the league 's first All - Star team. Hejduk was elected to the second All - Star team.
After that season, Patrick Roy retired and the Avalanche signed star wingers Paul Kariya from the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim and Teemu Selanne from the San Jose Sharks. Both failed to live up to the expectations; Kariya spent most of the 2003 -- 04 season injured and Selanne scored only 32 points (16 goals and 16 assists) in 78 games. There were doubts if goalie David Aebischer could perform at the top level the team was used to while having Roy. Having "nine elite players, '' "the most talented top six forwards on one team since the days of the Edmonton Oilers '' was not good enough as the franchise failed to win the Northwest Division title, ending the NHL record streak. The 40 -- 22 -- 13 -- 7 record was good enough for 100 points, one less than the Northwest Division champion Vancouver Canucks. This ended a streak of nine consecutive division titles dating to the team 's last year in Quebec, the most in NHL history.
During a game against the Canucks on March 8, 2004, Canucks player Todd Bertuzzi punched Colorado 's Steve Moore from behind, leaving Moore unconscious. It was said to be retaliation for a hit Moore had delivered to Canucks captain Markus Naslund the month before. Because of the punch and the consequent fall on the ice with Bertuzzi on top of him, and numerous other players from both teams piling on top, Moore sustained three fractured neck vertebrae, among other injuries, that ended his career. Bertuzzi was away from professional hockey for 17 months as a result of suspensions. In Denver, ever since the Moore hit, it has become tradition for the home fans to boo Todd Bertuzzi every time he gains possession of the puck, whenever his team faces the Avalanche at Pepsi Center.
In the playoffs, Colorado won the Western Conference Quarter - finals against the Dallas Stars in five games, but lost in the Western Conference Semi-finals against the San Jose Sharks in a six games. Joe Sakic became the only Avalanche player ever to be chosen as the All - Star Game Most Valuable Player during the 2004 NHL All - Star Game, when he scored a hat - trick. Sakic was elected for the league 's first All - Star team at the end of the season and won the NHL / Sheraton Road Performer Award. After the end of the season, on July 2004, Joel Quenneville was hired for the position of head coach, replacing Tony Granato, who became his assistant.
The 2004 -- 05 NHL season was canceled because of an unresolved lockout. During the lockout, many Avalanche players played in European leagues. David Aebischer returned home with Alex Tanguay to play for Swiss club HC Lugano; Milan Hejduk and Peter Forsberg returned to their former teams in their native countries, HC Pardubice and Modo Hockey. Nine other players from the Avalanche 2003 -- 04 roster played in Europe during the lockout.
After the 2004 -- 05 NHL lockout and the implementation of a salary cap, the Avalanche were forced to release some of their top players. Peter Forsberg and Adam Foote were lost to free agency to save room in the cap for Joe Sakic and Rob Blake. Although the salary cap was a blow to one of the highest spenders of the league, the Colorado Avalanche finished the 2005 -- 06 regular season with a 43 -- 30 -- 9 record for 95 points, good enough to finish second in the Northwest Division, seven behind the Calgary Flames and tied with the Edmonton Oilers. The season paused in February for the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy. The Avalanche sent an NHL leading 11 players from eight countries. Finnish Antti Laaksonen earned the silver medal, while Ossi Vaananen ended up not playing because of an injury; Czech Milan Hejduk won a bronze medal. In the Western Conference Quarter - finals, Colorado beat the team with the second - best record in the Western Conference, the Dallas Stars, in five games. In the Conference Semi-finals, the Avalanche were swept for the first time ever, coming at the hands of the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. The day after the loss, Pierre Lacroix, who had been the general manager of the franchise since 1994 when they were in Quebec, resigned, where Francois Giguere was then hired as his replacement. Lacroix remained president of the franchise until Spring of 2013, when the team owner 's son, Josh Kroenke, took over as team president and governor. Pierre Lacroix remains an advisor to the team.
By the beginning of the 2006 -- 07 season, Joe Sakic and Milan Hejduk were the only two remaining members from the 2000 -- 01 Stanley Cup - winning squad. Sakic was the only player left from the team 's days in Quebec, though Hejduk was drafted by the Nordiques. Paul Stastny, son of Nordiques legend Peter Stastny, also provided a link to the franchise 's past. Before the previous season 's playoffs, in a move reminiscent of Patrick Roy 's trade, the Avalanche traded goalie David Aebischer to the Montreal Canadiens for the Vezina Trophy - winning Jose Theodore. The move, however, would not turn out to be as successful. Theodore posted a 13 -- 15 -- 1 record in 2006 -- 07, with an. 891 save percentage and 3.26 goals against average (GAA), with his US $6 million salary becoming a heavy burden for the Avalanche in the salary cap era. The Avalanche missed the playoffs for the first time since 1993 -- 94, when they were still in Quebec. The team had a 15 -- 2 -- 2 run in the last 19 games of the season to keep their playoffs hopes alive until the penultimate day of the season. A 4 -- 2 loss against the Nashville Predators on April 7, with former Av Peter Forsberg assisting the game - winning goal scored by another former Av, Paul Kariya, knocked Colorado out of the playoff race. As consolation, the team won the last game of the season against the Calgary Flames the following day and finished fourth in the Northwest Division and ninth in the Western Conference with a 44 -- 31 -- 7 record for 95 points, one less than eighth - seeded Calgary. Nonetheless, the result was greater than expected by hockey pundits; Sports Illustrated previewed before the start of the season that the Avalanche would finish 13th in the Western Conference. During that last game of the season, Joe Sakic scored a goal and two assists and became the second - oldest player in NHL history to reach 100 points, behind only Gordie Howe, who had 103 points at age 40 in the 1968 -- 69 season. During the season, Paul Stastny set an NHL record for longest point streak by a rookie, with 20 games, three more than the previous record, held by Teemu Selanne and Karlis Skrastins set a new NHL record for the longest game streak by a defenseman, with 495 games. Until the Avalanche 's 2006 -- 07 season, no team in the history of the NHL had ever made it to 95 points without earning a spot in the playoffs. In the Eastern Conference, three teams progressed to the playoffs with fewer than 95 points: the New York Rangers (94), the Tampa Bay Lightning (93) and the New York Islanders (92).
For the 2007 -- 08 season, the Avalanche signed two free agents: defenseman Scott Hannan and left winger Ryan Smyth. These acquisitions filled the team 's needs and were expected to help make an impact in the playoffs. With a 9 -- 5 victory over the St. Louis Blues on December 9, 2007, the Avalanche earned their 1,000 th franchise victory. On February 25, 2008, unrestricted free agent Peter Forsberg signed with the Avalanche for the remainder of the 2007 -- 08 season. A day later, at the trade deadline, they re-acquired popular defenseman Adam Foote from the Columbus Blue Jackets as well as Ruslan Salei from the Florida Panthers. In the Western Conference Quarter - finals, Colorado beat the Minnesota Wild in six games. In the Western Conference Semi-finals, however, the Avalanche were swept by the eventual Stanley Cup champion Detroit Red Wings.
On May 9, 2008, the Colorado Avalanche Organization announced that Joel Quenneville would not return to coach the team next season. Two weeks later, Tony Granato was named head coach of the Avalanche for the second time.
The 2008 -- 09 season was the worst season the Avalanche had since moving to Denver. Posting a record of 32 -- 45 -- 5, finishing 15th in the Western Conference (28th overall), and recording the fewest amount of points since their days in Quebec during the 1979 -- 80 season. The Avalanche missed the post-season for the second time in three seasons. It would be the first time in Avalanche history the team 's top scorer would score less than 70 points on the season, as Milan Hejduk and Ryan Smyth would register only 59 points each. Captain Joe Sakic played a career low 15 games, notching just two goals and ten assists. The team 's 199 goals was a league low. On April 13, 2009, just one day after the end of the season, the Avalanche relieved Francois Giguere of his general manager duties. Colorado would go on to receive the highest draft pick in Avalanche history, third overall. That pick turned out to be Brampton Battalion star Matt Duchene.
In the 2009 off - season, the Avalanche named Greg Sherman the new general manager and Joe Sacco the new head coach. The following month, top scorer Ryan Smyth was traded to the Los Angeles Kings and Joe Sakic, the only team captain the Avs had ever known, retired after 21 seasons in the NHL. The Avs named Adam Foote team captain to replace him. Sakic 's jersey retirement ceremony took place on October 1, 2009, before the season opener at home against the San Jose Sharks in front of a sold out crowd where the Avalanche won 5 -- 2. The Avalanche started the season off strong until the Olympic break. Three Avs played in Vancouver: Paul Stastny for the United States, Ruslan Salei for Belarus and Peter Budaj for Slovakia. Following the Winter Olympics, the Avs struggled but eventually clinched a playoff spot with 95 points on the season, a 26 - point improvement from the previous year 's effort, and good enough for eighth place in the Western Conference. The Avalanche fell in the Western Conference Quarter - finals to the top - seeded San Jose Sharks in six games.
The 2010 off - season proved limited activity on the Avs ' part. Stan Kroenke bought full ownership in the St. Louis Rams of the NFL in 2010. Since the NFL does not allow its owners to hold majority control of major - league teams in other NFL cities, Kroenke turned over day - to - day control of the Denver Nuggets and Avalanche to his son Josh toward the end of 2010, and must sell his controlling interest in both teams by 2014.
After an impressive underdog triumph in making the playoffs in 2010, and Joe Sacco finishing third in Jack Adams Trophy voting, the Avs failed to qualify for the playoffs in 2011. Earning only 68 points in the standings, setting a franchise record for losing and winless streaks after the All - Star break, the Avalanche have seen their worst season yet since moving to Denver. One point less than their previous worst season in 2008 -- 09. They finished 29th in the 30 - team NHL, besting only their division mates, the Edmonton Oilers. Matt Duchene set a franchise record as the youngest scoring leader in Quebec / Colorado history with 67 points, sharing the club goals - leader title with David Jones, each with 27 tallies. Former Avs great Peter Forsberg attempted a comeback in the NHL with Colorado mid-season. After two games, zero points and compiling a plus - minus rating of -- 4, however, Forsberg announced his retirement from professional hockey. Captain Adam Foote also retired after the final game of the season.
In the off - season, Colorado had two first - round picks. Present at the draft, former Avalanche great Joe Sakic served his first duties as new alternate governor and adviser of hockey operations of the club. With their first pick, second overall, they selected Gabriel Landeskog, the young captain of the Kitchener Rangers. Second, they selected defenseman Duncan Siemens 11th overall, a pick acquired from the St. Louis Blues in the controversial trade that sent power - forward Chris Stewart, long time top prospect Kevin Shattenkirk and a second round pick to the Blues in exchange for their first round pick, veteran Jay McClement and 2006 former first overall pick, Erik Johnson. A complete overhaul at the goal tending position sent Peter Budaj to the Montreal Canadiens and Brian Elliott to St. Louis, Elliott having been acquired from the Ottawa Senators for Craig Anderson during the team 's downward spiral the season previous. Goalie Semyon Varlamov was dealt to Colorado from the Washington Capitals for a first and second pick, while veteran netminder and former Conn Smythe Trophy winner Jean - Sebastien Giguere was signed as a free agent in hopes to mentor the young Varlamov. Duncan Siemens was sent back to his major junior team, the Saskatoon Blades in camp, while Gabriel Landeskog made the opening night roster against the Detroit Red Wings on October 8, 2011, at Pepsi Center. Adam Deadmarsh was promoted from video / developmental coach to offensive assistant coach after Steve Konowalchuk accepted a job as head coach in the minor league.
Peter Forsberg 's number 21 became the fourth jersey number retired by the Avs on opening night, a contest Colorado would lose to Detroit 3 -- 0. Colorado redeemed themselves in game two of the season on October 10, 2011, against the 2011 Stanley Cup champion Boston Bruins. Varlamov negated all 30 shots registered by Boston and posted the fifth shutout of his career and first win as an Avalanche in the regular season. Milan Hejduk scored the game - winning goal and first goal of the season for the club in a 1 -- 0 victory over the defending champions. In April 2012, The Avs were eliminated from playoff contention and finished 11th place in the Western Conference. Despite a 20 - point improvement from last season 's efforts, the team failed to reach the playoffs for the second straight year, the first time the Colorado club would do so in their 17 years playing in Denver. Head coach Joe Sacco signed a two - year contract extension shortly after the end of the season. Stand out rookie Gabriel Landeskog overtook Matt Duchene as the youngest in franchise history to lead the team in goals, scoring 22 in 82 games.
Having resigned most of their free agents, the club would n't see much change in the 2012 off - season, with the exception of losing unrestricted free agents Peter Mueller, Jay McClement and Kevin Porter. Colorado would add Greg Zanon, John Mitchell and high scoring winger P.A. Parenteau to its roster. Gabriel Landeskog, the Avs ' lone representative at the 2012 NHL Awards, walked away with the Calder Memorial Trophy, joining Chris Drury, Peter Forsberg and Peter Stastny for earning top rookie honors for the Avalanche.
On September 4, 2012, Gabriel Landeskog was named the fourth captain of the Avalanche. Former captain Milan Hejduk relinquished his captaincy a week earlier. At 19 years and 286 days old, Landeskog is the youngest captain in NHL history, being 11 days younger than when Sidney Crosby was named captain of the Pittsburgh Penguins at 19 years and 297 days.
After a disappointing 2012 -- 13 season which saw the Colorado Avalanche finish 15th in the Western Conference and 29th overall in the League, it was announced on April 28, 2013, that Head Coach Joe Sacco had been relieved of his duties. On May 10, it was announced that former long - time Avalanche captain and Hockey Hall of Famer Joe Sakic is set to take on an expanded role in Avalanche management, being named executive vice president of hockey operations, overseeing all matters involving hockey personnel. It was also announced that Josh Kroenke, son of owner Stan Kroenke, is now president of the Avalanche, succeeding Pierre Lacroix. On May 23, Patrick Roy returned to the Avalanche as head coach and vice president of hockey operations. Although Sherman retained his role as general manager, he was largely reduced to an advisory role. Roy and Sakic now share most of the duties held by a general manager on most other NHL teams, though Sakic has the final say on hockey matters.
Under Roy in 2013 -- 14, the Avs returned to the playoffs, finishing first in the Central Division and second in the Western Conference, but would lose a seven - game series to the Minnesota Wild in the Western Conference Quarterfinals. Nonetheless, for his outstanding job as a first - year coach, Roy won the Jack Adams Award for the League 's top coaching honors.
Just prior to the start of the 2014 -- 15 season, Sakic was given the title of general manager while Sherman was demoted to assistant general manager, thus formalizing the de facto arrangement that had been in place since 2013. Despite the front office changes, the Avalanche failed to qualify for the 2015 playoffs after finishing with a record of 39 -- 31 -- 12, resulting in a seventh - place finish in the Central Division.
After failing to qualify for the playoffs again following the 2015 -- 16 season, on August 11, 2016, Roy resigned from his head coaching and vice president of hockey operations positions with the team.
Following the departure of Roy, the Avalanche hired Jared Bednar from the Calder Cup champions, the Lake Erie Monsters of the American Hockey League, as head coach. On December 10, 2016, the Avalanche allowed 10 goals in a 10 -- 1 loss to the Canadiens. The Avalanche closed out their season with a record of 22 -- 56 -- 4, resulting in a franchise - low 48 points and a last - place finish in the league; this was the worst record of any team in the NHL since the Atlanta Thrashers finished with a record of 14 -- 61 -- 7 and 39 points in the 1999 -- 2000 season (which was their first season in the league).
The Colorado Avalanche have the all - time NHL record for the longest consecutive attendance sell outs at home games with 487. The streak began on November 9, 1995, on the Avalanche 's eighth regular season home game during the 1995 -- 96 season, with an attendance of 16,061 at the McNichols Sports Arena versus the Dallas Stars. Almost 11 years later, it ended on October 16, 2006, after a reported attendance of 17,681, which is 326 under the capacity at Pepsi Center, before a game against the Chicago Blackhawks. The Avalanche recorded their 500th home sellout in their 515th game in Denver on January 20, 2007, against the Detroit Red Wings.
In 1996, the Colorado Avalanche met the Detroit Red Wings in the Western Conference Finals and upset the Red Wings 4 -- 2. During Game 6, Red Wings player Kris Draper was checked into the boards face - first by Avalanche player Claude Lemieux. As a result, Draper had to undergo facial reconstructive surgery and had to have his jaw wired shut for five weeks. The incident marked the beginning of a rivalry often considered one of the most intense in NHL history by the press and fans.
In the following season, in the last regular season meeting between the Avalanche and the Red Wings on March 26, 1997, a brawl known as the Brawl in Hockeytown broke out. The game ended with nine fights, 11 goals, 39 penalties, 148 penalty minutes, one hat - trick (by Valeri Kamensky) and a goalie fight between Stanley Cup champion goalies Patrick Roy and Mike Vernon. Claude Lemieux was one of the players singled out by the Red Wings players. The Red Wings ended up winning the game in overtime 6 -- 5. The teams met again in the Western Conference Finals that season, with the Red Wings emerging victorious and going on to win the Stanley Cup.
The rivalry between the Avalanche and the Red Wings was most intense from 1996 to 2002. During those seven seasons the two teams played five postseason series against each other in the Stanley Cup playoffs, with the Avalanche winning three of the series (1995 -- 96, 4 -- 2; 1998 -- 99, 4 -- 2; 1999 -- 2000, 4 -- 1) and the Red Wings winning two of them (1996 -- 97, 4 -- 2; 2001 -- 02, 4 -- 3). During this time frame, these two teams combined for a total of five Stanley Cup championships in seven years, the Avalanche winning twice (1995 -- 96 and 2000 -- 01) and the Red Wings winning three times (1996 -- 97, 1997 -- 98 and 2001 -- 02). After 2002, the rivalry between the two teams began to cool down, and the two teams would not meet again in the playoffs until 2008, when the Red Wings swept the Avalanche in the Western Conference Semi-finals and went on to win the Stanley Cup. The Red Wings moved to the Eastern Conference in 2013 -- 14 season as part of the realignment which makes the two rivals only see each other twice a year.
The Colorado Avalanche logo is composed by a burgundy letter A with snow wrapped around, similar to an avalanche, in the shape of the letter C. There is a hockey puck in the lower -- right end of the snow and a blue oval on the background.
The team 's original alternate logo was the foot of a Sasquatch / Bigfoot and was seen on the shoulders of the Avalanche 's home and away jerseys. The logo was used on their jerseys since 1995; however, prior to the start of the 2015 NHL Entry Draft, the club unveiled a new alternate logo. The new logo features the insignia taken from the Colorado state flag and re-colored to match the team 's color scheme. The logo was featured on a patch located on the shoulders of the team 's uniforms, along with a 20th anniversary logo, for the 2015 -- 16 season.
The team colors are burgundy, steel blue, black, silver and white. For the 2007 -- 08 season, the NHL introduced the new - look Rbk EDGE jerseys. The Avalanche debuted their new version of the Rbk EDGE jerseys on September 12, 2007, at an Avalanche press conference. The design is similar to the previous jerseys, with some added piping.
The road jersey from 1995 to 2003, which became the team 's home jersey in 2003 when the NHL decided to switch home and road jerseys, is predominantly burgundy and dark blue in color. Along the jersey, there are two black and white zigzag lines, one in the shoulders, the other near the belly. Between them, the jersey is burgundy, outside those lines it is dark blue. Similar lines exist around the neck. The Avalanche logo is in the center of the jersey. On top of the shoulders, there is the alternate logo, one on each side. The away jersey is similar but with different colors. The burgundy part on the home jersey is white on the away jersey, the light blue part is burgundy and the black and white lines became gray and blue.
The Avalanche introduced a third jersey during the 2001 -- 02 season. It is predominantly burgundy. "Colorado '' is spelled in a diagonal across the jersey where the logo is on the other jerseys. From the belly down, three large horizontal stripes, the first and the last being black and the middle one being white. In the middle of the arms, there are five stripes, black, white and burgundy from the outside inside in both sides. On the shoulders is the primary "A '' logo. The third jersey was not worn by the Avalanche for the 2007 -- 08 or the 2008 -- 09 seasons after the NHL switched to the Reebok Edge jerseys.
In the 2009 -- 10 season, the Avalanche introduced a new third jersey that was worn for the first time during the November 14, 2009 home game against the Vancouver Canucks. It is similar to the club 's previous third jersey, but is primarily blue instead of burgundy and features burgundy patches on the shoulders with the "A '' logo inside. It also does not have horizontal striping on the bottom. On the arms, there are five stripes, burgundy, white and black from the outside inside in both sides. They are closer to the elbows than the stripes on the previous third jerseys.
Prior to the 2015 -- 16 season, the Avalanche modified their existing uniform set by replacing the yeti foot shoulder logo in favor of the burgundy and navy ' C ' logo. A new third jersey was also unveiled, featuring navy as the dominant color, and a recolored version of the Rockies logo in front.
Before the 2017 -- 18 season, the Avalanche unveiled new uniforms as part of the switch to Adidas. The look was inspired from the original uniforms they wore from 1995 to 2007, save for the bold silver border that pays homage to Colorado 's silver mining industry.
Avalanche games air on regional sports network Altitude Sports and Entertainment since 2004, replacing FSN Rocky Mountain.
This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Avalanche. For the full season - by - season history, see List of Colorado Avalanche seasons
Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime Losses, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against
Note: This list does not include records from the Quebec Nordiques (WHA & NHL). Items in bold are NHL records. Records as of April 9, 2007.
These are the top - ten point - scorers in franchise (Quebec and Colorado) history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season. Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games Played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P / G = Points per game
Updated March 24, 2018
In addition to those below, the NHL retired Wayne Gretzky 's No. 99 for all its member teams at the 2000 NHL All - Star Game.
The numbers retired when the franchise was in Quebec - J.C. Tremblay 's No. 3, Marc Tardif 's No. 8, Michel Goulet 's No. 16 and Peter Stastny 's No. 26 - were entered back into circulation after the move to Colorado.
Note: This list of team captains does not include captains from the Quebec Nordiques (WHA & NHL).
Note: This list does not include general managers from the Quebec Nordiques (WHA & NHL).
Note: This list does not include head coaches from the Quebec Nordiques (WHA & NHL).
Records as of April 9, 2017.
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who won the universal title at royal rumble 2018 | WWE Greatest Royal Rumble - Wikipedia
Greatest Royal Rumble was a professional wrestling pay - per - view event and WWE Network event promoted by WWE for their Raw and SmackDown brands. The event was held on April 27, 2018 at the King Abdullah Sports City 's King Abdullah International Stadium in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The event was scheduled for 7: 00 p.m. local time. It aired live in the United States at noon EDT, with a pre-show starting at 11 a.m. EDT. At the event, all men 's main roster championships were defended, in addition to a 50 - man Royal Rumble match.
The card featured ten matches. In the main event, Braun Strowman won the titular Greatest Royal Rumble match to become the inaugural Greatest Royal Rumble Champion. In the penultimate match, Brock Lesnar retained the Universal Championship in a steel cage match against Roman Reigns. On the undercard, the WWE Championship match between AJ Styles and Shinsuke Nakamura resulted in a double countout, The Undertaker defeated Rusev in a casket match, and John Cena defeated Triple H in the opening match.
Since 1988, the Royal Rumble has been an annual event held by WWE and is typically shown on pay - per - view. The event is highlighted by the Royal Rumble match, a battle royal whose participants enter at timed intervals. The Greatest Royal Rumble included the largest version of the match to date, having a total of 50 participants.
On March 5, 2018, WWE and the Saudi General Sports Authority advertised the Greatest Royal Rumble, a live event to be held on April 27, 2018, at King Abdullah International Stadium, part of the King Abdullah Sports City, in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The event is a part of a 10 - year strategic multi-platform partnership between WWE and the Saudi General Sports Authority in support of Saudi Vision 2030, Saudi Arabia 's social and economic reform program.
On March 19, 2018, WWE scheduled seven championship matches for the event: the WWE Championship, Universal Championship, United States Championship, Intercontinental Championship, SmackDown Tag Team Championship, Raw Tag Team Championship and Cruiserweight Championship were to be defended at the event.
As revealed on March 22, 2018, the event was streamed live on the WWE Network. It also aired on traditional pay - per - view in the United States and internationally. The event was also the first WWE pay - per - view to feature Arabic commentary.
In the weeks leading up to the event, the WWE held tryouts in Saudi Arabia. From these tryouts, eight were selected to receive training by WWE, which would include an opportunity to earn a spot at the Greatest Royal Rumble event itself.
The card comprised ten matches that resulted from scripted storylines and had results predetermined by WWE on the Raw and SmackDown brands. Storylines were produced on WWE 's weekly television shows, Monday Night Raw, SmackDown Live, and the cruiserweight - exclusive 205 Live.
On April 9, Brock Lesnar, who had renewed his WWE contract, was scheduled to defend the Universal Championship against Roman Reigns in a steel cage match as a rematch from WrestleMania 34. On Raw following WrestleMania, Reigns expressed frustration about not being told about his future matches and opponents, singling out the steel cage match with Lesnar. Reigns alleged that there was a conspiracy against him. Samoa Joe, who had been out with an injury since January, came out and warned Reigns that Lesnar would beat him again.
On March 26, WWE scheduled a ladder match between then - champion The Miz, Seth Rollins, Finn Bálor, and Samoa Joe for the Intercontinental Championship. At WrestleMania 34, The Miz lost the Intercontinental Championship to Rollins, thus making Rollins the defending champion. Both Miz and Joe were traded to SmackDown while Rollins and Bálor remained on Raw.
On March 26, Cesaro and Sheamus were scheduled to defend the Raw Tag Team Championship against The Hardy Boyz (Jeff and Matt Hardy). At WrestleMania 34, however, Cesaro and Sheamus lost the titles to Braun Strowman and 10 - year - old Nicholas. The following night on Raw, Strowman and Nicholas relinquished the titles due to Nicholas being a fourth grader. Cesaro and Sheamus demanded their titles back, but Raw General Manager Kurt Angle instead scheduled them to face the winner of the four - team Tag Team Eliminator tournament for the vacant titles at the Greatest Royal Rumble. "Woken '' Matt Hardy and Bray Wyatt won the tournament by defeating Titus Worldwide (Apollo Crews and Titus O'Neil) and The Revival (Dash Wilder and Scott Dawson). Cesaro and Sheamus were then traded to SmackDown during the Superstar Shake - up.
At WrestleMania 34, The Bludgeon Brothers (Harper and Rowan) defeated The Usos (Jey and Jimmy Uso) and The New Day 's Big E and Kofi Kingston in a triple threat tag team match to win the SmackDown Tag Team Championship. On the following SmackDown, The Usos defeated The New Day to earn a title match at Greatest Royal Rumble.
A match between John Cena and Triple H was scheduled on March 26.
The Undertaker, was originally scheduled to face Rusev in a casket match, the first match of its kind in three years. Due to reasons not entirely clear, Rusev was temporarily replaced by Chris Jericho -- this was explained with Rusev 's wife Lana complaining about her husband competing in a casket match -- but eventually reinserted back into the match. Jericho was restored to his original participation in the Greatest Royal Rumble match.
At WrestleMania 34, Jinder Mahal defeated Randy Orton, Bobby Roode, and Rusev in a fatal - four way match to win the United States Championship. Mahal was then traded to Raw and lost the championship to Jeff Hardy and Mahal invoked his rematch clause for the Greatest Royal Rumble. Hardy was then traded to SmackDown the following night.
At WrestleMania 34, AJ Styles successfully defended the WWE Championship against Shinsuke Nakamura. After the match, showed his respect to Styles but then attacked him with a low blow and a Kinshasa, turning heel. On April 17, after repeated attacks on Styles by Nakamura, a rematch between the two was scheduled for the Greatest Royal Rumble.
On the WrestleMania 34 pre-show, Cedric Alexander defeated Mustafa Ali in the WWE Cruiserweight Championship tournament final to win the vacant title. Two nights later on 205 Live, Buddy Murphy attacked the new champion during his celebration. Murphy was then scheduled to face Alexander for the title at the Greatest Royal Rumble, but he failed his mandatory weigh - in when he weighed 207 pounds, 2 pounds over the 205 pound weight limit. He was then removed from the match and banned from competing on 205 Live until he met the weight requirement. The following week, Kalisto earned a Cruiserweight Championship match at the Greatest Royal Rumble by winning a gauntlet match.
The actual pay - per - view opened with John Cena facing Triple H. During the match, after trading finishers, and reversing each other 's finishers, Cena performed an Attitude Adjustment on Triple H, a springboard into the corner turnbuckle, followed and another Attitude Adjustment to pick up the victory. Following the match Cena thanked the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for their hospitality, and expressed excitement over the event.
In the following match, Cedric Alexander defended the Cruiserweight Championship against Kalisto. The match ended when Alexander countered a Salida Del Sol attempt into a Lumbar Check to retain the title.
Next, the vacant Raw Tag Team Championship was contested between the team of Bray Wyatt and Matt Hardy and the former champions, Cesaro and Sheamus. In the end, Hardy distracted Sheamus, allowing Wyatt to perform a Sister Abigail on him. Hardy and Wyatt then performed a wheelbarrow Twist of Fate on Sheamus to win the title.
Jeff Hardy then defended the United States Championship against Jinder Mahal. In the end, Hardy performed a Swanton Bomb on Mahal to retain the title.
After that, The Bludgeons Brothers defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Usos. Harper and Rowan retained their titles after performing a Double Crucifix Powerbomb on Jimmy Uso.
Next, Seth Rollins defended the Intercontinental Championship against Finn Balor, Samoa Joe and The Miz in a Ladder match. Near the end of the match, Finn Balor climbed the ladder to unhook the championship, only for Rollins to leap from the top rope onto the ladder and managed to retrieve the title belt before Balor, thus retaining his championship.
Later, AJ Styles defended the WWE Championship against Shinsuke Nakamura. During the match, Nakamura resorted to various illegal tactics, such as a Low Blow, increasingly frustrating Styles. In the end, both Nakamura and Styles brawled outside of the ring only for the match to end in a double countout. Post-match Styles performed a Phenomenal Forearm over the top rope on Nakamura.
After that, The Undertaker fought Rusev (who was accompanied by Aiden English) in a Casket match. At the end of the match, Undertaker performed a Chokeslam on Rusev and rolled him into the casket. Before he could close the lid, English attacked the Undertaker, who retailiated with another Chokeslam and a Tombstone Piledriver before putting English into the casket alongside Rusev and closing it for the victory.
In the penultimate match, Brock Lesnar (accompanied by Paul Heyman) defended the Universal Championship against Roman Reigns in a steel cage match. Lesnar delivered multiple German Suplexes during the match, and both men kicked out of each other 's finishing moves. At one point in the match, Reigns tried to escape the cage through the door only for Heyman to slam the door on Reigns. The match ended after Reigns put Lesnar through the cage wall with a Spear, sending it onto the floor. Despite Reigns touching the floor with both feet first, the referee awarded the win to Lesnar, thereby retaining the Universal Championship.
Daniel Bryan and Dolph Ziggler began the 50 - man Royal Rumble match as the first two entrants. Bryan survived until the final 3, beating out Rey Mysterio for the longest time spent in a single Royal Rumble match of all time at an hour and sixteen minutes. At the end of the match, Big Cass eliminated Bryan only for Cass to then attempt a Big Boot on Braun Strowman, who ducked and knocked Cass over the top rope to win the match. Strowman also achieved the most eliminations of a single Royal Rumble match at 13, beating out a record previously held by Roman Reigns with 12. Post-match, Strowman received a trophy and the Greatest Royal Rumble Championship.
WWE had been criticized for holding the event without female wrestlers, who were unable to perform at the event due to the limited rights women have in Saudi Arabia. Triple H, WWE 's Executive Vice President of Talent, Live Events and Creative, responded to the criticism: "I understand that people are questioning it, but you have to understand that every culture is different and just because you do n't agree with a certain aspect of it, it does n't mean it 's not a relevant culture... You ca n't dictate to a country or a religion about how they handle things but, having said that, WWE is at the forefront of a women 's evolution in the world and what you ca n't do is effect change anywhere by staying away from it... While women are not competing in the event, we have had discussions about that and hope that, in the next few years they will be ''. Women were in attendance for the event, though only if accompanied by a male guardian. This was a major change from previous events, which were only open to men. Associated Press noted that this is due to "a series of social changes '' by the Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman. During the event, WWE aired a promotional video, which included WWE female wrestlers. The Saudi General Sports Authority issued an apology for "indecent material '' that aired at the event.
In addition to the women, wrestler Sami Zayn did not participate in the event as Zayn is of Syrian descent, and Saudi Arabia has strained relations with Syria.
Another subject of criticism was the situation of LGBT rights in Saudi Arabia, as in Saudi Arabia homosexual intercourse is illegal and can be punished by death.
The WWE Greatest Royal Rumble Championship, also known as the Belt Kingdom Championship (Arabic: حزام بطولة المملكة), is a professional wrestling championship created and promoted by American professional wrestling promotion WWE and sanctioned by the Saudi General Sports Authority. The current and inaugural champion is Braun Strowman, who was awarded the championship for winning the 50 - man Greatest Royal Rumble match at the namesake event.
On March 5, 2018, WWE and the Saudi General Sports Authority advertised the Greatest Royal Rumble, a live event to be held on April 27, 2018, at King Abdullah International Stadium, part of the King Abdullah Sports City, in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The event was part of a 10 - year strategic multi-platform partnership between WWE and the Saudi General Sports Authority in support of Saudi Vision 2030, Saudi Arabia 's social and economic reform program. The Greatest Royal Rumble Championship was unveiled by WWE on April 27, 2018 during the Greatest Royal Rumble event. The championship was announced on the official website of the Saudi General Sports Authority as the Belt Kingdom Championship. Braun Strowman, the 41st entrant of the 50 - man Greatest Royal Rumble match, became the inaugural Greatest Royal Rumble Champion by lastly eliminating Big Cass.
As with some other championship belts unveiled in 2016, the base design is similar to the WWE Championship, with notable differences. Instead of a large cut out of the WWE logo, the center plate is modeled with Arabic pattern with the WWE logo in the center. Like the WWE Championship belt and other belts introduced in 2016 and 2017, the Greatest Royal Rumble Championship belt features two side plates, both separated by gold divider bars, with removable round sections that can be replaced with the current champion 's logo; the default plates feature the official logo of Saudi General Sports Authority which is identical to the national emblem of Saudi Arabia. The plates are on a green leather strap resembling the color of the national flag of Saudi Arabia.
As of May 28, 2018, there has been one reign, which is the inaugural and current champion, Braun Strowman.
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who came back on the four battle for stardom | The Four: Battle for Stardom - wikipedia
The Four: Battle for Stardom, also known as The Four, is an American reality television music competition show created by Armoza Formats and produced by ITV Entertainment and Armoza Formats. The show, based on an Israeli format called The Final Four, premiered on Fox on January 4, 2018. The winner is awarded a recording contract with Republic Records, a division of Universal Music Group, and is named iHeartRadio 's "On the Verge '' artist. The season one winner was Evvie McKinney.
The three judges are Sean Combs, DJ Khaled, and Meghan Trainor. A fourth judge, Charlie Walk, withdrew from the show following sexual assault allegations against him; he had taped five episodes and left prior to the season finale. The show is hosted by Fergie.
On February 8, 2018, Fox renewed the series for a second season which is set to air in summer 2018. It is unclear if Charlie Walk will return as a judge.
The Four is a singing competition that differs among similar talent competitions, in that there is no auditions stage. The artists, also known as the challengers, are held in the holding room before singing in front of a live studio audience and the judges. This panel of people in the music industry ultimately decides the best challengers that compete against "The Four ''. Their decision must be unanimous. The members consist of vocalists of varying genres, and they must win challenges against new fellow artists to keep their seat and remain as a member of "The Four ''. At the end of six weeks, the last singer standing among "The Four '' wins the competition.
There are two distinct rounds in The Four. In the performances round, new challengers must earn their seat by performing in front of a live studio audience, the panel of judges and "The Four ''. After the performance, the judges then vote and make a "Yes '' or "No '' decision, signifying the challenger 's fate in the competition. If a challenger receives a unanimous four blue rings on stage (four "Yes '' from the panel), they advance to the next round of the competition. A red ring given to the challenger signifies a "No '', ending his or her time in the competition. Artists who advance to the challenge round can compete against a member of "The Four '' for their seat. In a sing - off style battle, the challenger and "The Four '' member sing against each other for their seat. After the challenge, the studio audience then votes to decide which of the two should remain in the competition. The winner locks their seat for the rest of the night and can not be challenged again until the next episode.
Names in bold type indicate the winner of the season.
The first season of The Four premiered on January 4, 2018. After six episodes, Evvie McKinney was announced as the winner of the season, with Candice Boyd as the runner - up. Along with the former and latter, the final group of "The Four '' included Vincint Cannady and Zhavia. According to Variety, judge / producer Sean Combs has asked finalist Vincint Cannady to return to The Four for season two.
The first season of The Four was Fox 's most watched and highest - rated new unscripted series in nearly four years.
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when did the celtics win their last championship | Boston Celtics - wikipedia
The Boston Celtics are an American professional basketball team based in Boston, Massachusetts. The Celtics compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the league 's Eastern Conference Atlantic Division. Founded in 1946 and one of eight NBA teams (out of 23 total teams) to survive the league 's first decade, the team is owned by Boston Basketball Partners LLC. The Celtics play their home games at the TD Garden, which they share with the National Hockey League (NHL) 's Boston Bruins. The franchise 's 17 championships are the most of any NBA team, and account for 24.3 percent of all NBA championships since the league 's founding in 1946. As a percentage of championships won, the Celtics are the most successful franchise to date in the major four traditional North American professional sports leagues.
The Celtics have played the Los Angeles Lakers a record 12 times in the finals, including their most recent appearances in 2008 and 2010, where the Celtics have won nine meetings. Four Celtics players (Bob Cousy, Bill Russell, Dave Cowens and Larry Bird) have won the NBA Most Valuable Player Award for an NBA record total of 10 MVP awards. Their mascot ' Lucky the Leprechaun ' is a nod to the team 's Irish heritage and to Boston 's historically large Irish population.
The Celtics rose again after struggling through the 1990s to win a championship in 2008 with the help of Kevin Garnett, Paul Pierce, and Ray Allen in what was known as the new "Big Three '' era, following the original "Big Three '' era of the 1980s that featured Larry Bird, Kevin McHale, and Robert Parish.
After the end of the second "Big Three '' era, general manager Danny Ainge began a rebuilding process with the help of new head coach Brad Stevens, who led the Celtics to a return to the playoffs from 2015 to 2017. During the 2016 -- 17 season, the Celtics clinched the top seed in the Eastern Conference playoffs. They faced the Chicago Bulls in the first round and then the Washington Wizards in the second round winning in 7 games. The Boston Celtics then lost in the Eastern Conference Finals to the Cleveland Cavaliers in 5 games after Isaiah Thomas was injured.
The Boston Clovers
The Celtics struggled during their early years, until the hiring of coach Red Auerbach. In the franchise 's early days, Auerbach had no assistants, ran all the practices, did all the scouting -- both of opposing teams and college draft prospects -- and scheduled all the road trips. One of the first great players to join the Celtics was Bob Cousy, whom Auerbach initially refused to draft out of nearby Holy Cross because he was "too flashy ''. Cousy eventually became the property of the Chicago Stags, but when that franchise went bankrupt, Cousy went to the Celtics in a dispersal draft. After the 1955 -- 56 season, Auerbach made a stunning trade. He sent perennial All - Star Ed Macauley to the St. Louis Hawks along with the draft rights to Cliff Hagan in exchange for the second overall pick in the draft. After negotiating with the Rochester Royals -- a negotiation that included a promise that the Celtics owner would send the highly sought - after Ice Capades to Rochester if the Royals would let Russell slide to # 2 -- Auerbach used the pick to select University of San Francisco center Bill Russell. Auerbach also acquired Holy Cross standout, and 1957 NBA Rookie of the Year, Tommy Heinsohn. Russell and Heinsohn worked extraordinarily well with Cousy, and they were the players around whom Auerbach would build the champion Celtics for more than a decade.
With Bill Russell, the Celtics advanced to the 1957 NBA Finals and defeated the St. Louis Hawks in seven games, giving the Celtics the first of their record 17 championships. Russell went on to win 11 championships, making him the most decorated player in NBA history. In 1958, the Celtics again advanced to the NBA Finals, this time losing to the Hawks in 6 games. However, with the acquisition of K.C. Jones that year, the Celtics began a dynasty that would last for more than a decade. In 1959, the Celtics won the NBA Championship after sweeping the Minneapolis Lakers, the first of their record eight consecutive championships. During that time, the Celtics met the Lakers in the Finals five times, starting an intense and often bitter rivalry that has spanned generations. In 1964, the Celtics became the first NBA team to have an all African - American starting lineup. On December 26, 1964, Willie Naulls replaced an injured Tommy Heinsohn, joining Tom ' Satch ' Sanders, K.C. Jones, Sam Jones, and Bill Russell in the starting lineup. The Celtics defeated St. Louis 97 -- 84. Boston won its next 11 games with Naulls starting in place of Heinsohn. The Celtics of the late - 1950s -- 1960s are widely considered as one of the most dominant teams of all time.
Auerbach retired as coach after the 1965 -- 66 season and Russell took over as player - coach, which was Auerbach 's ploy to keep Russell interested. With his appointment, Russell also became the first African - American coach in any U.S. pro sport. Auerbach would remain the general manager, a position he would hold well into the 1980s. However, that year the Celtics ' string of NBA titles was broken as they lost to the Philadelphia 76ers in the Eastern Conference Finals. The aging team managed two more championships in 1968 and 1969, defeating the Los Angeles Lakers each time in the NBA Finals. Russell retired after the 1969 season, effectively ending a dominant Celtics dynasty that had garnered 11 NBA titles in 13 seasons. The streak of 8 consecutive championships is the longest streak of consecutive championships in U.S. professional sports history.
The 1970 season was a rebuilding year, as the Celtics had their first losing record since the 1949 -- 50 season. However, with the acquisition of Dave Cowens, Paul Silas, and Jo Jo White, the Celtics soon became dominant again. After losing in the Eastern Conference Finals in 1972, the Celtics regrouped and came out determined in 1973 and posted an excellent 68 -- 14 regular season record. But the season ended in disappointment, as they were upset in 7 games by the New York Knicks in the Conference Finals. John Havlicek injured his right shoulder in game six and was forced to play game 7 shooting left handed. The Celtics returned to the playoffs the next year, defeating the Milwaukee Bucks in the NBA Finals in 1974 for their 12th NBA Championship. The teams split the first four games, and after the Celtics won Game 5 in Milwaukee they headed back to Boston leading 3 games to 2, with a chance to claim the title on their home court. However, the Bucks won Game 6 when Kareem Abdul - Jabbar nestled in a hook shot with 3 seconds left in the game 's second overtime, and the series returned to Milwaukee. But Cowens was the hero in Game 7, scoring 28 points, as the Celtics brought the title back to Boston for the first time in five years. In 1976, the team won yet another championship, defeating the Phoenix Suns in 6 games. The Finals featured one of the greatest games in the NBA 's history. With the series tied at two games apiece, the Suns trailed early in the Boston Garden, but came back to force overtime. In double overtime, a Gar Heard turn - around jumper at the top of the key sent the game to a third overtime, at which point the Celtics prevailed. Tommy Heinsohn coached the team for those two championships. After the 1976 championship and a playoff appearance in 1977, Boston went into another rebuilding phase. In the 1977 NBA draft, the Celtics drafted a young forward from UNC Charlotte named Cedric Maxwell. "Cornbread '' Maxwell did not contribute much in his rookie season, but he showed promise. Auerbach 's job became even tougher following the 1977 -- 78 season in which they went 32 -- 50 as John Havlicek, the Celtics ' all - time leading scorer, retired after 16 seasons.
The Celtics owned two of the top eight picks in the 1978 NBA draft. Since the Celtics had two draft choices, Auerbach took a risk and selected junior Larry Bird of Indiana State with the 6th pick, knowing Bird would elect to remain in college for his senior year. The Celtics would retain his rights for one year -- a rule that was later changed -- and Auerbach believed Bird 's potential would make it worth the wait. Auerbach also felt that when the college season ended the Celtics would have a great chance to sign Bird. Auerbach was right and Bird signed soon after leading Indiana State to the NCAA Championship game, where they fell to a Michigan State University team. (The other pick was Freeman Williams, who was traded before the 1978 -- 79 season began.)
In 1978, ownership was changed as Irv Levin traded his stake in the Celtics with John Y. Brown, Jr. 's Buffalo Braves, so he could move the Braves to California, where they became known as the San Diego Clippers. As part of the deal, trades were made between the Braves / Clippers franchise and the Celtics franchise which resulted in many former Braves joining the team. One of the moves that irked Auerbach was a trade Brown made with the Braves that saw his franchise center Bob McAdoo join the Celtics for three first round draft picks Auerbach had planned on using for the future rebuilding project he was trying to undertake. The dispute nearly led to Auerbach resigning as general manager for a position with the New York Knicks. With public support strongly behind Auerbach, Brown sold the team to Harry Mangurian rather than run the risk of having Auerbach leave the team. The Celtics would struggle through the season, going 29 -- 53 without Bird. Newcomers Chris Ford, Rick Robey, Cedric Maxwell and Nate Archibald failed to reverse the team 's momentum.
Bird debuted for the Celtics during the 1979 -- 80 season, a year after being drafted. With a new owner in place, Auerbach made a number of moves that would bring the team back to prominence. He almost immediately traded McAdoo, a former NBA scoring champion, to the Detroit Pistons for guard M.L. Carr, a defensive specialist, and two first - round picks in the 1980 NBA draft. He also picked up point guard Gerald Henderson from the CBA. Carr, Archibald, Henderson and Ford formed a highly competent backcourt, with their unique skills blending in perfectly with the talented frontcourt of Cowens, Maxwell and Bird, who would go on to win NBA Rookie of the Year honors. The Celtics improved by 32 games, which at the time was the best single - season turnaround in NBA history, going 61 -- 21 and losing to the Philadelphia 76ers in the Eastern Conference Finals. That record was later broken by the Celtics about 30 years later.
After the season, Auerbach completed what may be the most lopsided trade in NBA history. Auerbach had always been a fan of stockpiling draft picks, so even after the success of the 1979 -- 80 season, the Celtics had both the 1st and 13th picks in the 1980 NBA draft left over from the M.L. Carr trade. Auerbach saw an opportunity to improve the team immediately, sending the two picks to the Golden State Warriors in exchange for center Robert Parish and the Warriors ' first round pick, the 3rd overall. With the draft pick, Auerbach picked University of Minnesota power forward Kevin McHale. With these three future Hall of Famers on the team, henceforth known as the first ' Big 3 ', the Celtics had a core in place to again become a dominant team.
The Celtics went 62 -- 20 under coach Bill Fitch in 1980 -- 81, despite losing center Dave Cowens to retirement late in training camp. Once again the Celtics matched up with the 76ers in the Eastern Conference Finals. Boston fell behind 3 games to 1 before coming back to win a classic 7th game, 91 -- 90. The Celtics went on to capture the 1981 NBA Championship over the Houston Rockets, just two years after Bird had been drafted. Maxwell was named NBA Finals MVP. The following year the Celtics again tried to come back from a 3 -- 1 deficit against the Sixers in the rematch but this time lost Game 7 at Boston Garden. In 1983 the Celtics were swept in the playoffs for the first time by the Milwaukee Bucks; afterwards Fitch resigned and the team was sold to new owners led by Don Gaston.
In 1983 -- 84 the Celtics, under new coach K.C. Jones, would go 62 -- 20 and finally get back to the NBA Finals after a three - year hiatus. In the finals, the Celtics came back from a 2 -- 1 deficit to defeat the Lakers, winning their 15th championship. Bird renewed his college rivalry with Lakers star Magic Johnson during this series. After the series Auerbach officially retired as general manager but maintained the position of team President. Auerbach was succeeded by Jan Volk as general manager. Volk had been with the Celtics since graduating from Columbia Law School in 1971 and had been the team 's General Counsel since 1976 and the team 's Assistant G.M. since 1980. During the off - season, in Volk 's first major transaction since assuming the GM role, the Celtics traded Henderson to the Seattle SuperSonics for their first round pick in the 1986 NBA draft.
In 1985, the Lakers and Celtics met again, but this time the Lakers took the championship. This was the first time the Lakers had defeated the Celtics for a championship, as well as the only time the Celtics lost a championship at Boston Garden. During the following off - season, the Celtics acquired Bill Walton from the Los Angeles Clippers in exchange for Cedric Maxwell. Walton was a big star with the Portland Trail Blazers, but injuries had kept him from living up to expectations. He was willing to come off the bench, deferring to the three big men already with the team. Walton, considered the best passer of all NBA centers in history, stayed healthy and was a big part of the Celtics ' success in 1986.
In 1985 -- 86 the Celtics fielded one of the best teams in NBA history. The 1986 Celtics won 67 games, going 40 -- 1 at their home games. Bird won his third consecutive MVP award and Walton won the Sixth Man of the Year Award. They won the franchise 's 16th championship and last of the 20th century, defeating the Houston Rockets in the NBA Finals 4 games to 2.
Thanks to the 1984 trade of Gerald Henderson and the subsequent fall of the Seattle SuperSonics, at the end of the 1985 -- 86 the Celtics owned not only the best team in the NBA but also the second pick in the 1986 NBA draft. The Celtics drafted Len Bias with the pick and had high hopes for the young University of Maryland star. Fans believed Bias had superstar potential, and that he would be the perfect complement to the aging, but still strong, Celtics. The hope was his presence would ensure the franchise would remain a powerhouse after Bird, McHale and Parish retired. Unfortunately, Bias died 48 hours after he was drafted, after using cocaine at a party and overdosing. It would be the first in a long string of bad luck for the Celtics, one that would continue until the next manifestation of the ' Big Three ' in Boston. Despite the loss of Bias, the Celtics remained competitive in 1986 -- 87, going 59 -- 23 and again winning the Eastern Conference Championship. However, injuries took their toll, and the Celtics ceded the NBA championship to the Lakers in six games. It would be 21 years before they would reach the NBA Finals again. The Celtics ' reign as the Eastern Conference champions ended in 1988, after the team lost to the Detroit Pistons in six games.
After the 1987 -- 88 season, head coach K.C. Jones retired. Jones was replaced as head coach by assistant Jimmy Rodgers. Rodgers faced immediate trouble in 1988 -- 89 when, only 6 games into the season, Larry Bird decided to have surgery to remove bone spurs in his feet. The injury sidelined Bird until well after the All - Star Break, although he hoped to return that year. However, despite his best attempts to return he was unable to make it back as the Celtics stumbled to a 42 -- 40 record and a first round playoff defeat to the Detroit Pistons. Bird returned in 1989 -- 90 and led the Celtics to a 52 -- 30 record. In the playoffs, after winning the first two games of a Best of 5 series against the New York Knicks, the Celtics collapsed, losing 3 straight, including the decisive 5th game at the Boston Garden. In the wake of the embarrassing defeat, Rodgers was fired and replaced by assistant coach and former Celtics ' player Chris Ford.
Under Ford 's leadership the Celtics improved to 56 -- 26 in 1990 -- 91, recapturing the Atlantic Division title even though Bird missed 22 games with a variety of injuries. The Celtics fell to the Detroit Pistons in the Eastern Conference Semifinals. In 1992, a late season rally allowed the Celtics to catch the New York Knicks and repeat as Atlantic Division champions. The team finished 51 -- 31 and matched up with the Indiana Pacers in the First round, this time sweeping the series. In the Eastern Conference Semifinals the Celtics lost a grueling 7 game series to the Cleveland Cavaliers. Due to back problems, Larry Bird played in only 45 of the 82 regular season games, and only 4 of the 10 playoff games; during games he was frequently lying on the floor when out of the lineup, instead of sitting on the bench. After 13 seasons with the club and winning a gold medal in the Barcelona Olympics with the Dream Team, Bird retired in 1992, primarily due to his back injuries. Among his lasting contributions to the game was the "Bird exception '', which allows teams to exceed the salary cap to re-sign their own free agents, at an amount up to the maximum salary.
At the time of Bird 's retirement, former Celtics guard Chris Ford was the coach of the Celtics. 26 - year - old Reggie Lewis (out of Boston 's Northeastern University) was seen as Bird 's successor as the franchise player for the Celtics. Lewis, a small forward, fainted during a 1993 first round playoff matchup with the Charlotte Hornets which the Celtics lost in four games. It was later revealed that Lewis had heart problems, yet he was able to get doctors to clear him for a comeback. He died of a heart attack while shooting baskets at Brandeis University during the offseason. The Celtics honored his memory during the following season by retiring his number 35. The original Big 3 era came to an end in 1994, after Robert Parish signed with the Hornets The year before, Kevin McHale retired after the Celtics ' playoff loss to the Hornets. The Celtics finished the year out of the playoffs with a 32 -- 50 mark.
In 1994, the Celtics hired former player and legendary towel - waving Celtic cheerleader M.L. Carr to be the team 's new V.P. of Basketball Operations, working alongside G.M. Jan Volk. In his first draft in charge of the Celtics, he drafted University of North Carolina star Eric Montross with his first round draft pick. Montross became the new heir apparent in the paint, but failed to develop and was eventually traded. 1994 -- 95 was the Celtics ' final season in the Boston Garden. The Celtics signed the aging Dominique Wilkins as a free agent, and he led the team in scoring with 17.8 PPG. Second - year player Dino Rađa, a power forward from Croatia, added an interior presence to the team that had been lacking in 1993 -- 94. The Celtics made the playoffs, losing to the heavily favored Orlando Magic in 4 games. In 1995, the Celtics moved from the Boston Garden to the Fleet Center (later TD BankNorth, then TD Garden). Carr fired Chris Ford and took the coaching reins himself. After drafting Providence College star Eric Williams, the Celtics struggled to a 33 -- 49 record.
Things got worse in 1996 -- 97 as the Celtics lost a franchise record 67 games, setting an unwanted NBA record winning only once against other Atlantic Division teams and just fifteen victories overall despite the emergence of 1st - round draft pick Antoine Walker. With Carr 's coaching stint deemed a failure, he stepped aside to another job in the organization when owner Paul Gaston convinced star college coach Rick Pitino to join the franchise as the team 's president, director of basketball operations, and head coach. Pitino 's appointment as team president was controversial as Auerbach, who had filled that role for more than 25 years, first heard about this change from local media people. Unfortunately for the franchise, Pitino was not the savior everyone expected him to be. Auerbach bore the insult of being elbowed out with dignity, even as the team failed to improve.
The Celtics received the third and sixth draft picks in the 1997 NBA draft, and used the picks to select a brand new backcourt through Chauncey Billups and Ron Mercer. The young team that lost 67 games the year before was dismantled, with David Wesley, Dino Rađa and Rick Fox being let go, and Williams traded to the Denver Nuggets for a pair of second round draft picks (Williams would return to the Celtics in 1999 and played for four years). Walter McCarty was also acquired in a trade with the Knicks. With a promising start, upsetting the defending champions Chicago Bulls at home on opening night, and hard play from the youngsters that led to leaderships in turnovers and steals, the team improved its victories from 15 to 36 despite many losing streaks. Billups was subsequently traded to the Raptors during his rookie year, and Mercer was traded to the Nuggets during his third season.
The following year in the 1998 NBA draft, the Celtics drafted Paul Pierce, a college star who had been expected to be drafted much earlier than the Celtics ' 10th overall pick. Pierce had an immediate impact during the lockout - shortened 1998 -- 99 NBA season, averaging 19.5 points and being named Rookie of The Month in February as he led the league in steals. However, the Celtics continued to struggle as Pitino failed to achieve meaningful success. After Boston lost to the Toronto Raptors on March 1, 2000, on a buzzer - beater by Vince Carter, Pitino delivered the memorable "Larry Bird is not walking through that door, fans '' speech. He resigned in January 2001.
Following the resignation of Rick Pitino, the Celtics saw modest improvement under coach Jim O'Brien. Paul Pierce matured into an NBA star and was ably complemented by Antoine Walker and the other players acquired over the years. While the team was 12 -- 21 when Pitino left, O'Brien's record to finish the season was 24 -- 24. Following the 2000 -- 01 season O'Brien was given the job of head coach on a permanent basis. As a result of numerous trades, the Celtics had three picks in the 2001 NBA draft. They selected Joe Johnson, Joe Forte, and Kedrick Brown. Only Johnson managed to succeed in the NBA, becoming a perennial All - Star after leaving the Celtics.
The Celtics entered the 2001 -- 02 season with low expectations. The team 's success in the latter stages of 2000 -- 01 was largely forgotten, and critics were surprised when the team, along with the New Jersey Nets, surged to the top of the Atlantic Division ahead of the Philadelphia 76ers, who were fresh off a trip to the NBA Finals. The Celtics won a hard - fought 5 - game series with the 76ers in the first round, 3 -- 2. Pierce scored 46 points in the series - clinching blowout at the Fleet Center. In the Conference Semifinals, the Celtics defeated the favored Detroit Pistons 4 -- 1. In their first trip to the Eastern Conference Finals since 1988, the Celtics jumped out to a 2 -- 1 series lead over the Nets, after rallying from 21 points down in the fourth quarter to win Game 3, but would lose the next three games to fall 4 -- 2.
In 2003, the Celtics were sold by owner Paul Gaston to Boston Basketball Partners L.L.C., led by H. Irving Grousbeck, Wycliffe Grousbeck and Steve Pagliuca. The team made it back to the playoffs but were swept by the Nets in the second round, despite bringing Game 4 to double overtime. Before their elimination, the team hired former Celtics ' guard Danny Ainge as general manager, moving Chris Wallace to another position in the organization. Ainge believed the team had reached its peak and promptly sent Antoine Walker to the Dallas Mavericks (along with Tony Delk). In return, the Celtics received the often - injured Raef LaFrentz, Chris Mills, Jiří Welsch, and a first - round pick in 2004. The Celtics made the playoffs, only to be swept in the first round by the Indiana Pacers, losing all 4 games by blowout margins.
The Celtics were a young team under new coach Doc Rivers during the 2004 -- 05 season, having drafted youngsters Al Jefferson, Delonte West and Tony Allen in the 2004 Draft. Yet they seemed to have a core of good young players, led by Pierce and rookie Al Jefferson, to go along with a group of able veterans. The Celtics went 45 -- 37 and won their first Atlantic Division title since 1991 -- 92, receiving a boost from returning star Antoine Walker in mid-season. The Pacers defeated them in the first round yet again, with the series culminating in an embarrassing 27 - point loss in Game 7 at the Fleet Center. After the season Walker was traded again, this time to the Miami Heat. Despite Pierce 's career season, in which he averaged career - highs in points (26.8), the Celtics missed the playoffs with a 33 -- 49 record, owing largely to a young roster and constant roster shuffling, which saw the likes of Marcus Banks, Ricky Davis and Mark Blount traded for underachieving former first - overall pick Michael Olowokandi and former all - star Wally Szczerbiak.
The Celtics continued to rebuild in the 2006 NBA draft. The Celtics selected Kentucky point guard Rajon Rondo, who was to become a key piece in the team 's revival. In the second round the Celtics added Leon Powe. The 2006 -- 07 season was a gloomy one for the franchise, starting with the death of Red Auerbach at 89. Auerbach was one of the few remaining people who had been a part of the NBA since its inception in 1946. The Celtics went 2 -- 22 from late December 2006 through early February 2007 after losing Pierce to injury, the result of a stress reaction in his left foot. At first, the Celtics received a much needed boost from guard Tony Allen but he tore his ACL and MCL on a needless dunk attempt after the whistle. The Celtics compiled a record of 24 -- 58, second - worst in the NBA, including a franchise record 18 - game losing streak. At the end of the season, the Celtics, with the second worst record in the NBA, were at least hopeful that they could secure a high draft pick and select either Greg Oden or Kevin Durant to help rebuild the franchise, but the Celtics fell to fifth in the Draft Lottery.
In the summer of 2007, GM Danny Ainge made a series of moves that returned the Celtics to prominence. On draft night, he traded the No. 5 pick Jeff Green, Wally Szczerbiak and Delonte West to Seattle for perennial all - star Ray Allen and Seattle 's second - round pick which the team used to select LSU 's Glen "Big Baby '' Davis. Then the Celtics traded Ryan Gomes, Gerald Green, Al Jefferson, Theo Ratliff, and Sebastian Telfair to Minnesota, where Ainge 's former teammate Kevin McHale was the G.M., and swapped 2009 first round draft picks, for MVP Kevin Garnett. These moves created the "Boston Three Party '' (the nickname given to describe the combining of Allen, Garnett, and Pierce by Scott Van Pelt in a "This Is Sportscenter '' commercial), which would revitalize the team and lead them back to glory.
The Celtics completed the largest single - season turnaround in NBA history. The new ' Big Three ' of Pierce, Allen and Garnett went 66 -- 16 in the regular season, a 42 - game improvement. However, the team struggled initially in the playoffs. The Atlanta Hawks took them to seven games in the first round, as did the Cleveland Cavaliers in the conference semifinals. The Celtics defeated the Detroit Pistons in six games of the Eastern Conference Finals, winning two road games.
In the 2008 NBA Finals, the Celtics faced MVP Kobe Bryant and the Los Angeles Lakers for the 11th time, the first time since 1987. The Celtics won Game 1 at home 98 -- 88, fueled by strong play by Garnett and Pierce 's dramatic comeback from a second half knee injury. They would also go on to win Game 2 108 -- 102, despite nearly blowing a 24 - point lead in the fourth quarter. As the series shifted to Los Angeles, the Lakers stifled Pierce and Garnett in Game 3 and won 87 -- 81. However, the Celtics would overcome a 24 - point deficit in Game 4 to win 97 -- 91, the largest comeback in NBA Finals history. After again blowing a large lead, the Lakers hung on to win Game 5 103 -- 98, sending the series back to Boston. In Game 6, the Celtics overpowered the Lakers, winning 131 -- 92, clinching their 17th NBA title, and first since 1986. It remains the most lopsided win in a championship - clinching game; Paul Pierce was named Finals MVP. The win in Game 6 was a sense of relief, as it was a difficult path to this championship; in that game, these Celtics set a record for most games a team had ever played in a postseason, with 26, surpassing the 1994 New York Knicks, whom Coach Doc Rivers played for, and the 2005 Detroit Pistons, each of whom played 25, but lost their respective finals in seven games (Knicks in 1994, Pistons in 2005).
The 2008 -- 09 Celtics started off the season at 27 -- 2, the then - best starting record in NBA history. They also had a pair of 10 + game winning streaks including a franchise record 19 - game streak. After the All Star Break, Kevin Garnett was injured in a loss against the Utah Jazz, missing the last 25 games of the season. Garnett was eventually shelved for the playoffs. The 2009 Celtics still finished with 62 victories, but their playoff run would end against the Magic in the second round, losing in seven games after leading 3 -- 2, the first such occurrence in team history. In the prior round they were pushed to a Game 7 against the Chicago Bulls, with four of those games went to overtime, yet the Celtics ' experience was too much for the young Bulls.
The following year, with the return of Garnett from injury and the additions of Rasheed Wallace and Marquis Daniels, the Celtics started the season 23 -- 5 and at one point had the best record in the NBA. However, Doc Rivers decided to lessen his aging stars ' minutes to keep them fresh for the playoffs. As a result, the Celtics sputtered to an even 27 -- 27 record the rest of the way and finished the 2009 -- 10 regular season with a 50 -- 32 record, with a better road (26 -- 15) than home (24 -- 17) record. Despite previous predictions the Celtics would never go deeper into the playoffs, the Celtics still managed to make the NBA Finals despite their lowly fourth seeding. They defeated the Miami Heat in five games, upset the top - seeded Cavaliers in six games and toppled the defending Eastern champion Magic, avenging their loss from the previous season. Rajon Rondo emerged as a bonafide superstar during post-season play, continuing his rise to fame beginning with his first All - Star appearance. For the 12th time, the adversary were the Lakers. After taking a 3 -- 2 lead heading into Los Angeles for Game 6, the Celtics appeared poised to pack in their 18th title. But Kendrick Perkins, the team 's starting center, suffered a severe knee injury early in Game 6, and the Celtics would lose Game 6, and go on to blow a 13 - point lead in Game 7. After speculation coach Doc Rivers would resign to spend more time with his family, he affirmed on June 30, 2010, that he would return to the team for the 2010 -- 11 season.
During the 2010 off season, with Perkins expected to be out until February 2011, the Celtics signed two former All - Star centers, Shaquille O'Neal and Jermaine O'Neal, along with Turkish center Semih Erden, their 2008 second round pick, and the return of Delonte West. Shaquille O'Neal's presence wound up leading to Perkins departure: the Celtics were 33 -- 10 in games Perkins had missed during the year due to injury, with a 19 -- 3 record with O'Neal played over 20 minutes. Consequently, Perkins was traded to the Oklahoma City Thunder in February, when the Celtics were 41 -- 14 and held the Eastern Conference leaderboard despite another rash of injuries. Following the trade, however, they proceeded to win only 15 of their final 27 games to finish with a 56 -- 26 record, sliding to the third seed, due to the injuries -- O'Neal played only five minutes -- and difficult adjustment of new Celtics such as Jeff Green, Nenad Krstić and Carlos Arroyo. The 2010 -- 11 season still provided three landmarks: the Celtics became the second team to reach 3,000 victories, Paul Pierce became the third Celtic to score 20,000 points after Larry Bird and John Havlicek, and Ray Allen broke the NBA record for most three - pointers made in a career. The 2011 NBA Playoffs started with the Celtics sweeping the New York Knicks 4 -- 0 in the opening round, but in the second round they were ousted by eventual Eastern champions Miami Heat in five games. Shaquille O'Neal, limited to 12 minutes in two games of the second round, retired at the end of the season.
At the 2011 NBA draft, the Celtics acquired two Purdue teammates, JaJuan Johnson and E'Twaun Moore. During the short preseason following the 2011 NBA lockout, the Celtics signed free agents Marquis Daniels, Chris Wilcox, Keyon Dooling and Greg Stiemsma, while acquiring Brandon Bass from the Magic for Glen Davis and Von Wafer. They also re-signed Jeff Green, only to have it voided after a physical revealed that Green was diagnosed with an aortic aneurysm, forcing him to miss the season. The Celtics started the season 0 -- 3 with Paul Pierce out with a heel injury and his replacement Mickaël Piétrus taking long to debut. The struggles let to the longest losing streak in the ' Big Three ' era with five games, and by the All Star break, the Celtics were below. 500 with a 15 -- 17 record. However, they were one of the hottest teams after the break, going 24 -- 10 the rest of the year and winning their 5th division title in a row. The Celtics would end up making the playoffs as the fourth seed in the Eastern Conference in the 2012 NBA Playoffs.
In the playoffs, the Celtics faced the Atlanta Hawks in the first round, beating them in six games led by strong play from Pierce and Garnett. In the Conference Semifinals the Celtics faced the Philadelphia 76ers led by Doug Collins and a young group of promising players that would push the Celtics into a full - seven game series. Following a Game 7 85 -- 75 win the Celtics faced the Miami Heat in the Eastern Conference Finals, who had defeated them in the playoffs the previous year. After losing the first two games in Miami, Boston fought back and won the next three games. With the possibility of closing the series at home, the C suffered a blowout loss at the TD Garden of 98 -- 79, taking the series back to Miami for Game 7, where the Celtics built an early lead but eventually lost 101 -- 88; Miami would go on to defeat the Oklahoma City Thunder in the Finals.
The 2012 offseason started with the Celtics having only six players under contract. While Kevin Garnett renewed, Ray Allen chose to sign with the Miami Heat for less money, bringing the five - year ' Big Three ' era to a somewhat acrimonious end. The Celtics also signed free agents Jason Terry, Jason Collins, Darko Miličić and Leandro Barbosa; acquired Courtney Lee in a three - team sign and trade -- where Johnson, Moore, Sean Williams and a future second round pick were sent to the Houston Rockets and the Portland Trail Blazers got Sasha Pavlovic; drafted three players, Jared Sullinger, Fab Melo and Kris Joseph; and renewed with Brandon Bass along with Chris Wilcox and Jeff Green, who both were returning to play after sustaining season - ending heart ailments.
Despite losing Rondo and Sullinger to injury, the Celtics compiled a seven - game winning streak, including victories over the Heat in double overtime and the Nuggets in triple overtime. The winning streak was snapped on February 12 when Leandro Barbosa suffered a season - ending torn ACL. To compensate, the Celtics signed swingman Terrence Williams, forwards D.J. White and Shavlik Randolph, and traded Barbosa and Collins to the Washington Wizards in exchange for guard Jordan Crawford. The Celtics finished the season with 41 wins, but played only 81 games after a home game against the Indiana Pacers on April 16 was cancelled following the Boston Marathon bombings; the game was not made up with both teams already assured of their playoff positions. The 41 wins were the lowest totals the Celtics achieved as a playoff - bound team since 2004. The Celtics trailed 3 -- 0 to the New York Knicks in the first round of the 2013 NBA Playoffs, before losing the series in six games. In Game 6, the Celtics nearly completed a come back when they went on a 20 -- 0 run to cut the lead to 4, but that was the closest they got as the New York Knicks would take over to win.
During the offseason, head coach Doc Rivers was allowed out of his contract and left to coach the Los Angeles Clippers, giving the Celtics a 2015 unprotected first round pick as compensation. A few days later, Paul Pierce and Kevin Garnett (after waiving his no - trade clause), along with Jason Terry and D.J. White, were traded to the Brooklyn Nets for Keith Bogans, MarShon Brooks, Kris Humphries, Kris Joseph, Gerald Wallace, and three future first - round draft picks (2014, 2016, 2018), with the right to swap 2017 first - round picks with Brooklyn. The deal was later approved by the league on July 12, 2013, effectively ending the ' Big 3 ' era and marking the start of a youth movement for the team.
On July 3, 2013, the Celtics announced that Brad Stevens, the head coach of Butler University, would replace Doc Rivers as head coach. Halfway through the season, in January, Rajon Rondo made his return and was named the 15th Team Captain in team history, and the team furthered the youth movement by acquiring two draft picks in a three team trade that sent Jordan Crawford and MarShon Brooks to the Golden State Warriors while the Celtics received the Heat center Joel Anthony. The 2013 -- 14 season marked the Celtics ' first missed playoffs since the ' Big Three '.
The next off - season, the Celtics drafted Marcus Smart with the 6th overall pick and James Young with the 17th overall pick in the 2014 NBA draft, and signed Evan Turner. The 2014 -- 15 season had several roster moves, the most prominent being Rondo and rookie Dwight Powell traded to the Dallas Mavericks for center Brandan Wright, forward Jae Crowder, veteran point guard Jameer Nelson, and future picks. A total of 22 players spent time with the Celtics, leading scorer and rebounder Sullinger suffered a season - ending left metatarsal stress fracture, and the team was only tenth in the East with 28 games remaining. However, midseason acquisition Isaiah Thomas helped the team win 22 of their last 34 games, finishing the season with a 40 -- 42 record, enough for the seventh seed in the Eastern Conference Playoffs. The Celtics were swept by the second seeded Cleveland Cavaliers in the first round.
In the 2015 NBA draft Boston selected Terry Rozier, R.J. Hunter, Jordan Mickey, and Marcus Thornton with the 16th, 28th, 33rd, and 45th selections respectively.
During the off - season, the Celtics signed forward Amir Johnson and traded Gerald Wallace and Chris Babb in exchange for Warriors forward David Lee.
The Celtics finished the 2015 -- 16 NBA season with a 48 -- 34 record, earning the fifth seed in the Eastern Conference. They played the fourth seed Atlanta Hawks in the first round of the playoffs. After leading by 3 points in the fourth quarter of Game 1, guard Avery Bradley went down with a hamstring injury, making him sit out for the rest of the series. The Celtics lost the series 4 -- 2 to the Hawks, ending their season.
On July 8, 2016, the Celtics signed 4 - time All - Star Al Horford. The Celtics finished the 2016 -- 17 season with a 53 -- 29 record and clinched the top seed in the Eastern Conference. After a hip injury ended Thomas ' impressive playoff run in game 2 of the Eastern Conference Finals, the Celtics eventually lost to the Cavaliers in five games.
In the 2017 NBA draft the Celtics selected Jayson Tatum, Semi Ojeleye, Kadeem Allen, and Jabari Bird with the 3rd, 37th, 53rd, and 56th selections respectively.
At the start of the off - season, the team signed Tatum and Ante Žižić, among others, with the biggest acquisition being the signing of Gordon Hayward.
On August 22, 2017, the Celtics agreed to a deal that sent Isaiah Thomas, Jae Crowder, Ante Zizic, and the Brooklyn Nets ' 2018 first - round draft pick to the Cleveland Cavaliers in exchange for Kyrie Irving.
The Celtics - Hawks rivalry is a rivalry in the Eastern Conference of the National Basketball Association that has lasted for over five decades, although the two teams have played each other since the 1949 -- 50 season, when the then - Tri-Cities Blackhawks joined the NBA as part of the National Basketball League and the Basketball Association of America merger. However, the Blackhawks could not field a truly competitive team until they moved to St. Louis as the St. Louis Hawks after a four - year stopover at Milwaukee. The two teams have faced each other eleven times in the NBA Playoffs, four times in the NBA Finals, with the Celtics winning ten of twelve series against the Hawks, including three out of four NBA Finals. While the Hawks have only defeated the Celtics twice out of eleven series in the NBA Playoffs, they still often managed to make their series with the Celtics memorable. The rivalry intensified in 2016 with Hawks All - Star Center Al Horford spurning the team and joining the Celtics.
The rivalry between the Celtics and the New York Knicks stems from the location of the teams, both of which are in the NBA 's Atlantic division. It is one of many rivalries between Boston and New York teams. Boston and New York are also the only two original NBA franchises that have remained in the same city for the duration of their existence. The teams have played 512 games against each other during the regular season, with the Celtics winning 276 times. The two teams have also faced each other 61 times during the playoffs, with the Celtics winning 34 times.
The Celtics and the Philadelphia 76ers are the two teams who have the most meetings in the NBA Playoffs, playing each other in 19 series, of which the Celtics have won 12. The 76ers are considered as the Celtics ' biggest rival in the Eastern Conference. The rivalry reached its peak when players Bill Russell and Wilt Chamberlain of the 76ers played each other from 1965 to 1968. Their play would result in the Celtics not winning every NBA Finals series in the 1960s when the Sixers won in 1967. During the early 1980s, the teams constantly fought for conference championships with Larry Bird leading the Celtics and Julius Erving leading the 76ers.
The rivalry between the Celtics and the Detroit Pistons peaked in the 1980s, featuring players such as Larry Bird, Kevin McHale, Robert Parish, Isiah Thomas, Bill Laimbeer, Dennis Rodman, and Joe Dumars. These teams met in the NBA Playoffs five times in 7 seasons from 1985 to 1991, with the Celtics winning in 1985 and 1987, and the Pistons coming out on top en route to back - to - back Finals appearances in 1988 and their championship seasons of 1989 and 1990. Led by Paul Pierce, Kevin Garnett and Ray Allen in the 2008 Eastern Conference Finals the Celtics defeated the Pistons in 6 games to advance to the NBA Finals where they went on to beat the Lakers also in 6 games.
The rivalry between the Boston Celtics and Los Angeles Lakers involves the two most storied franchises in NBA history. It has been called the NBA 's best rivalry. The two teams have met a record twelve times in the NBA Finals, starting with their first Finals meeting in 1959. They would go on to dominate the league in the 1960s and the 1980s, facing each other six times in the 1960s, three times in the 1980s, in 2008, and in 2010.
The rivalry had been less intense since the retirements of Magic Johnson and Larry Bird in the early 1990s, but in 2008 it was renewed as the Celtics and Lakers met in the Finals for the first time since 1987, with the Celtics winning the series in six games. They faced off once again in the 2010 NBA Finals which the Lakers won in seven games. The two teams have won the two highest numbers of championships, the Celtics 17, the Lakers 16; together, the 33 championships account for almost half of the 70 championships in NBA history.
The Boston Celtics were once rivals of the New Jersey Nets during the early 2000s due to their respective locations and their burgeoning stars. The Nets were led by Jason Kidd and Kenyon Martin, while the Celtics were experiencing newfound success behind Paul Pierce and Antoine Walker. The rivalry began to heat up in the 2002 Eastern Conference Finals, which was preceded by trash talking from the Celtics who claimed Martin was a "fake '' tough guy. Things progressed as the series started, and on - court tensions seemed to spill into the stands. Celtics ' fans berated Kidd and his family with chants of "Wife Beater! '' in response to Kidd 's 2001 domestic abuse charge. When asked about the fan barbs being traded, Kenyon Martin stated, "Our fans hate them, their fans hate us. '' Bill Walton said at the time that Nets - Celtics was the "beginning of the next great NBA rivalry '' during the Eastern Conference Finals in 2002 with the Nets advancing to the NBA Finals, though New Jersey would go on to sweep Boston in the 2003 playoffs. In 2012, the year the Nets returned to New York in the borough of Brooklyn, there were indications that the rivalry might be rekindled when an altercation occurred on the court on November 28, resulting in the ejection of Rajon Rondo, Gerald Wallace, and Kris Humphries. Rondo was suspended for two games in the aftermath, while Wallace and Kevin Garnett were fined. The story was revisited on December 25, when Wallace grabbed Garnett 's shorts and the two had to be broken up by referees and players alike. However, the rivalry between the Nets and the Celtics appeared significantly cooled off by the June 2013 blockbuster trade that dealt Celtics stars Garnett and Paul Pierce to the Nets in exchange for Wallace, Humphries, and others. This move was billed as a merger of the two Atlantic Division teams. Celtics announcer Sean Grande said "It 's almost as if you found a great home for these guys. You could n't have found a better place. These guys will be in the New York market, they 'll be on a competitive team, they 'll stay on national TV. It 's funny, because the enemy of my enemy is my friend. So with Celtics fans feeling the way they do about the Heat, feeling the way they do about the Knicks, the Nets are going to become almost the second (Boston) team now. ''
List of the last five seasons completed by the Celtics. For the full season - by - season history, see List of Boston Celtics seasons.
Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, % = Winning Percentage;
The Celtics have a NBA record 17 Championships including 8 in a row, and 11 championships in 13 years. They also have 52 playoff appearances. The Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame have 40 enshrined players who played for the Celtics, and the franchise is the one with the most retired numbers in all American sports, with 21.
Roster Transactions Last transaction: 2017 - 07 - 19
The Celtics hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player is ostensibly either an international draftee or a college draftee who is n't signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.
Bold denotes still active with team.
Italic denotes still active but not with team. Points scored (regular season) (as of the end of the 2016 -- 17 season)
Other statistics (regular season) (as of April 18, 2017)
There have been 17 head coaches in Celtics ' history. Red Auerbach is the most successful franchise 's head coach having won 9 NBA championships with the team. Celtics ' legend Bill Russell took coaching duties from Auerbach and led them to 2 NBA championships while playing and coaching at the same time. The other two coaches that won 2 NBA titles with the team are Tom Heinsohn and K.C. Jones. Both Bill Fitch and Doc Rivers led the Celtics to 1 NBA championship the latter being the most recent coach to do so. Brad Stevens is the current head coach for the team.
The Boston Celtics logo since the early 1960s features a leprechaun spinning a basketball, named Lucky. It was originally designed by Zang Auerbach, the brother of Celtics head coach Red Auerbach. For a long time, the logo 's only colors were black, white and green. Then for the 1996 -- 97 season, celebrating the club 's 50th anniversary, the logo got a full - color treatment. Lucky 's face and hands were both painted tan, while gold was included on the vest, bow tie and hat, as well as brown on the ball and shillelagh, and black on its pants and shoes.
The Celtics also have various alternative logos, with the most popular being a white shamrock with the letters "Celtics '' above it, wrapped in a green circle, which has been used since the 1998 -- 99 season. The alternate logo is based on logos used by the Celtics before they used the Zang Auerbach leprechaun. For much of its history, the shamrock was trimmed in gold, as seen in the old team warmup jackets. A new secondary logo, unveiled in 2014, featured a variation of the leprechaun logo, albeit in silhouette form.
The Celtics jerseys have always been green on away games and white on home games since their inception in 1946. Except for some minor modifications, most notably the road ' Boston ' script and the serifed version of the uniforms during the Bill Russell era, the jerseys remained unchanged through the years.
Beginning in 2005 -- 06, the Celtics began using alternate home / road jerseys which are green with black lettering and trim featuring the word "Boston '' on the front side of the jersey. The alternate jersey made few appearances in its first 2 seasons, but since 2007 it has been used much more often, in more than half of the road games. The uniforms traditionally make their debut on the last Friday of November home games, and are used on the road for games after that, though they also wear it at home on a few occasions.
Also, in 2005 -- 06, the Celtics began a tradition of wearing green jerseys with gold trim as part of the St. Patrick 's Day celebrations the NBA puts into place every third week of March. Except for the word "Boston '' in front and the gold trim, the St. Patrick 's Day jerseys resemble the regular road jerseys. For the first four years, the St. Paddy 's jerseys were used four times, a majority of which on the road; however in the 2009 -- 10 NBA season, they were used just twice (both home games). They wore them six times in the 2011 -- 12 season; wearing them at its earliest on March 9, their final home game before an eight - game road trip. The uniform was the only one in the current Celtics set that does not use the Adidas Revolution 30 design.
During the 2006 -- 07 season, the Celtics wore a commemorative patch of a black shamrock with the nickname "Red '' in green letters on the right top of the jersey in remembrance of Red Auerbach, who died shortly prior to the beginning of the season.
During the NBA Europe Live Tour prior to the 2007 -- 08 season, the Celtics used the alternate road jerseys in their game against the Toronto Raptors in Rome, except that the words "Boston '' on the front side of the jersey and the shamrock on the shorts and on the reverse side of the jersey contained the green, white and red tricolors of the Italian flag. In the second game in London, the regular road jerseys featured a patch containing the Union Jack.
At the 2008 -- 09 season opener against the Cleveland Cavaliers, the Celtics wore a modified version of their home uniforms, accented with gold, to commemorate last season 's championship team.
In the 2013 -- 14 season, the Celtics replaced their alternate St. Patrick 's uniform with a new, sleeved version. Unlike the previous uniform, the front featured the team name in front, gold side panels and a white shamrock at the back, while the shorts closely resemble the green / black third uniform save for the gold accents. For the 2015 -- 16 season, the Celtics decided to go with a green / gold variation of their alternate uniform for St. Patrick 's week.
A home grey alternate sleeved uniform was unveiled on November 6, 2014. The uniform features a serifed vertical arch ' Celtics ' wordmark in white with green trim, with names in green and numbers in white with green trim. In addition, it features a pattern of the Celtics ' famed parquet floor on the sides, a silhouette version of their leprechaun logo on the waistband, and a green shamrock on the left leg of the shorts. The grey uniforms were used for six home dates during the season. Also that season, the shamrock that had been present at the back of the uniforms since the 2006 -- 07 season was replaced by the NBA logo, while a gold tab representing the club 's 17 championships was stitched atop the neck stripe.
The Celtics have also worn special edition Christmas Day uniforms since the 2008 -- 09 season. For the first four games, they wore their regular road uniforms modified with the NBA logo inside a snowflake. Then in the 2012 -- 13 season, they wore monochrome uniforms with green lettering trimmed in white. For the 2016 -- 17 season, the Celtics wore a special green uniform with a more ornate script lettering, but without the additional striping.
The team has honored deceased members of the Celtics family with a commemorative black band on the left shoulder strap of the jersey. It has been featured eight times in the history of the franchise: Walter Brown (1964 -- 65), Bob Schmertz (1975 -- 76), Joan Cohen (1989 -- 90), Johnny Most (1993 -- 94), Reggie Lewis (1993 -- 94), Dorothy Auerbach (2000 -- 01), Dennis Johnson (2006 -- 07). and Jim Loscutoff (2015 -- 16).
The team also had the tradition of wearing black sneakers through most of their history, except during the early 1980s when they wore green sneakers. According to legend, Celtics patriarch Red Auerbach had a problem with the white sneakers, claiming that the white sneakers can easily get dirty; hence starting a long tradition with the black sneakers. But prior to the 2003 -- 04 season, current Celtics GM Danny Ainge and captain Paul Pierce suggested wearing white sneakers, in due part to a growing number of teams wearing black sneakers. Auerbach gladly accepted and the white sneakers have remained since on home games. They still wore the black sneakers on away games, but in the 2008 -- 09 season, they wore white sneakers with green and gold accents while wearing their St. Patrick 's Day jerseys on the road. Most recently, when the Celtics play on Christmas Day, they wore white or green sneakers with red and gold accents. Since the 2009 -- 10 season, the NBA relaxed its rules on specified sneaker colors, and Celtics players are now seen wearing either green, white or black sneakers at home and on the road.
The Celtics were the only team to wear warmup jackets with the player names on the back. During the 1980s, this style was dominant in most NBA warmup jackets, but by the late 1990s, this style gradually declined. The Celtics, however, kept the design in keeping with tradition, before discontinuing the practice after the 2011 -- 12 season. By that time Adidas issues a new warmup jacket design annually, and for a few seasons, they provided players with a customized shooting shirt containing the player 's name and uniform number on the back.
In January 2017, the Celtics signed a multi-year deal with General Electric where they will become the "exclusive Data and Analytics partner '' for the team. As part of the deal, the uniforms will have the GE logo prominently placed on the left shoulder of Celtics ' jerseys in green and white. This will be the first time a corporate logo will have placement on the game uniforms.
With the switch to Nike as the uniform provider in 2017, the NBA 's home and away uniform designations were abolished. The Celtics ' green "Icon '' and white "Association '' uniforms, to be worn either at home or away, remained mostly intact save for truncated striping on the shoulders and shorts. In addition, the Celtics unveiled a third "Statement '' uniform, with black as the base color and letters and striping in green and white trim. A fourth uniform design, dubbed the "Community '' uniform, will be unveiled during the 2017 -- 18 season.
Comcast SportsNet New England is the Boston Celtics ' main television outlet, having aired its games since 1981 when the station was known as SportsChannel New England. Like all the other SportsChannel networks, the New England channel was rebranded as Fox Sports New England when former owner Cablevision entered into a partnership with Liberty Media and News Corporation in 1998. Comcast purchased Cablevision 's original network stake in 2001, then acquired the remaining stake in what was now FSN New England in 2007 and rebranded the network as CSN New England.
Mike Gorman provides the play - by - play with former Celtics player and coach Tommy Heinsohn serving as analyst for home games, while former Celtics ' player Brian Scalabrine serves as analyst for road games. Abby Chin serves as courtside reporter. The Celtics can be heard on 98.5 the Sports Hub during all Boston Celtics games, all season long from preseason to postseason. The play - by - play announcer is Sean Grande with commentary from Cedric Maxwell.
On September 26, 2013, the Celtics and 98.5 The Sports Hub announced a multi-year partnership in which the Boston Celtics games will be broadcast on the market 's leading sports station. Beginning with the 2013 -- 14 season, 98.5 The Sports Hub will feature select pre-season games, and all regular and post-season matchups, as well as produce extended pre - and postgame shows focused entirely on the Celtics.
* Sale not approved by NBA
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who won the 2015 britain's got talent | Britain 's Got Talent (series 9) - wikipedia
The ninth series of Britain 's Got Talent began airing on ITV on 11 April 2015. Ant & Dec returned to present the main show on ITV, while Stephen Mulhern returned to present the spin - off show Britain 's Got More Talent on ITV2. Simon Cowell and Amanda Holden returned for their respective ninth series on the judging panel, whilst Alesha Dixon and David Walliams returned for their fourth series.
Jules O'Dwyer and her dog Matisse won the competition. Magician Jamie Raven came second with Welsh choir Côr Glanaethwy in third, and dance act Old Men Grooving finishing fourth place. The result marked the second time that a dog act had won the whole competition (following Ashleigh & Pudsey in 2012).
After the conclusion of the eighth series on 7 June 2014, speculation began about who would return to the judging panel for series 9. On 8 June 2014, it was reported that Simon Cowell may leave the panel. David Walliams sparked rumours that he may not return. However, Amanda Holden announced on 31 October that she, Cowell, Alesha Dixon and Walliams would all return as judges for series 9. On 16 January, ITV confirmed that Cowell, Holden, Dixon and Walliams would be returning for series 9.
Ant & Dec returned to present the main show on ITV for their ninth series, while Stephen Mulhern continued to host the spin - off show Britain 's Got More Talent on ITV2.
The golden buzzer returned for its second series. The first golden buzzer used was by Ant & Dec at the Edinburgh auditions for dance troupe Boyband. Cowell pressed the golden buzzer on the first day of the Manchester auditions for singer Calum Scott. Holden used her buzzer during the Birmingham auditions for choir Revelation Avenue. Dixon used hers during the first day of the London auditions for dance act Entity Allstars, leaving just Walliams who confirmed via Twitter that he used his Golden Buzzer on the last day of auditions in London for a comedy singer, Lorraine Bowen.
The first golden buzzer aired in the first episode, when Cowell pressed it in Manchester for Calum Scott. The second golden buzzer was aired in the second episode, when Ant and Dec pressed it in Edinburgh for BoyBand. Holden 's golden buzzer for Revelation Avenue aired during the third episode. Dixon 's golden buzzer for Entity Allstars aired during the fifth episode. Finally, Walliams 's golden buzzer for Lorraine Bowen happened in the sixth episode.
Calum Scott won his semi-final, earning a spot in the finals. Entity Allstars were third but won the judges ' vote to advance to the final. Revelation Avenue and Boyband were also third but lost the judges ' vote. Both acts were possible wildcard picks, but only Boyband won a wildcard, securing a place in the final. Lorraine Bowen was eliminated in the semi-finals.
The open auditions were held from 11 October to 9 December 2014 in Newcastle, Cardiff, Portsmouth, Birmingham, Leeds, Dublin, Norwich, Glasgow, Bristol, London and Manchester.
The judges auditions were held in Edinburgh, Manchester, Birmingham and London. Auditions began in Edinburgh on 19 January and were held at the Edinburgh Festival Theatre, followed by Manchester from 29 -- 31 January at The Lowry. Auditions took place in Birmingham from 5 -- 7 February 2015 at Birmingham Hippodrome and ended in London from 11 -- 12 & 14 February 2015 at the Dominion Theatre.
The semi-finalists were chosen on 8 March 2015.
Each results show will feature a guest performance. Ricky Martin performed on 25 May, followed by 2014 finalists Jack Pack on 26 May. Dixon performed on 27 May, followed by Olly Murs on 28 May and 2014 winners Collabro on 29 May.
The final took place on 31 May from 7.30 pm until 10.00 pm.
It was announced during the semi-final 5 results show that the public would be able to choose a wildcard from the acts that lost judges ' vote: Henry Gallagher, Revelation Avenue, IMD Legion, Boyband and Jesse - Jane McParland. It was revealed at the beginning of the show that McParland had been chosen as the viewers ' wildcard, whilst Boyband were the judges ' wildcard.
Wildcard vote
Final results
The first six shows of series 9 held up a very high consistency in the ratings and topped the ratings for series 8 on most occasions. The final, which aired on 31 May, became the most watched UK TV show of 2015, overtaking the record previously held by the third auditions show and the live 30th anniversary special episode of EastEnders.
Army musician Leah Pettinger accused golden buzzer act Lorraine Bowen of plagiarism, claiming that she had written "The Crumble Song '' when she was nine after she was inspired by her mother 's interest in baking, and has the evidence. Pettinger threatened to take legal action, despite Bowen arguing that she had written the song herself and registered it under her name with the Performing Rights Society.
Ofcom received complaints from viewers about judges Amanda Holden 's and Alesha Dixon 's low - cut dresses during the live broadcast, with viewers claiming that the dresses were unsuitable for a family show that started before the watershed. A spokesman for Ofcom confirmed that these complaints would be assessed, and the following month they concluded that both judges were appropriately covered and were not portrayed in a sexualised manner.
In the first live semi-final, Dixon and Holden were accused of being too harsh on contestant Andrew Fleming when they described his act as "dated ''. Further controversy erupted after Cowell blamed the production of the programme for "allowing him to fail '', while fellow comic Bobby Davro stated that Fleming had been sold short by the producers.
Marc Métral was investigated by the RSPCA after claims of cruelty to his dog Miss Wendy. There were also complaints to ITV and to the regulatory body Ofcom. The complaints were made as the act involves the dog wearing a false mouth worn like a muzzle which Métral controls with a remote control, the animal charity was concerned that it might have caused the dog distress. Cowell asked the RSPCA to attend rehearsals to make sure the dog was treated correctly and he was told she was "happy and looked after well ''.
During the live semi-finals Cowell stated, whilst critiquing the performance of the girl band, The HoneyBuns, "We 've got Little Mix, now we 've got Big Mix ''. This was seen to be a direct jibe aimed at the weight of the various members of the group, and raised anger on social media.
During an interview the morning after the final, O'Dwyer told that the tightrope section of their final 's routine was done by Chase, one of her other dogs, and not Matisse. Both dogs partook in the semi-finals, so viewers were aware that the pair looked very similar and that O'Dwyer had trained multiple dogs. During the finals, Matisse and Chase were never seen on the stage at the same time, so many viewers did not realize Chase was included in the act. Some viewers felt that they were misled or tricked since they assumed Matisse performed the tightrope trick. The show 's producers apologized saying that "Jules ' act involves a team of dogs '' and "(they) are sorry if this was not made clearer ''. Cowell had been unaware of the switch and reportedly launched an investigation. At least 800 complaints were received by Ofcom and 130 by ITV.
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in terms of princely hierarchy in colonial india the status • of mysore was of a | Princely state - Wikipedia
A princely state, also called native state (legally, under the British) or Indian state (for those states on the subcontinent), was a nominally sovereign monarchy under a local or regional ruler in a subsidiary alliance with a greater power. Though the history of the princely states of the subcontinent dates from at least the classical period of Indian history, the predominant usage of the term princely state specifically refers to a semi-sovereign principality on the Indian subcontinent during the British Raj that was not directly governed by the British, but rather by a local ruler, subject to a form of indirect rule on some matters; similar political entities also existed on or in the region of the Arabian Peninsula, in Africa and in Malaya, and which were similarly recognised under British rule, subject to a subsidiary alliance and the suzerainty or paramountcy of the British Crown. Oman, Zanzibar and the Trucial States were also under the Viceroy of India, and were administered by their rulers in the same manner as the Indian princely states, as part of the Persian Gulf Residency; they were officially categorised as British protectorates, with differing degrees of autonomy.
At the time of the British withdrawal, 565 princely states were officially recognised in the Indian subcontinent, apart from thousands of zamindaris and jagirs. In 1947, princely states numbering 555 covered 48 % of area of pre-Independent India and constituted 28 % of its population. The most important states had their own British Political Residencies: Hyderabad, Mysore and Travancore in the South followed by Jammu & Kashmir and Sikkim in the Himalayas, and Indore in Central India. Gun - salutes were often given for personal distinctions of the ruler rather than the importance of the state and varied from time to time. The most prominent among those - roughly a quarter of the total - had the status of a salute state, one whose ruler was honoured by receiving a set number of gun salutes on ceremonial occasions, ranging from nine to 21. Rulers of salute states entitled to a gun salute of eleven guns and above received from the British the style of His / Her Highness; while the Nizam of Hyderabad had the unique style of His Exalted Highness.
The princely states varied greatly in status, size, and wealth; the premier 21 - gun salute states of Hyderabad and Jammu and Kashmir were each over 200,000 km in size, or slightly larger than the whole of Great Britain. In 1941, Hyderabad had a population of over 16 million, comparable to the population of Romania at the time, while Jammu and Kashmir had a population of slightly over 4 million, comparable to that of Switzerland. At the other end of the scale, the non-salute principality of Lawa covered an area of 49 km, or smaller than Bermuda, with a population of just below 3,000. Some two hundred of the lesser states had an area of less than 25 km (10 mi). At the time of Indian independence in 1947, Hyderabad had annual revenues of over Rs. 9 crore (roughly £ 6.75 million / $27.2 million in 1947 values, approximately £ 240 million / $290 million in 2014 values), and its own army, airline, telecommunication system, railway, postal system, currency, radio service and a major public university; the tiny state of Lawa had annual revenues of just Rs. 28,000 (£ 2100 / $8463 in 1947 values, £ 73,360 / $89,040 in 2014 values).
The era of the princely states effectively ended with Indian independence in 1947. By 1950, almost all of the principalities had acceded to either India or Pakistan. The accession process was largely peaceful, except in the cases of Jammu and Kashmir (whose ruler opted for independence but decided to accede to India following an invasion by Pakistan - based forces), Hyderabad (whose ruler opted for total independence in 1947, followed a year later by the police action and annexation of the state by India), Junagadh (whose ruler acceded to Pakistan, but was annexed by India). and Kalat (whose ruler opted for independence in 1947, followed in 1948 by the state 's annexation).
As per the terms of accession, the erstwhile Indian princes received privy purses (government allowances), and initially retained their statuses, privileges, and autonomy in internal matters during a transitional period which lasted until 1956. During this time, the former princely states were merged into unions, each of which was headed by a former ruling prince with the title of Rajpramukh (ruling chief), equivalent to a state governor. In 1956, the position of Rajpramukh was abolished and the federations dissolved, the former principalities becoming part of Indian states. The states which acceded to Pakistan retained their status until the promulgation of a new constitution in 1956, when most became part of the province of West Pakistan; a few of the former states retained their autonomy until 1969 when they were fully integrated into Pakistan. The Indian Government formally derecognised the princely families in 1971, followed by the Government of Pakistan in 1972.
Though principalities and chiefdoms existed on the Indian subcontinent from at least the Iron Age, the history of princely states on the Indian subcontinent dates to at least the 5th - 6th centuries C.E., during the rise of the middle kingdoms of India following the collapse of the Gupta Empire. Many of the future ruling clan groups - notably the Rajputs - began to emerge during this period; by the 13th - 14th centuries, many of the Rajput clans had firmly established semi-independent principalities in the north - west, along with several in the north - east. The widespread expansion of Islam during this time brought many principalities into tributary relations with Islamic sultanates, notably the Delhi Sultanate and Bahmani Sultanate. In the south, however, the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire remained dominant until the mid-17th century; among its tributaries was the future Mysore Kingdom.
The Turco - Mongol Mughal Empire brought a majority of the existing Indian kingdoms and principalities under its suzerainty by the 17th century, beginning with its foundation in the early 16th century. The advent of Sikhism resulted in the creation of the Sikh Empire in the north by the early 18th century, by which time the Mughal Empire was in full decline. At the same time, the Marathas carved out their own states to form the Maratha Empire. Through the 18th century, former Mughal governors formed their own independent states. In the north - west, some of those - such as Tonk - allied themselves with various groups, including the Marathas and the Durrani Empire, itself formed in 1747 from a loose agglomeration of tribal chiefdoms that composed former Mughal territories. In 1768, Prithvi Narayan Shah, ruler of a small principality in Gorkha likewise established the Kingdom of Nepal from a federation of small states, expanding its influence over much of north - eastern India; in the south, the principalities of Hyderabad and Arcot were fully established by the 1760s, though they nominally remained vassals of the Mughal Emperor.
India under the British Raj (the "Indian Empire '') consisted of two types of territory: British India and the Native states or Princely states. In its Interpretation Act 1889, the British Parliament adopted the following definitions:
(4.) The expression "British India '' shall mean all territories and places within Her Majesty 's dominions which are for the time being governed by Her Majesty through the Governor - General of India or through any governor or other officer subordinate to the Governor - General of India. (5.) The expression "India '' shall mean British India together with any territories of any native prince or chief under the suzerainty of Her Majesty exercised through the Governor - General of India, or through any governor or other officer subordinate to the Governor - General of India.
In general the term "British India '' had been used (and is still used) also to refer to the regions under the rule of the East India Company in India from 1774 to 1858. The term has also been used to refer to the "British in India ''.
The British Crown 's suzerainty over 175 princely states, generally the largest and most important, was exercised in the name of the British Crown by the central government of British India under the Viceroy; the remaining approximately 400 states were influenced by Agents answerable to the provincial governments of British India under a Governor, Lieutenant - Governor, or Chief Commissioner. A clear distinction between "dominion '' and "suzerainty '' was supplied by the jurisdiction of the courts of law: the law of British India rested upon the legislation enacted by the British Parliament, and the legislative powers those laws vested in the various governments of British India, both central and local; in contrast, the courts of the princely states existed under the authority of the respective rulers of those states.
The Indian rulers bore various titles -- including Chhatrapati (exclusively used by the 3 Bhonsle dynasty of the Marathas) or Badshah ("emperor ''), Maharaja or Raja ("king ''), Sultan, Raje, Nizam, Wadiyar (by the Maharajas of Mysore), Agniraj Maharaj for the rulers of Bhaddaiyan Raj, Nawab ("governor ''), Nayak, Wāli, Inamdar, Saranjamdar and many others. Whatever the literal meaning and traditional prestige of the ruler 's actual title, the British government translated them all as "prince, '' to avoid the implication that the native rulers could be "kings '' with status equal to that of the British monarch.
More prestigious Hindu rulers (mostly existing before the Mughal Empire, or having split from such old states) often used the title "Raja, '' Raje '' or a variant such as "Rana, '' "Rao, '' "Rawat '' or Rawal. Also in this ' class ' were several Thakurs or Thakores and a few particular titles, such as Sardar, Mankari (or Mānkari / Maankari), Deshmukh, Sar Desai, Raja Inamdar, Saranjamdar.
The most prestigious Hindu rulers usually had the prefix "maha '' ("great '', compare for example Grand Duke) in their titles, as in Maharaja, Maharana, Maharao, etc. The states of Travancore and Cochin had queens regnant styled Maharani, generally the female forms applied only to sisters, spouses and widows, who could however act as regents.
There were also compound titles, such as (Maha) rajadhiraj, Raj - i - rajgan, often relics from an elaborate system of hierarchical titles under the Mughal emperors. For example, the addition of the adjective Bahadur raised the status of the titleholder one level.
Furthermore, most dynasties used a variety of additional titles, such as Varma in South India. This should not be confused with various titles and suffixes not specific to princes but used by entire (sub) castes.
The Sikh princes concentrated at Punjab usually adopted Hindu type titles when attaining princely rank; at a lower level Sardar was used.
Muslim rulers almost all used the title "Nawab '' (the Arabic honorific of naib, "deputy, '' used of the Mughal governors, who became de facto autonomous with the decline of the Mughal Empire), with the prominent exceptions of the Nizam of Hyderabad & Berar, the Wāli / Khan of Kalat and the Wāli of Swat. Other less usual titles included Darbar Sahib, Dewan, Jam, Mehtar (unique to Chitral) and Mir (from Emir).
However, the actual importance of a princely state can not be read from the title of its ruler, which was usually granted (or at least recognised) as a favour, often in recognition for loyalty and services rendered to the Mughal Empire. Although some titles were raised once or even repeatedly, there was no automatic updating when a state gained or lost real power. In fact, princely titles were even awarded to holders of domains (mainly jagirs) and even zamindars (tax collectors), which were not states at all. Various sources give significantly different numbers of states and domains of the various types. Even in general, the definition of titles and domains are clearly not well - established.
In addition to their titles all princely rulers were eligible to be appointed to certain British orders of chivalry associated with India, the Most Exalted Order of the Star of India and the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire. Women could be appointed as "Knights '' (instead of Dames) of these orders. Rulers entitled to 21 - gun and 19 - gun salutes were normally appointed to the highest rank, Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India.
Many Indian princes served in the British Army, the Indian Army, or in local guard or police forces, often rising to high ranks; some even served while on the throne. Many of these were appointed as an Aide de camp, either to the ruling prince of their own house (in the case of relatives of such rulers) or indeed to the British King - Emperor. Many saw active service, both on the subcontinent and on other fronts, during both World Wars.
Apart from those members of the princely houses who entered military service and who distinguished themselves, a good number of princes received honorary ranks as officers in the British and Indian Armed Forces. Those ranks were conferred based on several factors, including their heritage, lineage, gun - salute (or lack of one) as well as personal character or martial traditions. After the First and Second World Wars, the princely rulers of several of the major states, including Gwalior, Patiala, Bikaner, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Jammu and Kashmir and Hyderabad, were given honorary general officer ranks as a result of their states ' contributions to the war effort.
It was also not unusual for members of princely houses to be appointed to various colonial offices, often far from their native state, or to enter the diplomatic corps.
The gun salute system was used to set unambiguously the precedence of the major rulers in the area in which the British East India Company was active, or generally of the states and their dynasties. As heads of a state, certain princely rulers were entitled to be saluted by the firing of an odd number of guns between three and 21, with a greater number of guns indicating greater prestige. Generally, the number of guns remained the same for all successive rulers of a particular state, but individual princes were sometimes granted additional guns on a personal basis. Furthermore, rulers were sometimes granted additional gun salutes within their own territories only, constituting a semi-promotion. The states of all these rulers (about 120) were known as salute states.
After Indian Independence, the Maharana of Udaipur displaced the Nizam of Hyderabad as the most senior prince in India, because Hyderabad State had not acceded to the new Dominion of India, and the style Highness was extended to all rulers entitled to 9 - gun salutes. When the princely states had been integrated into the Indian Union their rulers were promised continued privileges and an income (known as the Privy Purse) for their upkeep. Subsequently, when the Indian government abolished the Privy Purse in 1971, the whole princely order ceased to be recognised under Indian law, although many families continue to retain their social prestige informally; some descendants of the rulers are still prominent in regional or national politics, diplomacy, business and high society.
At the time of Indian independence, only five rulers -- the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Maharaja of Mysore, the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir state, the Maharaja Gaekwad of Baroda and the Maharaja Scindia of Gwalior -- were entitled to a 21 - gun salute. Five more -- the Nawab of Bhopal, the Maharaja Holkar of Indore, the Maharana of Udaipur, the Maharaja of Kolhapur and the Maharaja of Travancore -- were entitled to 19 - gun salutes. The most senior princely ruler was the Nizam of Hyderabad, who was entitled to the unique style Exalted Highness. Other princely rulers entitled to salutes of 11 guns (soon 9 guns too) or more were entitled to the style Highness. No special style was used by rulers entitled to lesser gun salutes.
As paramount ruler, and successor to the Mughals, the British King - Emperor of India, for whom the style of Majesty was reserved, was entitled to an ' imperial ' 101 - gun salute -- in the European tradition also the number of guns fired to announce the birth of an heir (male) to the throne.
There was no strict correlation between the levels of the titles and the classes of gun salutes, the real measure of precedence, but merely a growing percentage of higher titles in classes with more guns. As a rule the majority of gun - salute princes had at least nine, with numbers below that usually the prerogative of Arab Sheikhs of the Aden protectorate, also under British protection.
There were many so - called non-salute states of lower prestige. Since the total of salute states was 117 and there were more than 500 princely states, most rulers were not entitled to any gun salute. Not all of these were minor rulers -- Surguja State, for example, was both larger and more populous than Karauli State, but the Maharaja of Karauli was entitled to a 17 - gun salute and the Maharaja of Surguja was not entitled to any gun salute at all.
A number of princes, in the broadest sense of the term, were not even acknowledged as such. On the other hand, the dynasties of certain defunct states were allowed to keep their princely status -- they were known as political pensioners, such as the Nawab of Oudh. There were also certain estates of British India which were rendered as political saranjams, having equal princely status. Though none of these princes were awarded gun salutes, princely titles in this category were recognised as a form of vassals of salute states, and were not even in direct relation with the paramount power.
A controversial aspect of East India Company rule was the doctrine of lapse, a policy under which lands whose feudal ruler died (or otherwise became unfit to rule) without a male biological heir (as opposed to an adopted son) would become directly controlled by the Company and an adopted son would not become the ruler of the princely state. This policy went counter to Indian tradition where, unlike Europe, it was far more the accepted norm for a ruler to appoint his own heir.
The doctrine of lapse was pursued most vigorously by the Governor - General Sir James Ramsay, 10th Earl (later 1st Marquess) of Dalhousie. Dalhousie annexed seven states, including Awadh (Oudh), whose Nawabs he had accused of misrule, and the Maratha states of Nagpur, Jhansi and Satara and Sambalpur and Thanjavur. Resentment over the annexation of these states turned to indignation when the heirlooms of the Maharajas of Nagpur were auctioned off in Calcutta. Dalhousie 's actions contributed to the rising discontent amongst the upper castes which played a large part in the outbreak of the Indian mutiny of 1857. The last Mughal Badshah (emperor), whom many of the mutineers saw as a figurehead to rally around, was deposed following its suppression.
In response to the unpopularity of the doctrine, it was discontinued with the end of Company rule and the British Parliament 's assumption of direct power over India.
By treaty, the British controlled the external affairs of the princely states absolutely. As the states were not British possessions, they retained control over their own internal affairs, subject to a degree of British influence which in many states was substantial.
By the beginning of the 20th century, relations between the British and the four largest states -- Hyderabad, Mysore, Jammu and Kashmir, and Baroda -- were directly under the control of the Governor - General of India, in the person of a British Resident. Two agencies, for Rajputana and Central India, oversaw twenty and 148 princely states respectively. The remaining princely states had their own British political officers, or Agents, who answered to the administrators of India 's provinces. The Agents of five princely states were then under the authority of Madras, 354 under Bombay, 26 of Bengal, two under Assam, 34 under Punjab, fifteen under Central Provinces and Berar and two under United Provinces.
The Chamber of Princes (Narender Mandal or Narendra Mandal) was an institution established in 1920 by a Royal Proclamation of the King - Emperor to provide a forum in which the rulers could voice their needs and aspirations to the government. It survived until the end of the British Raj in 1947.
By the early 1930s, most of the princely states whose Agencies were under the authority of India 's provinces were organised into new Agencies, answerable directly to the Governor - general, on the model of the Central India and Rajputana agencies: the Eastern States Agency, Punjab States Agency, Baluchistan Agency, Deccan States Agency, Madras States Agency and the Northwest Frontier States Agency. The Baroda Residency was combined with the princely states of northern Bombay Presidency into the Baroda, Western India and Gujarat States Agency. Gwalior was separated from the Central India Agency and given its own Resident, and the states of Rampur and Benares, formerly with Agents under the authority of the United Provinces, were placed under the Gwalior Residency in 1936. The princely states of Sandur and Banganapalle in Mysore Presidency were transferred to the agency of the Mysore Resident in 1939.
The native states in 1947 included five large states that were in "direct political relations '' with the Government of India. For the complete list of princely states in 1947, see List of princely states of India.
See article: Indian State Forces
The armies of the Native States were bound by many restrictions that were imposed by subsidiary alliances. They existed mainly for ceremonial use and for internal policing. According to the Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1907, p. 85,
Since a chief can neither attack his neighbour nor fall out with a foreign nation, it follows that he needs no military establishment which is not required either for police purposes or personal display, or for cooperation with the Imperial Government. The treaty made with Gwalior in 1844, and the instrument of transfer given to Mysore in 1881, alike base the restriction of the forces of the State upon the broad ground of protection. The former explained in detail that unnecessary armies were embarrassing to the State itself and the cause of disquietude to others: a few months later a striking proof of this was afforded by the army of the Sikh kingdom of Lahore. The British Government has undertaken to protect the dominions of the Native princes from invasion and even from rebellion within: its army is organised for the defence not merely of British India, but of all the possessions under the suzerainty of the King - Emperor.
In addition, other restrictions were imposed:
The treaties with most of the larger States are clear on this point. Posts in the interior must not be fortified, factories for the production of guns and ammunition must not be constructed, nor may the subject of other States be enlisted in the local forces... They must allow the forces that defend them to obtain local supplies, to occupy cantonments or positions, and to arrest deserters; and in addition to these services they must recognise the Imperial control of the railways, telegraphs, and postal communications as essential not only to the common welfare but to the common defence.
The troops were routinely inspected by British army officers and generally had the same equipment as soldiers in the Indian Army. Although their numbers were relatively small, the Imperial Service Troops were employed in China and British Somaliland in the first decade of the 20th century, and later saw action in the First World War and Second World War.
At the time of Indian independence, India was divided into two sets of territories, the first being the territories of "British India, '' which were under the direct control of the India Office in London and the Governor - General of India, and the second being the "Princely states, '' the territories over which the Crown had suzerainty, but which were under the control of their hereditary rulers. In addition, there were several colonial enclaves controlled by France and Portugal. The integration of these territories into Dominion of India, that had been created by the Indian Independence Act 1947 by the British parliament, was a declared objective of the Indian National Congress, which the Government of India pursued over the years 1947 to 1949. Through a combination of tactics, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V.P. Menon in the months immediately preceding and following the independence convinced the rulers of almost all of the hundreds of princely states to accede to India. In a speech in January 1948, Vallabhbhai Patel said:
As you are all aware, on the lapse of Paramountcy every Indian State became a separate independent entity and our first task of consolidating about 550 States was on the basis of accession to the Indian Dominion on three subjects. Barring Hyderabad and Junagadh all the states which are contiguous to India acceded to Indian Dominion. Subsequently, Kashmir also came in... Some Rulers who were quick to read the writing on the wall, gave responsible government to their people; Cochin being the most illustrious example. In Travancore, there was a short struggle, but there, too, the Ruler soon recognised the aspiration of his people and agreed to introduce a constitution in which all powers would be transferred to the people and he would function as a constitutional Ruler.
Although this process successfully integrated the vast majority of princely states into India, it was not as successful in relation to a few states, notably the former princely state of Kashmir, whose Maharaja delayed signing the instrument of accession into India until his territories were under the threat of invasion by Pakistan, the state of Hyderabad, whose ruler decided to remain independent and was subsequently defeated by the Operation Polo invasion, and the states of Tripura and Manipur, whose rulers agreed to accession only in late 1949, after the Indian conquest of Hyderabad.
Having secured their accession, Sardar Patel and V.P. Menon then proceeded, in a step - by - step process, to secure and extend the central government 's authority over these states and to transform their administrations until, by 1956, there was little difference between the territories that had formerly been part of British India and those that had been princely states. Simultaneously, the Government of India, through a combination of diplomatic and military means, acquired control over the remaining European colonial enclaves, such as Goa, which were also integrated into India.
As the final step, in 1971, the 26th amendment to the Constitution of India withdrew official recognition of all official symbols of princely India, including titles and privileges, and abolished the remuneration of the princes by privy purses. As a result, even titular heads of the former princely states ceased to exist.
During the period of the British Raj, there were four princely states in Balochistan: Makran, Kharan, Las Bela and Kalat. The first three acceded to Pakistan. However, the ruler of the fourth princely state, the Khan of Kalat Ahmad Yar Khan, declared Kalat 's independence as this was one of the options given to all princely states. The state remained independent until it was acceded on 27 March 1948. The signing of the Instrument of Accession by Ahmad Yar Khan, led his brother, Prince Abdul Karim, to revolt against his brother 's decision in July 1948, causing an ongoing and still unresolved insurgency.
Bahawalpur from the Punjab Agency joined Pakistan on 5 October 1947. The Princely states of the North - West Frontier States Agencies. included the Dir Swat and Chitral Agency and the Deputy Commissioner of Hazara acting as the Political Agent for Amb and Phulra. These states joined Pakistan on independence from the British.
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when was the last time roosters won nrl | Sydney Roosters - Wikipedia
The Sydney Roosters is an Australian professional rugby league football club based in the Eastern Suburbs of Sydney. The club competes in the National Rugby League (NRL) competition and is one of the oldest and most successful clubs in Australian rugby league history, having won fourteen New South Wales Rugby League (NSWRL) and National Rugby League titles, and several other competitions. Only the South Sydney Rabbitohs and the St George Dragons have won more premierships. The club holds the record for having the most wins and the second greatest margin of victory in a match in Australian rugby league history, and has won more minor premierships than any other club. The Roosters is one of only two clubs (the other being the St. George Illawarra Dragons in 1999) to finish runners - up in its inaugural season. The Eastern Suburbs DRLFC is the only club to have played in each and every season at the elite level, and since the 1970s has often been dubbed the "glamour club '' of the league. Coached by Trent Robinson along with captains Boyd Cordner and Jake Friend, the Roosters play their home games at the Sydney Cricket Ground.
The club was founded in 1908 in Paddington, Sydney, as Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club; in 1995 the club 's name was changed to the Sydney City Roosters, and in 2000 to the Sydney Roosters. The Bondi Junction and Moore Park - based Roosters have a long - standing and fierce rivalry with other Sydney - based clubs, especially the South Sydney Rabbitohs, a fellow foundation club based in neighbouring Redfern.
The Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club (ESDRLFC) was formed on 24 January 1908 at a meeting at the Paddington Town Hall in Sydney after it was decided that the district should enter a team in the newly formed New South Wales Rugby Football League. The ESDRLFC was formed, under its articles of association with the NSWRL, to represent the geographic areas in Sydney covering the Waverley, Randwick, Woollahra, Paddington, Darlinghurst and Vaucluse local government municipalities, as well as the eastern parts of the Sydney CBD. Indeed, the ' suburb ' of Sydney, postcode 2000, falls entirely within the official boundaries of the ESDRLFC.
Unofficially nicknamed the "Tricolours '' due to their red, white and blue playing strip, Eastern Suburbs won its first match, defeating Newtown 32 -- 16 at Wentworth Oval on 20 April 1908. In 1913, it became the first club to win three consecutive premierships; the line - ups during this period included the likes of Dally Messenger, Harry "Jersey '' Flegg and Sandy Pearce, all regarded as all - time rugby league greats. However, the club rapidly declined and failed to win the premiership for the next nine seasons.
Eastern Suburbs missed the finals once from 1926 to 1942, and in that time won four titles and the minor premiership on seven occasions. During this period, Dave Brown set several point - scoring records that still stand. In 1935, the team lost just one game, and recorded the highest winning margin in their history, an 87 -- 7 (106 -- 8 in modern scoring) victory over Canterbury. In 1936, Eastern Suburbs became one of five teams in premiership history to remain undefeated for an entire season, a feat they repeated the following year. They are the only club to remain unbeaten for two consecutive seasons.
Despite claiming the premiership in 1945, Eastern Suburbs failed to make the finals for the following seven seasons. A runners - up finish in 1960 was the closest the club came to claiming the premiership during this era. Eastern Suburbs were soundly defeated 31 -- 6 in the grand final that year, by the famous record - beating St George outfit. In 1966, the club fell to new depths and was winless for the first time in its history. It was also the last occasion in which the Roosters won the wooden spoon until claiming it again in the 2009 season. It ended a poor run for Eastern Suburbs; from 1963 to 1966, they won 8 of 72 matches, finishing second to last in 1964 and last in the other three years. The club underwent a renaissance in 1967 after appointing Jack Gibson as coach (1967 -- 68), and introducing a new emblem on the playing jerseys, the rooster.
From 1972 to 1982, the Roosters won four minor premierships and played in four grand finals, winning two consecutively. Gibson, now dubbed as "Super Coach '', returned to lead the team from 1974 to 1976. In 1974 and 1975, the team won 39 of 44 matches, both minor premierships, and both grand finals and set a premiership record of 19 consecutive wins. The 38 -- 0 grand final victory in 1975 against St George was the largest margin in a first grade grand final, and the record stood for 33 years until superseded by Manly 's 40 -- nil win over the Melbourne Storm in 2008. Though the 1975 grand final was played in the era of an obsolete scoring system with 3 - point tries, the winning margin using 4 points for tries would mean that it is still a record for a grand final at 46 - 0. With line - ups including Mark Harris, Elwyn Walters, John Brass, Bill Mullins, Russell Fairfax, Johnny Mayes, John Peard, Ron Coote, Ian Schubert and captain Arthur Beetson, the Centenary of Rugby League panel considered the Roosters of 1974 and 1975 to be among the greatest club teams of all time.
Between 1984 and 1995, the Roosters reached the semi-finals once, and became known to critics as the "transit lounge '', due to the high frequency of player purchases and releases. The club came close to reaching the premiership in 1987 under coach and favourite son Arthur Beetson, being defeated by eventual premiers Manly in a "bruising '' major semi-final, 10 -- 6.
As the Super League war built up in the mid-1990s, the Roosters recruited high - profile coach Phil Gould and star five - eighth Brad Fittler, both from the Penrith Panthers. This helped to quickly send the Roosters back to the upper end of the ladder. Fittler 's presence proved invaluable; during his reign, the Roosters competed in four grand finals in five years. In 2002, the club captured its 12th premiership -- the first in 27 years -- defeating minor premiers the New Zealand Warriors 30 -- 8 in the 2002 NRL grand final.
In the 2003 NRL grand final against the Penrith Panthers, the Roosters lost 18 -- 6 in what was their heaviest defeat for the year. A decisive moment occurred midway through the second half: with the scores tied at 6 - all, Roosters winger Todd Byrne made a clear break down the sideline and looked set to score a try before being chased down and tackled into touch by Penrith lock forward, Scott Sattler. From then on, the momentum of the game was with Penrith. The Roosters ' made the Grand Final in 2004, when they ceded a 13 -- 6 half - time lead to be defeated by the Bulldogs 16 -- 13. The match was captain Fittler 's last for the team.
In 2007, the Roosters became the first club to play 100 seasons of first grade rugby league; they were the only outfit to play in each season since the competition 's inception in 1908. They appointed Chris Anderson as coach in 2007 and 2008 following two relatively unsuccessful years under Ricky Stuart. On 9 July 2007, Anderson resigned after a 56 -- 0 loss to the Manly - Warringah Sea Eagles. Assistant Coach Fittler acted as the caretaker for the remainder of the 2007 season, before being appointed in August to the top job for two years. With eight rounds remaining in a disappointing 2009 season in which the Roosters finished with the wooden spoon for the first time in 43 years, Fittler was informed he would not be the coach in 2010, his position to be taken by veteran coach Brian Smith. The Roosters wound up winning only five games for the entire season; twice against Cronulla and once against each of Canberra in Canberra, eventual grand finalists Parramatta and Newcastle in Newcastle.
A year after finishing last, under the coaching of Brian Smith they reached the 2010 NRL Grand Final where the St. George Illawarra Dragons defeated them 32 -- 8. The Roosters led 8 -- 6 at half time but were overrun in the second half.
What followed was another relatively disappointing season at Bondi Junction, with the Roosters finishing 11th in a 2011 season plagued by off - field issues involving 2010 Dally M Medallist Todd Carney (who was later sacked by the Roosters at season 's end). However, a four - game winning streak to end the season brought hope for the 2012 season. Other high - profile players including Nate Myles, Mark Riddell, Jason Ryles, Kane Linnett and Phil Graham all left the club at season 's end.
The Roosters endured a disappointing 2012 season, finishing 13th. Brian Smith resigned from the coaching role shortly after the Roosters ' season concluded with a loss to the minor premiers Canterbury, and also at season 's end captain Braith Anasta left to join the Wests Tigers in 2013.
The 2013 season saw new staff, a new coach, Trent Robinson, and several new players, including big signings Michael Jennings, James Maloney, Luke O'Donnell and Sonny Bill Williams, arrive at the club. This culminated in the Roosters finishing the 2013 season with a 24 -- 12 win over the South Sydney Rabbitohs, securing the minor premiership for the 2013 season and were the NRL 's best attacking and defensive team. The Roosters defeated the Manly - Warringah Sea Eagles 4 -- 0, in week one of the finals, earning a week 's rest. The Roosters defeated the Newcastle Knights 40 -- 14 in week three of the NRL finals, progressing to the 2013 NRL grand final, facing the Manly - Warringah Sea Eagles, winning 26 -- 18. It was a great comeback by the Roosters, down by 10 points in the second half they went on to score three consecutive tries to seal the win and their 13th premiership. They then went on to win the 2014 World Club Challenge against Wigan 36 -- 14 to claim the treble of club titles. No team in premiership history had come from a lower ladder position to win the following season 's title.
In the 2014 season, the club finished first on the table winning the minor premiership. In the preliminary final against arch rivals Souths, Easts lost the match 32 - 22 in what was retiring legend Anthony Minichiello 's final game. In the 2015 season, Easts finished first on the table and claimed their third consecutive minor premiership. The Roosters again made the preliminary final with Brisbane this time being the opponents. The Roosters ended up losing the match 31 - 12 in front of a sold out crowd at Suncorp Stadium.
In the 2016 season, The Roosters finished 15th on the table after enduring a horror season where star player Mitchell Pearce was suspended for 8 matches, fined $125,000 and stripped of the captaincy following a pre season incident where the player who was intoxicated, simulated a sex act with a dog which was filmed on another party goer 's mobile phone. The club also struggled due to injuries to star players such as Boyd Cordner and Jared Waerea - Hargreaves.
The Roosters finished 2nd at the end of the 2017 season and defeated Brisbane in week one of the finals earning the week off. Easts opponents in the preliminary final were North Queensland who had finished in 8th position on the table and produced upset victories over Cronulla and Parramatta. In a game that The Roosters were expected to win, North Queensland surprised everyone winning the match 29 - 16.
In 2018, the Roosters finished in 1st place, claiming their 20th minor premiership. They beat the Sharks 21 - 12 in week one of the finals earning the week off. They then broke their preliminary final hoodoo beating rivals Rabbitohs 12 - 4 in what was the last sports match ever played at the Sydney Football Stadium. They managed to keep the Rabbitohs tryless and the crowd was the highest ever recorded in a sporting match at the Sydney Football Stadium with 44,380 people attending the match. They played the Storm in the Grand Final and won 21 - 6 to claim their 14th premiership.
Eastern Suburbs did not traditionally sport a crest on their jerseys in the first half of the 20th century. Other clubs occasionally sported simple designs on their strip; however, this was not seen consistently on all jerseys until the 1950s and 1960s. In 1967, the club introduced its first logo, displaying the mantra "Easts to Win '', following a winless season. The crest also incorporated a rooster or cockerel in the design; one source suggested that this choice of mascot followed after the Roosters ' jersey design was inspired by the French national team 's jersey. Given that the French team 's mascot was affectionately known to supporters as le coq, "the rooster '', connections have been made as to the choosing of a rooster for Eastern Suburbs ' mascot.
In 1978, the mantra was replaced with the team 's name, "Eastern Suburbs ''. This name was kept until 1994, when the club changed its team name to the "Sydney City Roosters '' for the start of the 1995 season to appeal to the club 's widening fan base. In 2000, the club shortened its name to the "Sydney Roosters ''.
Although marketing names have changed, the Roosters are still registered with the National Rugby League competition as the Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club, the entity holding the NRL licence.
Red, white and blue have been the colours of every jersey design in the club 's history; however, the jersey design has undergone several alterations. The red, white and blue colour scheme has traditionally been the colour combination of sporting teams representing Sydney 's Eastern Suburbs. Eastern Suburbs Rugby League club adopted these colours in 1908, with its predecessor Rugby Union club, also known as Eastern Suburbs in the Sydney club Rugby Union, having played in the tri-colours. The jersey worn in the first premiership season consisted of several hoops; red stripes dominated over consecutive smaller white and blue stripes. Although the width and the order of these stripes have changed, the basic design has always been maintained.
During World War II, the design of the jersey was modified because the dye used to colour jerseys was needed for the war effort. This saw Eastern Suburbs playing in different colours and an altered design. Instead of using the traditional hoops, the side used a sky - blue based jersey and a red and white V - strip around the collar. This is the only noted time in the club 's history where the traditional deep blue, red and white combination was absent from the jersey. After the war, the V - strip design reverted to the original blue that had been present in the original jerseys, and the single red and white stripes around the shirt 's chest were incorporated with a single white stripe surrounded by a red stripe on either side. This jersey appeared in the 1950s and remains the team 's base design.
Facing design clashes with other teams in the 1990s, the club adopted a jersey with a similar design to what became known as the "away jersey '', replacing the blue backing with white, and the outer red stripe with blue. As the club entered the new century, the team began to wear a "foundation jersey ''. Although the design differs slightly from the jersey worn in the inaugural 1908 season, it did feature the traditional horizontal striped - design. This jersey is normally worn when the Sydney Roosters face traditional rivals, such as the South Sydney Rabbitohs, or on special occasions such as Anzac Day when the team meets the St George Illawarra Dragons, the product of a team partly formed by the St. George Dragons.
Main: South Sydney Rabbitohs, St George Illawarra Dragons.
Minor: Canterbury - Bankstown Bulldogs, Penrith Panthers, Manly Warringah Sea Eagles, Melbourne Storm, Brisbane Broncos, New Zealand Warriors.
The Sydney Roosters, namely the Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club was formed, under its articles of association with the NSWRL, to represent the geographic areas in Sydney covering the Waverley, Randwick, Woollahra, Paddington, Darlinghurst and Vaucluse local government municipalities, as well as the eastern parts of the Sydney CBD. Despite some junior Rugby League boundaries being redrawn over the 107 - year history of the code in Australia, these articles of association remain unchanged. As such, the Roosters represent a small area of Sydney. The Roosters home turf is also home to a large number of supporters of rival codes and thus is the most competitive sporting market in Australia, with the Roosters flying the flag for Rugby League in Sydney 's east.
Most sources suggest that the Royal Agricultural Ground was often used as a home venue between 1908 and 1910, before the club hosted matches at the Sydney Sports Ground from 1911 onwards. It was here that the team played all of their home games up until 1986, when the ground was demolished with the Sydney Cricket Ground No. 2 to make way for Sydney 's main rectangular field, the Sydney Football Stadium. In 1987, games were moved away to the Newtown Jets ' home ground, Henson Park, temporarily to await the completion of the Sydney Football Stadium. The team capitalised on this move, finishing second in the regular season. It was the only time between 1983 and 1995 that the side reached the finals.
In 1988, the club moved to the newly built Sydney Football Stadium on the site of the old Sydney Sports Ground, opening the season with a 24 -- 14 defeat at the hands of the St George Dragons in front of 19,295 spectators on a wet night on 4 March 1988. At the Sydney Football Stadium, the Roosters have a 59 % win record from 256 games with a 58 % and 55 % win record at their old grounds the Sydney Sports Ground and the Sydney Cricket Ground respectively.
The Roosters played their last game at the Sydney Football Stadium on 22 September 2018 in front of a ground record crowd (44,380). The Sydney Roosters will play home games at the Sydney Cricket Ground whilst a new stadium is built on the site of the former Sydney Football Stadium.
Whilst the Roosters have supporters all around the world, its traditional fan base is in Sydney, which is most concentrated in its homeland in the affluent eastern suburbs. The club has an internet message board for supporters, "The Wall '', which has been the official forum since 1999. The club has announced that "The Wall '' will be closing as of late January 2012. "The Chookpen '' is an unofficial site.
In 2013 the club tallied the fourth - highest home attendance of all National Rugby League clubs (behind the Brisbane Broncos) with an average of 19,368 spectators at the Sydney Football Stadium.
At the club 's home ground, the Sydney Football Stadium, the supporters congregate in distinct sections. The "Chook Pen '', a designated area in Bay 35, is the preferred location for the most animated fans. Members of the Sydney Cricket and Sports Ground Trust are seated in the Members Pavilion, and season ticket holders are located in Bays 12 -- 14.
In 2018, the Roosters had over 16,000 paying members, in addition to the 41,980 members of the Roosters ' Leagues Club, which is the major benefactor of the football club. The Easts Leagues Club and the Sydney Roosters "operate as one entity '' known as the Easts Group. Under this arrangement, the Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club is the ' parent company ' of the Easts Group. The Football Club delegates, however, overarching responsibility for both football and leagues club operations to a single general manager who oversees the whole group 's performance. The leagues club group provides financial support to the football club, only where necessary, as in recent years the football club 's sponsorships and TV revenues are generally covering most Rugby League expenditures.
Anthony Minichiello holds the record for the most first grade games (302), having surpassed Luke Ricketson 's tally of 301 matches in round 3 of the finals in 2014. Former team captain Craig Fitzgibbon holds the club record for scoring the most points, tallying 1,376 over his 210 matches. Fitzgibbon also broke the all - time point scoring record for a forward in the later rounds of 2006. Dave Brown 's tally of 45 points (five tries and 15 goals) in a single match against Canterbury in 1935 remains a competition record after more than seven decades. Ivan Cleary scored 284 points in 1998, which at the time was an all - time points scoring record in a season.
Bill Mullins, father of 2002 premiership player Brett, scored 104 tries in his 11 - year, 190 - game career with Eastern Suburbs between 1968 and 1978, meaning that on average, he scored at least one try every two games. Anthony Minichiello became the highest try scorer in the Roosters history when he scored his 105th try against the Newcastle at Ausgrid Stadium in June 2011. ' Mini ' finally retired after the 2014 season, and ended his career with 139 tries. He is also the first fullback in 70 years to win the Grand Final (2013), whilst captaining the Club. Rod O'Loan scored seven tries in a single match against Sydney University in 1935, and Dave Brown 's 38 tries in 15 games in the same year remains a competition record.
In 1975, the Eastern Suburbs Roosters set an unparalleled 19 - match winning streak on their way to their 11th premiership. In a 1935 match against Canterbury, Dave Brown scored 45 points, the highest score and victory margin for the club (the 87 -- 7 scoreline is equivalent to 106 -- 8 under the contemporary scoring system). The winning margin is the second largest overall, behind St. George 's 91 -- 6 win over Canterbury a week earlier.
The club 's record attendance for a regular season game at its home ground -- the Sydney Football Stadium -- stands at 40,864, achieved in a match on ANZAC Day against the St George Illawarra Dragons in 2017. The 2000 grand final between the Sydney Roosters and the Brisbane Broncos attracted 94,277 spectators to the Olympic Stadium.
Head coach
Assistant coaches
Updated: 16 July 2018 Source (s): roosters.com.au
In 2000, the Sydney Roosters named their "Team of the Century '', which included players from 1908 to 2000. The official team is listed below along with their Sydney Roosters cap number.
Head coach
Updated: 22 October 2011 Source (s): Player List (archived)
In 2007, the Sydney Roosters announced "The Centurions '', a team consisting of those regarded as the greatest players to have played 100 or more games for the club between 1908 and 2007. The team was selected by Ray Chesterton, Ian Heads, David Middleton and Alan Clarkson and was unveiled at the centenary season launch at the Michael Algeri Pavilion on 10 March 2007.
Head coach
Updated: 22 October 2011 Source (s): Centurions
Premierships -- 14 1911, 1912, 1913, 1923, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1940, 1945, 1974, 1975, 2002, 2013, 2018
Runners - up -- 15 1908, 1919, 1921, 1928, 1931, 1934, 1938, 1941, 1960, 1972, 1980, 2000, 2003, 2004, 2010
Minor Premierships -- 20 1912, 1913, 1923, 1931, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1940, 1941, 1945, 1974, 1975, 1980, 1981, 2004, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2018
World Club Challenge -- 3 1976, 2003, 2014
Club Championship -- 14 1930, 1931, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1945, 1970, 1974, 1975, 2004, 2006, 2013, 2014
Second Grade -- 9 1908, 1909, 1910, 1911, 1935, 1937, 1949, 1986, 2004
National Youth Competition -- 1 2016
Jersey Flegg Cup -- 14 1914, 1917, 1924, 1929, 1930, 1931, 1932, 1941, 1947, 1970, 1976, 1993, 2002, 2004
Presidents Cup -- 15 1910, 1911, 1913, 1920, 1922, 1923, 1924, 1927, 1938, 1948, 1949, 1955, 1978, 1987, 1993
S.G. Ball Cup -- 4 1997, 2008, 2010, 2014
Amco Cup -- 2 1975, 1978
City Cup -- 3 1914, 1915, 1916
Pre-Season Cup -- 4 1974, 1977, 1979, 1981
Auckland Nines -- 1 2017
World Sevens -- 1 1993
On 27 March 2018, the Sydney Roosters applied for, and won, a license to participate in the inaugural 2018 NRL Women 's season. Adam Hartigan was named as the coach of the women 's side.
In June 2018, the club used up the maximum of fifteen marquee signings ahead of the inaugural season which will commence in September, including Karina Brown, Isabelle Kelly and Ruan Sims.
The club finished runners - up in the inaugural NRL Women 's Premiership, losing to the Brisbane Broncos by 34 -- 12 in the 2018 NRL Women 's Premiership Grand Final.
Template: Sydney Roosters Women 's Current Squad
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tinker tailor soldier spy why did jim kill bill | Bill Haydon - wikipedia
Bill Haydon is a fictional character created by John le Carré in le Carré 's Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy.
Haydon was born around 1917; no specific year is given but he is known to have been an undergraduate at Oxford University in 1937. He comes from an aristocratic family with connections throughout British high society. A polymath of sorts with a brilliant and charming personality, he excels as a student, takes up remote languages with ease, and proves a gifted painter while at Oxford. He is identified for recruitment in the Circus (John le Carré 's lightly fictionalised version of MI6 / SIS) by his tutor and acts in turn as a talent - spotter among his classmates, most notably Jim Prideaux, who also becomes his lover. In World War II, Haydon builds a superb record in Nazi - occupied Europe and the Middle East, such that he elicits comparisons with Lawrence of Arabia. Unbeknownst to the British, Haydon is also recruited as a Soviet agent around that time by Karla, Moscow Centre 's crafty and legendary spymaster.
After the war, Haydon holds positions of increasing importance in the Circus, becomes its premier expert on the Soviet Union, and eventually rises to the senior staff of Control, the unnamed Chief of the Circus. In the early years of the Cold War, he limits his espionage activities to ' selected gifts of intelligence ' that advance the Soviet cause over the American one without harming British interests. The Suez crisis of 1956 convinces him that Britain has lost all influence as a world power and leads him to become a ' full - fledged Soviet mole with no holds barred. ' In 1961, he formally receives Soviet citizenship, then achieves the rank of Soviet intelligence colonel and is awarded further Soviet decorations over the next ten years.
Control has come to suspect that there is a mole deep in the organization. By 1972, alone in this belief, he has ruled out all but his five senior lieutenants: Percy Alleline, Roy Bland, George Smiley, Toby Esterhase, and Haydon. To save his agent, Karla engineers the demise of Control and Smiley whom he reckons to be the most likely to unmask Haydon. Karla is aware of Smiley 's one personal weakness -- his unreciprocated love for his wife Ann, who is a habitual adulterer -- and orders Haydon to have an affair with her to cloud Smiley 's judgment further. As Control is about to discover the truth, Karla lures him into ordering a doomed operation in Czechoslovakia to learn the identity of the mole from a (fake) Czech defector. Control picks Jim Prideaux for the operation and Haydon chooses to sacrifice his close friend to save himself. Prideaux is captured and reveals under duress the full extent of Control 's knowledge of the mole to Karla before being repatriated to Britain and discharged from the Circus. Control is dismissed and dies soon afterwards, Smiley is forced into retirement, and Alleline becomes Chief. Haydon assumes control of London Station, in control of all foreign operations, effectively giving him unfettered access to intelligence worldwide.
In 1973, an indiscretion by a Soviet operative in Hong Kong confirms the existence of the mole to Oliver Lacon, the Civil Service overseer of the Circus in Whitehall. Smiley is recalled from retirement to investigate and ultimately unmasks Haydon after a tortuous, soul - searching quest. Under interrogation, Haydon reveals much of his secret past to Smiley and plans are set in motion to exchange Haydon for Western agents held in the Eastern Bloc, but before this happens he is killed while still in Circus custody. It is strongly implied, though never stated, that the killer was Prideaux.
Haydon is portrayed rather in the mould of real - life double agent Kim Philby who is known to have compromised le Carré 's own career in MI6; certainly his actions parallel Philby 's ability to paralyse the British intelligence service. Haydon claims that, although he was recruited by Soviet intelligence at university in the 1930s, he only became a serious agent for them following the Suez crisis when it became clear to him that Britain was no longer a world power and, in his view, was subservient to America. This perceived inferiority led to Haydon developing a deep hatred for America and resolved him to damage them as much as possible by spying for the Russians.
Haydon was played by Ian Richardson in the 1979 BBC television serial based on the novel. In the 1988 BBC Radio 4 series, he was played by Edward de Souza. In the 2011 film adaptation, he was played by Colin Firth. In the 2011 Radio 4 series, The Complete Smiley, he was portrayed by Michael Feast.
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when is coming of age day in korea | Coming of age - wikipedia
Coming of age is a young person 's transition from being a child to being an adult. It continues through the teenage years of life. The certain age at which this transition takes place changes in society, as does the nature of the change. It can be a simple legal convention or can be part of a ritual or spiritual event, as practiced by many societies. In the past, and in some societies today, such a change is associated with the age of sexual maturity (early adolescence), especially menarche and spermarche. In others, it is associated with an age of religious responsibility. Particularly in western societies, modern legal conventions which stipulate points in late adolescence or early adulthood (most commonly 18 - 21 when adolescents are generally no longer considered minors and are granted the full rights and responsibilities of an adult) are the focus of the transition. In either case, many cultures retain ceremonies to confirm the coming of age, and signstories that are told in film are called coming - of - age films.
Turning 15, the "age of maturity, '' as the Baha'i faith terms it, is a time when a child is considered spiritually mature. Declared Baha'is that have reached the age of maturity are expected to begin observing certain Baha'i laws, such as obligatory prayer and fasting.
Theravada boys, typically just under the age of 20 years, undergo a Shinbyu ceremony, where they are initiated into the Temple as Novice Monks (Samanera). They will typically stay in the monastery for between 3 days and 3 years, most commonly for one 3 - month "rainy season retreat '' (vassa), held annually from late July to early October. During this period the boys experience the rigors of an orthodox Buddhist monastic lifestyle -- a lifestyle that involves celibacy, formal voluntary poverty, absolute nonviolence, and daily fasting between noon and the following day 's sunrise.
Depending on how long they stay, the boys will learn various chants and recitations in the canonical language (Pali) -- typically the Buddha 's more famous discourses (Suttas) and verses (Gathas) -- as well as Buddhist ethics and higher monastic discipline (Vinaya). If they stay long enough and conditions permit, they may be tutored in the meditative practices (bhavana, or dhyana) that are at the heart of Buddhism 's program for the self - development of alert tranquillity (samadhi), wisdom (prajna), and divine mental states (brahmavihara).
After living the novitiate monastic life for some time, the boy, now considered to have "come of age, '' will either take higher ordination as a fully ordained monk (a bhikkhu) or will (more often) return to lay life. In Southeast Asian countries, where most pracitioners of Theravada Buddhism reside, women will often refuse to marry a man who has not ordained temporarily as a Samanera in this way at some point in his life. Men who have completed this Samanera ordination and have returned to lay life are considered primed for adult married life and are described in the Thai language and the Khmer language by terms which roughly translate as "cooked, '' "finished, '' or "cooled off '' in English, as in meal preparation / consumption. Thus, one 's monastic training is seen to have prepared one properly for familial, social, and civic duty and / or one 's passions and unruliness of the boy are seen to have "cooled down '' enough for him to be of use to a woman as a proper man.
In Confucianism, when a young person turns 20 years of age, he / she undergoes a Guan Li (for a man) or a Ji Li (for a woman) ceremony. During this rite of passage, the young person receives his / her style name.
In many Western Christian churches (those deriving from Rome after the East - West Schism), a young person celebrates his / her Coming of Age with the Sacrament of Confirmation. (In Eastern Orthodoxy the baptising priest gives Confirmation to infants, directly after baptism.) This is usually done by the Bishop laying his hands upon the foreheads of the young person (usually between the ages of 12 to 15 years), and marking them with the seal of the Holy Spirit. In some denominations during this sacrament, the child (now an adult in the eyes of God) adopts a confirmation name which is added onto their Christian name.
In Christian denominations that practice Believer 's Baptism (baptism by voluntary decision, as opposed to baptism in early infancy), the ritual can be carried out after the age of accountability has arrived. Some traditions withhold the rite of Holy Communion from those not yet at the age of accountability, on the grounds that children do not understand what the sacrament means. In the 20th century, Roman Catholic children began to be admitted to communion some years before confirmation, with an annual First Communion service - a practice that was extended to some paedobaptist Protestant groups - but since the Second Vatican Council, the withholding of confirmation to a later age, e.g. mid-teens in the United States, early teens in Ireland and Britain, has in some areas been abandoned in favour of restoring the traditional order of the three sacraments of initiation.
In some denominations, full membership in the Church, if not bestowed at birth, often must wait until the age of accountability and frequently is granted only after a period of preparation known as catechesis. The time of innocence before one has the ability to understand truly the laws of God and that God sees one as innocent is also seen as applying to individuals who suffer from a mental disability which prevents them from ever reaching a time when they are capable of understanding the laws of God. These individuals are thus seen, according to some Christians, as existing in a perpetual state of innocence.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) sets the age of accountability and minimum age for baptism at 8 years of age. All persons younger than 8 are considered innocent and incapable of sinning. The LDS Church considers mentally challenged individuals whose mental age is under 8 to be in a perpetual state of innocence, similar to other Christian churches.
In certain states in Ancient Greece, such as Sparta and Crete, adolescent boys were expected to enter into a mentoring relationship with an adult man, in which they would be taught skills pertaining to adult life, such as hunting, martial arts and fine arts.
The puberty ritual for the young Roman male involved shaving his beard and taking off his bulla, an amulet worn to mark and protect underage youth, which he then dedicated to his household gods, the Lares. He assumed the toga virilis ("toga of manhood ''), was enrolled as a citizen on the census, and soon began his military service. Traditionally, the ceremony was held on the Liberalia, the festival in honor of the god Liber, who embodied both political and sexual liberty, but other dates could be chosen for individual reasons.
Rome lacked the elaborate female puberty rituals of ancient Greece, and for girls the wedding ceremony was in part a rite of passage for the bride. Girls coming of age dedicated their dolls to Artemis, the goddess most concerned with girlhood, or to Aphrodite when they were preparing for marriage. All adolescents in ritual preparation to transition to adult status wore the tunica recta, the "upright tunic, '' but girls wove their own. The garment was called recta because it was woven by tradition on a type of upright loom that had become archaic in later periods.
Roman girls were expected to remain virgins until marriage, but boys were often introduced to heterosexual behaviors by a prostitute. The higher the social rank of a girl, the sooner she was likely to become betrothed and married. The general age of betrothal for women of the upper classes was fourteen, but for patricians as early as twelve. Weddings, however, were often postponed until the girl was considered mature enough. Males typically postponed marriage till they had served in the military for some time and were beginning their political career, around age 25. Patrician males, however, might marry considerably earlier; Julius Caesar was married for the first time by the age of 18.
On the night before the wedding, the bride bound up her hair with a yellow hairnet she had woven. The confining of her hair signifies the harnessing of her sexuality within marriage. Her weaving of the tunica recta and the hairnet demonstrated her skill and her capacity for acting in the traditional matron 's role as custos domi, "guardian of the house. '' On her wedding day, she belted her tunic with the cingulum, made from the wool of a ewe to symbolize fertility and tied with the "knot of Hercules '', which was supposed to be hard to untie. The knot symbolized wifely chastity, in that it was to be untied only by her husband, but the cingulum also symbolized that the bridegroom "was belted and bound '' to his wife. The bride 's hair was ritually styled in "six tresses '' (seni crines), and she was veiled until uncovered by her husband at the end of the ceremony, a ritual of surrendering her virginity to him.
In Hinduism coming of age generally signifies that a boy or girl is mature enough to understand his responsibility towards family and society. Hinduism also has the sacred thread ceremony, called Upanayana for Dvija (twice - born) boys that marks their coming of age to do religious ceremonies. A rite of passage males have to go through is Bhrataman (or Chudakarma) that marks adulthood. Girls often celebrate their coming to age by having a ceremony called a Ritushuddhi, upon receiving her first menstruation cycle. This ceremony includes dressing them in a sari, and announcing their maturity to the community.
In the traditional faith of the Yoruba people of West Africa and the many New World religions that it subsequently gave birth to, men and women are often initiated to the service of one of the hundreds of subsidiary spirits that serve the Orisha Olodumare, the group 's conception of the Almighty God. The mystic links that are forged by way of these initiations, which typically occur at puberty, are the conduits that are used by adherents to attempt to achieve what can be seen as the equivalent of the Buddhist enlightenment by way of a combination of personalized meditations, reincarnations and spirit possessions.
Children are not required to perform any obligatory religious obligations prior to reaching the age of puberty, although they are encouraged to begin praying at the age of seven. Once a person begins puberty, they are required to perform salat and other obligations of Islam.
A girl is considered an adult at the age of nine - to - twelve, while a boy is considered an adult at twelve - to - fifteen years old. The evidence for this is the narration of Ibn Umar that he said: "Allah 's Apostle called me to present myself in front of him on the eve of the battle of Uhud, while I was fourteen years of age at that time and he did not allow me to take part in that battle but he called me in front of him on the eve of the battle of the Trench when I was fifteen years old, and he allowed me to join the battle. '' (Reported by Bukhari and Muslim). When Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz heard this Hadith he made this age the evidence to differentiate between a mature and an immature person.
In the Jewish faith, boys reach religious maturity at the age of thirteen and become a bar mitzvah ("bar mitzvah '' means "son of the commandment '' literally, and "subject to commandments '' figuratively). Girls mature a year earlier, and become a bat mitzvah ("bat mitzvah '' means "daughter of the commandment '') at twelve. The new men and women are looked upon as adults and are expected to uphold the Jewish commandments and laws. Also, in religious court they are adults and can marry with their new title of an adult. Nonetheless in the Talmud; Pirkei Avot (5: 25), Rabbi Yehuda ben Teime gives the age of 18 as the appropriate age to get married. At the end of the bar or bat mitzvah, the boy or girl is showered with candies, which act as "sweet blessings. '' Besides the actual ceremony, there usually is a bar or bat mitzvah party.
In the Romani religion, when boys come of age of 20, they become Shave, and girls become Sheya. Boys are then taught to drive and work in their family 's line of trade, while girls are taught the women 's line of work.
In the Shinto faith, boys were taken to the shrine of their patron deity at approximately 12 -- 14 years old. They were then given adult clothes and a new haircut. This was called Genpuku.
In Sikhism, when one reaches the appropriate age of maturity, Amrit is consumed in a ceremony called Amrit Sanchar.
The coming of age in Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Ukraine, the Republic of Poland and the Scandinavian Countries are celebrated at either 18 or 21. As the age of legal majority, being 18 legally enables one to vote, purchase tobacco and alcohol (wine in Norway), get married without parental consent (although one can do this at 16 in Scotland, Australia and New Zealand) and sign contracts. In comparison, turning 21 has few legal effects (except Poland & Ukraine, where all the laws are applied after 18).
In some countries Humanist or freethinker organisations have arranged courses or camps for non-religious adolescents, in which they can study or work on ethical, social and personal topics important for adult life, followed by a formal rite of passage comparable to the Christian Confirmation. Some of these ceremonies are even called "civil confirmations ''. The purpose of these ceremonies is to offer a festive ritual for those youngsters, who do not believe in any religion, but nevertheless want to mark their transition from childhood to adulthood.
In some Latin American countries, when a girl reaches the age of 15, her relatives usually organize a very expensive celebration. It is usually a large party, called a Quinceañera in Spanish speaking countries and Baile de Debutantes in Brazil. For boys there is no formal ritual of transition. At 18 one is legally considered an adult, can vote, and legally purchase / use alcohol, tobacco and cigarettes.
In North America, when a girl turns 16 years old, she may have a sweet sixteen birthday party.
In the United States, teenagers are allowed to drive at 16 in all states except New Jersey, which requires drivers to be 17 and older, and sometimes receive the responsibility of owning their own car. Teenagers may drive at age 15 in Idaho and Montana. At 16, teenagers are also old enough to donate blood and work in most establishments. At 18 one is legally considered an adult and can vote and join the military. The legal age for purchasing and consuming alcohol and recreational marijuana, the latter of which is only legal in the District of Columbia, Colorado, Oregon, Washington, California, Hawaii, Massachusetts, Nevada, and Alaska, is 21. The legal age for purchasing and consuming tobacco products is 18 in most states; 19 in Alabama, Alaska and Utah; and 21 in California, New Jersey, Oregon, Hawaii and Maine. Multiple localities have also raised the minimum purchase age independent of state laws.
In Canada, a person aged 16 and over can legally drive a car and work, but are only considered to be an adult at age 18 like in the US. In most provinces, the legal age to purchase alcohol and cigarettes is 19, except in Alberta, Manitoba, and Quebec where it is 18 years old.
In Spain during the 19th century, there was a civilian coming of age bound to the compulsory military service. The quintos were the boys of the village that reached the age of eligibility for military service (18 years), thus forming the quinta of a year. In rural Spain, the mili was the first and sometimes the only experience of life away from family. In the days before their departure, the quintos knocked every door to ask for food and drink. They held a common festive meal with what they gathered and sometimes painted some graffiti reading "Vivan los quintos del año '' as a memorial of their leaving their youth. Years later, the quintos of the same year could still hold yearly meals to remember times past. By the end of the 20th century, the rural exodus, the diffusion of city customs and the loss of prestige of military service changed the relevance of quintos parties. In some places, the party included the village girls of the same age, thus becoming less directly relevant to military service. In others, the tradition was simply lost.
Since 1948, the age of majority in Japan has been 20; persons under 20 are not permitted to smoke or drink. Until June 2016, persons under 20 were not permitted to vote. The government of Japan plans to lower the age of majority to 18, coming into effect in 2021. Coming - of - age ceremonies, known as seijin shiki, are held on the second Monday of January. At the ceremony, all of the men and women participating are brought to a government building and listen to many speakers, similar to a graduation ceremony. At the conclusion of the ceremony Government officials give speeches, and small presents are handed out to the new adults.
Kovave is a ceremony to initiate Papua New Guinea boys into adult society. It involves dressing up in a conical hat which has long strands of leaves hanging from the edge, down to below the waist. The name Kovave is also used to describe the head - dress.
During the feudal period, the coming of age was celebrated at 15 for noblemen. Nowadays, the age is 18 for girls and 20 for boys.
In Bali, the coming of age ceremony is supposed to take place after a girl 's first menstrual period or a boy 's voice breaks. However, due to expense, it is often delayed until later. The upper canines are filed down slightly to symbolize the effacing of the individual 's "wild '' nature. While in Nias island, a young man must jump up over a stone (normally about 1 or 2 meters) as a part of the coming of age ceremony.
In the rite of initiation of Baka Pygmies, the Spirit of the Forest ritually kills the boys to propitiate their rebirth as men.
In Korea, citizens are permitted to marry, vote, drive, drink alcohol, and smoke at age 19.
The Monday of the third week of May is "coming - of - age day ''. There has been a traditional coming of age ceremony since before Goryeo dynasty, but it has mostly disappeared. In the traditional way, when boys or girls were between the ages of fifteen and twenty, boys wore gat, a Korean traditional hat made of bamboo and horsehair, and girls did their hair in chignon with binyeo, a Korean traditional ornamental hairpin. Both of them wore hanbok, and wearing hanbok on the coming of age ceremony can be sometimes seen even now.
In the Philippines, a popular coming of age celebration for 18 - year - old women is the debut. It is normally a formal affair, with a strict dress code such as a coat and tie for the upper - middle and upper classes, and usually has a theme or color scheme that is related to the dress code. The débutante traditionally chooses for her entourage "18 Roses '', who are 18 special men or boys in the girl 's life such as boyfriends, relatives and brothers, and "18 Candles '', who are the Roses ' female counterparts. Each presents a rose or candle then delivers a short speech about the debutante. The Roses sometimes dance with the débutante before presenting their flower and speech, with the last being her father or boyfriend. Other variations exist, such as 18 Treasures (of any gender; gives a present instead of a candle or flower) or other types of flowers aside from roses being given, but the significance of "18 '' is almost always retained.
Filipino men, on the other hand, celebrate their debut on their 21st birthday. There is no traditionally set program marking this event, and celebrations differ from family to family. Both men and women may opt not to hold a debut at all.
In Cambodia, a popular coming - of - age celebration takes place at the age of 14. A man will be called "ពេញ កំលោះ '' Pheng Kom Lost and a woman will be called "ពេញ ក្រមុំ '' Pheng Kro Mom. The parents must prepare a feast for the celebration. They invite their relatives to come and celebrate their son 's or daughter 's entrance into adulthood. This event can also serve as an opportunity for the parents to look for potential marriage partners among the offspring of other families attending the celebration. The ceremony usually happens at night - time, but from the morning the celebrator needs to wear the best clothes of their choice and make up in their style and go to some place of their belief to show that they are now becoming an adult.
White coat ceremony
In many universities of Europe, South America and India, first year students are made to undergo tests or humiliation before being accepted as students. Perhaps the oldest of these is "Raisin Monday '' at the University of St Andrews in Scotland. It is still practiced. A senior student would take a new student, a "bejant '' or "bejantine '' under his / her wing and show them around the university. In gratitude, the bejant would give the senior student a pound of raisins. In turn this led to bejants being given receipts in Latin. If a bejant failed to produce the receipt, he could be thrown into a fountain. The word bejant derives from the French "bec jaune '' (a yellow beak, or fledgling).
Universities in Chile follow an annual ritual called "Mechoneo '' (the act of pulling somebody 's hair). First year students are initiated by theatrical "punishment ''. Freshmen are tied together while upperclassmen throw them eggs, flour, water, etc. Some universities have traditional ways of initiating freshmen.
Fraternities and sororities have different processes for associate members, also known as pledges, to become a member. It usually takes place with one or more ritual that is specific to that organization and teaches them the core values and beliefs behind their specific organization.
Among apprentices, the step from apprentice to journeyman was often marked by some ceremonial humiliation. Among printers this lasted until the twentieth century. The unfortunate young man would be "banged out '' by being covered in offal.
In several countries, people hold a celebration for children. The celebration is group ceremony.
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who played ronnie barker's daughter in porridge | Porridge (TV series) - wikipedia
Porridge is a British sitcom, starring Ronnie Barker and Richard Beckinsale, written by Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais, and broadcast on BBC One from 1974 to 1977. The programme ran for three series, and included two Christmas specials and a feature film of the same name (in the United States, the film was released under the title Doing Time). The sitcom focuses on two prison inmates, Norman Fletcher (played by Barker) and Lennie Godber (played by Beckinsale), who are serving time at the fictional HMP Slade in Cumberland. The show 's title is a reference to both the traditional breakfast that used to be served in British prisons, and the British slang for serving a prison sentence - "Doing porridge ''.
Porridge was critically acclaimed and is widely considered to be one of the greatest British sitcoms of all time, with it being ranked No. 35 on the (100 Greatest British Television Programmes compiled by the British Film Institute in 2000. The series was followed by a 1978 sequel, Going Straight, which saw Barker reprise his character as they do what they can not to go back to prison again. The show was later revived in 2017 under the same name, after a one - off special, aired on 28 August 2016 as part of the BBC 's Landmark Sitcom Season and focusing on the life of Fletcher 's grandson, Nigel Fletcher (played by Kevin Bishop), as he begins a sentence in prison, proved immensely popular.
The main storylines of the sitcom focuses on its central character, Norman Stanley Fletcher, an individual from Muswell Hill, London, who is described as a "habitual criminal '' by the judge who sentences him (and whose words when they sentence him, are repeated in the show 's opening titles), and is sent to HMP Slade, a fictional Category C prison in Cumberland, to serve a prison sentence for his latest crime. In addition to Fletcher, the sitcom also follows his cellmate Lennie Godber, another major character who is a naïve inmate from Birmingham serving his first sentence, and whom Fletcher takes under his wing. Each episode 's story focuses on their time in prison and the various issues they endure while serving their prison sentences.
While both Fletcher and Godber are the show 's main characters, the series is supported by two major supporting characters. The first is Mr Mackay, a tough prison officer with clear dislike of Fletcher, whom often comes into conflict with him, and who secretly mocks him at times. The other is Mr Barrowclough, a far more sympathetic and timid prison officer, and Mackay 's subordinate, who is more prone to manipulation by his charges because of the nature of his character.
The programme 's scriptwriters appear, uncredited, outside Fletch and Godber 's cell in the episode "No Peace for the Wicked ''. Ronnie Barker had suggested the part of Lennie Godber for Paul Henry, but the decision to cast Richard Beckinsale was taken by the production team.
Porridge originated with a 1973 project commissioned by the BBC Seven of One, which would see Ronnie Barker star in seven different situation comedy pilot episodes. The most successful would then be made into a full series. One of the episodes was "Prisoner and Escort '', written by Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais (who appear in one episode) about a newly sentenced habitual criminal, Norman Stanley Fletcher (Barker), being escorted to prison by two warders: the timid Mr. Barrowclough (Brian Wilde) and the stern Mr. Mackay (Fulton Mackay). It was broadcast on 1 April 1973 on BBC Two. Despite Barker 's initial preference for another of the pilots, a sitcom about a Welsh gambling addict, "Prisoner and Escort '' was selected. It was renamed Porridge, a slang term for prison; Barker, Clement and La Frenais actually came up with the same title independently of each other.
In their research, Clement and La Frenais spoke to Jonathan Marshall, a former prisoner who had written a book, How to Survive in the Nick, and he advised them about prison slang, dress and routines. Struggling to think up plots and humour for such a downbeat, confined environment, a particular phrase used by Marshall -- "little victories '' -- struck a chord and convinced them to base the series on an inmate who made his daily life in prison more bearable by beating the system, even in trivial ways.
The BBC was forced to look around for locations because the Home Office refused permission for any production filming inside or outside a real prison. Instead the main gatehouse of the disused St Albans Prison (in the town 's Victoria Street) was used in the opening credits. Exteriors were first filmed at a psychiatric hospital near Watford. However, after the completion of the second series, the hospital withdrew permission for more filming following complaints from patients ' families. Another institution near Ealing was then used for the third series. Scenes within cells and offices were filmed at the BBC 's London studios. But for shots of the wider prison interior, series production designer Tim Gleeson converted an old water tank, used at Ealing Studios for underwater filming, into a multi-storey set.
The first episode, "New Faces, Old Hands '', was aired on BBC One on 5 September 1974, attracting a television audience of over 16 million, and receiving positive reviews from critics. Two further series were commissioned, as well as two Christmas special episodes. The final episode of Porridge, "Final Stretch '', was broadcast on 25 March 1977. The producers and the writers were keen to make more episodes, but Barker was wary of being "stuck with a character '' and also wanted to move on to other projects, so the series came to a close. Barker did, however, reprise his role as Fletcher in a sequel, Going Straight, which ran for one series in 1978. A feature - length version of the show was made in 1979 and in 2003 a follow - up mockumentary was aired.
The prison exterior in the title sequence is the old St Albans prison gatehouse and HM Prison Maidstone, which was also featured in the BBC comedy series Birds of a Feather (HMP Slade is referred to in Birds of a Feather when the main protagonists ' husbands are imprisoned there after reoffending in Series 7). The interior shots of doors being locked were filmed in Shepherds Bush Police Station - the BBC had a good relationship with officers there. In the episode "Pardon Me '' Fletcher speaks to Blanco (David Jason) in the prison gardens: this was filmed in the grounds of an old brewery outside Baldock on the A505 to Royston. The barred windows approximated a prison. The building has since been demolished. The 1974 episode "A Day Out '', which features a prison work party, was filmed in and around the Welsh village of Penderyn, the prisoners ' ditch being excavated by a JCB. Loftus Road, the home of Queens Park Rangers Football Club, was briefly featured in "Happy Release '', standing in for Elland Road in Leeds. In the episode "No Way Out '', Fletcher tries to get MacKay to fall into a tunnel in a tarmac area, these outside shots were filmed at Hanwell Asylum in West London, the barred windows in this case being those of the hospital pharmacy. The interior shots for the 1979 film were shot entirely at HM Prison Chelmsford, Essex.
The opening credits consist of outside shots of Slade prison and of several doors and gates being closed and locked, which was intended to set the scene for the programme. In the first series, there were also shots of St Pancras railway station, which was changed in subsequent series to shots of Fletcher walking around Slade prison. Title music was thought unsuitable for a show set in prison, so instead there is a booming narration (performed by Barker himself) given by the presiding judge passing sentence on Fletcher:
Subsequently, Barker is reported to have said that he regretted recording himself as the judge, a character role subsequently played by Maurice Denham in two episodes of the third series.
The theme music for the closing credits was written by Max Harris, who had also written the theme music for numerous other TV shows, including The Strange World of Gurney Slade and Doomwatch, and would go on to write the theme for Open All Hours, another of the Seven of One pilots. The cheery theme was "deliberately at variance with the dour comedy '' and given a music hall feel by Harris because of the lead character 's Cockney origins.
Following the pilot episode broadcast on 1 April 1973, the sitcom ran for three series between 5 September 1974 (1974 - 09 - 05) and 25 March 1977 (1977 - 03 - 25), with 20 episodes in total. Each episode was 30 minutes except for the two Christmas specials in 1975 and 1976.
A sequel to Porridge, Going Straight, was aired between 24 February and 7 April 1978. Beginning with Fletcher 's release from prison on parole, it follows his attempts to "go straight '' and readjust to a law - abiding life. Richard Beckinsale reprised his role as Godber, now the fiancé of Fletcher 's daughter Ingrid (Patricia Brake), and the couple married in the final episode. Nicholas Lyndhurst also featured as Fletcher 's gormless son, Raymond. The series lasted six episodes, and generally was not as well received as its predecessor, although it did win two BAFTAs, for Best Situation Comedy and Best Light Entertainment Performance (jointly with The Two Ronnies) for Ronnie Barker.
On 29 December 2003, a mockumentary follow - up to Porridge was broadcast on BBC Two. It looked back on Fletcher 's life and how the various inmates of Slade had fared 25 years after Fletcher 's release from prison. Warren is now a sign painter, Lukewarm is married to Trevor, McLaren is an MSP, Grouty has become a celebrity gangster, Horrible Ives collects money for non-existent charities, Godber is now a lorry driver and still married to Ingrid, and Fletcher runs a pub with his childhood sweetheart, Gloria.
On Sunday 28 August 2016, a one - off sequel to the original series, also titled Porridge, was broadcast on BBC One. It starred Kevin Bishop as Nigel Norman Fletcher, Norman Stanley Fletcher 's grandson, who is serving five years in prison for computer hacking.
The special was written by the original creators and writers of Porridge, Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais. It gained praise from both viewers and TV critics, with many calling for a full series to be made. The overnight ratings showed that 4.4 million people had watched it. Following the success of the initial episode, in October 2016 the BBC announced that a full series of six episodes had been commissioned, with production to start in January 2017. The full series was released online on 6 October 2017 on the BBC iPlayer as well as starting a 6 week run on Friday Prime BBC One.
An American version entitled On the Rocks (1975 -- 76) ran for a season, while a Dutch version Laat maar zitten (free translation: Keep ' em inside) ran from 1988 to 1991; later episodes of the Netherlands version were original scripts, the series also had a very successful Portuguese remake entitled Camilo na Prisão ("Camilo in Prison '')
Following the example of other sitcom crossovers, such as Dad 's Army, Steptoe and Son and The Likely Lads, a feature - length version of Porridge was made in 1979. Barker again starred as Fletcher, and most of the supporting cast also returned. Unlike the television series, it was actually filmed at a real prison as HMP Chelmsford was temporarily vacant following a fire.
Novelisations of the three series of Porridge and the film were issued by BBC Books, as well as an adaptation of Going Straight. BBC Enterprises released an LP record featuring two Porridge episodes, "A Night In '' and "Heartbreak Hotel '' in 1977. (REB 270) Two volumes of audio cassette releases (comprising four episodes each) were issued in the mid-1990s. They were later re-released on CD.
In 2009 Porridge was adapted into a stage show, also written by Clement and La Frenais, starring former EastEnders actor Shaun Williamson as Fletcher and Daniel West as Godber. Peter Kay, a fan of the show, was previously offered the role but turned it down. It opened in September 2009 to positive reviews.
Porridge was immensely popular with British prisoners. Erwin James, an ex-prisoner who writes a bi-weekly column for The Guardian newspaper, stated that:
He also noted:
The script allowed the prisoners to swear without offending viewers by using the word "naff '' in place of ruder words ("Naff off! '', "Darn your own naffing socks '', "Doing next to naff all ''), thereby popularising a word that had been recorded at least as early as 1966. Ronnie Barker did not claim to have invented it, and in a television interview in 2003 it was explained to him on camera what the word meant, as he had n't a clue.
A genuine neologism was "nerk '', which was used in place of the more offensive "berk ''. It should be noted that "berk '' has changed meaning since its inception, and is generally used now to mean "fool '' while the original rhyming slang meaning refers to female genitalia. Another term was "scrote '' (presumably derived from scrotum), meaning a nasty, unpleasant person.
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which word was not originally included in the preamble to the constitution of india | Preamble to the Constitution of India - wikipedia
The preamble to the Constitution of India is a brief introductory statement that sets out guiding people and principles of the document, and it indicates the source from which the ordinary document derives its authority, meaning, the people. The hopes and aspirations of the people as well as the ideals before our nation are described in the preamble in clear words. It may be considered the heart and soul of the Constitution. The preamble can be referred to as the preface which highlights the entire Constitution. It was adopted on 26 November 1949 by the Constituent Assembly and came into effect on 26th January 1950.
The preamble is based on the Objectives which was drafted and moved in the Constituent Assembly by Jawaharlal Nehru on 13 December 1946. B.R. Ambedkar said about the preamble:
It was, indeed, a way of life, which recognizes liberty, equality, and fraternity as the principles of life and which can not be divorced from each other: Liberty can not be divorced from equality; equality can not be divorced from liberty. Nor can liberty and equality be divorced from fraternity. Without equality, liberty would produce the supremacy of the few over the many. Equality without liberty would kill individual initiative. Without fraternity, liberty and equality could not become a natural course of things.
The Supreme Court of India originally stated in the BeruBari case presidential reference that the preamble is not an integral part of the Indian constitution, and therefore it is not enforceable in a court of law. However, the same court, in the 1973 Kesavananda case, overruled earlier decisions and recognised that the preamble may be used to interpret ambiguous areas of the constitution where differing interpretations present themselves. In the 1995 case of Union Government Vs LIC of India, the Supreme Court once again held that the Preamble is an integral part of the Constitution.
As originally enacted the preamble described the state as a "sovereign democratic republic '', to which the terms "Secular '' and "Socialist '' were later added by the 42nd Amendment.
The preamble - page, along with other pages of the original Constitution of India, was designed and decorated by the renowned painter Beohar Rammanohar Sinha of Jabalpur who was at Shantiniketan with acharya Nandalal Bose at that time. Nandalal Bose endorsed Beohar Rammanohar Sinha 's artwork without any alteration whatsoever. As such, the page bears Beohar Rammanohar Sinha 's short signature Ram in Devanagari lower - right corner. The calligraphy was done by Prem Behari Narain Raizada.
Sovereignty means the independent authority of a State. It means that it has the power to legislate on any subject; and that it is not subject to the control of any other State or external power.
According to the preamble, the constitution of India has been pursuance of the solemn resolution of the people of India to constitute India into a ' Sovereign Democratic Republic ', and to secure well - defined objects set forth in the preamble. Sovereignty denotes supreme and ultimate power. It may be real or normal, legal or political, individual or pluralistic. In monarchies, sovereignty was vested in the person of monarchs. But in republican form of governments, which mostly prevail in the contemporary world, sovereignty is shifted to the elected representatives of the people. According to D.D Basu, the word ' sovereign ' is taken from article 5 of the constitution of Ireland. ' Sovereign or supreme power is that which is absolute and uncontrolled within its own sphere '. In the words of Cooley, "A state is sovereign when there resides within itself supreme and absolute power, acknowledging no superior ''. Sovereignty, in short, means the independent authority of a state. It has two aspects - external and internal. External sovereignty or sovereignty in international law means the independence of a state of the will of other states, in her conduct with other states in the committee of nations. Sovereign in its relation between states and among states signifies independence. The external sovereignty of India means that it can acquire foreign territory and also cede any part of the Indian territory, subject to limitations (if any) imposed by the constitution. On the other hand, internal sovereignty refers to the relationship between the states and the individuals within its territory. Internal sovereignty relates to internal and domestic affairs, and is divided into four organs, namely, the executive, the legislature, the judiciary and the administrative. Though India became a sovereign country on 26 January 1950, having equal status with the other members of the international community, she decided to remain in the Commonwealth of Nations. Pandit Nehru declared that India will continue -- "her full membership of the Commonwealth games of Nations and her acceptance of the King as the symbol of the free association of the independent nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth ''. Her membership of the Commonwealth of Nations and that of the United Nations Organization do not affect her sovereignty to any extent. It is merely a voluntary association of India and it is open to India to cut off this association at her will, and that it has no constitutional significance.
Before the term was added by the 42nd Amendment in 1976, the Constitution had socialist content in the form of certain Directive Principles of State Policy. The term socialist as used here refers to democratic socialism, i.e. achievement of socialist goals through democratic, evolutionary and non-violent means. Essentially, it means that (since wealth is generated socially) wealth should be shared equally by society through distributive justice, not concentrated in the hands of few, and that the government should regulate the ownership of land and industry to reduce socio - economic inequalities.
Secular means that the relationship between the government and religious groups are determined according to constitution and law. It separates the power of the state and religion. By the 42nd Amendment in 1976, the term "Secular '' was also incorporated in the Preamble. There is no difference of religion i.e. all religion are equally respected and moreover, there is no state religion. All the citizens of India are allowed to profess, practice and propagate any religion. Explaining the meaning of secularism as adopted by India, Alexander Owics has written, "Secularism is a part of the basic structure of the Indian Constitution and it means equal freedom and respect for all religions. '
The people of India elect their governments by a system of universal adult franchise, popularly known as "one man one vote ''. Every citizen of India 18 years of age and above and not otherwise debarred by law is entitled to vote. The word ' democratic ' not only refers to political but also to social & economic democracy.
In a republican form of government, the head of state is elected and not a hereditary monarch. Thus, this word denotes a government where no one holds public power as proprietary right. As opposed to a monarchy, in which the head of state is appointed on a hereditary basis for life or at least until abdication, a democratic republic is an entity in which the head of state is elected, directly or indirectly, for a fixed tenure. Thus, India has a President who is elected and has a fixed term of office.
India seeks to secure social, economic and political justice for its people.
(i) Social Justice:
Social Justice means the absence of socially privileged classes in the society and no discrimination against any citizen on grounds of caste, creed, color, religion, gender or place of birth. India stands for eliminating all forms of exploitations from the society.
(ii) Economic Justice:
Economic Justice means no discrimination between man and woman on the basis of income, wealth and economic status. It stands for equitable distribution of wealth, economic equality, the end of monopolistic control over means of production and distribution, decentralisation of economic resources, and the securing of adequate opportunities to all for earning their living.
(iii) Political Justice:
Political Justice means equal, free and fair opportunities to the people for participation in the political process. It stands for the grant of equal political rights to all the people without discrimination. The Constitution of India provides for a liberal democracy in which all the people have the right and freedom to participate.
The idea of Liberty refers to the freedom on the activities of Indian nationals. This establishes that there are no unreasonable restrictions on Indian citizens in term of what they think, their manner of expressions and the way they wish to follow up their thoughts in action. However, liberty does not mean freedom to do anything, and it must be exercised within the constitutional limits.
This envisages that no section of the society enjoys special privileges and individuals are provided with adequate opportunities without any discrimination: all are equal before the law.
This refers to a feeling of brotherhood and a sense of belonging with the country among its people. It embraces psychological as well as territorial dimensions of National Integration. It leaves no room for regionalism, communalism, casteism etc., which hinders the Unity of the State.
In Berubari Case (1960), The amendability & the Significance of the same came to the force. An important & very interesting question was raised relating to the powers of the Parliament to cede Indian territory to a foreign country, as an interpretation of the Article 3. Supreme Court had held that the power of Parliament to diminish the area of a state as guaranteed in article 3 of the Constitution does not cover cession of the Indian territory to a foreign country. Hence, Indian territory can be ceded to a foreign country only by means of amendment of the Constitution under the Article 368. Consequently, the 9th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1960 was enacted to transfer the Berubari Union to Bangladesh (erstwhile East Pakistan). Supreme Court also held the view that Preamble can not be a part of the constitution but later in Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973), the Supreme Court gave a comprehensive verdict. It said that Preamble is part of the Constitution and is subject to the amending power of the parliament as are any other provisions of the Constitution, provided the basic structure of the Constitution is not destroyed.
It has been clarified by the Supreme Court of India that, being a part of the Constitution, the Preamble can be subjected to Constitutional Amendments exercised under article 368, however, the basic structure can not be altered.
The preamble has been amended only once so far. On 18 December 1976, during the Emergency in India, the Indira Gandhi government pushed through several changes in the Forty - second Amendment of the constitution. A committee under the chairmanship of Sardar Swaran Singh recommended that this amendment be enacted after being consulted to study the question of amending the constitution in the light of past experience. Through this amendment, the words "socialist '' and "secular '' were added between the words "Sovereign '' and "democratic '' and the words "unity of the Nation '' were changed to "unity and integrity of the Nation ''.
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national international and organisational standards and conventions that are used for the drawings | CAD standards - wikipedia
CAD Standards are a set of guidelines for the way Computer - aided drafting (CAD), or (CADD) Computer Aided Design and Drawing, drawings should appear, to improve productivity and interchange of CAD documents between different offices and CAD programs, especially in architecture and engineering.
Most common:
Samples of standardised layers:
Thickness for pens and plot: 0, 13 mm Gray, 0, 18 mm Red, 0, 25 mm White, 0, 35 mm Yellow, 0, 50 mm Magenta, 0, 70 mm Blue, 1, 00 mm Green. In AutoCAD usually parts to be printed in black are drawn in 1 to 7 basic colors. Color layer: Green - Center, Magenta - Measure of length and Blue - Hidden.
Heights: 2, 5 mm, 3, 5 mm, 5, 0 mm, 7, 0 mm (stroke thickness (lineweight) should be 0.1 of the character height). Font styles: "Romans. shx - Romantic Simplex '', "ISOCPEUR. ttf ''. Exceptional use of screen fonts (arial, Times New Roman etc.).
2: 1, 20: 1, 200: 1... 1: 1, 1: 10, 1: 100... 1: 2, 1: 20, 1: 200... 1: 5, 1: 50, 1: 500... 1 / 8 = 1 ' - 0 "; 3 / 16 '' = 1 ' - 0 ", 1 / 4 '' = 1 ' - 0 ", 3 / 8 '' = 1 ' - 0 ", 1 / 2 '' = 1 ' - 0 ", 3 / 4 '' = 1 ' - 0 ", 1 '' = 1 ' - 0 ''
Discipline (1 char), Element (2 char, using SfB Table 1 or Uniclass), Drawing type (1 char, P = preliminary, X = special / xref, L = layout, C = component, S = schedules, A = assembly drawings, K = co-ordination drawing), Unique number (3 char), Revision (1 char, A = emission, B, C, D... = revisions). Samples: A22P012G. dwg (architect, internal walls in SfB, preliminary design, sheet 012, revision G).
Samples: ZE1G - 124. dwg, XE1G - 100. dwg
Project (unlimited char), Discipline (2 char max, recommended mandatory), Zone (optional), View (1 char, rec. mand.), Level (2 char, rec. mand.), Content (rec. mand.), Sequential number (up to 3 char); Samples: 1234 - A-Off - P - M1 - Furn - 11c. dwg (project # 1234, architect, office zone, plan, mezzanine 1, furnitures, version 1.1 revision c), A-P - 01 - Part (architect, plan, 1st floor, partitions), 1234 - A-S - 055. dgn (project # 1234, architect, section, sheet 055), A-S - xx - AA. dwg (architect, section, full building, section AA), A-P-x - Grid. dgn (architect, plan, all floor, grid), 1838 - S-C-P - 03 (project 1838, structures, building C, plan, 3rd floor).
Job number (4 char), Agent (1 char), Section (4 char), phase (1 char), sheet number (2 char), revision (2 char) Samples: 0512 - A-00A_ - 1 - 01 - 02. dwg Job number (3 char), View (2 char), section (2char), phase (1 char), revision (1 char) Samples: 123p0s2d0. dwg (job 1239, plan, 2nd floor, definitive drawing, emission), 459s0BBD0. dgn (job 123, section B, definitive drawing, emission).
Model - based definition (MBD) is a method of product specification using elements within 3D models as defined by ASME Y14. 41 - 2012. ASME Y14. 41 - 2012 is based upon ASME Y14. 5 - 2009 symbols and definition methods, such as Geometry Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T).
Subscribers of International Organization for Standardization (ISO) have the standards ISO 1101 and ISO 16792 for model - based definition.
VDA 4955
PDQ is a field of PLM relating to the quality of product data, particularly the geometrical and organizational quality of CAD data. Checkers, software that analyze CAD data formats, are often employed before and after data translation. The checkers can check the organization and quality of the data against internal company standards and international or industry standards. These checkers can be built into specific CAD packages or work on a number of CAD file formats.
In 2006 / 2007 Part 59 of STEP ISO 10303 - 59 Product data representation and exchange: Integrated generic resource: Quality of product shape data is under development. It defines how to represent quality criteria together with measurement requirements and representation of inspection results.
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big trouble in little china thunder rain lightning | Big Trouble in Little China - wikipedia
Big Trouble in Little China is a 1986 American fantasy martial arts comedy film directed by John Carpenter and starring Kurt Russell, Kim Cattrall, Dennis Dun, and James Hong. The film tells the story of Jack Burton, who helps his friend Wang Chi rescue Wang 's green - eyed fiancée from bandits in San Francisco 's Chinatown. They go into the mysterious underworld beneath Chinatown, where they face an ancient sorcerer named David Lo Pan, who requires a woman with green eyes to marry him in order to release him from a centuries - old curse.
Although the original screenplay by first - time screenwriters Gary Goldman and David Z. Weinstein was envisioned as a Western set in the 1880s, screenwriter W.D. Richter was hired to rewrite the script extensively and modernize it. The studio hired Carpenter to direct the film and rushed Big Trouble in Little China into production so that it would be released before a similarly themed Eddie Murphy film, The Golden Child, which was slated to come out around the same time. The project fulfilled Carpenter 's long - standing desire to make a martial arts film.
The film was a commercial failure, grossing $11.1 million in North America, below its estimated $19 to $25 million budget. It received mixed reviews that left Carpenter disillusioned with Hollywood and influenced his decision to return to independent filmmaking. It has since become a cult classic and has an 82 % average rating on Rotten Tomatoes and a steady audience on home video.
Big - talking rough - and - tumble truck driver Jack Burton (Kurt Russell) wins a bet with his restaurant owner friend Wang Chi (Dennis Dun). To make sure he follows through on payment, Jack accompanies him to the airport to pick up Wang 's Chinese fiancée Miao Yin (Suzee Pai).
A Chinese street gang, the Lords of Death, tries to kidnap another Chinese girl at the airport, who is being met by her friend Gracie Law (Kim Cattrall), intending to sell her as a sex slave. After Jack intervenes, they take Miao Yin by mistake.
Jack and Wang track the Lords of Death to the back alleys of Chinatown, where they find a funeral procession that quickly erupts into a tong war between the Chang Sing and Wing Kong, two ancient Chinese societies. When "The Three Storms '' - Thunder, Rain, and Lightning, mighty warriors with weather - themed powers - appear, slaughtering both sides, Jack attempts to gun his big - rig through the crowd, but runs over Lo Pan (James Hong), a decrepit man directing the Three Storms Horrified, Jack exits his truck, but finds Lo Pan unfazed and glowing with magic. Wang hurriedly guides Jack through the alleys; the two escape the carnage and mayhem, but Jack 's truck is stolen.
Wang takes Jack to his restaurant, where they meet up with Gracie, her journalist friend Margo, Wang 's friend Eddie Lee (Donald Li), and magician Egg Shen (Victor Wong), a local authority on mysticism and Lo Pan. They try to explain to an incredulous Jack (who only wants his truck back) the ancient knowledge and sorcery the Chinese brought with them to America. The group devises a plan to infiltrate a brothel, where they believe Miao Yin is held. They break in with some difficulty, but are interrupted by the Storms tearing off the ceiling and making off with Miao Yin, taking her to their master Lo Pan. Jack and Wang track down the front business used by Lo Pan and impersonate electricians to gain access, but are quickly subdued by Rain. After being tied up and beaten by Thunder, the two meet Lo Pan - however, he now appears as a crippled old man.
Wang tells Jack that Lo Pan needs a special green - eyed girl to break an ancient curse, and he intends to sacrifice Miao Yin. Centuries ago, Lo Pan, a great warrior and even greater wizard, was defeated in battle by the first sovereign emperor, Qin Shi Huang. The Emperor cursed Lo Pan with incorporeality; although Lo Pan can be temporarily granted a decrepit body by supplication to the gods, he must marry a woman with green eyes to appease Ching Dai, the God of the East, and sacrifice her to satisfy the Emperor,. When Jack and Wang 's friends attempt to save them, they are also captured, and Lo Pan notes that Gracie has green eyes, too. Lo Pan decides to sacrifice Gracie, while making Miao Yin his unwilling wife. After getting the drop on Thunder, Jack and Wang escape, and free many women kept in holding cells in the process; a horrible orangutan - like monster recaptures Gracie before she leaves.
Wang and Jack regroup with the Chang Sing and surviving Wing Kong and Egg Shen, and as a group they enter an underground cavern to return to Lo Pan 's headquarters. Egg pours each of the group a potent potion that Jack says makes him feel "kind of invincible ''. The group interrupts the wedding ceremony, which breaks out into a battle.
Jack accidentally knocks himself out by shooting a piece of the ceiling that falls on his head, and promptly is trapped under a suit of armor when he comes to. Wang kills Rain in a sword duel, while Jack and Gracie chase the newly - alive Lo Pan. Wang joins them, and just when all seems lost, Jack kills Lo Pan with a skillful knife throw. Thunder - who had been distracted with Wang - reappears, and, furious at finding Lo Pan dead, explodes. Jack, Wang, Gracie, and Miao Yin are cornered by Lightning in a corridor, who triggers a collapse with his powers. Egg rescues them with a rope and kills Lightning by dropping a stone Buddha statue on him when he tries to follow. After finding Jack 's truck and dealing the remaining Wing Kong guards, the group busts out and escapes back to Wang 's restaurant.
The group celebrates their victory in the restaurant with the rescued women; Wang and Miao prepare to marry, while Eddie pairs with Margo. Egg sets off on a long - due vacation - Jack suggests his homeland, but Egg says that China is in the heart. Jack, though attracted to Gracie, turns down an offer to stay and begins trucking again, not wanting to be tied down. Unbeknownst to him, the orangutan - like monster survived the battle in the labyrinth and has stowed away on his truck.
The first version of the screenplay was written by first - time screenwriters Gary Goldman and David Z. Weinstein. Goldman had been inspired by a new wave of martial arts films that had "all sorts of weird actions and special effects, shot against this background of Oriental mysticism and modern sensibilities ''. They had written a Western originally set in the 1880s with Jack Burton as a cowboy who rides into town. Goldman and Weinstein envisioned combining Chinese fantasy elements with the western. They submitted the script to TAFT Entertainment Pictures executive producers Paul Monash and Keith Barish during the summer of 1982. Monash bought their script and had them do at least one rewrite but still did not like the results. He remembers, "The problems came largely from the fact it was set in turn - of - the - century San Francisco, which affected everything -- style, dialogue, action ''. Goldman rejected a request by 20th Century Fox for a re-write that asked for major alterations. He was angered when the studio wanted to update it to a contemporary setting. The studio then removed the writers from the project. However, they still wanted credit for their contributions.
The studio brought in screenwriter W.D. Richter, a veteran script doctor (and director of The Adventures of Buckaroo Banzai) to extensively rewrite the script, as he felt that the Wild West and fantasy elements did n't work together. The screenwriter modernized everything. Almost everything in the original script was discarded except for Lo Pan 's story. Richter realized that "what it needed was n't a rewrite but a complete overhaul. It was a dreadful screenplay. This happens often when scripts are bought and there 's no intention that the original writers will stay on ''. Richter used Rosemary 's Baby as his template, presenting "the foreground story in a familiar context -- rather than San Francisco at the turn - of - the - century, which distances the audience immediately -- and just have one simple remove, the world underground, you have a much better chance of making direct contact with the audience ''. He wrote his own draft in 10 weeks. Goldman contacted Richter and suggested that he should not work on the project. Richter told him, "I 'm sorry the studio does n't want to go forward with you guys, but my turning it down is not going to get you the job. They 'll just hire someone else ''.
Fox wanted to deny Goldman and Weinstein writing credit, and eliminated their names from press releases. They wanted only Richter to have credit. In March 1986, the Writers Guild of America, West determined that "written by '' credit would go to Goldman and Weinstein, based on the WGA screenwriting credit system which protects original writers. However, Richter did get an "adaptation by '' credit for his work on the script. Director John Carpenter was disappointed that Richter did not get a proper screenwriting credit because of the ruling. Carpenter made his own additions to Richter 's rewrites, which included strengthening the Gracie Law role and linking her to Chinatown, removing a few action sequences due to budgetary restrictions and eliminating material deemed offensive to Chinese Americans. The characters in the film reminded Carpenter "of the characters in Bringing Up Baby or His Girl Friday. These are very 1930s, Howard Hawks people. '' The rapid - fire delivery of dialogue, especially between Jack Burton and Gracie Law, is an example of what the director is referring to.
Barish and Monash first offered the project to Carpenter in July 1985. He had read the Goldman / Weinstein script and deemed it "outrageously unreadable though it had many interesting elements ''. To compete with rival production The Golden Child 's casting of box office draw Eddie Murphy, Carpenter wanted a big star of his own and both Clint Eastwood and Jack Nicholson were considered but were busy.
The studio felt Kurt Russell was an up - and - coming star. Russell was initially not interested because he felt there were "a number of different ways to approach Jack, but I did n't know if there was a way that would be interesting enough for this movie ''. After talking to Carpenter and reading the script a couple of more times, he gained insight into the character and liked the notion of playing "a hero who has so many faults. Jack is and is n't the hero. He falls on his ass as much as he comes through. This guy is a real blowhard. He 's a lot of hot air, very self - assured, a screw - up ''. Furthermore, the actor felt that "at heart he thinks he 's Indiana Jones but the circumstances are always too much for him ''. Russell felt that the film would be a hard one to market. "This is a difficult picture to sell because it 's hard to explain. It 's a mixture of the real history of Chinatown in San Francisco blended with Chinese legend and lore. It 's bizarre stuff. There are only a handful of non-Asian actors in the cast ''.
John Carpenter had seen Dennis Dun in Year of the Dragon and liked his work in that film. He met the actor twice before casting him in the role of Wang Chi only a few days before principal photography. The martial arts sequences were not hard for Dun who had "dabbled '' in training as a kid and done Chinese opera as an adult. He was drawn to the portrayal of Asian characters in the movie as he said, "I 'm seeing Chinese actors getting to do stuff that American movies usually do n't let them do. I 've never seen this type of role for an Asian in an American film ''. Jackie Chan was at one point considered for the role of Wang Chi but decided after the box office disasters of The Big Brawl & The Protector he should put more time and effort into his career in Hong Kong 's film industry with Police Story instead.
The studio pressured Carpenter to cast a rock star in the role of Gracie Law, Jack Burton 's love interest, but Carpenter wanted Kim Cattrall. The studio was not keen on the idea because at the time Cattrall was primarily known for raunchy comedies like Porky 's and Police Academy. She was drawn to the film because of the way her character was portrayed. "I 'm not screaming for help the whole time. I think the humor comes out of the situations and my relationship with Jack Burton. I 'm the brains and he 's the brawn ''.
Kurt Russell lifted weights and began running two months before production began to prepare for the physical demands of principal photography. In addition, Carpenter and his cast and crew did a week 's rehearsals that mainly involved choreographing the martial arts scenes. 20th Century Fox was afraid that the production would create major overruns and hired Carpenter to direct because he could work fast. He was given only 10 weeks of pre-production.
Problems began to arise when Carpenter learned that the next Eddie Murphy vehicle, The Golden Child, featured a similar theme and was going to be released around the same time as Big Trouble in Little China. (As it happened, Carpenter was asked by Paramount Pictures to direct The Golden Child). He remarked in an interview, "How many adventure pictures dealing with Chinese mysticism have been released by the major studios in the past 20 years? For two of them to come along at the exact same time is more than mere coincidence. '' To beat the rival production at being released in theaters, Big Trouble went into production in October 1985 so it could open in July 1986, five months before The Golden Child 's Christmas release.
Production designer John Lloyd designed the elaborate underground sets and recreated Chinatown with three - story buildings, roads, streetlights, sewers and so on. This was necessary for the staging of complicated special effects and kung fu fight sequences that would have been very hard to do on location. This forced the filmmaker to shoot the film in 15 weeks with a $25 million budget. For the film 's many fight scenes Carpenter worked with martial arts choreographer James Lew, who planned out every move in advance. Says Carpenter, "I used every cheap gag -- trampolines, wires, reverse movements and upside down sets. It was much like photographing a dance. ''
Carpenter envisioned the film as an inverse of traditional scenarios in action films with a Caucasian protagonist helped by a minority sidekick. In Big Trouble in Little China, Jack Burton, despite his bravado, is constantly portrayed as rather bumbling; in one fight sequence, he knocks himself unconscious before the fight begins. Wang Chi, on the other hand, is constantly portrayed as highly skilled and competent. On a commentary track for the DVD release, Carpenter said the film is really about a sidekick (Burton) who thinks he is a leading man. According to Carpenter, the studio "did n't get it '' and made him write something that would explain the character of Jack Burton. Carpenter came up with the prologue scene between Egg Shen and the lawyer.
Carpenter was not entirely satisfied with Boss Film Studios, the company in charge of the film 's visual effects. According to the director, they took on more projects than they could handle and some effects for the film had to be cut down. Richard Edlund, head of Boss Film Studios, said that there were no difficulties with the company 's workload and that Big Trouble was probably its favorite film at the time, with the exception of Ghostbusters. The effects budget for the film was just under $2 million, which Edlund said was barely adequate. One of the more difficult effects was the floating eyeball, a spy for Lo - Pan. It was powered by several puppeteers and dozens of cables to control its facial expressions. It was shot with a special matting system specially designed for it.
John Carpenter received a Saturn Award Best Music nomination for this film. With the soundtrack, Carpenter wanted to avoid the usual clichés as he found that "other scores for American movies about Chinese characters are basically rinky tink, chop suey music. I did n't want that for Big Trouble ''. Carpenter instead opted for his trademark synthesizer score mixed with rock ' n ' roll music.
Opening in 1,053 theaters on July 2, 1986, Big Trouble in Little China grossed $2.7 million in its opening weekend and went on to gross $11.1 million in North America, well below its estimated budget of $19 -- 25 million. The film was released in the midst of the hype for James Cameron 's blockbuster Aliens, which was released sixteen days after. On the DVD commentary for Big Trouble in Little China, Carpenter and Russell discuss this among possible reasons for the film 's disappointing box office gross.
On Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator that collects both contemporary and modern reviews, the film has an 82 % approval rating based on 38 reviews; the average rating is 6.9 / 10. The site 's consensus reads: "Brimming with energy and packed with humor, Big Trouble in Little China distills kung fu B - movies as affectionately as it subverts them. '' Ron Base, in his review for the Toronto Star, praised Russell 's performance. "He does a great John Wayne imitation. But he 's not just mimicking these heroes, he is using them to give his own character a broad, satiric edge. '' Walter Goodman in The New York Times wrote, "In kidding the flavorsome proceedings even as he gets the juice out of them, the director, John Carpenter, is conspicuously with it. '' Writer Harlan Ellison, widely known in Hollywood for his brutally honest critiques, praised the film, writing that it had "some of the funniest lines spoken by any actor this year to produce a cheerfully blathering live - action cartoon that will give you release from the real pressures of your basically dreary lives. '' In his review for Time, Richard Corliss wrote, "Little China offers dollops of entertainment, but it is so stocked with canny references to other pictures that it suggests a master 's thesis that moves. ''
However, in his review for the Chicago Sun - Times, Roger Ebert wrote, "special effects do n't mean much unless we care about the characters who are surrounded by them, and in this movie the characters often seem to exist only to fill up the foregrounds, '' and felt that it was "straight out of the era of Charlie Chan and Fu Manchu, with no apologies and all of the usual stereotypes. '' Paul Attanasio, in The Washington Post, criticized the screenwriters for being "much better at introducing a character than they are at developing one ''. David Ansen wrote, in his review for Newsweek, "though it is action packed, spectacularly edited and often quite funny, one ca n't help feeling that Carpenter is squeezing the last drops out of a fatigued genre. '' In his review for The Times, David Robinson felt that Carpenter was "overwhelmed by his own special effects, without a strong enough script to guide him. ''
After the commercial and critical failure of the film, Carpenter became very disillusioned with Hollywood and became an independent filmmaker. He said in an interview, "The experience (of Big Trouble) was the reason I stopped making movies for the Hollywood studios. I wo n't work for them again. I think Big Trouble is a wonderful film, and I 'm very proud of it. But the reception it received, and the reasons for that reception, were too much for me to deal with. I 'm too old for that sort of bullshit. ''
It has since enjoyed a resurgence on television and home video, and has received a good deal of retroactive positive press. Empire magazine voted Big Trouble in Little China the 430th greatest film in their "500 Greatest Movies of All Time '' list.
Big Trouble in Little China was released on a two - disc special edition DVD set on May 22, 2001. Entertainment Weekly gave the DVD a "B + '' rating and wrote, "The highlight of this two disc set -- which also features deleted scenes, an extended ending, trailers, and a 1986 featurette -- is the pitch perfect Russell and Carpenter commentary, which delves into Fox 's marketing mishaps, Chinese history, and how Russell 's son did in his hockey game. '' In his review for the Onion A.V. Club, Noel Murray wrote, "If nothing else, this is a DVD designed for Big Trouble cultists; it 's packed with articles from Cinefex and American Cinematographer that only a genre geek would appreciate. ''
A single - disc movie - only DVD version was later released with the only special features being the Carpenter / Russell commentary and the theatrical trailer.
A Blu - ray Disc edition of the film was released on August 4, 2009. It contains the same content as the double disc DVD release. In 2013 the film was released on Blu - ray Disc in the UK by Arrow Films as a regular case and Steelbook
A tie - in video game of the same name was published in 1986 by Electric Dreams Software for the ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64 and Amstrad CPC. Critical reception was mixed.
On February 27, 2014, BOOM! Studios announced they were working on a comic book series. The comic book is written by Eric Powell and John Carpenter with artwork by Brian Churilla. The series began in June 2014.
BOOM! released a crossover comics miniseries between Jack and Snake Plissken titled Big Trouble in Little China / Escape from New York in October 2016.
A previously projected comic book series previewed by Top Cow Productions at the 2009 San Diego Comic - Con failed to appear.
On June 14, 2017, BOOM! announced a new four issue series, to be published in September 2017, called "Big Trouble in Little China: Old Man Jack, '' written by Carpenter and Anthony Burch, with art by Jorge Corona. Taking place in 2020, Jack Burton comes out of retirement to battle Ching Dai and save the world.
In February 2015, Funko released a line of ReAction and Pop! vinyl figures based on Big Trouble In Little China.
On July 15, 2016, BOOM! Studios announced a partnership with Everything Epic and Flipside to create a board game based on the film. It will be a cooperative miniatures game for 1 -- 4 players and it is slated to be released commercially in 2017.
In August 2016, Upper Deck released Big Trouble in Little China Legendary deck - building card game. It is a cooperative game for 2 - 5 players using the deck - building mechanic in which players purchase cards from a central pool to work together against the "villain '' deck. The cards features original artwork based on characters from the movie. It comes with 400 cards and a special playmat, and retails for around $40.
The film 's portrayal of the lightning sorcerer / demigod character has been occasionally described as an inspiration for the character of Raiden from Mortal Kombat, introducing the archetype of a straw hat -- wearing monk able to control lightning with his hands to Western audiences. (In traditional Chinese and Japanese culture, the lightning god is represented more akin to a traditional Asian demon.) Additionally, the character David Lo Pan has been credited as the original inspiration for the soul - stealing Mortal Kombat villain Shang Tsung.
The twenty - third episode of the second season of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, called "A Chinatown Ghost Story, '' uses concepts from the film, but renames the antagonist Lo Pan to Ho Chan, and the Storm figure Rain is replaced by Wind. In addition, James Hong (Lo Pan) reprises his Little China performance as the principal villain character.
The song "We Have Candy '' by the South African rap - rave group Die Antwoord features lead singer Ninja reciting some of Jack Burton 's dialogue from the film.
A 2012 parody music video of the song Gangnam Style was entitled Lo Pan Style and featured the storyline and characters from the movie, including a cameo by James Hong.
In June 2015 TheWrap reported that Dwayne Johnson was developing a remake to star as Jack Burton and produce with his Seven Bucks Productions partners Dany and Hiram Garcia. Ashley Miller and Zack Stentz were to write the new script. In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, Johnson expressed interest in having Carpenter involved in the remake.
Carpenter later said this, "It 's very early in the process. I have n't spoken to Dwayne Johnson about any of this... I 'm ambivalent about a remake. ''
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who plays the grandma in grandma's boy | Grandma 's Boy (2006 film) - wikipedia
Grandma 's Boy is a 2006 American gross out stoner comedy film directed by Nicholaus Goossen. Starring and written by Allen Covert and Nick Swardson, the film features a video game tester who is forced to move in with his grandmother after being evicted from his home. Alongside Covert and Swardson, the film co-stars Doris Roberts, Linda Cardellini, Shirley Jones, Shirley Knight, Peter Dante, Joel Moore, Jonah Hill and Kevin Nealon.
Alex (Allen Covert) is a single, 35 - year - old video game tester who lives with his friend Josh (Jonathan Loughran). When Josh wastes their rent money on Filipino hookers, their landlord (Rob Schneider) kicks them out, and Alex has to find a new place to live. Alex tries to stay with his marijuana dealer, Dante (Peter Dante), but can not do so because Dante is adopting a wild lion to live in the house. Alex spends one night with his co-worker Jeff (Nick Swardson), but Jeff still lives with his parents. After an embarrassing "encounter '' with Jeff 's mom, in which he is caught masturbating in the bathroom and subsequently ejaculates on her, Alex is forced to move in with his grandmother Lilly (Doris Roberts) and her two eccentric friends, Bea (Shirley Knight) and Grace (Shirley Jones).
Alex is given many chores and fix - up projects to do around the house, but has a hard time completing them because his grandmother and her friends are a constant distraction. He also finds it hard to get any work done. Alex discovers that the three women have a fascination with the television program Antiques Roadshow and later is able to get some work finished by giving them tickets to attend a taping of the show. At work, Alex meets the attractive Samantha (Linda Cardellini), who has been sent by the company 's corporate office to oversee the production of a new video game. Alex and Samantha hit it off, but the only person in the way of their relationship is the creator of the game they are all working on, J.P. (Joel Moore), a self - proclaimed "genius '' who is obsessed with video games and has a crush on Samantha. Samantha is not interested in J.P. and declines his constant advances.
Meanwhile, in an attempt to sound cool to his younger co-workers (Jonah Hill and Kelvin Yu), Alex says that he is living "with three hot babes ''. Alex 's friends believe the lie and actually think the reason he is so tired every day at work is because he is living with three women who constantly "wear him out '' in the bedroom. The real cause of his fatigue is because he stays up late at night working on his own video game, called Demonik, which he has been developing in secret for some time. Lilly asks about the game one night and he teaches her to play it. To his surprise, she becomes quite good at it and beats many levels. After Alex and his co-workers finish successfully testing Eternal Death Slayer 3, their boss Mr. Cheezle (Kevin Nealon) tells Samantha to take the boys out to eat at a vegan restaurant, but they instead make fun of the restaurant and their waiter (David Spade) when they arrive, and then leave to a burger shop. When Jeff has to use the bathroom and refuses to use the one in the restaurant, Alex is forced to take everyone to his house.
Alex comes home to find that Lilly, Grace, and Bea drank all of his pot, which they thought was tea. When Samantha admits to smoking weed too, Alex calls up Dante and throws a wild party. During the party, the group prank - calls J.P. and leaves him a voicemail that makes fun of him about wanting to be a robot. J.P. is upset by the message and shows up at Lilly 's house a couple nights later in tears. Feeling bad for him, Alex agrees to let him borrow his only copy of Demonik and test it out for a few days. In retaliation for Alex making his life miserable, and having become accustomed to stealing others ' ideas, J.P. steals the game and tries to pass it off as his own at work. Mr. Cheezle does not believe Alex when he insists the game is his, since it was his only copy, so his friends call Lilly to the office. Because she has mastered the game already, she plays J.P. and wins to prove it belongs to Alex. In the end, Alex is vindicated and creates a successful game. Alex and Samantha start dating.
Principal photography took place in Los Angeles at L.A. Center Studios, and locations in the vicinity.
Game developer Terminal Reality was involved in the film 's production, lending footage to promote their game Demonik. Although the game was cancelled before the film 's release the footage remained in the final cut.
Grandma 's Boy opened theatrically on January 6, 2006 in 2,015 venues and earned $3,009,341 in its opening weekend, ranking thirteenth in the domestic box office and second among that weekend 's newcomers. The film ended its run seven weeks later on February 23, having grossed $6,090,172 domestically and $476,105 overseas for a worldwide total of $6,566,277. Though the film was not successful in theaters, it managed to become a success on the home video market, grossing $31,990,186 in DVD sales.
The film received generally negative reviews from critics. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 16 % critic 's rating based on 63 reviews, with an average rating of 3.5 / 10, while the audience rating has an 85 % based on 266,086 reviews with an average rating of 3.7 / 5. The site 's consensus states: "A gross - out comedy that 's more gross than comedic, Grandma 's Boy is lazy and unrewarding. '' Metacritic reports a 33 out of 100 rating based on 15 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''.
Audience polling company CinemaScore reported that the average grade cinema audiences gave the film was a "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
The film won several honors in High Times ' 2006 Stony Awards, including "Best Stoner Movie '', "Best Actor in a Movie '' (Allen Covert), and "Best Pot Scene in a Movie ''.
The film was released on DVD on May 9, 2006 in widescreen format, with theatrical (94 minutes) and unrated (95 minutes) versions, subtitled in English and Spanish, with audio tracks in English, Spanish, and French. It includes audio commentary tracks by the director and stars, deleted scenes, montages of outtakes and alternate lines, and several "featurettes ''. The film is yet to be released on Blu - ray.
The soundtrack includes tracks of film dialogue between the musical tracks.
Music from the film not found on the soundtrack includes:
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characters in the movie clash of the titans | Clash of the Titans (2010 film) - wikipedia
Clash of the Titans is a 2010 American - Australian action adventure fantasy film and remake of the 1981 film of the same name produced by MGM (the rights to which had been acquired by Warner Bros. in 1996). The story is very loosely based on the Greek myth of Perseus. Directed by Louis Leterrier and starring Sam Worthington, Liam Neeson, and Ralph Fiennes, the film was originally set for standard release on March 26, 2010. However, it was later announced that the film would be converted to 3D and was released on April 2, 2010.
Clash of the Titans grossed $493 million worldwide, though it received generally negative reviews from critics and received two Golden Raspberry Awards nominations. The film 's success led to a sequel, Wrath of the Titans, released in March 2012. A third film titled Revenge of the Titans was in development but later cancelled due to Wrath of the Titans ' disappointing box office performance.
In ancient times, after defeating their predecessors, the Titans, the gods, divided the world among themselves. Zeus took the skies, Poseidon took the seas, and Hades was left with the Underworld upon being tricked by Zeus. The gods created the mortals, whose faith and prayers has fueled the gods ' immortality. As time passed, however, mortals began to question and soon resist their creators, angering the Olympians.
A fisherman named Spyros finds a coffin adrift in the sea, discovering a baby, Perseus, and his mother, Danae. Spyros and his wife, Marmara, raise Perseus as their own son, alongside their daughter, Tekla. One day, an adult Perseus and his family watch soldiers from the city of Argos destroying the statue of Zeus. Infuriated at this, the Gods unleash the Furies who attack the soldiers. Hades then appeared and destroyed the family 's fishing vessel, resulting in Perseus ' family drowning. Only Perseus survives and is found by a group of the soldiers.
Perseus is brought before King Cepheus and Queen Cassiopeia, who are celebrating their campaign against the gods. Queen Cassiopeia compares her daughter Andromeda to the gods and boasts that she is more beautiful than Aphrodite. The revelry is cut short by the arrival of Hades, who has been given leave by Zeus to punish the mortals for their defiance. Hades threatens to unleash his monster, the Kraken, against Argos, unless Andromeda is offered as a sacrifice. Before leaving, he also reveals that Perseus is a demigod and the son of Zeus. Perseus meets Io, who confirms his origin. According to Io, a king of Argos named Acrisius defied the Gods and laid siege on Olympus. Zeus wanted to teach him a lesson, but did not want to kill the humans, instead, he decided to make an example out of Acrisius and disguised himself as the king, and then had sex with Queen Danae. When Acrisius realized this, he executed his wife and her son, while cursing Zeus. Zeus punished him further by changing him into the deformed creature Calibos, who became obsessed with killing Perseus, the son of Queen Danae and Zeus.
Perseus leads the King 's Guard to the Stygian Witches, looking for a way to kill the Kraken. Seeking to help his newly discovered son, Zeus gives Perseus a sword forged on Mount Olympus and a winged horse named Pegasus. Perseus refuses the sword, but the captain of the King 's guard, Draco, keeps the sword for when Perseus needs it. However, Perseus likes Pegasus. Soon after, they are attacked by Calibos, who kills several of the Kings Guard. Draco severs Calibos 's hand and forces him to flee. The band gives chase but they are attacked by giant scorpions called Scorpiochs that spring from spilled drops of Calibos 's blood. They are saved by a band of Djinn, non-human desert sorcerers led by Sheik Suleiman, who tame the remaining Scorpions. Also wishing for the gods ' defeat, the Djinn lend their aid to Perseus and his band. As they continue to travel, Io aids and teaches Perseus and they begin to fall in love.
The group arrives at the lair of the Stygian Witches and learn that to kill the Kraken, they must obtain and use the head of Medusa, a gorgon who resides in a temple in the Underworld. Any living creature that looks on Medusa 's eyes will turn into stone. Perseus, Io, Solon, Draco, and their remaining men travel to the entrance into the Underworld. The men enter Medusa 's temple lair while Io, being a woman and forbidden from entering, remains outside. Medusa kills most of the band, but Perseus finally manages to behead her by using his reflective shield to see her with his back turned. As he leaves the temple, Calibos appears behind Io and fatally stabs her. As Perseus and Calibos fight, Perseus accepts that he is a son of Zeus, picks up the Olympian sword, and stabs Calibos through the chest, which has restored him to his human form. With his last breath, Calibos urges Perseus not to become a god. As Io lies dying, she urges Perseus to leave her and save Andromeda and Argos. Perseus lovingly stays with her until her last breath instead of leaving immediately. Pegasus soon takes Perseus back to the city of Argos as the Kraken is released. The people of Argos seize and bind Andromeda to sacrifice her to the Kraken. Meanwhile, Hades reveals he does not require the faith or worship of mortals as Zeus does, as he has learned to survive on their fear. Hades then subdues the weakened Zeus.
Perseus arrives at Argos and exposes Medusa 's head to the Kraken, which makes eye contact just before it is able to reach Andromeda. The Kraken gradually petrifies and crumbles. Prokopion, the insane leader of the Cult of Hades, attempts to kill Perseus, but Cepheus stops him and is stabbed, before both are killed when the Kraken 's petrified hand falls on them. Hades appears, intending to kill Perseus, but Perseus, invoking Zeus, throws his sword at Hades, forcing him back to the Underworld. Perseus rescues Andromeda, who will soon be crowned as Queen of Argos. She asks Perseus to stay by her side as the King, but he declines. Perseus also refuses another offer of godhood from Zeus, who then proclaims that if Perseus is to live as a human, he should not be alone, and subsequently revives Io, reuniting Perseus with his one and only true love.
The Clash of the Titans remake project started in 2002 under producer Adam Schroeder and writers John Glenn and Travis Wright. They wanted to drop the "cheesy chessboard manipulation of characters '' by the gods. In the Wright / Glenn version of Clash, various pantheons were mixed together. The main villain was the Sumerian Sea Goddess of Death and Destruction, Tiamat. Perseus was originally kidnapped by an avatar of an unidentified Chthonian Earth Goddess, who planned to have him married to Andromeda so as to develop better relations with humanity. The Earth Goddess and Perseus proceed to fall in love. Zeus prepared to engage in war with Tiamat; taking the aids of other gods (such as Thoth, Marduk, Yahweh and Osiris). A High Priest named Fantasos starts a Cult of Tiamat that quickly conquers the city. Andromeda was originally a promiscuous spoiled Princess who possessed various male sex slaves. Though the mixing of Mythologies and the Perseus - Earth Goddess romance was abandoned, the concept of a Goddess enraged at arrogant humans and demanding a sacrifice and the Cult of the Evil God (Changed from Tiamat to Hades) was retained into the final production. Producer Basil Iwanyk revived the project in 2006 with a rewrite by Travis Beacham, a fan of the original, who intended the script to be "darker and more realistic ''. Lawrence Kasdan and director Stephen Norrington signed on in 2007. Kasdan gave the script another rewrite from the Beacham version. But Norrington was unsure about his direction for the project because he did not grow up with the original. Leterrier, who did, contacted Norrington through their shared agent about replacing him. By June 2008 Leterrier joined the project and Warner Bros. greenlit the film. Leterrier noted the original Clash of the Titans inspired the climax of his previous film The Incredible Hulk -- a battle in a burnt - down courtroom with temple - like columns -- and has compared modern superheroes to Greek mythology.
Writers Phil Hay and Matt Manfredi took over the script during July 2008 and used Beacham 's draft as a starting point. They focused on the mythology and telling the story through Leterrier 's eyes. Hay and Manfredi had to rewrite the script in less than a year using a very active process. Leterrier sought Ray Harryhausen 's involvement, and reunited with Hulk concept artist Aaron Sims, who had already been working on Clash of the Titans with Norrington.
Louis Leterrier, during an interview, revealed that he is a big fan of Masami Kurumada 's Saint Seiya manga (also known as Knights of the Zodiac) and its anime adaptation. He specifically cited the armor that the Gods wear in his film remake as a sign of homage and respect to Saint Seiya. Masami Kurumada, the author of Saint Seiya, was even asked to collaborate with the production team on poster designs.
Sam Worthington took the role of Perseus because he wanted to make a Clash of the Titans for his nine - year - old nephew 's generation. During filming the cast had a few laughs about the costumes, but he took it very seriously "so the audience does n't have to. '' Worthington also did not wear sandals while filming; he instead painted toes on his sports shoes so he could perform the stunts better.
For the 2D to 3D conversion, Leterrier approached the studio early on about a 3D conversion, but it was expensive and very new technology. After Avatar, the studio put pressure on Leterrier to convert the film. He was worried because of his previous concerns but was convinced after seeing the View - D conversion process. Leterrier considered the 3D conversion to improve the viewing experience, and states that it should not be seen as a gimmick.
In 2013 Leterrier said of the 3D conversion;
It was famously rushed and famously horrible. It was absolutely horrible, the 3D. Nothing was working, it was just a gimmick to steal money from the audience. I 'm a good boy and I rolled with the punches and everything, but it 's not my movie.
Filming began April 27, 2009, near London, at Shepperton Studios, and also at Pinewood Studios and at Longcross Studios, near Chertsey, in Surrey. Filming also took place in Wales, the Canary Islands (Spain) (primarily at the World Heritage Site, Teide National Park in Tenerife), Maspalomas Dunes, Gran Canaria, and Timanfaya National Park in Lanzarote. Aerial photography was conducted in Iceland and Ethiopia.
Filming of volcano scenes at the Harriet hole in Dinorwic Slate Quarry in Wales wrapped at the end of July. This slate quarry has also been used for locations for Willow and Street Fighter.
Bubo, Athena 's mechanical owl in the original 1981 film, makes a cameo appearance in this remake and its sequel.
Clash of the Titans was originally set for standard release on March 26, 2010. The Heat Vision Blog reported on January 27, 2010, that after a 3D conversion test of the film which Warner Bros. found to be a "roaring success '', the film would be converted to 3D and would premiere on April 2, 2010. The national premiere in Spain took place on March 30 in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, the capital city of the Canary Islands.
Clash of the Titans has received generally negative reviews from critics, who criticized the film for its use of 3D, flat characters, and divergences from the original film and the myth. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 28 % of critics have given the film a positive review, based on 242 reviews with an average rating of 4.3 / 10. The website 's critical consensus states, "An obviously affectionate remake of the 1981 original, Louis Leterrier 's Clash of the Titans does n't offer enough visual thrills to offset the deficiencies of its script. '' On Metacritic, the film was assigned a weighted average score of 39 out of 100, based on 37 reviews from mainstream critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Even before release the film attracted some negative attention for its original tagline, "Titans Will Clash '', although the trailers, edited to match "The Bird and the Worm '' by The Used, were praised.
In his review for the Chicago Sun - Times, Roger Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4, stating "I do n't say it 's good cinema, although I recognize the craftsmanship that went into it. I do n't say it 's good acting, when the men have so much facial hair they all look like Liam Neeson. I like the energy, the imagination, the silliness ''. Richard Corliss of Time could understand why the film received negative reviews, but found it "a full - throttle action - adventure, played unapologetically straight. '' He dismissed other critics ' complaints, writing that the film is "very watchable in 2 - D '', that other critics were biased by nostalgia for the original, and that 15 seconds of Bubo is enough for his tastes. Colin Covert gave the film a mildly positive review, stating the film was "all flash, trash, and crash; a tasty hunk of baloney; mindless yet shamelessly thrilling. '' He considered Worthington to have a "Shatneresque heaviness about him '', and found that all the laughs came from the fact that the heavyweight actors were "slumming through their roles ''. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B -, writing "The new Clash is n't a cynical rehash. It has the flavor of a certain pre-CGI innocence. '' James Berardinelli gave it a mixed review, concluding that Clash of the Titans is a flawed but mildly entertaining regurgitation of Greek mythological elements, but it 's also an example of how poorly executed 3D can hamstring a would - be spectacle.
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded the film 1 star out of four, stating "The film is a sham, with good actors going for the paycheck and using beards and heavy makeup to hide their shame. '' In a review for the Chicago Tribune, Turan complained that the film is worse in 3D; he went on further to explain that the action scenes are "more of a distraction than an enhancement '', with the battle scenes being cluttered and "harder to follow rather than exciting ''. Claudia Puig for USA Today wrote that the film 's "most outstanding achievement is the ability to be both chaotic and dull ''. Justification for her opinion came from the frantic action sequences and muddled special effects. Dan Kois blamed the director for making a "muddled disappointment '' instead of a "camp classic that could have endured for generations ''. Kois also accused Leterrier of not knowing how to direct an action scene, and that the film is lacking in "wit and flair ''. David Stratton also criticized the film 's action scenes, suggesting to Leterrier: "check out your local video store for something by Kurosawa, or almost any movie with sword fight scenes, to see how it 's done. ''
The film was nominated for "Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip - off or Sequel '' and "Worst Eye - Gouging Misuse of 3D '' at the 31st Golden Raspberry Awards, but lost to Sex and the City 2 and The Last Airbender, respectively.
Clash of the Titans earned $61,235,105 in its opening weekend in 3,777 theaters in the United States and Canada (not including Thursday previews). The movie was # 1 for two weeks in a row, edging out Date Night and the previous winner How to Train Your Dragon. Clash of the Titans made $163,214,888 domestically, as of July 22, 2010, and $330,000,000 overseas, as of September 19, 2010, for a worldwide total of $493,214,888. On the all - time worldwide chart it ranks 80th and in North America it is below # 100.
Clash of the Titans was released on DVD and Blu - ray combo pack on July 16 (Mexico), July 26 (UK), July 27 (USA) and (Canada), October 6 (Japan) 2010. A Blu - ray 3D version of the film was also released and also comes packed with the 2D version, the DVD version and a Digital Copy.
Namco Bandai Games. inc & Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment released a video game adaptation of the movie on July 27, 2010, on PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 with the film 's home video release. It was originally planned to come out in March 2010, though the game was delayed due to difficulties. The game follows Perseus on his quest to fight Hades and his minions.
Production of a sequel titled, Wrath of the Titans, directed by Jonathan Liebesman began on March 23, 2011, with Sam Worthington, Ralph Fiennes and Liam Neeson returning to star and released on March 30, 2012.
In November 2011, Warner Bros. hired Dan Mazeau and David Leslie Johnson ' who wrote Wrath of the Titans, to write and develop a sequel with Johnson announced a title called Revenge of the Titans but it was later cancelled.
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school district no 60 fort st john bc | School district 60 Peace River North - Wikipedia
School District 60 Peace River North is a school district in northeastern British Columbia adjacent to the Alberta border. Its board office is in Fort St. John which is also where the majority of the schools are located. It also serves the outlying communities of Taylor, Prespatou, Hudson 's Hope, Buick and Wonowon.
School District 60 was the first district in British Columbia to institute a laptop computer program on a large scale. All students in grades 6 and 7 receive laptops for their personal use at home and at school.
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who played the doctor in miracle on 34th street | Miracle on 34th Street - wikipedia
Miracle on 34th Street (originally released in the United Kingdom as The Big Heart) is a 1947 American Christmas comedy - drama film written and directed by George Seaton and based on a story by Valentine Davies. It stars Maureen O'Hara, John Payne, Natalie Wood and Edmund Gwenn. The story takes place between Thanksgiving Day and Christmas Day in New York City, and focuses on the impact of a department store Santa Claus who claims to be the real Santa. The film has become a perennial Christmas favorite.
The film won Academy Awards for Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Edmund Gwenn), Best Writing, Original Story (Valentine Davies) and Best Writing, Screenplay. It was also nominated for Best Picture, losing to Gentleman 's Agreement. In 2005, the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant ''. The Academy Film Archive preserved Miracle on 34th Street in 2009.
Davies also penned a short novelization of the tale, which was published by Harcourt Brace simultaneously with the film 's release.
Kris Kringle (Edmund Gwenn) is indignant to find that the man (Percy Helton) assigned to play Santa in the annual Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade is intoxicated. When he complains to event director Doris Walker (Maureen O'Hara), she persuades Kris to take his place. He does so well, he is hired to play Santa at Macy 's flagship New York City store on 34th Street.
Ignoring instructions to steer parents to buy from Macy 's, Kris directs one shopper (Thelma Ritter) to a competitor. Impressed, she tells Julian Shellhammer (Philip Tonge), head of the toy department, that she will become a loyal customer.
Attorney Fred Gailey (John Payne), Doris 's neighbor, takes the young divorcée 's daughter Susan (Natalie Wood) to see Santa. Doris has raised her to not believe in fairy tales, but Susan is shaken after seeing Kris speak Dutch with a girl who does not know English. Doris asks Kringle to tell Susan that he is not Santa, but he insists that he is.
Worried, Doris decides to fire him. However, Kris has generated so much positive publicity and goodwill for Macy 's that Macy (Harry Antrim) promises Doris and Julian bonuses. To alleviate Doris 's misgivings, Julian has Granville Sawyer (Porter Hall) administer a "psychological evaluation ''. Kris passes, and questions Sawyer 's own mental health.
The store expands on the concept. To avoid looking greedy, competitor Gimbels implements the same policy, forcing Macy 's and others to escalate. Eventually, Kris does the impossible: he reconciles bitter rivals Macy and Gimbel (Herbert Heyes).
Pierce (James Seay), the doctor at Kris ' nursing home, assures Doris that Kris is harmless. Kris makes a pact with Fred -- he will work on Susan 's cynicism while Fred does the same with Doris, disillusioned by her failed marriage. When Susan reveals she wants a house, Kris reluctantly promises to do his best.
Kris learns that Sawyer has convinced young employee Alfred that he is unstable simply because he is kind - hearted. Finding Sawyer unwilling to budge, Kris hits him on the head with Sawyer 's umbrella, which was on the desk. Sawyer exaggerates his pain in order to have Kris confined to Bellevue Hospital. Tricked into cooperating, and believing Doris to be in on the deception, Kris deliberately fails his examination and is recommended for permanent commitment. However, Fred persuades Kris not to give up.
At a hearing before Judge Henry X. Harper (Gene Lockhart), District Attorney Thomas Mara (Jerome Cowan) gets Kris to assert that he is Santa Claus and rests his case. Fred argues that Kris is not insane because he actually is Santa. Mara requests Harper rule that Santa does not exist. In private, Harper 's political adviser, Charlie Halloran (William Frawley), warns him that doing so would be disastrous for his upcoming reelection bid. The judge buys time by hearing evidence.
Doris quarrels with Fred when he quits his job at a prestigious law firm to defend Kris. Fred calls Macy as a witness. When Mara asks if he believes Kris to be Santa, Macy starts to equivocate, but when pressed, he remembers the good Kris has done and states, "I do! '' Afterward, Macy fires Sawyer. Fred then calls Mara 's own young son (Bobby Hyatt), who testifies that his father told him that Santa was real. Mara concedes the point.
Mara then demands that Fred prove that Kris is "the one and only '' Santa Claus on the basis of some competent authority. While Fred searches frantically, Susan writes Kris a letter to cheer him up, which Doris also signs. When a mail sorter (Jack Albertson) sees Susan 's letter, he suggests delivering the many letters to Santa taking up space in the dead letter office too. Fred presents Judge Harper with three of them (from 21 full mailbags), addressed simply to "Santa Claus '' and delivered to Kris, asserting the Post Office has acknowledged that he is the Santa Claus. Harper dismisses the case.
On Christmas morning, Susan is disappointed that Kris could not get her what she wanted. Kris gives Fred and Doris a route home that avoids traffic. Along the way, Susan sees her dream house with a "For Sale '' sign in the front yard. Fred learns that Doris had encouraged Susan to have faith and suggests they get married and purchase the house. He then boasts that he must be a great lawyer since he proved Kris was Santa. However, when they spot a cane inside that looks just like Kris 's, he is not so sure.
Uncredited (alphabetically):
Although the film is set during the Christmas season, studio head Darryl F. Zanuck insisted that it be released in May, arguing that more people go to the movies in warmer weather. The studio rushed to promote it while keeping its Christmas setting a secret. Fox 's promotional trailer depicted a fictional producer roaming the studio backlot and encountering such stars as Rex Harrison, Anne Baxter, Peggy Ann Garner, and Dick Haymes extolling the virtues of the film. In addition, the movie posters prominently featured O'Hara and Payne, with Gwenn 's character kept in the background. The film opened in New York City at the Roxy Theatre on June 4, 1947. By contrast, modern home video packaging has Gwenn and Wood dominating the imagery, with the DVD release having Kringle in his Santa Claus costume.
O'Hara was initially reluctant to take the role, having recently moved back to Ireland. She immediately changed her mind after reading the script and came back to the United States for the film.
The Christmas window displays seen in the film were originally made by Steiff for Macy 's. Macy 's later sold the window displays to FAO Schwarz in New York. FAO Schwarz then sold the windows to the Marshall & Ilsley Bank of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where they are on display every December in the bank 's lobby on North Water Street.
The house shown at the end of the film is a 1703 square foot single family home built in 1943 at 24 Derby Road, Port Washington, New York. The home looks practically the same as it did in 1947, except that the roof line has been altered by the addition of a window.
Rowland Hussey Macy, called R.H. Macy in the film, died 70 years prior to the film (in 1877).
In the book Reel Justice, the authors claim that Judge Harper could have dismissed the case early without the political repercussions he feared. In their theory, once the prosecutor rested his case immediately after Kris Kringle admitted in court simply that he believed he was Santa Claus, Judge Harper could have ruled that prosecution had forfeited its opportunity to prove that Kringle was dangerous (the basic point of such hearings; Kringle 's actual mental state itself being irrelevant), and ordered him immediately released. However, this high standard for involuntary commitment was not instituted until 1975 with the U.S. Supreme Court 's decision O'Connor v. Donaldson.
When demonstrating that he has taken several mental examinations in the past, Kris Kringle answers his own question about who was the Vice President under John Quincy Adams as Daniel D. Tompkins. Tompkins actually served under James Monroe. John C. Calhoun is the correct answer to Kringle 's question. Tompkins was the 6th vice-president and Quincy Adams was the 6th president, leading to confusion in the script.
The film was re-released in theatres on December 20 and 23, 2015, as part of the "TCM Presents '' series by Turner Classic Movies and Fathom Events.
Miracle on 34th Street received mostly positive reviews from critics. Bosley Crowther of The New York Times said: "For all those blasé skeptics who do not believe in Santa Claus -- and likewise for all those natives who have grown cynical about New York -- but most especially for all those patrons who have grown weary of the monotonies of the screen, let us heartily recommend the Roxy 's new picture, Miracle on 34th Street. As a matter of fact, let 's go further: let 's catch its spirit and heartily proclaim that it is the freshest little picture in a long time, and maybe even the best comedy of this year. '' Today, it is considered by many as one of the best films of 1947. The film currently holds a 96 % "Fresh '' rating on the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes.
The Catholic Legion of Decency gave the movie a "B '', "morally objectionable in part '' rating. This was mainly due to the fact that O'Hara was portraying a divorcée in the film.
The film won Academy Awards for Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Edmund Gwenn), Best Writing, Original Story (Valentine Davies) and Best Writing, Screenplay. It was also nominated for Best Picture, losing to Gentleman 's Agreement.
It was ranked ninth by the American Film Institute on 100 Years... 100 Cheers, a list of America 's most inspiring films. Miracle on 34th Street was listed as the fifth best film in the fantasy genre in the American Film Institute 's "Ten top Ten '' lists in 2008.
In 2005, Miracle on 34th Street was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
American Film Institute Lists
Miracle on 34th Street was first released on VHS and laserdisc in 1987.
In 1985, it became one of the first full - length black and white films to be colorized. The 41⁄2 - month process was carried out by Color Systems Technology, Inc. In 1993, this version was released on laserdisc and VHS and was followed four years later by a "50th Anniversary Edition '', remastered by THX.
The first DVD release was in October 1999, featuring the B&W version alongside the original theatrical trailer and a TV spot. In November 2006, it was re-released as a two - disc "Special Edition '' DVD, with disc one containing an "all new colorized version '' carried out by Legend Films. The second disc had the original black - and - white version and numerous extras, including The 20th Century Fox Hour 's 1955 TV remake. Both discs also included a full - length audio commentary by Maureen O'Hara. The B&W disc has since been re-released several times, including in a pairing with the 1994 remake.
In October 2009, 20th Century Fox released the B&W version on Blu - ray with all previous extras, bar the TV remake.
A 1994 feature film starred Richard Attenborough, Elizabeth Perkins, Dylan McDermott, J.T. Walsh, Timothy Shea, James Remar, Jane Leeves, Simon Jones, William Windom and Mara Wilson. It was adapted by John Hughes from the Seaton script, and directed by Les Mayfield. Due to Macy 's refusal to give permission to use its name, it was replaced by the fictitious "Cole 's ''. Gimbels no longer existed by 1994 and was replaced with the fictional "Shopper 's Express ''. Alvin Greenman (Alfred in the original version) played a doorman. This version had a more serious tone than the original and a large portion was rewritten, although the majority of the plot and characters remained intact. The film also added a subtext concerning religious faith.
There are four remakes of the movie and a Broadway musical.
Lux Radio Theater broadcast an adaptation in 1947 which starred the original cast including Natalie Wood. In 1948 it was done again on Lux, without Natalie Wood 's participation, and it was adapted as a half - hour radio play on two broadcasts of Screen Director 's Playhouse, all featuring Edmund Gwenn in his screen role. In these production Kris correctly cites James Monroe as the President for whom Daniel D. Tompkins was the Vice-President.
A 1963 Broadway musical version, entitled Here 's Love, was written by Meredith Willson.
The novella was adapted into a stage play by Will Severin, Patricia Di Benedetto Snyder and John Vreeke in 2000. It is a favorite in many community and regional theaters during the Christmas season. The characters ' names are those used in the novella, and the stage setting is distinctly late 1940s. Production rights are held by Samuel French, Inc.
A 1955 one - hour television adaptation of the movie starred Thomas Mitchell as Kris, Macdonald Carey as Fred, Teresa Wright as Doris, and Sandy Descher as Susan. This version did not show the drunken Santa at all. Titled "The Miracle on 34th Street '', it originally aired as an episode of The 20th Century Fox Hour. It was later re-run as "Meet Mr. Kringle ''.
Ed Wynn played Kris in a 1959 television adaptation of the movie. Also featured was Orson Bean. It was broadcast live and in color on NBC the day after Thanksgiving. NBC made a kinescope of the program, probably for broadcasting opening night on the West Coast. The copy was in a large collection of kinescopes donated by NBC to the Library of Congress and recently unearthed by Richard Finegan, who reported his experiences in the December 2005 issue of Classic Images.
A 1973 television version featured Jane Alexander, David Hartman, Roddy McDowall, Sebastian Cabot as Kris (without his natural beard; he was forced to shave and wear a false beard for the role), Suzanne Davidson, Jim Backus, David Doyle and Tom Bosley. It was adapted by Jeb Rosebrook from the George Seaton screenplay, and directed by Fielder Cook. Mrs. Walker 's first name is changed to Karen in this version. This would prove to be the final version in which the department store was actually Macy 's. David Doyle, who played R.H. Macy in this version had played Mr. Sawyer in the original Broadway cast of Here 's Love 10 years earlier.
The flagship Macy 's Department Store at Herald Square in New York features a 30 - minute puppet version of the story within its Santaland display, featuring the voice talents of Broadway stars Brian Stokes Mitchell and Victoria Clark.
Streaming audio
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the rhodes colossus striding from cape town to cairo | The Rhodes Colossus - wikipedia
The Rhodes Colossus is an iconic editorial cartoon of the Scramble for Africa period, part of the New Imperialism, depicting British colonialist Cecil Rhodes as a giant standing over the continent.
The cartoon was drawn by Edward Linley Sambourne, and first appeared in Punch magazine in 1892. It was widely reprinted in its time, and has since become a standard illustration in history texts.
The cartoon was published in the 10 December 1892 edition of Punch, appearing beside a recent excerpt from The Times about a Rhodes plan to extend an electrical telegraph line from Cape Town to Cairo.
It was led by a piece of satirical verse on the character and ambitions of Rhodes:
THE World 's Seven Wonders are surely outshone! On Marvel World 's billows ' twill toss us -- ' twill toss us, To watch him, Director and Statesman in one, This Seven - League - Booted Colossus -- Colossus! Combining in one supernatural blend Plain Commerce and Imagination -- gination; O'er Africa striding from dark end to end, To forward black emancipation -- cipation. Brobdingnagian Bagman, big Dreamer of Dreams. A Titan of tact and shrewd trader -- shrewd trader! A diplomat full of finesse and sharp schemes, With a touch of the pious Crusader -- Crusader! A "Dealer '' with despots, a "Squarer '' of Kings, A jumper of mountain, lake, wilderness, wady, And manager ' cute of such troublesome things As Lobengula or the Mahdi -- the Mahdi. Well may Abercorn wonder and Fife tootle praise, His two thousand hearers raise cheering -- raise cheering. Of wild would - be Scuttlers he proves the mad craze, And of Governments prone to small - beering -- small - beering. Sullen Boers may prove bores to a man of less tact, A duffer funk wiles Portuguesy -- tuguesy; But Dutchmen, black potentates, all sorts, in fact, To Rhodes the astute come quite easy -- quite easy. The British South - African Company 's shares May be at a discount -- (Trade - martyrs! -- trade - martyrs!) -- But he, our Colossus, strides on, he declares, Whether with or without chums or charters -- or charters. Hooray! We brave Britons are right now to the front -- Provided we 've someone to boss us -- to boss us; And Scuttlers will have their work cut out to shunt This stalwart, far - striding Colossus -- Colossus!
Rhodes is shown in a visual pun as the ancient Greek statue the Colossus of Rhodes, following the traditional (and architecturally unlikely) depiction of the Colossus with wide - set legs across Rhodes harbour (above).
Rhodes measures with the telegraphic line the distance from Cape Town (at his right foot) in South Africa to Cairo (at his left foot) in Egypt, illustrating his broader "Cape to Cairo '' concept for British domination of Africa.
The cartoon is recognised today as a standard illustration in history texts of the Scramble for Africa, and of colonialism as a whole. The original context of a proposed telegraph line is rarely mentioned in such reproductions, which take the "Cape to Cairo '' concept more generally.
In 2009, the South African cartoonist Jonathan Shapiro parodied the famous cartoon by placing Chinese premier Wen Jiabao in place of Rhodes holding up Nkosazana Dlamini - Zuma, the then Minister of Foreign Affairs, like a marionette, while the Dalai Lama looks on from Asia. The cartoon satirised Sino - African relations in general, and recent China - South Africa relations in particular, after the Dalai Lama was denied a visa to attend an international peace conference in Johannesburg, a move that was perceived to be the result of Chinese pressure.
The Rhodes cartoon also influenced political cartoonist Martin Rowson, who published on 1 February 2013 a drawing in The Guardian on British prime minister David Cameron 's policy regarding Algeria and the French intervention in Mali.
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how do thermoacidophiles live under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions | Thermoacidophile - wikipedia
A thermoacidophile is an extremophilic microorganism that is both thermophilic and acidophilic; i.e., it can grow under conditions of high temperature and low pH. The large majority of thermoacidophiles are archaea (particularly the crenarchaeota and euryarchaeota) or bacteria, though occasional eukaryotic examples have been reported. Thermoacidophiles can be found in hot springs and solfataric environments, within deep sea vents, or in other environments of geothermal activity. They also occur in polluted environments, such as in acid mine drainage.
An apparent tradeoff has been described between adaptation to high temperature and low pH; relatively few examples are known that are tolerant of the extremes of both environments (pH < 2, growth temperature > 80 ° C). Many thermoacidophilic archaea have aerobic or microaerophilic metabolism, although obligately anaerobic examples (e.g. the Acidilobales) have also been identified.
Sequencing the genome of a thermoacidophilic eukaryote, the red algae Galdieria sulphuraria, revealed that its environmental adaptations likely originated from horizontal gene transfer from thermoacidophilic archaea and bacteria.
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who is the guy that does the allstate commercials | Dennis Haysbert - wikipedia
Dennis Dexter Haysbert (born June 2, 1954) is an American actor. In the U.S. he is best known for his appearances in commercials for Allstate Insurance. He is also known for portraying baseball player Pedro Cerrano in the Major League film trilogy, Secret Service Agent Tim Collin in the 1997 political thriller film Absolute Power, and Sergeant Major Jonas Blane on the drama series The Unit. He is also known for playing U.S. Senator (later President) David Palmer on the first 5 seasons of 24 and has appeared in the films Love Field, Heat, Far from Heaven and the science fiction series Incorporated.
Haysbert was born in San Mateo, California, the son of Gladys (née Minor), a homemaker and house cleaner, and Charles Whitney Haysbert, Sr., a deputy sheriff and airline security guard. He is the eighth of nine children, having two sisters and six brothers. His parents were from Louisiana. Haysbert was raised Baptist.
Haysbert graduated from San Mateo High School in 1972. After high school, being 6 ft 5 in tall, he was offered athletic scholarships but instead chose to study acting at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts.
Haysbert is a twice divorced father of two. He announced in April 2009 that he was starting a TV, film, and documentary production company. His first project was to be a documentary for HBO about an up - and - coming boxer. During the 2010 California elections, Haysbert supported Democratic Senatorial incumbent Barbara Boxer by appearing with her at campaign events, as well as recording radio commercials.
Haysbert has been acting in film and television since 1978, starting with a guest role in The White Shadow. His television guest starring roles include Lou Grant, Growing Pains, Laverne & Shirley, The A-Team, Night Court, Dallas, The Incredible Hulk, Magnum, P.I., Buck Rogers in the 25th Century, and Duckman. In 1993, he had a featured role in Return to Lonesome Dove as outlaw Cherokee Jack Jackson. In 1999, Haysbert starred with Eric Close in Now and Again, which was cancelled after its first season.
In 2001, Haysbert became best known when he was cast in 24 as U.S. Senator David Palmer, who served as the first black U.S. President (in the context of the show) during the second and third seasons. He also returned as a guest star in the last six episodes of season 4 and the first episode of season 5. He was nominated for a Golden Globe and for a Golden Satellite Award in 2002 for this role. Haysbert stated in an interview for the show that the three men he admires most -- Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton, and Colin Powell -- collectively embody his idea of what a President should be. Haysbert believes that his playing of David Palmer on 24 helped Barack Obama -- whom Haysbert supported -- to win the 2008 Democratic presidential nomination.
Haysbert was the first actor to portray DC Comics character Kilowog, a member of the Green Lantern Corps, in a medium outside of comics. He provided the voice of Kilowog on various episodes of Justice League and Justice League Unlimited. On March 4, 2006, Haysbert guest starred on the Saturday Night Live episode hosted by Natalie Portman as the host of a live action / animated TV Funhouse cartoon called "Belated Black History Moment ''. In his role, Haysbert paid homage to fictional short - lived Saturday morning cartoons featuring black characters, such as Ladysmith Black Mambazo in Outer Space. He also portrayed Nelson Mandela in Goodbye Bafana (also released under the name The Color of Freedom). Haysbert portrayed the lead character Jonas Blane in the CBS action - drama The Unit. He hosted and narrated the Military History Channel presentation of Secrets of Pearl Harbor, which documented his scuba dives with a film team on World War II - era Japanese and American warships in the Pacific Theater. In March 2013, Haysbert narrated the documentary The World According to Dick Cheney on the Showtime television channel. In 2015, Haysbert played Detective John Almond in Backstrom.
In November 2016, Haysbert began his co-starring role in Incorporated. Set in a dystopian future run by corporations, Haysbert plays Julian, a ruthless security head working for one of the larger corporations. Ben Affleck and Matt Damon are co-executive producers on the series, which was shot in British Columbia, Canada, and airs on Showcase in Canada and Syfy in the U.S.
In 1989, Haysbert made his first major role as Pedro Cerrano, a voodoo - practicing Cuban refugee baseball player, in Major League. Haysbert followed that up with a role in 1990 's Navy SEALs, which also starred Charlie Sheen and Michael Biehn, before moving on to another baseball movie, Mr. Baseball with Tom Selleck. In 1991, he also starred in K - 9000, where he played a police officer named Nick Sanrio. In 1992, he co-starred with Michelle Pfeiffer in Love Field, a film about a series of events occurring contemporaneously with the assassination and funeral of President John F. Kennedy. In 1994, Haysbert reprised his role as Cerrano in Major League II. This was followed by low - key appearances in Waiting to Exhale, Heat, and Absolute Power. In 1998, Haysbert made another appearance as Cerrano in Major League: Back to the Minors. In 1999, Haysbert played a police detective in three different films: The Minus Man, The Thirteenth Floor, and Random Hearts. In 2000, Haysbert played the role of Zeke McCall in Love & Basketball.
In 2002, Haysbert played the role of gardener Raymond Deagan in Far From Heaven. He won three awards (Satellite Award, Black Reel Award, and Washington DC Area Film Critics Association Award) for Best Supporting Actor for that role. In 2005, he had a supporting role in Sam Mendes 's film, Jarhead. In 2007, Haysbert returned to the big screen to portray Nelson Mandela in Goodbye Bafana and an FBI agent in Breach. In 2012, he voiced General Hologram in Wreck - It Ralph and served as an official judge for the Noor Iranian Film Festival. He replaced the deceased Michael Clark Duncan as Manute in Sin City: A Dame to Kill For (2014). In 2014, Haysbert played the role of Dean Fairbanks in Dear White People and Dead Rising: Watchtower.
Haysbert is the official spokesman for the Allstate Insurance Company. His commercials typically end with one of the two Allstate Corporation official slogans, either "Are you in good hands? '' or "That 's Allstate 's stand. '' More recently however his commercials have combined the two with "That 's Allstate 's stand. Are you in good hands? ''. He has also appeared in Spanish - language commercials with the line "Con Allstate, Estás En Buenas Manos. '' (With Allstate, you 're in good hands.) In 2009 -- 2010, Allstate used the Neil Sedaka song "Breaking Up Is Hard to Do '' in television commercials to promote Allstate 's car insurance. Breaking up is hard to do, the ads averred, unless one has an Allstate agent to undertake the deed for the customer (switching from another insurer to Allstate). The viewer learned that "breaking up is easy to do '' as reassured on the screen by Haysbert. In his role as spokesman for Allstate, Haysbert officiated the coin toss prior to the 2007 Sugar Bowl between LSU and Notre Dame.
In 2008, Haysbert was featured in national television ads to raise public awareness about lending discrimination. The ads were commissioned by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development 's Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity. In one of these ads, Haysbert warns consumers about lenders ' targeting minorities for inferior loan products.
For the 2006 college football season, Haysbert did voice work for ticket sales promotions for Brigham Young University. He did it as a favor to his younger brother Adam, who played wide receiver at BYU in the early 1980s.
Haysbert also voices the Military Channel 's commercials with their official slogan: "The Military Channel. Go Behind the Lines. ''
Haysbert has also done voice work for various video games, such as Irving Lambert in Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell: Pandora Tomorrow, the narrator in Call of Duty: Finest Hour and David Palmer in 24: The Game.
In June 2010, Haysbert joined the cast of David Mamet 's Race on Broadway as character Henry Brown, performing alongside actors Eddie Izzard, Richard Thomas and Afton Williamson. The play ran until August 21, 2010.
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who wrote spring can really hang you up the most | Spring Can Really Hang you up the Most - wikipedia
"Spring Can Really Hang You Up the Most '' (1955) is a popular song with lyrics by Fran Landesman, "the poet laureate of lovers and losers, '' set to music by Tommy Wolf. The title is a jazz rendition of the opening line of T.S. Eliot 's The Waste Land, "April is the cruellest month ''.
The song was featured in the 1959 Broadway musical The Nervous Set, but was written in 1955 before this musical and was incorporated into it.
Tommy Wolf was a pianist, composer, arranger, and musical director who met Fran Landesman while she was sitting in the bar of the Crystal Palace, a night club in St. Louis, while he was on the bandstand playing. This experience inspired her to begin writing song lyrics and in 1952 Wolf began setting her lyrics to music. More Landesman -- Wolf collaborations followed, including the melodies for the songs for the Broadway musical The Nervous Set.
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who is the opening act for ed sheeran tonight | ÷ Tour - wikipedia
The ÷ Tour (pronounced "divide tour '') is the third world concert tour by English singer - songwriter, Ed Sheeran, in support of his third studio album, ÷ (pronounced "divide ''). It officially began on March 16, 2017, in Turin, Italy. Ticket sales started on February 2, 2017.
The morning of 26 January 2017, through Sheeran social networks, the dates of the tour for Europe were announced. Hours later through the same networks were announced the dates for Latin America. Tickets for the tour sold out quickly, prompting new dates to be added in London, Turin and Santiago. On 13 February 2017 it was announced that he would be part of the line up for a week of gigs at the Royal Albert Hall in aid of the Teenage Cancer Trust taking place on the 28 March 2017. On 22 February 2017, Sheeran announced through his social networks that Anne - Marie and Ryan McMullan would be the opening acts for the UK and European dates. On 8 March 2017, Sheeran announced the North America leg would start on 29 June 2017, until 6 October 2017. On the North American Arena Tour, Sheeran 's opening act was James Blunt, a singer popular in the early 2000s, except for two dates in Indianapolis and Cleveland, where the opener was Joshua Radin. He toured to places such as Las Vegas, Nevada and Glendale, Arizona.
This set list is representative of the show on March 16, 2017, in Turin. It is not representative of all concerts for the duration of the tour.
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how did the mayans come up with their calendar | Maya calendar - wikipedia
The Maya calendar is a system of calendars used in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica and in many modern communities in the Guatemalan highlands, Veracruz, Oaxaca and Chiapas, Mexico.
The essentials of the Maya calendar are based upon a system which had been in common use throughout the region, dating back to at least the 5th century BCE. It shares many aspects with calendars employed by other earlier Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Zapotec and Olmec and contemporary or later ones such as the Mixtec and Aztec calendars.
By the Maya mythological tradition, as documented in Colonial Yucatec accounts and reconstructed from Late Classic and Postclassic inscriptions, the deity Itzamna is frequently credited with bringing the knowledge of the calendar system to the ancestral Maya, along with writing in general and other foundational aspects of Maya culture.
The Maya calendar consists of several cycles or counts of different lengths. The 260 - day count is known to scholars as the Tzolkin, or Tzolk'in. The Tzolkin was combined with a 365 - day vague solar year known as the Haab ' to form a synchronized cycle lasting for 52 Haab ', called the Calendar Round. The Calendar Round is still in use by many groups in the Guatemalan highlands.
A different calendar was used to track longer periods of time and for the inscription of calendar dates (i.e., identifying when one event occurred in relation to others). This is the Long Count. It is a count of days since a mythological starting - point. According to the correlation between the Long Count and Western calendars accepted by the great majority of Maya researchers (known as the Goodman - Martinez - Thompson, or GMT, correlation), this starting - point is equivalent to August 11, 3114 BCE in the proleptic Gregorian calendar or September 6, in the Julian calendar (− 3113 astronomical). The GMT correlation was chosen by John Eric Sydney Thompson in 1935 on the basis of earlier correlations by Joseph Goodman in 1905 (August 11), Juan Martínez Hernández in 1926 (August 12) and Thompson himself in 1927 (August 13). By its linear nature, the Long Count was capable of being extended to refer to any date far into the past or future. This calendar involved the use of a positional notation system, in which each position signified an increasing multiple of the number of days. The Maya numeral system was essentially vigesimal (i.e., base - 20) and each unit of a given position represented 20 times the unit of the position which preceded it. An important exception was made for the second - order place value, which instead represented 18 × 20, or 360 days, more closely approximating the solar year than would 20 × 20 = 400 days. It should be noted however that the cycles of the Long Count are independent of the solar year.
Many Maya Long Count inscriptions contain a supplementary series, which provides information on the lunar phase, number of the current lunation in a series of six and which of the nine Lords of the Night rules.
Less - prevalent or poorly understood cycles, combinations and calendar progressions were also tracked. An 819 - day Count is attested in a few inscriptions. Repeating sets of 9 days (see below "Nine lords of the night '') associated with different groups of deities, animals and other significant concepts are also known.
The tzolk'in (in modern Maya orthography; also commonly written tzolkin) is the name commonly employed by Mayanist researchers for the Maya Sacred Round or 260 - day calendar. The word tzolk'in is a neologism coined in Yucatec Maya, to mean "count of days '' (Coe 1992). The various names of this calendar as used by precolumbian Maya people are still debated by scholars. The Aztec calendar equivalent was called Tonalpohualli, in the Nahuatl language.
The tzolk'in calendar combines twenty day names with the thirteen day numbers to produce 260 unique days. It is used to determine the time of religious and ceremonial events and for divination. Each successive day is numbered from 1 up to 13 and then starting again at 1. Separately from this, every day is given a name in sequence from a list of 20 day names:
Some systems started the count with 1 Imix ', followed by 2 Ik ', 3 Ak'b'al, etc. up to 13 B'en. The day numbers then start again at 1 while the named - day sequence continues onwards, so the next days in the sequence are 1 Ix, 2 Men, 3 K'ib ', 4 Kab'an, 5 Etz'nab ', 6 Kawak and 7 Ajaw. With all twenty named days used, these now began to repeat the cycle while the number sequence continues, so the next day after 7 Ajaw is 8 Imix '. The repetition of these interlocking 13 - and 20 - day cycles therefore takes 260 days to complete (that is, for every possible combination of number / named day to occur once).
The earliest known inscription with a Tzolk'in is an Olmec earspool with 2 Ahau 3 Ceh - 6.3. 10.9. 0, September 2, - 678 (Julian astronomical).
The Haab ' was made up of eighteen months of twenty days each plus a period of five days ("nameless days '') at the end of the year known as Wayeb ' (or Uayeb in 16th - century orthography). The five days of Wayeb ' were thought to be a dangerous time. Foster (2002) writes, "During Wayeb, portals between the mortal realm and the Underworld dissolved. No boundaries prevented the ill - intending deities from causing disasters. '' To ward off these evil spirits, the Maya had customs and rituals they practiced during Wayeb '. For example, people avoided leaving their houses and washing or combing their hair. Bricker (1982) estimates that the Haab ' was first used around 550 BCE with a starting point of the winter solstice.
The Haab ' month names are known today by their corresponding names in colonial - era Yukatek Maya, as transcribed by 16th - century sources (in particular, Diego de Landa and books such as the Chilam Balam of Chumayel). Phonemic analyses of Haab ' glyph names in pre-Columbian Maya inscriptions have demonstrated that the names for these twenty - day periods varied considerably from region to region and from period to period, reflecting differences in the base language (s) and usage in the Classic and Postclassic eras predating their recording by Spanish sources.
Each day in the Haab ' calendar was identified by a day number in the month followed by the name of the month. Day numbers began with a glyph translated as the "seating of '' a named month, which is usually regarded as day 0 of that month, although a minority treat it as day 20 of the month preceding the named month. In the latter case, the seating of Pop is day 5 of Wayeb '. For the majority, the first day of the year was 0 Pop (the seating of Pop). This was followed by 1 Pop, 2 Pop as far as 19 Pop then 0 Wo, 1 Wo and so on.
The Haab ' year had exactly 365 days and ignored the extra quarter of day (approximately) in the actual tropical year. This meant that the seasons moved with respect to the calendar year by a quarter of a day each year, so that the calendar months named after particular seasons no longer corresponded to these seasons after a few centuries.
A Calendar Round date is a date that gives both the Tzolk'in and Haab '. This date will repeat after 52 Haab ' years or 18,980 days, a Calendar Round. For example, the current creation started on 4 Ahau 8 Kumk'u. When this date recurs it is known as a Calendar Round completion.
Arithmetically, the duration of the Calendar Round is the least common multiple of 260 and 365; 18,980 is 73 × 260 Tzolk'in days and 52 × 365 Haab ' days.
Not every possible combination of Tzolk'in and Haab ' can occur. For Tzolk'in days Imix, Kimi, Chwen and Kib ', the Haab ' day can only be 4, 9, 14 or 19; for Ik ', Manik ', Eb ' and Kab'an, the Haab ' day can only be 0, 5, 10 or 15; for Akb'al ', Lamat, B'en and Etz'nab ', the Haab ' day can only be 1, 6, 11 or 16; for K'an, Muluk, Ix and Kawak, the Haab ' day can only be 2, 7, 12 or 17; and for Chikchan, Ok, Men and Ajaw, the Haab ' day can only be 3, 8, 13 or 18.
A "Year Bearer '' is a Tzolk'in day name that occurs on the first day of the Haab '. If the first day of the Haab ' is 0 Pop, then each 0 Pop will coincide with a Tzolk'in date, for example, 1 Ik ' 0 Pop. Since there are twenty Tzolk'in day names and the Haab ' year has 365 days (20 * 18 + 5), the Tzolk'in name for each succeeding Haab ' zero day will be incremented by 5 in the cycle of day names like this:
1 Ik ' 0 Pop 2 Manik ' 0 Pop 3 Eb ' 0 Pop 4 Kab'an 0 Pop 5 Ik ' 0 Pop...
Only these four of the Tzolk'in day names can coincide with 0 Pop and these four are called the "Year Bearers ''.
"Year Bearer '' literally translates a Mayan concept. Its importance resides in two facts. For one, the four years headed by the Year Bearers are named after them and share their characteristics; therefore, they also have their own prognostications and patron deities. Moreover, since the Year Bearers are geographically identified with boundary markers or mountains, they help define the local community.
The classic system of Year Bearers described above is found at Tikal and in the Dresden Codex. During the Late Classic period a different set of Year Bearers was in use in Campeche. In this system, the Year Bearers were the Tzolk'in that coincided with 1 Pop. These were Ak'b'al, Lamat, B'en and Edz'nab. During the Post-Classic period in Yucatán a third system was in use. In this system the Year Bearers were the days that coincided with 2 Pop: K'an, Muluc, Ix and Kawak. This system is found in the Chronicle of Oxkutzcab. In addition, just before the Spanish conquest in Mayapan the Maya began to number the days of the Haab ' from 1 to 20. In this system the Year Bearers are the same as in the 1 Pop -- Campeche system. The Classic Year Bearer system is still in use in the Guatemalan highlands and in Veracruz, Oaxaca and Chiapas, Mexico.
Since Calendar Round dates repeat every 18,980 days, approximately 52 solar years, the cycle repeats roughly once each lifetime, so a more refined method of dating was needed if history was to be recorded accurately. To specify dates over periods longer than 52 years, Mesoamericans used the Long Count calendar.
The Maya name for a day was k'in. Twenty of these k'ins are known as a winal or uinal. Eighteen winals make one tun. Twenty tuns are known as a k'atun. Twenty k'atuns make a b'ak'tun.
The Long Count calendar identifies a date by counting the number of days from the Mayan creation date 4 Ahaw, 8 Kumk'u (August 11, 3114 BC in the proleptic Gregorian calendar or September 6 in the Julian calendar - 3113 astronomical dating). But instead of using a base - 10 (decimal) scheme like Western numbering, the Long Count days were tallied in a modified base - 20 scheme. Thus 0.0. 0.1. 5 is equal to 25 and 0.0. 0.2. 0 is equal to 40. As the winal unit resets after only counting to 18, the Long Count consistently uses base - 20 only if the tun is considered the primary unit of measurement, not the k'in; with the k'in and winal units being the number of days in the tun. The Long Count 0.0. 1.0. 0 represents 360 days, rather than the 400 in a purely base - 20 (vigesimal) count.
There are also four rarely used higher - order cycles: piktun, kalabtun, k'inchiltun and alautun.
Since the Long Count dates are unambiguous, the Long Count was particularly well suited to use on monuments. The monumental inscriptions would not only include the 5 digits of the Long Count, but would also include the two tzolk'in characters followed by the two haab ' characters.
Misinterpretation of the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar was the basis for a popular belief that a cataclysm would take place on December 21, 2012. December 21, 2012 was simply the day that the calendar went to the next b'ak'tun, at Long Count 13.0. 0.0. 0. The date on which the calendar will go to the next piktun (a complete series of 20 b'ak'tuns), at Long Count 1.0. 0.0. 0.0, will be on October 13, 4772.
Sandra Noble, executive director of the Mesoamerican research organization Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. (FAMSI), notes that "for the ancient Maya, it was a huge celebration to make it to the end of a whole cycle ''. She considers the portrayal of December 2012 as a doomsday or cosmic - shift event to be "a complete fabrication and a chance for a lot of people to cash in. ''
Many Classic period inscriptions include a series of glyphs known as the Supplementary Series. The operation of this series was largely worked out by John E. Teeple (1874 -- 1931). The Supplementary Series most commonly consists of the following elements:
Each night was ruled by one of the nine lords of the underworld. This nine - day cycle was usually written as two glyphs: a glyph that referred to the Nine Lords as a group, followed by a glyph for the lord that would rule the next night.
A lunar series generally is written as five glyphs that provide information about the current lunation, the number of the lunation in a series of six, the current ruling lunar deity and the length of the current lunation.
The Maya counted the number of days in the current lunation. They used two systems for the zero date of the lunar cycle: either the first night they could see the thin crescent moon or the first morning when they could not see the waning moon. The age of the moon was depicted by a set of glyphs that mayanists coined glyphs D and E:
The Maya counted the lunations. This cycle appears in the lunar series as two glyphs that modern scholars call the ' C ' and ' X ' glyphs. The C glyph could be prefixed with a number indicating the lunation. No prefixing number meant one, whereas the numbers two through six indicated the other lunations. There was also a part of the C glyph that indicated where this fell in a larger cycle of 18 lunations. Accompanying the C glyph was the ' X ' glyph that showed a similar pattern of 18 lunations.
The present era lunar synodic period is about 29.5305877 mean solar days or about 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes and 2 + / seconds. As a whole number, the number of days per lunation will be either 29 or 30 days, with the 30 - day intervals necessarily occurring slightly more frequently than the 29 - day intervals. The Maya wrote whether the lunar month was 29 or 30 days as two glyphs: a glyph for lunation length followed by either a glyph made up of a moon glyph over a bundle with a suffix of 9 for a 29 - day lunation or a moon glyph with a suffix of 10 for a 30 - day lunation. Since the Maya did n't use fractions, lunations were approximated by using the formula that there were 149 lunations completed in 4400 days, which yielded a rather short mean month of exactly / = 29 + / days = 29 days 12 hours 43 minutes and 29 + / seconds, or about 29.5302 days.
Some Mayan monuments include glyphs that record an 819 - day count in their Initial Series. These can also be found in the Dresden codex. This is described in Thompson. More examples of this can be found in Kelley. Each group of 819 days was associated with one of four colors and the cardinal direction with which it was associated -- black corresponded to west, red to east, white to north and yellow to south.
The 819 - day count can be described several ways: Most of these are referred to using a "Y '' glyph and a number. Many also have a glyph for K'awill -- the god with a smoking mirror in his head. K'awill has been suggested as having a link to Jupiter. In the Dresden codex almanac 59 there are Chaacs of the four colors. The accompanying texts begin with a directional glyph and a verb for 819 - day - count phrases. Anderson provides a detailed description of the 819 - day count.
During the late Classic period the Maya began to use an abbreviated short count instead of the Long Count. An example of this can be found on altar 14 at Tikal. In the kingdoms of Postclassic Yucatán, the Short Count was used instead of the Long Count. The cyclical Short Count is a count of 13 k'atuns (or 260 tuns), in which each k'atun was named after its concluding day, Ahau (' Lord '). 1 Imix was selected as the recurrent ' first day ' of the cycle, corresponding to 1 Cipactli in the Aztec day count. The cycle was counted from katun 11 Ahau to katun 13 Ahau, with the coefficients of the katuns ' concluding days running in the order 11 -- 9 -- 7 -- 5 -- 3 -- 1 -- 12 -- 10 -- 8 -- 6 -- 4 -- 2 -- 13 Ahau (since a division of 20 × 360 days by 13 falls 2 days short). The concluding day 13 Ahau was followed by the re-entering first day 1 Imix. This is the system as found in the colonial Books of Chilam Balam. In characteristic Mesoamerican fashion, these books project the cycle onto the landscape, with 13 Ahauob ' Lordships ' dividing the land of Yucatán into 13 ' kingdoms '.
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where did the term shotgun house come from | Shotgun house - wikipedia
A "shotgun house '' is a narrow rectangular domestic residence, usually no more than about 12 feet (3.5 m) wide, with rooms arranged one behind the other and doors at each end of the house. It was the most popular style of house in the Southern United States from the end of the American Civil War (1861 -- 65) through the 1920s. Alternate names include "shotgun shack '', "shotgun hut '', "shotgun cottage '', and in the case of a multihome dwelling, "shotgun apartment ''. A railroad apartment is somewhat similar, but instead of each room opening onto the next room, it has a side hallway from which rooms are entered (similar to compartments in passenger rail cars).
A longstanding theory is that the style can be traced from Africa to Haitian influences on house design in New Orleans, but the houses can be found as far away as Chicago, Key West, Florida, Ybor City, and Texas. Though initially as popular with the middle class as with the poor, the shotgun house became a symbol of poverty in the mid-20th century. Urban renewal has led to the destruction of many shotgun houses. However, in areas affected by gentrification, historic preservation efforts have led to the renovation of such houses.
Several variations of shotgun houses allow for additional features and space, and many have been updated to the needs of later generations of owners. The oldest shotgun houses were built without indoor plumbing, but this was often added later, often on the back of the house (sometimes crudely). "Double - barrel '' or "double '' shotgun houses consist of two houses sharing a central wall, allowing more houses to be fit into an area. "Camelback '' shotgun houses include a second floor at the rear of the house. In some cases the entire floor plan is changed during remodeling to create hallways.
The origins of both the term and the architectural form and development of the shotgun house are controversial, even more so in the wake of conflicting preservation and redevelopment efforts since Hurricane Katrina.
New Orleans architectural historian Samuel Wilson, Jr. influentially suggested that shotgun - style houses originated in the Creole suburbs (faubourgs) of New Orleans in the early 1800s. He also stated that the term "shotgun '' is a reference to the idea that if all the doors are opened, a shotgun blast fired into the house from the front doorway will fly cleanly to the other end and out at the back.
Alternatively, folklorist and professor John Michael Vlach has suggested that the origin of the building style and the name itself may trace back to Haiti and Africa during the 18th century and earlier. Vlach claimed the name may have originated from a Dahomey Fon area term ' to - gun ', which means "place of assembly ''. The description, probably used in New Orleans by Afro - Haitian slaves, may have been misunderstood and reinterpreted as "shotgun ''. Citing Vlach, James Deetz claimed archaeological support for an African origin in his dig at Parting Ways, a 1790s community of freed black slaves in Plymouth, Massachusetts; his shotgun interpretation of the extremely limited evidence -- two rooms that "may or may not have been unified '' -- has been challenged as "premature ''. Vlach 's theory behind the earlier African origin is tied to the history of New Orleans. In 1803 there were 1,355 free blacks in the city. By 1810 blacks outnumbered whites 10,500 to 4,500. This caused a housing boom. As many of both the builders and inhabitants were Africans by way of Haiti, Vlach maintained it is only natural they modeled the new homes after ones they left behind in their homeland. Many surviving Haitian dwellings of the period, including about 15 percent of the housing stock of Port - au - Prince, resemble the single shotgun houses of New Orleans.
The shotgun house was popularized in New Orleans, and, as Fred Kniffen documented in a statewide survey of Louisiana house types in the 1930s, the greatest number are found dispersed from there in a manner that supports the diffusion theory. The style was definitely built there by 1832, though there is evidence that houses sold in the 1830s were built 15 to 20 years earlier.
A simpler theory is that they are the typical one - room - deep floor plan popular in the rural south, rotated to accommodate narrow city lots. Such houses were built throughout hot urban areas in the South, since the style 's length allowed for excellent airflow, while its narrow frontage increased the number of lots that could be fitted along a street. It was used so frequently that some southern cities estimate that, even today, 10 % or more of their housing stock is composed of shotgun houses.
The earliest known use of "shotgun house '' as a name for these dwellings is in a classified advertisement in the Atlanta Journal - Constitution, August 30, 1903: "Two 3 - room houses near the railroad yards at Simpson st. crossing, rent $12 a month to good tenants who pay in advance; price $1,200 on terms or $100 cash, balance $15 a month; a combination of investment and savings bank: these are not shacks, but good shot - gun houses in good repair. '' While this advertisement seems to present shotgun houses as a desirable working - class housing alternative, by 1929 a Tennessee court noted that shotgun houses could not be rented to any other than a very poor class of tenants. After the Great Depression few shotgun houses were built, and existing ones went into decline. By the late 20th century shotgun houses in some areas were being restored as housing and for other uses.
Shotgun houses were often initially built as rental properties, located near manufacturing centers or railroad hubs, to provide housing for workers. Owners of factories frequently built the houses to rent specifically to employees, usually for a few dollars a month. However, by the late 20th century shotguns were often owner - occupied. For example, 85 % of the houses (many of them shotgun) in New Orleans ' Lower Ninth Ward were owner - occupied.
Shotgun houses were most popular before widespread ownership of the automobile allowed people to live farther from businesses and other destinations. Building lots were small, 30 feet (9 m) wide at most. An influx of people to cities, both from rural areas in America and from foreign countries, all looking to fill emerging manufacturing jobs, created the high demand for housing in cities. Shotgun houses were built to fulfill the same need as rowhouses in Northeastern cities. Several were often built at a time by a single builder, contributing to their similar appearance.
The rooms of a shotgun house are lined up one behind the other, typically a living room is first, then one or two bedrooms, and finally a kitchen in back. Early shotgun houses were not built with bathrooms, but in later years a bathroom with a small hall was built before the last room of the house, or a side addition was built off the kitchen. Some shotguns may have as few as two rooms.
Chimneys tended to be built in the interior, allowing the front and middle rooms to share a chimney with a fireplace opening in each room. The kitchen usually has its own chimney.
Other than the basic floor layout, shotgun houses have many standard features in common. The house is almost always close to the street, sometimes with a very short front yard. In some cases, the house has no setback and is actually flush with the sidewalk. The original steps were wood, but were often replaced with permanent concrete steps.
A sign of its New Orleans heritage, the house is usually raised two to three feet off the ground. There is a single door and window in the front of the house, and often a side door leading into the back room, which is slightly wider than the rest of the house. The front door and window often were originally covered by decorative shutters. Side walls may or may not have windows; rooms not adjoining the front nor back door will generally have at least one window even when the houses are built very close together.
Typically, shotgun houses have a wood - frame structure and wood siding, although some examples exist in brick and even stone. Many shotguns, especially older or less expensive ones, have flat roofs that end at the front wall of the house. In houses built after 1880, the roof usually overhangs the front wall, and there is usually a gable above the overhang. The overhang is usually supported by decorative wooden brackets, and sometimes contains cast iron ventilators.
The rooms are well - sized, and have relatively high ceilings for cooling purposes, as when warm air can rise higher, the lower part of a room tends to be cooler. The lack of hallways allows for efficient cross-ventilation in every room. Rooms usually have some decoration such as moldings, ceiling medallions, and elaborate woodwork. In cities like New Orleans, local industries supplied elaborate but mass - produced brackets and other ornaments for shotgun houses that were accessible even to homeowners of modest means.
A conventional one - story freestanding shotgun house is often called a single shotgun. Many common variations exist in high quantity, and are often actually more common than the single shotgun in cities.
A double shotgun, also called double - barrel shotgun, is essentially two shotgun houses connected to each other and sharing a central wall. They are a form of semi-detached housing. The double shotgun requires less land per household than the traditional shotgun and was used extensively in poorer areas because it could be built with fewer materials and use less land per occupant. It was first seen in New Orleans in 1854.
A camelback house, also called humpback, is a variation of the shotgun that has a partial second floor over the rear of the house. Camelback houses were built in the later period of shotgun houses. The floor plan and construction is very similar to the traditional shotgun house, except there are stairs in the back room leading up to the second floor. The second floor, or "hump '', contains one to four rooms. Because it was only a partial second story, most cities only taxed it as a single - story house -- this was a key reason for their construction.
The double - width shotgun is an extra-large and - wide shotgun house, built on two lots instead of one. These were typically built one - to - a-block in locations where a single person would first buy the entire city block during development, then build themselves a double - sized home and subdivide the rest of the block with single - lot homes.
A combination, the Double Camelback shotgun, also exists. A minor variation is a side door allowing access to the kitchen, or a porch along the side extending almost the length of the house.
"North shore '' houses are shotgun houses with wide verandas on three sides. They were so named because most were built on the north shore of New Orleans ' Lake Pontchartrain as summer homes for wealthy whites.
The term may also refer to a different structure, common in rural areas and small towns, which takes the form of a small, long, free - standing house, generally made of wood, with no hallways. Unlike the larger terraced version, this is generally a single - storied dwelling, but it was still associated with poverty and popular partially because of its ability to make hot weather more comfortable. This building style can also be seen in a double shotgun style, made for use by one or two households. Both styles were commonly used in sawmill towns where examples still exist.
The construction of shotgun houses slowed and eventually stopped during the early 20th century. The increased affordability of two technological innovations, the car and consumer air conditioning units, made the key advantages of the shotgun house obsolete to home buyers. After World War II, shotgun houses had very little appeal to those building or buying new houses, as car - oriented modern suburbs were built en masse. Few shotgun houses have been built in America since the war, although the concept of a simple, single - level floor plan lived on in ranch - style houses.
The surviving urban shotgun houses suffered problems related to those typically facing the inner city neighborhoods in which they were located. The flight of affluent residents to the suburbs, absentee owners, and a shortage of mortgage lenders for inner - city residents led to the deterioration of shotgun houses in the mid - and late 20th century. Confusing ownership, passed down within a family over several generations, also contributed to many houses sitting vacant for years.
Though shotguns are sometimes perceived as being prevalent in poor African American neighborhoods, many originally constituted much of the housing stock of segregated white neighborhoods. Many of these neighborhoods became predominantly black during the 1950s and 1960s, but many others did not and remain predominantly white.
Regardless of who was living in them, from World War II until the 1980s shotguns came to be widely viewed as substandard housing and a symbol of poverty, and they were demolished by many urban renewal projects. This thinking is no longer so prevalent, with cities such as Charlotte establishing "Shotgun Historic Districts ''. Shotgun houses have even been praised as quality and cost - effective cultural assets that promote a distinctive urban life. Other cities such as Macon, Georgia experimented with renovating shotgun houses for low - income residents and, though there was indecision on whether it would be cheaper to tear them down and build new housing, some were rebuilt.
There are many large neighborhoods in older American cities of the south which still contain a high concentration of shotgun houses today. Examples include Third Ward in Houston; Bywater in New Orleans; The Hill in St. Louis; Portland, Butchertown and Germantown in Louisville; and Cabbagetown in Atlanta. Their role in the history of the south has become recognized; for example, in October 2001 Rice University sponsored an exhibition called "Shotguns 2001 ''. This three - day event featured lectures on and artistic paintings of the houses, as well as presentations and panel discussions in a neighborhood of restored shotguns.
In some shotgun - dominated neighborhoods, property value has become quite high, leading to gentrification. Sometimes, a new owner will buy both homes of a double - barreled shotgun structure and combine them, to form a relatively large single house. Shotguns are also often combined to renovate them into office or storage space.
Elements of the shotgun style have recently been seen in a number of the compact, low - occupancy structures employed in the Solar Decathlon contests held periodically in Washington, DC. While some are erected from panels brought to the site, many such structures consist of enclosed single or multiple units designed specifically for road transports, with multiple modules connected on site, and compact linear structures often employ multiple - use "zones '' rather than specifically private areas, while retaining a linear progression of spaces.
In 2011 Louisville 's daily newspaper, The Courier - Journal, reported that a local nonprofit agency devoted to building and renovating affordable housing was building new shotgun houses in a development in southwest Louisville.
The shotgun house plays a large role in the folklore and culture of the south. Superstition holds that ghosts and spirits are attracted to shotgun houses because they may pass straight through them, and that some houses were built with doors intentionally misaligned to deter these spirits. They also often serve as a convenient symbol of life in the south. Elvis Presley was born in a shotgun house, Aaron Neville of The Neville Brothers grew up in one, and according to bluesman David Honeyboy Edwards, Robert Johnson died in one. Shortly before his death in May 1997, Jeff Buckley rented a shotgun house in Memphis and was so enamoured with it he contacted the owner about the possibility of buying it. Dream Brother, David Browne 's biography of Jeff and Tim Buckley, opens with a description of this shotgun house and Jeff 's fondness of it.
One of the more widely known references to a shotgun house is in the 1980 Talking Heads song "Once In A Lifetime ''. The first line of the song is "And you may find yourself living in a shotgun shack ''.
The John Mellencamp song "Pink Houses '' was inspired when he was driving along an overpass on the way home to Bloomington, Indiana from the Indianapolis airport. There was an old black man sitting outside his little pink shotgun house with his cat in his arms, completely unperturbed by the traffic speeding along the highway in his front yard. "He waved, and I waved back, '' Mellencamp said in an interview with Rolling Stone. "That 's how ' Pink Houses ' started. ''. In Bruce Springsteen 's song "We Take Care of Our Own '', from the album Wrecking Ball, he refers to shotgun houses, singing "We take care of our own, from the shotgun shack to the Super Dome ''.
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how old are sam and dean in season 13 | Dean Winchester - wikipedia
Dean Winchester is a fictional character and one of the two protagonists of the American drama television series Supernatural. He is portrayed primarily by Jensen Ackles. Other versions of the character having been portrayed by Hunter Brochu (toddler), Ridge Canipe (child), Nicolai Lawton - Giustra (pre-teen), Brock Kelly and Dylan Everett (teen), and Chad Everett (elderly).
Dean hunts demons, spirits and other supernatural creatures with the help of his younger brother Sam and occasionally with their friend and father figure Bobby Singer and, since season four, his friend the angel Castiel.
Dean Winchester was created by Eric Kripke, creator and original showrunner of Supernatural, when he pitched a show to the WB about two brothers who investigate the supernatural. Dean 's name is a homage to Jack Kerouac 's road - trip novel On the Road, tying into Kripke 's concept for an Americana road - trip television series. It was originally intended for the brothers ' last name to be "Harrison '' as a nod to actor Harrison Ford, as Kripke wanted Dean to have the "devil - may - care swagger of Han Solo. '' However, there was a Sam Harrison living in Kansas, so the name had to be changed for legal reasons. Combining his interest in the Winchester Mystery House and his desire to give the series the feel of "a modern - day Western, '' Kripke settled on the surname of "Winchester. '' Dean and his brother Sam are from Lawrence, Kansas, due to its closeness to Stull Cemetery, a location famous for its urban legends. Jensen Ackles, who portrays Dean Winchester, was originally asked to audition for the role of Sam, but preferred the character of Dean after reading the script.
Dean Winchester was born on January 24, 1979 to John and Mary Winchester in Lawrence, Kansas. He is the couple 's first child, four years older than his younger brother, Sam. He is named after his maternal grandmother, Deanna Campbell. On November 2, 1983, Mary was killed in Sam 's nursery by the demon Azazel, and in the ensuing fire Dean was tasked with carrying Sam out to safety while John unsuccessfully tried to rescue Mary. Since then, Dean has felt responsible for Sam and was always given the job to take care of him while they were growing up.
John began investigating the cause of Mary 's death and in that course learned about the supernatural and the people who hunted them. John became a hunter himself, and trained Dean to be one as well, though both hid the supernatural from Sam until he was 8 years old. The Winchesters constantly moved around the country, living in motels and the homes of John 's hunter friends. Dean had a large hand in raising Sam due to John 's constantly being away to hunt. When Dean was 16, he was arrested for stealing and spent time in a boy 's home where he had the opportunity to go to a regular school, though eventually Dean chose to return to John and Sam.
Prior to the pilot of the series, Sam left John and Dean to pursue his own life away from the supernatural. John and Dean continued to hunt together and traveled all the way through the United States.
Dean is known for handling a large number of weaponry, and his signature looks are black shoes, a dark leather jacket and dark shirts with dark blue jeans. He is also known for driving a signature black 1967 Chevrolet Impala Sport Coupe, in which he occasionally sleeps in and he has a huge stash of guns in the trunk.
Dean is 26 years old when the series begins and has been allowed by John to hunt by himself. In the first episode, Dean goes to Sam, whom he has n't seen for a few years, and asks for help finding John, who has gone missing. The pair are initially unsuccessful, and at the end of the first episode, Sam 's girlfriend Jessica Moore dies the same way their mother did. Sam joins Dean on the road, hunting various supernatural creatures, tracking down their father and searching for the culprit behind the deaths of their mother and Jessica. After eventually reuniting with their father and coming into possession of the Colt, they prepare to strike back against the Demon, a powerful demon with yellow eyes known as Azazel. Failing to kill him, they are rammed into by a semitruck, sending Dean into a coma. Flatlining, Dean dies but is saved from death at the last second when John makes a deal with the Demon to save his life. After John 's soul is taken by the Demon to Hell, Sam and Dean start hunting the Demon, who eventually kidnaps Sam. In a turn of events, Sam is stabbed and killed, forcing Dean to make a deal to save his brother 's life. Given a year on life, Dean and Sam are unable to stop the Demon from opening a gate to Hell and freeing Lilith. However, their father escapes as well and gives them the chance they need to kill the Yellow Eyed Demon.
While trying to cope with his impending death and make the best of his final year, Dean begins to start hunting the freed Demons. Meeting a seemingly helpful demon Ruby, Dean learns that he too may become a demon himself if he burns in Hell too long. Learning Lilith to have taken the throne of Hell from Azazel and to hold Dean 's life contract in her hands, the brothers eventually confront her. Unable to kill her, Dean is mauled to death by Hellhounds and his soul is dragged to Hell. There Lilith orders a demon called Alastair, the same demon whom Azazel had torture John, brutalize Dean. After spending three months dead, equating to thirty years in Hell, Dean finally joins Alastair in torturing souls. On the road to becoming a demon, Dean awakens from his grave after spending four months in hell, reunites with family and meets the angel Castiel who is revealed to have resurrected Dean. Struggling with almost having had become a demon and trying to get Sam to try to quit drinking demon blood, Dean meets the Demon again when sent back in time by Castiel. Eventually learning that if one of the Demon 's Special Children, of whom Sam is the only one left, kill Lilith the Apocalypse will start, Dean arrives moments too late to stop Lucifer from breaking free. Later learning of his role as the vessel for the Archangel Michael and Sam 's role as Lucifer 's vessel, the brothers meet the King of Crossroads Crowley and fight against the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse to defeat Lucifer. Learning from Death how to trap Lucifer, Sam eventually becomes the devil 's vessel, but his strong bond with Dean helps him fall into Lucifer 's Cage with Michael.
Quitting hunting and moving in with an ex-girlfriend Lisa, Dean begins to move onto a normal life but is thrust back into hunting when attacked by a Djinn and mysteriously saved by Sam. Shocked to learn of his brother and maternal grandfather 's resurrections, Dean is placed even more on edge when Sam acts cold, ruthlessly and lets Dean temporarily turn into a vampire. Later learning from Castiel that Sam is lacking a soul, Dean sets out to fix his brother. Getting Sam 's soul back through Death, the brothers begin to unravel a conspiracy involving Crowley and Castiel. Defeating Eve, the mother of all monsters, Dean cuts ties with Lisa and learns Castiel to have taken Purgatory 's souls to become the most powerful angel alive. Requesting Death 's help, Dean is unable to get Castiel to return the souls of Purgatory in time and the Leviathans break free and begin an effort to take over the Earth. After their father figure Bobby is killed by Dick Roman, the Leviathan leader, they gain an ally through Kevin Tran, a new prophet. With the Word of God, Dean and Castiel kill Roman but are themselves killed in the subsequent explosion and dragged to Purgatory.
Surviving in Purgatory with the aid of the vampire Benny and Castiel, Dean and Benny eventually escape. Full of guilt at being unable to rescue Cas, Dean is angered to learn that Sam did not even search for him. Reuniting with Kevin, they find another Word of God that details trials able to close the gates of Hell. Coming to terms with what he did in Purgatory, Dean aids Sam in completing the trials, and along the way they encounter the rogue angel Metatron and the Knight of Hell Abaddon. During this time the brothers are also given the Men of Letters bunker as a headquarters. Joyed that Castiel was able to escape Purgatory as well, Dean is horrified to learn his best friend to have been programmed by the angel Naomi to try to kill him. Capturing Crowley, Dean stops Sam from completing the trials when he learns it will kill his brother. When they begin to head to the hospital, Sam lapses into a coma just as the angels begin to fall down to Earth. Praying for help, Dean learns Metatron to have turned Castiel human and caused the fall. Aided by an angel named Ezekiel, Dean allows him to possess Sam if it means saving his brother. With Ezekiel in Sam, however, Dean is unable to get any help from Castiel and begins to try to find a way to handle Abaddon. Joining up with Metatron, Ezekiel reveals himself to actually be the angel Gadreel and overpowers Dean, preventing him from saving Kevin. Turning to Crowley for help, Dean manages to purge Gadreel from Sam at the cost of their relationship. Growing desperate to defeat Abaddon, Crowley manipulates Dean into accepting the Mark of Cain and aids him in locating the First Blade. Mending his bond with Sam, Dean kills Abaddon and nearly slaughters Gadreel. When finally confronting Metatron, Dean is fatally stabbed and once again dies. His body brought back to the bunker, Dean 's reawakens a demon and leaves with Crowley.
Enjoying his time as a demon and killing several of Abaddon 's loyalists, Dean eventually kills an innocent man called Lester Morris and uses his newfound demon powers to confirm what Crowley told him about Sam. Eventually confronting his brother, Dean is pulled into a fight by a soldier named Cole, allowing Sam to use holy water to imprison his brother. Using the demon cure process to try to turn his brother back, Sam lets his guard down as Dean escapes. With the help of Castiel, however, Dean is cured, but still remains an enhanced human with the Mark of Cain. After eventually growing more and more powerful while losing control, Dean learns from Cain, before killing his ancestor, that there is no viable cure. Death later confirms this by revealing that removing the Mark would unleash the Darkness and offers to remove Dean from society on the condition that he kill Sam. Although he initially agrees, Dean relents and kills Death instead. However, due to Sam 's earlier machinations, the Mark is removed and the Darkness is unleashed regardless.
With the Darkness unleashed, Dean and Sam set out to try to find the Darkness, but are shaken to learn that the entity they are hunting is essentially God 's sister, who was ' sacrificed ' so that he could create the world. Manifesting as a woman who comes to call herself Amara, Dean finds himself unable to kill her due to a twisted attraction, but matters become even more complicated when Castiel consents to act the vessel for Lucifer when he becomes convinced that only an archangel has any chance against Amara. This strategy fails - speculated to be due to Lucifer 's status as a fallen archangel - but the Winchesters are eventually contacted by the true God, now revealed to be Chuck Surely, the author who wrote the Winchester Gospels, who is able to make peace with Amara and depart. Dean is shocked when he is reunited with his mother, who is brought back to life by Amara as thanks for Dean 's actions, but the Winchesters find themselves facing human and supernatural threats when the British branch of the Men of Letters attack the Winchesters to try to take control of America 's hunters and Lucifer is left on the run trying to find a new vessel. Lucifer eventually takes the President of the United States as a vessel, but the Winchesters are able to banish him from this host.
While the Winchesters discover that Lucifer conceived a child while possessing the President, they are left to guard the child 's mother while Mary explores the possibility of an alliance with the British Men of Letters. Although Castiel concludes that Lucifer 's child is worth protecting, the potential alliance with the Men of Letters ends when the group prove to be excessively ruthless, to the point of killing a hunter who had assisted the Winchesters on a case because she accidentally killed one of their members. The Winchesters are eventually able to banish Lucifer to a parallel universe where the Apocalypse took place ' on schedule ', but this plan backfired when Lucifer alerted the alternate version of Michael to the existence of the original world, as well as leaving them with the complication of trying to raise Lucifer 's suddenly - adult son, Jack Kline. Jack soon comes to see the Winchesters and Castiel as his ' fathers ', while they gain a new ally when they discover that Gabriel survived his death, but although they are able to return to the Apocalypse World to rescue several humans (including alternate versions of Bobby Singer and Charlie Bradbury), the alternate Michael and Lucifer follow them into this world.
Stuck for options to stop Lucifer after he takes Jack 's grace to charge his own powers, Dean agrees to act as Michael 's vessel, but Michael takes control of Dean 's body after Lucifer 's death. Michael spends the next few weeks exploring this world until he decides to aid the monsters in taking control of the world as their desires are pure, but he subsequently abandons Dean as his vessel for unknown reasons.
When turned into a vampire, Dean had greater strength and all of his senses were advanced. As a human, Dean was the bearer of the Mark of Cain; this granted him extraordinary strength, allowing him to fight on the level of a supercharged angel like Metatron. He also had several psionic abilities, the most notable of which is being able to summon and call the First Blade to him granted it is reasonable range. These powers also included premonitions given in dreams and immunity to both magical and demonic powers. As a demon bearing the Mark of Cain, Dean 's strength was multiplied from the time he was a human, allowing him strength on par with, if not greater than, the Knights of Hell. His demonic powers also included a degree of telepathy, being able to read an individual named Lester 's mind and learn his history with Sam upon meeting him. During his time as a demon, Dean also possessed the ability to easily regenerate from wounds and as his corrupted soul was possessing his own body, he was exempt from exorcisms that plagued other demons.
Dean is a skilled and highly resourceful hunter. He is well - versed in multiple types of firearms; he prefers his Colt 1911 and sawed - off shotgun, but is proficient with most other weapons he might acquire. He is also adept with brawling and knife fighting, and has subdued several human assailants with ease and bested physically more powerful creatures such as shapeshifters, vampires and demons. He frequently utilizes improvised weapons and explosive devices; in "Croatoan '', he demonstrated knowledge of chemistry, constructing Molotov cocktails and improvised explosive devices, and in "Phantom Traveler '', he revealed knowledge of electronics and reverse engineering, having built an electromagnetic field detector from an old Walkman radio. Dean also possesses extensive knowledge of the supernatural and mythology, and from season 4 onwards learns and is able to perform spells that are effective against angels.
Dean 's work as a hunter requires him to impersonate various occupational roles in pursuing his investigations and avoid the attention of law - enforcement. To this end, Dean is well - versed in how police, fire departments and various government agencies (FBI, CDC) typically operate and conduct investigations. In supporting this lifestyle, Dean is also skillful in lock picking, breaking into security systems, carjacking and hustling for pool. Due to his time spent in Hell as Alistair 's "student '', Dean has an in - depth knowledge of torture. Dean is also an accomplished mechanic and maintained an intimate knowledge of automobiles and engines since childhood; he maintains his Impala in top condition.
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how many seats in house of commons uk | House of Commons of the United Kingdom - wikipedia
HM Government
Confidence and supply
HM Most Loyal Opposition
Other Opposition Parties
Speaker
The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the upper house, the House of Lords, it meets in the Palace of Westminster. Officially, the full name of the house is: the Honourable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled.
The Commons is an elected body consisting of 650 members known as Members of Parliament (MPs). Members are elected to represent constituencies by first - past - the - post and hold their seats until Parliament is dissolved.
The House of Commons of England evolved in the 13th and 14th centuries. It eventually became the House of Commons of Great Britain after the political union with Scotland in 1707, and assumed the title of "House of Commons of Great Britain and Ireland '' after the political union with Ireland at the start of the 19th century. The "United Kingdom '' referred to was the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 1800, and became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland after the independence of the Irish Free State in 1922. Accordingly, the House of Commons assumed its current title.
Under the Parliament Act 1911, the Lords ' power to reject legislation was reduced to a delaying power. The Government is solely responsible to the House of Commons and the Prime Minister stays in office only as long as he or she retains the support of a majority of the Commons.
Although it does not formally elect the prime minister, the position of the parties in the House of Commons is of overriding importance. By convention, the prime minister is answerable to, and must maintain the support of, the House of Commons. Thus, whenever the office of prime minister falls vacant, the Sovereign appoints the person who has the support of the House, or who is most likely to command the support of the House -- normally the leader of the largest party in the Commons, while the leader of the second - largest party becomes the Leader of the Opposition. Since 1963, by convention, the prime minister is always a member of the House of Commons, rather than the House of Lords.
The Commons may indicate its lack of support for the Government by rejecting a motion of confidence or by passing a motion of no confidence. Confidence and no confidence motions are phrased explicitly, for instance: "That this House has no confidence in Her Majesty 's Government. '' Many other motions were considered confidence issues, even though not explicitly phrased as such. In particular, important bills that form a part of the Government 's agenda were formerly considered matters of confidence, as is the annual Budget. When a Government has lost the confidence of the House of Commons, the prime minister is obliged either to resign, making way for another MP who can command confidence, or to request the monarch to dissolve Parliament, thereby precipitating a general election.
Parliament normally sits for a maximum term of five years. Subject to that limit, the prime minister could formerly choose the timing of the dissolution of parliament, with the permission of the Monarch. However, since the Fixed - Term Parliaments Act 2011, terms are now a fixed five years, and an early general election can only be brought about either by a two - thirds majority in favour of a motion for a dissolution, or by a vote of no confidence that is not followed within fourteen days by a vote of confidence (which may be for confidence in the same government or a different one). By this second mechanism, the government of the United Kingdom can change without an intervening general election. Only four of the eight last Prime Ministers have attained office as the immediate result of a general election; the others have gained office upon the resignation of a Prime Minister of their own party. The latter four were Jim Callaghan, John Major, Gordon Brown and the current Prime Minister Theresa May; these four inherited the office from Harold Wilson, Margaret Thatcher, Tony Blair and David Cameron respectively. In such circumstances there may not even have been an internal party leadership election, as the new leader may be chosen by acclaim, having no electoral rival (as in the case of both Brown and May).
A prime minister may resign even if he or she is not defeated at the polls (for example, for personal health reasons). In such a case, the premiership goes to whoever can command a majority in the House of Commons; in practice this is usually the new leader of the outgoing prime minister 's party. Until 1965, the Conservative Party had no mechanism for electing a new leader; when Anthony Eden resigned as PM in 1957 without recommending a successor, the party was unable to nominate one. It fell to the Queen to appoint Harold Macmillan as the new prime minister, after taking the advice of ministers.
By convention, all ministers must be members of the House of Commons or of the House of Lords. A handful have been appointed who were outside Parliament, but in most cases they then entered Parliament either in a by - election or by receiving a peerage. Since 1902, all prime ministers have been members of the Commons (the sole exception, the Earl of Home, disclaimed his peerage three days after becoming prime minister, and was immediately elected to the House of Commons as Sir Alec Douglas - Home after twenty days in neither House).
In modern times, the vast majority of ministers belong to the Commons rather than the Lords. Few major cabinet positions (except Lord Privy Seal, Lord Chancellor and Leader of the House of Lords) have been filled by a peer in recent times. Notable exceptions are Lord Carrington, who served as Foreign Secretary from 1979 to 1982, and Lord Young, who was appointed Employment Secretary in 1985. Lord Mandelson was appointed Secretary of State for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform in October 2008; he was also briefly a member of neither the Lords nor the Commons while serving in this capacity. The elected status of members of the Commons, as opposed to the unelected nature of members of the Lords, is seen to lend more legitimacy to ministers. The prime minister chooses the ministers, and may decide to remove them at any time; the formal appointment or dismissal, however, is made by the Sovereign.
The House of Commons scrutinises HM Government through "Prime Minister 's Questions '', when members have the opportunity to ask questions of the prime minister; there are other opportunities to question other cabinet ministers. Prime Minister 's Questions occurs once each week, normally for half an hour each Wednesday. Questions must relate to the responding minister 's official government activities, not to his or her activities as a party leader or as a private Member of Parliament. Customarily, members of the Government party and members of the Opposition alternate when asking questions. In addition to questions asked orally during Question Time, Members of Parliament may also make inquiries in writing.
In practice, the House of Commons ' scrutiny of the Government is fairly weak. Since the first - past - the - post electoral system is employed, the governing party often enjoys a large majority in the Commons, and there is often little need to compromise with other parties. Modern British political parties are so tightly organised that they leave relatively little room for free action by their MPs. Also, many ruling party MPs are paid members of the Government. Thus, during the 20th century, the Government has lost confidence issues only three times -- twice in 1924, and once in 1979. However, the threat of rebellions by their own party 's backbench MPs often forces Governments to make concessions (under the Coalition, over foundation hospitals and under Labour over top - up fees and compensation for failed company pension schemes). Occasionally the Government is defeated by backbench rebellions (Terrorism Act 2006). However, the scrutiny provided by the Select Committees is more serious.
The House of Commons technically retains the power to impeach Ministers of the Crown (or any other subject, even if not a public officer) for their crimes. Impeachments are tried by the House of Lords, where a simple majority is necessary to convict. The power of impeachment, however, has fallen into disuse: the House of Commons exercises its checks on the Government through other means, such as No Confidence Motions; the last impeachment was that of Viscount Melville in 1806.
Bills may be introduced in either house, though bills of importance generally originate in the House of Commons. The supremacy of the Commons in legislative matters is assured by the Parliament Acts, under which certain types of bills may be presented to the Queen for Royal Assent without the consent of the House of Lords. The Lords may not delay a money bill (a bill that, in the view of the Speaker of the House of Commons, solely concerns national taxation or public funds) for more than one month. Moreover, the Lords may not delay most other public bills for more than two parliamentary sessions, or one calendar year. These provisions, however, only apply to public bills that originate in the House of Commons. Moreover, a bill that seeks to extend a parliamentary term beyond five years requires the consent of the House of Lords.
By a custom that prevailed even before the Parliament Acts, only the House of Commons may originate bills concerning taxation or Supply. Furthermore, supply bills passed by the House of Commons are immune to amendments in the House of Lords. In addition, the House of Lords is barred from amending a bill so as to insert a taxation or supply - related provision, but the House of Commons often waives its privileges and allows the Lords to make amendments with financial implications. Under a separate convention, known as the Salisbury Convention, the House of Lords does not seek to oppose legislation promised in the Government 's election manifesto. Hence, as the power of the House of Lords has been severely curtailed by statute and by practice, the House of Commons is clearly the most powerful branch of Parliament.
The British Parliament of today largely descends, in practice, from the Parliament of England, although the 1706 Treaty of Union, and the Acts of Union that ratified the Treaty, created a new Parliament of Great Britain to replace the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland, with the addition of 45 MPs and sixteen Peers to represent Scotland. Later still the Acts of Union 1800 brought about the abolition of the Parliament of Ireland and enlarged the Commons at Westminster with 100 Irish members, creating the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
Although popularly considered to refer to the fact its members are commoners, the actual name of the House of Commons comes from the Norman French word for communities - communes.
The current Commons ' layout is influenced by the use of the original St. Stephen 's Chapel in the Palace of Westminster. The rectangular shape is derived from the shape of the chapel. Benches were arranged using the configuration of the chapel 's choir stalls whereby they were facing across from one another. This arrangement facilitated an adversarial atmosphere that is representative of the British parliamentary approach.
The distance across the floor of the House between the government and opposition benches is 3.96 metres, said to be equivalent to two swords ' length.
The House of Commons underwent an important period of reform during the 19th century. Over the years, several anomalies had developed in borough representation. The constituency boundaries had not been changed since 1660, so many towns that were once important but had declined by the 19th century still retained their ancient right of electing two members, in addition to other boroughs that had never been important, e.g. Gatton.
Among the most notorious of these "rotten boroughs '' were Old Sarum, which had only six voters for two MPs, and Dunwich which had largely collapsed into the sea due to coastal erosion. At the same time, large cities such as Manchester received no separate representation (although their eligible residents were entitled to vote in the corresponding county seat). Also notable were the pocket boroughs, small constituencies controlled by wealthy landowners and aristocrats, whose "nominees '' were invariably elected.
The Commons attempted to address these anomalies by passing a Reform Bill in 1831. At first, the House of Lords proved unwilling to pass the bill, but were forced to relent when the prime minister, Lord Grey, advised King William IV to flood the House of Lords by creating pro-Reform peers. To avoid this the Lords relented and passed the bill in 1832. The Reform Act 1832, also known as the "Great Reform Act '', abolished the rotten boroughs, established uniform voting requirements for the boroughs, and granted representation to populous cities, but still retained many pocket boroughs.
In the ensuing years, the Commons grew more assertive, the influence of the House of Lords having been reduced by the Reform Bill crisis, and the power of the patrons reduced. The Lords became more reluctant to reject bills that the Commons had passed with large majorities, and it became an accepted political principle that the confidence of the House of Commons alone was necessary for a government to remain in office.
Many more reforms were introduced in the latter half of the 19th century. The Reform Act 1867 lowered property requirements for voting in the boroughs, reduced the representation of the less populous boroughs, and granted parliamentary seats to several growing industrial towns. The electorate was further expanded by the Representation of the People Act 1884, under which property qualifications in the counties were lowered. The Redistribution of Seats Act of the following year replaced almost all multi-member constituencies with single - member constituencies.
In 1908, the Liberal Government under Asquith introduced a number of social welfare programmes, which, together with an expensive arms race, forced the Government to seek higher taxes. In 1909, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, introduced the "People 's Budget '', which proposed a new tax targeting wealthy landowners. But this measure failed in the heavily Conservative House of Lords, and the government resigned.
The resulting general election returned a hung parliament, but Asquith remained prime minister with the support of the smaller parties. Asquith then proposed that the powers of the Lords be severely curtailed. After a further election in December 1910, the Asquith Government secured the passage of a bill to curtail the powers of the House of Lords after threatening to flood the House with 500 new Liberal peers to ensure the passage of the bill.
Thus the Parliament Act 1911 came into effect, destroying the legislative equality of the two Houses of Parliament. The House of Lords was permitted only to delay most legislation, for a maximum of three parliamentary sessions or two calendar years (reduced to two sessions or one year by the Parliament Act 1949). Since the passage of these Acts, the House of Commons has become the dominant branch of Parliament, both in theory and in practice.
In 1918, women over 30 were given the right to vote, quickly followed by the passage of a law enabling women to be eligible for election as members of parliament at the younger age of 21. The only woman to be elected that year was an Irish Sinn Féin candidate, Constance Markievicz, who therefore became the first woman MP. However, due to Sinn Féin 's policy of abstention from Westminster, she never took her seat.
With effect from the General Election in 1950, various forms of plural voting (i.e. some individuals had the right to vote in more than one constituency in the same election), including University constituencies, were abolished.
Since the 17th century, MPs had been unpaid. Most of the men elected to the Commons had private incomes, while a few relied on financial support from a wealthy patron. Early Labour MPs were often provided with a salary by a trade union, but this was declared illegal by a House of Lords judgment of 1909. Consequently, a resolution was passed in the House of Commons in 1911 introducing salaries for MPs. Government ministers had always been paid.
In May and June 2009 revelations of MPs ' expenses claims caused a major scandal and loss of confidence by the public in the integrity of MPs, as well as causing the first forced resignation of the Speaker in 300 years.
(2017 general election) MPs for constituencies in Northern Ireland MPs for constituencies in Scotland MPs for constituencies in England
Leader of the House Shadow Leader of the House
House of Commons Chamber
Since 1950 each Member of Parliament has represented a single constituency. There remains a technical distinction between county constituencies and borough constituencies, but the only effect of this difference is in the amount of money candidates are allowed to spend during campaigns. The boundaries of the constituencies are determined by four permanent and independent Boundary Commissions, one each for England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. The commissions conduct general reviews of electoral boundaries once every 8 to 12 years, and a number of interim reviews. In drawing boundaries, they are required to take into account local government boundaries, but may deviate from this requirement to prevent great disparities in the populations of the various constituencies. The proposals of the Boundary Commissions are subject to parliamentary approval, but may not be amended. After the next general review of constituencies, the Boundary Commissions will be absorbed into the Electoral Commission, which was established in 2000. As of 2017, the United Kingdom is divided into 650 constituencies, with 533 in England, 40 in Wales, 59 in Scotland, and 18 in Northern Ireland.
General elections occur whenever Parliament is dissolved. The timing of the dissolution was normally chosen by the prime minister (see relationship with the Government above); however, as a result of the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011, Parliamentary terms are now fixed at five years, except in the event of the Commons passing a vote of no confidence or an "early election '' motion, the latter having to be passed by two - thirds majority.
All British elections are held on a Thursday. The Electoral Commission is unsure when this practice arose, but dates it to 1931, with the suggestion that it was made to coincide with market day; this would ease voting for those who had to travel to the towns to cast their ballot.
A candidate for a constituency must submit nomination papers signed by ten registered voters from that constituency, and pay a deposit of £ 500, which is refunded only if the candidate wins at least five per cent of the vote. The deposit seeks to discourage frivolous candidates. Each constituency returns one member, using the first - past - the - post electoral system, under which the candidate with a plurality of votes wins. Minors (that is, anyone under the age of 18), members of the House of Lords, prisoners, and insane persons are not qualified to become members of the House of Commons. To vote, one must be a resident of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and a British citizen, or a citizen of a British overseas territory, of the Republic of Ireland, or of a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. British citizens living abroad are allowed to vote for 15 years after moving from the United Kingdom. No person may vote in more than one constituency.
Once elected, Members of Parliament normally continue to serve until the next dissolution of Parliament. But if a member dies or ceases to be qualified (see qualifications below), his or her seat falls vacant. It is also possible for the House of Commons to expel a member, but this power is exercised only in cases of serious misconduct or criminal activity. In each case, the vacancy is filled by a by - election in the constituency, with the same electoral system as in general elections.
The term "Member of Parliament '' is normally used only to refer to members of the House of Commons, even though the House of Lords is also a part of Parliament. Members of the House of Commons may use the post-nominal letters "MP ''. The annual salary of each member is £ 74,962, effective from 1 April 2016. Members may also receive additional salaries for other offices they hold (for instance, the Speakership). Most members also claim for various office expenses (staff costs, postage, travelling, etc.) and, in the case of non-London members, for the costs of maintaining a home in the capital.
There are numerous qualifications that apply to Members of Parliament. Most importantly, one must be aged at least 18 (the minimum age was 21 until s. 17 of the Electoral Administration Act 2006 came into force), and must be a citizen of the United Kingdom, of a British overseas territory, of the Republic of Ireland, or of a member state of the Commonwealth of Nations. These restrictions were introduced by the British Nationality Act 1981, but were previously far more stringent: under the Act of Settlement 1701, only natural - born subjects were qualified. Members of the House of Lords may not serve in the House of Commons, or even vote in parliamentary elections (just as the Queen does not vote); however, they are permitted to sit in the chamber during debates (unlike the Queen, who can not enter the chamber).
A person may not sit in the Commons if he or she is the subject of a Bankruptcy Restrictions Order (applicable in England and Wales only), or if he or she is adjudged bankrupt (in Northern Ireland), or if his or her estate is sequestered (in Scotland). Previously, MPs detained under the Mental Health Act 1983 for six months or more would have their seat vacated if two specialists reported to the Speaker that the member was suffering from a mental disorder. However, this disqualification was removed by the Mental Health (Discrimination) Act 2013. There also exists a common law precedent from the 18th century that the "deaf and dumb '' are ineligible to sit in the Lower House; this precedent, however, has not been tested in recent years. Jack Ashley continued to serve as an MP for 25 years after becoming profoundly deaf.
Anyone found guilty of high treason may not sit in Parliament until he or she has either completed the term of imprisonment or received a full pardon from the Crown. Moreover, anyone serving a prison sentence of one year or more is ineligible. Finally, the Representation of the People Act 1983 disqualifies for ten years those found guilty of certain election - related offences. Several other disqualifications are codified in the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975: holders of high judicial offices, civil servants, members of the regular armed forces, members of foreign legislatures (excluding the Republic of Ireland and Commonwealth countries), and holders of several Crown offices. Ministers, even though they are paid officers of the Crown, are not disqualified.
The rule that precludes certain Crown officers from serving in the House of Commons is used to circumvent a resolution adopted by the House of Commons in 1623, under which members are not permitted to resign their seats. In practice, however, they always can. Should a member wish to resign from the Commons, he or she may request appointment to one of two ceremonial Crown offices: that of Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds, or that of Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead. These offices are sinecures (that is, they involve no actual duties); they exist solely to permit the "resignation '' of members of the House of Commons. The Chancellor of the Exchequer is responsible for making the appointment, and, by convention, never refuses to do so when asked by a member who desires to leave the House of Commons.
At the beginning of each new parliamentary term, the House of Commons elects one of its members as a presiding officer, known as the Speaker. If the incumbent Speaker seeks a new term, then the House may re-elect him or her merely by passing a motion; otherwise, a secret ballot is held. A Speaker - elect can not take office until he or she has been approved by the Sovereign; the granting of the royal approbation, however, is a formality. The Speaker is assisted by three Deputy Speakers, the most senior of whom holds the title of Chairman of Ways and Means. The two other Deputy Speakers are known as the First and Second Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means. These titles derive from the Committee of Ways and Means, a body over which the chairman once used to preside; even though the Committee was abolished in 1967, the traditional titles of the Deputy Speakers are still retained. The Speaker and the Deputy Speakers are always members of the House of Commons.
Whilst presiding, the Speaker or Deputy Speaker wears ceremonial dress. The presiding officer may also wear a wig, but this tradition was abandoned by a former Speaker, Betty Boothroyd. Michael Martin, who succeeded to the office, also did not wear a wig whilst in the chamber. The current speaker, John Bercow, has chosen to wear a gown over a lounge suit, a decision which has sparked much debate and opposition. The Speaker or deputy presides from a chair at the front of the House. This chair was designed by Augustus Pugin, who initially built a prototype of the chair at King Edward 's School, Birmingham: that chair is called Sapientia, and is where the Chief master sits. The Speaker is also chairman of the House of Commons Commission, which oversees the running of the House, and he or she controls debates by calling on members to speak. If a member believes that a rule (or Standing Order) has been breached, he or she may raise a "point of order '', on which the Speaker makes a ruling that is not subject to any appeal. The Speaker may discipline members who fail to observe the rules of the House. Thus, the Speaker is far more powerful than his Lords counterpart, the Lord Speaker, who has no disciplinary powers. Customarily, the Speaker and the deputies are non-partisan; they do not vote (with the notable exception of tied votes, where the Speaker votes in accordance with Denison 's rule), or participate in the affairs of any political party. By convention, a Speaker seeking re-election to parliament is not opposed in his or her constituency by any of the major parties. The lack of partisanship continues even after the Speaker leaves the House of Commons.
The Clerk of the House is both the House 's chief adviser on matters of procedure and chief executive of the House of Commons. He or she is a permanent official, not a member of the House itself. The Clerk advises the Speaker on the rules and procedure of the House, signs orders and official communications, and signs and endorses bills. He or she chairs the Board of Management, which consists of the heads of the six departments of the House. The Clerk 's deputy is known as the Clerk Assistant. Another officer of the House is the Serjeant - at - Arms, whose duties include the maintenance of law, order, and security on the House 's premises. The Serjeant - at - Arms carries the ceremonial mace, a symbol of the authority of the Crown and of the House of Commons, into the House each day in front of the Speaker, and the Mace is laid upon the Table of the House during sittings. The Librarian is head of the House of Commons Library, the House 's research and information arm.
Like the Lords, the Commons meets in the Palace of Westminster in London. The Commons chamber is small and modestly decorated in green, in contrast to the large, lavishly furnished red Lords chamber. There are benches on two sides of the chamber, divided by a centre aisle. This arrangement reflects the design of St Stephen 's Chapel, which served as the home of the House of Commons until destroyed by fire in 1834. The Speaker 's chair is at one end of the Chamber; in front of it, is the Table of the House, on which the Mace rests. The Clerks sit at one end of the Table, close to the Speaker so that they may advise him or her on procedure when necessary. Members of the Government sit on the benches on the Speaker 's right, whilst members of the Opposition occupy the benches on the Speaker 's left. In front of each set of benches a red line is drawn, which members are traditionally not allowed to cross during debates. Government ministers and the leader of the Opposition and the Shadow Cabinet sit on the front rows, and are known as frontbenchers. Other members of parliament, in contrast, are known as backbenchers. Not all Members of Parliament can fit into the Chamber at the same time, as it only has space to seat approximately two thirds of the Members. It 's always said that there are 427 seats in the Chamber, but according to Sir Robert Rogers, former Clerk of the House of Commons and Chief Executive, that figure is an average or a finger in the wind estimate. Members who arrive late must stand near the entrance of the House if they wish to listen to debates. Sittings in the Chamber are held each day from Monday to Thursday, and also on some Fridays. During times of national emergency, the House may also sit at weekends.
Sittings of the House are open to the public, but the House may at any time vote to sit in private, which has occurred only twice since 1950. Traditionally, a Member who desired that the House sit privately could shout "I spy strangers '' and a vote would automatically follow. In the past, when relations between the Commons and the Crown were less than cordial, this procedure was used whenever the House wanted to keep its debate private. More often, however, this device was used to delay and disrupt proceedings; as a result, it was abolished in 1998. Now, Members seeking that the House sit in private must make a formal motion to that effect.
Public debates are recorded and archived in Hansard. The post war redesign of the House in 1950 included microphones, and debates were allowed to be broadcast by radio in 1975. Since 1989, they have also been broadcast on television, which is now handled by BBC Parliament.
Sessions of the House of Commons have sometimes been disrupted by angry protesters throwing objects into the Chamber from the galleries -- items thrown include leaflets, manure, flour by the group Fathers 4 Justice, and a canister of chlorobenzylidene malonitrile (tear gas). Even members have been known to disturb proceedings of the House. For instance, in 1976, Conservative MP Michael Heseltine seized and brandished the Mace of the House during a heated debate. However, perhaps the most famous disruption of the House of Commons was caused by King Charles I, who entered the Commons Chamber in 1642 with an armed force to arrest five members for high treason. This action was deemed a breach of the privilege of the House, and has given rise to the tradition that the monarch does not set foot in the House of Commons.
Each year, the parliamentary session begins with the State Opening of Parliament, a ceremony in the Lords Chamber during which the Sovereign, in the presence of Members of both Houses, delivers an address outlining the Government 's legislative agenda. The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod (a Lords official) is responsible for summoning the Commons to the Lords Chamber. When he arrives to deliver his summons, the doors of the Commons Chamber are traditionally slammed shut in his face, symbolising the right of the Lower House to debate without interference. He then knocks on the door three times with his Black Rod, and only then is granted admittance, where he informs the MPs that the Monarch awaits them, after which they proceed to the House of Lords for the Queen 's Speech.
During debates, Members may speak only if called upon by the Speaker (or a Deputy Speaker, if the Speaker is not presiding). Traditionally, the presiding officer alternates between calling Members from the Government and Opposition. The Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition, and other leaders from both sides are normally given priority. All Privy Counsellors used to be granted priority; however, the modernisation of Commons procedure in 1998 led to the abolition of this tradition.
Speeches are addressed to the presiding officer, using the words "Mr Speaker '', "Madam Speaker '', "Mr Deputy Speaker '', or "Madam Deputy Speaker ''. Only the presiding officer may be directly addressed in debate; other members must be referred to in the third person. Traditionally, members do not refer to each other by name, but by constituency, using forms such as "the Honourable Member for (constituency) '', or, in the case of Privy Counsellors, "the Right Honourable Member for (constituency) ''. Members of the same party (or allied parties or groups) refer to each other as "my (Right) Honourable friend ''. (A member of the Armed Forces used to be called "the Honourable and Gallant Member '', a barrister "the Honourable and Learned Member '', and a woman "the Honourable Lady the Member ''.) This may not always be the case during the actual oral delivery, when it might be difficult for a member to remember another member 's exact constituency, but it is invariably followed in the transcript entered in the Hansard. The Speaker enforces the rules of the House and may warn and punish members who deviate from them. Disregarding the Speaker 's instructions is considered a breach of the rules of the House and may result in the suspension of the offender from the House. In the case of grave disorder, the Speaker may adjourn the House without taking a vote.
The Standing Orders of the House of Commons do not establish any formal time limits for debates. The Speaker may, however, order a member who persists in making a tediously repetitive or irrelevant speech to stop speaking. The time set aside for debate on a particular motion is, however, often limited by informal agreements between the parties. Debate may also be restricted by the passage of "Allocation of Time Motions '', which are more commonly known as "Guillotine Motions ''. Alternatively, the House may put an immediate end to debate by passing a motion to invoke Closure. The Speaker is allowed to deny the motion if he or she believes that it infringes upon the rights of the minority. Today, bills are scheduled according to a Timetable Motion, which the whole House agrees in advance, negating the use of a guillotine.
When the debate concludes, or when the Closure is invoked, the motion in question is put to a vote. The House first votes by voice vote; the Speaker or Deputy Speaker puts the question, and Members respond either "Aye! '' (in favour of the motion) or "No! '' (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote, but if his or her assessment is challenged by any member or the voice vote is unclear, a recorded vote known as a division follows. The presiding officer, if he or she believes that the result of the voice vote is clear, may reject the challenge. When a division occurs, members enter one of two lobbies (the "Aye '' lobby or the "No '' lobby) on either side of the Chamber, where their names are recorded by clerks. A member who wishes to pointedly abstain from a vote may do so by entering both lobbies, casting one vote for and one against. At each lobby are two tellers (themselves members of the House) who count the votes of the members.
Once the division concludes, the tellers provide the results to the presiding officer, who then announces them to the House. If there is an equality of votes, the Speaker or Deputy Speaker has a casting vote. Traditionally, this casting vote is exercised to allow further debate, if this is possible, or otherwise to avoid a decision being taken without a majority (e.g. voting ' No ' to a motion or the third reading of a bill). Ties rarely occur -- the last one was in July 1993. The quorum of the House of Commons is 40 members for any vote, including the Speaker and four tellers. If fewer than 40 members have participated, the division is invalid.
Formerly, if a member sought to raise a point of order during a division, suggesting that some of the rules governing parliamentary procedure are violated, he was required to wear a hat, thereby signalling that he was not engaging in debate. Collapsible top hats were kept in the Chamber just for this purpose. This custom was discontinued in 1998.
The outcome of most votes is largely known beforehand, since political parties normally instruct members on how to vote. A party normally entrusts some members of parliament, known as whips, with the task of ensuring that all party members vote as desired. Members of Parliament do not tend to vote against such instructions, since those who do so jeopardise promotion, or may be deselected as party candidates for future elections. Ministers, junior ministers and parliamentary private secretaries who vote against the whips ' instructions usually resign. Thus, the independence of Members of Parliament tends to be low, although "backbench rebellions '' by members discontent with their party 's policies do occur. A member is also traditionally allowed some leeway if the particular interests of his constituency are adversely affected. In some circumstances, however, parties announce "free votes '', allowing members to vote as they please. Votes relating to issues of conscience such as abortion and capital punishment are typically free votes.
Pairing is an arrangement where a member from one party agrees with a member of another party not to vote in a particular division, allowing both MPs the opportunity not to attend.
A bisque is permission from the Whips given to a member to miss a vote or debate in the House to attend to constituency business or other matters.
The British Parliament uses committees for a variety of purposes, e.g., for the review of bills. Committees consider bills in detail, and may make amendments. Bills of great constitutional importance, as well as some important financial measures, are usually sent to the "Committee of the Whole House '', a body that includes all members of the Commons. Instead of the Speaker, the chairman or a Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means presides. The Committee meets in the House of Commons Chamber.
Most bills were until 2006 considered by Standing Committees, which consisted of between 16 and 50 members. The membership of each Standing Committee roughly reflected the strength of the parties in the House. The membership of Standing Committees changed constantly; new Members were assigned each time the committee considered a new bill. There was no formal limit on the number of Standing Committees, but usually only ten existed. Rarely, a bill was committed to a Special Standing Committee, which investigated and held hearings on the issues raised. In November 2006, Standing Committees were replaced by Public Bill Committees.
The House of Commons also has several Departmental Select Committees. The membership of these bodies, like that of the Standing Committees, reflects the strength of the parties. Each committee elects its own chairman. The primary function of a Departmental Select Committee is to scrutinise and investigate the activities of a particular government department. To fulfil these aims, it is permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence. Bills may be referred to Departmental Select Committees, but such a procedure is seldom used.
A separate type of Select Committee is the Domestic Committee. Domestic Committees oversee the administration of the House and the services provided to Members. Other committees of the House of Commons include Joint Committees (which also include members of the House of Lords), the Committee on Standards and Privileges (which considers questions of parliamentary privilege, as well as matters relating to the conduct of the members), and the Committee of Selection (which determines the membership of other committees).
The symbol used by the Commons consists of a portcullis topped by St Edward 's Crown. The portcullis has been one of the Royal Badges of England since the accession of the Tudors in the 15th century, and was a favourite symbol of King Henry VII. It was originally a pun on the name Tudor, as in tu - door. The original badge was of gold, but nowadays is shown in various colours, predominantly green or black.
In 1986, the British television production company Granada Television created a near - full size replica of the post-1950 House of Commons debating chamber at its studios in Manchester for use in its adaptation of the Jeffrey Archer novel First Among Equals. The set was highly convincing, and was retained after the production -- since then, it has been used in nearly every British film and television production that has featured scenes set in the chamber. From 1988 until 1999 it was also one of the prominent attractions on the Granada Studios Tour, where visitors could watch actors performing mock political debates on the set. The major difference between the studio set and the real House of Commons Chamber is that the studio set has just four rows of seats on either side whereas the real Chamber has five.
In 2002, the set was purchased by the scriptwriter Paul Abbott so that it could be used in his BBC drama serial State of Play. Abbott, a former Granada Television staff writer, bought it personally as the set would otherwise have been destroyed and he feared it would take too long to get the necessary money from the BBC. Abbott kept the set in storage in Oxford.
The post-1941 Commons Chamber was used in the film Ali G Indahouse, the political satire Restart by Komedy Kollective, about a British prime minister seeking re-election, and was mentioned in the Robin Williams stand - up special Robin Williams Live on Broadway in which he describes it as "like Congress, but with a two drink minimum ''. The pre-1941 Chamber was recreated in Shepperton Studios for the Ridley Scott / Richard Loncraine 2002 biographical film on Churchill, The Gathering Storm.
Coordinates: 51 ° 29 ′ 59.6 '' N 0 ° 07 ′ 28.8 '' W / 51.499889 ° N 0.124667 ° W / 51.499889; - 0.124667
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where are most almonds grown in the us | Almond - wikipedia
The almond (Prunus dulcis, syn. Prunus amygdalus) is a species of tree native to the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent and North Africa.
Almond is also the name of the edible and widely cultivated seed of this tree. Within the genus Prunus, it is classified with the peach in the subgenus Amygdalus, distinguished from the other subgenera by corrugations on the shell (endocarp) surrounding the seed.
The fruit of the almond is a drupe, consisting of an outer hull and a hard shell with the seed, which is not a true nut, inside. Shelling almonds refers to removing the shell to reveal the seed. Almonds are sold shelled or unshelled. Blanched almonds are shelled almonds that have been treated with hot water to soften the seedcoat, which is then removed to reveal the white embryo.
The almond is a deciduous tree, growing 4 -- 10 m (13 -- 33 ft) in height, with a trunk of up to 30 cm (12 in) in diameter. The young twigs are green at first, becoming purplish where exposed to sunlight, then grey in their second year. The leaves are 3 -- 5 inches long, with a serrated margin and a 2.5 cm (1 in) petiole. The flowers are white to pale pink, 3 -- 5 cm (1 -- 2 in) diameter with five petals, produced singly or in pairs and appearing before the leaves in early spring. Almond grows best in Mediterranean climates with warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters. The optimal temperature for their growth is between 15 and 30 ° C (59 and 86 ° F) and the tree buds have a chilling requirement of 300 to 600 hours below 7.2 ° C (45.0 ° F) to break dormancy.
Almonds begin bearing an economic crop in the third year after planting. Trees reach full bearing five to six years after planting. The fruit matures in the autumn, 7 -- 8 months after flowering.
The almond fruit measures 3.5 -- 6 cm (1 -- 2 in) long. In botanical terms, it is not a nut but a drupe. The outer covering or exocarp, fleshy in other members of Prunus such as the plum and cherry, is instead a thick, leathery, grey - green coat (with a downy exterior), called the hull. Inside the hull is a reticulated, hard, woody shell (like the outside of a peach pit) called the endocarp. Inside the shell is the edible seed, commonly called a nut. Generally, one seed is present, but occasionally two occur.
Green almonds
Almond in shell and shelled
Blanched almonds
Shelled Almond
Almond confections
The almond is native to the Mediterranean climate region of the Middle East, eastward as far as the Yamuna River in India. It was spread by humans in ancient times along the shores of the Mediterranean into northern Africa and southern Europe, and more recently transported to other parts of the world, notably California, United States.
The wild form of domesticated almond grows in parts of the Levant. The fruit of the wild forms contains the glycoside amygdalin, "which becomes transformed into deadly prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide) after crushing, chewing, or any other injury to the seed. ''
Selection of the sweet type from the many bitter types in the wild marked the beginning of almond domestication. It is unclear as to which wild ancestor of the almond created the domesticated species. Ladizinsky suggests the taxon Amygdalus fenzliana (Fritsch) Lipsky is the most likely wild ancestor of the almond in part because it is native of Armenia and western Azerbaijan where it was apparently domesticated.
While wild almond species are toxic, domesticated almonds are not; Jared Diamond argues that a common genetic mutation causes an absence of amygdalin, and this mutant was grown by early farmers, "at first unintentionally in the garbage heaps, and later intentionally in their orchards ''.
Zohary and Hopf believe that almonds were one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees due to "the ability of the grower to raise attractive almonds from seed. Thus, in spite of the fact that this plant does not lend itself to propagation from suckers or from cuttings, it could have been domesticated even before the introduction of grafting ''.
Domesticated almonds appear in the Early Bronze Age (3000 -- 2000 BC) such as the archaeological sites of Numeria (Jordan), or possibly a little earlier. Another well - known archaeological example of the almond is the fruit found in Tutankhamun 's tomb in Egypt (c. 1325 BC), probably imported from the Levant.
Of the European countries that the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh reported as cultivating almonds, Germany is the northernmost, though the domesticated form can be found as far north as Iceland.
The word "almond '' comes from Old French almande or alemande, Late Latin * amandula, derived through a form amygdala from the Greek ἀμυγδάλη (amygdálē) (cf. amygdala), an almond. The al - in English, for the a - used in other languages may be due a confusion with the Arabic article al, the word having first dropped the a - as in the Italian form mandorla; the British pronunciation ah - mond and the modern Catalan ametlla and modern French amande show a form of the word closer to the original. Other related names of almond include mandel or knackmandel (German), mandorlo (Italian for the tree), mandorla (Italian for the fruit), amêndoa (Portuguese), and almendra (Spanish).
The adjective "amygdaloid '' (literally "like an almond '') is used to describe objects which are roughly almond - shaped, particularly a shape which is part way between a triangle and an ellipse. See, for example, the brain structure amygdala, which uses a direct borrowing of the Greek term amygdalē.
The pollination of California 's almonds is the largest annual managed pollination event in the world, with close to one million hives (nearly half of all beehives in the US) being trucked in February to the almond groves. Much of the pollination is managed by pollination brokers, who contract with migratory beekeepers from at least 49 states for the event. This business has been heavily affected by colony collapse disorder, causing nationwide shortages of honey bees and increasing the price of insect pollination. To partially protect almond growers from the rising cost of insect pollination, researchers at the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) have developed a new line of self - pollinating almond trees. Self - pollinating almond trees, such as the ' Tuono ', have been around for a while, but their harvest is not as desirable as the insect - pollinated California ' Nonpareil ' almond tree. The ' Nonpareil ' tree produces large, smooth almonds and offers 60 -- 65 % edible kernel per nut. The Tuono has thicker, hairier shells and offers only 32 % of edible kernel per nut, but having a thick shell has advantages. The Tuono 's shell protects the nut from threatening pests such as the navel orangeworm. ARS researchers have managed to crossbreed the pest - resistant Tuono tree with the ' Nonpareil, resulting in hybridized cultivars of almond trees that are self - pollinated and maintain a high nut quality. The new, self - pollinating hybrids possess quality skin color, flavor, and oil content, and reduce almond growers ' dependency on insect pollination.
A grove of almond trees in central California
Almond blossoms in Iran
An almond shaker before and during a harvest of a tree
Almond trees can be attacked by an array of damaging organisms, including insects, fungal pathogens, plant viruses, and bacteria.
In 2014, world production of almonds was 2.7 million tonnes, with United States providing 57 % of the total. As the second and third leading producers, Spain and Australia combined contributed 13 % of the world total (table).
In the United States, production is concentrated in California where 1,000,000 acres (400,000 ha) and six different almond varieties were under cultivation in 2017, with a yield of 2.25 billion lbs (1 billion kg) of shelled almonds. The value of total US exports of shelled almonds in 2016 was $3.2 billion.
Spain has diverse commercial cultivars of almonds grown in Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, Andalusia, and Aragón regions, and the Balearic Islands.
Australia is the largest almond production region in the Southern Hemisphere. Most of the almond orchards are located along the Murray River corridor in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia.
The seeds of Prunus dulcis var. dulcis are predominantly sweet but some individual trees produce seeds that are somewhat more bitter. The genetic basis for bitterness involves a single gene, the bitter flavor furthermore being recessive, both aspects making this trait easier to domesticate. The fruits from Prunus dulcis var. amara are always bitter, as are the kernels from other species of genus Prunus, such as peach and cherry (although to a lesser extent).
The bitter almond is slightly broader and shorter than the sweet almond and contains about 50 % of the fixed oil that occurs in sweet almonds. It also contains the enzyme emulsin which, in the presence of water, acts on soluble glucosides, amygdalin, and prunasin, yielding glucose, cyanide and the essential oil of bitter almonds, which is nearly pure benzaldehyde, the chemical causing the bitter flavor. Bitter almonds may yield 4 -- 9 mg of hydrogen cyanide per almond and contain 42 times higher amounts of cyanide than the trace levels found in sweet almonds. The origin of cyanide content in bitter almonds is via the enzymatic hydrolysis of amygdalin.
Extract of bitter almond was once used medicinally but even in small doses, effects are severe or lethal, especially in children; the cyanide must be removed before consumption. The acute oral lethal dose of cyanide for adult humans is reported to be 0.5 -- 3.5 mg / kg of body weight (approximately 50 bitter almonds), whereas for children, consuming 5 -- 10 bitter almonds may be fatal.
All commercially grown almonds sold as food in the United States are sweet cultivars. The US Food and Drug Administration reported in 2010 that some fractions of imported sweet almonds were contaminated with bitter almonds. Eating such almonds could result in vertigo and other typical bitter almond (cyanide) poisoning effects.
While the almond is often eaten on its own, raw or toasted, it is also a component of various dishes. Almonds are available in many forms, such as whole, sliced (flaked, slivered), and as flour. Almonds yield almond oil and can also be made into almond butter or almond milk. These products can be used in both sweet and savoury dishes.
Along with other nuts, almonds can be sprinkled over breakfasts and desserts, particularly muesli or ice cream - based dishes. Almonds are used in marzipan, nougat, many pastries (including jesuites), cookies (including French macarons, macaroons), and cakes (including financiers), noghl, and other sweets and desserts. They are also used to make almond butter, a spread similar to peanut butter, popular with peanut allergy sufferers and for its naturally sweeter taste. The young, developing fruit of the almond tree can be eaten whole (green almonds) when they are still green and fleshy on the outside and the inner shell has not yet hardened. The fruit is somewhat sour, but is a popular snack in parts of the Middle East, eaten dipped in salt to balance the sour taste. Also in the Middle East they are often eaten with dates. They are available only from mid-April to mid-June in the Northern Hemisphere; pickling or brining extends the fruit 's shelf life.
Almond cookies, Chinese almond biscuits, and Italian ricciarelli are made with almonds.
The ' Marcona ' almond cultivar is recognizably different from other almonds, and is marketed by name. The kernel is short, round, relatively sweet, and delicate in texture. It has been grown in Spain for a long time and its origin is unknown; the tree is very productive, and the shell of the nut is very hard. ' Marcona ' almonds are traditionally served after being lightly fried in oil, and are used by Spanish confectioners to prepare a sweet called turrón.
Certain natural food stores sell "bitter almonds '' or "apricot kernels '' labeled as such, requiring significant caution by consumers for how to prepare and eat these products.
Almonds can be processed into a milk substitute called almond milk; the nut 's soft texture, mild flavor, and light coloring (when skinned) make for an efficient analog to dairy, and a soy - free choice for lactose intolerant people and vegans. Raw, blanched, and lightly toasted almonds work well for different production techniques, some of which are similar to that of soymilk and some of which use no heat, resulting in "raw milk '' (see raw foodism).
Almond flour or ground almond meal combined with sugar or honey as marzipan is often used as a gluten - free alternative to wheat flour in cooking and baking.
Almonds contain polyphenols in their skins consisting of flavonols, flavan - 3 - ols, hydroxybenzoic acids and flavanones analogous to those of certain fruits and vegetables. These phenolic compounds and almond skin prebiotic dietary fiber have commercial interest as food additives or dietary supplements.
Historically, almond syrup was an emulsion of sweet and bitter almonds, usually made with barley syrup (orgeat syrup) or in a syrup of orange flower water and sugar, often flavored with a synthetic aroma of almonds.
Due to the cyanide found in bitter almonds, modern syrups generally are produced only from sweet almonds. Such syrup products do not contain significant levels of hydrocyanic acid, so are generally considered safe for human consumption.
The almond is a nutritionally dense food (see chart pictured right) and a 100 gram amount is a rich source (> 20 % of the Daily value, DV) of the B vitamins riboflavin and niacin, vitamin E, and the essential minerals calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, and zinc. The same amount is also a good source (10 -- 19 % DV) of the B vitamins thiamine, vitamin B, and folate; choline; and the essential mineral potassium. They are also rich in dietary fiber, monounsaturated fats, and polyunsaturated fats, fats which potentially may lower LDL cholesterol. Typical of nuts and seeds, almonds also contain phytosterols such as beta - sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, sitostanol, and campestanol, which have been associated with cholesterol - lowering properties.
Preliminary research associates consumption of almonds with elevated blood levels of high density lipoproteins and lower low density lipoproteins.
Almonds may cause allergy or intolerance. Cross-reactivity is common with peach allergens (lipid transfer proteins) and tree nut allergens. Symptoms range from local signs and symptoms (e.g., oral allergy syndrome, contact urticaria) to systemic signs and symptoms including anaphylaxis (e.g., urticaria, angioedema, gastrointestinal and respiratory symptoms).
During the digestion process in humans, almond flour may be fermented into short - chain fatty acids, most notably butyrate which is a substrate for cells lining the large intestine.
Almonds are a rich source of oil, with 50 % of kernel dry mass as fat (table). Almond oil contains 32 % monounsaturated oleic acid (an omega - 9 fatty acid), 13 % linoleic acid (a polyunsaturated omega - 6 essential fatty acid), and 5 % saturated fatty acid (USDA link in table). Linolenic acid, a polyunsaturated omega - 3 fat, is not present (table). Almond oil is a rich source of vitamin E providing 261 % of the Daily Value per 100 ml (table).
Oleum amygdalae, the fixed oil, is prepared from either sweet or bitter almonds, and is a glyceryl oleate with a slight odour and a nutty taste. It is almost insoluble in alcohol but readily soluble in chloroform or ether. Sweet almond oil is obtained from the dried kernel of sweet almonds.
The oil is good for application to the skin as an emollient, and has been traditionally used by massage therapists to lubricate the skin during massage sessions.
Almond oil can also be used as a wood conditioner for certain woodwind instruments such as: the oboe, the clarinet, and the saxophone.
Almonds are susceptible to aflatoxin - producing molds. Aflatoxins are potent carcinogenic chemicals produced by molds such as Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. The mold contamination may occur from soil, previously infested almonds, and almond pests such as navel - orange worm. High levels of mold growth typically appear as gray to black filament like growth. It is unsafe to eat mold infected tree nuts.
Some countries have strict limits on allowable levels of aflatoxin contamination of almonds and require adequate testing before the nuts can be marketed to their citizens. The European Union, for example, introduced a requirement since 2007 that all almond shipments to EU be tested for aflatoxin. If aflatoxin does not meet the strict safety regulations, the entire consignment may be reprocessed to eliminate the aflatoxin or it must be destroyed.
The USDA approved a proposal by the Almond Board of California to pasteurize almonds sold to the public, after tracing cases of salmonellosis to almonds. The almond pasteurization program became mandatory for California companies in 2007. Raw, untreated California almonds have not been available in the U.S. since then.
California almonds labeled "raw '' must be steam - pasteurized or chemically treated with propylene oxide (PPO). This does not apply to imported almonds or almonds sold from the grower directly to the consumer in small quantities. The treatment also is not required for raw almonds sold for export outside of North America.
The Almond Board of California states: "PPO residue dissipates after treatment. '' The U.S. EPA has reported: "Propylene oxide has been detected in fumigated food products; consumption of contaminated food is another possible route of exposure. '' PPO is classified by the EPA as a "Group B2, probable human carcinogen. ''
The USDA - approved marketing order was challenged in court by organic farmers organized by the Cornucopia Institute, a Wisconsin - based farm policy research group. According to the Cornucopia Institute, this almond marketing order has imposed significant financial burdens on small - scale and organic growers and damaged domestic almond markets. A federal judge dismissed the lawsuit in the spring of 2009 on procedural grounds. In August 2010, a federal appeals court ruled that the farmers have a right to appeal the USDA regulation. In March 2013, the court vacated the suit on the basis that the objections should have been raised in 2007 when the regulation was first proposed.
The almond is highly revered in some cultures. The tree originated in the Middle East, and is mentioned numerous times in the Bible.
In the Hebrew Bible, the almond was a symbol of watchfulness and promise due to its early flowering. In the Bible the almond is mentioned ten times, beginning with Book of Genesis 43: 11, where it is described as "among the best of fruits ''. In Numbers 17 Levi is chosen from the other tribes of Israel by Aaron 's rod, which brought forth almond flowers. According to tradition, the rod of Aaron bore sweet almonds on one side and bitter on the other; if the Israelites followed the Lord, the sweet almonds would be ripe and edible, but if they were to forsake the path of the Lord, the bitter almonds would predominate. The almond blossom supplied a model for the menorah which stood in the Holy Temple, "Three cups, shaped like almond blossoms, were on one branch, with a knob and a flower; and three cups, shaped like almond blossoms, were on the other... on the candlestick itself were four cups, shaped like almond blossoms, with its knobs and flowers '' (Exodus 25: 33 -- 34; 37: 19 -- 20).
Similarly, Christian symbolism often uses almond branches as a symbol of the Virgin Birth of Jesus; paintings and icons often include almond - shaped haloes encircling the Christ Child and as a symbol of Mary. The word "Luz '', which appears in Genesis 30: 37, sometimes translated as "hazel '', may actually be derived from the Aramaic name for almond (Luz), and is translated as such in some Bible versions such as the NIV. The Arabic name for almond is لوز "lauz '' or "lūz ''. In some parts of the Levant and North Africa it is pronounced "loz '', which is very close to its Aramaic origin.
La entrada de la flor is an event celebrated on 1 February in Torrent, Spain, in which the clavarios and members of the Confrerie of the Mother of God deliver a branch of the first - blooming almond - tree to the Virgin.
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simpsons episode bart falls in love with babysitter | New Kid on the Block - wikipedia
Sara Gilbert as Laura Powers Pamela Reed as Ruth Powers Phil Hartman as Lionel Hutz
"New Kid on the Block '' is the eighth episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 12, 1992. After meeting his new neighbor, Laura, Bart develops a crush on her, only to later discover that she has a boyfriend, Jimbo Jones, whom he attempts to scare off so that he can have a relationship with Laura. Meanwhile, Homer sues the Sea Captain Horatio McCallister after being kicked out of his all - you - can - eat restaurant while still hungry. It was written by Conan O'Brien and directed by Wes Archer.
The Simpsons ' neighbors, the Winfields, decide to relocate because of Homer 's regular inappropriate behavior. Bart and Lisa explore the Winfields ' house while it is empty and up for sale, but Bart scares Lisa away from the basement with stories. Bart turns around to see his new neighbor, Laura Powers. Surprised, he falls down in shock and is helped back up by her and the pair become acquainted. Bart instantly develops a crush on her.
After Marge visits Ruth Powers to welcome her to the area, she tells Marge that she is divorced, and the two become friends. Meanwhile, after seeing a television advertisement about The Frying Dutchman 's all - you - can - eat offer, Homer insists that Marge come dine with him, so he arranges for Laura to babysit Bart and Lisa. Homer quickly earns himself the ire of the Sea Captain, devouring nearly every morsel of food in the buffet, and is eventually forced to leave despite not being sated. Much to Marge 's embarrassment, Homer sues the restaurant for deceptive advertisement. Lionel Hutz is employed by him to represent him in court and the case is successful after Hutz convinces the mostly overweight jury that a similar buffet mishap could befall them. To avoid further legal trouble, the Sea Captain and Homer eventually agree that Homer shall be displayed in the restaurant as "Bottomless Pete: Nature 's Cruelest Mistake '' to draw in more customers to the restaurant and offset the cost of his eating.
Meanwhile, Bart is delighted at having Laura babysitting him and attempts to impress her. She later asks him to come to his treehouse, as she has important news. She tells him she is dating Jimbo Jones, which upsets Bart. When Laura invites him over to the household, Bart, in an attempt to break the pair up, prank - calls Moe 's Tavern, giving his name as "Jimbo Jones '', and telling Moe where he lives. Mistakenly believing Jimbo was the one who had been pranking Moe throughout the entire series, he races into the Simpson house with a kitchen knife looking for Jimbo, causing Jimbo to cry and plead for his life. Afterwards, Laura breaks up with him for not being the tough "outlaw '' she thought he was. Laura tells Bart that she would date him if he were old enough to grow a mustache and the episode ends with the pair laughing after prank - calling Moe again.
The episode was written by Conan O'Brien and directed by Wes Archer. The episode 's original subplot was intended to include American actor and comedian Don Rickles as a guest star presenting a comedy show and Homer laughing excessively at his jokes, until Rickles ridicules him. The pair were intended to start fighting and end up having to go to court. Despite O'Brien and other production staff being sure that Rickles would appear in the episode, he was reportedly upset by the concept of the storyline, as he did not wish to be portrayed as a "mean guy ''.
When attending a Fox Broadcasting Company publicity event in New York City with Rupert Murdoch, show producer Matt Groening was introduced by Murdoch to Rickles. Rickles began shouting at Groening, accusing him of spying on his Las Vegas act and using material from that for the episode. The cast actually had been receiving recordings from Rickles from the 1950s to use as ideas on how to get the style for his animatic portrayal. Another side story the writers produced was for Homer to become an outstanding barber and hair dresser, but this was never used.
"New Kid on the Block '' features first time appearances from Laura Powers, Ruth Powers, and The Sea Captain. Hank Azaria based the Sea Captain 's voice on that of actor Robert Newton.
The courtroom scene in which numerous sacks of letters to Santa Claus are delivered to court is a parody of the 1947 film Miracle on 34th Street. Hunks, the game show Homer is watching at the beginning of the episode, is a parody of Studs.
In its original broadcast, "New Kid on the Block '' finished 23rd in ratings for the week of November 9 -- 16, 1992, with a Nielsen rating of 14.4, equivalent to approximately 13.4 million viewing households. It was the highest - rated show on the Fox network that week, beating Beverly Hills, 90210. Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, the authors of the book I Ca n't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide commented that it was "a fun episode, introducing the Powers family (and featuring) the last appearance of the Winfields ''. In a 2008 article, Entertainment Weekly named Sara Gilbert 's role as Laura Powers as one of the sixteen best guest appearances on The Simpsons.
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who has the greatest comeback in nfl history | The comeback (American Football) - wikipedia
The Comeback was an NFL playoff game between two former American Football Conference (AFC) East division rivals: the Buffalo Bills and the Houston Oilers. The game was played at Rich Stadium in Orchard Park, New York on January 3, 1993. It featured the Bills recovering from a 32 - point deficit to win in overtime, 41 -- 38, and as of February 2018 it remains the largest comeback in NFL history.
It was played in what was then known as Rich Stadium (now called New Era Field), and was televised by NBC, with Charlie Jones and Todd Christensen calling the action. Unusual for a playoff game, the stadium was not sold out of tickets; therefore NFL blackout rules prohibited its live broadcast in Western New York.
Both teams qualified for the playoffs as wild card teams.
The Buffalo Bills, the American Football Conference (AFC) champions for the previous two seasons, recorded an 11 -- 5 record during the 1992 regular season and finished in second place in the AFC Eastern Division. Buffalo 's no - huddle offense led the league in rushing yards (2,436) and ranked second in the league in total offensive yards (6,114 yards).
Meanwhile, the Houston Oilers finished in second place in the AFC Central Division with a 10 -- 6 record. Houston 's run and shoot offense led the league in passing (4,231 yards) and its defense ranked third in the league, allowing only 4,532 total yards. Overall, the team boasted nine pro bowl selections, including their quarterback Warren Moon (despite missing six games with injuries) and three wide receivers, Curtis Duncan, Haywood Jeffires, and Ernest Givins. The Oilers also had a powerful running attack with Lorenzo White, who rushed for 1,226 yards and caught 57 passes.
The Bills and Oilers had faced each other for the final game of the regular season, with Houston defeating Buffalo, 27 -- 3 in Houston. During that game, Bills starting quarterback Jim Kelly suffered strained ligaments in his knee, leaving backup quarterback Frank Reich to finish the game in his place. With Kelly out, Reich would take the reins starting in place of Kelly the following week in the wild card game, which Buffalo hosted. Reich would also start the following divisional playoff game in Pittsburgh in which Buffalo also won 24 -- 3 to advance to the AFC Championship game the following week versus the Miami Dolphins.
As the backup quarterback for the Maryland Terrapins, Reich replaced starter Stan Gelbaugh on November 10, 1984, and led the Terrapins back from a first - half deficit of 31 -- 0 to a 42 -- 40 victory over the previously unbeaten Miami Hurricanes under Bernie Kosar. This college record stood until being broken by the 2006 Michigan State vs. Northwestern game.
at Rich Stadium, Buffalo, New York
Houston dominated the game early, as quarterback Warren Moon completed 19 of 22 passes for 218 yards and 4 touchdowns in the first half, while the Oilers held the ball for 21: 12, keeping the Bills ' high - powered offense off the field for most of the first two quarters. On the opening drive of the first quarter, Moon completed 6 of 7 passes on an 80 - yard scoring drive that took over 9 minutes off the clock and ended it with his first touchdown throw to wide receiver Haywood Jeffires for 3 yards to give the Oilers a 7 -- 0 lead. Buffalo responded on their ensuing drive, as Kenneth Davis returned the kickoff 33 yards to the 44 - yard line. Reich subsequently led the Bills to the Oilers 18 - yard line where Steve Christie made a 36 - yard field goal, to cut the score to 7 -- 3. But Moon struck right back, leading the Oilers on a second quarter scoring drive that was nearly identical to their first one, completing 6 of 7 passes on another 80 - yard drive and finishing it with a 7 - yard touchdown pass to Webster Slaughter. Then after forcing the Bills to a three - and - out, Moon threw a 26 - yard touchdown pass to Curtis Duncan. Later on, with 1: 15 left in the half, the Oilers drove for another touchdown, aided by an encroachment call against the Bills on fourth down and 1. Moon completed the drive with his second touchdown pass to Jeffires, this one a 27 - yarder, and the Oilers went into their locker room with a 28 -- 3 halftime lead.
In the Bills ' locker room, Defensive Coordinator Walt Corey angrily chided the defense. "I was hollering the same things the fans were hollering at me when we left the field '', Corey says. "I ca n't repeat the words, but the more I talked, the louder I got. The thing that bothered me was their approach. To me, they looked timid. They looked like they were going to get in the right spots, but they were n't going to make anything happen afterward. This is an attitude game. Sometimes you start playing and you 're afraid to make things happen or afraid to make a mistake. '' Nose Tackle Jeff Wright recalled "With every word that came out of Walt 's mouth, he reached a new temperature level, until he finally just exploded. He had every right to say the things that he said. We were embarrassing him, we were embarrassing ourselves, we were embarrassing Buffalo Bills fans. ''
Meanwhile, head coach Marv Levy told his team, "You 've got thirty more minutes. Maybe it 's the last thirty minutes of your season. When your season 's over, you 're going to have to live with yourselves and look yourselves in the eyes. You 'd well better have reason to feel good about yourselves, regardless of how this game turns out. ''
Apparently, the words of Corey and Levy did n't have any immediate effect, because 1: 41 into the third quarter, Reich threw a pass that bounced off the hands of tight end Keith McKeller and went into the arms of defensive back Bubba McDowell, who returned the interception 58 yards for a touchdown. Houston now had a commanding 32 - point lead, 35 -- 3; it was only the second time all season the Oilers had broken 30 points scored in a game. The Bills ' misfortunes were compounded with the loss of Thurman Thomas, who had to leave the game due to a hip injury on the drive, forcing Buffalo to attempt a comeback with a second - string backfield of Reich and Davis.
A Houston radio announcer was immortalized on NFL Films with the statement "The lights are on here at Rich Stadium, they 've been on since this morning, you could pretty much turn them out on the Bills right now. ''
The Bills got a huge assist to start their comeback on the ensuing kickoff. The wind shifted the ball just before it was kicked by Al Del Greco. As a result, it became an unintentional squib kick that the Bills recovered with great field position at midfield. Buffalo then drove 50 yards in 10 plays, including a pass to Pete Metzelaars that went right through the hands of linebacker Eddie Robinson, and scored with a 1 - yard touchdown run by Davis, cutting the deficit to 35 -- 10 when the extra point was added. On the drive, Reich completed a 24 - yard pass to tight end Metzelaars and a 16 - yard strike to Andre Reed, while Davis kept the drive going with a 5 - yard run on fourth down and 2 before finishing it off with a touchdown run with 8: 52 left in the 3rd quarter.
Christie then recovered his own onside kick and the Bills scored on the fourth play of their ensuing drive with Reich 's 38 - yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Don Beebe. One of Beebe 's feet went partially out of bounds during the run before he made the catch, and it should have been ruled by the officials as an illegal touching of the football; this was pointed out on ESPN 's "NFL Primetime '' postgame recap as well as by Todd Christensen on the NBC broadcast, but no penalty was called on the play. Then, the extra point made the score 35 -- 17 with 7: 46 left in the third quarter.
Houston was then forced to punt for the first time in the game on their next drive, and Greg Montgomery 's 25 - yard kick gave Buffalo the ball at their own 41 - yard line. Reich started out the ensuing drive with an 18 - yard completion to James Lofton. Davis gained 20 yards on a screen pass and then Reich threw a 26 - yard touchdown pass to Reed, trimming the lead (after making the extra point) to 35 -- 24. In a span of 10 minutes in the third quarter, the Bills had run 18 plays, gained 176 yards, and scored 21 points, while holding the Oilers ' offense to 3 plays for 3 yards.
The situation did not get any better for Houston. On the first play of the Oilers ' ensuing possession, Moon 's pass was tipped off the hands of Slaughter; Bills ' safety Henry Jones intercepted the pass from Moon and returned it 15 yards to the Houston 23 - yard line. Three plays later, Buffalo faced fourth down and five on the 18 - yard line. Rather than attempt a field goal, Reich connected with Reed for the touchdown. With the score (including the extra point), the Bills had cut their deficit from 32 points to four in a span of just 6: 52. On the Oilers ' next drive, linebacker Darryl Talley forced a fumble from Moon while sacking him. Houston recovered the fumble, but they were forced to punt, and Montgomery 's 24 - yard kick gave Buffalo the ball at its 48 - yard line. In the third quarter, Buffalo had outscored Houston 28 -- 7 while holding Moon to 2 of 7 completions for 19 yards.
This time, the Bills could not take advantage of their excellent starting field position and had to punt. Moon 's run and shoot offense began to move the ball effectively again, aided by a roughing the passer penalty on Bruce Smith that negated linebacker Carlton Bailey 's interception. Despite two sacks by Wright on the drive, Houston reached the Buffalo 14 - yard line. Al Del Greco attempted a field goal to increase the Oilers ' lead, but Montgomery fumbled the snap. Talley recovered the ball and returned it 70 yards, but officials ruled him down by contact when he made the initial recovery, giving Buffalo the ball on their own 26 - yard line. After two plays, the Bills faced third down and four. With Houston 's defense dropping back and expecting a pass, Reich handed the ball off to Davis, who stormed through the line and took off for a 35 - yard gain. Only a diving tackle from defensive back Steve Jackson prevented Davis from taking it all the way for a touchdown. Then Reich went back to passing the ball, completing a short pass to Reed at the Oilers ' 17 - yard line on third down and two for the first down. With just 3: 08 left in the fourth quarter, Reich threw a 17 - yard touchdown pass to Reed, giving Buffalo its first lead of the game 38 -- 35 (after the extra point); for the first time all season, the Houston defense (ninth in fewest points allowed that season) had allowed over 29 points. But Moon led Houston downfield on a 63 - yard drive to score the tying 26 - yard field goal from Del Greco to send the game into overtime. A key play on the drive was an 18 - yard completion to Slaughter on fourth down and four from the Bills ' 34 - yard line.
Houston won the coin toss and got the ball at its 20 - yard line. Moon started out the drive with two completions for 7 yards, but his 50th pass attempt of the day turned out to be his last. On third down and three, Moon threw a pass intended for Ernest Givins five yards downfield, overthrew it right into the arms of defensive back Nate Odomes for an interception. After a 2 - yard return, Jeffires committed a 15 - yard facemask penalty while making the tackle, giving the Bills a first down on Houston 's 20 - yard line. After two runs by Davis, Christie kicked a 32 - yard field goal to give Buffalo the win, 41 -- 38. Buffalo won the following two AFC playoff games to advance to the 3rd of their four consecutive Super Bowl appearances.
Reich finished the game with 21 of 34 pass completions for 289 yards and 4 touchdowns, with 1 interception. Reed had 8 catches for 136 yards and 3 touchdowns. Davis rushed for 68 yards and a touchdown, while also catching 2 passes for 25 yards and returning a kickoff for 33. Moon recorded 36 of 50 completions for 371 yards and 4 touchdowns, with 2 interceptions. His 36 completions set a playoff record that would stand until broken by Drew Brees 's 39 completions in 2010 (Brees 's New Orleans Saints also lost that game). Givins caught 9 passes for 117 yards. Jeffires recorded 8 catches for 98 yards and 2 touchdowns.
Many left the stadium while the Oilers had the large lead; Reich saw "a big wave of people leaving '', which Buffalo News reporter Vic Carucci described as "they 're pouring out of the gates, getting in their cars, driving home ''. They returned when they heard on the radio of the Bills ' comeback; tickets did not permit reentry, so people climbed fences until the stadium reopened the gates. Team general manager Bill Polian recalled how the same fans who had left in disgust after denouncing to him the Bills ' inability to beat the Oilers, ran back to their seats praising the team. Kelly said, "the old saying was, ' Did you know that 150,000 people went to the Buffalo Bills football game? ' '', Levy said "70,000 people were at that game. I 've already met 400,000 of them '', and Steve Tasker joked "I 've met 1.2 million people who say they were in the stadium ''.
Carucci stated of the game:
It reset the love affair with that team. People had become jaded, people had become upset with the idea that they just did n't see the success at the end of the rainbow. And now they had this, and this reminded them of how special this football team really is.
The Bills won their next two matchups, 24 -- 3 against the Pittsburgh Steelers and 29 -- 10 against the Miami Dolphins, advancing to Super Bowl XXVII, where they were beaten by the Dallas Cowboys 52 -- 17.
The next day, the Oilers fired defensive coordinator Jim Eddy and defensive backs coach Pat Thomas. Eddy was replaced by Buddy Ryan. In Houston, the game has come to be known as "The Choke ''. "Choke City '' was a Houston Chronicle front - page headline in 1994, given to the city of Houston after the Houston Rockets blew two consecutive commanding fourth - quarter leads at The Summit in the first two games of their Western Conference semifinals match - up versus the Phoenix Suns in the 1994 NBA Playoffs. The Rockets went to Phoenix down 0 -- 2 in the best - of - seven series. It was feared at the time that the Rockets would follow the same fate as the Oilers did. During this era, no Houston - based professional sports team from an existing sports league (the NFL, NBA, or Major League Baseball) had won a championship. The Rockets, however, would rally to win the series and go on to win NBA championships in 1994 and 1995.
In commemoration of the game, Steve Christie 's kicking shoe from the game has been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio. The game was named # 1 on NFL Top Ten 's Top Ten Comebacks.
On September 25, 2011, the Bills rebounded from a 21 -- 0 deficit to defeat the New England Patriots 34 -- 31. When Rian Lindell kicked the game - winning field goal as time expired, radio play - by - play announcer John Murphy enthusiastically dubbed their victory "The greatest comeback since The Comeback! '' The comeback win has been threatened multiple times since the time it happened. A notable example would be Super Bowl LI, where the Patriots overcame a 28 - 3 deficit in the 3rd quarter against the Atlanta Falcons, with the deficit only being one touchdown less.
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tony tough and the night of roasted moths | Tony Tough and the Night of Roasted Moths - wikipedia
Tony Tough and the Night of Roasted Moths is a PC adventure game owned and developed by Nayma Software.
The game 's first official release was in December 1997 in Torino during the multimedia event Saloon. bit at Nayma Expo - Stand and then on March 24, 1998 in Firenze during the MediARTech International Exhibition, where the game got attention from main Italian computer magazines and distributors.
In 2011, Tony Tough entered the ScummVM project.
On October 24, 2012, the game was launched again under license from DotEmu, a retro - gaming company based in Paris, France.
Players control the titular Tony Tough, a private detective described as "a gnome - sized, nasal - voiced hypochondriac momma 's boy '', guiding him through the game by positioning the cursor over objects and instructing Tony to interact with them. The game shares many traits with titles such as Day of the Tentacle, which it has been compared with by reviewers. These include a focus on conversations with strange characters, puzzle solving, and combining and using items found throughout the game. The graphics and animation are cartoon - like. Two modes of play are present; beginner mode has less puzzles and does not feature the two in - game mini-games.
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who turns into a vampire in true blood | Tara Thornton - wikipedia
Tara Mae Thornton is a fictional character in Charlaine Harris 's The Southern Vampire Mysteries and their television adaptation, HBO 's True Blood.
Tara Mae Thornton is a twenty - something Louisiana native and lifelong friend of the main protagonist, Sookie Stackhouse. Compiling a description of her character is a complex task because quite a few facts about her changed when her character was brought from page to screen.
The fact that Tara had a neglected childhood is one fact that remains the same, but in the books, we read that both of her parents were abusive alcoholics; on True Blood, the only parent we see and hear about is her mother. The television show also expands Tara 's family to include the spared Lafayette Reynolds and his mother, Ruby Jean Reynolds.
Tara has two siblings, a brother and a sister. They both left Bon Temps and Tara behind as soon as they were able. In Living Dead in Dallas, Tara is engaged to "Eggs '' Benedict Talley, but this relationship ends when a secret sex party they attend ends badly. She then opens up a clothing store called Tara 's Togs, and then briefly dates the vampire Franklin Mott. He soon dumps her and gives her to the vampire Mickey who turns out to be a sadist. The situation with Mickey gets so bad, Sookie and the vampire Eric Northman must take steps to rescue her.
After owning and operating her own business for a few years, Tara becomes ready to settle down. During the events of All Together Dead, she and JB du Rone elope. Tara is currently pregnant with JB 's twins. She confides this to Sookie, telling her that she did not plan on having a baby, but felt she should try her best and be the great mother that she herself never had. It is Claude who reveals that Tara is having twins, a boy and a girl. She later gives birth to a daughter named Sara Sookie and a son named Robert Thornton with help from Sookie. She and JB go through some financial problems after the birth of the twins and JB decides to work as a stripper at Hooligans, a bar owned by Sookie 's fairy cousin Claude, to great annoyance of Tara. After Dead Ever After Tara and JB divorce. Tara became very successful in her business and even opened up a series of clothing stores.
In the HBO series True Blood, Tara is portrayed by actress Rutina Wesley. Actress Brook Kerr was originally cast in the role, but she was replaced after the pilot episode., she first appeared in the BloodCopy.com video "Maxine & Tara Thornton interview ''.
In the beginning of the television show, Tara lives with her mother Lettie Mae, who is described as an alcoholic turned fundamentalist who brings nothing but misery to Tara 's life. As a child Tara would run to Sookie 's house to get away from her mother 's beatings. It is because of this and the fact that Tara 's acceptance of Sookie as a telepath that the two became best friends. Despite enduring years of abuse, neglect, and disappointment from her mother, Tara still cares deeply about Lettie Mae 's well - being, however, Tara is a very angry and wounded individual.
Tara leaves her mother 's house and moves into Lafayette 's home. The discovery of a hidden web cam in his bathroom results in her moving out and into her own apartment. After her mother undergoes an exorcism, Tara briefly moves back in with her, but then Tara is arrested for DUI, so Lettie Mae kicks Tara back out. Tara is later bailed out by the mysterious "social worker '' Maryann Forrester and she takes up residence at Maryann 's luxurious estate.
Tara and Sam Merlotte, who is Tara 's boss, explore the possibilities of a romantic relationship, but it never establishes. Before they can give it another try, Tara meets "Eggs '' Benedict Talley, who also lives with Maryann. Sensing that something is not quite right with the mysterious lady, Tara resists the temptation to live with them permanently and moves in with Sookie. However, Sookie goes to Dallas and leaves Tara alone. A vulnerable Tara succumbs to the draw of Maryann and Eggs, but instead of moving in with them, Tara invites the pair to move into Sookie 's. Tara and Eggs use this opportunity to get to know each other, and Tara even falls in love with him despite his questionable past. The relationship ends when Eggs is killed by Jason Stackhouse.
Tara then crosses paths with the sociopathic vampire Franklin Mott. Franklin glamours and bites her, kidnaps her and holds her bound in a bathroom and takes her to the Mississippi mansion of Russell Edgington. Franklin mixes romantic talk and the prospect of turning her into a vampire with coercive actions, while Tara attempts to soothe him with compliant words, while plotting her own escape. She escapes him on her second attempt, and makes it back to Bon Temps, where she seeks help in a rape survivors ' group. Franklin confronts her once more in the parking lot of Merlotte 's Bar and Grill a few nights later and attempts to kidnap her again. Tara is saved when Jason Stackhouse arrives and kills Franklin.
Jason, the object of Tara 's affection since she was a little girl, takes her back to his house to recover. They kiss, but then Jason confesses to being the one who shot Eggs. Tara leaves his place and goes back to Merlotte 's where she finds a very angry - at - the - world Sam. The two end up spending another night together, and in the morning Tara feels a little less frayed around the edges. The feeling does not last, however, as Sam decides to reveal his shape - shifting secret to her. She leaves his house and goes back to her mother 's house where she finds Lettie Mae in an intimate situation with the Reverend Daniels. It is all too much for Tara, and she leaves Bon Temps for New Orleans, where she changes her first name to "Toni '' and finds work as a MMA - style cage fighter. Tara has also started a lesbian relationship with another female fighter, Naomi. But Tara eventually returns to Bon Temps and, through her association with the medium Marnie Stonebrook, becomes entangled in the vampires ' battle against necromancy. Shortly afterward she is seen pushing Sookie out of the way of a shotgun blast from the gun of Debbie Pelt, but the buckshot hits her in the side and back of the head and neck.
After being shot and left for dead, Tara is turned into a vampire by Pamela Swynford De Beaufort at the request of Lafayette and Sookie. She subsequently attacks Lafayette and Sookie upon awaking, holding resentment that the only people she loved would turn her into her worst nightmare. Pam gives her work at Fangtasia first as a bartender, and later as a dancer. As the fifth season progresses Tara becomes more comfortable with her new life, befriends fellow baby vampire Jessica Hamby, and begins to develop romantic feelings for Pam. During Eric Northman and Bill Compton 's involvement with the Vampire Authority, Tara assists in the murder of vampire sheriff Elijah Stormer. Pam is arrested by the Authority and held captive, being freed when Tara joins Eric, Jason, Sookie, and Nora Gainesborough in the infiltration of the Authority 's headquarters. Upon reuniting, Tara and Pam share a passionate kiss.
Tara and Pam are then captured and held in the vampire prison camps, created by Louisiana governor Truman Burrell as part of the state 's efforts to control the vampire population. She becomes friends with Willa Burrell, the governor 's daughter who was turned by Eric. The group later escapes when Bill breaks into the camp and feeds the vampires his faerie - infused blood, which allows them to (albeit briefly) walk in sunlight.
Tara is killed by another vampire in Episode 1 of Season 7.
Throughout season 7 Tara appears to her mother who is under the influence of vampire blood trying to tell her something about their past. In episode 8 it is discovered Tara had an abusive father who left after a fight with Lettie Mae. During the fight a young Tara pulls out her father 's gun and almost shoots him but decides to bury it in the yard resulting in his departure. In the end Tara and Lettie Mae make peace one last time. Tara ask her mother to forgive herself and then "let her go ''. They share a tearful hug and Tara moves on to the after life but not before looking back at mother one last time.
The character Tara Thornton appears in the following:
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how old do you have to be to work for american airlines | American Airlines - wikipedia
American Airlines, Inc. (AA) is an American airline headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas, within the Dallas - Fort Worth metroplex. It is the world 's largest airline when measured by fleet size, revenue, scheduled passenger - kilometers flown, and number of destinations served. American together with its regional partners operates an extensive international and domestic network with an average of nearly 6,700 flights per day to nearly 350 destinations in more than 50 countries.
American Airlines is a founding member of Oneworld alliance, the third largest airline alliance in the world and coordinates fares, services, and scheduling with alliance partners British Airways, Iberia, and Finnair in the transatlantic market and with Cathay Pacific and Japan Airlines in the transpacific market. Regional service is operated by independent and subsidiary carriers under the brand name of American Eagle.
American operates out of ten hubs located in Dallas / Fort Worth, Charlotte, Chicago - O'Hare, Philadelphia, Miami, Phoenix, Washington, DC - National, Los Angeles, New York - JFK, and New York - LaGuardia. American operates its primary maintenance base at Tulsa International Airport in addition to the maintenance locations located at its hubs. Dallas / Fort Worth International Airport is American 's largest passenger carrying hub handling 51.1 million passengers annually with an average of 140,000 passengers daily. The company as of 2015 employs over 113,300 people. Through the airline 's parent company, American Airlines Group, it is publicly traded under NASDAQ: AAL with a market capitalization of about $25 billion as of 2017.
American Airlines was started in 1930 via a union of more than eighty small airlines.
The two organizations from which American Airlines was originated were Robertson Aircraft Corporation and Colonial Air Transport. The former was first formed in Missouri in 1921, with both being merged in 1929 into holding company The Aviation Corporation. This in turn, was made in 1930 into an operating company and rebranded as American Airways. In 1934, when new laws and attrition of mail contracts forced many airlines to reorganize, the corporation redid its routes into a connected system, and was renamed American Airlines. Between 1970 and 2000, the company grew into being an international carrier, purchasing Trans World Airlines in 2001.
In 2011, due to a downturn in the airline industry, American Airlines ' parent company AMR Corporation filed for bankruptcy protection. In 2013, US Airways and American Airlines merged. Eventually operations were merged under one operating certificate to create the largest United States airline which kept the American Airlines brand name.
American Airlines is headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas, adjacent to the Dallas / Fort Worth International Airport. The headquarters is located in two office buildings in the CentrePort office complex and these buildings together have about 1,400,000 square feet (130,000 m) of space. As of 2014 over 4,300 employees work at this complex.
Before it was headquartered in Texas, American Airlines was headquartered at 633 Third Avenue in the Murray Hill area of Midtown Manhattan, New York City. In 1979 American moved its headquarters to a site at Dallas / Fort Worth International Airport, which affected up to 1,300 jobs. Mayor of New York City Ed Koch described the move as a "betrayal '' of New York City. American moved to two leased office buildings in Grand Prairie, Texas. On January 17, 1983, the airline finished moving into a $150 million ($361,000,000 when adjusted for inflation), 550,000 - square - foot (51,000 m) facility in Fort Worth; $147 million (about $353,000,000 when adjusted for inflation) in Dallas / Fort Worth International Airport bonds financed the headquarters. The airline began leasing the facility from the airport, which owns the facility.
As of 2015 American Airlines is the corporation with the largest presence in Fort Worth.
In 2015, the airline announced it will build a new headquarters in Fort Worth. Groundbreaking began in the spring of 2016 and occupancy is scheduled for summer 2019. The airline plans to house 5,000 new workers in the building.
It will be located on a 41 - acre (17 ha) property adjacent to the airline 's flight academy and conference and training center, west of Texas State Highway 360, 2 miles (3.2 km) west from the current headquarters. The airline will lease a total of 300 acres (120 ha) from Dallas - Fort Worth International Airport and this area will include the headquarters. Construction of the new headquarters is scheduled to occur after the demolition of the Sabre facility.
The airline considered developing a new headquarters in Irving, on the Texas Stadium site, before deciding to keep the headquarters in Fort Worth.
As of November 2013 American Airlines and American Eagle received $10,011,836 in annual federal subsidies for Essential Air Services. These subsidies are awarded by public tender and ensure that small, rural airports can be connected to the national air network.
Violations occurring over a 41⁄2 year period -- from October 1993 to July 1998 -- targeted American Airlines for using high - sulfur fuel in motor vehicles at 10 major airports around the country. Under the federal Clean Air Act high sulfur fuel can not be used in motor vehicles. American Airlines promptly identified and corrected these violations of the Clean Air Act.
American Airlines ' wastewater treatment plant recycles water used at the base to wash aircraft, process rinse water tanks, and irrigate landscape. That alone has saved almost $1 million since 2002. In addition to that, American Airlines has also won the award for the reduction of hazardous waste that saved them $229,000 after a $2,000 investment. A bar code system is used to track hazardous waste. It has led to reduction of waste by 50 percent since 2000.
American Airlines is title sponsor of two basketball venues: American Airlines Center (Dallas Mavericks), (Dallas Stars) and American Airlines Arena (Miami Heat).
The company sponsors several professional sports teams:
In 1931, Goodrich Murphy, an American employee, designed the AA logo. The logo was redesigned by Massimo Vignelli in 1967. Thirty years later, in 1997, American Airlines was able to make its logo Internet - compatible by buying the domain AA.com. AA is also American 's two - letter IATA airline designator.
On January 16, 2013, American launched a new rebranding and marketing campaign with FutureBrand dubbed, "A New American ''. This included a new logo replacing the logo used since 1967. American Airlines calls the new logo the "Flight Symbol, incorporating the eagle, star, and the letter "A '' of the classic logo.
American 's early liveries varied widely, but a common livery was adopted in the 1930s, featuring an eagle painted on the fuselage. The eagle became a symbol of the company and inspired the name of American Eagle Airlines. Propeller aircraft featured an international orange lightning bolt running down the length of the fuselage, which was replaced by a simpler orange stripe with the introduction of jets.
In the late 1960s, American commissioned designer Massimo Vignelli to develop a new livery. The original design called for a red, white, and blue stripe on the fuselage, and a simple "AA '' logo, without an eagle, on the tail; instead, Vignelli created a highly stylized eagle, which remained the company 's logo until 2013. In 1999, American painted a new Boeing 757 (N679AN) in its 1959 international orange livery. One Boeing 777 and one Boeing 757 were painted in standard livery with a pink ribbon on the sides and on the tail, in support of Susan G. Komen for the Cure. One Boeing 757 is painted with a yellow ribbon on the tailfin on the aircraft and on the side of the body says "Flagship Freedom ''. American Eagle, the airline 's regional airline has the same special livery on ERJ - 145 aircraft.
On January 17, 2013, American unveiled a new livery. Before then, American had been the only major U.S. airline to leave most of its aircraft surfaces unpainted. This was because C.R. Smith hated painted aircraft, and refused to use any liveries that involved painting the entire plane. Robert "Bob '' Crandall later justified the distinctive natural metal finish by noting that less paint reduced the aircraft 's weight, thus saving on fuel costs.
In January 2013, American launched a new rebranding and marketing campaign dubbed, "The New American ''. In addition to a new logo, American Airlines introduced a new livery for its fleet. The airline calls the new livery and branding "a clean and modern update ''. The current design features an abstract American flag on the tail, along with a silver - painted fuselage, as a throw - back to the old livery. The new design was painted by Leading Edge Aviation Services in California. Doug Parker, the incoming CEO indicated that the new livery could be short - lived, stating that "maybe we need to do something slightly different than that... The only reason this is an issue now is because they just did it right in the middle, which kind of makes it confusing, so that gives us an opportunity, actually, to decide if we are going to do something different because we have so many airplanes to paint ''.
In the end, American let its employees decide the new livery 's fate. On an internal website for employees, American posted two options, one the new livery and one a modified version of the old livery. All of the American Airlines Group employees (including US Airways and other affiliates) were able to vote. American ultimately decided to keep the new look. Parker announced that American would keep a US Airways heritage aircraft in the fleet, with plans to add a heritage TWA aircraft and a heritage American plane with the old livery.
American currently operates ten hubs across the continental U.S.
American operated interchange flight services in conjunction with Alaska Airlines during the 1970s between Texas and Alaska during the construction of the Trans - Alaska oil pipeline. This interchange agreement allowed for single, no change of aircraft service between Houston, Texas and Dallas / Fort Worth, Texas, and Anchorage, Alaska and Fairbanks, Alaska. The round trip routing of this interchange flight was Houston - Dallas / Fort Worth - Seattle - Anchorage - Fairbanks with Seattle, Washington serving as the interchange point where flight and cabin crews were changed from one airline to the other. Boeing 727 - 200 jetliners provided by both American and Alaska Airlines were utilized to provide this interchange service.
American Airlines is the only US carrier that flies to Barranquilla, Belo Horizonte, Brasilia, Cali, Cap - Haitien, Caracas, Cienfuegos, Fort - de-France, Guayaquil, La Paz, Manaus, Maracaibo, Montevideo, Pointe - a-Pitre, San Salvador (Bahamas), Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Varadero. It is also the leading U.S. carrier to Cuba in terms of passenger volume.
American Airlines codeshares with the following airlines:
In particular, American has joint ventures with British Airways, Iberia, and Finnair on transatlantic routes and with Japan Airlines and Qantas on transpacific routes.
As of February 2017, American Airlines operates a fleet of 939 aircraft, making it the largest commercial fleet in the world. It operates a mix of Airbus, Boeing, Embraer, and McDonnell Douglas aircraft.
Over two thirds of American 's aircraft are narrow - bodies, mainly Airbus A320 series and Boeing 737 - 800. It also operates Boeing 757, Embraer 190 and McDonnell Douglas MD - 82 / 83, but most of them are planned to be phased out within five years.
Its wide - body aircraft are mainly Boeing airliners. It is the third - largest operator of the Boeing 767 series and the fifth - largest operator of the Boeing 777 series. It also operates the Airbus A330.
The Flagship Suite is American 's international first class product. It is exclusively offered on all Boeing 777 - 300ERs in the fleet.
Boeing 777 - 300ER: Fully lie - flat seats with direct aisle access in a 1 - 2 - 1 reverse herringbone configuration. Seat length: 82 inches (208 cm). Equipped with a 17 - inch (43 cm) touchscreen monitor and touchscreen handset, two universal AC power outlets, and USB ports.
Amenities Include:
Flagship check - in privileges
3 complimentary checked bags
Access to the Flagship Lounge (International First Class Lounge while the Flagship Lounges are being refurbished)
Early boarding
First Class amenity kit
Turndown service with pajamas
A pair of Bose QuietComfort Acoustic Noise Canceling Headsets to use during flight
Inflight wine tasting
Premium alcoholic beverages and wine selections (including pre-departure champagne service)
Chef - inspired dining options
Access to the premium cabin walk - up bar, which features assorted snacks and beverages throughout the duration of the flight.
International Business Class is offered on some Boeing 757 - 200s and all Airbus A330s, Boeing 767 - 300ERs, Boeing 777 - 200ERs, Boeing 777 - 300ERs, Boieng 787 - 8s, and Boeing 787 - 9s.
Airbus A330: Fully lie - flat Cirrus seats manufactured by Zodiac Seats France and designed by JPA Design for US Airways with direct aisle access in a 1 - 2 - 1 reverse herringbone configuration. Seat length: 76 - 80 inches (193 -- 203 cm). Equipped with a 12.1 inch (31 cm) touchscreen monitor, one universal AC power outlet, and USB ports. (1)
Boeing 757 - 200 Post-Retrofit: Fully lie - flat Diamond seats manufactured by B / E Aerospace and designed for American Airlines in a 2 - 2 configuration. Seat length: 75 -- 78 inches (191 -- 198cm). Equipped with Samsung Galaxy Tab TM 10.1 inch (26 cm) tablets, and two universal AC power outlets (one to power the tablet).
Boeing 757 - 200 Pre-Retrofit (Version 1): Angled lie - flat seats manufactured by Recaro and designed for American Airlines in a 2 - 2 configuration equipped on legacy American Airlines aircraft. Seat length: 58 - 61 inches (147 -- 155 cm). Equipped with a 10.6 inch touchscreen and a DC power outlet. These seats are currently in the process of being replaced.
Boeing 757 - 200 Pre-Retrofit (Version 2): Recliner seats designed for US Airways in 2 - 2 configuration. Seat length: 60 inches (152 cm). Equipped with Samsung Galaxy Tab TM 10.1 inch (26 cm) tablets, and a DC power outlet. These seats are currently in the process of being replaced.
Boeing 767 - 300ER Post-Retrofit: Fully lie - flat seats manufactured by Thompson Aero Seating with direct aisle access in a 1 - 2 - 1 staggered configuration. Equipped with Samsung Galaxy Tab TM 10.1 inch (26 cm) tablets, two universal AC power outlets (one to power the tablet), and USB ports.
Boeing 767 - 300ER Pre-Retrofit: Angled lie - flat seats manufactured by Recaro and designed for American Airlines in a 2 - 2 - 2 configuration. Seat length: 58 - 61 inches (147 -- 155 cm). Equipped with Samsung Galaxy Tab TM 10.1 inch (26 cm) tablets, and two DC power outlets (one to power the tablet). These seats are currently in the process of being replaced. (5)
Boeing 777 - 200ER Version 1: Fully lie - flat seats manufactured by Zodiac Seats France, designed for American Airlines, with direct aisle access in a 1 - 2 - 1 reverse herringbone configuration with front - facing and rear - facing seats. Seat length: 77 inches (196cm). Equipped with a 16 - inch (41 cm) touchscreen monitor and touchscreen handset, two universal AC power outlets, and USB ports.
Boeing 777 - 200ER Version 2: Fully lie - flat Super Diamond seats manufactured by B / E Aerospace and designed for American Airlines with direct aisle access in a 1 - 2 - 1 reverse herringbone configuration. Seat length: 77 inches (196cm). Equipped with a UNKNOWN - inch (UNKNOWN cm) touchscreen monitor and touchscreen handset, one universal AC power outlet, and USB ports.
Boeing 777 - 300ER: Fully lie - flat Cirrus seats manufactured by Zodiac Seats UK, designed by JPA Design for Cathay Pacific, and licensed from Cathay Pacific with direct aisle access in a 1 - 2 - 1 reverse herringbone configuration. Seat length: 76 - 80 inches (193 -- 203 cm). Equipped with a 15.4 - inch (39 cm) inch touchscreen monitor, one universal AC power outlet, and USB ports. (2)
Boeing 787 - 8: Fully lie - flat seats manufactured by Zodiac Seats France and designed for American Airlines with direct aisle access in a 1 - 2 - 1 reverse herringbone configuration with front - facing and rear - facing seats. Seat length: 77 inches (196cm). Equipped with a 16 - inch (41 cm) touchscreen monitor and touchscreen handset, two universal AC power outlets, and USB ports.
Boeing 787 - 9: Fully lie - flat Super Diamond seats manufactured by B / E Aerospace and designed for American Airlines with direct aisle access in a 1 - 2 - 1 reverse herringbone configuration. Seat length: 77 inches (196cm). Equipped with a UNKNOWN - inch (UNKNOWN cm) touchscreen monitor and touchscreen handset, one universal AC power outlet, and USB ports.
Amenities Include:
Priority check - in privileges
2 complimentary checked bags
Access to the Admirals Club
Early boarding
Business Class amenity kit
A pair of Bose QuietComfort Acoustic Noise Canceling Headsets to use during flight
Premium alcoholic beverages and wine selections (including pre-departure beverage service)
Chef - inspired dining options
Access to the premium cabin walk - up bar, which features assorted snacks and beverages throughout the duration of the flight (available on the Boeing 777 - 300ER, Boeing 777 - 200, Boeing 787 - 8, and Boeing 787 - 9)
On flights from Los Angeles to Hong Kong and Sydney and Dallas to Hong Kong, turndown service and pajamas are also provided
American has dedicated 17 Airbus A321s (A321T) in its fleet for the specific use of flying transcontinental routes between New York JFK - Los Angeles LAX and New York JFK - San Francisco SFO. These aircraft offer two premium cabins, First Class and Business Class, which are unique among domestic mainline aircraft in American 's fleet:
First Class: Fully lie - flat seats manufactured by Zodiac Seats France and designed for and designed for American Airlines with direct aisle access in a 1 - 2 - 1 reverse herringbone configuration. Seat length: UNKNOWN inches (UNKNOWN cm). Equipped with a 15.4 - inch (39 cm) inch touchscreen monitor and touchscreen handset, one universal AC power outlet, and USB ports.
Business Class: Fully lie - flat Diamond seats manufactured by B / E Aerospace and designed for American Airlines in a 2 - 2 configuration. Seat length: 75 -- 78 inches (191 -- 198cm). Equipped with a 15.4 - inch (39 cm) touchscreen monitor and touchscreen handset, one universal AC power outlet, and USB ports.
Amenities Include:
Priority check - in privileges
2 / 3 (First Class) complimentary checked bags
Access to the Admirals Club / Flagship Lounge (First Class)
Early boarding
Business Class / First Class amenity kit
A pair of Bose QuietComfort Acoustic Noise Canceling Headsets to use during flight
Premium alcoholic beverages and wine selections (including pre-departure beverage service)
Chef - inspired dining options
First Class is offered on all domestic mainline aircraft, as well as regional aircraft with more than 50 seats. When such aircraft are used on flights to international destinations including Canada, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean, the First Class cabin is branded as Business Class. Seats range from 19 -- 21 inches (48 -- 53 cm) in width and have 37 -- 42 inches (94 -- 106 cm) of pitch. Dining options include free snacks, beverages, and alcohol on all flights, with three - course meals offered on flights 900 miles (1,448 km) or longer (select routes under 900 miles offer meal service).
On December 9, 2015, American announced a new Premium Economy product for most long - haul widebody aircraft. This new product will debut on the new 787 - 9s in late 2016 and will be available on the new A350s in 2018. It will also be retrofitted to all other widebody aircraft within the next three years, excluding 767s due to their upcoming retirement. The seats will be wider than standard Main Cabin seats and will offer 38 '' of pitch, 2 '' more than Main Cabin Extra seats, as well as a footrest. Premium Economy customers will also get two free checked bags, priority boarding, and enhanced food and drink service including free alcohol. This product will make American Airlines the first U.S. carrier to offer a four - cabin aircraft.
American 's economy plus product (not to be confused with premium economy), Main Cabin Extra, is available on most of the mainline fleet and American Eagle regional aircraft with more than 50 seats. Exceptions include a majority of former US Airways aircraft (as of May 2015), US Airways Express regional aircraft, and a handful of 777 - 200ERs that have yet to be retrofitted. Seats range from 17.2 -- 18.5 inches (44 -- 47 cm) in width and have 34 -- 38 inches (86 -- 97 cm) of pitch, which is 4 -- 6 more inches of pitch offered in regular economy seating. American will retain Main Cabin Extra when the new Premium Economy product enters service in late 2016.
Main Cabin is American 's economy product, and is found on all mainline and regional aircraft in its fleet. Seats range from 17 -- 18.5 inches (43 -- 47 cm) in width and have 30 -- 32 inches (76 -- 81 cm) of pitch. Newer aircraft, including all Boeing 777 - 300ER, refurbished Boeing 777 - 200ER 's, all Boeing 787 Dreamliners, all Airbus A330s, all newly delivered Airbus A319s and Boeing 737s, and most newly delivered Airbus A321s, include seatback TVs, featuring AVOD in each seat.
American 's basic economy product, Basic Economy, is available on select routes. It is American 's lowest main cabin fare. Basic economy is located in main cabin, but comes with restrictions. These restrictions include assigned seat at check in, no access to overhead bins, no upgrades or refunds, and boarding in the last group.
American Airlines marketed increased legroom in economy class as "More Room Throughout Coach '', also referred to as "MRTC '' starting in February 2000. Two rows of economy class seats were removed on Boeing 737 and McDonnell Douglas MD - 80 aircraft. Amid financial losses, this scheme was discontinued in 2004.
In May 2017, American announced they would be adding more seats to some of its Boeing 737 Max jetliners and reducing overall legroom in the basic economy class. The last three rows will lose two inches; going from the current 31 to 29 inches. The remainder of the economy cabin will have 30 inches of legroom. This compares to Jet Blue with 34 inches of legroom and Spirit with 28 inches.
AAdvantage is the frequent flyer program for American Airlines. It was launched on May 1, 1981, and it remains the largest frequent flyer program with over 67 million members as of 2011.
The Admirals Club was conceived by AA president C.R. Smith as a marketing promotion shortly after he was made an honorary Texas Ranger. Inspired by the Kentucky colonels and other honorary organizations, Smith decided to make particularly valued passengers "admirals '' of the "Flagship fleet '' (AA called its aircraft "Flagships '' at the time). The list of Admirals included many celebrities, politicians, and other VIPs, as well as more "ordinary '' customers who had been particularly loyal to the airline.
There was no physical Admirals Club until shortly after the opening of LaGuardia Airport. During the airport 's construction, New York Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia had an upper - level lounge set aside for press conferences and business meetings. At one such press conference, he noted that the entire terminal was being offered for lease to airline tenants; after a reporter asked whether the lounge would be leased as well, LaGuardia replied that it would, and a vice president of AA immediately offered to lease the premises. The airline then procured a liquor license and began operating the lounge as the "Admirals Club '' in 1939.
The second Admirals Club opened at Washington National Airport. Because it was illegal to sell alcohol in Virginia at the time, the club contained refrigerators for the use of its members, so they could store their own liquor at the airport. For many years, membership in the Admirals Club (and most other airline lounges) was by the airline 's invitation. After a passenger sued for discrimination, the Club (and most other airline lounges) switched to a paid membership program.
Though affiliated with the Admirals Club and staffed by many of the same employees, the Flagship Lounge is a separate lounge specifically designed for customers flying in First Class on transcontinental domestic flights and international flights, as well as AAdvantage Executive Platinum and Oneworld Emerald frequent flyers. Flagship Lounges are now available at four airports: Chicago - O'Hare, London - Heathrow, Los Angeles, and New York - JFK. American also previously offered a Flagship Lounge in Miami from 2000 to 2002, and again from 2009. It plans to open again in 2017.
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when did threepenny bits go out of circulation | Threepence (British coin) - wikipedia
The British threepence (3d) coin, usually simply known as a threepence or threepenny bit, was a unit of currency equaling one eightieth of a pound sterling, or three old pence sterling. It was used in the United Kingdom, and earlier in Great Britain and England. Similar denominations were later used throughout the British Empire, notably in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.
The sum of three pence was pronounced variously / ˈθruːpɛns / THROO - pens, / ˈθrɛpɛns / THREP - ens or / ˈθrʌpɛns / THRUP - ens, reflecting different pronunciations in the various regions and nations of the United Kingdom. Likewise, the coin was often referred to in conversation as a / ˈθruːpni / THROOP - nee, / ˈθrɛpni / THREP - nee or / ˈθrʌpni / THRUP - nee bit.
Before Decimal Day in 1971 there were two hundred and forty pence in one pound sterling. Twelve pence made a shilling, and twenty shillings made a pound. Values less than a pound were usually written in terms of shillings and pence, e.g. forty - two pence would be three shillings and six pence (3 / 6), pronounced "three and six ''. Values of less than a shilling were simply written in terms of pence, e.g. eight pence would be 8d.
The three pence coin -- expressed in writing as "3d '' -- first appeared in England during the fine silver coinage of King Edward VI (1547 -- 53), when it formed part of a set of new denominations. Although it was an easy denomination to work with in the context of the old sterling coinage system, being a quarter of a shilling, initially it was not popular with the public who preferred the groat (four pence). Hence the coin was not minted in the following two reigns.
Edward VI threepences were struck at the London and York mints. The obverse shows a front - facing bust of the king, with a rose to the left and the value numeral III to the right, surrounded by the legend EDWARD VI DG ANG FRA Z HIB REX. The reverse shows a long cross over the royal shield, surrounded by the legend (London mint) POSUI DEUM ADIUTOREM MEUM (I have made God my helper), or (York mint) CIVITAS EBORACI (City of York).
Queen Elizabeth I (1558 -- 1603) produced threepences during her third coinage (1561 -- 1577). Most 1561 issues are 21 mm in diameter, while later ones are 19 mm in diameter. These coins are identifiable from other denominations by the rose behind the queen 's head on the obverse, and the date on the reverse. The obverse shows a left - facing crowned bust of the queen with a rose behind her, surrounded by the legend ELIZABETH DG ANG FR ET HIB REGINA, while the reverse shows shield over a long cross, dated 1561, surrounded by the legend POSUI DEU ADIUTOREM MEU. Dates used for the smaller coins were 1561 -- 77. Threepences of the fourth coinage (1578 -- 1582) are identical except for having a slightly lower silver content. There was also a fairly rare milled coinage threepence, produced between 1561 and 1564 with similar designs and inscriptions to the hammered coinage threepences.
The threepence denomination fell out of use again during the reign of King James I, while during King Charles I 's reign (1625 -- 49) it was not produced at the London Tower mint, but was produced (sometimes in some quantity) at various provincial mints. The denomination is identified by the numeral III appearing behind the king 's head.
By far the most common Charles I threepences were produced at the Aberystwyth mint between 1638 and 1642. They feature a left - facing crowned bust of the king with plumes in front of his face and the numeral III behind him, with the legend CAROLUS DG MA B FR ET H REX (or a combination of M (A) BF (R) ET H (I) (B) depending on the engraver), with the reverse showing the royal arms on a large oval shield with plumes above the shield, and the legend CHRISTO AUSPICE REGNO -- I reign under the auspices of Christ. Plumes were the identifying symbol of the Aberystwyth mint, but the Bristol and Oxford mints often used dies from the Aberystwyth mint so plumes often appear on their output too. Milled coins were produced at the York mint between 1638 and 1649, which look similar to the Aberystwyth product but without the plumes -- the obverse features a left - facing crowned bust of the king with the numeral III behind him, with the legend CAROLUS DG MAG BR FR ET HI REX, with the reverse showing the royal arms on a shield over a cross, with EBOR over the shield and the legend CHRISTO AUSPICE REGNO.
Coins were produced at the Oxford mint between 1644 and 1646, using the Aberystwyth dies for the obverse, while the reverse of the 1644 coin shows the Declaration of Oxford in three lines: RELI PRO LEG ANG LIB PAR. 1644 OX -- The religion of the Protestants, the laws of England, the liberty of Parliament. 1644 Oxford, while around the outside of the coin is the legend EXURGAT DEUS DISSIPENTUR INIMICI -- Let God arise and His enemies be scattered. This coin also appears dated 1646. A further type produced at Oxford had on the obverse the king 's bust with the denomination behind him, and the letter "R '' (for Rawlins, the maker of the die) below the king 's shoulder and the legend CAROLUS DGM BR F ET H REX and the Aberystwyth reverse.
The mint at Bristol produced rare threepences in 1644 and 1645. In 1644 the Aberystwyth obverse was used to produce a coin with the reverse showing the Declaration of Oxford: REL PRO LEG AN LIB PA 1644 -- The religion of the Protestants, the laws of England, the liberty of Parliament 1644, while around the outside of the coin is the legend EXURGAT DEUS DISSIPENTUR INIMICI -- Let God arise and His enemies be scattered. This was repeated in 1645, but with a plumelet instead of a plume in front of the king 's face.
In 1644 the Exeter mint produced a fairly scarce threepence. It features a left - facing crowned bust of the king with the numeral III behind him, with the legend CAROLUS DG MA BR F ET H RE, with the reverse showing the royal arms on a shield with the date 1644 above the shield, and the legend CHRISTO AUSPICE REGNO.
No threepences were produced by the Commonwealth of England.
The final hammered coinage threepences were produced at the start of the reign of King Charles II. In style they are very reminiscent of his father 's issues, the obverse featuring the bust of the king, with the numeral III and the legend CAROLUS II DG MAG BRI F ET H REX, with the reverse showing the royal arms on a shield over a cross, and the legend CHRISTO AUSPICE REGNO.
The milled silver threepences of Charles II form two types. There is the undated issue which looks very like the earlier hammered coinage, with a crowned left - facing bust of the king with the denomination indicated by III behind his head, and the inscription CAROLVS II DGMBF & H REX, with the reverse showing a shield encircling the arms of England, Scotland, Ireland and France with the legend CHRISTO AUSPICE REGNO. This was followed by the dated issue, issued each year from 1670 to 1684, where the obverse features a right - facing uncrowned bust of the king and the inscription CAROLVS II DEI GRATIA, with the reverse showing three crowned interlinked "C '' s (indicating the value) and the inscription MAG BR FRA ET HIB REX date. All milled silver threepences were 17 millimetres in diameter and weighed 1.5 grams -- dimensions which were unchanged until near the end of the reign of George III.
A similar threepence was produced for King James II, dated 1685 to 1688, the obverse showing a left - facing bust of the king and the inscription IACOBVS II DEI GRATIA, with the reverse showing three crowned "I '' s (indicating the value) and the inscription MAG BR FRA ET HIB REX date.
For the joint reign of King William III and Queen Mary II, threepences were produced in all years from 1689 to 1694. For the first two years a somewhat caricatured portrait of the monarchs was used, replaced by a rather more staid portrait in 1691, with the inscription GVLIELMVS ET MARIA DG, while the reverse shows a crowned Arabic number "3 '' and the inscription MAG BR FR ET HIB REX ET REGINA date. For the sole reign of William III, the design remained very similar, with the inscriptions changed to GVLIELMVS III DEI GRA and MAG BR FR ET HIB REX date.
In the reign of Queen Anne (1702 -- 1714), the same basic design was used, with threepences produced in 1703 -- 10 and 1713. The obverse shows a left - facing bust of the Queen, with the inscription ANNA DEI GRATIA while the reverse shows the crowned "3 '' and MAG BR FR ET HIB REG date (1703 -- 05, 1707), MAG BR FRA ET HIB REG (1706), or MAG BRI FR ET HIB REG (1708 -- 13).
The design continued in the reign of King George I, when threepences were produced in 1717, 1721, 1723, and 1727. The obverse shows a right - facing bust of the King, with the inscription GEORGIVS DEI GRATIA while the reverse shows the crowned "3 '' and MAG BRI FR ET HIB REX date.
Unusually, the same young portrait of King George II was used on the threepence throughout his reign (1727 -- 60), despite an older portrait being used on other denominations from 1743. Threepences were produced in 1729, 1731, 1732, 1735, 1737, 1739, 1740, 1743, 1746, and 1760. The obverse shows a left - facing bust of the King, with the inscription GEORGIVS II DEI GRATIA while the reverse shows the crowned "3 '' and MAG BRI FR ET HIB REX date.
While the silver threepence was minted as a currency coin until nearly the middle of the 20th century, it is clear that the purpose of the coin changed during the reign of King George III (1760 -- 1820). In the first two years of minting, 1762 and 1763, the coin was obviously produced for general circulation as examples are generally found well worn; on the other hand, coins from the late issue (1817 -- 20) are usually found in very fine condition, indicating that they were probably issued as Maundy money. Over the length of the reign there were several different designs of obverse and reverse in use. Threepences were issued in 1762 -- 63, 1765 -- 66, 1770, 1772, 1780, 1784, 1786, 1792, 1795, 1800, 1817, 1818, and 1820. From 1817 the dimensions of the coin were reduced to a weight of 1.4 grams and diameter of 16 millimetres, following the Great Recoinage of 1816. The inscription on the obverse reads GEORGIVS III DEI GRATIA up to 1800, and GEORGIUS III DEI GRATIA date from 1817. The reverse inscription reads MAG BRI FR ET HIB REX date up to 1800 and BRITANNIARUM REX FID DEF date from 1817.
By the start of the reign of King George IV (1820 -- 30) the coin was being struck primarily as a Maundy coin, although some coins were produced for use in the colonies. See Maundy money for full details of these issues. Threepences were struck in all years from 1822 to 1830, though the king 's head is smaller on the 1822 issue, apparently because the correct punch broke and the one from the twopence was used instead. The obverse inscription reads GEORGIUS IIII DG BRITANNIAR REX FD, while the reverse shows a new - style crowned "3 '' and date, all within a wreath.
In King William IV 's reign (1830 -- 37), maundy coins were produced in 1831 -- 37, and identical circulation coins were produced for the colonies, identifiable only through not having a prooflike surface. The obverse inscription reads GULIELMUS IIII DG BRITANNIAR REX FD, while the reverse shows the new - style crowned "3 '' and date, all within a wreath.
During the reign of Queen Victoria, threepences were produced both for maundy use and for normal circulation in all years between 1838 and 1901 except 1847, 1848, and 1852 (probably because of the possible advent of a decimal currency at the time (see florin), when the 3d at 1 / 80th of a pound would not have fitted within a decimal system). Currency silver threepences from 1838 to 1926 were of identical design and can not usually be distinguished except in the best conditions when the higher striking standard of the maundy coins stand out; this resulted in the curious legal anomaly that when the currency was decimalised in 1971 all silver threepences from 1870 onwards were revalued at three new pence, not just the maundy coins. Threepences were produced with both the "young head '' (1838 -- 87) and "Jubilee head '' (1887 -- 93), inscribed VICTORIA DG BRITANNIAR REGINA FD, while those produced with the "old head '' (1893 -- 1901) are inscribed VICTORIA DEI GRA BRITT REGINA FID DEF IND IMP.
The currency threepence was issued for each of the nine years of the reign of King Edward VII from 1902. The reverse design remained the same, while the obverse showed the right - facing effigy of the king, with the inscription EDWARDVS VII DG BRITT OMN REX FD IND IMP.
The reign of King George V (1910 -- 1936) features several changes to the threepence denomination. As with all British silver coins, the silver content was reduced from sterling (0.925) silver to 50 % silver, 40 % copper, 10 % nickel in 1920, 50 % silver, 50 % copper in 1922, and 50 % silver, 40 % copper, 5 % nickel, 5 % zinc in 1927, while the design of the reverse of the circulating threepence (but not the maundy threepence) was completely changed in 1927 to three oak sprigs with three acorns and a "G '' in the centre, and the inscription THREE PENCE date. The inscription on the obverse throughout the reign was GEORGIVS VDG BRITT OMN REX FD IND IMP.
The threepences of King Edward VIII were all patterns awaiting royal approval at the time of the abdication in December 1936. The silver threepence had another completely new reverse -- three interlinked rings of Saint Edmund, with the inscription FID DEF IND IMP 1937 THREE PENCE, while the obverse shows a left - facing effigy of the king with the inscription EDWARDVS VIII DG BR OMN REX and a very small silver engravement.
By the end of George V 's reign the threepence had become unpopular in England because of its small size (George Orwell comments on this in Keep the Aspidistra Flying), but it remained popular in Scotland. It was consequently decided to introduce a more substantial threepenny coin which would have a more convenient weight / value ratio than the silver coinage. The silver threepence continued to be minted, as there may have been some uncertainty about how well the new coin would be accepted. The Edward VIII era saw the planned introduction of a new, larger, nickel - brass (79 % copper, 20 % zinc, 1 % nickel) twelve - sided threepence coin. This coin weighed 6.6 grams and the diameter was 21 mm across the sides and 22 mm across the corners. The obverse shows a left - facing effigy of the king (not right as would have been the convention to alternate the direction) with the inscription EDWARDVS VIII DG BR OMN REX FD IND IMP, and the reverse shows a three - headed thrift plant with the inscription THREE PENCE 1937. A total of just 12 of these coins were struck for experimental purposes and sent to a slot machine manufacturing company for testing. The whereabouts of six of those 12 are known. However, the other six are still out there somewhere and, as such, they are extremely rare today. An example was sold at auction in 2013 for £ 30,000 There are two types of Edward VIII brass threepences. The first type has the date broken by a thrift plant design and the second has the date below.
During the reign of King George VI, circulation silver threepences were produced only in 1937 -- 45 (and almost all the 1945 examples were subsequently melted down). The obverse shows a left - facing effigy of the king with the inscription GEORGIVS VI DG BR OMN REX, while the reverse has an elegant design of a shield of St George lying on a Tudor rose, dividing the date, with the inscription FID DEF IND IMP THREE PENCE. The nickel - brass threepence took over the bulk of the production of the denomination, being produced in all years between 1937 and 1952 except 1947. Apart from the king 's head and name, and the weight being increased to 6.8 grams, the coin was identical to that prepared for Edward VIII. Coins dated 1946 and 1949 were minted in far fewer numbers than the rest, and as nickel - brass wears very quickly, higher grade specimens of these coins are expensive to buy now (both over £ 500 for uncirculated examples). The scarce dates are 1948, 1950 and 1951 and these are now selling for £ 60 -- £ 80 in mint state.
The physical dimensions of the brass threepence remained the same in the reign of Queen Elizabeth II. The effigy of the queen produced by Mary Gillick was used, with the inscription ELIZABETH II DEI GRA BRITT OMN REGINA FD used in 1953, and ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA FD used in all other years. The reverse shows a Tudor portcullis with chains and a coronet, with the inscription THREE PENCE date. This coin was produced in all years from 1953 to 1967, and in 1970 (in proof sets only).
Following decimalisation, the brass threepence ceased to be legal tender after 31 August 1971.
A three pence coin was also used in the pre-decimalisation currencies of Commonwealth of Nations countries such as Fiji, Australia, and New Zealand. It was called a tickey in South Africa and Southern Rhodesia.
No. 1 Croydon was known for many years as the "threepenny bit building '' for its resemblance to a stack of threepenny coins. After the coins were phased out (beginning in 1970) the building eventually gained a new nickname: the "50p building ''.
The threepenny bit was known as a ' Joey '.
In March 2014, the Royal Mint announced that a new design of one pound coin would be introduced in 2017, reprising the twelve - sided shape. The new coin was designed to be more difficult to counterfeit.
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which church has the largest congregation in africa | Zion Christian church - wikipedia
The Zion Christian Church (or ZCC), also known as Boyne, is the largest African initiated church operating across Southern Africa. The church 's headquarters are at Zion City Moria in Limpopo Province, South Africa (Northern Transvaal).
According to the 1996 South African Census, the church numbered 3.87 million members. By the 2001 South African Census, its membership had increased to 4.97 million members.
The ZCC was founded by Engenas Lekganyane in 1924 after a long journey of trying to find a spiritual home. After being educated at two Anglican missions, Lekganyane joined the Apostolic Faith Mission around 1911 in Boksburg. He then joined the Zion Apostolic Church schism in 1916 and eventually became a preacher of a congregation in his home village during late World War I. After falling out with the ZAC leadership, Lekganyane went to Basutoland to join Edward Lion 's Zion Apostolic Faith Mission in 1920. After some time he returned to the Transvaal as the regional leader for Lion.
Lekganyane ZCC members trace the founding of the church to a revelation which Lekganyane is said to have received from God on the top of Mt Thabakgone in 1924. After splitting from Lion, Lekganyane used his home village of Thabakgone, near Polokwane (Pietersburg), as a headquarters, with about twenty initial congregations in the Northern Transvaal, the Witwatersrand, and Rhodesia. In 1930 Lekganyane began building a stone church there. After clashes with his chief, Lekganyane was expelled with his church still unfinished. Determined to obtain land, he eventually purchased three farms in the Polokwane area. Maclean Farm near Thabakgone would eventually be renamed as "Moria '', the ZCC 's headquarters. The ZCC was officially registered in 1962 after the government 's reluctance to recognise one of the continent 's largest and most influential churches. The early church was strongly influenced by the doctrines of the Christian Catholic Church of John Alexander Dowie, based in Zion, Illinois in the United States of America, and by the teachings of the Pentecostal missionary John G. Lake, who began work in Johannesburg in 1908.
Due to Lekganyane 's attempts to appeal to migrant workers, the ZCC developed an international membership very early on. Samuel Mutendi, a founding member, built up many large congregations in Zimbabwe. In the late 1930s migrant workers from Botswana also started ZCC chapters, although they faced considerable opposition from the authorities.
Following Engenas Lekganyane 's death in 1948, a major split in the church occurred. The church 's large section of male migrant workers generally backed Engenas 's oldest surviving son, the charismatic Edward Lekganyane, to succeed his father as the ZCC Bishop. The church 's rural base, meanwhile, backed a younger son, Joseph, to assume church leadership. Although events are highly disputed, Engenas himself appears to have favoured Joseph -- who served as his father 's adviser and chauffeur during the 1940s. According to some traditions, during Engenas Lekganyane 's mourning period, Edward 's supporters mobilised on the Witwatersrand and hired buses to take them to Moria. After arrival, this large, armed group was able to eject the pro-Joseph faction and take over the church 's headquarters and infrastructure. Contemporary records relating to the event show that Edward was installed peacefully in Easter 1949 in a large ceremony by his uncle, Reuben. Other written reports from the following year indicate that strong opposition to his leadership had arisen among "most of the preachers '' in the ZCC who were "shocked '' by Edward: "they denied the son of the great Lekganyane, saying he was not leader of the church. '' Initially the two factions remained together, but Edward soon insisted that all members declare their loyalty in public, and this led to a permanent split. The ZCC continued under Edward 's leadership, while Joseph seceded and formed the rival St. Engenas Zion Christian Church in 1949.
The ZCC changed fairly dramatically following his son Edward Lekganyane 's assumption of control of the church in April 1949. Edward was a highly educated, flamboyant figure who eventually obtained a degree at an Afrikaans divinity school. Under his leadership the all - male Mokhukhu organisation developed out of his core group of supporters. This group initially formed as a church choir. Wearing military - style khakis, police - style hats, and the Star badge, the Mokhukhu in each congregation engaged in dancing, singing, and praying three times a week according to a preset schedule. An additional feature of Edward 's control of the ZCC was the rapid growth of Zion City Moria as a pilgrimage site. Using the Boyne farm that his father had purchased in the 1940s, Edward instituted annual pilgrimages that have gone on to become massive southern African - wide events. Each year during Easter Holidays Church members bus en masse to Moria, Polokwane (Pietersburg) (several million members) to meet the Bishop and to pray for blessings.
The church fuses African traditions and values with Christian faith. As opposed to the mainstream European churches, the church has sought independence and autonomy in terms of theological and dogmatic approach. According to the ZCC, scholars such as EK Lukhaimane, Hanekom, Kruger, Sundkler and Daneel did not understand the ZCC 's approach to Christianity. Due to the apartheid education system in which Africans and their beliefs were rejected and mocked, they saw ZCC as a sect. This situation was exacerbated by the church 's policy on secrecy, which limited its ability to publicise its activities. As a result, the ZCC maintains that much writing about it is inaccurate. The church still believes in prophecy, the power of healing and spiritual counselling, which did not resonate with the scientific perspectives of these academics. Instead of attempting to understand any therapeutic value these practices might hold, they dismissed them as mere superstitious rituals. The use of different mechanisms for faith - healing include the laying - on of hands, the use of holy water, drinking of blessed tea and coffee to the point of vomiting in the belief that it cleanses the drinkers from the bad spirits that reside in their stomachs and the wearing of blessed cords or cloth.
Members of the ZCC generally believe that:
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