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How much is workflow automation really being adopted in the print industry?
In a recent infotrends study 130 printers were asked to discuss their workflow automation, below we are looking at why the adoption of workflow automation is at the rate it is, the key challenges to adopting workflow automation and what should be done to encourage and get workflow automation running smoothly.
Who automates?
Shockingly, 88% say they still have manual processes in a significant proportion of departments.
European printers know they must automate their print operations. In fact, 68% of respondents want to reduce production costs and improve efficiency as a strategic initiative. Yet, only 12% have extensively introduced automation across most departments
A bias seems to exist between the potential benefits of investing in equipment versus software; many (44%) cite growth due to adding faster and more efficient equipment, only 29% thought growth was due to investing in software that increased automation. This is additionally reflected with what’s seen in showrooms, many attend demos asking for a faster press or faster guillotine than consider the alternatives.
‘The reality is that workflow demands a coordinated effort between processes, people, and technology to unlock efficiencies. Most workflows grow organically over time which introduces inefficiencies and bottlenecks.’
Workflow demands that organisations review the full picture, it requires a reset to thinking, how would organisations do this if they started again?
5 workflow challenges
- Job on-boarding is a mess as there are many paths to accept customer requests and files.
- Job onboarding needs standardization, it can be difficult to attain the identical information needed for all job onboarding.
- The sales & customer service trap. Several sales reps that indicated there was a SOP (sales operating procedure) for capturing the customer’s request. Which meant when elements required extra communication there is a slowed process and and increased potential for error.
- Leadership fails to install a change in management attitude. It has always been done this way, so why should we change?
- Financial decision makers are unaware of the need for automation or, more commonly, lack the information to perform a compelling cost justification. The decision makers should seek cost analysis data from industry sources and their vendors to build a financial model based on their operations.
Cost analysis: the financial benefits
Many printers perceive workflow tasks as a cost centre, rather than a profit centre to proactively manage. Unlike costs associated with equipment and printing-related tasks, most printers fail to understand the true costs of receiving and preparing customer files so they can be printed. Workflow cost is a €1.4 million opportunity that printers can no longer ignore!
Cost savings by optimising substrate usage via nesting or ganging multiple jobs together. Save over €8K by ganging/nesting.
Cost saving by cutting the number of errors. Research shows that waste has a significant impact over the course of a year of print production, with bad customer files impacting 1,173 jobs (on average) and finishing errors looking 988 jobs.
How to start successfully adopting workflow automation?
Workflow journey mapping. Mapping documents the people and technology take during each process from job on-boarding to completion and delivery.
Staff optimisation. Appropriateness of roles and staffing levels to meet organisational goals.
IT infrastructure. General robustness of physical components, i.e., computers and networking.
Failover & overflow plan. Policies, tools and procedures to move production seamlessly across the organisation during peak demands or resource blackouts.
Disaster recovery. Policies, tools, and procedures for recovering from a natural or human-influenced disaster.
Software utilisation. Full implementation of the software to maximise the potential benefit to the operation.
View of operations. Production dashboards or reports accessible to any production-related employee to view the location and status of a job.
Single system of record. The one repository of accuracy and truth for customer and business records.
Customer empowerment. Ability for customers to self-service and manage content, orders, and status.
Workflows. Optimised processes and automation following best practices to onboard, process, and output customer files.
Standard operating procedures. Defined, documented, followed and translated into quick start training.
Key findings
- Workflow tasks took as little as 4 minutes for scanning and up to 72 minutes, on average, for artwork and design.
- Waste has a significant impact over the course of a year of print production, with bad customer files impacting 1,173 jobs (on average) and finishing errors losing 988 jobs.
- Only 12% of printers reported automation in more than one department, while 41% still indicated mostly manual processes.
- Workflow labour costs can total €1.4M, while waste due to file errors can equate to over €4M in lost revenue.
- Annual software spend for the year was €26K, but 40% of respondents spend under €10K.
Duplo's integration with Efi DFEs, or with JDF, can become an integral part of your processes, to learn more how you can maximise your efficiency with automation by getting in touch. | https://www.duplointernational.com/article/how-much-workflow-automation-really-being-adopted |
As cybersecurity threats compound the risks of financial crime and fraud, institutions are crossing functional boundaries to enable collaborative resistance.
n 2018, the World Economic Forum noted that fraud and financial crime was a trillion-dollar industry, reporting that private companies spent approximately $8.2 billion on anti–money laundering (AML) controls alone in 2017. The crimes themselves, detected and undetected, have become more numerous and costly than ever. In a widely cited estimate, for every dollar of fraud institutions lose nearly three dollars, once associated costs are added to the fraud loss itself.1 Risks for banks arise from diverse factors, including vulnerabilities to fraud and financial crime inherent in automation and digitization, massive growth in transaction volumes, and the greater integration of financial systems within countries and internationally. Cybercrime and malicious hacking have also intensified. In the domain of financial crime, meanwhile, regulators continually revise rules, increasingly to account for illegal trafficking and money laundering, and governments have ratcheted up the use of economic sanctions, targeting countries, public and private entities, and even individuals. Institutions are finding that their existing approaches to fighting such crimes cannot satisfactorily handle the many threats and burdens. For this reason, leaders are transforming their operating models to obtain a holistic view of the evolving landscape of financial crime. This view becomes the starting point of efficient and effective management of fraud risk.
Fraud and financial crime adapt to developments in the domains they plunder. (Most financial institutions draw a distinction between these two types of crimes: for a view on the distinction, or lack thereof, see the sidebar “Financial crime or fraud?”) With the advent of digitization and automation of financial systems, these crimes have become more electronically sophisticated and impersonal.
Significantly, this crime was one simultaneous, coordinated attack against many banks. The attackers exhibited a sophisticated knowledge of the cyber environment and likely understood banking processes, controls, and even vulnerabilities arising from siloed organizations and governance. They also made use of several channels, including ATMs, credit and debit cards, and wire transfers. The attacks revealed that meaningful distinctions among cyberattacks, fraud, and financial crime are disappearing. Banks have not yet addressed these new intersections, which transgress the boundary lines most have erected between the types of crimes (Exhibit 2)
A siloed approach to these interconnected risks is becoming increasingly untenable; clearly, the operating model needs to be rethought.
In a world where customers infrequently contact bank staff but rather interact almost entirely through digital channels, “digital trust” has fast become a significant differentiator of customer experience. Banks that offer a seamless, secure, and speedy digital interface will see a positive impact on revenue, while those that don’t will erode value and potentially lose business. Modern banking demands faster risk decisions (such as real-time payments) so banks must strike the right balance between managing fraud and handling authorized transactions instantly.
The growing cost of financial crime and fraud risk has also overshot expectations, pushed upward by several drivers. As banks focus tightly on reducing liabilities and efficiency costs, losses in areas such as customer experience, revenue, reputation, and even regulatory compliance are being missed (Exhibit 3).
Bringing together financial crime, fraud, and cyber operations
At leading institutions the push is on to bring together efforts on financial crime, fraud, and cybercrime. Both the front line and back-office operations are oriented in this direction at many banks. Risk functions and regulators are catching on as well. AML, while now mainly addressed as a regulatory issue, is seen as being on the next horizon for integration. Important initial steps for institutions embarking on an integration effort are to define precisely the nature of all related risk- management activities and to clarify the roles and responsibilities across the lines of defense. These steps will ensure complete, clearly delineated coverage—by the businesses and enterprise functions (first line of defense) and by risk, including financial crime, fraud, and cyber operations (second line)—while eliminating duplication of effort.
All risks associated with financial crime involve three kinds of countermeasures: identifying and authenticating the customer, monitoring and detecting transaction and behavioral anomalies, and responding to mitigate risks and issues. Each of these activities, whether taken in response to fraud, cybersecurity breaches or attacks, or other financial crimes, are supported by many similar data and processes. Indeed, bringing these data sources together with analytics materially improves visibility while providing much deeper insight to improve detection capability. In many instances it also enables prevention efforts.
In taking a more holistic view of the underlying processes, banks can streamline business and technology architecture to support a better customer experience, improved risk decision making, and greater cost efficiencies. The organizational structure can then be reconfigured as needed. (Exhibit 4).
From collaboration to holistic unification
Three models for addressing financial crime are important for our discussion. They are distinguished by the degree of integration they represent among processes and operations for the different types of crime (Exhibit 5).
Generally speaking, experience shows that organizational and governance design are the main considerations for the development of the operating model. Whatever the particular choice, institutions will need to bring together the right people in agile teams, taking a more holistic approach to common processes and technologies and doubling down on analytics—potentially creating “fusion centers,” to develop more sophisticated solutions. It is entirely feasible that an institution will begin with the collaborative model and gradually move toward greater integration, depending on design decisions. We have seen many banks identify partial integration as their target state, with a view that full AML integration is an aspiration.
- Collaborative model. In this model, which for most banks represents the status quo, each of the domains—financial crime, fraud, and cybersecurity—maintain their independent roles, responsibilities, and reporting. Each unit builds its own independent framework, cooperating on risk taxonomy and data and analytics for transaction monitoring, fraud, and breaches. The approach is familiar to regulators, but offers banks little of the transparency needed to develop a holistic view of financial-crime risk. In addition, the collaborative model often leads to coverage gaps or overlaps among the separate groups and fails to achieve the benefits of scale that come with greater functional integration. The model’s reliance on smaller, discrete units also means banks will be less able to attract top leadership talent.
- Partially integrated model for cybersecurity and fraud. Many institutions are now working toward this model, in which cybersecurity and fraud are partially integrated as the second line of defense. Each unit maintains independence in this model but works from a consistent framework and taxonomy, following mutually accepted rules and responsibilities. Thus a consistent architecture for prevention (such as for customer authentication) is adopted, risk-identification and assessment processes (including taxonomies) are shared, and similar interdiction processes are deployed. Deeper integral advantages prevail, including consistency in threat monitoring and detection and lower risk of gaps and overlap. The approach remains, however, consistent with the existing organizational structure and little disrupts current operations. Consequently, transparency is not increased, since separate reporting is maintained. No benefits of scale accrue, and with smaller operational units still in place, the model is less attractive to top talent.
- Unified model. In this fully integrated approach, the financial crimes, fraud, and cybersecurity operations are consolidated into a single framework, with common assets and systems used to manage risk across the enterprise. The model has a single view of the customer and shares analytics. Through risk convergence, enterprise-wide transparency on threats is enhanced, better revealing the most important underlying risks. The unified model also captures benefits of scale across key roles and thereby enhances the bank’s ability to attract and retain top talent. The disadvantages of this model are that it entails significant organizational change, making bank operations less familiar to regulators. And even with the organizational change and risk convergence, risks remain differentiated.
The integration of fraud and cybersecurity operations is an imperative step now, since the crimes themselves are already deeply interrelated. The enhanced data and analytics capabilities that integration enables are now essential tools for the prevention, detection, and mitigation of threats.
Most forward-thinking institutions are working toward such integration, creating in stages a more unified model across the domains, based on common processes, tools, and analytics. AML activities can also be integrated, but at a slower pace, with focus on specific overlapping areas first.
The starting point for most banks has been the collaborative model, with cooperation across silos. Some banks are now shifting from this model to one that integrates cybersecurity and fraud. In the next horizon, a completely integrated model enables comprehensive treatment of cybersecurity and financial crime, including AML. By degrees, however, increased integration can improve the quality of risk management, as it enhances core effectiveness and efficiency in all channels, markets, and lines of business.
Strategic prevention: Threats, prediction, and controls
The idea behind strategic prevention is to predict risk rather than just react to it. To predict where threats will appear, banks need to redesign customer and internal operations and processes based on a continuous assessment of actual cases of fraud, financial crime, and cyberthreats. A view of these is developed according to the customer journey. Controls are designed holistically, around processes rather than points. The approach can significantly improve protection of the bank and its customers (Exhibit 6).
To arrive at a realistic view of these transgressions, institutions need to think like the criminals. Crime takes advantage of a system’s weak points. Current cybercrime and fraud defenses are focused on point controls or silos but are not based on an understanding of how criminals actually behave. For example, if banks improve defenses around technology, crime will migrate elsewhere—to call centers, branches, or customers. By adopting this mind-set, banks will be able to trace the migratory flow of crime, looking at particular transgressions or types of crime from inception to execution and exfiltration, mapping all the possibilities. By designing controls around this principle, banks are forced to bring together disciplines (such as authentication and voice-stress analysis), which improves both efficacy and effectiveness.
Efficiencies of scale and processes
The integrated fraud and cyber-risk functions can improve threat prediction and detection while eliminating duplication of effort and resources. Roles and responsibilities can be clarified so that no gaps are left between functions or within the second line of defense as a whole. Consistent methodologies and processes (including risk taxonomy and risk identification) can be directed toward building understanding and ownership of risks. Integrating operational processes and continuously updating risk scores allow institutions to dynamically update their view on the riskiness of clients and transactions.
Data, automation, and analytics
Through integration, the anti-fraud potential of the bank’s data, automation, and analytics can be more fully realized. By integrating the data of separate functions, both from internal and external sources, banks can enhance customer identification and verification. Artificial intelligence and machine learning can also better enable predictive analytics when supported by aggregate sources of information. Insights can be produced rapidly—to establish, for example, correlations between credential attacks, the probability of account takeovers, and criminal money movements. By overlaying such insights onto their rules-based solutions, banks can reduce the rates of false positives in detection algorithms. This lowers costs and helps investigators stay focused on actual incidents.
The aggregation of customer information that comes from the closer collaboration of the groups addressing financial crime, fraud, and cybersecurity will generally heighten the power of the institution’s analytic and detection capabilities. For example, real-time risk scoring and transaction monitoring to detect transaction fraud can accordingly be deployed to greater effect. This is one of several improvements that will enhance regulatory preparedness by preventing potential regulatory breaches.
The customer experience and digital trust
The integrated approach to fraud risk can also result in an optimized customer experience. Obviously, meaningful improvements in customer satisfaction help shape customer behavior and enhance business outcomes. In the context of the risk operating model, objectives here include the segmentation of fraud and security controls according to customer experience and needs as well as the use of automation and digitization to enhance the customer journey. Survey after survey has affirmed that banks are held in high regard by their customers for performing well on fraud.
Unified risk management for fraud, financial crime, and cyberthreats thus fosters digital trust, a concept that is taking shape as a customer differentiator for banks. Security is clearly at the heart of this concept and is its most important ingredient. However, such factors as convenience, transparency, and control are also important components of digital trust. The weight customers assign to these attributes varies by segment, but very often such advantages as hassle-free authentication or the quick resolution of disputes are indispensable builders of digital trust.
A holistic view
The objective of the transformed operating model is a holistic view of the evolving landscape of financial crime. This is the necessary standpoint of efficient and effective fraud-risk management, emphasizing the importance of independent oversight and challenge through duties clearly delineated in the three lines of defense. Ultimately, institutions will have to integrate business, operations, security, and risk teams for efficient intelligence sharing and collaborative responses to threats.
How to proceed?
When banks design their journeys toward a unified operating model for financial crime, fraud, and cybersecurity, they must probe questions about processes and activities, people and organization, data and technology, and governance (see sidebar “The target fraud-risk operating model: Key questions for banks”).
Most banks begin the journey by closely integrating their cybersecurity and fraud units. As they enhance information sharing and coordination across silos, greater risk effectiveness and efficiency becomes possible. To achieve the target state they seek, banks are redefining organizational “lines and boxes” and, utility.
Most have stopped short of fully unifying the risk functions relating to financial crimes, though a few have attained a deeper integration. A leading US bank set up a holistic “center of excellence” to enable end-to-end decision making across fraud and cybersecurity. From prevention to investigation and recovery, the bank can point to significant efficiency gains. A global universal bank has gone all the way, combining all operations related to financial crimes, including fraud and AML, into a single global utility. The bank has attained a more holistic view of customer risk and reduced operating costs by approximately $100 million.
As criminal transgressions in the financial-services sector become more sophisticated and break through traditional risk boundaries, banks are watching their various risk functions become more costly and less effective. Leaders are therefore rethinking their approaches to take advantage of the synergies available in integration. Ultimately, fraud, cybersecurity, and AML can be consolidated under a holistic approach based on the same data and processes. Most of the benefits are available in the near term, however, through the integration of fraud and cyber operations. | https://bara.or.id/article/detail/financial-crime-and-fraud-in-the-age-of-cybersecurity |
Posted 7th July 2021
The healthcare industry was forced to do the opposite and confront its own set of unique challenges.
Unlike some organisations in other sectors, closing operations or off-site working just wasn’t an option. Remote working for essential and front-line healthcare services was clearly not viable. Life-saving solutions, like pop-up testing sites, virtual visits and online appointment scheduling were adopted with unprecedented speed.
Every trust and healthcare provider, saw a dramatic increase in patient volumes. This along with new public safety concerns and a shifting regulatory landscape forced providers to quickly adopt more efficient (and safer) ways of conducting business and how to handle patient data in a secure and time critical manner.
Very early on in this rapidly evolving pandemic, a lot of healthcare providers realised quickly that they had not yet implemented the infrastructure to support a digital system, and struggled to find ways to improve the patient experience and increase operational efficiency. Covid enhanced the pressure brought about by the inefficiencies of paper-based processes.
Our digital transformation team at E-Sign, saw a sharp rise in requests from health trusts to assist in the creation of solutions to complement and facilitate the processes implemented to fight the pandemic.
We understood the responsibility placed on us to react to an unprecedented and dynamic event and assist the healthcare industry to provide patients a safer and faster experience.
The handling of sensitive patient data is a responsibility that E-Sign takes very seriously. And the pandemic brought about changes for us as a business also. To ensure we could safely and securely deliver the best in industry solutions to the healthcare sector, we became the only signature service provider to obtain verification onto the Public Service Network.
To date we have assisted with effective solutions throughout the NHS as well as in private healthcare. Here are just a few of the areas we have aided:
What to learn from the last 12 months
One of the biggest takeaways of the COVID economy is that consumers are now accustomed to the ease and speed at which the digital market moves.
Healthcare practitioners wish to stay competitive in providing the best possible patient experience.
Freeing your staff from time-consuming manual processes will prepare you for the digital future of healthcare while providing your patients with a safer, simpler, and more personalised healthcare experience.
Here are five takeaway lessons that healthcare providers learned from the pandemic.
COVID-19 safety precautions have made touchless service a requirement for any modern healthcare organisation. Contactless scheduling, consent form, prescriptions, virtual visits, and online sign-in to minimise in-office wait times are just a few of the ways that the Healthcare Industry is providing patients with a safer environment to get care, one that will continue to have relevancy and value long after the pandemic is behind us.
By bringing administrative work online, a fully touchless healthcare system streamlines every step in the patient journey, from pre-appointment registration to medical dispensary. As a result, people get the critical care they require and healthcare professionals get the patient information they need from intake forms, post-visit surveys and more without delays associated with manual processes.
Patients plane a significant amount of trust into healthcare providers, and they should feel more than just another number through the door. New, digital healthcare solutions offer enhanced, around-the-clock communication and care.
The digitisation of manual processes enables patients, employees, and clinicians to complete necessary forms and agreements from the convenience of any device, saving time, reducing errors, and creating an easier, more-secure experience for all parties.
E-Sign has worked on many large-scale healthcare projects, all of which have a specific focus of introducing patient portals to healthcare practices. This is another way that upgrading your digital infrastructure can enhance the patient experience. Whether submitting a quick question, requesting a repeat prescription or inquiring about appointment availability, the ability to directly message providers makes patients feel more connected to and in control of their healthcare experience and leads to greater patient retention.
Having the operational capacity to meet patient demand is crucial, whether that’s during a healthcare crisis or a seasonal influx. Even post-pandemic, healthcare practices will confront wide fluctuations in patient volume, due to reasons as varied as the seasonal flu or annual back-to-school events. Automating back-office workflows and streamlining patient intake processes gives your staff the room they need to deliver the best year-round care to more patients in a shorter timeframe
Additionally, for healthcare organisations that have had to sacrifice service quality as they struggle to keep up with increasing customer expectations and industry regulations, solutions like remote ID verification and telehealth consultations make it easy to successfully manage increasing patient volumes and stabilise profit margins—with minimal investment.
Data and contracts are at the heart of every modern industry, none more so than the Healthcare Industry. Confidential information plays a critical role in keeping hospital systems running. E-Sign has worked with healthcare industry leaders to address the long-standing issue of healthcare providers using outdated software and implement solutions to improve the ability to efficiently deliver quality healthcare.
Today, healthcare leaders are using advanced digital technology that integrates with existing systems, providing an elegant solution to the inefficiencies that arise from using disparate technological systems. Full integration between state-of-the-art Document transaction management solutions and other cloud-based IT software (like Microsoft Power Automate) streamlines the daily work of securely preparing, approving, and storing contracts.
Automating back-office workflows, streamlining patient intake procedures, and offering online consultations decreases the cost of care, and boosts productivity. Efficiency in automation also provides every organisation with the room it needs to grow. As technology like electronic signatures and workflow intelligence take the place of inefficient manual contract management procedures, you can gain the freedom and resources you need to plan. Expand your operation to reach new patients or focus on what matters most, providing excellent patient care.
Today’s healthcare landscape is very challenging and dynamic. Implementing better processes digital isn’t a nicety, but rather a necessity. Automating manual workflows and digitising your paper-based healthcare experience bolsters your ability to deliver a premium healthcare experience safely, securely, and efficiently for your patients.
Moving online is simple. E-Sign is trusted but healthcare providers worldwide for a multitude of applications, from multi-site practices to COVID-19 testing and vaccination rollout sites. All of which we have one specific focus, improving the patient experience and driving greater efficiency is as simple as streamlining the manual processes that affect your patients and employees. | https://staging.e-sign.co.uk/news-insights/digital-healthcare-digitisation-for-clinical-commissioning-groups/ |
The annual report tracks trends in automation, spending and savings opportunities for healthcare administrative transactions.
CAQH has released the eighth annual report measuring the progress made by healthcare payers and providers in automating administrative transactions. The 2020 CAQH Index found that, of the $372 billion widely cited as the cost of administrative complexity in the US healthcare system, the industry can save $16.3 billion by fully automating nine common transactions. This savings opportunity is on top of the $122 billion in costs the healthcare industry has avoided by streamlining administrative processes. Levels of automation have increased for both the medical and dental industries since the last report, while the opportunity for further savings has also risen by $3 billion annually. This is largely due to a drop in costs for automated processes and higher costs for manual and partially electronic portal processes alongside increasing volumes.
The CAQH Index tracks automation, spending and savings opportunities for administrative transactions related to verifying patient insurance coverage and cost sharing, obtaining authorization for care, submitting claims and supplemental information and sending and receiving payments. The report categorizes transactions by whether they are fully automated, partially electronic or manual. The 2020 Index collected data from health plans and providers through the 2019 calendar year and thus excludes the impact of COVID-19 on healthcare administrative transactions.
While the industry has already avoided $122 billion annually by automating these transactions, up $20 billion from last year, the Index pinpointed opportunities for additional savings. For example, each fully automated claims status inquiry costs $11.71 less than the same transaction conducted manually for the medical industry and $10.92 less for the dental industry. Similarly, every eligibility and benefit verification converted from manual to electronic saves the medical industry $8.64 and the dental industry $8.75. Considering the millions of times these transactions occur every day, the savings potential across the healthcare economy is significant.
The 2020 Index also revealed that the costs associated with some manual and partially electronic portal transactions are increasing. This may be because, as healthcare business needs become more complex, manual processes to accommodate them are becoming more labor intensive and expensive. This further suggests that updates are needed to electronic transactions to address increasingly complex business needs that are today being addressed outside of the standard transactions.
To read the full 2020 CAQH Index, click here.
Register for a CAQH webinar discussing these findings being held on February 10th, 2021 at 2:00 pm ET. | https://www.caqh.org/about/newsletter/2021/2020-caqh-index-automating-healthcare-administrative-transactions-has-reduced |
"Brand strategy and innovation is a dynamic and growing practice of great variety. There is a huge demand for a consolidating publication that brings together the very best from the field. Journal of Brand Strategy is the most essential read today."
Each volume of Journal of Securities Operations & Custody consists of four quarterly 100-page issues. Articles scheduled for Volume 14 are available to view on the Forthcoming content page.
The articles published in Volume 14 include:
Volume 14 Number 2
This paper describes a vision for sub-custodian network management in a post-pandemic world. It examines how the COVID-19 crisis affected risk assessment functions and the approach to due diligence. It also considers the wider roles network managers play in market advocacy, intelligence gathering, relationship management and infrastructure development, and looks at whether the global pandemic has accelerated a bifurcation of these roles. It makes the case for continued on-site meetings when the pandemic ends and examines new considerations for such visits. It goes on to explore some of the components that will shape the future evolution of the network manager, including the impact of digitalisation and technological innovation and trends and themes transforming the custody business itself. Successful network managers should embrace the digital paradigm, and support and enable their sub-custodians to do the same. As sub-custodian business models change and markets evolve, network managers should continue to leverage their high level of market expertise to support their own organisations in their decision making. Network managers should increasingly become agents of change, as they navigate new complexities and identify opportunities for key stakeholders across the sub-custodian network.
Keywords: network management, due diligence, on-site, future, sub-custodian, pandemic
In a securities settlement cycle, one of the greatest factors affecting market risk — including counterparty risk, credit risk and default risk — continues to be time. One of the areas of exposure remaining in the settlement system today is the risk of a sudden event that could affect the transfer of cash or ownership of securities from trade execution through trade settlement. The current standard cycle for settling equity trades in the US is trade date plus two business days (T+2); however, industry consensus is growing that accelerating this settlement cycle to one day or less will better serve market participants by reducing costs and mitigating risk. While shortening a settlement cycle sounds simple enough, the execution is more complex. Equity clearance and settlement is part of a large ecosystem of global financial markets, interconnected processes and linked systems. Accelerating the US cash market settlement cycle will have both upstream and downstream impacts on other parts of the market structure, such as derivatives, securities lending, financing, foreign clients and foreign exchange and collateral management. Settlement is one of the most powerful and critical processes of The Depository Trust & Clearing Corporation (DTCC), and as the backbone of the US financial services industry, DTCC clears and settles hundreds of billions of dollars in equities transactions every day. This paper suggests that the industry’s primary goal must be to create efficiencies without introducing additional risk to markets. DTCC is actively working with its industry partners towards a path to accelerated settlement of T+1 and beyond by taking a careful, methodical approach to examine all issues and potential impacts for the entire US equities market.
Keywords: accelerated settlement, DTCC, market volatility, margin procyclicality
As a result of one of the great human tragedies of the 21st century, the world has been enduring some form of ‘lockdown’ or curtailment of ‘normal’ since early 2020 due to the global COVID-19 pandemic. The impact of COVID-19 on the human condition has been immeasurable; sociologists and psychologists will have source material for many decades as they attempt to put this virus and its ramifications on the world into context. Most of those reading this are neither of the above, however, so the focus for this paper will be the effects of COVID-19 on the asset management industry and how we as an industry operated during the pandemic. Most importantly, this paper will seek to explore trends that were accelerated as a result of the pandemic and what the future operating model for the asset management industry could look like. As my core expertise is the alternative asset management industry, this commentary will focus mostly on that particular subset of the industry, but certain aspects will be applicable to different types of fund operating models across the spectrum.
Keywords: COVID-19, business model, outsourcing, cloud, alternative investments, automation
Client requirements are fundamentally changing, and this is forcing custodian banks to think more laterally about how they deliver services to customers. Increasingly, custodians are scoping out new ways of sharing meaningful and thoughtful data sets with clients as seamlessly as possible through an array of different transmission methods, including application programming interfaces (APIs) and SWIFT, among others. This paper outlines some of the data solutions that custodians are developing, together with how clients are benefiting from them in areas such as settlement efficiency, market access, and environment, social, governance (ESG) investing. The paper also notes, however, that data solutions are not without their challenges. Custodians’ banks will need to ensure that the data they disseminate to clients is accurate, secure, and is not so detailed that it completely overwhelms the end users. Elsewhere, the absence of comprehensive data regulation has prompted some market participants to push for the adoption of data standards, but this is not straightforward. A balance is, however, required on standardisation so that it does not undermine innovation, a theme that the paper explores in depth. This paper is essential reading for market leaders in the custody world who are looking to strengthen and deepen their data capabilities for clients.
Keywords: data, digital assets, data solutions, data insights, technology, innovation
COVID-19 has undoubtedly left a mark on every aspect of communication, which includes risk communication with businesses and financial institutions. As the world finds a new normal, the analysis of risk and due diligence processes has transformed, paving the way towards a technology driven approach. This paper delves into the implications of COVID-19 on the bank network community and how it has accelerated the adoption of due diligence technology.
Keywords: due diligence, risk management, bank network management, COVID recovery, technology, automation
This paper looks at how the securities industry can better manage coexistence between different message formats along with realising the many opportunities presented by available data. This is with a view to arriving at greater efficiency, profitability and interoperability within securities and across financial services. It begins with an overview of the quantities and types of data produced by the industry, discussing the costs and risks this poses if it is not sufficiently well managed. It then moves into a discussion of the need for a common language for all parts of financial services, including securities, to agree on in order to communicate more effectively. The paper focuses on using the global ISO 20022 standard for this purpose. It covers the question of migrating to it as a message format, for which there is little appetite within the securities industry in the short to medium term. ISO 20022’s central repository and data dictionary provide a solution, creating the common language that can help to ensure interoperability between entities. It includes discussion of the many benefits of using ISO 20022 in this way, such as reduced costs, risks and timeframes. It highlights how ISO 20022 as a data model can be applied to developing standardised application programming interfaces and building connections with emerging technologies and industries such as distributed ledger technology and crypto assets. The paper also looks at the risks and limitations posed by a prolonged period of coexistence. The use of a common data dictionary can enable firms to interoperate without having to align data exchanges at the syntax level; however, there are still associated costs, risks and inefficiencies. The conclusion is that securities market participants should collaborate to adopt a common data dictionary that can be integrated into their systems, their software and their processes.
Keywords: coexistence, data, ISO 20022, interoperability, securities, securities services, standards
While the tsunami of regulation following the 2008 financial crisis has receded, compliance for wealth management companies continues to grow more complex. In recognition of the difficulty of meeting evolving standards and obligations, the US Government now offers incentives to companies that adopt technical solutions. RegTech that surfaces issues in a timely manner and holistically across an institution’s book of business is seen as directly correlated with transparency and accountability. It is also good business. Today’s solutions empower companies to streamline account management, reduce risk, lower cost and strengthen client relationships. The author shares best practices and important questions to consider when designing and implementing a 360-degree compliance programme. The key to success is synergy among people, processes and technology. Successful compliance starts with stakeholders across the front, middle and back offices. With guidance and best practices gained from interactions with regulators, consultants and technology providers, the company establishes the procedures to ensure the programme properly addresses its investment management business and its regulatory risk. With the right people and procedures in place, thoughtful RegTech serves as the glue that enables proactive, efficient, 360-degree compliance. With the breadth of data and volume of regulations that companies contend with today, a 360-degree compliance technology platform should employ comprehensive and accurate data; exception-driven rules to eliminate false positives; well-designed workflows that distribute tasks logically across the front, middle and back offices; and efficient oversight tools. Technology cannot replace sound, human-driven policies and procedures but when combined with customer relations and portfolio management into a 360-degee programme, RegTech provides vital protection against regulatory, operational and reputational risks and gives investment managers an understanding of their businesses they could never achieve before. This paper discusses the evolution of 360-degree compliance programmes and share best practices for designing and implementing them. It analyses how, when applied across all investable accounts and business segments, technology can transform compliance from a reactive to a proactive process.
Keywords: RegTech, WealthTech, compliance, investment management, FinTech, wealth management, fiduciary monitoring
Blockchain-based tokenisation is increasingly getting attention with more assets and asset classes being tokenised. Ownership rights in the assets are represented on the blockchain where they can be traded without direct intermediaries, which is seen as one of the main blockchain promises. In this paper, we describe the still emerging adoption of blockchain technology that shows persistently positive indicators of growth, despite frequent doubts of its usefulness. More precisely, we explore recent developments in the tokenisation space, with particular focus on the stage and scale of current products and services, and the degree to which these deliver on the blockchain promises. We further provide a perspective on how banks could approach tokenisation and deliver related services. With blockchain, trust in intermediaries is replaced by trust in the consensus of validating nodes of the used blockchain platform. This has substantial consequences for banks planning to offer new services, since they care about the cost of transaction, its confirmation time, privacy, liability, and even the carbon footprint of underlying processes. In order to support decision making, we provide an analysis of how these parameters differ depending on the blockchain platform type and its consensus protocol.
Keywords: blockchain, tokenisation, comparison of private and public blockchains
Volume 14 Number 1
With the rise of technology solutions and their application in the financial markets (also referred to as FinTech), several regulated firms, ranging from small to institutional players, are increasingly availing of third parties (both regulated and unregulated) across the globe to perform a process, a service or an activity that would otherwise be undertaken by such regulated firms. Effectively, the decision to avail of such arrangement, labelled as outsourcing, can be the result of multiple business considerations, including (i) reliance on third parties due to their more efficient and cost-effective systems, (ii) scalability, (iii) lack or limited internal resources and/or in-house capabilities, but also (iv) intragroup allocation of functions and (v) agility and flexibility. The financial industry, however, is facing an increasing scrutiny over outsourcing arrangements, especially in respect of information technology (IT)-related outsourcing, by regulators across the European Union (EU) and the United Kingdom. The key regulatory concerns range from stakeholder protection, operational resilience to business continuity. To ensure that such concerns are duly addressed by regulated entities, EU supervisory authorities and the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) intervened with binding guidelines on outsourcing and a strengthened regulatory framework applicable to outsourcing, covering the pre-outsourcing phase and extending from day-to-day monitoring. This paper aims to provide a pragmatic overview on certain best practices designed to ensure effective monitoring of outsourced functions and sustainable operational resilience. A first section shall focus on the notion of outsourcing and shall identify the main regulatory framework(s) affected by outsourcing rules. The following section will focus on the impact of outsourcing in the investment services industry, with a particular emphasis on asset managers, credit and financial institutions and investment service providers, without looking at the insurance sector. A third section will provide a five-step guidance on building an effective outsourcing monitoring model with a particular focus on small-medium enterprises, while the following section will focus on exit strategies. Before drawing the conclusions of the analysis carried out earlier, a final section will identify what the authors believe being the ultimate goal of ensuring effective third-party outsourcing monitoring, namely the creation of a sustainable control environment designed to deliver operational resilience in the long term.
Keywords: financial industry, outsourcing, EBA guidelines, monitoring
The organisation and regulation of the European securities clearing and settlement business is again up for reform. The present dispersed European landscape calls for more integration as part of the formation of a European capital market, as proposed by the European Commission. These reforms would result in legislative changes, some of which are analysed in this paper, having raised active interest in the financial world: a new technique of dealing with settlement finality, proposing a mandatory buy-in tool as an effective instrument against settlement fails, and an analysis of settlement internalisation, which has risen to levels that, according to the Commission, might ‘undermine confidence in the CSD function’ and in the markets. On the two topics of settlement finality and settlement fails, data has now become available and is included. The third item analyses the use of distributed ledger technology (DLT) in the settlement infrastructure. As part of its work stream on digital finance, the Commission has published a proposal — as a ‘pilot project’ — for a regulation dealing with the main items that have to be adapted upon the introduction of DLT in the existing securities settlement system (SSS) and multilateral trading facility (MTF) segments of the market. For central securities depository (CSD) using DLT, the existing regulation would remain applicable, but the operations would be exempted from numerous requirements applicable today. The impact on the markets will have to be closely monitored, hence the Commission’s ‘pilot project’. The European Central Bank (ECB) has already formulated its position of cautious optimism.
Keywords: improving finality by mandating a buy-in agent, the internalisation of transactions, the use of distributed ledger technology for market infrastructure, positions of Commission and ECB
This paper describes a vision of the securities services landscape in 2030 and beyond based on current technology and industry trends alongside Northern Trust’s own experience and innovation research. It explores the components shaping that future, such as blockchain, digital assets and decentralised finance (DeFi), and the underlying drivers of change including regulatory developments, an increasing demand for sustainability and the search for alpha. The complete, and potentially profound, nature of this transition will result in each step in the industry’s value chains being required to grow increasingly astute, agile and creative. Within this context, custodians will become a conduit for their clients to a new digital world — navigating the complexity of an evolving landscape and highlighting opportunity whilst continuing a safeguarding role. The paper explores practical steps that all industry participants will need to consider in order to competitively position themselves for this step change in the belief that, ultimately, the conclusion of this process will be a more efficient, transparent and flexible ecosystem enabling products and services that are unimaginable today.
Keywords: Digitisation, Blockchain, decentralised finance, digital assets, digital infrastructure, cryptocurrency
Trading markets are dynamic. The composition of trading centres and market behaviour are constantly evolving. The number of market events is also constantly increasing, often in response to significant events like the COVID-19 pandemic. The dynamic nature of trading markets poses significant challenges for regulators that are responsible for exercising oversight of market activities. This paper discusses the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority’s research and development projects dedicated to experimenting with the development and improvement of artificial intelligence, machine learning and deep learning market surveillance techniques or tools. Such experimentation is critical for regulators to continue to keep pace with dynamic markets. The development and improvement of such techniques and tools holds the potential for continued effective oversight of market activities.
Keywords: Market surveillance, artificial intelligence, machine learning, deep learning
A significant cost for sell-side firms, but not a differentiator: this is the reason why, in recent years, Securities Operations have not seen the investment needed to modernise fully, as the demands of the front office have come first. But a confluence of regulatory, technological and market trends is now forcing a fundamental change in post-trade, with innovative pricing and operating models coming to the fore. The volume spike in the COVID-19 pandemic was a final catalyst for many firms to look at their options afresh. This paper outlines the challenges facing securities operations, analyses current developments in pricing and operating models and looks ahead to the opportunities that more flexible models offer. I am grateful for numerous insights from Broadridge clients and colleagues.
Keywords: Post-trade, CSDR, outsourcing, derivatives, cloud, back office
This paper explains why Custodians have demonstrated a significant interest in offering Data as a Service (DAAS) to their Clients on the basis that they should be in a prime position to provide a compelling offer. Notwithstanding this, Custodians have not yet fully delivered to their potential, and we explore why this is the case and what some of the specific barriers are. Understanding these limitations, we then present the reader with a ‘checklist’ that they can use when considering appointing Custodians for DAAS. The reader should expect to understand what current limitations exist with respect to Custodian DAAS and how they can assess these via a tendering process. Further, Custodians can consider these observations and consider what changes they may be able make as they further develop their DAAS offer to the market.
Keywords: InvestmentData, Data as a Service, Custodian, DAAS
The increasing costs and complexities of compliance and the intensifying competition for financial professionals and compliance staff are pushing financial services firms to adopt regulatory technology. The RegTech market has expanded from 150 vendors to more than 400 within just four years as firms seek effective and efficient solutions to their compliance and regulatory needs. Firms reduce regulatory risk and increase operational efficiency by replacing manual processes, internally built systems, off-the-shelf software that has been modified for compliance needs or some combination thereof, with built-for-purpose, integrated enterprise solutions for needs such as licensing and registration, conflict of interest disclosure review and administration, oversight and risk management and supervisory policies and procedures. However, some firms have difficulty ascertaining an accurate return on investment in enterprise technology because of the challenges involved in identifying and considering all of the benefits of an integrated platform and the culture of compliance that it creates. Although returns such as cost savings and productivity gains can be measured rather easily, benefits such as fines avoided and a reputation for strong compliance are often harder to quantify. To understand the value of enterprise technology, a firm must evaluate its effectiveness and efficiency in meeting a firm’s regulatory and compliance needs and assess the impact that it makes in recruiting and retaining top talent by offering an experience that emphasises ease of use and the elimination of manual tasks. This paper offers a detailed look at quantitative and qualitative benefits that a firm should consider in evaluating the effectiveness, efficiency and experience of a built-for-purpose enterprise compliance and licensing platform. | https://www.henrystewartpublications.com/jsoc/v14 |
Managing Unstructured Data in a Post-LIBOR World
The phase-out of the London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR) represents much more than a shift in lending rates. The benchmark rate for global lenders, and the basis for consumer loans around the world, LIBOR is embedded in financial contracts with a total value estimated as high as 340 trillion worldwide.
Identifying and remediating LIBOR-related exposure is one of the greatest challenges the financial services industry has ever faced—and it’s one for which many firms are woefully unprepared.
While banks have been advised to stop writing new loans tied to LIBOR by October 2020, the phase-out is not expected to be complete until the end of 2021. In order to be prepared—and to reduce the risk of lawsuits due to misrepresentation of rate terms, interest owing, and other fallout—banks must remediate contracts to reflect the shift to the replacement rates in advance of that date.
The Steep Cost of LIBOR Transition
For the world’s 14 top banks, the LIBOR transition is expected to cost a whopping $1.2-billion USD. Within the financial industry as a whole, that cost could be compounded several times over. 2
A significant portion of these costs are due to the need to closely review each contract to identify legacy LIBOR-linked loans and transition these agreements to new rates. Financial firms cannot even begin to estimate and address their LIBOR exposure without a clear, complete, and accurate view of their agreements. And while a smaller institution may be able to manually comb through contracts to identify LIBOR, for large enterprises with millions of contracts, manual review simply isn’t feasible.
Unstructured Data, the Greatest LIBOR Compliance Risk
There are several contract analysis solutions designed to search repositories for specific agreements. But the process of identifying LIBOR contracts is hindered by the presence of unstructured data—namely legacy contracts and loan agreements with content that cannot be automatically searched for LIBOR-linked terms.
Additionally, key contract terms are often buried in variously worded clauses and within inconsistent formats—and LIBOR text could exist anywhere in your organization’s agreements—resulting in time-consuming, expensive manual effort.
While a lot of content is becoming increasingly born-digital, the reality is that complex agreements among multiple parties often span decades and geographies. As such, gaining visibility into contracts is a significant challenge for many organizations.
Why Contract Intelligence Matters
Given the potential costs riding on the successful transition of LIBOR-linked contracts, organizations can’t afford to let their documents fall through the cracks. The presence of unstructured data makes it difficult to avoid this pitfall. However, gaining total visibility into your contracts is possible with a sophisticated approach to data and a robust Contract Intelligence solution:
- That can scan multiple sources (repositories, fileshares, emails, etc.) for contracts that may contain LIBOR-related terms and obligations. The right technology should combine the common sense of a human—finding and assessing contracts with relevant LIBOR clauses—and the efficiency of a well-oiled machine.
- With flexible, highly accurate Optical Character Recognition (OCR) capabilities that can ingest vast volumes of contract content in a broad range of formats—with minimal manual intervention. If your OCR tool is accurate only 80 percent of the time, you risk overlooking LIBOR terms within 20 percent of your contracts. While that may not seem like a huge margin of error on paper, those inaccuracies can add up over thousands or millions of agreements.
- With flexible Classification and Extraction capabilities that allow for the creation and refinement of LIBOR-related terms, including:
- Clauses that refer to “interest rate” or “rate”
- The terms "inter-bank offered rate," "LIBOR," or "IBOR," and variants of those terms
- Clauses that refer to “fall-back” and “adjudication”
The Final Verdict
Financial firms have less than two years to complete one of the largest undertakings in their history, and there is much riding on the successful identification and remediation of LIBOR-linked agreements. While sifting through countless legacy contracts is onerous—and frankly impossible for many enterprises—a robust contract intelligence solution offers firms a powerful way to get a handle on this immense task. Click here to learn more about how to prepare for the post-LIBOR transition. | https://www.adlibsoftware.com/blog/2020/april/managing-unstructured-data-in-a-post-libor-world.aspx |
Entrepreneur Manish Bharucha is one of the co-founders and currently the CEO of Kyzer Software, a leading banking and financial organization, established in 2016. It creates niche products in trade finance, automation,lending, compliance, and regulatory reporting with various Indian as well as multinational banks.
Regulatory reporting refers to the process of submitting relevant data to aid the assessment of the overall working and functioning of the bank by the regulators. The process of regulatory reporting is notorious for being complex as it is tedious and comprehensive. Some prominent challenges that are commonly faced by people while filing regulatory reports are discussed briefly below-
Poor use of Technology
The process that is currently being followed to consolidate and submit the regulatory reports is mostly manual and is thus time-consuming. Additionally, manual processes, as opposed to automated ones, are more likely to make errors which in turn adds to the time consumed in finalizing the report.
Even the processes that do use technology to some extent are mostly conducted from siloed applications which often causes discrepancies while aggregating the data.
While the most efficient way of consolidating the data would be through the use of advanced technology via an integrated platform, that has not been possible yet due to the absence of such a system.
Establishing proper control and understanding of Data
Comprehensive understanding of and control over the regulatory data is critical for all organizations. However, this factor is often missing in practical things. There is a pressing need for organizations to be able to establish the fact that they truly know and understand the data as recorded in the reports. It is also crucial that organizations are in a position to file accurate and timely reports. Thus, financial institutions should work to improve their ability to explain and demonstrate compliance with regulations.
Lack of automation
Even though tools like Excel and Macros serve the purpose, they are decidedly not the most efficient tools that can be used to consolidate and audit regulatory reports’ data. There is an acute need for automating regulatory reporting. This is because the report is as good as the data it furnishes. Thus, the data has to be absolutely accurate, precise, and error-free. Manual working and non-automated tools often act as a hindrance in the path of achieving the desired level of quality of the data inputs. If the processes of data extraction and amalgamation were to be automated, it would serve to enhance the precision of the data of the entire report. Automation would also drastically alter the time consumed in finalizing the report and thus add to the efficiency.
Trail Gaps
It is typical of regulatory reporting to have lengthy and comprehensive audit trails. The reason behind this is two-fold- firstly to identify and rectify the errors in reports and secondly, to present the strong control regime of the organization to externals auditors and regulators. It is important to make and maintain this process to be transparent and streamlined. This can be done by centralizing the process.
The risk of misinterpretation
The rules are seldom laid out in an organized and clear manner. Thus, they are usually up to the interpretation of the reader. Since interpretation is at the discretion of an individual, it usually differs from person to person. This leads to gaps in the uniformity of information. Further, the regulations and procedures are laid out in a lengthy and complex manner which adds to the lack of proper understanding.
Oftentimes, this confusion leads to the need of appointing Subject matter experts or SMEs who aid the understanding of concepts. This adds to the cost of compliance. To add to that, finding competent and experienced SMEs is a tough task. Thus, it is essential for organizations to intimate regulations in an easy and comprehensive manner, even if it is not mandatory compliance as it will work to enhance the overall efficiency and cut costs.
Regtech Software: The need of the hour
Regtech refers to a category of firms that make use of technologies like cloud computing to enable businesses to automate their regulatory processes and thereby fulfill the regulations efficiently and economically. It seeks to deliver sustainable enhancements in the fields of financial data accuracy, process control, operational efficiency, and regulatory reporting, all of which are central to meeting regulatory expectations. The some of the many benefits of Regtech software are as follows-
- The fully automated solution is scalable and replicable across multiple financial institutions.
- Automation works to lessen the time consumed in completing reconciliations.
- Integrated risk and control framework.
- Significant reduction in costs incurred on ongoing operations and lower investment expense as operations scale.
- The ability to amplify and scale current processes along with regulatory requirements.
- Improved communications – Real-time interface for financial institutions and their customers, allowing oversight teams to monitor KPIs, breaks, and workflows via configurable dashboards.
- Ability to interact with multiple cores, non-core systems, and data sources simultaneously as required with improved operational efficiency.
Things a good Regtech software should offer
- Use of a single reconciliation engine to integrate data from multiple sources.
- Enrichment and segregation of data points based on business needs.
- Complex multipoint matching framework generating true and accurate data.
- Easily adaptable to incremental changes due to new regulations, new data sources, and ongoing process refinements.
- Full operational control to map changes on data points.
- Systematic change management with lite touch IT dependency
- Robust control functionality, including maker-checker rules and use of workflow management.
- Fully recordable and auditable workflows.
- Proper and mechanized report generation and data extraction.
- Ability to amalgamate data across ranges accurately.
- Outbound scheduled communication using email and messaging.
- Secure and active archiving for the desired duration.
- Rapid implementation timeframe supporting a swift ROI.
Summing up
Consolidating and submitting regulatory reports is a tough task in today’s date but it does not necessarily have to be. Recent times have seen rapid technological advancements and provided several quick and easy ways out of the challenges posed by regulatory reporting. A great option is that of Regtech software that automates the processes of data extraction and amalgamation, thereby enhancing the efficiency of the overall process and minimizing the threat of challenges. | https://www.cxooutlook.com/the-challenges-of-regulatory-reporting-for-financial-institutions/ |
7 Reasons You Need to Switch to Automatic Real-Time Data Collection
Plant floors are becoming increasingly complex environments, where managers thirst for higher efficiency and productivity of their equipment. In an effort to make plant floors more efficient, data needs to be collected from many different sources, integrated and analyzed under a centralized platform.
More businesses are beginning to implement industrial IoT technologies in order to make the data collection and analysis process easier and more efficient. One of the things that implementing IIoT enables a plant to achieve is real-time data collection.
How it works
Automatic data collection involves placing sensors, valves and other plant-floor technologies on your equipment to track the operational efficiency of your machines in real time.
Data on different aspects of your equipment’s operations is collected in real time and sent to a cloud. Software programs are then used to compile data from various machines around the plant, the data is analyzed according to relevant KPIs, and plant managers and other relevant personnel can view performance results.
Real-time data collection benefits your plant in many ways, most notably by increasing operational efficiency while reducing downtime and driving up productivity.
Here are 7 reasons why you need to begin collecting data in real time in your factory:
1. Improved visibility of your plant operations
Have you ever wanted to get a quick overview of how your plant is operating at any given moment? Collecting data in real time makes this possible. With information about your equipment being constantly monitored and integrated using a common platform (such as the cloud), you can get a precise snapshot of what is going on in the factory at any given time.
This makes it easier for the management team to make faster and better decisions that are backed by concrete data. In addition, software applications that are part of IIoT technologies are very efficient at aggregating and analyzing data. You can therefore pick up on potential future problems such as signs of downtime and equipment breakdown even before they happen.
2. Higher quality data that facilitates better decision-making
Real-time data collection means you can get accurate and higher quality data for your plant. The use of IIoT devices to collect data from machines is much more efficient than manual data collection processes. Manual data collection is slower, prone to mistakes, and harder to compile using a common platform.
In fact, a survey carried out by the Economist Intelligence Unit found that 86% of manufacturers who implemented the IIoT to collect and analyze data reported major increases in productivity and high-quality data.
Not only is automated data collection more efficient, it is also more trustworthy. It is less likely to be interfered with by biased parties, and the resulting decisions made for the plant are more objective.
3. Easy to set up
The IIoT has made real-time data collection much easier to achieve for plants. In most cases, all you need to do is install a series of sensors and valves on your equipment. These devices will work continuously to monitor the health of your machines, while collecting critical data on performance indicators such as temperature and flow pressure, thereby ensuring that your plant operates more efficiently.
4. Flexibility to adapt to your production needs
Your plant’s needs may vary considerably from day to day. There are days when you may want to schedule overtime for employees in case your daily targets are not met. You may also need to increase the speed on a specific production line when there’s a spike in demand by customers. Whatever the reason, flexibility should be at the heart of your operations.
Collecting data in real time allows you to continuously maintain an overall view of how the plant is operating, and to make necessary changes in order to match productivity with daily targets and goals. Real-time data always keeps you one step ahead, giving you the flexibility to make key decisions to foresee downtime and problems caused by backlogs.
5. Real-time data collection increases the productivity of your employees
In order for your plant to become more efficient, your employees must become more productive. Automated data collection processes allow employees who were previously bogged down with manual data collection responsibilities to refocus their skills and efforts towards other crucial areas of the plant.
To increase your employees’ productivity, you need to link their job functions with their strengths as well as with key areas of focus for your business. With real-time data and increased automation strategies, your employees will now have the time to work on added-value tasks, while coming up with ideas to make your operations more efficient and profitable.
6. Lower costs
Implementing IIoT technologies to collect real-time data leads to lower costs for your plant operations. Automated processes cut down on labor and equipment maintenance costs. Also, with KPIs being constantly monitored, you can implement predictive maintenance measures that save on unnecessary material costs. Automation also tends to be “greener”, reducing the amount of paper used in your plant, along with the associated costs.
Time clock modules can be used to provide insights into employee work hours, and to analyze how their efficiency fluctuates during the course of the day.
7. Better inventory management
Are you incurring high inventory costs? Real-time data can be applied to how you track and manage your inventory so you can improve efficiency. For example, by using barcodes to keep track of items (as opposed to manual processes), you can anticipate how much of each item your plant will need on any given day.
You can therefore coordinate with suppliers to deliver inventory only when it is needed, i.e., “just in time”. Sensors can be used in the plant to send notification signals directly to supplier systems when inventory is low. In this way, the production plant does not need to incur storage costs for unused inventory. | https://blog.worximity.com/en/industry-4_0/reasons-to-switch-automatic-real-time-data-collection |
KOTA KINABALU: Industry Revolution 4.0 and Internet of Things (IOT), subjects of much interest in recent years are expected to gain momentum locally and internationally when they become part of the core initiative of various governments.
With the advent of the 4th global industrial revolution (IR), the government recognized the importance of integrating the IR 4.0 initiative into the national agenda as a mean to keep pace with the latest advancements.
According to Dr. Rafiq Idris, an Economist and Senior Lecturer from the Financial Economics Program, in the Faculty of Business, Economics and Accountancy, at Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS) the government in its recent budget presentation announced that there will be some allocations to encourage transformation of companies into IR4.0.
“What exactly is IR 4.0? And, is it really necessary to adopt IR 4.0 when some traditional businesses are not even into IR 3.0? Also, what are the likely implications of IR 4.0 on the country’s economy?”
These are recommendations to ensure that the Malaysian economy is able to capitalize on the benefits of IR 4.0, he stressed.
“Ever since the occurrence of the first Industrial Revolution (IR), when steam power propelled industrial advancement, development came to be viewed in terms of separate stages of industrial development that was primarily motivated by the discovery of a new power source.”
“Thus, just as the first Industrial Revolution (IR 1.0) was initiated by the creation of the steam engine, the second and third IRs were set in motion by the invention of electric power and information technology (IT), respectively. IR 4.0, in the same way, is an economic and infrastructural advancement brought about by the automation of human activities through software,” he shared.
“IR 4.0 involves the use of software (apps) as a medium for automating business activity. It stimulates manufacturing productivity by enhancing the connectivity between humans and machines. In other words, apps are a means of synchronizing the physical and digital world to stimulate and innovate industrial efficiency. It digitizes, automates and interconnects all the processes, not only within a company, but along the entire value chain. These inter-firm and customer data-linkages leads to the creation of holistic production network that generates and learns from ‘big data’ on manufacturing.”
“IR 4.0 allows for the deployment of IOT in a way that adds meaningful value through synergistic and innovative gains in manufacturing processes. Thus, it allows manufacturers to use data derived from physical assets within the production process, (machines etc) to provide insights based on data,” he stated adding that these data-driven insights into efficiency and innovation are the key for the Malaysian industrial sector to remain globally competitive.
“IR 4.0 will make machine more intelligent where it gives manufacturers insights they never had before. Automation process is used in factory for the production in the manufacturing sector. The used of automation in factory are called smart factory.”
“Is it necessary to adopt IR 4.0? Some traditional businesses are not even into IR 3.0. Like it or not, IR 4.0 is a change that is sweeping the global landscape. This is the current trend of development and advancement, and not adapting to these changes can only mean one thing, that we get left behind,” Dr Rafiq stressed.
“This does not mean that every single business entity must embrace IR 4.0. Even though, we are in IR 4.0, there might be small companies exist who do not embrace the current change. That might not be a problem since it involves a small supply of products or services for local demand.”
“Is IR 4.0 relevant to sectors other than manufacturing? It is my understanding that IR 4.0 can benefit other sectors such as the agriculture and services (education, tourism, logistic). Examples of activities that reflect IR 4.0 include the development of smart universities, hospitals, factory, airports, sea ports, the digitalization of accounting service, digitalization of legal service and digitalization of human resource management services.”
“More specific examples include fully automated production process in factory, the process of loading or unloading containers at ports, robot waiters in restaurants, remotely managing the power of buildings from smart phones or other devices.”
“Does it involve significant costs? Any structural change will involve some costs. The initial set up of IR 4.0 will incur some costs because of the deployment of an infrastructural framework that facilitates IR 4.0, as well as transformative costs to adapt the industry to utilize IOT. However, in the long run it is reasonable to expect the efficiency and innovation gains to significantly outweigh the deployment and transformation costs.”
“Will IR 4.0 benefit businesses of all sizes? In general, I would say yes. IR 4.0 will directly affect medium and large corporations by lowering their production costs because of complete or partial changes in production and operation activities. Such lower production costs are likely to trickle down to micro and small enterprises translating into lower production costs and prices.”
What are the macroeconomic implications of IR 4.0 on Malaysia, he questioned.
“Efficiency gains confer cost benefits, which translates into more competitive pricing of Malaysian products (and exports). More competitively priced exports have the potential to boost export volume, and stimulate the Malaysian economy. In other words, IR 4.0 improves the competitiveness of Malaysian exports, thereby raising its Gross Domestic Product (GDP). A higher GDP translates into more income which may further boost the industrial sector and potentially employment,” he opined.
When at least large corporations can lower cost of production as well as operation cost due to IR4.0, price of goods and services to be sold might be lower, he said adding that as a result, it has the potential to make Malaysian products more competitive. This can happen if Malaysia adapt to changes fast, benefiting from first/early mover advantage.
On the other hand, it may be argued that increased automation implies that employment opportunities may be reduced for highly manual jobs involving repetitive tasks.
“There is a potential that some will be out of job due to this wave as robots are taking human role for some activities. However, this is not expected to occur across all jobs, some large scale factories are already automated. The real benefit of IR 4.0 lies in access to and learning from big data. These are likely to create new dimensions of employment, too.”
“What are my recommendations to ensure that the Malaysian economy can benefit from IR 4.0? Firstly, studies must be conducted in order to identify which sectors have the most potential to benefit from IR 4.0. These sectors must be given more priority, when shifting to IR 4.0. This way, the transformative and deployment costs of IR 4.0 can be mitigated early on. This approach is also a good way of determining which activities are more suitable for automation, and the sectors that are not.”
“Secondly, creating awareness of IR 4.0 and stakeholders engagement is necessary. Many are still not fully aware of the importance and benefits of IR 4.0. We need to prepare our workforce in areas such as additive manufacturing, so that the transition to the new system is a smooth one, with minimal resistance.”
“Thirdly, there is a need to minimize the cost of transition to IR 4.0. Incentives should be provided to companies that are willing to transform. This not only has the benefit of reducing the cost of transformation, but also has the advantage of increasing the rate of transition to IR 4.0.”
There is also a need to minimize the social costs of shifting to 4.0. For example, to address possible unemployment issues arising from automation, the government must provide training programs and/ or provide alternative forms of employment, he shared. | http://borneonews.net/2018/11/23/ir-4-0-the-way-forward-economist-dr-rafiq/ |
The Metis are an aboriginal -- or "First Nations" -- people of Canada named for the French word “miscere,” which means to mix. With the advent of colonization, Metis culture began to combine French and English influences with its Native American roots. As a result, the religious beliefs of the Metis incorporate a highly distinct blend of Christian ideology and traditional aboriginal spiritual views.
1 Nature and Connectedness
Like many Native American customs, traditional or aboriginal Metis spiritual beliefs focus deeply on nature. The Metis believe in the interconnected nature of the land and all of its living creatures, a worldview known as ecological spirituality. The Metis consider every part of the world around them as a living, sentient spiritual being and they focus on living in harmony with their fellow humans as well as the natural world.
2 Spirits
The Metis' spiritual culture focuses heavily on the idea of spirits. Traditionally, Metis believe that spirits provide human beings with life; if your spirit is not kept healthy, its poor state can lead to your death. This translates roughly into the Western concept of “keeping high spirits” -- with gaiety, courage and inner strength, the Metis believe that the spirit is able to survive and even lend physical strength to the body. Some Metis believe in communicating with an all-knowing spirit known as Kitchi-Manitou.
3 Catholic Influence
Canadian colonization brought Christian customs to the Metis. From the late 1700s to mid-1800s, Catholic missions and schools converted many of the Metis, who incorporated practices such as Catholic Mass and feast days into their existing spiritual beliefs rather than replacing them entirely. Other French Catholic customs adopted by the Metis include traditional prayers, the use of the rosary and the belief in saints -- in fact, St. Joseph of Nazareth is considered the Patron Saint of the Metis people. Alongside Catholic customs, aboriginal customs survived. These customs include the use of sweat lodges, medicine wheels and sacred pipes.
4 Further Considerations
Traditionally, Metis women pass spiritual customs on to new generations. Although this gender focus may have waned in modern times, the passing of religious beliefs through family is still an important part of the Metis lifestyle. Modern people of Metis heritage, however, practice religions ranging from Catholicism to Protestantism to New Age spirituality and everything in between. | https://classroom.synonym.com/religious-beliefs-of-the-metis-12085970.html |
Lenore L. Wiand, Ph.D.
“Music is the beginning and end of the universe.
All actions and movements made in the visible and invisible world are musical.”
––Hazrat Inayat Khan
Sufi mystic
“The flute is as old as the world.”
––Old American Indian saying
ABSTRACT
This research investigated the effects of listening to a particular music played on a Native American flute upon self reports of anxiety and perceptions of interconnectedness with individuals diagnosed with a trauma related disorder. It was a combined statistical and qualitative study.
The results supported the theoretical model which included ancient indigenous and mystical cosmological concepts of interconnectedness and sound as healing (i.e. returning to wholeness). The research identified a recording of flute music (“Ancient Spirits”) as facilitating perceptual experiences of integration related to trauma, as well as expanded consciousness. Also illustrated were previosly undocumented dissociative processes. The results support a dissociative continuum which includes not only trauma related dissociation, but also wholeness related to concepts of spirituality and expanded consciousness. The study introduced a new testing measurement, the Interconnectedness Scale, with application in fields of psychology, spirituality and consciousness. The research points to the inclusion of sacred or shamanic world music’s trans-cultural use, therapeutically and for consciousness exploration.
KEYWORDS: Trauma, Dissociation, Dissociative Disorders, Sacred Music, Shamanic Music,
Native American Flute, Healing, Oneness, Interconnectedness, Music Therapy
THEORETICAL MODEL
he theoretical model proposed that music, played on an aboriginal flute, with an inherent connection to ancestral cosmological concepts of
Oneness and interconnectedness as well as sacred sound’s use for healing (i.e. restoring wholeness), could positively affect populations with a trauma based diagnosis due to the disorder’s characteristic fragmentation of aspects of conscious awareness of self (i.e. a lack of interconnectedness). It was theorized that this music could facilitate the restoring of wholeness to the dis-associated self.
The music was theorized to have the ability to reduce anxiety, and as a result would both indirectly and directly lead to increase perceptions of interconnectedness, as well as to directly lead to an increase in perceptions of interconnectedness.
BASIC CONCEPTS
TRAUMA
Trauma can be described as an experience or reaction which occurs when something of a tremendously distressing nature is imposed externally leading to a sense of being overwhelmed. Shengold elucidates trauma as an experience “that is so overwhelming that the mental apparatus is flooded with feeling… (a) terrifying too muchness.”1
If a person is unable to fight or flee from a trauma, unable to stop it or get away from it, and is overwhelmed by this “terrifying too muchness”, the result may produce a dissociative response.
DISSOCIATION
Dissociation implies being out of a state of wholeness. The term “dissociation” itself is descriptive of the nature of the process, a process of “dis-association” of an aspect of the self from the whole of the self. The thoughts, emotions and/or memories of the traumatic experience that are so overwhelmingly too much become dis-connected or fragmented from conscious awareness. These painful memories and/or feelings, partial or whole, have become out of reach, no longer functioning in “association” with what is generally considered the normal stream of conscious awareness. It is characteristic for there to be amnesia for these dissociated, compartmentalized aspects of self and often there is an unawareness or amnesia for the experience of not remembering.
Dissociation is a psychological coping mechanism used to defend against overwhelming traumatic memory and affects.
Dissociation is considered to be on a continuum. Everyone has experienced some type of dissociation (i.e. daydreaming, automatic pilot driving, being in a ‘daze’ after the loss of a loved one). It only becomes considered “pathological” when the symptoms of dissociation do not remit and they begin to significantly disrupt functioning.
Dissociation has been identified to occur in trauma, meditative states and near death experiences. In trauma, a severe dissociative experience may be illustrated by the report of a child that experiences him or herself floating above their body, looking down and seeing him or herself being overpowered and sexually abused by a family member. The dissociative process represents moving away from a painfully traumatic experience. In meditation, it is the moving toward “union” with the Divine.2 In near death experiences it is about both, moving away from distress of the dying body and moving toward the positive perceptual experience, often descriptive of peace and tunnel of light.
DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS
There are two main trauma based diagnostic categories; Dissociative Disorders and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. While dissociation can occur in both, this study looks particularly at Dissociative Disorders because here the unique process of dissociation is the primary attribute of the diagnosis.
The DSM-IV summarizes Dissociative Disorders as “…a disruption in the usually integrated functions of consciousness, memory, identity, or perception of the environment” The five diagnostic categories are: Dissociative Amnesia, Dissociative Fugue, Depersonalization Disorder, Dissociative Identity Disorder (formerly Multiple Personality Disorder), and Dissociative Disorder Not Otherwise Specified.3 Dissociative Disorders involve the horizontal splitting off from conscious awareness a part or parts of the self.4 Yet, importantly, while they have become split off from the rest, they continue to function, but are isolated from conscious awareness and voluntary control.5 Morton Prince used the term “coconsciousness” to describe the simultaneous and autonomous nature of the splitting off and functioning of these aspects of consciousness.6
The primary cause of Dissociative Disorders has been identified as extreme and overwhelming trauma. Often the original trauma has its origins in childhood. The etiology of childhood trauma may include: extreme neglect, emotional abuse, physical abuse, frequently sexual abuse and especially incest.7,8 The literature, as well as clinical observation, reflects that the trauma has generally been severe, repetitive, overwhelming and unpredictable. There is controversy and difficulty in determination of this diagnosis, in part due to its etiology, complex symptomotology, as well as it having a main characteristic of amnesia. The amnesia can hide the etiology, hide the uncomfortable feelings and/or memories related to the trauma, as well as there existing amnesia for the experience of amnesia itself. The result is that years can go by with an individual experiencing symptoms of anxiety, panic attacks, depression, withdrawal, out bursts of anger or rage, nightmares, flashbacks, and/or time loss. These symptoms may often go undiagnosed or are misdiagnosed related to the most strongly presented symptomotology (e.g. an anxiety or depression diagnosis).
ANXIETY
Anxiety is an emotional state characterized by “apprehension, tension, or dread.”9 It is related to an anticipation of a vague or even unknown threat or danger.10 This differs from the known threat related to fear. The reduction of anxiety potentially can allow the fragmented parts of the self to begin to approach and be remembered, without re-experiencing the original sense of being overwhelmed. Theoretically, the lessening of trauma related anxiety can begin to allow for a reintegration into wholeness.11
HEALING
In ancient cosmologies healing is about returning to wholeness. It is about facilitating the return to harmony and to balance the dynamic inter-relating, interconnectedness of everything: the individual (body, emotions, thoughts, and spirit), nature and the cosmos itself.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
MUSIC
The belief in the power of music is universal. Music is identified with creation beliefs and has been used for prayer and healing within ancient mystical and indigenous traditions throughout time and cultures.
Shamans, philosophers and mystics have viewed music as balancing, unifying and a healing force. Music’s use for healing can be traced back to the beginnings of recorded history.
The use of music or sound therapeutically has grown tremendously in the last few decades. The “application of music as a therapeutic modality can vary greatly. It can include: a) listening to music to relax, b) listening to or experiencing sounds or music for the psychological, emotional, spiritual or physiological ‘felt sense’ (or promise of) that the music engenders, including that of subtle energies and consciousness expansion, c) by listening to music while engaging in other activities (i.e. guided imagery, dancing, visual art activities, while meditating, etc.) and d) the active participation of creating music, structured or improvisational, with instruments or vocally.” Variations of these are continually being explored and expanded.11
MUSIC AND TRAUMA
A nurse, Margaret Anderton, at the end of W.W.I, worked with wounded Canadian soldiers. She described treating “war-neurosis” with music, in particular sustained tones. She stated that “memories have been brought back to men suffering with amnesia; acute temporary insanity done away with; paralyzed muscles restored.” She described a particular captain, “who had been hurled into the air and then buried in debris at the bursting of a bomb and had never been able to remember even his own name until the music restored him.”12 This early work was with veterans who would probably now be diagnosed with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, exhibiting dissociative symptomotology.
It was after W.W.II that the therapeutic use of music was formally labeled “music therapy”. It was used in dealing with the trauma of combat, used successfully in reducing depression and helping in the return of dissociated memories.12,13,14 In the 1970’s, Helen Bonny developed the use of guided imagery with music. She incorporated music and concepts of transpersonal psychology, believing this process could tap into the “inner state” and would facilitate the resolving of issues normally out of reach of conscious awareness.13
A technologically developed use of sound, “Hemi-Sync®”, may be the most known and researched of the technologically developed sound programs. It is a specific composition and presentation of sound, to be listened to systematically, which induces an altered state. Rosenthal believes the repeated moving between states makes it easier to bring memories and affects back to consciousness and incorporated them into “one’s sense of self.” He described the use of this music and process related to traumatic memories in Dissociative Identity Disorder.15
Trance states and the “Hemi-Sync” induced altered states appear to share some similar features with the pioneering work of Penniston, done in the late 1980’s. He did a body of research using biofeedback training to induce alpha and theta brainwave states with patients diagnosed with Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome, and discovered individuals were able to access dissociated memories and emotions with significantly less anxiety.16
Another therapeutic modality advocates music therapy in a traditional approach, with added improvisation. This allows for accessing and expressing dissociative aspects of the personality, also facilitating the expression of pre-verbal memories and affects.17
Oliver Sacks, a neurologist, also described the power of music. He stated it was “the profoundest non-chemical medication” used by his patients. In his book Awakenings, he reported music as having the ability to “integrate and cure.” He wrote of a patient who appeared to have dissociated “into a dozen aspects of herself.”, and that music was one of the few things which could “recall her former un-broken self”.18
Music as a non-invasive modality is being explored by researchers and used more frequently by therapists as a means to enter altered states, thereby facilitating the ability to access state dependent traumatic memories and affects.
Music is often used to therapeutically induce relaxation and/or altered states of consciousness. Generally, there are four categories of music that are listened to therapeutically: 1) relaxation music of a non-intrusive, generic type, 2) relaxation music which is individual specific, 3) sounds or music which have been ‘intuitively’ or ‘technologically’ developed and used to produce relaxation, affect, “energy” and/or altered states of consciousness, and 4) sacred music and/or ancient indigenous or shamanic music with an intent to touch the ‘soul’, and at times to induce trance and healing.11
The third category of music above is sometimes used to induce alpha and/or theta brain waves. These resulting states are identified with deeper relaxation, meditative and trance states, linked with dissociation, as well as being connected with concepts of healing and consciousness exploration.15,18,19 It is believed that during alpha and theta, repressed and dissociated memories and/or affects may be brought to conscious awareness with less anxiety, and move towards integration. It is also proposed that these states may allow access to unconscious material such as creative gifts, intuitive knowings, and a tapping into a “collective” unconscious for an even wider resource of awareness and healing.20
The fourth category is of sacred sound(s) and music originally from, but not limited to, ancient mystical spiritual and aboriginal traditions. It was accompanied by intentionality (or prayer) related to “soul” or “spirit” or “spiritual” realms, used to facilitate healing, returning to wholeness.21
These ancient cosmologies view of health and medicine is often related to types of “energy.” It is the harmony and balance of this flowing and dynamic energy which is strived for.
Rouget, in his book on music and trance, gives descriptions of the profound power of music to induce altered states of consciousness throughout history, in many cultures. He suggests that music will ultimately be seen as the principle means of facilitating the trance state.22 Schneider states that “Music is the seat of secret forces or spirits which can be evoked by song in order to give man a power which is either higher than himself or which allows him to rediscover his deepest self”.23 In most ancient civilizations and cultures, the concept of music and the soul are directly related. The soul is not only connected to the “divine” breath, but also, to sound.24
Today, the increasing interest and application of music therapeutically encourages the exploration of how music has been viewed in ancient cultures.
MUSIC IN ANCIENT INDIGENOUS AND MYSTICAL SPIRITUAL TRADITIONS
To describe the importance of music in these ancient cosmologies, it is important to acknowledge the generally universal belief that the world was “sounded” into existence.
|“Sikh Adi Grath:||One Word, and the whole Universe throbbed into being.|
|Christian Bible:||In the beginning was the Word, and the
|
Word was with God, and the Word was God
|Jewish Old Testament:||And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.|
|Taoist Tao Te Ching:||The nameless is the beginning of heaven and earth. The named is the mother of ten thousand things.|
|Hindu Upanishads:||Accordingly, with that Word, with that Self, he brought forth this whole universe, everything that exists.”25|
There are many Native American tribes and therefore many creation beliefs. Yet, there is a belief within many American Indian traditions that this world was “sung into existence by sacred songs.”11 During the Hopi Flute Ceremony of the southwest, there is a reenactment of “emergence” into this world. The “emergence songs are sung” and reed flutes are played.26 It is worth noting that both “sacred music” and the “flute” are connected in this auspicious ceremony.
It is from the very beginnings that sound is considered sacred and imbued with special powers. Everything is created from sacred sound, everything is sacred, everything is alive with spirit and its own sound. Natalie Curtis, who studied Native American music in the late 1800’s, described all things having “soul”, and everything its own sound or song.27 Hazrat Khan, Sufi master and mystic, also described each person as having their own sound.28 Human beings, in the physical form as well as in spirit, are sound or music itself.29
Physics string theory describes the possibility of everything being tiny loops of vibration. That it is the speed and density of vibration which creates the perception of matter, the perception of form. That there may in fact be no “particles”, only vibrations.25 This could mean that everything is sound, audible or inaudible. This theory would be in keeping with ancient cosmological beliefs.
As sacred sound is a part of creation beliefs, and sacred sound is that of which all things are made, it follows that sacred sound can facilitate healing, the returning to the delicate balance and harmony wholeness, of the sacred Oneness.11, 28 Sound becomes the healing unitive force.
In the description of a Navajo healing ceremony or “sing”, a concept of the dynamic Oneness is illustrated.
“The Navajo concept of the universe in an ideal state is one in which all partseach with its power for good and evil-are maintained in interrelated harmony.”…
“Illness, physical and mental, is the result of upsetting the harmony. Conversely the cure for illness is to restore the patient to harmony. It is to this end-the preservation or restoration of harmony-that Navajo religious ceremonies are performed.”
––Bahti26
The actual ceremonies, rituals, songs may vary, Indian nation to Indian nation. The concept of maintaining and returning balance and harmony is universal. The connection to the spirit world, or the realm of the supernatural, is also inherent in healing practices. Music, healing and prayer are intertwined.30
The flute in many ancient stories, legends, and traditions, has been associated with magic, mysticism, and the ability to transform. It is easy to be reminded of “The Pied Piper of Hamlin”, Mozart’s “Magic Flute”, Krisna and his flute. The flute’s ability to induce trance or alter states of consciousness has been described by Plato, Aristotle, Aeschylus, and more.22 Bone whistles and flutes were discovered at the temple of Apollo at Delphi and Apollo is considered both, a god of music and a god of healing. The flute is unique in its connection with “divine” breath, spirit, life.
There is an old Native American saying which says, “There has always been a flute, just as there have always been young people. The flute is as old as the world”.30 Archeological discoveries may lend credence to this saying, as to date, the flute is documented as being the oldest discovered instrument.31
There is a well known image of a humpback fluteplayer depicted in ancient rock art, especially in North America. This image has been described as “rain priest”, “deity”, and “shaman”.32 These beings all are identified as having supernatural capabilities.
In myth, legend and practice, the Indian flute is described in terms of the sacred, healing, transformation and love. In a Dakota legend, the flute was brought to humans by supernatural “Elk People”. It was “imbued with the sounds and power of all living things…” and expressed “the divine mystery and beauty of love.”33
The Native American flute is a unique musical instrument, by legend the oldest. It is imbued with supernatural qualities.
In ancient indigenous and mystical spiritual traditions, the beliefs include the power of sacred song. It is these songs, these prayers, which are used to maintain and restore the delicate balance of harmony when it has shifted out of balance. Healing with “songs” and prayers is about keeping in harmony something as vast as the cosmos, and as seemingly limited as an individual. There is an overall cosmological view which includes an interconnected, inter-relating sacred Oneness.
The cosmos itself sings. As “sacred songs” brought this world into existence, it is also “song” which is needed to keep the cosmos in balance and harmony, in its interconnected, inter-relating wholeness.
DESIGN AND METHODS
he experimental research was a mixed factor design. There were two groups, participants identified with a diagnosis of a Dissociative Disorder and a control group consisting of adult college students, N=94. Adults were defined as being 18 years or older. Half of each group of participants were exposed to listening to either a recording of music played on a Native American flute (“Ancient Spirits”) or “placebo music” (new age genre, “Sedona Suite”).
In the mixed factor design, there were two between subject factors: 1. presence of NA flute music vs. presence of placebo music, and 2. Dissociative Disorders vs. Normal Subjects. The within subject factor was time. The testing measurements were administered pre and post listening to 10 minutes of either type of music.
The Dissociative Disorder group was comprised of adult individuals who had a preexisting Dissociative Disorder diagnosis and were actively involved in therapy. They were drawn from both psychiatric in-patient and out-patient populations. Part of the recruitment involved a pre-selection process by the participants’ therapists related to participants’ appropriateness for the study in terms of diagnosis, ability to freely volunteer and emotional stability. Once this was done, there were no exclusions. Participants’ with a dual diagnosis and/or on medication were included, as these factors are not uncommon with this particular diagnosis, and for the purpose of this study these issues were not anticipated to significantly affect outcome.
The music played on the Native American flute, for the purpose of this study represents a very particular recording of music, identified anecdotally as having shamanic characteristics, and being played on an aboriginal wooden flute. The flute was traditional northern plains style. The music was of solo flute from the first 10 minutes of the flute recording entitled “Ancient Spirits” (created by the researcher).
The placebo music, for the purpose of this study, was defined as having no strong emotional valence or pull. (It was an instrumental of the new age genre, which included a silver flute, entitled “Sedona Suite”). It was selected, due to its use to promote relaxation by a psychologist working with people who had experienced trauma.
The testing measurements included Spielberger’s State Trait Anxiety Inventory and Wiand’s Interconnectedness Scale. The measurements were administered pre and post listening to 10 minutes of recorded music. A brief interview followed the completion of the final testing.
PROCEDURES
fforts were made to set an atmosphere of safety and openness for both groups. This was viewed as significant, as individuals diagnosed with a Dissociate Disorder are characteristically sensitive to issues related to trust and safety, due to their history of severe trauma. This atmosphere of safety was encouraged by having the participants meet in small groups in familiar settings (e.g. therapist’s office, meeting room and/or college classroom). Participants were asked if anything could help them be more comfortable (e.g. sitting in a different chair or leaving the door slightly open).
The main research experience involved:
- Completion of a pre music packet, which included a demographic questionnaire and the two testing measurements.
- Exposure to 10 minutes of listening to either the recording of music played on the aboriginal flute or placebo music condition.
- Completion of the post music packet, which included new, though identical testing measurements as in the pre packet.
- An Interview––There was one interview question designed to be open ended, “What was your experience or response to listening to the music?” If there was any query of what was stated, it was formed by repeating all or partially what the participant had stated, in the form of a question. This was to minimize bias leading on the part of the researcher.
THE INTERCONNECTEDNESS SCALE
The Interconnectedness Scale is a self-report measure of perceptions of interconnectedness developed specifically for this study. Interconnectedness is being defined as wholeness, meaning all parts are functioning in an unbroken, undivided state of unity.34 The scale consists of five questions about interconnectedness. The participants responded to each question by making a mark on a 100 millimeter, visual analogue line to indicate their present perception of interconnectedness. Scoring was performed by calculation of sums for the items being measured.
The five items of the scale (abbreviated descriptions):
- personal interconnectedness––connectedness to feelings, thoughts, memories
- internal wholeness––feeling whole and fully present
- universal interconnectedness––connectedness to nature and the universe
- humankind interconnectedness––connectedness to people
- oneness interconnectedness––being a part of something greater which includes everything
PRELIMINARY FINDINGS
Demographics
There were 94 participants: 12 males (13%) and 82 females (87%). The male mean age was 27 and the female mean age was 42.
Categories of Types of Trauma
Physical
Emotional
Sexual
Multiple
None
Through self report, 92% of the Dissociative Disorder Group reported having experienced multiple types of trauma, while 30% of the Normal Group reported having experienced multiple types of trauma.
These demographic findings lend support to the etiology of Dissociative Disorders as being trauma based. The findings are supportive of percentages reported in the literature of severe childhood trauma.35, 36, 37
Categories of Ages that Trauma Occurred
Childhood
Teens
Adulthood
Multiple
None
Through self report, 91% of the Dissociative Disorder Group reported having experienced trauma during multiple age categories, while 26% of the Normal group reported having experienced trauma during multiple age categories.
This reflects that individuals who have experienced severe trauma, have also experienced trauma occurring repeatedly over various ages. It can be characteristic of individuals with childhood histories of severe abuse to have patterns of abuse which continue into adulthood.
THE INTERCONNECTEDNESS SCALE
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
Pre-session administration of the Interconnectedness Scale exhibited an alpha = .72, a modest though acceptable internal-consistency reliability. The post-session administration of the scale exhibited an alpha = .82, indicating a relatively strong internal reliability. The post alpha’s greater reliability may be related to practice effects. For a five item scale, this degree of reliability may be regarded as substantial. This scale is preliminary with convergent validity not yet established, though it evidences internal-consistency reliability and face validity.
APPLICABILITY
The Interconnectedness Scale is a new, easily administered measurement which appears to have potential use in the fields of psychology, spirituality, consciousness and wellness. Each of these categories are not exclusive of each other.
Psychology
The Interconnectedness Scale is a measurement of a quality of dissociative experience, related to the lack of perceptions of interconnectedness. The scale is also able to identify relational balance (or lack of) between the categories of the scale. It may be used with Dissociate Disorders, Post Traumatic Stress Disorders, and other disorders related to trauma, or perceptions of isolation, as in unresolved loss, anxiety and depression.
Spirituality
The scale measures perceptions of universal interconnectedness, which parallels ancient and mystical spiritual beliefs (item 3). It measures without using conceptualizations of theological doctrine or dogma, but rather, may potentially measure increase expanded states of consciousness, as described by mystics, as an aspect of spiritual experience. The implications of this scale contributing to a growing knowledge of spirituality is significant.
Consciousness
The scale measures perceptions of interconnectedness related to the concept of a dynamic (conscious) whole or Oneness. In many aboriginal and mystical traditions everything within the Oneness is alive with spirits and sounds. This quality of being alive with spirit may equate with consciousness. This is applicable in both the fields of spiriuality and conciousness. This measurement may contribute to a growing knowledge of consciousness.
Well-being
The Interconnectedness Scale has the potential to be used to assess “wellness”, or sense of well being as an aspect of feeling “whole”; connected internally with self, relationally with people and the environment, as well as with somethinggreater. Potentially to be used in mental health and medical facilities, and wellness centers.
“And I saw that the sacred hoop of my people was one of many hoops that make one circle…
And I saw that it was holy.” ––Black Elk38
DATA ANALYSIS
There were three independent variables consisting of two between groups, 1. Dissociative and Normal 2. Native American flute music and a placebo, and 3. One repeated within measures within time, i.e. pre and post testing. There were two dependent variables, feelings of anxiety and perceptions of interconnectedness. These variables gave an approximate on interval variable. There was a statistical analysis. MANOVA, a multivariate analysis of variance used to justify the main analysis, followed by a ANOVA, a univariate analysis of variance on each of the two dependent variable measures. A Pearson’s Correlation was used to analyze mediating or relational interaction effects. The Cronbach Alpha Coefficient was used to assess the internal consistency reliability analysis for the dependent variables of anxiety and interconnectedness.11
STATISTICAL FINDINGS
- An important preliminary finding showed that participants with Dissociative Disorders held significantly weaker perceptions of interconnectedness than the Normal group, (p < .001).
- While both types of music reduced anxiety, it was found that participants hearing the NA flute music showed a greater decrease in anxiety, than the placebo music, for both groups, t (92) = 2.16, p < .05.
- As expected, the experience of hearing NA flute music did lead to a significantly greater increase in perceptions of interconnectedness, for both the Dissociative Disorder group and the normal group, than the experience of hearing placebo music., F (1,88) = 10.74, p < .01.
- As expected, the NA flute music did lead to a decrease in anxiety, which then led to a greater increase in perceptions of interconnectedness, for both groups.
- Unexpectedly, it was also found that listening to the flute music resulted in increased perceptions of interconnectedness, which then led to a decrease in anxiety. Analysis showed that there was a non-significant mediating effect for both music-anxiety and music-interconnectedness relationships. (Mediational effects are best tested by covariance analysis in which the
predicted mediator’s variation is removed. As predicted, removing anxiety from the music-interconnectedness relationship, produced a nonsignificent result, F (1,86) = 1.9, p ns. However, a similar result was obtained by covarying interconnectedness perceptions from the music-anxiety relationship. Removing interconnectedness from the music-anxiety relationship also produced a non-significant result, F (1,86) = .05, p ns. Consistent with these two results was the significant negative relationship found between anxiety and interconnectedness, Pearson Correlation: r (93) = -.63, p < .01. Mediational effects are best assessed by removing the mediator’s variation. Removing either anxiety or interconnectedness resulted in a p ns. This was consistent with the Pearson Correlation, (r (93) = – .63, p < .01).11
- Unexpectedly, there was no significant greater increase in perceptions of individual interconnectedness with the NA flute music for the Dissociative Disorder group, than the normal group. (Individual interconnectedness was a combination of items 1 & 2, representing the personal or psychological), F (1,39) = 1.54, p
This was puzzling, especially, after analyzing the interview data which indicated significant responsiveness to the flute music by both groups, yet more integrative responses from the Dissociative Disorder group.
Months after the initial study was completed, a different question was asked and analyzed. How did each group separately respond?
The very noteworthy finding indicated that when analyzed separately, there was a very significant increase of individual interconnectedness for both groups. The Dissociative Disorder group showed p <.0001, and the Normal group showed p <.0001.
- As expected after hearing the NA flute music there was a significant increase in universal interconnectedness (item 3) for both groups, greater than hearing the placebo music, F (1,89) = 12.88, p < .0005.
QUALITATIVE FINDINGS
The rich interview material supported the quantitative findings and theoretical model, and illustrated previously undocumented dissociative processes. This particular recording of flute music produce increased perceptual awareness. It was indicative of producing expanded conscious awareness, which appeared to render certain barriers of amnesia ineffective in keeping some awarenesses out of reach. The expanded perception seemed to allow a gentle inclusion of previously out of reach material, facilitating its integration into conscious awareness.
- Style of reporting of experience: Placebo music: minimal NAF music: very detailed
- Description:
Placebo music: “relaxing”
NAF music: “relaxing” and “active”
The responses regarding the flute music experience for both groups were detailed and positive, though especially poignant with the Dissociative Disorder participants. The participants also expressed feeling more “hopeful” after the experience. The Dissociative Disorder group responded more extensively in expressing integrative processes.
CATEGORIZED RESPONSES
Active:
“…it seemed to set something in motion.”
“I felt called…”
“Felt like I was flying…”
“It took me to the woods…”
“…tied everything together.”
Soothing Response:
One female Dissociative Disorder participant came late for the research appointment. She appeared especially anxious, scattered and restless. She had a note pinned to her blouse indicating what she was to do after the research was completed, as if a reminder to herself. Even given her agitated state, her response to the flute music was enthusiastic and positive. “How could people feel like this? I wish I had this instead of Xanax… I feel so good. It felt like when I had morphine… heaven… something totally peaceful. It must be like when people die.”
Positive Dissociation:
“The flute calls to me. I went intentionally.”
“…not overwhelmed with emotion or feeling… like an ebb and tide… not a lot of sensory highs and lows.”
A few dissociative disorder participants reported feeling initially concerned, as they felt a dissociative process coming on. Yet, as they allowed the process, they reported it quickly became positive.
One Dissociative Disorder participant described having had a reoccurring uncomfortable dream of running away from bears chasing her. She went on to describe that while listening to the flute music, the bears began to chase her again and she ran, but this time they caught up with her. She stated her surprise and happiness that upon catching her, they held and protected her.
Integrative:
“Connected to whole… a good place to go… tied everything together.” “I had memories. Memories came back.”
“Memories coming out, not difficult, more memories than dissociation.” “…felt grief, with sorrow, but peaceful, a connectedness, it was okay.” A participant diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder reported, “Everyone was sitting back (her alters), content, all listening around me. I heard the whole thing. I opened up to it. This is okay, this is safe.” She reported that usually her alters are “jumping around” for position and control, resulting in her not hearing everything.
There were consistent experiences related to not being overwhelmed. There were many reports of being able to integrate the emotions or experience in a calm manner, which resulted in expressions of feeling positive and hopeful. Individuals who have experienced severe trauma and its overwhelmingly difficult, chronic effect, as well as their therapists, know how significant the feeling of hope can be.
SHAMANIC CHARACTERISTICS
There are four characteristics of shamanism, as described in the scholarly work of Eliade.39
Shamanic:
Journeying
Connected to Nature
Spirit Related
Time-Space Phenomena
These four characteristics were identified repeatedly in the qualitative portion of the study, which indicated the music itself as having shamanic characteristics.
Journeying:
“It was like being on a journey…”
“It took me to the woods at night. I had animals protecting me…”
Connected to Nature:
I was “in nature, of nature, a part of it, …a tree.”
I was “in touch with nature, the sky, the wind, evocative of… of those things.”
“Like I was a wolf howling at the moon.”
Spirit Related:
“…soulful.”
“…felt spiritually touched.”
“…it felt like a call to ceremony.”
One Dissociative Disorder participant reported hearing the words “Come home, come home,” and “It’s safe… then body can feel peace.” When it was inquired, “What, come home?” She responded,
“ Like my soul… come home.”
Time-Space Phenomena:
There was a participant of the dissociative disorder group who described her original research experience as, “I loved it. It reminded me of nature, animals, wind, mountains. It totally reminded me of my brother. Feel good about him.” Within a month after her particular research session, her therapist contacted this researcher. The therapist reported that her client had an interesting occurrence following the research session and wanted to share it with the researcher. Phone contact was arranged. The woman described that perhaps a week or a couple of weeks after the session she had a dream. In the dream she said she was “…floating over the land. …heard the music (from the research) played… and the words ‘Everything would be okay’.” She said she “was flying over a reservation or something…” She didn’t see herself, but could feel wind on her face. “A definite breeze, not really cold. …felt flying like a bird, flying around… I couldn’t hear anything else, but the music… and the voice. I awoke, didn’t know if it was real or not… It was the music. The music was so real. The music was so clear, like on a radio.” She went on to describe that she had an issue with her father that she had been struggling with her whole life. She reported now feeling closure regarding the issues surrounding him.
A participant of the Normal Group reported experiencing herself in Africa, one hundred and fifty years ago, at her mother’s funeral ceremony. She appeared to be of African-American decent, though volunteered that she had never been to Africa. She described the flute music as being “ceremonial” and how the experience was “beautiful”. She repeated how peaceful and beautiful the ceremony was.11
Sacred Music
What makes a music sacred? Is it its use in a religious context? Is it sacred because it has been categorized as “sacred music”? Is it related to the feeling or experience that it elicits?
Concepts of “sacred” and “spirituality” are complex, as well as filled with ambiguity and controversy. For the purpose of this study, the two following definitions will be use.
Sacred is defined as something which elicits reverence, is holy, divine or spiritual.34
Rabbi Heschel defines spiritual as being in “reference to the transcendent in our existence, the direction of the Here toward the Beyond.”40
Sacred music may be associated with:
- Connecting us to this transcendent state, facilitating it or both
- Moving us from here to the beyond
- Beyond – as an expanded state of consciousness
It may be speculated that this particular flute music itself has characteristics which facilitate an experience directionally toward or within this larger landscape.
Whether it is in relationship to facilitating the healing of horrific traumatic experiences, expanding states of consciousness or about moving toward what is perceived to be “transcendent in our existence”, this sacred music appears to facilitate the returning to balance and harmony and wholeness. It is about remembering…
DISCUSSION
his study investigated the effects of a particular music played on a Native American flute upon individual’s diagnosed with a Dissociative Disorder.
The results of the study did show that this particular flute music facilitated a decrease in anxiety and facilitated processes of integration of dissociated trauma related material. The study also showed the music to produce increased perceptions of interconnectedness and expanded awareness. It assessed state anxiety and perceptions of interconnectedness. Additionally, interview information was obtained.
Results showed overall statistically greater effects with the specific recording of flute music, than the placebo music for both groups. All of the findings supported the theoretical model.
Very significantly, the statistical findings were supportive of the interview data, just as the qualitative interview data was supportive and elucidatory of the statistical data. Each filling out understanding and meaning of the other.
The particular flute music used in the research was shown to have what may be termed shamanic and sacred characteristics, i.e. listening to the flute music facilitated identified shamanic and/or sacred type experiences as described by Eliade and Heschel.39,40
The Interconnectedness Scale appears to be a new easily administered measure of perceptions of interconnectedness of publishable internal-consistency reliability, showing face validity. It has the potential to measure dissociative experience as well as expanded perceptions of interconnectedness, each being polar opposites on the continuum of interconnectedness as identified with this scale. This scale also appears to have the capacity to measure concepts of spirituality (as identified in mystical spiritual traditions and unrelated to religious behaviors or conceptualizations of theological doctrine or dogma, but rather, may potentially measure expanded states of awareness related to increased perceptions of interconnectedness and Oneness as described by the spiritual experience of mystics).
- The Dissociative Disorder group held significantly weaker perceptions of interconnectedness. This supports the concept of trauma related dis-association as related to lack of interconnectedness. It also supports the face validity of the interconnectedness scale.
- The experience of hearing the NA flute music led to a significantly greater decrease in anxiety than hearing the placebo music, in both groups.
Discussion:
- Irregular tonal patterns and pacing, including periods of silence, of the NAF music may have contributed to mental and psychological slowing down, resulting in decreased anxiety.
- The music may have an entrainment effect. Entrainment “involves the ability of the more powerful rhythmic vibrations of one object to change the less powerful rhythmic vibrations of another object and cause them to synchronize their rhythms with the first object.”41 Entrainment has been associated with healing in shamanic traditions and associated with altering brainwave states and perceived states of consciousness, such as trance states in indigenous cultures.42
- It may be speculated that the decrease in anxiety is related to moving towards a trance state which allowed for accessing of state dependent memories and affects, and/or accessing states of non-ordinary realities. Nonordinary realities may be described as the defined shamanic characteristics as well as perceptions beyond what is ordinarily perceived by the individual.
III. Hearing the NA flute music directly led to a greater increase in perceptions of interconnectedness, than the placebo music.
Discussion:
- Some participants reported a sense of being “called”. Perhaps part of the flute music’s effect may be to actively engage and call together. “Calling” as reconnecting dissociated aspects of self, such as memories, affects, and “soul”, as well as a call to remember the cosmological belief in a greater interconnectedness or Oneness of everything.
- Music often reflects societal attitudes and beliefs. Interconnectedness is imperative in indigenous and tribal societies. Ancient societies extol the concept of the collective group in its social and spiritual beliefs, reflecting values needed for survival.
- This effect may be explained in terms of a possible cross-cultural, ethnomusicological experience. It could be speculated that there is something in the indigenous flute, its type of music and/or the culture it derived from, that is inherently reflected in the music. It may be that the flute and music elicit moving into expanded states of perception of interconnectedness with the larger Oneness. The ancient flute is unique in its connection with the breath, which is associated with spirit and “divine” breath in ancient traditions.
- It can be speculated that the increased perceptions of interconnectedness may be related to cosmological concepts of Oneness, as well as Bohm’s concept of a field of energy, underlying and comprising everything.43 Perhaps both being, as Bohm states, “consciousness”.
- Listening to the NA flute music led to a decrease in anxiety, which then led to (mediated) a greater increase in perceptions of interconnectedness.
Discussion:
Anxiety reduction may result in reduced need for protective defenses. Perhaps the music both reduces the perception of threat as well as reducing the ensuing defense of self imposed protective barriers, thereby resulting in less protective isolation and allowing for greater perceptions of interconnectedness.
- An unexpected finding showed increased perceptions of interconnectedness also had a mediating effect on decreased anxiety. This is a very significant statistical finding.
Discussion:
- This suggests that anxiety to a certain degree is influenced by a sense of isolation and aloneness, as per Freud’s separation anxiety and abandonment anxiety.
- The perception of interconnectedness may be with people, nature and aspects of a previously unseen world. It is an awareness of a larger landscape in which one is a part of that may gender a sense of hope and may result in reduced anxiety.
- Listening to the NA flute music showed a very strong increase in individual interconnectedness for both groups. (Items 1 and 2 of the scale combined)
Discussion:
This may be one of the more significant findings.
- The statistical and qualitative data suggests that both groups may have experienced significant integration into personal perceptions of psychological interconnectedness.
- This occurred while simultaneously experiencing phenomena (interview data) of increased perceptual awarenesses which transcended concepts of time and space. These experiences appear to indicate expanded states of consciousness.
- This may suggest that mental quieting, which can occur with reduced anxiety, coupled with being present fully to oneself, allows for an increased awareness beyond self.
- Speculatively, this may support a correlation with the mystical concept that describes everything as already existing within. That perhaps, in keeping with ancient beliefs, the individual and their perceptions may be a dynamic aspect of the greater Oneness. It could be speculated that this data supports the concept of various mystical spiritual traditions that individual internal stillness facilitates expanded states of consciousness, and as described by Kapur, that it is within the microcosm of the individual that lays the macrocosm of the universe.44
- It could be speculated that an increase in perception of interconnectedness, perhaps in relationship to perceiving oneself as a part of a larger whole or Oneness, may have a positive influence on psychological beingness.
VII. Listening to the NA flute music led to a greater increase in perceptions of universal interconnectedness (item 3), than the placebo music, for both groups.
Discussion:
- The results suggest that something in the music may affect a perception, which parallels an ancient spiritual belief, and it may be able to be influenced trans-culturally through the medium of patterned sound.
- This result could possibly lend greater support for the concept of an inherent universal or “collective” unconscious within an interconnectedness of everything. This again, parallels concepts of ancient and mystical spiritual beliefs and experiences of Oneness.
- The entrainment effect may apply here as well.
- This result may also be influenced by the evocative flute sounds pulling forth images associated with Native American culture, which an individual may have previously been exposed to.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL CORRELATES
There appears to be a cross-cultural anthropological parallel in the conceptualization of “soul-loss” in various world indigenous cultures with trauma related dissociation. For the indigenous culture, loss of soul may be partial or whole. In psychology this is described as memory, affect and/or sense of personal identity, also partial or whole. The etiology of severe fright parallels the trauma based etiology of Dissociative Disorders.39,45 The reconnecting and interconnecting aspects of self into conscious awareness may be described as part of the integrative process. In indigenous cultures, the process of reconnecting aspects of the self is often assisted by a shaman in the practice of soul retrieval.39
Shamanism, believed to be one of the oldest forms of healing, continues to use “sounds” and “music” to communicate with and access the world of spirits, and this type of use of music for healing is still practiced today in various tribal and non-technological societies around the world.41,42
AFFECT OF LOSS
The interview data was suggestive of a primary feeling or affect which the dissociative participants reported experiencing as being grief and sadness, often connected to concepts of loss.
A possible explanation for this may be related to grief and sadness of loss of a dissociated aspect of self. Another explanation may be identified with loss and bereavement issues as related to attachment disorders, which are frequently associated with Dissociative Disorders and other trauma related disorders.46
Another possible explanation of this finding of sadness and loss may pertain to spiritual and mystical concepts of a unitive Oneness. There exists a concept of a dis-associated, amnesic lack of awareness of a pre-existing union with a sacred Oneness. This dis-association may produce sadness due to loss of awareness of the sacred connection.
THE DISSOCIATIVE CONTINUUM
One of the results of this study may be to expand the dissociative continuum to include the many facets and nuances of dissociation and interconnectedness, including conceptualizations of world views of spirituality as well as cross cultural comparative psychology.
MECHANISM OF CHANGE
n the scientific method, there is focus on “the mechanism of change”. The focus is often driven to become narrow and precise in attempting to ascertain what is the specific, potent mechanism producing the effect.
When the research is in areas which by their nature are more subtle and interconnected, it follows that the mechanism of change may no longer be singular. The mechanisms may themselves be more subtle, interconnected and inter-relating.
This study’s focus is the effacacy of the music, yet it is interesting to speculate on mechanisms of change.
The subtle mechanisms involved in this study may be connected with belief systems of the cultures and cosmologies being explored, involving seen and the unseen concepts of reality. These elements may be difficult to identify or ascertain.
Assessing effects of sound within concepts of “sacred”, “shamanic”, and within ancient beliefs systems is wrought with the inter-relational dynamics and effects that may appear expansive, elegantly entangled, ambiguous and elusive.
The researcher may begin to look at interactions and possible mechanisms of change that previously may not have been considered. In research, which include ancient mystical cosmologies, the researcher may benefit by expanding points of reference to include cosmological concepts in exploring mechanisms of change.
The dynamics involved in this research appear interrelating. In this study, it is suspected that nothing is in isolation, including the mechanism of change.
SPECULATION ON MECHANISM OF CHANGE
Does the instrument, the ancient styled wooden Native American flute itself hold some inherent connection with its ancestral cosmology which allow its music to function in the unseen realms of energy and spirit?
Does the style of music, or the specific composition, the note and spacing of the notes have an effect? The slow sounds may have some reminiscent of nature and animal or bird sounds, Nature is often associated with peacefulness, relaxing and a non-threatening quality. The slow sounds could have produced an entrainment effect, as well as moving the research participants to slowed brain waves facilitating the expanded states of perception.
Sound can shatter a glass. In India, just as in various ancient traditions there are specific songs which produce specific effects.
“Even today people say when Raga Bhairon was sung an oil press moved without any aid whatsoever; the Malkaus stopped the flow of water and the Hindol moved a swing. Similarly the Deepak Raga caused a fire, even the lamps burnt without being lit by anyone. The beasts and birds became senseless when the Shri Raga was sung.”
––Iman47
How significant is the flute player? A significant number of research participants reported having previously listened to other Native American flute music, describing that this particular music affected them differently, more actively. Does the extent of the effect have something to do with the fluteplayer (attributes, attitudes, and/or intentionality) that is beyond the skill and techniques of playing? Further comparative research will assist in this determination.
Hazat Khan, a Sufi mystic wrote of the influence and characteristics of sacred music. He wrote also of the musicians. “The effect of music depends not only on the proficiency, but also upon the evolution of the performer. Its effect upon the listener is in accordance with his knowledge and evolution; for this reason the value of music differs with each individual. “28
There is a story of a Hindu musician and an emperor. The musician took the emperor to see his Master (musician). The Master sang, and “It seemed as if all the trees and plants of the forest were vibrating. It was a song of the universe.” The emperor later commented on the raga, how when the Master sang as compared to the musician there were two different experiences from the same song, “It is the same song, but it has not the same life.” The musician answered. “The reason is this, while I sang before you, the king of this country, my Master sings before God. That is the difference.”28
In the spiritual teachings of India, the Sanskrit word “Nada Brahma” means God is sound. It is the sacred sound which is God, is that of which all is made.48
It is difficult to ascertain what attitudes or qualities are involved in differences between musicians which affect the music. Does the fluteplayer’s perceived affinity to the ancient cosmology, beliefs attached to concepts of spirituality, consciousness, or healing have an influence? Further research is indicated to delineate affects of state of fluteplayer at time of fluteplaying.
Joseph Chilton Pearce suggests “there exists a musical intelligence that seems to function outside the ordinary boundaries of an individual mind, …an intelligence …that can manifest beyond the confines of conventional thought and be incorporated into a higher function of field effect.” “The mind must in some sense be suspended in order for the field to fully express.”43 This could be consistant with ancient and mystical beliefs.
Speculatively, is there a relationship, unseen dynamic or resonance that exists between the participants and the fluteplayer, and by extension the music?… or visa versa? Is it the resonance or relationship with the music or Music which comes first? This needs further exploration.
It is clear that in ancient traditions the power of music is considered profound. There is emphasis on the qualities of the music, the musician, as well as the instrument, and in what capacity or circumstance the music is performed.
In assessing mechanism of change, again nothing is in isolation in these more subtle realms of sacred or shamanic music.
FUTURE RESEARCH
esearch replicating this study is encouraged, especially with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder populations. Further research is suggested to continue exploring mechanisms of change. It would be interesting to compare this recording, “Ancient Spirits”, with live music by the same fluteplayer, also compare with another fluteplayer using the same music, as well as synthesizing the same notes mechanically.
Research into other music identified as having sacred and/or shamanic characteristics world-wide, could produce a rich understanding of the power of music as well as cultural understandings of dissociation related to difficulties and related to enhancements of being. This may also uncover previously undiscovered, non-invasive, cost effective musical medicines.
Future research is suggested to look at brainwave measurements, functional brain imaging, both of the listeners as well as the fluteplayer. Time related followup with the participants could give more information to assess long term effects.
The Interconnectedness Scale, while preliminary, shows good internal reliability. It is based on a variety of theoretical and philosophical concepts and appears to have construct validity. Further studies are needed to establish convergent validity. Also, further assessment for cross-cultural, international applicability is suggested.
Further research into the process of dissociation is recommended. It can be explored in terms of trauma, diagnosed and undiagnosed. Perhaps even expanding the assessment of individuals not identifying a history of trauma, but who are having life difficulties or health concerns. The dissociative process is rich for exploration in terms of expanded states of consciousness, and crosscultural experiences where it may be related to culturally defined spiritual experiences. This may necessitate a broader focus of not only dissociation, but also association or interconnectedness of the concept of a dynamic whole or oneness.
USE OF MUSIC
The overwhelming effects of trauma are worldwide.
The music can be used to potentially facilitate healing once danger is no longer imminent. Perhaps the music can also begin to be used preventatively. Building a sense of interconnectedness may have the potential to reduce vulnerability to the effect of trauma. The use of music with issues of trauma, as well as facilitating potential unitive connectedness, appears timely.
Music can reach where nothing else can and perhaps when nothing else can. Poets, philosophers and ancients have expressed what most people have experienced, that music has the power to touch deeply the heart and the spirit, and the capacity to transform and transcend.
CONCLUSION
The results of the research supported the theoretical model. This particular flute music, played on an aboriginal flute, was shown to decrease anxiety and increase perceptions of interconnectedness. The statistical and qualitative data supported each other and offered enriching understanding and clarification of processes and concepts identified in the study.
The therapeutic implications of this research in the use of sound for trauma based disorders are still preliminary, though appear significant and far reaching. The diagnosis of Dissociative Disorders (especially Dissociative Identity Disorder) and Post Traumatic Stress Disorders are characterized by extreme vulnerability to triggers of the original trauma(s). Protective and dysfunctional isolation also is common in trauma based disorders. The use of this particular music played on the native flute (“Ancient Spirits”) as an adjunctive treatment modality which may potentially facilitate the process of integration and increase perceptions of interconnectedness and wholeness in a non-invasive manner, addresses these characteristics of trauma subtlety and soothingly through sound.
The therapeutic implications are not limited to trauma related disorders, but would be applicable to individuals who have experienced trauma and resulting dissociation without diagnosis. Due to the frequent amnesia for the traumatic experience and therefore an ensuing lack of awareness of the dissociative response, it becomes difficult to identify. Hence, it may be conjectured that there is greater existence of unidentified, unresolved dissociative responses in other diagnostic categories as well as the general population than previously considered. Other population groups may benefit therapeutically from the flute music are those that have experienced medical, environmental or social political traumas. Psychiatric and non-psychiatric populations affected by issues of loss or experiences of significant perceptions of isolation or aloneness may, also potentially benefit from this music.11
This music was shown to facilitate expanded states of consciousness, which allowed the return to state dependent states related to trauma. Memories and affects were accessed and retrieved in a less anxiety filled manner.
The results of the study indicate that the benefits of this flute music reach beyond psychological difficulties into areas experienced as greater perceptions of interconnectedness on a multitude of levels, which may be described as including expanded states of perceptions or expanded states of awareness. This then opens possible avenues of use that are beyond therapeutic, including further exploration and application within fields of consciousness and spirituality.
There are significant ethno-musicological implications of the study to be explored further. The implications in terms of psychological processes appear powerful, and in terms of cross-cultural spiritual conceptualizations and consciousness profound.
The Interconnectedness Scale introduces a measurement of perceptions of interconnectedness. The Interconnectedness Scale which demonstrates potential applicability in the fields of psychology, spirituality, consciousness and wellness.
The implications of the study are that through what may be identified as shamanic or sacred sound(s), there may be potentiated a returning to wholeness (i.e. interconnectedness) thru expanding states of consciousness. The wholeness may be orientated toward the psychological or viewed in a larger concept of a unitive, interconnected oneness. Sound touches deeply, moving beyond words and intellect, and beyond boundaries. The conceptual paradigm of the dissociative continuum may be expanded to include not only a psychological orientation, but also a spiritual component orientated within a cross-cultural world view. This dissociative continuum may be assessed through the new measurement of interconnectedness. Dissociation, the human mind, concepts of spirituality and consciousness may begin to be explored and understood in ways previously unanticipated, through the medium of sound.
- • •
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: Bernard Green, Ph.D., Professor, Previous Director of the Clinical Psychology Department, University of Detroit Mercy, over saw the original research as chair of the dissertation committee.
Curtis Russell, Ph.D., Professor, Previous Chair of the Psychology Department, University of Detroit Mercy, over saw the statistical analysis of the original research.
Brenda Gillespie, Ph.D., Associate Director of the Center for Statistical Consultation and Research, University of Michigan, oversaw the later statistical analysis of Individual Interconnectedness.
CORRESPONDENCE: Lenore L. Wiand, Ph.D. • P.O. Box 2705 Ann Arbor, Michigan
48106 USA or 8480 Papineau Avenue, Montreal, QC, H2M 2P4 Canada • [email protected]
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Our First People's Legacy
To all my relations!
How best may we go forth on this planet in peril? Who better to understand the wisdom of our earth than indigenous people. These human beings use this place as their medicine.
Native perspectives are profoundly tied with their land. Their keen observations and experience of our natural phenomena best observes and understands our sacred world. Since our very beginning these wise teachers cultivated a beloved relationship with our fragile planet. These native teachings are about an “affiliation,” of being interrelated with all organisms, in a deep, personal and committed way. Kinship and receiving from experiences in nature are common themes. Constantly reciprocity is a primary reoccurring virtue; you come from the earth you return to it. Everything happens in a circle and this acts a metaphor in all matters.
Natives observed how all things are connected together and there is no true separation just aligning with a higher Great Spirit. Their outer world is aligned with their inner world. Native Americans viewed land as something to be shared communally, and respected it with that idea in mind. The concept of "owning" land years ago was completely foreign to them.
While there were bountiful diverse perspectives and observances, Native people seem to agree upon certain values and ways of seeing and experiencing. They tend to have communal property, subsistence production, barter systems, and other practices. Also these people operated under consensual processes, where they observed a “participatory” democracy, and laws embedded in oral traditions. Also native peoples almost universally view the earth as a feminine figure illustrating a relationship of the earth, as their Mother, is a sacred bond with the creation. Native peoples viewed the earth by understanding the world from the natural order’s rhythms and cycles of life, and include animals and plants as well as other natural features in their conceptions of spirituality. Indians spiritual life where all things as gifts from the Creator.
Humans, in the Native American conception of the world, were not created to “dominate” over other beings, but rather to cooperate and share the bounty of the earth with the other elements of the creation.
Two basic teachings arise from their wise earth teachings. All things are related and non-human things are recognized as being apart. They only took what they needed. Also first people are stewards of the land since everything depended on this care.
These wise earth teaching are all our source for wellness. Being in good relation to the earth, and all things in a good way is something that must be remembered and practiced once more. The future of this planet requires a profound and compassionate realization of this sacred alignment and state of mind. Living in close harmony with the land these stewards have the closest connection to it. Thus native peoples cultivate the best possible relations by demonstrating their highest respect to the creator of their well being. | https://www.uregain.com/single-post/2018/01/27/first-people |
At this time I would like to remind the People of significant days of prayer in Honor of Sacred Sites; June 20th – National Native American Sacred Sites Day and June 21st – International Day to Honor Sacred Sites world wide, also known as World Peace and Prayer Day.
Time has come when all of our Nation’s Prophecies upon Grandmother Earth are weaving together with strength in messages to take notice of our responsibility. In this momentous time in history, we once again humbly request on behalf of Grandmother Earth, to gather “all nations, all faiths, one prayer” to create an energy shift of healing for all the spiritual beings of the two legged, those that swim, those that crawl, the winged ones, the plant nations and four legged.
As we are taking this time to journey to our Sacred Sites, whether it be churches, mosques, temples, pyramids, significant natural places of prayer, where the spirits live from our ancestors beliefs in the creator, may you have safe journeys.
Our significant sacred animals belonging to the different Nations upon this Grandmother Earth have now all shown their sacred color - which is white, the only way for the two-legged to listen and take notice. They are warning us of these times prophesied when many things are now out of balance that will affect us forever if we do not take this time to change our paths that we are on. These signs of changes prophesied are now evident in the global climate changes, the daily extinction of the plant and animal Nations and our human relationships with one another causing pain and to destroy one another, whether it be major war or within relatives. We must unite this global community to pray for a healing for Grandmother Earth, for all her living beings, for our future generation’s well being. | https://blog.theshiftnetwork.com/blog/national-native-american-sacred-sites-day-and-world-peace-and-prayer-day |
200 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 1992. Mother Earth Spirituality: Native American Paths to Healing Ourselves and Our World. By Ed. McGaa, Eagle Man. San Francisco: Harper. & Row, 1990. Foreword, introduction, il- lustrations, appendices, notes, suggested readings. xviii + 231 pp. $14.95. When I was a little ...
Green spirituality
Mother Earth Spirituality: Native American Paths to Healing. Ourselves and Our World (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990). Roberts, Elizabeth and Amidon, Elias. Earth Prayers from Around the World: 365. Prayers, Poems, and Invocations for Honoring the Earth (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1991). Roszak ...
Spirituality as decolonizing: Elders Albert Desjarlais, George
Spirituality as decolonizing: Elders Albert. Desjarlais, George McDermott, and Tom. McCallum share understandings of life in healing practices. Judy Iseke .... is this recognition in Gale High Pine's words: “My children, there is no modern world , there is no Indian world. There is only the Great Spirit's world and the same ...
Healing through interdependence: The role of connecting in First
Euro-American society is strongly based on a culture of individualism. ... First Nations Healing. 173. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. Leading First Nations mental health researchers have continuously stressed the collective orientation ..... Mother Earth Spirituality: Native American paths to healing ourselves and our world.
Spirituality in Supervision: A Phenomenological Study
Jan 10, 2014 ... Mother earth spirituality: Native American paths to healing ourselves and our world. San Francisco: Harper. Mehl-Madrona, L. (2003). Coyote healing: Miracles in native medicine. Rochester,. Vermont: Bear & Company. Molina-Markham, E. ( 2012). “Lives that preach: The cultural dimensions of telling one's.
BOOK REVIEWS
BOOK REVIEWS. Churchill, Ward: Indians Are Us: Culture and Genocide in Native North. America. Toronto: Between the Lines, 1994, 350 pp. ISBN: 0- 921284- ... SPIRIT (Support and Protection of Indian Religion and Indigenous Tradi- tions) ... 1990 volume Mother Earth Spirituality: Native Paths to Healing Ourselves.
Tobacco Booklet
In our efforts to create a society and culture free from the harms of commercial tobacco, we encounter many. American Indians who think that commercial ... many elders and spiritual leaders teach us to return to the traditional ways, using only traditional tobacco for ceremonies. Growing your own traditional tobacco is ...
THE WELLNESS WHEEL: AN ABORIGINAL CONTRIBUTION TO
and spiritual approach to life. It explains the nature of this approach to health and healing and demonstrates the relevance of such an approach for various cultures in today's world. It offers a practical set of exercises in four steps leading to the development of a person's self-care plan called 'My Wellness Wheel' and makes ...
Resources for Creation Care I. A Biblical Foundation for Creation
Earth Ministry (see website below). Creation-centered Spirituality. Earth's Echo. Robert Hamma. Earth and All the Stars. Anne Rowthorn. Native American Creation-centered Spirituality. All Our Relations. Winona Laduke. Mother Earth Spirituality: Native American Paths to Healing Ourselves and our. World. Ed McGaa, Eagle ...
Native American Spirituality and Healing in a Euro-American World
Native American Spirituality and Healing in a Euro-. American World. Carol Johnson. St. Catherine University. This Clinical research paper is brought to you for free ..... Take care of the earth like your mother: Protect her, honor her, deeply respect her, and .... his or her path in life, moving in the rhythm of the sacred heartbeat.
Diabetes Prevention in Indian Country: Developing Nutrition Models
ditional food systems of northern indigenous peoples. Annual Review of. Nutrition, 20, 595-626. LaDuke, W. (2005). Food is medicine—recovering traditional foods to heal the people. Minneapolis, MN: Honor the Earth. McGaa, E. (1990). Mother earth spirituality: Native American paths to healing ourselves and our world.
SHAMANISM by Chris Lüttichau, January 2001 Shamanism is an
Fundamentally it's important to know that it's not a religion; it's a spiritual path. It holds no dogmas; instead it offers a path to awakening. The Shaman seeks his or ... the messenger between our world and the world of spirit. Her/ his principle duty is to ensure that there is balance and respect between the human and spiritual ...
Forum on Religion and Ecology Indigenous Traditions and Ecology
Nature's Way: Native Wisdom for Living in Balance with the Earth. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2004. --------. Mother Earth Spirituality: Native American Paths to Healing Ourselves and Our World. Toronto: Harper, 1990. McKinnon, John and Jean Michaud. “Montagnard Domain in the South-East Asian Massif.” In.
Spirituality and Social Work
Contributing to our understanding of religion and spirituality are institutional religious beliefs imbedded in historical oral traditions, written scriptures, liturgical .... spiritual paths among indigenous. American people, as increasing numbers of Native Americans explore their tribal traditions or combine these traditions with faith.
Shamanism
Oct 2, 2016 ... Mother Earth's Children. Spiritual Aging and Dying. Your Body. Holds the Secret. Healing Through Hakomi. South River Highlands. Country Retreat ... spiritual path questioned the conventional ways of living, believing, and healing. We thought of ourselves as well outside the mainstream and subject.
Earth and Nature-Based Spirituality (Part I): From Deep Ecology to
Theoretical Considerations in the Study of Earth-Based Spiritualities. Defining Terms: Religion and Earth-Based Spirituality. In this examination of earth-based ( or nature-based) spirituality, my focus is narrower than that of Catherine Albanese in her Nature Religion in America (1990). Her discussion includes religions that ...
Spiritual Manifesto of DTESS- Sandra - Marco-Dylan-Lloyd-Vince edit
The traditional concepts of respect and sharing of the Native American Spiritual way of life are ... The stories and legends of our ancestors about the animal world have taught us how to live close to the Earth. Through traditional practice, this established ..... At DTESS, we believe in the Divine Father and the Divine Mother.
Nature and Ecology in Native American Expressive Forms
then we must divest ourselves of the notion of nature as a 'source of insight and promise of innocence,' and ... For Leslie Silko's tribe the person represents a constituent part of the natural world. And her description ... Native American spirituality, the earth as creator and actual physical sustenance are closely related, and all ...
Healing Words - Vol. 3 No. 2
civilisations a spiritual and societal paradigm based on the ... We prefer electronic submissions in Corel Word Perfect or MS Word. Please send your writing to: The Editors, Healing Words. 75 Albert Street. Ottawa, Ontario. K1P 5E7 . Our fax ... In all aspects of life, in unity with the Creator of life on Mother Earth you are one ...
Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future
May 31, 2015 ... Canada outlawed Aboriginal spiritual practices, jailed Aboriginal spiritual leaders , and .... tioned whether there was such a thing as “native religion. ... My brothers and sisters in New Zealand, Australia, Ireland—there's different areas of the world where this type of stuff happened.… I don't see it happening ... | https://theunfamousseries.com/mother-earth-spirituality-native-american-paths-to-healing-ourselves-and-our-world-religion-and-spirituality.html |
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The goal of the following paper is to examine course selected authors and essays of Ed Ind 450 that have shaped my perceptions of course goals and to ultimately answer the question: What evidence is there that I have engaged the concepts and ideas contained in the set of readings read and discussed in Ed Indian 450?
Within Ed Ind 450 we have discussed, shared ideas and tried to define Indigenous Knowledge. A new idea emerged from discussions about the appropriateness of even trying to define Indigenous Knowledge within an Eurocentric educational framework.
M. Battiste and J. Y. Henderson, in Decolonizing Cognitive Imperialism in Education, argue that even trying to define Indigenous Knowledge is itself the wrong approach to understanding Indigenous Knowledge. According to Battiste and Henderson, defining Indigenous knowledge is itself a Eurocentric endeavor. Eurocentric structures and methods of logical entailment and causality cannot unravel Indigenous Knowledge or its processes of knowing. (Battiste and Henderson, 2000, p. 40) Western Eurocentric definitions are rooted in a ‘division’ in order to get to the essence of an idea.
This is contrary to the holistic/inclusionary model of Indigenous Knowledge which is based on reciprocal relationships and balance where “everything affects everything else”. (Battiste and Henderson, 2000, p. 43) Battiste and Henderson want the reader to know that knowledge is not separate from, but intrinsic to experience. Ultimately Battiste and Henderson believe that IK is outside of a definition, but instead involves a journey or process of discovery through the respectful living of relationships. “Perhaps the closest one can get to describing unity in IK is that knowledge is the expression of the vibrant relationships between the people, their ecosystems, and the other living beings and spirits that share their lands.
(Battiste and Henderson, 2000, p. 42) “The best practice is to allow Indigenous people to define themselves.” (Battiste and Henderson, 2000, p. 41)
Not withstanding this paradox of even defining Indigenous knowledge, some crucial issues and barriers that emerge that are relevant to teaching Aboriginal studies and knowledge in the contemporary classroom.
In Chapter One of Klug and Whitfield’s book Culturally Responsive Pedagogies, the authors believe that Indigenous students are expected to assimilate to a non-Indigenous world view and culture. (Klug and Whitfield, 2003, p. 8) To remedy this assimilative practice the authors promote a ‘biculturallity’ of students and teachers. Information needs to be provided to teachers of non-Indigenous ancestry to assist them in creating successful classroom environments for Indigenous students. (1 would argue some Aboriginal teachers would also benefit from some cultural assistance.)
“When we recognize that we are not the product of one large monocultural heritage, our fear of the idea of becoming bicultural is reduced”, (Klug and Whitfield, 2003, p. 15) along with our fear of letting “…alternative knowledge and other ways of knowing enter the schoolhouse.” (Klug and Whitfield, 2003, p. 112)
The natural question that many non-enlightened individuals pose following discussions of cultural sensitivities is why? Ultimately, the cognitive imperialism the present Eurocentric education system promotes has not served aboriginal students very well. Only 37% of Aboriginal students complete high school. Of these only 9% enter the University system and only 3% graduate. (Report of Indian and Northern Affairs, 2000) As educators we must recognize and address this problem. Klug and Whitfield believe that the failure of education is based on a misunderstanding of others based on a non-understanding of ones self. By understanding who we are, “allows us to acknowledge the legitimacy of other cultural systems” (Klug and Whitfield, 2003, p. 96) Eurocentric and postcolonial pedagogies have shifted the emphasis from spiritual views of the world (in which Indigenous knowledge is rooted) to secular and more scientific views of the world making “older ways of examining the universe holistically [seem] unscientific and therefore unreliable.” (Klug and Whitfield, 2003, p.102) We are now living in a post modern world and have all recovered from the linear and tunnel vision view of colonial supremacy. We are now beginning to recognize diversity in all aspects of life and are now sympathetically considering different worldviews.
“For too long, the mythology of school failure as a given for under represented populations has been accepted unchallenged. We have to face our complicity in making failure real for children. Schools are social institutions reflecting the cultural norms of the dominant society. (Klug and Whitfield, 2003, p.96) “Teachers who are experiencing difficulties, may blame Native students by thinking the students are too lazy or unwilling to learn” (Klug and Whitfield, 2003, p. 18) It is far too easy to argue that the underrepresented populations in our schools are ‘lazy’ and because of this, they fail. “Children do no fail in school; schools fail children” (Klug and Whitfield, 2003, p. 96).
The statement reiterates the importance of teacher self-reflection or system evaluation. Quite often, the blame is place on the individual rather than asking what can be done better to meet the needs of this student? To further correct the deficiencies of the current education system, educators must change and evolve to serve the students who the current system is marginalizing. “To be effective we must be students of psychology, sociology, and anthropology as we work with diverse groups of children in our classrooms.” (Klug and Whitfield, 2003, p. 95-6) So if we are to become effective teachers we must evolve to make a classroom that is culturally inclusive, thereby assisting students to greater success in the classroom. Klug and Whitfield suggest that one way to achieve this goal is to acknowledge the commonalities that exist in terms of respect for spiritual beliefs, need for connectedness, and the importance of language preservation. (Klug and Whitfield, 2003, p. 109) It is from the basis of respect that students will grow and develop. We are obligated as teachers to develop habits of respect in the classroom that recognize the great strengths that First Nations students bring with them. (Klug and Whitfield, 2003, p. 110) “To oneself, one is responsible for recognizing and developing one’s talents and gifts and for cultivating and mastering these gifts in order to build a secure foundation to attain self-realization. As one understands oneself – spiritually, mentally, physically and emotionally, one become centered and focuses, and thus becomes a vital force in enabling others to do the same.” (Battiste and Henderson, 2000, p. 56)
As stated, this obligation of respect must include spirituality. By ‘spiritual’ I do not mean the creedal formulations of any faith tradition, as much as I respect those traditions and as helpful as their insights can be. I mean the ancient and abiding quest for connectedness with something larger and more trustworthy than our egos, within our own souls, with one another, with the worlds of history and nature, with the invisible winds of the spirit, with the mystery of being alive. Saskatchewan Learning is currently undertaking a renewal project of the curriculum’s Personal and Social Values found within the Common Essential Learnings. This renewal is to include and define a spiritual dimension to the curriculum. While it may take many different forms, spirituality can be identified by some common elements. Spirituality is an attitude or way of life that recognizes the spirit.
This recognition is one basis for the development of religions but in itself does not require an institutional connection or religious affiliation. Spirituality is broader and more general than any particular religious or wisdom tradition. These include “a respect for what transcends us, whether we mean the mystery of being or a moral order that stands above us; certain imperatives that come to us from heaven, or from nature, or from our own hearts; a belief that our deeds will live after us; respect for our neighbors, for our families, for certain natural authorities, respect for human dignity and for nature.” (Havel, 1996, p. 9-11) Author Willie Ermine echoes this need for spiritual inclusion and transformation. “The three specific orientations of the transformation are: skills that promote personal and social transformation; a vision of social change that leads to harmony with rather than control of the environment; and the attribution of a spiritual dimension to the environment.”(Miller, Cassie, and Drake in Ermine 1995, p. 102)
It is difficult to compare dominant Eurocentric education models to the three specific orientations that Ermine describes. Dominant society continues to promote individuality, meritocracy and dominion of spiritual issues. “It is our responsibility to preserve the flame for humanity and at the moment it is too weak to he shared but if we are still and respect the flame it will grow and thrive in the caring hands of those who hold it. In time we can all warm at the fire. But now we have to nurture the flame or we will all lose the gift” (Cecil King in Ermine 1995: 111).
Spirituality also involves a search for meaning, the desire to find and know the truth about things and oneself. The meaning of a thing (or a person’s life) is that for the sake of which it exists and without which the thing (or person) lacks context, place, connectedness, embeddedness. So we might say that spirituality concerns that which connects us to some larger whole within which we have a unique ‘place’ that ‘makes a difference’. Aboriginal Knowledge gives us this gift of meaning, and without which the pattern as whole would be incomplete. Aboriginal spirituality contains the beliefs that all of nature is sacred and that we are related or connected in deep ways to the rest of the natural world -other persons, animals, plants, places. “Native spirituality in that sense is a feeling of kinship with all living things in the universe, and living a life of cosmic citizenship. Having, a sense of obligation; responsibility, and being accountable for one’s actions in this cosmic family, is what I believe to be the essence of Native spirituality….. The Native view, however, holds that there is not hierarchy. Each individual is placed in the centre of a circular world. Each direction must be honored, as it represents a life-giving force to all living things.” (Wilson, 1998)
This connectedness with spirituality can be connected back earlier to Battiste and Henderson article and was best summed up by fellow student Gabrielle Tate-Penna, “…one can not read something from the Aboriginal community without making reference to the spiritual life.” (Tate-Penna, 2004, p.2)
The information presented and offered practical solutions in Ed Ind 450 has been internalized to make me a better and more inclusive teacher. The authors studied in this class offer varying degrees of information and pose a great number of questions about the evolution needed of our educational institutions. I understand that Aboriginal culture has been overlooked in Eurocentric classrooms and as a new teacher I must take action to change that. It is the teacher’s responsibility to determine how much and what information should be introduced to curriculum to create a cultural inclusive classroom. Only then will the culture of failure be kept out of our schools and classrooms and be replaced by a culture of inclusion, acceptance and recognition of all people and the knowledge they possess.
👋 Hi! I’m your smart assistant Amy! | https://studymoose.com/an-analysis-of-ed-ind-450-essay |
This category covers a wide range of key words and phrases, but basically features EarthSayers who emphasize the importance of consciousness, being awake and aware and in this context, acknowledging the interconnectedness of all beings and acting accordingly with intelligence and compassion. Keywords included in this category range from spirituality and religion to consumerism and conservation. Stories and myths that reflect our beliefs and attitudes will also be found in this special collection.
Curated by mokiethecat
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Fun and Fame not Shame and Guilt by Anthony Zolezzi
|October 25, 2011
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ANTHONY ZOLEZZI, Co-founder of Greenopolis. is speaking at the New World Fest (Festival of Eco-friendly Science & Techonology) in Santa Monica. He explains the "New Spirit of Sustainability." Greenopolis focuses our attention on changing the world through recycling, waste-to-energy and conservation. They reward users for their sustainable behavior on our website, through our Greenopolis recycling kiosks and with curbside recycling programs. Visit their site at to learn more!
EarthSayer Anthony Zolezzi
Taking Responsibility by Ocean Rower Roz Savage
Four Most Remarkable Facts by Bill Bryson
The Oneness - We Are One
The Power of Ceremony by Linda Neale
Non-Duality and the Mystery of Consciousness by Peter Russell
Sustainability: Thinking About Your Children by John Fullerton
Future of Human Race Is In Danger by Stephen Hawking
The Brain's Greatest Con Trick by Bruce Hood
Changing Our Habits by Dominique Conseil of Aveda
What does Interfaith Mean by Jamal Rahman?
Live Better With Less by Fritz Hinterberger
Stop with Labeling Our Children by Janice Taylor
The Silence of Animals by Philosopher John N. Gray
Accidental Mystic by Nick Jankel
Want to help someone? Shut up and listen! by Ernesto Sirolli
When Demand Exceeds Your Capacity
Time Reborn: Is the Future Fixed by Robert J. Sawyer
The Known Universe from Amer. Museum of Natural History
Smile or Die by Barbara Ehrenreich
Getting Off: Pornography and the End of Masculinity Robert Jensen
Happiness, Inner Peace and Money by HH Dalai Lama
Consciousness by Deepak Chopra
Finding Emotional Resilience in These Troubled Times
Expanding Vision and Consciousness by Ervin Laszlo
Changing Education Paradigms by Sir Ken Robinson
I met the Walrus
Quantum Activism by Amit Goswami at SEED Graduate Institute
Sarah van Gelder & YES! Magazine
Sand Talk with Tyson Yunkaporta
Unconscious Bias and Diversity from the RSA
Children in India: Three Places of Learning by David MacDougall
Choosing Life by Joanna Macy
Making Spirituality Public Again by Jonathan Rowson
You Are Welcome, You Are Invited by Doug Cohen
Interview for WWF 50th Birthday by Niall Dunne
Non-Duality and the Mystery of Consciousness by Peter Russell
Fun and Fame not Shame and Guilt by Anthony Zolezzi
The Living Universe, Part 2 of 2 by Duane Elgin
Free Enterprise as a LIfestyle Issue by Arthur Books
Active Hope by Joanne Macy
Ghandi, King and the Earth Charter by Mary Evelyn Tucker
Overview by Planetary Collective
Gratitude and Happiness by Louie Schwartzberg
The Myth of Apathy or Why People Don't Seem to Care About Sustainability
How Science is Like Democracy by Lee Smolin
Inner Landscape of Sustainability by Isabel Rimanoczy
How To Boil A Frog Trailer
Seeking and Understanding by LosangMonlam
Thrive Top Ten Actions
Interconnectivity: Secular Spirituality by Nick Jankel
Redefining Apathy by Dave Meslin
An Ecology of Mind, The Gregory Bateson Documentary
Just Do One Thing by Greg Horn
Refugee Crisis: The Cost of Compassion by Jessica Vaughan
Web Communities by Charles Leadbeater
The Sustainability Advocate by Joseph Roberts
Wholeheartedness by Dr. Brene Brown
Patagonia's Mission Statement by Rick Ridgeway
Examined Life by Astra Taylor
Vision 2012 by Stephen Dinan
The Brain and Consciousness by Steven Laureys
The Real Cost of Consumerism by Tim Kasser
A Native American Prayer of Gratitude with Chief Phil Lane Jr. | http://www.earthsayers.tv/special_collection/Fun_and_Fame_not_Shame_and_Guilt_by_Anthony_Zolezzi/15/21391 |
Alternative Futures is a development research and communication group working on creative and meaningful policy, social and technological alternatives and innovations for development and social change. We look at change in a holistic manner, even while working on various specialized issues.
We focus on innovative efforts for sustainable development, social transformation and democratic, transparent and accountable governance in all sectors of society. We believe that these changes can come about only through engagement with wider society – citizens, corporations, consumers, civil society groups, youth and others. Thus, we seek to create an expanding community of willing change-makers who can help us all move towards an alternative future that is more humane, just and sustainable.
Alternative Futures is inspired by the vision of a society based on the principles of ecological sustainability, social justice, spirituality and cultural pluralism.
Ecological sustainability: a mode of living `lightly’ on earth – that respects and conserves the life-giving potential of nature for future generations, while emphasizing the equitable use of natural resources by present generations. It recognises the importance and the rightful place of other living creatures.
Social justice: the social conditions and democratic governance which can provide all human beings – rich and poor, men and women - with adequate opportunities to grow up healthy and secure. Such an environment is necessary to help people to develop their skills and talents, and to enable the flowering of their personalities.
Spirituality: realisation and appreciation of the oneness and interconnectedness of all existence. The attitude of spirituality promotes peace and harmony, love and tolerance between self and other (including nature).
Cultural pluralism: the desired co-existence of cultures on equal terms and with mutual respect. It seeks to work against the undue dominance of some cultures/cultural traits over other cultures due to economic, political or technological might. | http://www.alternativefutures.org.in/ |
Walking around the Old Woman Mountain Preserve, our Learning Landscapes students are always struck by how this preserve connects them to all parts of the desert. From their campsites on the northeastern side of the Old Woman Mountains, they gaze down the bajada to the Ward Valley. Faint imprints mark Native American trails that have been used for thousands of years, while more recent tracks mark the locations of Gen. George Patton’s Desert Training Center activities. Beyond the Ward Valley, the students’ eyes catch mountain ranges 40 miles away, in Arizona and Nevada.
Over the course of a weekend — including Nov. 4-5 — Learning Landscapes students see and experience the history of interconnectedness that characterizes the East Mojave Desert. These Native American youth walk on the trails that link ancient village sites to desert springs, and learn histories and skills from tribal elders. Students are offered the rare opportunity to spend quality time with elders as they cook native plants, listen to stories, and stargaze.
The Learning Landscapes program is unique because it does more than just pass cultural knowledge from one generation to the next; it fosters interaction with, and appreciation for, the entire landscape. Students learn not only about one mountain range and its history, but how the Old Woman Mountains are connected to the entire eastern Mojave Desert through rich networks of trails and stories. They learn about the landscapes and themselves. This program transforms the lives of these youth, many of who have never even been camping before.
Since 1998, the Native American Land Conservancy has worked to protect and preserve Native American sacred landscapes, including the Old Woman Mountains Preserve. Our biggest challenge has been to insist on comprehensive protection of sacred landscapes rather than the protection of individual sacred sites as standalone locations. Trails and histories connect sacred sites, and these connections make sacred sites valuable to tribes and the Native American Land Conservancy. While each site is important individually, they derive their sacred nature from their relationships to other sites — through physical and spiritual trails. To protect them, we can’t consider them as a collection of individual places, but rather a landscape of interconnections — just as the students in our Learning Landscapes programs learn to do.
The recent designation of the Mojave Trails National Monument has protected a broad area around our preserve. It ensures the continued protection of the Ward Valley and the trails that traverse it, and maintains the qualities and connections that continue to make the Old Woman Mountains such an important place for Native Americans. The Mojave Trails National Monument, like many other protected public lands, is not only a testament to our past. This monument both recognizes the history of the place and helps us build new connections; they allow us to learn from our students and our communities about what the future of the desert will be.
Julia Sizek is a Ph.D. student in the Department of Anthropology at UC Berkeley, and an associate scholar with the Native American Land Conservancy. | http://3monuments.org/monument-protects-sacred-landscape-of-interconnectedness/ |
J. Philip Newell is a poet, scholar, and teacher. Formerly Warden of the Iona Abbey in the Western Isles of Scotland, he is now Writer-Theologian for the Scottish Cathedral of the Isles as well as Companion Theologian for the American Spirituality Center of Casa del Sol at Ghost Ranch in New Mexico. Newell is convinced that there is a widespread yearning for peace and a great need to reconnect with the good Earth. The author finds both of these themes in the tradition of Celtic Christianity. Tapping into ancient and modern resources ranging from the Gospel of Thomas and the Acts of John to the writings of Irenaeus, Eriugena, and Teilhard de Chardin, he identifies new hope for humanity in the presence of God in everyday life.
In the Celtic tradition, Christ is often referred to as "the truly natural one." which means he has come to show us the way back to the original root of our being. Pondering our sacred origin is a good thing to do. Newell shares this story:
"A number of years ago, I delivered a talk in Ottawa, Canada, on some of these themes. I referred especially to the prologue of the gospel of John and his words concerning 'the true light that enlightens everyone coming into the world' (John 1:9). I was inviting us to watch for that Light within ourselves, in the whole of our being, and to expect to glimpse that Light at the heart of one another and deep within the wisdom of other traditions. At the end of the talk, a Mohawk elder, who had been invited to comment on the common ground between Celtic spirituality and the native spirituality of his people, stood with tears in his eyes. He said, 'As I have listened to these themes, I have been wondering where I would be today. I have been wondering where my people would be today. And I have been wondering where we would be as a Western world today if the mission that came to us from Europe centuries ago had come expecting to find the Light in us.' "
Many Christians over the centuries have not been able to see the Light within themselves or in others because of their acceptance of the doctrine of original sin. Newell calls this "an obsessive-compulsive disorder on a massive scale." With its emphasis on the worthlessness of human beings, it has wounded millions of modern men and women and driven them far from the church. Newell also discusses other detrimental doctrines including a negative view of the body and sexuality, a hesitancy to see grace as operative in nature, and the idea of substitutionary atonement.
Celtic Christianity is more poetic than doctrinal and that is why it speaks to so many in this ecological age. Aelred of Rievaulx taught that God is not our judge but our lover. And that is the good news that shines through the pages of this healing and helpful book. The Christ who comes from the heart of creation brings glad tidings that enable us to open to the bounties of the natural world and the wonderful religious diversity that offers us new evidence of the ties which bind us to others. | https://www.spiritualityandpractice.com/books/reviews/view/18140 |
This category covers a wide range of key words and phrases, but basically features EarthSayers who emphasize the importance of consciousness, being awake and aware and in this context, acknowledging the interconnectedness of all beings and acting accordingly with intelligence and compassion. Keywords included in this category range from spirituality and religion to consumerism and conservation. Stories and myths that reflect our beliefs and attitudes will also be found in this special collection.
Curated by mokiethecat
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Consciousness by Deepak Chopra
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Science connects with spirituality at the fundamental level of consciousness, where everything disappears.
Time magazine heralds Deepak Chopra as one of the top 100 heroes and
icons of the century and credits him as "the poet-prophet of alternative
medicine." Many also know him from his regular work with PBS,
including The Happiness Prescription and Body, Mind, and Soul: The
Mystery and The Magic.
EarthSayer Deepak Chopra
The Sustainability Advocate by Joseph Roberts
Finding Emotional Resilience in These Troubled Times
Non-Duality and the Mystery of Consciousness by Peter Russell
Patagonia's Mission Statement by Rick Ridgeway
Non-Duality and the Mystery of Consciousness by Peter Russell
When Demand Exceeds Your Capacity
Seeking and Understanding by LosangMonlam
Redefining Apathy by Dave Meslin
Interconnectivity: Secular Spirituality by Nick Jankel
Active Hope by Joanne Macy
Changing Our Habits by Dominique Conseil of Aveda
Interview for WWF 50th Birthday by Niall Dunne
The Oneness - We Are One
What is Resiliency by Tora Fisher
Time Reborn: Is the Future Fixed by Robert J. Sawyer
Quantum Activism by Amit Goswami at SEED Graduate Institute
Fun and Fame not Shame and Guilt by Anthony Zolezzi
The Known Universe from Amer. Museum of Natural History
Want to help someone? Shut up and listen! by Ernesto Sirolli
Choosing Your Right Path by Satish Kumar
Thrive Top Ten Actions
Ghandi, King and the Earth Charter by Mary Evelyn Tucker
Gratitude and Happiness by Louie Schwartzberg
Permaculture 101 by Penny Livingston-Stark
The Global Brain by Peter Russell
Taking Responsibility by Ocean Rower Roz Savage
What does Interfaith Mean by Jamal Rahman?
An Ecology of Mind, The Gregory Bateson Documentary
The Circumference of Home by Kurt Hoelting
Web Communities by Charles Leadbeater
Accidental Mystic by Nick Jankel
The Brain's Greatest Con Trick by Bruce Hood
The Silence of Animals by Philosopher John N. Gray
Free Enterprise as a LIfestyle Issue by Arthur Books
Inspiring Sustainability in Skeptics -- John Marshall Roberts
Consciousness by Deepak Chopra
Wake Up Call by Elizabeth Lindsey
Choosing Life by Joanna Macy
Examined Life by Astra Taylor
How Science is Like Democracy by Lee Smolin
Wholeheartedness by Dr. Brene Brown
Sand Talk with Tyson Yunkaporta
Live Better With Less by Fritz Hinterberger
How To Boil A Frog Trailer
Choices that can Change your Life with Caroline Myss
Future of Human Race Is In Danger by Stephen Hawking
Active Hope, Belonging and Becoming by Barbara Ford
The Soulful Company with Gideon Rosenblatt
Sustainability: Thinking About Your Children by John Fullerton
The Living Universe, Part 2 of 2 by Duane Elgin
Getting Off: Pornography and the End of Masculinity Robert Jensen
Expanding Vision and Consciousness by Ervin Laszlo
Refugee Crisis: The Cost of Compassion by Jessica Vaughan
Children in India: Three Places of Learning by David MacDougall
The Power of Ceremony by Linda Neale
The Real Cost of Consumerism by Tim Kasser
The Brain and Consciousness by Steven Laureys
Inner Landscape of Sustainability by Isabel Rimanoczy
Stop with Labeling Our Children by Janice Taylor
Unconscious Bias and Diversity from the RSA
Smile or Die by Barbara Ehrenreich
You Are Welcome, You Are Invited by Doug Cohen
A Native American Prayer of Gratitude with Chief Phil Lane Jr. | http://www.earthsayers.tv/special_collection/Consciousness_by_Deepak_Chopra/15/18007 |
This category covers a wide range of key words and phrases, but basically features EarthSayers who emphasize the importance of consciousness, being awake and aware and in this context, acknowledging the interconnectedness of all beings and acting accordingly with intelligence and compassion. Keywords included in this category range from spirituality and religion to consumerism and conservation. Stories and myths that reflect our beliefs and attitudes will also be found in this special collection.
Curated by mokiethecat
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Smile or Die by Barbara Ehrenreich
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Acclaimed journalist, author and political activist Barbara Ehrenreich explores the darker side of positive thinking and reminds us that we can change things because we have collective power.
Category:
EarthSayer Barbara Ehrenreich
Non-Duality and the Mystery of Consciousness by Peter Russell
Free Enterprise as a LIfestyle Issue by Arthur Books
Unconscious Bias and Diversity from the RSA
I met the Walrus
The Global Brain by Peter Russell
Finding Emotional Resilience in These Troubled Times
Vision 2012 by Stephen Dinan
Patagonia's Mission Statement by Rick Ridgeway
How Science is Like Democracy by Lee Smolin
Choices that can Change your Life with Caroline Myss
Live Better With Less by Fritz Hinterberger
Changing Education Paradigms by Sir Ken Robinson
The Oneness - We Are One
Choices that can Change your Life with Caroline Myss
Taking Responsibility by Ocean Rower Roz Savage
The Circumference of Home by Kurt Hoelting
Examined Life by Astra Taylor
Consciousness by Deepak Chopra
Want to help someone? Shut up and listen! by Ernesto Sirolli
Sustainability: Thinking About Your Children by John Fullerton
Overview by Planetary Collective
The Silence of Animals by Philosopher John N. Gray
The Living Universe, Part 2 of 2 by Duane Elgin
You Are Welcome, You Are Invited by Doug Cohen
Changing Our Habits by Dominique Conseil of Aveda
Four Most Remarkable Facts by Bill Bryson
Gratitude and Happiness by Louie Schwartzberg
Ghandi, King and the Earth Charter by Mary Evelyn Tucker
The Known Universe from Amer. Museum of Natural History
Identity and Cosmopolitanism with Kwame Anthony Appiah - Conversations with History
Refugee Crisis: The Cost of Compassion by Jessica Vaughan
Choosing Life by Joanna Macy
When Demand Exceeds Your Capacity
Children in India: Three Places of Learning by David MacDougall
Web Communities by Charles Leadbeater
Choosing Your Right Path by Satish Kumar
Just Do One Thing by Greg Horn
Fun and Fame not Shame and Guilt by Anthony Zolezzi
Thrive Top Ten Actions
Active Hope by Joanne Macy
Seeking and Understanding by LosangMonlam
Time Reborn: Is the Future Fixed by Robert J. Sawyer
What does Interfaith Mean by Jamal Rahman?
Active Hope, Belonging and Becoming by Barbara Ford
The Power of Ceremony by Linda Neale
Wholeheartedness by Dr. Brene Brown
The Real Cost of Consumerism by Tim Kasser
Accidental Mystic by Nick Jankel
A Native American Prayer of Gratitude with Chief Phil Lane Jr. | http://www.earthsayers.tv/special_collection/Smile_or_Die_by_Barbara_Ehrenreich/15/18167 |
A cognitive bias is a systematic error in thinking that occurs when people are processing and interpreting information in the world around them and affects the decisions and judgments that they make. Cognitive biases are often a result of your brain's attempt to simplify information processing. Biases often work as rules of thumb that help you make sense of the world and reach decisions with relative speed.
Assignment Point - Solution for Best Assignment Paper
Managers' ability to take a purely rational approach to decision making is hampered by insufficient information about the problems themselves, the data available, and perceptions that inhibit managers' ability to determine optimal choices. Our judgment is directed by a set of systematic biases, or heuristics. This article discusses the three broad heuristics--the availability heuristic, the representativeness heuristic, and anchoring and adjustment--and identifies the thirteen most common decision-making mistakes managers make. Apr 1, Behavioral economics, Decision making, Decision theory, Heuristics, Psychology. Article Popular. Educator Copy.
In addition to engaging in bounded rationality, an accumulating body of research tells us that decision makers allow systematic biases and errors to creep into their judgments. These come out of attempts to shortcut the decision process. In many instances, these shortcuts are helpful. However, they can lead to severe distortions from rationality. The following highlights the most common distortions. From an organizational standpoint, one of the more interesting findings related to overconfidence is that those individuals whose intellectual and interpersonal abilities are weakest are most likely to overestimate their performance and ability. So as mangers and employees become more knowledgeable about an issue, the less likely they are to display overconfidence.
Cognitive Bias: Systematic Errors in Decision Making
Since the importance of the right decision cannot be overestimated enough for the quality of the decisions can make the difference between success and failure. Therefore, it is imperative that all factors affecting the decision be properly looked into and fully investigated. Research shows that decision makers allow biases and errors to creep into their judgments. The following highlights the most common distortions. In addition to technical and operational factors which can be quantified and analyzed, other factors such as personal values, personality traits, psychological assessment, perception of the environment, intuitional and judgemental capabilities and emotional interference must also be understood and credited. Some researchers have pinpointed certain areas where managerial thinking needs to be re-assessed and where some common mistakes are made. These affect the decision-making process as well as the efficiency of the decision, and must be avoided.
There are two types of decisions—programmed and non-programmed. A programmed decision is one that is very routine and, within an organization, likely to be subject to rules and policies that help decision makers arrive at the same decision when the situation presents itself. A nonprogrammed decision is one that is more unusual and made less frequently. These are the types of decisions that are most likely going to be subjected to decision making heuristics, or biases. As we become more embroiled in the rational decision making model—or, as we discussed, the more likely bounded rationality decision making model—some of our attempts to shortcut the collection of all data and review of all alternatives can lead us a bit astray. Common distortions in our review of data and alternatives are called biases. You only need to scroll through social media and look at people arguing politics, climate change, and other hot topics to see biases in action.
Ну и что мне, прожевать все эти цифры. Она поправила прическу. - Ты же всегда стремился к большей ответственности. Вот. Он печально на нее посмотрел. - Мидж… у меня нет никакой жизни.
Cognitive Bias: Systematic Errors in Decision Making
- Стратмор хмыкнул, раздумывая, как поступить, потом, по-видимому, также решил не раскачивать лодку и произнес: - Мисс Флетчер, можно поговорить с вами минутку. За дверью. - Да, конечно… сэр.
Если Беккер окажется там, Халохот сразу же выстрелит. Если нет, он войдет и будет двигаться на восток, держа в поле зрения правый угол, единственное место, где мог находиться Беккер. Он улыбнулся.
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Хватит врать! - крикнул Стратмор. - Где. Хейл сдавил горло Сьюзан. - Выпустите меня, или она умрет. Тревор Стратмор заключил в своей жизни достаточно сделок, когда на кону были высочайшие ставки, чтобы понимать: Хейл взвинчен и крайне опасен. Молодой криптограф загнал себя в угол, а от противника, загнанного в угол, можно ожидать чего угодно: он действует отчаянно и непредсказуемо. Стратмор знал, что его следующий шаг имеет решающее значение.
Он прекрасно знал, что левой рукой стрелял так же плохо, как и правой, к тому же правая рука была ему нужна, чтобы поддерживать равновесие. Грохнуться с этой лестницы означало до конца дней остаться калекой, а его представления о жизни на пенсии никак не увязывались с инвалидным креслом. Сьюзан, ослепленная темнотой шифровалки, спускалась, не отрывая руки от плеча Стратмора. Даже в полуметре от шефа она не видела очертаний его фигуры. Всякий раз, ступая на очередную ступеньку, она носком туфли первым делом старалась нащупать ее край. К ней снова вернулись страхи, связанные с новой попыткой найти ключ Хейла в Третьем узле.
Я видел схему. Она знала, что это. Как и то, что шахта лифта защищена усиленным бетоном. Сквозь клубящийся дым Сьюзан кое-как добралась до дверцы лифта, но тут же увидела, что индикатор вызова не горит. Она принялась нажимать кнопки безжизненной панели, затем, опустившись на колени, в отчаянии заколотила в дверь и тут же замерла.
Время на исходе. Джабба сел за монитор.
- Я их сразу узнаю. Он гулял в парке с подружкой. Беккер понял, что с каждой минутой дело все больше запутывается. - С подружкой. Немец был не .
Выстрелишь - попадешь в свою драгоценную Сьюзан. Ты готов на это пойти. - Отпусти. - Голос послышался совсем. - Ни за .
Отпусти меня! - крикнула она, и ее голос эхом разнесся под куполом шифровалки. Мозг Хейла лихорадочно работал. Звонок коммандера явился для него полным сюрпризом.
В понедельник я проверю твою машину. А пока сваливай-ка ты отсюда домой. | https://us97redmondbend.org/and-pdf/1782-common-biases-and-errors-in-decision-making-pdf-821-585.php |
[br]The core of organizational behavior research is to understand organizational decision-making. Managerial decisions such as who to hire and who to promote do not exist in a vacuum. They are shaped by many factors. It can be argued that three critical factors in particular may influence these kinds of decisions; individual factors, social factors and the context/environment. Newly emerging research suggests that behavioral insights can be applied to each of these areas to help mitigate sub-optimal decision-making.
[br]
Individual factors
The choice of hiring one candidate over another is naturally influenced by a host of cognitive biases and heuristics at an individual level. What if we could minimize these biases to help managers make more objective decisions? Research suggests that in early stages of recruitment, keeping CVs anonymous helps to reduce discriminatory hiring (Joseph, 2016). Therefore, these tools help mangers to avoid making erroneous hires and ensure workforce equality.
[br]
Social factors
At the heart of various high profile organizational failures (e.g. 2015 Toshiba audit scandal) are biased corporate decisions made by top management. For example, biases such as groupthink come into play when board members have to reach a consensus on multiple decision alternatives. Several rules can be generated about how decision alternatives can be effectively generated and evaluated to reduce choice overload (e.g. devil’s advocacy) (Schweiger et. al., 1989). Debiasing board-level decision-making can strengthen corporate governance and improve strategic decision-making.
[br]
Contextual factors
In time-bounded clinical settings, decision-making is error prone. For example, due to the large volume of critical patients, emergency physicians tend to use heuristics to speed up diagnosis and treatment. However, this often leads to misdiagnosis (Pines, 2006). There is evidence that doctors may make decisions based on an initial piece of information provided by the patient and ignore disconfirming information (confirmation bias). Cognitive forcing strategies and decision aids such as safety checklists and computer systems can guide decision-making. These are now routinely used by various NHS trusts to improve patient care.
[br] Hence, behavioral analysis of corporate environments can help gain insight into faulty individual, group and organizational wide decision-making. Using an array of behavioral tools, one can teach organizations how to make smarter choices.
[br]That’s the smartest choice of all.
[br]
Your author is Ria Dayal. She has an MSc. in Organisational and Social Psychology from the LSE
[br]
References:
Joseph, J. (2016). What Companies Use Blind/Anonymous Resumes and What Benefits Have They Reported?.
Pines, J. M. (2006). Profiles in patient safety: confirmation bias in emergency medicine. Academic Emergency Medicine, 13(1), 90-94.
Schweiger, D. M., Sandberg, W. R., & Rechner, P. L. (1989). Experiential effects of dialectical inquiry, devil’s advocacy and consensus approaches to strategic decision making. Academy of Management journal, 32(4), 745-772. | http://www.thehuntingdynasty.com/2017/05/the-smartest-choice-of-all-teaching-organisations-to-make-smarter-choices/ |
Note: Sample below may appear distorted but all corresponding word document files contain proper formattingExcerpt from Essay:
Behavioral Economics
Many academics advocate that markets are "efficient." They argue that all stock and business information is embedded in the current price of an asset. As new information enters the market, the asset price immediately adjusts to reflect the new market sentiment. As a result of these efficient markets, investors can only hope to achieve the market rate of return given the amount of risk taken. There is very little opportunity, according to the academics to achieve higher rates of return in regards to capital expenditures than the overall market warrants. It is my contention however that the markets are inefficient in both valuations and subsequent reappraisals of assets and capital projects. Behavior finance and the teachings embedded within its theories are proof of the inefficient market theory (Shleifer, 1999). In fact, behavioral economics has very profound implications on the overall business decisions of a company in regards to growth. Through behavior finance companies can take advantage of extreme market pessimism to achieve higher rates of return without a subsequent increase in risk.
Topic 1
Corporate finance, budgeting and financial planning has arguably the most impact on the overall behavioral economics field. Our current economic climate provides a prime example of behavioral economics impacting business decisions. To begin, the overall behavioral economics field is the study of social, cognitive and emotional factors imbedded within a financial decision making process. The market is primarily composed of human beings making financial decision for themselves, their companies, or on an individual's behalf. As such, emotions play a very important role in regards to business decision making. By virtue of being human, emotions can cloud otherwise rational judgment in regards to financial decision making. These emotions can have a positive or adverse effect on business operations. For example, let's examine the financial services industry. Arguable the greatest crisis to occur within our lifetime was during the 2007-2008 fiscal year. During this year, stock prices plummeted nearly 50%, America encountered record unemployment, foreclosures were at all-time highs, and the global economy was in shambles. During this period it was very difficult for the average consumer to be the slightest bit optimistic about the future prospects of America. In fact, extreme pessimism was the majority sentiment at the time. These emotions directly correlate to financial planning and behavioral economics. Due to the extreme pessimism that prevailed during these periods, companies who were financial strong had opportunities to acquire other firms. JP Morgan acquired Washington Mutual and Bear Sterns for pennies on the dollar due to pessimistic emotions. Wells Fargo was able to acquire Wachovia as the market emotions depressed prices to bargain levels. Stocks of financially stable companies with fortress balance sheets, such as Wal-Mart, Proctor & Gamble, and Nike, were all trading at very depressed prices. The emotions of behavior finance provided opportunities in regards to financial planning and budgeting. If the typical retail investor planning and budgeting for retirement bought stock in the depths of 2008, the individual would have doubled his initial investment by 2012. The emotions of behavior finance provided opportunities for businesses and individuals to profit.
Topic 2
Mergers and acquisitions, as mentioned briefly in the financial services industry example above, also are impacted by behavioral economics. Mergers and acquisitions often fail due to over optimism on the part of management. These emotions, both social and cognitive, impact the success of mergers and acquisitions. Emotions, and in particular, hubris on the part of management effects the success of mergers and acquisitions. Hubris, when used appropriately provides the confidence and courage to undertake acquisitions. It also provides the conviction to stick with those acquisitions if it is believed to be profitable. Hubris can also be a detriment to business operations as I mentioned earlier. Too much hubris can create an atmosphere of acquisitions simply for the sake of acquiring the firm. Management due to emotions desires the satisfaction of managing a larger domain with more complexity. This is usually at the expense of shareholders who often are entrusting their future cash flow to the CEO. 70% of mergers fail to result in their intended profit and cash flow forecasts. This is due primarily to the issues I mentioned above. As such, the CEO must proceed with caution in regards to his or her emotional state when conducting a merger. Behavioral economics in regards to market sentiments also impacts M&A activity overall. During periods of mass optimism, the valuations placed on firms dramatically increases. As such the costs to acquire the firm is steep relative to its intrinsic value. As is often the case, companies pay extreme premiums over what the company is actually worth in order to obtain the firm. In this instance behavior finance again impacts decisions and clouds judgment. The vast majority of the 70% failure rate of mergers is due to the overvaluation placed on the firm. Numerous examples including the failed merger of AOL and Time Warner, and the complete write off of Microsoft's search engine acquisition are examples of this. This overinflated figure is often used as a ploy in the negotiation proceedings. The target firm wants to benefit the owner, or in this instance, the shareholders in the most beneficial manner. By overinflating the value of the firm initially, the target firm can then wager the price down. This seems like a concession on the part of the target firm, when in reality the firm did not intend to receive the overinflated price in the first place. This process results in the acquiring firm, believing that it has obtained a bargain, to dramatically over pay for the target firm. After many years of struggle, the acquiring firm usually takes a goodwill impairment to reflect the true value of the acquired firm. | http://www.paperdue.com/essay/role-of-behavioral-economics-in-business-75195 |
In our 2020 Project Management Symposium at the University of Maryland, we launched the idea of having one of our featured speakers present on how brain functioning impacts the management of projects, and we featured Josh Ramirez speaking on “Redesigning Project Management Around the Brain”. In the 2021 Symposium, Dr. Shari De Baets delighted the audience sharing insights from her research on the intersection of behavioral science and project management “Combining Behavioral Science with Project Management: The Road to Improvement”. This article is a summary of the highlights of her presentation.
People want to do their jobs well. They want to work in cooperative, engaging teams, and build good products. But project managers generally consider projects to be successful only when they are completed within boundaries of scope, time, cost and quality. Sometimes, they succeed. More often, they fail. Why? Because traditional project management methods have scarcely acknowledged the true impact of human experience and behavior on the outcome of a project.
The strategic decisions involved in project management can make or break a company; yet most business leaders would admit the quality of their decisions are far from perfect. Understanding what propels people’s behavior is among the key factors that drive successful project management—and it is a factor many project managers need to consider much more as they determine how best to deliver top results in an environment that is often complex, volatile, and uncertain.
Along the way, we have all learned about the brain’s fight-or-flight response to physical stressors. But we are not nearly as familiar with the idea that our brain responds acutely to social stressors—like the ones we find in our workplace—in the same way. Dr. De Baets’s research indicates that re-evaluating and revising decisions to account for how the brain actually operates will make the difference between project failure and success.
The brain is pretty amazing, but it still has limitations. She talks about introducing metrics that can take human factors into account, instead of just measuring hard data. According to Dr. De Baets research, we need to design our interfaces around how people think, make it easier for people to make decisions, and train employees in how to handle cognitive errors.
So, how can behavioral science be applied to making project managers better?
Dr. De Baets says to start by rethinking your approach to the project. Economic models that project managers have traditionally studied assume that everyone behaves rationally and that when people make a decision, they’ll make it based on “usefulness times probability.” Research indicates this is not the case.
But humans are not robots. That is why when standard decision-making models are applied to project management, the results are often dismal. The presupposition is, people always use logic to make decisions, so they will choose the methods that will perform best. Yet, people do not make decisions based on rational behavior—they react based on many complex factors, including their own gut feelings, often very optimistic!
The research supports a paradigm shift toward the belief that classic economic models are not as effective as we thought. Relying on computer-generated data is not enough, although calculations are certainly necessary, but decisions are abstract. Processing and outputting are the most important functions of our brain, but they can be influenced by erroneous beliefs or limited information.
Next, study behavioral forecasting. It is a more complex, but more accurate way to reduce the size of the error. It’s well documented in project management literature that process models and guidelines help people execute a project, but success and failure lies in whether people can recognize their cognitive biases and make decisions based on analysis and estimation. Perhaps other factors play an even more significant role.
Behavioral economics, which includes behavioral forecasting, leads to better results. It’s no longer about executing “rational” decisions to move the project forward. Project managers should start asking themselves how personal experience affects the circumstances at hand. As the reliance on archaic economic models fades, the tenets of behavioral project management make more sense.
Last, Dr. DeBaets cites the research of two Nobel Prize-winning economists, Dr. Herbert A. Simon, and Dr. Daniel Kahneman, who also authored the seminal book, “Thinking, Fast and Slow,” as pivotal in the field of behavioral economics. The thesis of Kahneman’s book is that of a dichotomy between the two modes of thought: A “System 1,” which is fast, instinctive, and reflexive; and a “System 2,” which is much slower, more deliberative and logical.
Especially important to Kahneman and Simon’s discussions, according to Dr. De Baets, are “heuristics,” which are mental shortcuts, or biases, that provide us with fast, cognitive reactions. The problem is, we use these “mental shortcuts” in situations we shouldn’t, because it may introduce a cognitive bias.
Heuristics aren’t to be confused with a racial or gender bias or prejudice—these are reasoning errors that cause you to go against what is logical—the exact errors that can result in fatal flaws in the project.
The first step to integrating behavioral science into project management is simply to acknowledge that these heuristics exist and then applying countermeasures. Dr. De Baets suggests learning about the three categories of biases—cognitive, group and memory. There are so many of them, including the one that plagues so many projects—optimism bias. That means we plan unrealistically, believing we’ll finish sooner, we’ll need fewer resources and the project will cost less, therefore the profit margin will be wider.
To counter this, Dr. De Baets recommends task segmentation and a complete “unpacking” of each activity and sub-activity. Doing a separate analysis and activity estimation generally results in people believing too much time has been planned, but actually, it’s more realistic, and it’s the first step on the path toward addressing the optimism bias.
So, perhaps it’s time for the profession of project management to evolve toward the next level—project professionals of all specializations should look to a new phase in project management that designs project management processes around behavioral science and focuses on behavioral factors.
Along with her colleague, Josh Ramirez, who is founder and president of the Institute for Neuro and Behavioral Management Project, Dr. De Baets says it is not enough to know these issues exist. To improve the chances for successful project management outcomes, the concepts need to be applied. Josh Ramirez was a featured speaker at the University of Maryland’s 2020 Project Management Symposium, and together, at the NBPM Institute, they are teaching project managers across all organizations to create new practices that will implement more flexible approaches to change and ultimately, better outcomes.
You can watch Dr. Shari De Baets’ full presentation from the 2021 Project Management Symposium. You can also watch Josh Ramirez’s presentation, Redesigning Project Management Around the Brian, from the 2020 Project Management Symposium.
If you are interested in presentations like this, check out the University of Maryland’s VIRTUAL Project Management Symposium to be held May 5-6, 2022. The event will feature 4 keynote speakers and 55 individual sessions in 5 concurrent tracks. More information can be found at the 2022 Virtual Project Management Symposium website. | https://pm.umd.edu/2021/07/07/combining-behavioral-science-with-project-management/ |
Behavioral finance is the study of the effects of psychology on investors and financial markets. It focuses on explaining why investors often appear to lack self-control, act against their own best interest, and make decisions based on personal biases instead of facts. Behavioral finance programs come in many forms. Some are courses and course modules offered online training firms and universities. Others are professional programs offered traditional universities. Some universities offer accredited behavioral finance degrees, including bachelor of science, masters of science, and Ph.D. programs.
These programs also have all kinds of names—from “behavioral finance” to “behavioral economics and social health science.” They combine psychology and neuroscience with traditional financial practices. They aim to equip advisors with tools and training to further help their clients make sound financial decisions, maintain emotional competency, and achieve their financial goals.
Behavioral finance concepts
Behavioral finance typically encompasses five main concepts:
- Mental accounting: Mental accounting refers to the propensity for people to allocate money for specific purposes.
- Herd behavior: Herd behavior states that people tend to mimic the financial behaviors of the majority of the herd. Herding is notorious in the stock market as the cause behind dramatic rallies and sell-offs.
- Emotional gap: The emotional gap refers to decision-making based on extreme emotions or emotional strains such as anxiety, anger, fear, or excitement. Oftentimes, emotions are a key reason why people do not make rational choices.
- Anchoring: Anchoring refers to attaching a spending level to a certain reference. Examples may include spending consistently based on a budget level or rationalizing spending based on different satisfaction utilities.
- Self-attribution: Self-attribution refers to a tendency to make choices based on overconfidence in one’s own knowledge or skill. Self-attribution usually stems from an intrinsic knack in a particular area. Within this category, individuals tend to rank their knowledge higher than others, even when it objectively falls short.
Some Biases Revealed Behavioral Finance
Breaking down biases further, many individual biases and tendencies have been identified for behavioral finance analysis. Some of these include: | https://masomomsingi.co.ke/behavioural-finance-notes-pdf/ |
Cognitive Biases are Bad for Business (and all organizations)
The conventional wisdom in classical economics is that we humans are “rational actors” who, by our nature, make decisions and behave in ways that maximize advantage and utility and minimize risk and costs. This theory has driven economic policy for generations despite daily anecdotal evidence that we are anything but rational, for example, how we invest and what we buy. Economists who embrace this assumption seem to live by the maxim, “If the facts don’t fit the theory, throw out the facts,” attributed, ironically enough, to Albert Einstein.
Contents
Dr. Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky discover cognitive bias common in humans
But any notion that we are, in fact, rational actors, was blown out of the water by Dr. Daniel Kahneman, the winner of the 2002 Nobel Prize for economics, and his late colleague Amos Tversky. Their groundbreaking, if not rather intuitive, findings on cognitive biases, have demonstrated quite unequivocally that humans make decisions and act in ways that are anything but rational.
Cognitive biases can be characterized as the tendency to make decisions and take action based on limited acquisition and/or processing of information or on self-interest, overconfidence, or attachment to past experience.
Cognitive biases can result in perceptual blindness or distortion (seeing things that aren’t really there), illogical interpretation (being nonsensical), inaccurate judgments (being just plain wrong), irrationality (being out of touch with reality), and bad decisions (being dumb). The outcomes of decisions that are influenced by cognitive biases can range from the mundane to the lasting to the catastrophic, for example, buying an unflattering outfit, getting married to the wrong person, and going to war, respectively.
Information biases and ego biases
Cognitive biases can be broadly placed in two categories. Information biases include the use of heuristics, or information-processing shortcuts, that produce fast and efficient, though not necessarily accurate, decisions and not paying attention nor adequately thinking through relevant information.
Ego biases include emotional motivations, such as fear, anger, or worry, and social influences such as peer pressure, the desire for acceptance, and doubt that other people can be wrong.
When cognitive biases influence individuals, real problems can arise. But when cognitive biases impact a business, then the problems can be exponentially worse. Just think of the Edsel and the Microsoft Kin. Clearly, cognitive biases are bad for business. Cognitive biases are most problematic because they cause business people to make bad decisions.
In my corporate consulting work, where I help companies make good decisions, I have identified 12 cognitive biases that appear to be most harmful to decision making in the business world. Some of these cognitive biases were developed and empirically validated by Kahneman and Tversky. Others I identified and subsequently passed the “duck” test (if it looks like a duck and sounds like a duck, it’s probably a duck).
Information biases include:
- Knee-jerk bias: Make fast and intuitive decisions when slow and deliberate decisions are necessary.
- Occam’s razor bias: Assume the most obvious decision is the best decision.
- Silo effect: Use too narrow an approach in making a decision.
- Confirmation bias: Focus on information that affirms your beliefs and assumptions.
- Inertia bias: Think, feel, and act in ways that are familiar, comfortable, predictable, and controllable.
- Myopia bias: See and interpret the world through the narrow lens of your own experiences, baggage, beliefs, and assumptions.
Ego biases include:
- Shock-and-awe bias: Belief that our intellectual firepower alone is enough to make complex decisions.
- Overconfidence effect: Excessive confidence in our beliefs, knowledge, and abilities.
- Optimism bias: Overly optimistic, overestimating favorable outcomes and underestimating unfavorable outcomes.
- Homecoming queen/king bias: Act in ways that will increase our acceptance, liking, and popularity.
- Force field bias: Think, feel, and act in ways that reduce a perceived threat, anxiety, or fear.
- Planning fallacy: Underestimate the time and costs needed to complete a task.
Think about the bad decisions that you and your company has made over the years, both minor and catastrophic, and you will probably see the fingerprints of some of these cognitive biases all over the dead bodies.
You Can Fight Back
The good news is that there are four steps you can take to mitigate cognitive biases in your individual decision making and in the decisions that are made in your company.
- Awareness is a key to reducing the influence of cognitive biases on decision making. Simply knowing that cognitive biases exist and can distort your thinking will help lessen their impact. Learn as much as you can about cognitive biases and recognize them in yourself.
- Collaboration may be the most effective tool for mitigating cognitive biases. Quite simply, it is easier to see biases in others than in yourself. When you are in decision-making meetings, have your cognitive-bias radar turned on and look for them in your colleagues.
- Inquiry is fundamental to challenging the perceptions, judgments and conclusions that can be marred by cognitive biases. Using your understanding of cognitive biases, ask the right questions of yourself and others that will shed light on the presence of biases and on the best decisions that avoid their trap.
Though brainstorming and free-wheeling discussions can be valuable in generating decision options, they can also provide the miasma in which cognitive biases can float freely and contaminate the resulting decisions. When you establish a disciplined and consistent framework and process for making decisions, you increase your chances of catching cognitive biases before they hijack your decision making.
Three Key Questions
Daniel Kahneman recommends that you ask three questions to minimize the impact of cognitive biases in your decision making:
- Is there any reason to suspect the people making the recommendation of biases based on self-interest, overconfidence, or attachment to past experiences? Realistically speaking, it is almost impossible for people to not have these three influence their decisions.
- Have the people making the recommendation fallen in love with it? Again, this is almost an inevitability because, in most cases, people wouldn’t make the recommendation unless they loved it.
- Was there groupthink or were there dissenting opinions within the decision-making team? This question can be mitigated before the decision-making process begins by collecting a team of people who will proactively offer opposing viewpoints and challenge the conventional wisdom of the group.
In answering each of these questions, you must look closely at how each may be woven into the recommendation that has been offered and separate them from its value. If a recommendation doesn’t stand up to scrutiny on its own merits, free of cognitive bias, it should be discarded.
Only by filtering out the cognitive biases that are sure to arise while decisions are being made can you be confident that, at the end of the day, the best decision for you and your company was made based on the best available information.
Here’s a simple inventory I developed to help you identify which cognitive biases you are most vulnerable to:
Related Best Practices
- Making Good Decisions
- After Action Review
- Organizational Learning
- The Living Company - Learning Organizations
Resources
- "Thinking, Fast and Slow" by Daniel Kahneman (Winner of the 2002 Nobel Prize in Economics), 2011. - Kahneman's definitive book on judgements, decision making and cognitive biases.
- "Cognitive Biases and “Doing Your Own Research, Part 1 – Decision Making, Belief and Behavioral Biases", by Christopher_NW February 25, 2013, Mostly Science.
- Decision Making at Wikipedia
- "How Good is Your Decision-Making?" at Mind Tools. An online test to measure your decision making skills
Author
The author of this page is Dr. Jim Taylor
Dr. Jim Taylor is an internationally recognized authority on the psychology of performance in business, sport, and parenting.
Dr. Taylor has been a consultant to and has provided individual and group training to businesses, sports teams and medical facilities.executives and businesses throughout the world.
Dr. Taylor received his Bachelor’s degree from Middlebury College and earned his Master’s degree and Ph.D. in Psychology from the University of Colorado. He is a former Associate Professor in the School of Psychology at Nova University in Ft. Lauderdale and a former clinical associate professor in the Sport & Performance Psychology graduate program at the University of Denver. He is currently an adjunct faculty at the University of San Francisco and the Wright Institute in Berkeley.
Dr. Taylor’s professional areas of interest include corporate performance, sport psychology, coaches education, child development and parenting, injury rehabilitation, popular culture, public education reform, and the psychology of technology.
He has published more than 700 articles in scholarly and popular publications, and has given more than 800 workshops and presentations throughout North and South America, Europe, and the Middle East. Dr. Taylor is the author of 14 books.
Dr. Taylor blogs on business, technology, sports, parenting, education, politics, and popular culture on this web site, as well as on huffingtonpost.com, psychologytoday.com, seattlepi.com, and the Hearst Interactive Media Connecticut Group web sites. His posts are aggregated by dozens of web sites worldwide and have been read by millions of people. A full biography is found on Dr. Taylor's website. | http://www.bestpracticeswiki.net/view/Cognitive_Biases_are_Bad_for_Business_(and_all_organizations) |
The academic literature on regionalism covers the contributions of economics, international relations and international political economy. Typical questions asked by these disciplines in the regionalism literature are summarized in Table 3. There is not space in this paper to pursue all of these questions. We focus on the contributions of economists who investigate the potential and actual economic impacts of forming regions. Economists analysis of regions begins with the classic theory of customs unions formulated by Viner, Meade and others and has been developed more recently in the context of imperfect competition (see Baldwin, 1997 for an accessible overview on which we draw in this section, as well as the recent volume by Schiff and Winters (2003) which summarizes the results of World Bank research on regional integration and development). This traditional theory is contrasted with the developmental regionalism espoused by some theorists concerned with developing countries and still dominant among those concerned with African regionalism. With the trend towards deeper integration, we summarize the emerging literature on the gains from integrating services trade and from regulatory integration. The lessons for developing countries from the literature surveyed are summarized in conclusion.
Table 3 - Debates about regionalism
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Motivation -why do regions come into being?
Structure - what form do regions take, and why do they take these forms?
Design - how should regions be designed to ensure they function efficently?
Impacts - are regions successful in promoting more rapid economic growth for members, and what are the consequences of third parties?
Convergence - do regions assist in the convergence of economic performance and living standards between participating countries?
Sustainability - what contributes to the success and sustainability of regions?
Systemic - are regions building blocks or stumbling blocks towards a more effective multilateral system?
The traditional economic approach to regional trade integration assumes perfect competition in markets and is concerned with the implications of forming a region for the allocation of resources in a static sense. This static analysis distinguishes between the trade creation and trade diversion effects of regional trade integration.
Unilateral tariff reductions lead to trade creation
In order to understand these concepts, it is helpful to begin with the analysis of a country which unilaterally eliminates tariffs on all imports. As a result, the domestic price falls to the world price. Domestic production falls, domestic consumption increases and total imports increase. The reduction in tariffs leads to additional trade, or trade creation. The effect of the tariff reduction on economic welfare can be decomposed into three effects: the gain to consumers from lower domestic prices, the loss of profits to producers and the loss of tariff revenue to the government. Under the standard assumptions that resources remain fully employed and that prices reflect marginal costs and benefits, it is easily shown that the consumer gain exceeds the producer and government loss from reducing tariffs and that there is an overall gain in national welfare as a result of this policy change.
In some cases, the barriers to trade are not rent-creating policies such as tariffs but policies which raise the real cost of importing. Typical examples of such policies are complicated and slow customs procedures, or the imposition of spurious health, safety or technical standards. Resources which could be employed productively elsewhere in the economy are tied up (wasted) as a result of these barriers. The removal of such cost-increasing barriers magnifies the gain in national welfare from their elimination.
Discriminatory tariff reductions lead to trade creation and trade diversion
Now consider the consequences when a country (the home country) eliminates trade barriers with its regional partners but maintains them on trade with third countries. This complicates the analysis because it may lead the home country to switch its source of import supplies. If the partner country is already the low-cost supplier, then preferential trade liberalization leads to the same trade creation effect as earlier identified for unilateral trade liberalization. Trade creation takes place when preferential liberalization enables a partner country to export more to the home country at the expense of inefficient enterprises in that country.
But preferential liberalization, by maintaining tariffs against the rest of the world, may cause enterprises in the home country to switch supplies from the rest of the world to higher-cost suppliers in the partner country. The partner country again increases its exports to the home country but this time at the expense of exports from third countries. Trade diversion occurs when imports from a country which were previously subject to tariffs are displaced by higher cost imports which now enter tariff-free from partners. While trade creation contributes positively to welfare in the home country, trade diversion results in a welfare loss. The consumer gain on the volume of imports previously imported from third countries is less than the tariff revenue lost by the government (because, if the partner country is a less efficient supplier, the domestic price in the home country does not fall to the world price level).
This example focuses on the experience of a single partner in an RTA. It is possible that one or more partners in an RTA can gain from trade diversion in their favor. This is more likely if a country initially has lower tariffs or smaller imports from its partner. However, trade diversion is always a loss for the RTA overall. A simple numerical example of this proposition can be found in the appendix to this chapter.
A third effect comes into play in the traditional analysis if the RTA is large in world market terms, so that a change in its demand for imports influences the price at which those imports can be purchased. If, as a result of the formation of an RTA, the demand for imports in competitive markets is switched from third countries to a partner country, this leads to a decline in the price of third country imports and improves the unions terms of trade vis-à-vis the outside world. In imperfectly competitive markets, there may be collective gains if regional integration makes it possible to shift rents away from third countries. Rents exist if firms in the Rest of the World (ROW) can exercise market power and price above marginal cost. Forming an RTA increases the amount of competition in the market and this affects not only domestic firms but also ROW firms which will find their ability to extract these rents eroded. Consumers and the RTA as a whole gain from the movement in the terms of trade in their favor.
Not only market power but also bargaining power can be increased by forming an RTA. To the extent that an RTA increases the joint bargaining power of its members, it may be more successful in obtaining tariff reductions from its trading partners (or avoiding the imposition of trade sanctions such as Super 301 threats). This assumes that the countries making up an RTA have a sufficient economic size relative to the third countries with which they must negotiate, and this requirement limits the relevance of this argument in the case of developing countries. A nice example (though based on regional cooperation rather than a regional trade arrangement) is noted by Schiff and Winters (2002). They point out how the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) wanted to impose waste disposal charges on cruise ships to prevent ocean dumping of solid waste which was threatening the fragile ecosystems on which the tourist revenue of the islands depends. The cruise lines warned the OECS governments that any island that imposed waste disposal charges would lose cruise tourism because the lines would move their business to other islands. However, by acting together (and, it should be noted, with some arm-twisting by the World Bank and other donors) the islands were able to face down the cruise lines and a pollution charge was introduced.
The importance of transfer effects
Economic analysis has emphasized the overall welfare consequences of regional integration at the expense of the distributional or transfer implications which are often crucial in determining its political sustainability. Transfers occur between members of a trade bloc because the removal of tariffs between them means that exports obtain better prices in the partners markets (a positive transfer), while the costs of imports net of tariffs increase (a negative transfer) (Hoekman and Schiff, 2002). Assume that the home country continues to import from ROW following formation of the RTA. Thus, the domestic price continues to be the world price plus the tariff on third country imports. The partner country, which previously would also have had to sell at the world price, now can sell at the domestic price in the home country. The home country loses the tariff revenue it previously collected on imports from its partner, and pays its partner more for its imports than it did previously. This amounts to a transfer from the home country to its partner exporting country. If the partner country also happens to be more developed or better off than the home country, then such transfers are clearly regressive and, over time, will call into question the sustainability of the integration arrangement.
Conditions for a positive welfare outcome...
The fact that the welfare outcome of preferential trade liberalization is ambiguous, the net result of the trade creation and trade diversion effects, has spawned a huge literature on the circumstances needed to ensure a net overall gain. As trade diversion is most likely when countries do little trade with each other prior to integration, one rule of thumb, although not an infallible one, is that regional integration between countries which trade little with each other should not be encouraged. Other circumstances favoring net trade creation include:
Where tariffs and non-tariff barriers of member countries are high prior to integration, since this maximizes the likelihood of trade creation.
Where members are geographically close, since this reduces transactions costs such as transport and communications.
Where tariffs and non-tariff barriers to extra-regional trade are low after the region is formed since this minimizes the likelihood of trade diversion.
Where members have complementary economic structures (dissimilar patterns of production) since there will be scope for inter-industry specialization.
These criteria led to the traditional view that the ideal grouping for economic integration includes countries at comparable levels of development but with disparate, complementary resource bases. Such countries would have the maximum to gain from integration but little to worry about in terms of the distribution of benefits in favor of rich countries at the expense of poor countries within the grouping.
Trade diversion costs should be measured relative to sustainable equilibrium world price levels. In the case of agricultural products it is widely recognized that world prices are distorted by various policy interventions, in particular the high subsidy levels paid by OECD countries. Any assessment of the trade diversion costs of an RTA with respect to agricultural trade should take into account the possible divergence between current world market prices and long-run social opportunity costs, particularly if the consequence of current depressed world prices as a result of trade-distorting policies results in irreversible loss of production capacity or changes in the local economy.
...are amplified if barriers are of the cost-increasing type
If the barriers restricting trade are cost-increasing rather than rent-creating barriers, the welfare analysis is quite different. Here, there is no tariff revenue accruing to the home country government before integration, and thus any reduction in domestic prices arising from sourcing supplies in a partner country can only have positive, trade-creating effects. As Baldwin (1997) notes with respect to African regional integration (p. 38):
It would seem that trade within Africa has been hobbled by a very long list of cost-raising barriers. For instance the transportation system for intra-African trade is less developed than the one for extra-regional trade. The same is true of telecommunications and postal services. The implication is that removing cost-raising barriers on a regional - as opposed to multilateral - basis cannot lead to a worsening of welfare due to trade diversion.
However, this argument is not a carte blanche to invest in regional infrastructure to ease trade between partners. Such funds have an opportunity cost, and the returns from integrating with the rest of the world may well be higher.
Further welfare gains under imperfect competition
The trade creation gains identified in the previous section arise even under perfect competition because resources are re-allocated within the home country in line with its comparative advantage. In more recent analysis of welfare effects, the perfect competition assumption has been relaxed in models that allow for imperfect competition, economies of scale and product differentiation. These new analytical perspectives on market integration emphasize the pro-competitive effects of larger markets rather than comparative advantage. The additional sources of welfare gain under imperfect competition include:
In many small countries the domestic market may not support a large number of firms and thus there is a tendency for firms to collude and raise prices at the expense of consumers. Reducing trade barriers may encourage firms to eliminate excess fat (so-called X-inefficiency) as well as force them to price more in line with marginal cost (more competitors increases the elasticity of demand for a firms products and makes it more difficult for them to charge margins in excess of marginal costs).
Larger markets as a result of regional integration may allow firms to exploit economies of scale, thus driving down costs and prices to local consumers.
Larger markets may increase the range and variety of products which are available to consumers. In well-integrated customs unions such as the EU, much of the increase in intra-regional trade takes the form of intra-industry trade (the exchange of similar products such as Renault cars for Mercedes cars between France and Germany) rather than the classical inter-industry trade (such as the exchange of cars for wine between Germany and Portugal) which would be predicted on the basis of comparative advantage.
Additional gains from integration
Modern theory also highlights a number of other consequences of regional trade arrangements:
Accumulation or growth effects. If closer integration improves the efficiency with which factors are combined it is also likely to induce greater investment. While this additional investment is taking place, countries may experience a medium-term growth effect. If such investment is associated with faster technical progress or accumulation of human capital as identified in the new endogenous growth models, long-run growth rates may also be improved.
Investment effects. More emphasis is now given to the impact of regional integration on production via the effect on foreign direct investment and investment creation and diversion.
Transactions costs and regulatory barriers. The traditional theory of customs unions was developed in the context of tariff reductions but, as noticed above, the welfare effects of integration can be quite different if the barriers removed are cost-increasing barriers. Following the EUs experience with implementing its Single Market program, there is now greater awareness of the importance of barriers which raise transactions costs in inhibiting trade, and of the value of removing them.
Importance of credibility. Many of the effects identified in the modern theory, especially those related to or requiring investment, assume that the integration effort is credible and will not be reversed. If credibility is lacking, and there is uncertainty among investors, their behavior is unlikely to be influenced. The emphasis on credibility assumes the existence of enforcement mechanisms which will ensure the implementation of commitments entered into when a country joins a regional integration scheme. The way in which access to a Northern country market might be used to enforce policy commitments has led to a new literature outlining the advantages of North-South rather than South-South integration arrangements on grounds quite different to the traditional allocation or accumulation effects.
The traditional efficiency advantages of removing barriers to economic activities are likely to appeal to industrialized countries with large, diversified industrial structures where significant scope to re-allocate resources among alternative activities exist. Page (2000) points out that this source of gain is unlikely to be so important in developing country integration, and it has not normally been the objective of developing country groups.
Their existing industrial structures are small relative to their economies or to their planned development, and the static gains from rationalising these among member countries by easing flows of trade are correspondingly small (op. cit. p. 25).
Inward-looking regional strategies ...
For developing countries, the rationale for economic integration has often been structural in nature. They have been concerned with the development of new industries through cross-border coordination to exploit the advantages of economies of scale which a larger home market permits. Thus, much thinking in developing countries on the advantages of regional integration sees it as a development tool and specifically as a tool of industrial policy (Asante, 1997). The advocates of import-substitution industrialization strategies could see the problems of pursuing these strategies in the context of small home markets, and saw regional integration as the way to establish these industries on a more competitive footing. The implicit assumption was that the choices made within the regional context would be efficient, and that member countries would accept the resulting pattern of industrial specialization (Page, 2000). To avoid uneven levels of industrialization between the member countries, regional integration schemes were often accompanied by an explicit framework of measures designed to ensure an equitable allocation of new complementary investment. Positive discrimination in favor of the less advantaged countries was implemented through complementarity agreements.
...have proved ineffective...
The experiences of developing countries with regional integration schemes designed on this basis were disappointing. An OECD study examined the performance of 12 regional trading arrangements among developing countries which had been in existence for some time (York, 1993). Most resulted in only a very low level of economic integration, particularly in terms of trade relations. This failure was due both to political and economic reasons.
In political terms, the ineffective nature of these arrangements is linked to the lack of commitment in adhering to and/or implementing the programs for regional trade liberalization and the inability of member countries to put regional goals ahead of national ones. For many countries - including some that were at the time recently independent nations - surrendering of (some) sovereignty for economic development was a sacrifice they were not prepared to make. When liberalization programs were put into place, many governments resorted to using unilateral and restrictive trade measures when import surges created pressures for domestic adjustment. Adjustment problems also led to conflicts between partners over the distribution of the costs and benefits to regional integration.
In economic terms, the ineffective nature of these arrangements for developing countries has been linked to a host of factors, including most prominently: differences in initial conditions such as disparate levels of income and divergent rates of industrial development that made the gains from trade uneven; low levels of initial integration that characterized many groupings, similar structures of production and resource endowments; inward-oriented industrial policies, and macroeconomic imbalances that made domestic adjustments and adjustments to mutual integration even more onerous (op. cit., p. 10).
...and imposed large costs on poorer member countries
The developmental approach to regionalism among developing countries has been heavily criticized within the trade creation/trade diversion framework (Bhagwati and Panagariya, 1996). In this framework, the larger the share of third country imports in total imports, the bigger the tariff revenue loss when a region is formed. Similarly, trade partners with initially higher tariffs lose more when a region is formed because more tariff revenue is redistributed away from them. Since developing countries often have high extra-regional trade dependencies and initially high tariffs, they will tend to lose from forming regions. The costs in terms of trade diversion will be high with a high probability that not only individual partners but also the RTA as a whole will lose overall.
From this perspective, the failure of so many developing country regional groupings is not surprising. Poorer or less industrialized members found themselves in the position of subsidizing the inefficient industry of their neighbors and doing so without adequate compensation since the relative wealth of their partners did not permit extensive income transfers.
Outward-oriented regionalism
The new regionalism is occurring in a very different policy context. It typically involves countries that have already committed themselves to lower tariff barriers and are pursuing outward-looking strategies. These policies reduce the scope for trade diversion costs. Moreover, static trade creation benefits are no longer the primary motivation. The new economics of regionalism stresses the potential gains from reduced administrative and transaction costs and other barriers to trade. These show up for an economy in increased inter-firm competition and a reduction of production costs and monopoly rents. To achieve these gains, however, much more than a simple free trade arrangement is called for if transactions and administrative costs are to be significantly reduced and market segmentation is to be overcome. But why could countries not seek these lower costs in the world market directly? One answer may be the lower transactions costs involved in producing for the regional market compared to the world market. Information on prices and consumer preferences are more readily available, and transport costs are lower.
The new regionalism also stresses that schemes of North South integration are likely to be more beneficial to developing countries (Venables, 1999). The first argument is that because industrialized countries are likely to be among the more efficient global suppliers, the costs of trade diversion (switching from cheaper global to more expensive partner imports) will be minimized. Schiff and Winters (2003) qualify this conclusion by pointing out that even small cost disadvantages for Northern firms can be costly for Southern partners because of the large amount of trade which will be involved. Also, if the Southern partner continues to import from the rest of the world over significant tariff barriers, prices in its market will not fall to the Northern partner price. Instead, there will be a substantial transfer of rents from Southern consumers to the Northern exporting firms.
A second argument favoring North-South RTAs is based on credibility. If developing countries want to establish the credibility of their policy reforms, locking these in through agreements with a Northern partner may be more convincing to investors (both domestic and foreign). The argument assumes that the costs of backsliding in the case of a Northern partner will be greater than for Southern partners. Again, the premises behind this assumption may not stand up to examination. While the Northern partner may have the market power to wield credible sanctions, it may not have the will (think of the public relations problems for the EU if it were to withdraw market access from a traditional African supplier because the latter introduced some discriminatory economic policy) or the motivation (the market of the Southern partner may be so insignificant that the Northern country has no material interest in retaining access to it).
Open regionalism is the logical conclusion of the new regionalism
A number of Asian and Latin American countries claim to be pursuing open regionalism. This is defined as regionalism that contains no element of exclusion or discrimination against outsiders. It implies that negotiated tariff reductions between members are agreed on an MFN basis and thus passed on to third party members of the WTO. The regional dimension consists in undertaking these cuts on a jointly agreed phased basis. In this process, open regionalism is a co-operative arrangement rather than a rules-based community. It has aptly been called concerted unilateralism. By definition, it avoids the trade diversion costs which have troubled developing country regional groups in the past. The recent experience of APEC, perhaps the best-known agreement of this type, suggests that such informal commitments may be vulnerable to breakdown in the absence of a wider forward momentum of multilateral liberalization.
A feature of the new generation of RTAs is that many of them aim to go beyond liberalizing trade in goods and include commitments to liberalize trade in services. The question can be posed whether trade in services has any characteristics which would lead to a modification or change in the conclusions reached about the impact of preferential trade liberalization in the case of goods. Mattoo and Fink (2002) have addressed this question and their conclusions are summarized here.
Extending preferences to trade in services extends conventional theory in two ways. First, because trade in services often requires that the producer be close to the consumer, the traditional analysis of cross-border trade needs to be extended to foreign direct investment and foreign individual service providers. Second, preferential treatment in the provision of services is rarely granted through tariffs, but through the discriminatory application of rules and regulations, or restrictions on the movement of capital or labor. For example, if there are limits on the number of telecommunications firms, banks or professionals that are allowed to operate, partner countries may receive preferred access to licenses or quotas. Or restrictions on foreign ownership, the number of branches, etc. could be relaxed on a preferential basis. The question is whether the use of instruments of this kind to implement preferential trade agreements, rather than tariffs, raise new issues for the welfare evaluation of RTAs.
Inclusion of services trade in RTAs likely to be beneficial
Mattoo and Finks conclusions are that, compared to the status quo, a country is likely to gain from preferential liberalization of services trade at a particular point in time. This is a stronger conclusion than is reached in the analysis of preferential trade in goods. The main reason is that barriers are often prohibitive and not revenue-generating, so there are few costs of trade diversion. In their words,
Where a country maintains regulations that impose a cost on foreign providers, without generating any benefit (such as improved quality) or revenue for the government or other domestic entities, welfare would necessarily be enhanced by preferential liberalization. However, non-preferential liberalization would lead to an even greater increase in welfare nationally and globally because the service would then be supplied by the most efficient locations (op. cit., p. 9).
Because restrictions on services trade in developing countries are much more pervasive than restrictions on trade in goods, the gains from removing these restrictions are likely to be a multiple of those obtainable from further goods trade liberalization. However, multilateral liberalization under the GATS is likely to be a more efficient way of ensuring these gains than regional integration. The reason again is the danger of trade diversion when liberalization takes place on a regional basis. This danger is particularly great in the case of RTAs between developing countries because the most efficient services suppliers are likely to be ROW firms.
Governments introduce regulations to deal with problems arising from market failure, such as asymmetric information, externalities or natural monopoly. As tariff barriers have fallen, differences in national regulations have appeared as potentially significant barriers to trade. While differences in national regulations may reflect differences in social preferences, there is also the danger of regulatory capture where domestic producer interests lobby for regulations which have a de facto protectionist effect. Parallel with the efforts being made in the multilateral trading system to develop international rules to reduce the protectionist impact of regulations, some RTAs now pursue a strategy of regulatory co-ordination to minimize the market-segmenting impacts of differences in national regulations. The best-known example of this process is the Single Market program pursued by the European Union since 1986. In many cases, RTAs are acting as laboratories in which different approaches to regulatory co-ordination are being tried, the lessons from which are feeding back into the multilateral negotiations under WTO auspices.
The question of regulatory co-operation is often presented as a choice between harmonization of regulations and standards or mutual recognition of the standards embodied in national rules. Harmonization removes the segmenting effect of differences in national standards by adopting the same regulations and standards throughout the RTA. As the EUs experience showed, it can be a painfully slow process. The alternative approach is to encourage mutual recognition of the national standards and conformity testing procedures in place in each member state of an RTA. In both instances, states must have confidence in each others testing and enforcement procedures, but the mutual recognition approach involves, in addition, the possibility of competition among rules leading to a race to the bottom. This may occur if firms within the RTA lobby for less stringent regulation in the face of competition from firms located in more lax regulatory jurisdictions, or threaten to relocate from high- to low-standard countries. The extent to which competition among rules leads to convergence of standards in practice, or whether national diversities can continue, is an empirical matter on which there is limited evidence to date. In practice, harmonization and mutual recognition may be complementary rather than alternatives. EU experience suggests that mutual recognition will only be accepted as the basis for accommodating different national rules when the difference between national approaches is not too great.
There is little empirical evidence on the benefits from regulatory co-operation. Mattoo and Fink (2002) point to the following considerations as being important:
If national standards are not optimal, then international harmonization can be a way of improving national standards.
If national standards have been captured by protectionist interests, then international harmonization can be a liberalizing device.
If national standards are optimal, then there is a trade-off between the gains from integrated markets and the costs of departing from nationally optimal standards. This trade-off is likely to be most severe in RTAs involving both developed and developing economies. The low-income country may have a low level of mandatory standards reflecting its optimal trade-off between price and quality, while the high-income country may have higher standards. Harmonization of standards produces the benefit of greater competition in the integrated market, but necessarily at a social cost in at least one of the partner countries. The problem may be particularly severe in the case of social or environmental standards where there may be sound economic reasons why differences in standards exist (Schiff and Winters, 2003). Because the aggregate costs of harmonization depend on the distance between the policy-related standards of the countries, Mattoo and Fink propose the concept of an optimum harmonization area composed of the set of countries for which aggregate welfare would be maximized by regulatory harmonization.
Mattoo and Fink conclude that there are gains for a country from regulatory co-operation, but also costs.
The former will dominate where national regulation can be improved, as in the case of financial services, or is excessively burdensome in all countries, as in the case of professional services. Once national regulations are optimal, the benefits of international harmonization in terms of greater competition in integrated markets must be weighed against the costs of departing from nationally desirable regulations. (op. cit., p. 22).
For developing countries, an important issue is whether harmonization on international standards is not likely to be the first-best alternative rather than trying to create regional standards. Indeed, many RTAs expressly provide for the use of international norms where they exist.
Fears over distribution of integration gains...
A crucial issue in the success of integration schemes is the equitable distribution of the gains from integration between countries. Locational effects have been important in many sub-Saharan African regions. Fouroutan (1993) argues that a common reason for the failure of regional integration in Africa is the concern among the poorest African countries that the removal of trade barriers may cause the few industries which they possess to migrate to industrially more advanced countries. The new economic geography throws light on the location decisions of firms by focusing on the interaction between scale economies (which favor concentrating production in one or a few locations) and trade costs (of which transport costs are the most important but which include any costs of moving goods to and keeping in touch with consumers). If production costs are equal, firms will want to locate close to consumers where the largest markets are. But there is a circularity here. The largest markets will be where firms are located because of the importance of other businesses and employees as customers. Baldwin (1997) explains this as follows:
Accordingly there is a mutually amplifying interaction between transport-costs-avoidance and market size determination. Firms desire to be near customers tends to concentrate demand for intermediate and final products. And this agglomeration of firms and workers purchasing power tends to attract more firms. Thus there is a circular mechanism involving transport-costs-avoidance (firms wish to be near large markets) and market size (firms location decisions influence market size). We refer to this as circular causality. (ibid., p. 49)
If some factors are immobile in the peripheral region, then a growing unevenness in dispersion of production will be accompanied by increasing wage differentials. Eventually, the attraction of relatively low wages may attract sufficient new investment to begin a process of cumulative growth and catch-up with the more prosperous regions (the experience of the Republic of Ireland in the EU during the 1990s may be an example of this effect). The impact of regional integration on this process is likely to be ambiguous.
...require specific redistribution mechanisms
Whether there is a tendency for countries within a region to converge is explored in the new growth theories which also emphasize the potential for catch-up (see Schiff and Winters, 2003). The simple theory outlined above suggests that whether convergence is observed or not will depend on the balance of opposing forces at a point in time. Jenkins (2001) provides evidence from the Southern African region that poorer members catch up with (converge on) richer ones through the process of trade. The more general lesson, however, is that relocation is inevitably part of the process of regional integration and, if it is politically unacceptable, integration schemes need to include mechanisms which minimize or offset these effects.
The past experience of developing countries with regional integration schemes is not a happy one. The reasons for this can be illuminated with the aid of the simple theory of customs unions outlined in this chapter. Preferential trade arrangements give rise both to trade creation and trade diversion effects, as well as to transfers between the member countries. The design of RTAs among developing countries in the past tended to maximize the costs of trade diversion (because of high external tariffs) and also encouraged regressive transfers from poorer to better-off members of such arrangements.
The recent more favorable assessment of regional integration arrangements involving developing countries is based on the following considerations. Regionalism will lead to net trade creation as long as it is coupled with a significant degree of trade liberalization and where emphasis is put on reducing cost-creating trade barriers which simply waste resources. Regional economic integration may be a precondition for, rather than an obstacle to, integrating developing countries into the world economy by minimizing the costs of market fragmentation.
Regional integration may also be pursued to provide the policy credibility which is necessary to attract investment inflows. For those who emphasize this effect, North-South arrangements are to be preferred to South-South agreements which are unlikely to generate significant credibility gains.
The hub and spoke configuration of the emerging structure of RTAs was highlighted in Chapter 1. Not surprisingly, the US and the EU appear at the center of many of the new integration arrangements, raising the specter of a world of trade mega-blocs (Crawford and Laird, 2000). The negotiating strength of hubs and spokes is likely to be unequal. Any economic gains for countries that are successful in creating an RTA with one of the larger economies will come partly at the expense of countries which are unable or unwilling to do so. A domino effect may drive outsiders to seek their own preferential agreement at a later stage. The addition of these latecomers may be resisted by the incumbents who might interpret a widening of the RTA as diluting their earlier welfare gains. Crawford and Laird (2000) argue that the emerging mega-blocks ignore, for the most part, the least-developed countries, particularly those in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. The EUs willingness to transform non-reciprocal preferences under the Cotonou Agreement into reciprocity-based Economic Partnership Arrangements is an obvious exception to this generalization. Their conclusion must also be qualified by noting that both the US and the EU offer non-reciprocal preferential access to many of these countries through, for example, GSP schemes, the Cotonou Agreement, the US Trade and Development Act, and the EUs Everything But Arms initiative. However, these preference schemes are unilateral and do not extend to the deeper areas of integration now increasingly common in RTAs.
North-South RTAs have been seen as more likely to result in gains to developing countries as compared to South-South RTAs, on the grounds that they minimize trade diversion costs and maximize the gains from policy credibility. Closer examination of these arguments, however, suggest that the assumptions on which they are based may not always stand up. Positive economic outcomes will depend on the deliberate design of these agreements, and cannot simply be assumed.
The growing propensity of RTAs to include aspects of policy integration also poses a challenge for developing countries. Although these aspects are most common in RTAs involving high-income countries, a growing number of North-South agreements now have broad integration objectives. The removal of non-tariff barriers which act to segment markets can be potentially beneficial, but whether this turns out to be the case in practice will depend on the nature of the policy integration. The costs to developing countries of harmonizing inappropriate policy regulations may exceed the benefits of encouraging greater market access.
|
Super 301
allows the imposition of punitive tariffs against the products of nations
that the US government unilaterally determines are traded unfairly.|
Sceptics, while admitting the existence of these effects, dispute their empirical importance. Despite the appeal to the dynamic effects of regional integration, the various arguments and claims have so far not been demonstrated conclusively either theoretically or empirically. Existing theory and evidence suggests that the presumed dynamic gains are less robust than proponents believe. The existence of such gains depends heavily on the specific models used, and is very sensitive to the characteristics of the member countries, the policies that are in place before formation of the RTA, and the counterfactual or anti-monde being postulated (Hoekman, Schiff and Winters, 1998).
The agreements examined were: in Sub-Saharan Africa, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), West African Economic Community (CEAO), the Mano River Union (MRU), Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries (CEPGL), Central African Customs and Economic Union (UDEAC) and Eastern and Southern African Preferential Trade Area (PTA); in Latin America and the Caribbean, Caribbean Common Market (CARICOM), Central American Common Market (CACM), Latin American Integration Association (LAIA) and the Andean Group; in Asia, Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the Bangkok Agreement.
Regulations are mandatory standards enforced by law, while standards refer to voluntary codes or regulations adopted by industry. The terms are used interchangeably in the discussion in this section.
The new approach adopted in the EU to competition among rules recognises that it is not possible to harmonize all regulations and standards at the European level. Harmonization is pursued, however, for measures that are seen to be essential, for reasons of public health or safety, but above this level, there is provision for mutual recognition of national regulations, which may differ, over and above these minimum essential requirements. | https://www.fao.org/3/y4793e/y4793e05.htm |
Regional economic integration becomes a new trend in the world of trading nowadays; there are many World Regions and Trade Organizations such as APEC, EU, NAFTA and ASEAN (Trade, 2010). In this essay, the objective is comparing the European Union (EU) and North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which are known as two top regional economic integrations in the world. Before comparing and contrasting these two regional trade associations, this essay will firstly consider giving some background knowledge of EU and NAFTA. It will then go on with comparing the level of regional economic integration with free trade area, custom union, common market, economic union and political union between EU and NAFTA. Making the comparison between the impact of integration in EU and NAFTA will be stated as the third section in this essay. At the end, this essay will give a conclusion in order to summarize the key point in the main body.
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EU, whose forerunner was the European Economic Community (EEC) that was founded in 1958 and changed its name into EU in 1993, followed the ratification of the Maastricht Treaty (European Union, n.d). The EU includes 27 European countries today, as an economic and political partnership between these countries. In addition, according to Actrav (n.d), the objective of the EU is calling to eliminate the internal trade barriers and create a common external tariff in order to strengthen the economic and social harmonious development and establish finally unified monetary economic monetary union (EMU), promote economic and social between member countries. Moreover, EU can develop the free moverment of goods, services, capital and people.
Compare with North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), according to United States Trade Representative (n.d), NAFTA consist of the United States, Canada, and Mexico on 1 January, 1994. Moreover, some restrictions and duties were eliminated in 2008. SICE (2012) expounded that the objective of NAFTA include the following guidelines:
- Elimination within 10 years of tariffs on 99 percent of the goods traded between member countries.
- Remove majority of the barriers on the cross-border flow of services.
- Intellectual property rights are protected.
- Foreign direct investment between member countries is less restrictions.
- Members can apply national environmental standards.
- Commissions are establish to police violations.
The next part of this essay shows the information about regional economic integration, which relates the EU and NAFTA. According to Charles (2011, p 688), regional economic integration can be defined as ‘agreements among countries in a geographic region to reduce and ultimately remove tariff and nontariff barriers to the free flow of goods, services, and factors of production between each other.’ European Union and North American Free Trade Agreement are the most obvious example to show regional economic integration. Charles (2011) stated that there are five levels of economic integration, which are free trade area, customs union, common market, common market, economic union and political union. The table 1 is shown below:
The first level of economic integration is free trade agreements (FTAs). Rolf and Nataliya (2001) explained that FTAs can avoid the barriers such as import tariffs and import quotas between signatory countries. Each country can determine its own policies with nonmember. For example, the traffic barriers are very different between member and nonmember (Charles, 2011). In addition, according to WTO (2002), the most popular form of regional economic integration is free trade agreements, which accounts for almost 90 percent of regional agreements. The example of free trade area in the world is the NAFTA that include three countries, are United State, Canada and Mexico. NAFTANOW (2012) explained that NAFTA is the largest FTAs in the world, has abolished most parts of tariff and non-tariff which are barriers for trade and investment in the union systematically. Also, NAFTA has helped create a certain and confident environment for long term investment through the establishment of a successful and reliable regulation for the safe investment. EU also eliminated the tariff and non-tariff barriers during trade between member countries, but has a little bit different with NAFTA, which EU focus on the non-tariff barriers than tariff.
The next level of economic integration is customs union (CU), which build on a free trade area. Michael Holden (2003) descried that members in a customs union have no trade barriers with goods, as well as services among them. Besides, the CU put forward a common trade policy which shows respect to those nonmembers. It is a typical form for common external tariff that has the same tariff sold to any member countries when the subjects of imports are nonmembers. For example, EU began in this level at the beginning, but now it has moved to the high level of economic integration. In addition, NAFTA also has comment external trade barrier from outside. For example, Andean Community is known as the customs unions around the world, which assured free trade between signatory countries and compelled with a common tariff of 5 to 20 per cent on trading products while importing from countries outside the union.
According to Jennifer (2004), every single common market represents a major step to important integration of economy. Except for the involvement of the provision for customs union, a common market (CM) moves all barriers into capital and other resources, people’s mobility within the areas mentioned in the question, as well as removing the non-tariff barriers of trading such as controllable management of the standards for the product. A common market’s establishment typically needs the accordance of those significant policies within many areas. As an example, free movement of labor makes the agreements of worker qualification and certification necessary. Besides, a common market is also typically relevant to a comprehensive assemblage of monetary and fiscal policies, whether through design or the result, because of the increasing economic interdependence with the area and the influences that one member state can bring on another or other countries, which gives more rigorous restrictions on the ability of the engagement on the independent economic policies with the necessarily. The first coming benefit of establishing a common market is the gains of economic efficiency under expectation. Within the common market, labor and capital could respond to the economic signals more easily with the unfettered mobility, which lead to a higher allocation efficiency. In EU and NAFTA, both of regional trade associations can be seem as common market, because they can freely move the capital, people and goods without barriers. For example, in EU the people can travel most of the continent without border controls between EU countries and NAFTA also the same as EU (European Union, n.d).
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Michael Holden (2003), the deepest form of economic integration, also known as an economic union, adds the requirements of the accordance between a numbers of key policy areas to a common market. Apparently, economic unions as a higher level of integration, ‘require formally coordinated monetary and fiscal policies as well as labor market, regional development, transportation and industrial policies’. It would have opposite results to operate dispersive policies in those regions since all countries would share economic space basically. An economic union contains the usage of a unified monetary policy and a common currency with frequency. The functions of an economic union would be enhanced with eliminating the uncertainty of exchange rate through permitting trade to follow efficient was economically instead of being unduly influenced by considering exchange rate, which is also suitable for business location choosing. Supranational institutions would be requested to manage the trade within the areas of union in order to ensure consistent applications of the regulations. These laws should still be administered within a national level while countries would renounce the control over this area. In economic union, there are many different between EU and NAFTA. One of the most important differences is the currency. In the EU, it has a single currency of Euro, however, the currency not just one in NAFTA. In addition, the political structure of the EU and NAFTA also different. There are four main institutions in the EU political structure, which are European Commission, the Council of European Union, the European Parliament, and the Court of Justice. Moreover, EU has own fiscal police of Maastricht Treaty. In contrast, NAFTA has not political structure to control the police, because NAFTA is like a law which became in 1994 (Charles, 2011). Therefore, NAFTA can be seem as economic union because no single currency between member countries.
‘The move toward economic union raises the issue of how to make a coordinating bureaucracy accountable to the citizens of member nations. The answer is through political union in which a central political apparatus coordinates the economic, social, and foreign policy of the member states’ (Charles, 2011, p268). The United State is the good example, which even closer this stage. However, NAFTA and the EU both are not become political union.
In the third part of this essay, it will talk about the impact of integration in EU and NAFTA, such as economic grow, increased competition and so on. The EU establishes a single currency which is benefit for the Europeans. There are many reasons; first, handling one currency is better than many, because companies and individuals can save a lot. For example, people going from Germany to French, they do not go to bank in order to change German deutsche into French francs. Second, when the consumers to shop around the Europe, one currency can make them easier to compare prices of goods and service, which will lead to increase competition. For example, if the car sell in France is cheaper than Germany, the people can go to France buy the car and then sell in Germany. This will make the German company face a competition with French company. Third, a common currency can increase the highly liquid pan-European capital market. In addition, according to Gabriele (2008), the EU also impact on business because the transaction costs between the members of EU will disappearance, which can make the products produce in lower cost. It will get more competitive advantage with nonmember countries. However, the drawback of Euro is that national authorities will lose control over monetary policy. And ‘the implied of loss of national sovereignty to the European Central Bank (ECB) underlies the decision by Great Britain, Denmark and Sweden to stay out of the euro zone for now’ (Charles, 2011, p278). Furthermore, another disadvantage of the euro is that may lead to economic growth become lower and inflation will higher in Europe.
The impact of integration in NAFTA is increase exports, imports and investment between U.S. in NAFTA countries, which will lead to increase economic grow. According to United States Trade Representative (n.d), the goods exports of U.S. to NAFTA increased 23.4% between 2010 and 2009, and up 149% from 1994. In addition, the import from NAFTA countries also developed 25.6 from 2009, and up 184% from 1994. Moreover, United State foreign directs investment (FDI) in NAFTA also up 8.8% between 2009 and 2008. All of these data show that the integration makes NAFTA countries trade and invest more than before. In addition, Charles (2011) explained that as other influences over NAFTA, companies from US and Canada would move their industries into Mexico for its labor market with low cost. At the meantime, Mexico could get benefits from the inward investment and the improvement with employment with the labor market.It is beneficial for US and Canada because Mexicans could import more goods from US and Canada with their increasing incomes, therefore increasing demand of Mexicans and the making up for jobs lost in companies that moved production to Mexico, which brings advantages to US and Canada with the lower-price products made in Mexico.In addition, the advantage of lower labor costs in Mexico can increase the international competitiveness of U.S. and Canadian firm to better compete with outside of competitors such as Asian and European rivals. The negative of NAFTA is that loss of U.S. jobs to Mexico, which up to 5.9 millions. Moreover, the Mexico’s environment deteriorated is the other problem in NAFTA, because the productions of the United States move into Mexico. The same production will effect more cheaply and more dirtily, which will result in environment deteriorated. Such as globally in terms of resource depletion, pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, and ecosystem spoilage. Furthermore, there was also opposition in Mexico to NAFTA from those who feared a loss of national sovereignty. This point of view is similar with the costs of the Euro (Charles, 2011).
In conclusion, after compare and contrast of regional economic integration between EU and NAFTA, there are many factors are similar. For example, they both are free trade area, customs union and common market, because they meet the requirements of these three stages. In addition, they have not tariff and non-tariff barriers between member countries. Moreover, both have common external tariff to nonmember countries and free movement of capital, people and goods. However, the big different between EU and NAFTA is, EU has a single currency and fiscal police, but NAFTA without these two elements. In the part of impact of integration, it shows the positives and negatives of EU and NAFTA. The similar points are both can increase their economic growth and foreign direct investment in signatory countries. In addition, they both face some problem of nation will loss of national sovereignty, such as Mexico and Sweden. However, EU also has a problem of lost control over monetary policy but NAFTA will not face this issue, because NAFTA is not single currency in U.S., Canada and Mexico. | http://economicsessays.com/regional-economic-integration-2/ |
The relationship between openness to international trade and development Introduction: Openness to International trade Is the popular choice among different countries for their own development, especially after the establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTFO) in 1995, globalization is a trend for different districts, and a country is difficult to develop its economy in a closed circumstance.
According to Razor and Reface (2013, IPPP), International trades will benefit the people and institutions of the countries, because the specialization of the production of goods ND services will increase the productivity and lead to higher Income and better living standards. The competition and cooperation between countries also will allocate the resources in a more efficient way, so the whole world would have a higher level of welfare from the international trades.
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Kickball (2013, IPPP) also states that openness to international trade leads to the human development, for the technology, ideas and cultures are exchanged when the countries are exchanging goods and services. The globalization make the views competed and the cultures fused, providing a better choice for the world population. If the border of the nation Is open to trade, economic freedom will lead to the economic growth. Liberalizing promotes specialization and division, thus increasing the productivity and income and bringing greater efficiency.
The communication between different countries not only provides the advanced technology and ideas, but also creates the chance to develop the knowledge and cultures. This essay focuses on the positive development outcomes of the openness to International trade from the aspects of economic growth, Institutional progress and Industry structural optimization, and It also explores the negative aspects through the Income Inequality and Inflation. Benefit 1 : openness generates economic growth Openness to the international trade means the whole economic activities of the countries are related with each other under the globalization.
Most of the countries which have an openness policy are experiencing a rapid development, especially China which creates an economic “miracle” In the last 30 years. What Is shown In the figure 1 is the contrast of GAP per capita between China and India, with a result of more rapid increase of China than India. It is demonstrated in the figure 2 that the agree of openness increased from 12% to 40% in India and started from 15% too much higher level of 60% in China, where the “degree of openness” (O) is defined as the index that dividing the sum of exports (X) and Imports (Q) by GAP: O = (X+Q)/Y (Marcella and Signore, 2011, IPPP).
What Is exhibited in the contrast of the two countries Is that the higher degree of openness will lead to a more significant growth of GAP per capita. Although there are differences of culture and politic circumstances in the two countries, the similar geography, large population and openness policy in tooth countries make them a successful contrast to show the importance of openness for the economic growth in a country. Source: processing of MIFF statistics.
The openness also plays a crucial role in promoting the development of developed countries. Since the taking effect of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NONFAT) in 1993, the trade among America with Canada and Mexico has increased to nearly double from $299 billion in 1993 to more than $550 billion in 1999. Particularly, after the establishment of WTFO, the exports of America risen to $2,350 billion in 1999, accounting nearly 25 percent of its whole GAP and more than 15 recent of all global trade. Forging, 2000) The international trade makes the cheap products easier to enter to the market of Canada and Mexico, in exchanging for the abundant nature resources, so the developed countries also will a large of the benefit from the openness to the international trade. It is generally believed that as openness will lead to economic growth through the optimal allocation of resources, technological innovation and productivity improvement. Trade liberation’s among the world would provide specialization and more efficient allocation of resources.
A country has a comparative advantage of productivity of different goods, the production with lowest opportunity cost is what it can specialize in. The Hecklers- Olin theorem also states that the labor intensive goods is relatively cheaper in the poor countries and rich countries may focus on exporting the capital intensive goods. Openness provides an environment for the exchange of the technology and views which would lead to technical progress, and innovation.
The competition from the openness also will make the companies invest more on the research to produce utter commodity to satisfy the consumers, and the average cost will decrease due to the economies of scales. Intellectual properties are protected and economic crimes are defended, which will build a suitable circumstance for the competition and cooperation among the international trade. Benefit 2: openness promotes institutional progress Openness to international trade makes a contribution to improve the quality of institutions and the progressed institutions will further strengthen the openness to international trade.
According to Johnson, Story and Submarine (2007, up), greater openness will make contribution to institutional quality through reducing rents, providing the conditions for reform, and specializing the goods to meet different demands. Openness will challenge the institutions from all kinds of aspects, and they are pushed to reform to adapt to the new circumstance, so the property rights are identified, investors are protected and contracts are enforced to meet the requirement of the specialization and cooperation among the international trade.
After trade opening, better institutions will obtain the rents by producing the institutionally intensive good, while inferior institutions will lose the rents, thus there s a “race to the top” in institutional quality which means the institutions will improve the better institutions who can capture the rents rather than their inferior trading partner in the international trade, so the competition are fostered, spurring the innovation among the companies to provide better products and services.
It is the progress of technology and administration that will make the companies retain and increase their market share and obtain the rents. Improved institutions will further promote the openness and economic development in the international trade. The rise of Western Europe since 1500 is not only due to he substantial trade with Africa and Asia but also due to the institutional progress that meets the requirements of modern economy.
Atlantic trade creates huge commercial profits due to institutional progress which makes it easier to access the Africa and Asia (Guacamole, Johnson, and Robinson 2005, IPPP). Specially, the building of Joint stock company disperse the risks of international trade by innovation, which promotes the world trade to a higher level. The foundation of the financial systems in New York allocates the capitals in a more efficient way, which unites the whole international trades and flourishes the world economy. Institutional progress is associated with the improvement of economic environment.
Greater openness requires the reform of institution to satisfy the challenge of intense competition. Intense competition will lead to increasing innovation such as the improvement of computer ability and the optimization of internet, which simplifies the institution and expands the market among the world. Optimal institutions are the sources of comparative advantage for a country, which will create the special rents. Opening trade makes the rents become harder to earn, and further promote the institution progress to obtain comparative advantage.
Eventually, the technologies and knowledge are advanced, the prices of goods are lower, and the living standards of people are improved due to the complementation of openness and institutional progress. Benefit 3: openness optimize the economic structure The optimization of economic structure is the basic requirement for the developing countries to faster their economic growth under the openness of international trade. The differences of change rates of different industries in a country will lead to the change of economic structure, and the openness will lead to the industry structure progressed to meet its comparative advantages.
The comparative advantages are changeable among different countries and the imbalance of advantages from regions will lead to the change of economic structure. Chinese economy is relied on the international market, on the one hand, its total value of import and export is increased at 26% every year from 2002 to 2008. On the other hand, primary products share less proportions of its export and the share of manufactured goods is rising constantly.
Further, the advantageous goods are transferring from labor intensive products into capital and technology intensive products in China (Gene and Shah, 2013, up). Openness to international trade is a determinant for the industrialization of a country. Optimization of economic structure comes from the reasonable utility of comparative advantages, technological progress and product specialization. Advantageous industries, and the technology and management progress will afford the factories ability to provide the products which are technology intensive.
Structure progress depends on the liberalizing of trade, which adjust the world market and promote technology improvement. Openness also promote the financial integration among the countries in the last several decades. The foundation and completion of financial system is an innovation inside the economic structure. International capital markets aggregate the capitals around the world and allocate them efficiently, which will increase economic development through improving the access of companies and strengthening the supervision.
Fischer, and Valuable (2013, IPPP) points out that cheaper international funds will active the competition of the financial systems, as it provide lower interest rates and allow borrowers have more access to loans, while shortage of competition from the international market will fail to afford enough funding. Globalization is characterized by the integration of financial systems, for funding is the most liquid capital and is the easiest to transport in the global, so financial integration will optimism the market structure by effectively allocating the capitals.
Moreover, the formulation of financial systems is specialized from the economic structure due to the enhancement of international trade, aiming at serving the modernization of the global, so openness will intensify the financial integration and improve the economic development. Openness will adjust the economic structure, tend to introduce industrialization and deterioration to the country. The countries who once exports mainly primary and agricultural products are gradually changing to export manufactured goods.
The investment will produce more profit when the inputs transfer into high rewording economic departments, which is the curial reason to optimize the industrial structure. Especially after the building of the financial system, the price becomes a more significant sign to adjust the international supply and demand, allocating the resources more efficiently. Openness will progress the economic structure, which is tryingly related to the specialization of international trade and it will improve the efficiency and develop the technology and of promote the development eventually.
Disadvantages of openness to international trade In recent decades, trade openness and reforms are becoming a basic method to develop in the developing countries. The resources are reallocated more efficiently and the innovation is stimulated, but the disadvantages are also obvious associated with the development such as the wide income gap and inflation. China, with a success in its openness and reforms, is suffering from increasing income gap. The Gin coefficient of urban residents is estimated 0. 33 in 1980, while it arrives at the critical point of 0. In 1994, and the coefficient rises to 0. 49 in 2007 (Lu and CIA 2011, IPPP). The income equality is seriously increasing in the last 30 years in China, where has experienced a successful reform to open to the international trade. This is mainly due to the skilled labors are preferred by the foreign direct investment, obtaining a progress of technology. The optimization of economic structure also will make the workers lose their Jobs in the disadvantaged industries, to make sure the most efficient allocation of resources.
Openness to international trade improves the availability of choices and increases the economic growth, but it also enhances the inflation. Inflation has always created economic uncertainty, caused market imperfections and unequal distribution of welfare. An evidence of inflation positively associated with trade openness comes from 8 small open economies in Caribbean during the period 1980 to 2009. It suggested that when the output increases by IIS$I million, the price will rise by 0. 4% to 0. 5%, and the inflation rates of Caribbean countries is nearly 4. 3 percent between 980 and 2009 (Thomas, 2012, IPPP).
Cheaper imports will decrease the domestic price level, if the country is opened to the international trade. The domestic producers can accept cheaper inputs and experience more intense competition, so the price of product is turned down, leading to the inflation. When openness brings the rapid economic growth, what is accompanied is the financial inflation, and the solution of it relay on the further openness to the international financial market. The liberalizing of trade is the basic requirement of the economic development, but the negative outcomes can not be ignored.
The distribution of income is increasingly unequal as the market rewards all the inputs whatever it belongs, so the income distance is enlarged due to the market efficiency. The inflation is accompanied with the economic growth, what can not be avoided, and the suitable management of inflation will further promote the development of economy. Free trade focus on the optimization of exports and imports to gain the most benefit, but the balance of payments should be in attention in case of the trade conflict.
The specialization also should not concentrate on a narrow range of products, the market imperfection will easily lead to the economic crisis. The openness to international trade generates the significant increase of the economic growth, while the globalization will enlarge the risk and create the conflicts, so when the market is used to maximize the utility, the cooperation between governments is extremely important to control the risk and solve the economic crisis.
Conclusion: Since the foundation of the WTFO in 1995, the world has integrated into a global market, and the development of a country can not ignore the openness to the international trade. This article focus on the positive outcomes from the economic Roth, institution progress and the optimization of economic structure. Specialization of the production due to the comparative advantages will advance the productivity, boost up technical capacities, fully utilize the employed resources and bring the economic welfare to the population.
Greater openness also will improve institutional quality through the more active competition, providing the conditions for reform and strengthen the comparative advantages. The more efficient allocation of the resources further optimize the economic structure, the effective utility of the Especially the building of global financial system promotes the integration of the capital market and allocates the capitals efficiently. However, the disadvantages are also obvious accompanied with the development.
Skilled labors tend to obtain higher wages, while the unskilled labors may lose their Jobs due to the progress of technology. The inflation from economic growth would lead to economic uncertainty, unequal distribution of welfare and distort the role of the global market. What should be done is that the government should be introduced to promote the imports and sports, it is the complementary of market of government what can adjust the income inequality and control the inflation.
Further, the cooperation among the countries is needed to regulate the investment risk and solve the trade conflicts, the market failure relies on the adjustment from the global cooperation. Openness to international trade promotes the development of the economy from all aspects, and the ideas and knowledge are expended through the exchange with each other. The human development depends on the technology progress and specialization of produce, which is contributed from the greater of openness to international trade. | https://anyassignment.com/finance/international-trade-assignment-40956/ |
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Diplomarbeit, 2004
87 Seiten, Note: 1,3 (A)
1 Introduction
1.1 A Decade of Debate
1.2 Objective and Structure of the Thesis
2 Regional Integration
2.1 Definition, Forms and Objectives
2.2 Welfare Implications
2.2.1 Static Welfare Effects
2.2.2 Dynamic Welfare Effects
2.3 North-South versus South-South Integration
2.4 Spatial Inequality in the Integration Process
3 NAFTA as an Example of Regional Integration
3.1 Mexico’s Way into NAFTA
3.2 Design and Coverage of the NAFTA Provisions
3.3 NAFTA in the Light of Integration Theory: Expected Effects
4 NAFTA’s Impact on Mexico after One Decade
4.1 Static Benefits
4.1.1 NAFTA’s Impact on Trade
4.1.2 Trade Creation, Diversion and Mexican Terms of Trade
4.2 Dynamic Benefits
4.2.1 NAFTA’s Impact on Foreign Direct Investment
4.2.2 Dynamic Spillovers, Productivity and Growth
4.2.3 Catching Up with the North?
4.3 Adjustment and Divergence
4.3.1 Growing Disparities and Intra-Mexican Divergence
4.3.2 Migration - Adjustment Mechanism for the NAFTA-Neglected?
5. Conclusions and Policy Implications
5.1 Summary and Discussion of Results
5.2 Policy Implications and Outlook
Appendix
Figure 1: Trade Creation and Diversion in a Free Trade Area
Figure 2: Exemplary Effects of the Formation of an FTA on Countries’ Industry Share and Welfare
Figure 3: Mexican Trade Flows, 1980-2002
Figure 4: FDI Inflows to Mexico, 1980-2002
Figure 5: GDP Per Capita Growth of Mexico and the U.S., 1993-2002
Figure 6: Migration from Rural Mexico to the United States, 1980-2002
Table 1: FDI Inflows as a Percentage of Gross Fixed Capital Formation
Table 2: Poverty in Rural and Urban Areas, 1984-1994
Table 3: Income from Household Remittances, 1996-2002
illustration not visible in this excerpt
In January 1994, after two and a half years of negotiation, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) came into force. The treaty between Canada, Mexico and the United States has created the largest economic area in the world, slightly surpassing the European Union in market size. But NAFTA is also outstanding in a second aspect: it has constituted the first major regional integration arrangement between two highly developed countries, the United States and Canada, and a developing country, Mexico.
The North-South nature of North American integration has polarized the debate about NAFTA from the earliest stage on. On the one hand it was unclear how much the U.S. would gain from the agreement. Would it stabilize its southern neighbor and thus benefit the U.S. economically and politically? Or would it cause the “giant sucking sound” Ross Perot feared, drawing thousands of jobs from the U.S. over the border (Thorbecke/EigenZucchi 2002, p. 648)? Regarding these concerns, Canada was at most a side-player, possessing neither intense trade relations nor geographical proximity to Mexico.
Mexico’s gains from NAFTA, on the other hand, seemed even more unsure. The agreement’s effects on the southern member state, whether positive or negative, were expected to be unequally greater than on the U.S. On the one hand, it seemed, Mexico could gain immensely through improved access to the North American market, increasing trade, attracting foreign investment, and importing growth and stability. On the other hand, some trade economists, such as Arvind Panagaria (1996, pp. 512-513) warned that Mexico could only lose when opening its market to its powerful northern neighbors, while receiving little in return that it would not have obtained anyway. Furthermore, would Mexico’s move towards regional integration hamper any further step into the direction of multilateral opening, after promising reforms had been started in the mid-1980s?
Concerns also regarded the adverse effects of NAFTA within Mexico. These centered around large adjustment costs from sectoral restructuring and resource reallocation. This would occur if inefficient, partly subsidized Mexican industries declined after removing tariffs and non-tariff barriers, allowing the North American competition to enter the national market. In addition, would this hit mostly those Mexican regions that were poor anyway?
The Mexican government was convinced of the miracles of regional integration and acted as the main driver in the negotiation process between the three North American nations. Nevertheless, ten years after NAFTA’s start the debate about its benefits for the Mexican economy is more polarized than ever. On the one hand, NAFTA’s champions, such as the then Mexican minister of trade and industrial development, Jaime Serra, still argue forcefully in favor of NAFTA’s blessings regarding trade and investment (Serra/Espinosa 2002, pp. 60-62). On the other hand, many Mexicans appear disappointed by unattained social goals. In addition, activists from all over the world regard NAFTA as a prime example of the negative effects of free trade, denouncing working conditions in and the environmental impact of the maquiladora plants, essentially seeing Mexico on the ground after a race-to-the-bottom.
In the face of the controversy about NAFTA’s effects, it is important to establish an unbiased evaluation of the benefits and costs that regional integration has brought to Mexico after a decade. Not least because the outcome of the experiment of North-South integration is of considerable importance for other developing countries trying to liberalize, whether preferentially or multilaterally, and for which NAFTA may or may not serve as a model.
The question around which this thesis centers is, therefore, where and to what extent Mexico has gained from regional integration in the form of NAFTA and where it has experienced adverse effects and costs from it. These gains and losses can cover a large variety of issues, the examination of all of which would exceed the scope of any single thesis by far. The economic effects of trade liberalization are one possible area of investigation, another one would be the impact of NAFTA on Mexican politics, policy reform and political stability. Political economy approaches can explain the role of and the effect on interest groups in regional integration arrangements. Lastly, NAFTA’s environmental impact could be an issue.
This thesis focuses on the economic implications of NAFTA, leaving aside the other issues above. The problem is further broken down into three specific questions: First, what have been the traditional static gains from integration for Mexico? Second, which dynamic effects has NAFTA brought about, especially on foreign investment, its impact on productivity and growth, and have these led to economic convergence? And third, what have been the costs of adjustment resulting from the static and dynamic effects?
This allows a theoretically well-founded analysis of benefits and costs of this specific case of regional integration in order to carry through a reasonable evaluation of NAFTA’s impact on Mexico. A thorough comparison between regional integration and multilateral trade opening as alternative approaches to economic liberalization, however, lies beyond the scope of the thesis.
The existing literature on NAFTA’s effects on Mexico can essentially be divided into two groups. The first group consists of ex-ante studies that have been published since the first announcement of a North American free trade area in the early 1990s. Some of the literature qualitatively analyzes NAFTA’s potential effects applying concepts of the theory of regional integration, such as Ramirez de la O (1993) and Ohr (1995). A vast amount of ex-ante studies, however, conducts simulations based on computable general equilibrium (CGE) models, and range from estimations of trade and investment effects over the impact on certain sectors such as agriculture and manufacturing to the effects on labor and wages.1
The second group of literature consists of ex-post studies that evaluate NAFTA’s impacts with hindsight. Individual studies focus on a multitude of different issues, such as the impact on trade, using a traditional Vinerian framework2 of analysis (e.g. Krueger 2000), or foreign direct investment and dynamic effects (López-Córdova 2002; Romalis 2003). Some other works have used a more comprehensive approach and combined different aspects (e.g. Ramirez 2003). One of the most thorough analyses has been conducted by a recent World Bank report (Lederman et al. 2003), which combines existing literature with more far-reaching econometric exploration of several important issues.
The purpose of this thesis is to use the benefit of hindsight to combine, structure, and critically evaluate the results of the multitude of existing (ex-post) studies and thus provide answers to the three research questions detailed above. In order to do this, it first develops a theoretical framework using insights from theories of regional integration and the new economic geography. This framework is then used to examine the North American Free Trade Agreement and formulate expectations about its probable effects. These are subsequently discussed within the analysis and compared to the actual developments, thus bringing together theory and empirical evidence. In contrast to several existing re view studies3, special attention is paid to separating NAFTA’s impact from those of other influential factors to provide an as accurate as possible picture of the former. Chapter 2 provides the theoretical framework of the study. After introducing the main forms and characteristics of regional integration, potential welfare effects are considered. These are split into static and dynamic effects, an analytical separation that is upheld throughout the course of the study. Derived from these, the welfare implications of North-South and South-South integration for developing countries are discussed. Finally, the issue of convergence, divergence and regional inequality, mainly represented by the new economic geography, is added as an essential element of analysis. Chapter 3 then deals with NAFTA as an example of regional integration. First, Mexico’s way into NAFTA as a gradual path to liberalization is depicted, being crucial to the understanding of post-NAFTA developments. After briefly addressing the consequent expectations of Mexico versus North American free trade, the main provisions and negotiation outcomes of NAFTA are discussed. Subsequently, expectations of NAFTA’s effects in the areas depicted above are formulated in order to test and discuss them in chapter 4. Chapter 4 analyzes NAFTA’s impacts on Mexico after the first ten years of the agreement. The first area to be examined is the static effects concerning trade creation and diversion, based on a Vinerian framework. Second, dynamic effects are discussed, focusing on foreign direct investment, its contribution to technological spillovers and growth, and subsequent intra-NAFTA convergence. Lastly, the attention turns to the adjustment effects resulting from trade liberalization, with a special focus on intra-Mexican divergence and adjustment through migration.
Chapter 5 concludes the thesis by discussing the findings from chapter 4, outlining limitations of the study, deriving policy implications and presenting an outlook.
Different definitions exist for the term ‘regional integration’. One of the most common is Balassa’s4, which will be adopted for the purpose of this thesis:
“[Economic integration can be defined] as a process and as a state of affairs. Regarded as a process, it encompasses measures designed to abolish discrimination between economic units belonging to different national states; viewed as a state of affairs, it can be represented by the absence of various forms of discrimination between national economies.” (Balassa 1962, p. 1)
The dual nature of integration as process and state demonstrates that integration can be seen as a continuum (Blank et al. 1998, p. 31), and thus must be typified accordingly.5 A classification that has found wide acceptance is the distinction between preference area, free trade area, customs union, common market, and economic union (Balassa 1962, p. 2; Ohr/Gruber 2001, p. 3), where a preference area constitutes the weakest form of integration and an economic union the strongest.6 Table A.17 (p. 62) summarizes these forms of integration and their main characteristics.
In a preference area the participating countries grant each other preferential conditions for the trade of certain, specified product categories, usually in the form of a partial or total removal of tariffs for these products.8
A free trade area (FTA) is an agreement between two or more economies in which tariffs and non-tariff barriers, such as import quotas, are abolished for imports from the participating economies. In this, FTAs can be seen as a special case of a preference area, extended to all product categories. The elimination of tariffs generally only relates to products that have been produced entirely or to a large extent within the FTA. Imported products from external countries are still subject to national tariffs. Respectively, within an FTA there is no coordination of trade policies between the member countries. Hence, each country individually pursues national trade policies versus non-member states. This results in the necessity of ‘rules of origin’. These rules prevent externally imported goods from entering the FTA via the member with the lowest tariffs, circumventing the higher tariffs of other members (‘trade deflection’). In contrast to stronger forms of regional integration, an FTA allows its members to retain a large amount of independence in trade policy-making (Blank et al. 1998, pp. 57-58; Kaiser 2003, p. 27). Prominent examples of FTAs are NAFTA and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA).
In customs unions, which have been in the center of integration research until the 1990s (Krueger 1997a, p. 177), member countries introduce a common external tariff (CET)
vis-à-vis non-member countries, while internal import and export tariffs are entirely eliminated. This implies that the members’ trade policies are jointly coordinated - members give up a significant part of their policy-making independence. This loss of independence may be a reason why today customs unions are less abundant than FTAs (Kaiser 2003, p. 27). One example of a customs union, is the European Economic Community (EEC) of 1957.
While FTAs and customs unions limit integration to the product markets, the move to a common market, as happened in the European Community after 1992, implies the integration of product and factor markets, in which there is unlimited mobility of labor and capital. Respectively, a higher degree of harmonization of economic policies becomes necessary, regarding both competition and fiscal policies (Blank et al. 1998, p. 33). The highest level of regional integration of sovereign states is reached by forming an economic union. As Balassa puts it, this “[…] total economic integration presupposes the unification of monetary, fiscal, social, and countercyclical policies and requires the setting-up of a supra-national authority whose decisions are binding for the member states” (1962, p. 2). Economic union can go hand in hand with monetary union, as is the case with the European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU).
Following Ohr/Gruber one may define the goal of regional (market) integration as the “optimization of the allocation of resources and hence, an enhancement of economic efficiency and macroeconomic welfare in the integration area” (2001, p. 4). According to economic theory, however, efficiency and welfare are maximized when there is worldwide free trade, as suggested by the most-favored-nation (MFN) principle of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Taking into account the imperfectness of the world trading system, however, regional integration arrangements (RIAs) may be seen as a second-best solution (Blank et al. 1998, p. 21).
During the first half of the 20th century it was widely assumed that the conclusion of preferential trading agreements was necessarily trade liberalizing and therefore welfare increasing (Krueger 1997a, p. 175).9 Regional integration arrangements have thus been welcomed as a move towards free trade. Viner’s (1950) comparative static analysis10 of customs unions, however, showed by introducing the concepts of trade creation and trade diversion that the welfare effects of regional integration arrangements are indeed ambivalent.11 Krueger notes that “[…] a customs union (or other preferential agreements) might result in the attainment of a Paretosuperior situation for one trading partner (due to the predominance of trade creation) and of a Pareto-inferior situation for the other trading partner, with either a Pareto-superior or -inferior situation for the union (or FTA) members as a group.” (Krueger 1997a, p. 176)
Trade creation occurs when regional integration leads to the shift of demand from inefficient, uncompetitive domestic producers to efficient producers in a partner country, thus resulting in a more efficient allocation of resources and increased trade between the countries within an FTA or a customs union. Trade diversion, on the other hand, occurs when trade is shifted away from a non-member country to a member country due to preferential treatment of the member’s goods, although the non-member country’s producers are more efficient and can, with non-discriminating tariffs, offer more competitive prices (Viner 1950, pp. 44-45; Balassa 1962, p. 25).
The effects of trade creation and diversion can be shown using a simple model with two countries, A and B, the world market, and a tradable good.12 Figure 1 shows the market for good x in country A, where DA is country A’s demand for good x; SA is country A’s domestic supply, which is imperfectly elastic; SW is the perfectly elastic world market supply; and SB is country B’s supply, which is also assumed to be perfectly elastic. Initially, country A raises a non-discriminatory tariff t against all imports, so that the price of goods from country B is PB+t and the world market import price is PW+t. In this situation country A produces OX0 and imports X0M0 from at PW+t. Country B’s prices are not competitive. If country A enters into a free trade area with country B, B’s price will be PB, while imports from the world market remain at PW+t. Hence, country A’s production decreases to X1 and imports amount X1M1.
Several effects can now be observed. First of all, consumption increases from M0 to M1 due to the lower price. The result will be a consumer surplus gain of area d. Areas i and j would be the additional gain from free trade. Second, domestic production decreases from X0 to X1, which is the replacement of domestic products by more efficiently produced foreign imports. This leads to production cost savings of area b as a net gain. With free trade, areas f and g would additionally be realized. The consumption and production effects jointly represent the trade creation effect. At the same time, area a shifts from producer to consumer surplus.
Figure 1: Trade Creation and Diversion in a Free Trade Area
illustration not visible in this excerpt
Source: Own illustration based on Blank et al. (1998, p. 60)
But the FTA in the model also diverts all trade away from the world market to less efficient producers in country B. While without integration areas c and h represented tariff revenues, area c now adds to the consumer surplus. Area h, however, is lost and represents the welfare loss from trade diversion. The net welfare effect of the FTA is consequently +b+d-h and depends on the relative size of the consumer surplus gains, on the one hand, and the loss in tax revenue on the other.
The ambivalent effects of regional integration on national and world welfare reflect the theory of the second best:13 they demonstrate that an incomplete move towards free trade, encompassing only a few countries, is not necessarily beneficial. The illustration above suggests that FTAs are beneficial as long as trade creation outweighs trade diversion (Balassa 1962, p. 26; Ohr/Gruber 2001, p. 10).
The relative sizes of the opposing effects depend on several factors.14 One important determinant thereof is the level of the preexisting tariffs of a country. The higher the tariffs, the smaller will be the amount of trade between countries A and C prior to regional integration, resulting in fewer trade diversion. Furthermore, the higher the tariff, the larger the potential for trade creation with country B. A higher preexisting tariff therefore increases the potential benefits of a free trade area or a customs union (Kaiser 2003, pp. 7778).
The amount of trade diversion also depends on the price difference between imports from the third country (country C) and the one with which a regional integration arrangement is to be formed (country B). The lower the price of imports from C compared to B, the greater are the efficiency advantages of country C and the negative impact of regional integration on country A in terms in trade diversion (Kaiser 2003, p. 78). A third determinant is the level of preexisting trade among members of a RIA before integration. The higher the trade among members, and the lower the trade between members and non-members, the more likely it is that trade creation outweighs diversion (Krueger 1997a, p. 176; Stehn 1993, p. 4). The assumption that this is mainly the case for countries located in one geographical region gives rise to the ‘natural trading partner hypothesis’ (Krugman 1991b, p. 19). Here, the main argument is that the level of trade strongly depends on transport costs, which are lower the closer countries are located to each other.15
In an FTA, the rules of origin necessary to prevent trade deflection may be an additional cause of trade diversion. The reason is that, in the face of content requirements which remove tariffs from products only if they contain a certain percentage of components from within the FTA, producers may have an incentive to source from FTA-internal high-cost suppliers instead of from external lower-cost suppliers in order to fulfill the rules of origin (Krueger 1997a, p. 179).
In the case of a customs union, the members may experience an increase in their terms of trade. This is the case if the customs union is sufficiently large to influence the world market price of a good through a change in its common external tariff. In this case a rising CET lowers the world market price and raises the value of the customs union’s export compared to its imports, leading to a welfare increase. This welfare increase, however, is achieved at the expense of the rest of the world and thus can be described as a “beggar-thy-neighbor effect” (Krugman 1991b, pp. 13-16).16
In conclusion, the comparative static analysis of regional integration arrangements introduces the concepts of trade creation and diversion, the relative size of which determines the welfare effect of an FTA or a customs union, abstracting from terms-of-trade effects.17 These effects, however, have to be complemented by the dynamic effects of integration, without which an evaluation of a RIA would be incomplete.
Over time, the impact of dynamic welfare effects is considered more important than the purely static effects described above (Schiff/Winters 1998, p. 178; Ohr/Gruber 2001, p. 13).18 Dynamic effects are understood as those that occur in an economy over time as it adjusts to observed disequilibrium states. Within the present context, specifically those dynamic effects are considered which affect a country’s economic growth over the long and medium term.19
While a large amount of literature exists on the general relationship between growth and economic openness, few studies specifically focus on RIAs (Schiff/Winters 1998, p. 183). Those that do mainly discuss two channels through which integration can incur growth effects: technology and investment (Vamvakidis 1999, p. 45). Under the first of these one may subsume economies of scale, technological spill-over effects and enhanced innovation. Economies of scale can be achieved through the market enlargement that results from economic integration. Firms can hereby increase their production and, with increasing marginal rates of return, produce at lower average costs than before (Corden 1972, pp. 465-474). Through these efficiency improvements domestic firms may become competitive at an international level, even if the RIA has originally been trade diverting. Additionally to firm-internal economies, external, sector-wide scale economies can occur as stronger firm specialization leads to sector-wide infrastructure improvements or enhanced cooperation in research and development (Ohr/Gruber 2001, p. 13). Evidently, this type of dynamic gain will be the greater the larger the share of sectors with economies of scale in total output in an integration area.
One might furthermore expect the removal of trade barriers to trigger intensified competition. Monopolies and oligopolies existing prior to integration are, in the face of competition, pressurized to increase their productivity, leading to the reduction of xinefficiencies20. Additionally, firms will have incentives to pursue process and product innovations (Stehn 1993, p. 5).21.
But especially developing countries can also benefit from foreign research and development (R&D). Coe et al. have found that trade is an important vehicle of technological spillovers (1997, p. 147). Specifically, this can happen through the import of larger varieties of intermediate products and capital equipment, enhancing the productivity of a country’s own resources, as well as through cross-border communication and learning, and the copying and imitation of foreign technologies (Coe et al. 1997, p. 136).
The second channel through which growth may be fostered is investment. For developing countries the role of foreign direct investment (FDI) is of particular importance. FDI serves as a harbinger of confidence and, secondly, as a means of modernizing the economy (Schiff/Winters 1998, p. 180). Here, the potential of FDI to transfer production know-how, technology and managerial skills is well recognized. Additionally, spillover effects to other firms can be expected. In developing countries technological progress usually accounts for a relatively small proportion of growth, because the conduct of research and development (R&D), and thus the generation of new knowledge, is constrained by a low volume of human capital and adequate skills. FDI, as well as trade, can bridge this gap by importing the lacking skills.22 This finally enhances the marginal productivity of the host countries’ capital stock and thus promotes growth (Balasubramanyam et al. 1996, pp. 6-7).
Unfortunately, theory does not convey a very clear picture of how FDI flows will be affected by regional integration. Traditionally, trade and capital movement in form of foreign investment have been regarded as substitutes, making FDI a device for “tariff jumping”. One may hence reason that regional integration leads to decreasing FDI from bloc partners for whom the tariff reduction makes the trade option more attractive (Blomström/Kokko 1997, p. 5). This argument is, for instance, valid for horizontally organized multinational enterprises (MNEs)23. However, investment in developing countries is often based on the use of differential factor endowments, such as the abundance of unskilled labor, presuming the predominance of vertical MNEs (Waldkirch 2002, p. 2). Further, a trade-creating RIA could entail shifts in production structures which may result in additional intra-regional FDI (Blomström/Kokko 1997, p. 5).24 FDI from third countries could be expected to increase, because the possibility of accessing the larger market at low (or zero) tariffs from the internal country presents an additional incentive to invest. Conversely, a reduction of external FDI is thinkable if companies possess horizontally organized subsidiary networks. In the case of integration, such a structure might become sub-optimal and result in a rationalization of the network, leading to disinvestment somewhere in the integration area (Blomström/Kokko 1997, p. 6). Hence, from the trade-barrier motive, it is difficult to draw conclusions, although especially for FDI from third countries the pro-FDI argument seems stronger. While important, trade-barrier related motives are not the only determinants of FDI. For once it must be recognized that specific investment provisions included in preferential trade agreements may have a large influence on the development of internal FDI.25 Their practical relevance, though, depends strongly on the level of preexisting investment barriers abolished by the provisions and on the extent of host government discrimination against foreign investors (Blomström/Kokko 1997, p. 9).
Secondly, investor confidence is a prerequisite for access to international capital. Confidence can be provided through the credibility of government reforms.26 Especially reforms in developing countries often lack credibility due to time-inconsistent policies (Schiff/Winters 1998, p. 181).27 It is therefore worthwhile to explore the relationship between credibility and regional integration.28 Fernández/Portes suggest that a RIA can be more efficient than multilateral liberalization under GATT since in the former there are higher incentives to punish members deviating from the rules, and because the intrinsic incentive to stay within a RIA is stronger than for the latter (1998, p. 205).29 Two conditions for a RIA to enhance credibility in trade policy are, however, that a country’s policies are time-inconsistent prior to the RIA and that the costs of exiting the RIA are higher than the gains of returning to time-inconsistent policies (1998, p. 204). Others have suggested that RIA’s can also serve as a commitment device for credibility in other policy areas, such as micro- and macroeconomic reforms (Whalley 1996, p. 16).
In conclusion, regional integration arrangements may incur dynamic effects that potentially outweigh static gains from trade, since they can influence a country’s economic growth past the short run and lift a country on a higher growth path in the long run.
After having discussed static and dynamic effects of regional integration, this section takes on the perspective of developing countries. Which types and which properties of economic integration are more likely than others to have a beneficial impact on them? Developing countries generally possess different factor endowments and economic structures from more advanced economies, the former being rather labor- and natural resource-intensive, and the latter predominantly capital- and technology-intensive. Considering that developing countries wishing to join a RIA generally have the options of South-South integration (i.e. integration between developing countries) and North-South integration (i.e. integration between developing and industrialized countries), the question of South-South versus North-South can at least partially be discussed on the basis of integration of rival versus complementary economic structures.
Both constellations receive some theoretical support. According to the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem30, a wealth increase is a function of the difference in the countries’ factor endowments that determine the pattern of trade, where gains are the larger the greater these libria, if the promise not to intervene is not credible. E.g. country may use tariffs to compensate wage differentials across sectors, resulting from a terms-of-trade shock that leads to a productivity loss. The result would be that, in anticipation of the intervention, more workers than otherwise remain in the injured sector (Fernández/Portes 1998, p. 203). differences are (Tichy 1992, p. 109).31 The result would be a high amount of interindustry trade and, where factor movements are liberalized, high streams of factor migration to where their marginal productivity is highest. On the other hand, Viner suggests that, with respect to ex-ante protected industries, rival structures result in higher welfare than complementary ones, where high trade diversion may outweigh the positive effects (1950, p. 51).32 Furthermore, efficiency gains from specialization are most likely where intra-industry trade is strong, which predominantly is the case for similar countries (Tichy 1992, p. 109).
Which kind of integration, then, will be more beneficial to low income countries? Weighing up different factors, Schweickert, for example, is convinced that South-South integration must be excluded as a viable option for a catching-up strategy for developing countries (1994, p. 12). Moreover, Anne Krueger states that “[…] the developing countries’ comparative advantage and opportunities for gains from trade lie predominantly in the wide divergence between their factor endowments […] and those of their developed countries” (1997a, p. 177).33
Regarding the static effects of integration, however, Spilimbergo and Stein present a convincing argument for case distinction. They argue that in a situation where the tariffs of all countries are equal, poor countries would choose North-South over South-South integration based on comparative advantage arguments, thus supporting Krueger’s statement (rich countries would in this case choose North-North integration). For a situation with differential tariffs between the integration countries, however, the situation is different. If the tariffs of a rich country are sufficiently low, then the result of integration may be deteriorating terms of trade of the poor country.34 Therefore, the poor country in this situation prefers South-South integration (Spilimbergo/Stein 1996, pp. 28-32). Additionally, in this situation poor countries may suffer disproportionate losses in tariff revenue.
The Spilimbergo-Stein result is valid ceteris paribus, but it has to be qualified in so far as other factors influencing static gains, such as size of the FTA or amount of common trade, may outweigh disadvantages from tariff differentials, and the question remains of what is “sufficiently low” in practice.
The major gains for a poor country in favor of North-South integration, however, are dynamic ones. Here, some of the arguments are the access to larger markets, technology spill-overs and increased investment. These opportunities lie certainly rather with large, advanced countries than with poor ones. Additionally, the credibility gains for developing countries are larger if they bind their commitment to wealthy, stable economies rather than with volatile countries which have themselves problems of time-inconsistency.
Hence, while large differences between the economic structures of integration partners are generally rather disadvantageous, for less advanced countries seeking North-South arrangements seems to be the only viable option, assuming the countries somehow resemble natural trading partner. An important consideration, however, is how these structures influence the way in which integration affects the geographic distribution of benefits, dealt with in the next section.
Over time, how will the benefits of integration be distributed over the integration area? Will regional disparities between regions in terms of productivity and income converge or further diverge? Is industrial activity likely to spread evenly across the integration area or will it concentrate in certain loci, resulting in industrial agglomerations? These questions may concern the distribution across different countries, as well as the development of the regions of a particular member country.
Neoclassical theory, following the factor-price-equalization theorem, predicts equalization of factor income and productivity across countries, where factors move into the direction of their highest marginal productivity, assuming perfect competition, factor mobility and constant returns to scale (Samuelson 1948, pp. 169-172).35 The result is that in a regional arrangement capital flows into the lower income country, in which the marginal productivity of capital is higher. This raises the productivity of labor and, as a consequence, per-capita-income increases, while in a high-income, capital-intensive country the opposite happens (Ohr/Gruber 2001, pp. 26-27).
According to this model industrial activity spreads out evenly across space even with the assumption of positive transport costs: product and factor market competition would be stronger where more firms are geographically concentrated, driving the firms apart. Differences in production structures are explained by underlying differences between the regions, such as natural resources, geography, or technology, that lead regions to specialize according to their comparative advantages (Ottaviano/Puga 1998, p. 709).
The more recent literature on the ‘new economic geography’, on the other hand, provides endogenous mechanisms that explain the uneven distribution of industrial activity across regions.36 The core of new economic geography-models consists of firms’ location decisions, driven by several centripetal and centrifugal forces (Krieger-Boden 2000, pp. 6-7): The centripetal forces, which drive firms towards agglomerations, consist of firm-internal economies of scale that induce firms to produce in few, centralized places; economies of localization that are internal to an industry sector37 ; and economies of urbanization, which are not industry-specific38. Centrifugal forces, on the other hand, which cause dispersion, consist mainly of the scarcity of immobile factors and their respective price increase after agglomeration, and congestion costs such as pollution or high traffic.
The seminal paper of the new economic geography, Krugman (1991a), uses a model of two regions, two sectors, manufacturing and agriculture, and two production factors, known as the core-periphery (CP) model.39 Agglomeration is mainly driven the firms’ desire to locate where most customers live to buy their products. Concerning the relative strengths of dispersion and agglomeration forces, Krugman finds that the former dominate when costs of trade are high. Hence, with high trade barriers, both regions will have fairly equal shares of manufacturing. But as trade becomes freer, agglomeration forces start to dominate, with the result that all industry will, in a self-reinforcing process, locate in one region when trade costs fall below a certain point, creating a core and a periphery region (Baldwin et al. 2003, p. 11).40
The assumption of mobile labor, which puts limits to the model’s applicability to FTAs41, is dropped in later models (Venables 1996; Krugman/Venables 1995). Here the driving mechanism is backward and forward linkages to suppliers and buyers, to which firms locate geographically near. According to these models industry starts to agglomerate in one country as trade costs fall (and integration proceeds), leading to a rise in real wages in this, and falling real wages in the other country.42 At an even higher degree of integration, though, the countries again converge, thus producing a U-shaped relationship between the degree of integration and industry share (Krugman/Venables 1995, pp. 860862).43
Models that specifically examine FTAs yield similar results (Puga/Venables 1997; Baldwin et al. 2003, pp. 330-361). An FTA-internal agglomeration effect occurs, resulting in an unequal development of industrial activity within the integration area. The implication is a relocation of industry towards the largest member country. Large asymmetry between the economies within the FTA can amplify the agglomeration forces, as can higher trade barriers versus the rest of the world (Baldwin et al. 2003, p. 339). Puga/Venables find that, as trade is further liberalized, the smaller economy may be able to re-attract some industry due to developing centrifugal forces, shown exemplarily in Figure 2 (1997, p. 364).44
As a consequence, the relocation of industry into the larger country is likely to cause welfare to fall in the smaller country as real wages drop due to fewer demand for labor and higher costs of imported goods.45 As the smaller country re-attracts industry in the further liberalization process, welfare is likely to rise again (Puga/Venables 1997, p. 361).
[...]
1 Comprehensive and readable surveys of the studies using CGE models are Brown (1992), Brown et al. (1992) and Kehoe/Kehoe (1994). Models of labor implications are reviewed by Hinojosa Ojeda/Robinson (1992). Generally these models predict income gains for Mexico, which are higher in the models accounting for dynamic growth effects.
2 See chapter 2.
3 A notable exception being Lederman et al. (2003).
4 Balassa’s definition in fact relates to ‘economic integration’. Both terms will be used interchangeably in this study. A similar definition is given by El-Agraa (1989, p. 1).
5 However, while different forms of integration to be presented are continuously measured by the degree of integration, they each represent a single, independent state the attainment of which does not necessar ily require to undergo previous states or proceed to higher degrees of integration. See, e.g., Stange (1994, pp. 9-10).
6 Interestingly, the preference area does not form part of Balassa’s original classification. See also Blank et al. (1998), pp. 32-33. A slight variation of this typology is, e.g., presented by Jovanovic (1992, p. 9).
7 Tables and figures that are labeled with an “A” can be found in the Appendix.
8 One example of a preference area is the British Commonwealth Preference Scheme, that has been founded in 1932 by Great Britain and former Commonwealth countries (Blank et al. 1998, p. 32).
9 The scope of this thesis does not allow for a detailed discussion of why trade liberalization in general is considered welfare increasing. For a short overview over the subject see, e.g., Krugman/Obstfeld (1994, pp. 1-8).
10 As commonly understood, the comparative static analysis comprises changes in the equilibrium states of a model as assumptions are altered. Here, static effects are primarily understood as the changes in the structure of trade as an economy participates in a regional integration scheme.
11 Most of the fundamental analytical work from Viner on is concerned with customs unions, while free trade areas and other forms of regional integration have only recently received more attention (Krueger 1997a, p. 177). Most of their treatment is based on the adaptation of customs union theory, so that a theory of free trade areas has not existed independently. Rather, relative advantages and dis advantages of free trade areas versus customs unions have mostly been analyzed (Pelkmans 1980, pp. 340-341; Stange 1994, p. 37). Here, however, the example of a free trade area is chosen due to its relevance for the thesis’s subject.
12 This example is based on Blank et al. (1998, pp. 60-61).
13 The theory of the second best says that, “[…] if is impossible to satisfy all the optimum conditions […], then a change which brings about the satisfaction of some of the optimum conditions may make things better or worse” (Lipsey 1960, p. 498, emphasis in original).
14 For a more complete overview of these factors see Viner (1950, pp. 51-52).
15 The notion of natural trading partners has, however, received substantial amounts of criticism. See, e.g., Bhagwati et al. (1998, pp. 1132-1134) and Panagariya (1996, pp. 488-492).
16 For a graphical analysis of the terms-of-trade effects in customs unions see Blank et al. (1998), pp. 98 102. See also Viner (1950), pp. 55-58.
17 Some argue that trade creation or diversion misrepresent static welfare effects. For example, if in addi tion to the ‘inter-country substitution’ effect analyzed by Viner the effect of consumer’s changes in consumption due to the relative prices of commodities (‘inter-commodity substitution’) are taken into account, the latter can partly compensate welfare losses from trade diversion (Lipsey 1960, p. 504).
18 One reason why still the majority of studies focuses on static effects of integration (Kaiser 2003, p. 94) might be seen in the fact that dynamic effects are considerably harder to measure than static effects.
19 For such an understanding of dynamic integration effects see also Schiff/Winters (1998, p. 179).
20 X-inefficiencies are inefficiencies that result from slack within the firm if available resources are not used efficiently.
21 One example demonstrating such positive effects is the European Common Market, founded in 1958, where strong diversionary effects seemed likely - however, a large increase in intra-industry trade in manufactures and a rationalization of production resulted (Krugman 1991b, p. 13).
22 However, imported skills and technologies are still property of the foreign entity. Hence the benefit of FDI also depends, among other things, on the ‘absorptive capacity’ of firms in the host country (Kinoshita 2000, p. 1).
23 An MNE is horizontally organized when it produces similar products or services in multiple countries. It is vertically organized when it fragments the production process and distributes various stages of pro duction over different countries (Aizenman/Marion 2001, p. 2).
24 In this sense, FDI can also be a direct consequence of the static effects of integration. Analytically, how ever, FDI will be treated as a dynamic phenomenon in accordance with the understanding of dynamics presented (see p. 10).
25 Yet another motive may be the internalization of intangible firm-specific assets (Blomström/Kokko 1997, p. 7). But since these do not help to resolve the relevant debate about the nature of integration induced FDI, they will not be looked at further.
26 Also, provisions of integration agreements, such as dispute settlement mechanisms, can help to increase the confidence of intra-regional investors (Blomström/Kokko 1997, p. 10).
27 In international trade, problems of time inconsistency can occur if governments are tempted to use sur prise trade policy actions in the absence of other first-best instruments, resulting in suboptimal equi-
28 This link is, among others, explored by Whalley (1996), Francois (1997), and Baldwin et al. (1996).
29 This, however, presumes that the benefits, e.g. from foreign investment, for a country will indeed be higher than in a multilateral liberalization.
30 For a detailed discussion of the Heckscher-Ohlin model see Siebert (1991), pp. 53-78.
31 In the early literature on customs unions, as Viner points out, “ […] it is almost invariably taken for granted that rivalry is a disadvantage and complementarity is an advantage in the formation of cus toms unions” (Viner 1950, p. 51).
32 If, for instance, two countries A and B with complementary structures integrate, the chances that certain imports are diverted away from third countries are relatively high. If the structures are rival, than the goods that have been imported from the third country are less likely to be diverted, since B will unlikely be able to replace imports from A to C.
33 The advantageousness of North-South integration also seems to be supported by the empirical literature relating integration and growth (see, e.g., Vamvakidis 1998, p. 165).
34 In the extreme case of a poor country A with positive, and a rich country B with zero tariffs the forma tion of an FTA between these countries will have the following consequences: country A will deviate trade away from a third country C in favor of B and will also shift demand from itself to B. Since in B the tariff structure does not change, it neither creates nor diverts trade. Overall, demand for goods in A will fall, while demand in B rises. A’s terms of trade deteriorate, B’s improve (see Spilimbergo/Stein 1996, pp. 31-32).
35 According to the Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson theorem of factor price equalization, free trade is a perfect substitute for factor mobility “unless initial factor endowments are too unequal” (Samuelson 1948, p. 169, italics removed).
36 The endogenous determination of differences also contrasts with the ‘new trade theory’ (e.g. Krug man/Venables (1990)). The new economic geography takes into consideration a decentralized market process, scale economies, non-homogeneous products, non-competitive markets, transportation costs, and factor mobility (Krieger-Boden 2000, p. 6). For surveys of the new-economic-geography litera ture see Ottaviano/Puga (1998), Schmutzler (1999), and Neary (2001).
37 E.g. forward and backward linkages, proximity to important suppliers or knowledge bearers.
38 Such as general knowledge and information spillovers.
39 Initially, both regions are assumed to be similar. One of the production factors, industrial workers, is mobile, while the other, farmers, is immobile. Transport costs are modeled as iceberg costs (i.e. as a percentage of the goods “melting away” during transportation). The agglomeration forces consist of a market-access effect (firms locate of big markets and export to small ones) and an cost-of-living effect (goods are cheaper in the big market since consumers have to pay less transport costs for imported products), while the dispersion force consists of a market-crowding effect, leading firms to locate where there is less competition. For a detailed analysis of the core-periphery model see Baldwin et al. (2003, pp. 9-67).
40 In fact, the model predicts an “catastrophic” agglomeration, in the sense that once openness surpasses a certain point, the only stable outcome is complete agglomeration (Baldwin 1993, p. 35).
41 This is because FTAs do not usually comprise complete factor market liberalization.
42 The effect on real wages is due to the rising demand for labor in the country where the manufacturing sector concentrates and falling demand for labor where manufacturing declines (Krugman/Venables 1995, p. 861).
43 For a similar result see Puga (1999). In Krugman/Venables (1990) the pattern of divergence and conver gence for increasing integration is similar, however no circular causation results, since agglomeration forces are not endogenous.
44 In Figure 2 overall welfare of the trade bloc rises due to a second effect which causes production to shift from non-member countries into the FTA due to its enlarged internal market (Baldwin et al. 2003, pp. 330, 332-337).
45 It has to be noted that the model of Baldwin et al. results no welfare decrease for any member country (2003, p. 340).
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Medien / Kommunikation - Rundfunk und Unterhaltung
Projektarbeit, 79 Seiten
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Bachelorarbeit, 43 Seiten
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Bachelorarbeit, 75 Seiten
Masterarbeit, 82 Seiten
Masterarbeit, 32 Seiten
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In January 2012 the African Union adopted the decision to create the Continental Free Trade Area (CFTA). This Trade Agreement aimed at creating a single market for goods, services and free movement of people and investments to promote intra-African trade among 55 African countries. This agreement is also an interesting strategy to protect African countries from developed economies. The CFTA negotiations were launched in June 2015 and, parallel to this agreement, a Tripartite Free Trade Agreement linking three African regions is being negotiated.
The rigid tariffs and administrative barriers known as Trade Barriers, as well as the non-trade barriers such as sanitary and phytosanitary measures, trade facilitation, intellectual property rights and poor infrastructure, make the development of continental trade difficult. The integration of the African commercial market will only be achieved if there is an increase of industrial activity, a greater role for the value chain in African countries and greater legal security in trade relations. To this end, it is hoped to eliminate trade barriers, implement a common sanitary and phytosanitary policy and allow free mobility of people for work reasons. As in other Free Trade Agreements, a second phase of liberalization that would affect services is expected.
The CFTA follows the implementation mechanisms established by other free trade agreements in order to homogenize trade, establishing on the one hand a set of equal standards among all countries without discrimination, known as Most Favoured Nation status (MFN), and on the other hand establishing within each country equality of conditions between national and foreign companies known as the National Treatment principle.
Despite the potential of this agreement and the new wave of liberalization, it will not help to improve the African economies because of the of their small size and the lack of competitiveness of their enterprises. Theoretically, the liberalization of African economies would mean the mobility of companies and would prompt a competitiveness that would trigger an increase in the quality of goods and a reduction in costs; only competitive enterprises would survive this market liberalization. However, the consequences of this commercial agreement would be the same as those caused by other free trade agreements such as Economic Partnership Agreements between the EU and different African Regions. The companies of the richest African countries would lord it over those of the less developed countries.
The defenders of economic liberalization see in this type of agreement the source of economic development. The detractors highlight the negative consequences of economic globalization such as the loss of jobs, the reduction of revenues and a lack of protection of the rights of workers / consumers and a worsening of environmental conditions.
It is a fact that this type of agreement favours the mobility of companies and they will find facilities for investment in foreign markets. But what can be seen as an increase in investment and wealth for a country can become a problem for the less developed African countries as they will see companies from neighbouring countries becoming their competitors – and therefore threats to their national companies and workers.
The CFTA must seek to reduce trade barriers and facilitate trade between African countries. However, liberalization like the one that will take place with the EPAs can only result in economic disruption for African markets. Unfair competition, the flooding of foreign companies, the loss of government revenues and the loss of jobs in less favoured countries will perpetuate the dependence of African countries on the most developed economies.
Another argument in favour of the CFTA has been the improvement of infrastructure, but how they will be built or how much capital will be invested in such infrastructure has not been specified. Few countries in Africa have infrastructure that facilitate national trade, let alone interregional trade. However, the CFTA is invoked as if it were the guarantee of the construction of a network of railways, highways and intraregional flights. The development of infrastructure can only come from investments from outside Africa, and it would cause a greater indebtedness of the African economies.
Greater coordination between African countries and the facilitation of trade within Africa is always necessary and a good initiative. The coordinated and moderate reduction of trade barriers within the regions and countries in Africa is necessary for the diversification of industry and the specialization of economies. There must also be a common front against those economies that try to take advantage of their own economic power at the expense of the countries in Africa. However, the biggest mistake would be to combat the negative consequences of market liberalization rooted in the EPAs with further liberalization measures among the economies in Africa.
Africa has the greatest natural wealth on the planet and has the potential to develop economically without depending on developed countries. That is why we do not defend a CFTA, in the image and likeness of the EPAs. However, we defend international African treaties that guarantee a moderate protectionism of the African economies that strengthens national industries; we defend a collaboration within the regions that facilitates the specialization and diversification of industry in Africa that leads to a supply chain installation there; we defend regional coordination to deal with the invasion of non-African companies in Africa; and we defend support for intra-regional integration Trade in Africa. | http://aefjn.org/en/continental-free-trade-area-agreement-an-internal-battle-for-trade-liberalization/ |
In January 2012 the African Union adopted the decision to create the Continental Free Trade Area (CFTA). This Trade Agreement aimed at creating a single market for goods, services and free movement of people and investments to promote intra-African trade among 55 African countries. This agreement is also an interesting strategy to protect African countries from developed economies. The CFTA negotiations were launched in June 2015 and, parallel to this agreement, a Tripartite Free Trade Agreement linking three African regions is being negotiated.
The rigid tariffs and administrative barriers known as Trade Barriers, as well as the non-trade barriers such as sanitary and phytosanitary measures, trade facilitation, intellectual property rights and poor infrastructure, make the development of continental trade difficult. The integration of the African commercial market will only be achieved if there is an increase of industrial activity, a greater role for the value chain in African countries and greater legal security in trade relations. To this end, it is hoped to eliminate trade barriers, implement a common sanitary and phytosanitary policy and allow free mobility of people for work reasons. As in other Free Trade Agreements, a second phase of liberalization that would affect services is expected.
The CFTA follows the implementation mechanisms established by other free trade agreements in order to homogenize trade, establishing on the one hand a set of equal standards among all countries without discrimination, known as Most Favoured Nation status (MFN), and on the other hand establishing within each country equality of conditions between national and foreign companies known as the National Treatment principle.
Despite the potential of this agreement and the new wave of liberalization, it will not help to improve the African economies because of the of their small size and the lack of competitiveness of their enterprises. Theoretically, the liberalization of African economies would mean the mobility of companies and would prompt a competitiveness that would trigger an increase in the quality of goods and a reduction in costs; only competitive enterprises would survive this market liberalization. However, the consequences of this commercial agreement would be the same as those caused by other free trade agreements such as Economic Partnership Agreements between the EU and different African Regions. The companies of the richest African countries would lord it over those of the less developed countries.
The defenders of economic liberalization see in this type of agreement the source of economic development. The detractors highlight the negative consequences of economic globalization such as the loss of jobs, the reduction of revenues and a lack of protection of the rights of workers / consumers and a worsening of environmental conditions.
It is a fact that this type of agreement favours the mobility of companies and they will find facilities for investment in foreign markets. But what can be seen as an increase in investment and wealth for a country can become a problem for the less developed African countries as they will see companies from neighbouring countries becoming their competitors – and therefore threats to their national companies and workers.
The CFTA must seek to reduce trade barriers and facilitate trade between African countries. However, liberalization like the one that will take place with the EPAs can only result in economic disruption for African markets. Unfair competition, the flooding of foreign companies, the loss of government revenues and the loss of jobs in less favoured countries will perpetuate the dependence of African countries on the most developed economies.
Another argument in favour of the CFTA has been the improvement of infrastructure, but how they will be built or how much capital will be invested in such infrastructure has not been specified. Few countries in Africa have infrastructure that facilitate national trade, let alone interregional trade. However, the CFTA is invoked as if it were the guarantee of the construction of a network of railways, highways and intraregional flights. The development of infrastructure can only come from investments from outside Africa, and it would cause a greater indebtedness of the African economies.
Greater coordination between African countries and the facilitation of trade within Africa is always necessary and a good initiative. The coordinated and moderate reduction of trade barriers within the regions and countries in Africa is necessary for the diversification of industry and the specialization of economies. There must also be a common front against those economies that try to take advantage of their own economic power at the expense of the countries in Africa. However, the biggest mistake would be to combat the negative consequences of market liberalization rooted in the EPAs with further liberalization measures among the economies in Africa.
Africa has the greatest natural wealth on the planet and has the potential to develop economically without depending on developed countries. That is why we do not defend a CFTA, in the image and likeness of the EPAs. However, we defend international African treaties that guarantee a moderate protectionism of the African economies that strengthens national industries; we defend a collaboration within the regions that facilitates the specialization and diversification of industry in Africa that leads to a supply chain installation there; we defend regional coordination to deal with the invasion of non-African companies in Africa; and we defend support for intra-regional integration Trade in Africa. | http://aefjn.org/en/continental-free-trade-area-agreement-an-internal-battle-for-trade-liberalization/ |
Economic globalization plays a significant role in ensuring the integration of the national economies. It entails an amplified interdependence between economies. This interdependence comes about through the circulation of capital, goods and services. On the other hand, sustainability entails the long-term maintenance of an economy. This maintenance has a purpose of ensuring that future generations do not suffer because of the current consumption, utility and wealth maintenance. Several factors contribute to the link between sustainability and globalization. Both sustainability and economic globalization contribute to economic activities.
This paper explores the concept of economic globalization and sustainability. It also explicates how economic globalization links with sustainability, and provides a verdict regarding efforts to promote sustainability.
Discussion
Economic globalization entails the continual interdependence between the national economies. This interdependence occurs through cross-border circulation of capital, movement of goods, services, and technology. Economic globalization lessens international trade regulations, taxes, and tariffs while at the same time ensuring considerable economic integration between countries. Economic globalization is vital as it creates a global market place (Lynch, 47). This notion of economic globalization has had an increased effect in the past 20- 30 years because of the trans-national trade. Several factors are involved under economic globalization, and these include the globalization of technology, production, competition, markets, and corporations and industries. Integration of developed economies with less developed economies contributes to economic globalization. The integration of these economies occurs in three vital ways; cross-border immigration, foreign direct investment, and reduction of trade barriers (Lynch, 94). | http://perfectwritings.com/blog/economic-globalization/ |
Agreements among countries in a geographic region to reduce, and ultimately remove, tariff and non-tariff barriers to the free flow of goods/services and factors of production between each other; cooperating nations obtain increase product choices, productivity, living standards, lower prices, etc.
5 Levels of Economic Integration
1. Free Trade Area
2. Customs Union
3. Common Market
4. Economic Union
5. Political Union
Free Trade Area
All barriers among member countries are removed
Customs Union
Eliminates trade barriers, adopts a common external trade policy
Common Market
No barriers, has common external policy, allows factors of production to move freely; difficult to achieve
Economic Union
No barriers, has common external policy, allows factors of production to move freely, AND has common currency as well as a harmonization of tax rates
Political Union
A central political apparatus that coordinates economic, social, and foreign policy
European Free Trade Association
Free trade association between Norway, Ireland Liechtenstein, and Switzerland; emphasizes on trade of industrial goods
2 Reasons why Integration is Difficult
1. Costly
2. Concerns about national sovereignty (losing control)
Trade Creation
Occurs when high-cost domestic producers are replaced by low-cost foreign producers in a free trade area
Trade Diversion
Occurs when low-cost foreign suppliers outside a free trade area are replaced with a higher-cost foreign supplier in a free trade area
European Union
Group of 28 European nations; established as a customs union but is moving toward an economic and political union
Product of 2 Factors:
1) Devastation of Western Europe during 2 world wars/desire for peace
2) The European nations' desire to hold their own on the world's political/economic stage
Treaty of Rome
1957; European Community was established
4 Main Institutions in the Political Structure of the EU
1) European Commission: body responsible for proposing EU legislation, implementing it, and monitoring compliance
2) European Council: the ultimate controlling authority within the EU
3) European Parliament: elected EU body that consults on issues proposed by the European Commission
4) Court of Justice: supreme appeals court for EU law
Treaty of Lisbon
2007; made the European Parliament the co-equal legislator for almost all European laws and also created the position of the president of the European Council
Single European Act
1987; adopted by the members of the European community, that committed member countries to establishing an economic union; goal is to have one market place by '92
Maastricht Treaty
Committed the 12 member states of the European Community to adopt a common currency
Optimal Currency Area
One where similarities in the underlying structure of economic activity make it feasible to adopt a single currency
NAFTA
-free trade between Canada, Mexico and the U.S.
-abolished tariffs of 99% of goods
-removed barriers on the cross-border flow of services
-application of national environmental standards
-2 commissions to impose fines and barriers when environmental standards or legislation (i.e., wages) when ignored
Benefits of NAFTA
Mexico: increased jobs as low cost production moves south, more rapid economic growth
U.S./Canada: access to large market and lower prices for consumers from goods produced in Mexico; U.S. and Canadian firms with production sites in Mexico are more competitive in world markets
Drawbacks of NAFTA
-potential job loss/wage level decline
-Mexican workers could emigrate North
-pollution could increase due to Mexico's more lax standards
-Mexico would lose its sovereignty
Andean Pact
1969; An agreement between Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Colombia and Peru to establish a customs union
MERCOSUR
The Southern Common Market; pact between Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay to establish a free trade area
CACM
Central American Common Market; trade pact between Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua; began in 1960's but collapsed due to war
CAFTA
Central American Free Trade Agreement; aim is to lower trade barriers between the U.S. and the six countries from the CACM/plus Dominican Republic for more goods/services
CARICOM
Caribbean Community and Common Market; an association of English-speaking Caribbean states that are attempting to establish a customs union
Caribbean Single Market & Economy
Unites 6 CARICOM members in agreeing to lower trade barriers and harmonize macroeconomic and monetary policies
ASEAN
Association of Southeast Asian Nations; 1967 an attempt to establish a free trade area within Southeast Asian countries
APEC
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation; made up of 21 member states whose goal is to increase multilateral cooperation in view of the economic rise of the Pacific Nations
Economic Bloc
A geographic area consisting of 2+ countries that agree to pursue economic integration by reducing tariffs and other barriers to the cross-border flow of goods/services, capital, etc. (examples include EU, NAFTA, MERCOSUR, ASEAN, Pacific Alliance)
3 Approaches to Economic Integration
1. Bilateral - 2 countries cooperate closely, usually in the form of tariff reductions
2. Regional - a group of countries located in the same geographic proximity decide to cooperate (i.e., EU)
3. Global - countries worldwide cooperate through the WTO or other international institutions
Reasons Why Nations Pursue Economic Integration
-expand market size
-enhance productivity/economies of scale
-attract investment from outside the bloc
-acquire strong defensive and political posture
4 Factors that Help Regional Integration Succeed
1. Economic Similarity - i.e., most EU countries
2. Political Similarity - key success factor for EU (willing to surrender national autonomy)
3. Similarity of Culture/Language - i.e., MERCOSUR
4. Geographic Proximity - facilities intra-bloc movement of products, labor, etc
Benefits/Drawbacks of Regional Integration
+ trade creation - trade generated within the bloc
- trade diversion - member countries discontinue some trade with nonmember countries
- aggregate effect - national trade patterns are deferred
- bloc can become an "economic fortress" (reducing between-bloc trade and overall, global free trade)
- loss of national identity
- sacrifice of autonomy - in later stages, a central authority is set up to manage the bloc's affairs; members must sacrifice some autonomy to the central authority (such a control over their own economy)
European Monetary Union
-the EU plan that established its own central bank and currency (the euro) in January of 1999
Mgmt Implications of the Euro:
-removes financial obstacles created by using multiple currencies
-eliminates exchange-rate risk for business deals between member nations using the euro
-reduces transaction costs by eliminating the cost of converting from one currency to another
-makes prices between markets more transparent
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Brexit and the Economics of Common Markets
The referendum as to whether the United Kingdom should leave or remain part of the European Union - Brexit - dominated the headlines in 2016. In this article, Sir Vince Cable explores the development of the European Union and some reasons why people felt passionately about remaining in or leaving the it.
Brexit will dominate British politics, and economic policy, for years to come. Membership of the European Union has been an issue that has helped to define several British prime ministers – Heath, Thatcher, Cameron and, now May – as well as other leading political figures like Roy Jenkins and Michael Heseltine. And, across Europe, the last 70 years has been dominated by the politics of economic union and the economics of political union. Major European political figures – De Gaulle, Mounet, Giscard, Mitterrand, and Delores from France; Adenauer, Erhard, Hallstein, Kohl, and Merkel from Germany; de Gasperi and Monti from Italy – have played a role in the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC), the Common Market, and later the European Union (EU). Economics and politics are intertwined.
The basic economic theory lying behind ‘free trade’ envisages unilateral trade liberalization or global trade liberalization. In the previous activities, we dealt with Sir Robert Peel whose abolition of the Corn Laws was a major act of unilateral trade liberalization. Alexander Hamilton made the opposite case: for imposing trade restrictions, unilaterally in the national interest. One of the legacies of Franklin D Roosevelt was agreement at the Bretton Woods conference in 1944 on a global system of trade rules leading to freer trade to prevent the economic nationalism which had done so much damage in the inter-war period.
In due course the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) emerged and it provided a negotiating forum for successive rounds of global trade liberalization particularly cutting tariffs on manufactures and, introducing latterly, non-tariff barriers. It established a legal dispute mechanism and discouraged what are now called ‘trade deals’ which would lead to both complexity and discrimination. Its rules required that any bilateral or regional ‘deal’ leading to tariff cuts should be offered to other trade partners (the ’most favored nation’ principle) or should involve complete free trade between the bilateral or regional partners. This latter has provided the legal basis for regional agreements like the EU.
Regional economic integration involves several forms. The simplest and least demanding is a free trade area involving the removal of all tariffs and quotas between the parties. This is the kind of arrangement originally put forward by the UK in the 1950s and is now sought by ‘hard’ Brexiteers. There are several limitations. It does not cover agriculture or services or the regulatory non-tariff barriers which are a key part of advanced arrangements like the EU Single Market. A crucial technical problem relates to the origin of goods. If tariffs differ between members of the free trade area, trade from non-members may be diverted via the low tariff country depriving other members of tariff revenue and business. To get around this problem it is necessary to devise rules of origin with bureaucratic procedures for checking against the re-routing of goods. If Britain were to leave the EU for a ‘free trade area’, this could become a very onerous problem for industries with complex supply chains.
The next stage in integration is a customs union: a free trade area but one which has a common tariff. This solves the rules of origin problem but it also means that members cannot pursue independent trade policies (which seems to be one of the aims of Brexiteers). Turkey has such an arrangement with the EU at present, though only for manufactures. Similarly, the process of integration of Germany in the 19th century took place via a customs union (the Zollverein)
There is a basic theory to help us understand the costs and benefits of such a union, originally described by Jacob Viner and then James Meade. Removing trade barriers within the customs union results in trade creation, a benefit from more efficient use of resources, so benefiting consumers. But there can be a cost in the form of trade division as goods are produced inside the customs union which were produced more cheaply outside. When the UK joined the EEC, there was undoubtedly trade creation in industrial products but trade diversion as a result of joining a protectionist Common Agricultural Policy. But these ‘static’ gains and losses are almost certainly swamped by the ‘dynamic’ effects of economies of scale and the benefits of greater competition.
A more advanced form of integration is a common market which provides for free markets of labor and of capital. Contrary to popular myths in Britain, the Europe which Britain voted to join in 1975 was already a common market and the freedoms were part of the Treaty of Rome.
And, then, there has been further deepening of integration through the Single Market. The Single Market has sought to increase the economic impact (‘static’ and ‘dynamic’; trade creation and some trade diversion) by removing non-tariff barriers mainly in the form of national systems of regulation of products and processes. Under the Single Market there has been regulatory convergence (sometimes harmonization; sometimes ‘mutual recognition’). Regulatory convergence, by itself, opens up a similar problem to that of origin problems with tariffs; trade and investment could be diverted to those countries which seek to preserve lower standards of regulation and this has led in turn to attempts to standardize environmental and labor regulation. This wish to reduce regulatory arbitrage and to promote greater competition (but on ‘a level playing field’) has led, inter alia, to greater tax harmonization (of VAT), to strict rules governing ‘state aids’, a common approach to public procurement and the application of Single Market concepts to services (particularly financial services).
All of these measures and rules, legally administered via the European Court of Justice, has created the sense of ‘loss of control’ and ‘too much Europe’ which underpins a lot of the Brexit sentiment. The irony is that the Single Market, which triggered much of the regulatory harmonization, was a British idea (proposed by Mrs Thatcher).
There is however a higher level of integration – full economic and monetary union – in which Britain has not participated. The Eurozone has happened and has now operated for a quarter of a century (in the face of considerable skepticism that it would ever get off the ground, let alone with 14 member states). There is a basic theory – the theory of optimum currency areas – developed by a Canadian economist, Robert Mundell in 1961, which sets out the conditions under which countries are likely to do better in handling economic shocks if they are part of a monetary union as opposed to having a floating exchange rate and independent monetary policies:
-
Where there is ease of labor mobility
-
Where business can adapt through capital mobility or adjusting real wages
-
Where countries have roughly synchronous economic cycles (as opposed to cycles determined by the price of commodities, like oil, which may move in the opposite direction from activity levels in oil importing countries)
-
Where there is risk sharing like the fiscal compensation mechanisms which operate in federal states like the USA (such that substantial part of fiscal losses from any down turn in one state are offset by transfers from elsewhere in the Union)
In the Eurozone, the first three partially apply – though highly imperfect labor markets in Italy and France have meant that economic downturns are manifest in large scale unemployment, especially among young people. But the absence of an effective compensation mechanism – and lack of political agreement to create one – has meant that adjustment to imbalances has been almost totally one-sided with minimal pressure on Germany to reflate demand, expand fiscal deficit and promote domestic consumption but intense pressure on Greece in particular to adjust through deflation of demand and fiscal contraction. So far, the Eurozone has held together but if a bigger country like Italy were to get into difficulty or experience a more protractedly painful adjustment it may no longer do so in the absence of much more substantial compensation mechanism incorporating budgetary payments or debt relief or bond guarantees.
Vince has explained how membership in the single market of the European Union created the sense of ‘loss of control’ and ‘too much Europe’. Comment below whether you think the benefits of an economic union afforded by regulatory convergence and harmonization are worth the costs. | https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/politics-of-economics/0/steps/30803 |
Trade liberalisation involves a country lowering import tariffs and relaxing import quotas and other forms of protectionism.
One of the aims of liberalisation is to make an economy more open to trade and investment so that it can engage more directly in the regional and global economy. Supporters of free trade argue that developing countries can specialise in the goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage.
Consider the diagram below which shows the effects of removing an import tariff on cars perhaps as part of a new trade agreement between one or more countries:
Removing a tariff (ceteris paribus) leads to:
- A fall in market prices from P1 to P2
- An expansion of market demand from Q2 to Q4
- A rise in the volume of imported cars (no longer subject to a tariff) to a new level of Q1-Q3
- A contraction in domestic production as demand shifts to relatively cheaper imported products
- A gain in overall economic welfare including a rise in consumer surplus
- There is a fall in the producer surplus going to domestic manufacturers of these cars
Exploring the possible impact of trade liberalisation
Trade liberalisation can have micro and macroeconomic effects:
Micro effects of trade liberalisation:
- Lower prices for consumers / households which then increases their real incomes.
- Increased competition / lower barriers to entry attracts new firms.
- Improved efficiency – both allocative & productive.
- Might affect the real wages of workers in affected industries
Macro effects of trade liberalisation:
- Multiplier effects from higher export sales.
- Lower inflation from cheaper imports – causing an outward shift of short run aggregate supply.
- Risk of some structural unemployment / occupational immobility.
- May lead initially to an increase in the size of a nation’s trade deficit.
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This paper was part of the 24nd International Economic Conference of Sibiu, Romania 2017 – IECS 2017.
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) gave impetus to intraregional trade, not least to trade in intermediate inputs. The removal of intra-bloc customs barriers stimulated US manufacturers to outsource production, in part or in whole, to Mexican firms, the resulted finished products or components being either imported back to be distributed on the US market or exported overseas. In the course of time, the shift of chunks of production to Mexican maquiladoras (Aguilar, 1995) gradually advanced from marginal tasks such as final assembly to more skill-intensive intermediate products that could be reimported tariff-free. Foreign manufacturers headquartered in the US also outsource intermediate products to Mexico, thus obviating the need to import them from their home countries. Uneven development, reflected in wage rates being lower in Mexico than in US across all industries and skill levels (Note 1) has been the decisive factor behind this mutually beneficial production sharing, which nevertheless has a downside: a noticeable shift of jobs from US to Mexico, especially in the medium and low skilled categories. The southward flow of jobs has been fueling widespread public distress, which gradually turned into anger against NAFTA as a whole. Eventually, grievances sparked a swing in the political mood, heralding a possible future closing of the US market through the imposition of tariffs and other barriers, especially on imports from NAFTA member countries, chiefly Mexico (Note 2).
The introductory note calls for a disclaimer: this paper is not aimed at either making value judgments about the current US trade policy options or discussing the opportunity of potential anti-NAFTA steps contemplated by US authorities. In Krueger (1997)’s phrasing, I do not “seek to find reasons why…an exception to free trade should be made”. Instead, I discuss the impact of a potential phasing in of trade barriers inside NAFTA on US manufacturing industries. My specific goal is to draw an inference as to the odds that such measures will lead to an increase in employment in industries that are deterred from outsourcing production to cheaper-labored Mexico. My estimations are based on predictions of the theory of effective protection, as formulated by Max Corden (1984) hereafter called the basic theory, which deals with potential effects of changes in the effective protection upon variables such as output, value added, resource allocation etc. The basic theory’s underlying principle was summarized by Ramaswami and Srinivasan (1971): “if there are two activities, the levy of a tariff will pull resources toward the activity enjoying the higher effective protective rate.” Correspondingly, if outsourcing to Mexico is to blame for a massive loss of jobs by US industries – although a solid correlation between international trade and the fall in western countries’ manufacturing employment “has not been convincingly demonstrated” (Revenga, 1992) – then adopting measures aimed at raising the effective protection of the respective industries could be the remedy.
Three important observations though: first, the predictive power of the basic theory is generally considered “severely limited in regard to primary factor reallocation and gross output changes.” (Bhagwati and Srinivasan, 1983) Second: the basic theory must be used with circumspection in the case of regional trade blocs, which promote discriminatory policy against third parties. The theory assumes that “all tariffs and other trade taxes and subsidies are non-discriminatory as between countries of supply or demand.” (Corden, 1984) Supposing the US government invokes a NAFTA safeguard clause to impose high tariffs on imports of both finished and intermediate goods from Mexico, it will most likely not extend them to similar imports from other countries, otherwise risking getting involved in nasty trade disputes with the rest of the world (Note 3). Still, this inconvenient can be overcome by simply considering the intra-NAFTA trade as domestic trade for US producers. Accordingly, tariffs on imported intermediate goods from Mexico can be viewed as consumption taxes for industries that use the respective goods as inputs. Such taxes, just like tariffs on inputs, reduce the effective rate of protection (ERP) for the respective industries. Third, the basic theory assumes perfect competition and constant returns to scale, implying, among other things, that in equilibrium, the marginal revenue product of a factor equals its price. Although these assumptions are somewhat unrealistic, I trust they are not restrictive to such a degree as to fundamentally distort the core of the analysis.
For all its limitations, I believe the basic theory is helpful enough in determining, if not precisely the direction and magnitude of shifts in resources following a change in tariff structures, at least chief trends thereof. More importantly still, it allows the researcher to tackle the effective protection issue in two different ways, depending on whether non-traded inputs are treated as tradable inputs or as primary factors. I believe this differentiation is fit to the particular context of the US economy, in which a potential demise of outsourcing might render US producers unable to use imported parts but only non-traded inputs and primary factors.
The analysis is centered on the automotive industry for a pragmatic reason: for one thing, reportedly, it ranks among the industries that are most obsessively targeted for repatriation, a goal authorities wish to achieve expediently by imposing restraints on intra-bloc free trade; for another, automobiles production is heavily dependent on outsourcing, auto parts currently accounting for a sizable share of US automotive imports from Mexico, even exceeding the final autos share (Note 4). This peculiarity makes it all the more vulnerable to a potential reinstitution of intra-regional barriers to trade.
The remainder of paper is organized as follows: section 3 is an outline of the theoretical framework, with focus on the role of effective protection. In section 4, I expound the evolution of US trade policy in the automobiles field. In section 5 and 6, I analyze the boom and bust of outsourcing respectively: in section 5, I try to emphasize the effects of outsourcing expansion in the aftermath of the emergence of NAFTA, with the aid of Ronald Jones (1971)’s influential theory of specific factors. Jones’ model, as Markusen et al. (1994) noted, helps one to understand how government policy changes such as trade protection affect factor owners. In section 6, I estimate the effects of a potential demise of outsourcing following a restrictive turn in US trade policy against NAFTA partners, particularly Mexico, which are likely to trigger changes in the ERP of the targeted industries. Specifically, I draw on Max Corden (1984)’s basic theory of tariff structure and effective protective rates to ascertain the extent to which the measures contemplated by the US government might attain their stated purpose, namely to increase employment in industries that are subject to the respective measures.
The expansion of vertical specialization within industries has changed the pattern of international trade and income distribution within industries. (Krugman, 2008) Moreover, the booming international trade in intermediate products has rendered the production process of firms “increasingly fragmented internationally”. (Bond, 2001) Production sharing aka outsourcing refers to “the delivery of products or services by an external provider that is, one outside the boundaries of the firm” (Manning et al., 2008). Grossman and Rossi-Hansberg (2008) use the term “task trade” to distinguish it from goods trade. If the subcontractor is located in a foreign country, the firm “engages in foreign (offshore) outsourcing, or arm’s-length trade”. (Antràs and Helpman, 2004).
The decision to outsource is subject to both financial and technological motivations. Financially, outsourcing fosters firms’ competitiveness and profitability (Grossman and Helpman, 2002); sometimes it is even critical for their survival. (Kohler, 2004) From the technological perspective, outsourcing is virtually correlated with jobs routineness (Ebenstein et al., 2009): as production becomes standardized, firms tend to transfer it, partly or entirely, offshore, while keeping home mostly non-routine tasks, which use knowledge and high skills intensively.
An issue intensely dealt with by theorists is related to the impact of outsourcing on wages. Feenstra and Hanson (1996) and Feenstra (1998) find that outsourcing of intermediate inputs by US-based multinationals to Mexican manufacturing firms increases relative wage of skilled labor in both countries. Hsieh and Woo (2005) find evidence about outsourcing to China favoring skilled workers in Hong Kong. Yet viewpoints do not necessarily converge in respect to the impact of outsourcing on unskilled workers’ wages (Geishecker and Görg, 2008; Grossman and Rossi-Hansberg, 2006).
When governments intervene in order to protect domestic industries from foreign competition, resources tend to move from low protection to high protection sectors. It is American scholars W. Stolper and P. Samuelson (1941) who highlighted this effect more than seventy years ago: the increase in the relative price of the protected good triggers the increase in the relative price of the factor intensively used in the respective good and correspondingly, a drop in the relative price of other factors. If, for example, the factor the protected industry uses intensively is labor, wages in the respective sector will rise. Concomitantly, firms in the protected industry will, at least in the short run, reap a higher marginal revenue product of labor and implicitly higher profits thanks exclusively to the rise in the price of labor caused by border protection.
Protection is costly regardless of type. Tariffs for instance, are measured “in terms of the compensation that would leave the country as well off, under the tariff, as previously under free trade.” (Bhagwati, 1964) If quotas are used instead of tariffs, financial effects are equivalent, except the case “when foreign retaliation is taken into account”. (Rodriguez, 1974) However, the effects of more complex measures like those involving orderly marketing arrangements are less clear cut. VERs for example generated two types of costs: deadweight loss and rents respectively. Theorists e.g. Neary (1988) found that VERs had been more costly to the US economy and US consumers than conventional protection tools.
Border protection has a different determination if domestic industries can use internationally traded intermediate inputs. Because output no longer coincides with value-added, protection is more accurately measured by the rate of effective protection than by the nominal rate. As Max Corden (1975) noted, “the effective rate of protection makes it possible to describe neatly very complicated systems of trade and other interventions in many countries.” The landmarks of the theory of effective protection were established by Balassa (1965), Johnson (1971) and Corden (1969 and 1984). The essentials were spelled out by Bhagwati and Srinivasan (1973): “the theory deals with the relation between changes in the tariff structure and changes in value-added, when domestic producers are free to use internationally traded physical inputs.” The peculiarity of the rate of effective protection lies in that it captures the influence of two additional factors: nominal rates on traded inputs respectively the share of value added in the final good’s price. (Balassa, Schydlowsky, 1975) Furthermore, in an analytical approach, Corden (1969) shows that changes in nominal protection affect both the “quantity” and the “price” of value added.
Ironically, the border protection of US automobiles industry turned out to be not only ineffective but also poorly profitable. Estimations by Hufbauer and Elliot (1994) are compelling enough: “the potential consumer gains if the Unite States eliminated all tariffs and quantitative restrictions on imports are in the neighborhood of $ 70 billion – about 1.3 percent of the US GDP in 1990”…Ensuing layoffs “would increase the national unemployment rate by about 0.15 percent.” In view of this conspicuous gap, it is no surprise that protectionist policies were seldom backed by cost-benefit-type arguments. More often than not, the imposition of barriers, of either tariff- or non-tariff-type, was used as a second best policy, aimed at correcting market distortions or protecting (or creating) employment, both with questionable results.
To summarize, I would point out that until the early 1990s the border protection of US automobiles industry was indeed ineffective and hardly useful. Somewhat paradoxically, it is the advent of NAFTA that made protection effective by laying the foundation for profitable production sharing. Although outsourcing is not inherently linked to regional blocs, goods and factor mobility across member countries as well as low transport costs within an integrated region are perfect ingredients thereto. Producers’ ability to import cheap and tariff-free physical inputs from neighboring countries raises their effective protection and implicitly, adds to their competitiveness. By using a word play, I would say it is the increase in the effective protection that made protection effective.
Suppose the US economy consists of two productive sectors, automobiles and food respectively, using three primary inputs: capital ( ), land ( ) and labor ( ). Capital is a specific factor to the automobiles production, following that it is exclusively employed in the respective sector, while land is specific to the food sector and implicitly, used exclusively therein. Capital and land are in fixed amounts and immobile between sectors. Labor is an input in both sectors and it can move freely from one sector to the other.
= the price of automobiles and food respectively.
Equations (1) to (3) express the equality between factor returns and the respective factors’ marginal revenue product (that is the value of the marginal product). By dividing any of the three equations by the price of the final good, one could easily infer that the marginal physical product of a factor equals the real return of the respective factor in terms the good it produces.
The ( ) and ( ) curves illustrate the marginal revenue product of labor in the automobiles respectively food sector. Since the stocks of specific factors are presumed fixed, the two curves are downward sloping, in accordance with the law of diminishing returns: as more labor is added to the same amount of another factor, the marginal product of labor decreases. Point designates the equilibrium state, in which all factors of production are fully employed. In equilibrium the wage rate in both sectors is equal to the measure of the vertical distance .
Suppose for the moment that the economy is in external equilibrium too, implying there is no excessive surplus or deficit that might influence the price ratio of the two goods. Yet equilibrium is disturbed by the emergence of NAFTA: liberalization of the intra-region trade leads to increased competition on the US domestic market. Furthermore, the removal of inner barriers to trade offers US automobiles producers the opportunity to outsource production, mostly low skilled tasks, to Mexican maquiladoras. Since outsourcing enables the former to economize on production costs, thereby gaining a competitive edge against foreign rivals, the price of automobiles on the US market declines and so does the marginal revenue product of labor in the automobiles sector. On the diagram in figure 1, this is illustrated by the downward shift of the ( ) curve. Surely, food producers can equally avail themselves of outsourcing opportunities. Still, since outsourcing is reportedly more strongly embedded in automobiles than in food production, the impact on the latter is assumed negligible.
The impact of the boom in outsourcing goes beyond the decline in automobiles’ prices. Production sharing has a shrinking effect on the automobiles sector as a whole, including the specific factor. On the one hand, the transfer of a number of tasks to Mexico is tantamount to the loss of the respective jobs for US workers. The ensuing labor vacuum causes the labor-capital ratio ( ) to drop, which causes the marginal revenue product of labor to rise and the marginal revenue product of capital to drop. On the other hand, the transfer of a part of production from domestic plants to Mexican maquiladoras entails capital investments by US manufacturers in the neighbor country, which means that a part of the capital employed in automobiles production flows to Mexico. The stock of capital therefore decreases, compensating the labor shortage and restoring the initial ( ) ratio.
On the diagram in figure 1, the final equilibrium is in point . The amount of labor employed in automobiles production decreased by the horizontal distance between and . One can notice that the wage rate level in has come to be higher than in , the US economy having moved from to along the ( ) curve. Actually, the effect on labor is somewhat ambiguous. It is reasonable to admit that the equilibrium wage rate stabilizes somewhere between the and levels, measured vertically.
Obviously the state indicated by point in figure 1 is not one of contentment for US authorities and for a good reason: the automobiles sector lost a number of jobs, most of them having drifted to Mexico. The question is: could these jobs be retrieved by erecting import barriers inside NAFTA? Apparently yes: admitting the free intra-regional trade ushered in by the intra-regional agreement is the chief cause of the diminished employment in the automobiles sector, then overturning NAFTA rules might redress the situation, on condition that the measures lead to a higher rate of effective protection for the respective sector.
To ascertain if this rationale holds in the case under discussion, I refer back to the data set in section 7 , to which I add a third sector that produces a non-traded good, energy, using either conventional dirty inputs (coal, oil etc.) or unconventional clean inputs (wind, solar power etc.). In the new setting, I ignore the specific factors, capital and land, and only consider labor and energy as primary inputs in both the automobiles respectively food sectors. Labor is not an input to energy production, while inputs to the energy production cannot be used directly in either automobiles or food production. Labor and energy inputs are assumed as being mutually substitutable. Energy produced by using dirty inputs is hereafter called dirty energy; energy produced by using clean inputs is hereafter called clean energy.
If the US government institutes a prohibitive tariff on imports of automobiles and parts from Mexico, both import flows will be brought to a crashing halt. There is still a difference: whereas the US can continue to import finished automobiles from elsewhere, it cannot do the same thing with parts: Mexican producers thereof can hardly be supplanted by other sources because of transport costs. As I emphasized in section 2, tariffs on imports of auto parts from Mexico are equivalent to a consumption tax on inputs to the US automobiles industry, which is thus compelled to use more expensive domestic inputs instead of the cheaper ones from Mexico. The US automotive industry actually reverts to the state prevailing before the emergence of NAFTA, in which imports of both automobiles and parts were subject to tariffs.
The specific-factors model is of little usefulness in predicting a potential labor shift following a restrictive turn in US trade policy because it is no longer a mere relation between goods prices and factor prices that is at issue: rather, it is about a change in the ERP of various industries that are expected to trigger changes in a range of variables: output, value added, resource allocation etc. According to the underlying principle, for labor to move back into the automobiles sector, ERP must be higher for automobiles than for food.
The imposition of high tariffs on automotive imports from Mexico clearly restrains free trade within the NAFTA territory, thereby driving the price of automobiles up. Moreover, outsourcing being thwarted, automobiles manufacturers are compelled to turn out the product in whole, using only non-traded inputs. On the other hand, by relaxing the external equilibrium assumption, one can admit the price of food may also fluctuate. Suppose the value of the US dollar assumes an ascending course, which causes the price of US exports of food to soar on alien markets. The US government might wish to restore the competitiveness of food exports by granting an export subsidy to US farm producers. The measure is equivalent, in terms of effects, to an import tariff, namely it raises the price of food on the US internal market. Suppose, just for the sake of simplicity, that the domestic price of food rises in the same proportion in which the price of automobiles does, so that the price ratio of final goods does not change.
= unit of output of good j.
In brief, equation (5) shows that if US industries use only primary inputs, any government intervention that leads to a rise in goods prices but leaves relative prices unchanged results in a proportionate increase in (nominal and real) value added and implicitly in a proportionate increase in ERP for all goods. No resource shifts will ensue as a result. In the particular case under discussion, since potential trade policy measures are likely to lead to equal increases in the ERP for either of the two goods, there are no incentives for primary factors to move across sectors.
= dirty energy, considered a traded input to production of good j.
= price per unit of output of good j in terms of some numeraire.
If energy is a traded input, it can be either bought domestically or imported from abroad. Assuming the US economy is in both internal and external equilibrium, production is located in point on the production possibility frontier (PPF), plotted in figure 2, b. In the box diagram (figure 2, a) is located on the contract curve (not drawn), as the tangency point of isoquants that illustrate the production of automobiles (measured from the top right-hand corner) respectively of food (measured from the bottom left-hand corner). In the equilibrium state indicated by point (corresponding to point in figure 1), the wage rate is equal in the two sectors.
Inequality (10) indicates that ERP is higher in automobiles than in food, a result that apparently refutes the conclusion reached earlier. However, the result is misleading because I mistakenly treated energy as a traded input. In doing so, I failed to abide by the underlying assumption stating that labor is not an input to energy production. Since dirty energy is indeed labor consumption, the result of the second model is unreliable.
In conclusion, energy should be treated as a primary factor and not as a traded input.
For all its intrinsic discriminatory nature, regional integration still enjoys widespread promotion due to important advantages it provides to insiders. Outsourcing opportunities, by means of which firms in equally developed and developing economies inside a regional bloc can turn to good account their human and technological capabilities, are doubtless a great benefit. There is still a downside, especially to donor countries: jobs may drift toward their less developed receiving neighbors, arousing discontent and even anger among politicians, business people and the public at large within the former. Outsourcing may then easily turn from a boon into a culprit, fueling the general conviction that reverting to inside trade barriers might set things right.
I discuss the issue with the aid of two influential economic theories that deal with cross-sectoral labor movement: the specific-factors model respectively the effective protection theory. The former can provide an insight into labor shifts triggered by outsourcing but it is of little help in explaining whether and how a demise of outsourcing could generate a movement in reverse. In the particular case of the US economy, the boom in outsourcing within the automobiles industry, generated by the emergence of NAFTA caused a fall in the relative price of automobiles and a drain on US jobs. Ostensibly, putting an end to outsourcing by raising barriers to trade inside NAFTA might help automobiles producers to retrieve the lost jobs. However, this depends on the sign and magnitude of changes in the effective protection of the sector, relative to similar changes that might occur in other sectors with large involvement in international trade, for example, in food production. The latter model can provide more insight into this problem.
5. A concept coined by Max Corden: if several activities within an economy are subject to protection, their effective rates can be ordered on a continuous scale to zero.
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Neary, P., 1988. Tariffs, Quotas and Voluntary Export Restraints with and without Internationally Mobile Capital. The Canadian Journal of Economics, vol.21, no.4, pp.714-735.
Ramaswami, V.K., and Srinivasan, T.N., 1971. Tariff Structure and Resource Allocation in the Presence of Factor Substitution: A Contribution to the Theory of Effective Protection. In J.Bhagwati, R.Jones, R. Mundell and J. Vanek (eds.), Trade, Payments and Welfare: Essays in International Economics, in honor of C. P. Kindelberger, North-Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam, ch.13.
Revenga, A., 1992. Exporting Jobs?: The Impact of Import Competition on Employment and Wages in the U.S. Manufacturing. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol.107, No.1, pp.255-284.
Rodriguez, C.A., 1974. The Non-Equivalence of Tariffs and Quotas Under Retaliation. Journal of International Economics, 4, pp.295-98.
Stolper, W.F. and Samuelson, P. A., 1941. Protection and Real Wages. The Review of Economic Studies, 9 (1), pp.58-73. | http://economics.expertjournals.com/23597704-511/ |
Over the years, there has been steady progress in the balance of individuals holding positions at board level in companies, with companies significantly improving the number of women over the last decade, for example increasing promotion of women to part-time non-executive director roles.
When you hear the word diversity, you may be thinking – age, ethnicity, and gender. However, it also refers to skills, backgrounds, culture, experiences, competencies, philosophies, values and beliefs. All of which provides a shift in perspective.
The benefits of having a diverse range of people fulfilling boardroom positions is becoming much clearer as we see businesses reap the rewards. However, further progress is still required to encourage a shift from it being a ‘nice to have’ (possibility) to a ‘business necessity’ (desirable), across the wider majority of businesses across the world.
So how can businesses benefit from boardroom diversity? What exact value does it bring to a company?
Could more effective decisions be made when more of those affected are involved in the decision-making process? With diversity comes a broad range of perspectives and thinking which has great value when it comes to addressing the often complex challenges requiring decisions.
The wider views increase the potential of innovative solutions, unique ideas, thus increasing possibilities of making sound strategic judgments and decisions which take into account risks and implications.
Let’s face it, we’re living in a complex and ever-changing landscape. Such times call for businesses to be smart and able to quickly adapt in the face of adversity. Would you agree that the ability to shift and flex an approach is vital for businesses to survive in such a competitive and rapidly changing world?
A diverse board can offer much-needed strength in these circumstances, enabling insightful discussions, perspectives and schools of thought for new ways forward.
When you have a group of individuals who are very similar, you’re unlikely to experience differences of opinions as they’ll likely be fairly agreeable. Whilst this sounds very pleasant and nice, what is lacking is the power of discussion! When there are difference of opinions and questions being asked, it gets others thinking and feeling differently. It’s a great way to shift perspective and see situations from a different angle. This type of healthy debate can lead to creative and dynamic ways forward which closer represent reality. Often the best ideas are formed in this way.
As businesses exist in service of something, wouldn’t it be ideal to be able to create solutions and decisions that are in line what your customer’s needs? Whoever they are, it’s likely they’re diverse in some way, shape or form and being able to match that perception with your own board can provide a more aligned and realistic assessment of what it is they actually want, need or require.
This only strengthens a company’s knowledge about its audience and in this day and age, this kind of knowledge can be extremely powerful.
Problems are commonplace in the business world, most of our time is spent assessing and solving problems.
When problems are presented to a wide variety of people, what do you get? The same solution? Or, something slightly different from some if not all of them?
By putting together a diverse group and both allowing and encouraging healthy discussions and debates, you will inevitably end up with ideas and ways forward that might look very different if the group was more homogenous. | https://www.articlecube.com/boardroom-diversity-getting-balance-right-effective-board |
American cities play an important role in helping to maintain the safety of cyclists and pedestrians. Fortunately, the United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) reports that numerous cities and states around the nation are implementing various efforts to help enhance pedestrian and cyclist safety. In 2015, U.S. Department of transportation secretary Anthony Foxx challenged mayors and elected officials throughout the U.S. to take “significant action to improve safety for bicycle riders and pedestrians of all ages and abilities,” and the challenge received an overwhelming response.
Steps that Cities Can Take to Improve Pedestrian and Cyclist Safety
While the challenges involved with creating safer conditions for non-motorists are many, success can be achieved in a variety of ways.
- Taking a “Complete Streets” approach: A successful Complete Streets approach like the one implemented by the city of Chicago helps to ensure that all individuals can travel safely throughout the city regardless of the mode of transportation they choose.
- Identifying and Addressing Barriers: By identifying and addressing barriers that travelers of all ages and abilities are faced with, cities can make their communities safer, more convenient and more accessible for everyone.
- Improving and Enforcing Safety Laws and Regulations: Bicyclists and pedestrians can enjoy safer streets when speed limits are lowered, traffic violations are addressed, and laws involving bicycle helmets, distracted driving, bicycle lighting and other safety regulations are developed and enforced.
- Educating Motorists and Non-Motorists: Pedestrian and cyclist injuries and fatalities can significantly be reduced by ensuring that motorists and non-motorists alike are well educated about bicycle and pedestrian safety. Creating public awareness about behaviors that raise the risk of accidents and the penalties that could accompany those behaviors has been very effective for many cities.
The United States Department of Transportation reports that while bicycle and pedestrian accidents can occur almost anywhere, they are approximately four times more common in large urban communities, and twice as common in small to midsize cities than they are in rural areas. In fact, large urban areas account for about 73 percent of all pedestrian deaths and approximately 69 percent of cyclist fatalities throughout the United States. It is hoped that by recognizing their role in bicycle and pedestrian safety, cities will be able to reverse the trend of increased injuries and fatalities in their communities. | https://chicagocaraccidentattorney.com/blog/upholding-pedestrian-cyclist-safety/ |
Diverse Perspectives Consulting, LLC helps individuals and organizations navigate challenges to communication that stem from differences in worldviews and perspectives.
Why Does My Business Need This?
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Because to create a cooperative and inclusive culture, you need to do diversity differently
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Because you want to create an environment where innovation and communication thrive
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Because the public sphere is becoming increasingly politicized.
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Because individuals, and therefore teams, are diverse and they have to be able communicate effectively with one another if they are to function well
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Because a greater appreciation for a diversity of perspectives, in addition to its other benefits, can help minimize the likelihood of costly accusations of bias along these lines, such as those faced by Google and Facebook
Consequences of Not Addressing the Problem
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Communication breakdowns
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Assumptions about intent
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Walking on eggshells
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Self-censorship
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A reluctance to take risks
A Solution
The good news is that there is a way to change this climate. Recognizing that disagreement, including on the most sensitive issues, is sometimes inevitable, at Diverse Perspectives Consulting, LLC, we help people understand and manage these disagreements constructively.
Benefits
Open communication opens workplaces to a wider range of perspectives, which brings: | https://www.diverseperspectivesconsulting.com/theproblemweaddress |
The Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority (SLTDA) is all set to host the sixth annual Sri Lanka Tourism Awards on December 6th at Shangri-La Hotel Colombo, following a six-year gap.
The award ceremony is aimed at celebrating the achievements of Sri Lanka’s Tourism industry stakeholders, recognizing contributions made by organizations as well as individuals and uplifting the industry standards through the promotion of competition.
The selection process was concluded successfully with the assistance of 3 expert panels consisting of admired & respected professionals with diverse backgrounds who helped to make the best decisions possible.
“We successfully concluded the process of judging with several rounds of deliberations, with extra scrutiny by the 3 expert panels as recommended by the grand jury for more prudent decision making that included site visits and ‘one on one’ interviews for individual categories. We, as the jury are satisfied with the very transparent and unbiased process, followed that the process was audited by the Ernst & Young from the start to the very end.
“We consider it an honor to have been the Facilitation Partner for the Judging Process of the Sri Lanka Tourism Awards 2018. The process followed by the Technical Committees and the Final Jury was guided by the evaluation criteria communicated to all applicants which were well structured and objective, backed by a transparent process with strong deliberations by the evaluating team”.
SLTDA will honour 72 best performers in the industry, under 11 award categories this Thursday (6).
Three leading banks in Sri Lanka demanded that the Central Bank of Sri Lanka ring-fence the assets of MTD Walkers PLC. | http://www.themorning.lk/sri-lanka-tourism-awards-returns-after-six-year-gap-on-thursday/ |
People living with disability are at particular risk of exploitation and financial abuse, and financial education may be a key to addressing the issue, a new ANZ study released today has found.
The ANZ-commissioned 2017 MoneyMinded Impact Report from RMIT University is one of the first in Australia to explore the issues related to financial wellbeing for people with disability and their carers.
The report found people with disability may miss out on opportunities to develop their financial capability and wellbeing because of lower levels of digital inclusion, lower participation rates in education and the workforce, and lower levels of socialisation.
It also highlighted a concern that people living with disability may face additional financial challenges under the National Insurance Disability Scheme (NDIS), including a potentially higher risk of financial exploitation by unscrupulous service providers.
Commenting on the findings in the report, ANZ Chief Executive Officer Shayne Elliott said: “This is an important study that helps us understand the nature and scale of the challenges some people with disability face in our community.
“Through community programs like MoneyMinded we can help provide access to financial education so people with disability and their carers can make better financial decisions and have confidence with everyday transactions that many of us take for granted
“We will continue to invest in improving the financial literacy of communities in which we operate; in 2017 we’re happy to have reached more than 76,000 people in Australia, New Zealand, Asia and the Pacific with MoneyMinded,” Mr Elliott said.
ANZ also supported a companion study from RMIT University and Autism CRC that provided additional focus on issues for autistic individuals who account for 29 per cent of current NDIS clients.
Principal Research Fellow at RMIT Professor Roslyn Russell said the financial capabilities and education needs of people with disability were varied and diverse, depending on the nature and extent of their disability.
“Those with cognitive and intellectual difficulties may have more complex challenges in using and understanding money. But everyone, regardless of their ability, should be given support to learn and participate in financial decisions that are appropriate to their goals,” Professor Russell said.
CEO of Autism CRC Andrew Davis said the companion report built on understanding of the financial experiences, attitudes, behaviours and needs of autistic adults, about which there is currently little knowledge.
“We need to have a stronger understanding of the financial barriers faced by autistic individuals, including how neurodiversity affects their financial wellbeing,” said Mr Davis.
“What we do know is that if autistic individuals are not given the opportunity to develop their financial skills and confidence, they are less likely to be able to live as independent consumers and develop the capability to identify financial opportunities and risks.”
To view a copy of the report visit anz.com/moneyminded
Notes for editors
Benefits of MoneyMinded financial education:
- Since 2003 more than 496,000 people across Australia, New Zealand, Asia and the Pacific have participated in MoneyMinded;
- In Australia, MoneyMinded reached more than 57,000 people in the past year. Of these participants, 15 per cent had a disability, and 10 per cent were carers of people living with a disability;
- MoneyMinded participants were better able to make financial decisions, gain confidence and set financial goals for the future.
Challenges for autistic individuals:
- Autistic individuals are vulnerable to exploitation and scams because they have difficulty reading emotion and hold high levels of sincerity and trust, but they do have attributes to managing money well, such as attention to detail, compulsive behaviour;
- Limited financial socialisation plays a part in the lack of opportunity autistic people have to learn about and use money, with family, school and work key channels to acquiring financial knowledge and skills. | https://media.anz.com/posts/2017/11/people-with-disability-at-risk-of-financial-and-digital-exclusio |
Leigh Tillman works with groups facilitating decision-making, group processes, and trainings.
Her intention is to help people hear one another and find common ground so that groups can make realistic, tangible, innovative, and informed decisions. She supports groups in developing clear next steps and assessment criteria to ensure effective implementation.
Leigh’s background of diverse experiences offers her a unique skill set and perspective in approaching facilitation work. She is a certified mediator and brings this experience to her facilitation work. She highly values the art of recognizing all the perspectives at the table and the intentional crafting by a group of their identity, decisions, and direction going forward.
These experiences and others have helped Leigh recognize the value of different perspectives, broadened her awareness of ways individuals can collaborate, and lead to her interest in meeting facilitation. They have also invested in her a deep care for our individual ability to connect with one another and our community through sharing our stories. Her background has instilled in her a cross-cultural competency that she brings to her work.
Between 2010 and 2013, Leigh was trained as a facilitator and then worked as an Associate at Good Group Decisions in Brunswick, Maine, where she offered facilitation and training services to groups throughout the Northeast. She continues to work in collaboration with Good Group Decisions as well as independently through Leigh Tillman Facilitation. See Leigh’s client list here.
Leigh has developed a series of trainings to assist groups in developing strategies for addressing dynamics that can naturally arise in the workplace. Her specialty is developing trainings and facilitating meetings in a way that caters to your team’s specific needs. Click here to learn more about Leigh’s facilitation and training options.
Leigh currently lives in South Portland, Maine where along with her facilitation work she is a co-founder of a local chai tea company, Chai Wallahs of Maine. She loves getting out to bike, surf, and cross country ski. | https://leightillman.com/about/ |
A bio is a book about somebody’s life. An excellent biography will certainly narrate that is factual yet entertaining, while establishing themes and also motifs that are enduringly universal. A biographer can additionally reveal similarities between different individuals, pointing to prospective methods for humankind to move forward. In selecting a biography, visitors ought to take into consideration whether the tale holds true or imaginary, as well as whether it is historical or prophetic. A good biography should be interesting and also entertaining, while at the same time bringing the subject to life.
A biographical account needs to not be limited to the life of a single person. It should be representative of multiple sources and ought to also be exact and also unbiased. In choosing which sources to make use of, the biographer ought to weigh the perspectives of multiple sources and also avoid any type of reductive or inconsistent accounts. If the subject’s life has actually been subjected to abuse, the writer must likewise take this into account when writing the bio. A biographer must make the visitor really feel that the biography they read will certainly cling the writer’s individuality.
A biography needs to be unbiased and reasonable. A bio isn’t meant to be a background publication, however it is indicated to tell the life story of an individual. It can be regarding a living individual, a historical number, an unsung hero, or a team of individuals. It needs to include realities concerning the life of the topic, from birth to fatality. Typically, the author highlights crucial occasions in an individual’s life that transformed the program of the story. A biography usually concentrates on an individual’s early years, or on the development of a special ability.
A bio can be an individual and delicate book regarding the life of somebody else. A biographical message may be a narrative, depending on the topic’s intent. Nevertheless, biographies can likewise be based upon a historic individual. A great biographical account needs to be extensive, and also the writer must never decorate a biographical subject. They need to additionally be based upon a reasonable and also fascinating instance of that individual.
Bios are commonly written about famous people, yet they can additionally be about celebrities. They have actually been a prominent source of home entertainment for many years, as well as they have influenced our lives. Consequently, a bio is a powerful means to learn more about an individual’s life. It is additionally a method to celebrate a life’s accomplishments and also to keep in mind loved ones. It is an excellent method to honor a liked one while still recognizing their life.
A biographer’s task is to develop an accurate as well as vibrant world for the topic. For example, a bio of a famous person is not a biography of an imaginary personality, however a memoir of a the real world individual. An autobiographical tale, a memoir, is a work of fiction, and it is not a background. This sort of composing is a form of literary art, and a biographer’s life can be a masterpiece.
A biography can be created on any type of subject as well as has several types. A biographer can create a biography on a celebrity that lived hundreds of years earlier, or on an individual that lived centuries ago. Typically, a biography is written about a living person, however it can also have to do with a historical figure or an unique group of individuals. It is covered the truths of a person’s life, from birth to death. It additionally highlights life-altering occasions, such as a disease or marriage.
A memoir is a book about an individual’s life. A typical memoir begins in an individual’s childhood and also chronologically defines significant occasions throughout his/her life. In many cases, an autobiography is an overview to the topic’s life. For instance, a civil liberties lobbyist who created six autobiographies is an example of an autobiography. It is a book of a person’s experiences.
A biography can be understanding or unbiased. It can be a chronological account of a person’s life. A biographer can additionally be an objective, honest, or non-biased author. The primary objective of a bio is to present a person’s life. The writer must address questions associating with the subject’s background. Some biographies focus on their very own lives, while others are a party of one more’s.
For a biographies, it is essential to consist of individual discourse, the details of an individual’s life, and how the subject was associated with the world. The viewers ought to recognize that the writer’s life was very important as well as designed history. If she or he is unaware of these styles, a biographical essay will not be of rate of interest to the reader. If she or he does not, a bio should not be taken into consideration a boring book.
The emphasis of a bio should get on the life of an individual. It ought to be interesting, helpful, as well as credible. It must capture the significance of the individual. A biographer should be unbiased when composing a biographical essay. A good bio should additionally be interesting and objective. It must additionally show that the author has a rate of interest in the topic. Thematic declarations are thematic in nature and also help viewers understand the subject.
In a bio, the author must be straightforward. While it is natural to use words of a specific in a biographical item, it is important to stay clear of being as well harsh or as well light. It is also important to include as much info as feasible, as it will certainly make the viewers really feel engrossed in the subject. In the long run, a bio is an item of creating that narrates concerning a person. You can find out more
Throughout the study procedure, a trainee ought to read a biography and also write the relevant info. After selecting the subject, students need to begin to brainstorm motifs. In a bio, the subject will certainly be reviewed with the educator and peers. The writer should exist in the topic. During this time around, they ought to likewise review their searchings for with each other. Thematic declarations will aid the audience recognize the subject much better. Theme-based essays are more likely to be accepted by the target market. | http://www.gangsta411.com/2022/03/30/you-will-certainly-never-ever-believe-these-peculiar-fact-behind-biography/ |
- Understanding migrant decisions: From sub-Saharan Africa to the Mediterranean region ed. by B. Gebrewold and T. Bloom
It is a commonplace to highlight the degree to which the media and politics have focused on sub-Saharan migration to the Mediterranean region. Almost daily, we are presented with images of migrants in frail boats and up against barriers at the gates of Europe. Those images convey a uniform portrait of the sub-Saharan migrant as young, poor, and willing to do anything to reach Europe—and so may cause us to forget the diverse realities of migration in Africa. It is these multiple, changing realities that this book purports to take into account, through a series of contributions by young researchers and practitioners who delivered papers at a conference entitled 'Statelessness and Transcontinental Migration' held in Barcelona in 2014. The book presents different perspectives on how changing conditions around the Mediterranean—particularly, the EU's closing of its external borders and the changes triggered by the Arab Spring—affected the decisions of sub-Saharan migrants already travelling in the region. The authors are particularly interested in low-skilled migrants, i.e. the largest category of migrant flows within Africa and the group that encounters the most impediments to international mobility.
The book's 10 chapters were written by researchers from different social science disciplines, all of whom use qualitative methods and focus on movements of individuals from West Africa (Ghana, Niger, and Senegal) either headed toward southern European countries (Spain, Greece, Italy) or to countries often mistakenly thought of as transit spaces (Morocco and Turkey). While the many geographic areas, perspectives, and analytic approaches in the book may seem to undermine its consistency and thematic unity, they also bring to light the complexity of migration processes in Africa and effectively counter some standard notions about movement on the continent.
Over its various contributions, the book recalls that Africans migrate primarily to other African countries—and are more likely to move within their own countries than to anywhere else. Julie Snorek's chapter on rural migration in Niger shows how shepherd communities, who until now moved around on a seasonal basis to diversify their income sources, have been forced to give up that way of life and settle lastingly in small cities due to increasingly regular droughts. More dependent than ever on migration contingencies, these groups simply do not have the means to send migrants to places offering better economic opportunities. Moreover, sub-Saharans wishing to emigrate outside their subregion are not all dreaming of Europe. In her chapter on employees from West and Central Africa working in call centres in Morocco, Silja Weyel shows how this economic sector, which has greatly expanded in the last 20 years, has become a primary source of jobs for educated migrants from French-speaking Africa, workers sought after for their proficiency in French and their salary demands, which are lower than Moroccans'. [End Page 554]
Whereas major theories on international migration may lead to the dehumanization of migrants, viewed in turns as rational actors and household or network members, this book works to reconstruct them as individuals whose actions are conditioned by a set of economic, social, and cultural factors but who are still agents with a degree of autonomy, even when extreme conditions seem to preclude any possibility of choosing. The book also stresses the need to take into account the many different motives behind individuals' decisions to leave, at a time when political discourse and the media regularly cite an opposition between 'economic migrants' and refugees.
The texts in the second part of the book call upon readers to look beyond people's motives for emigrating and to take account of their 'secondary' decisions as well, ones they make after leaving and throughout the migration process. The trajectories of the sub-Saharan migrants that Marieke Wissink and Orçun Ulusoy encountered reveal how the economic crisis and xenophobic attacks in Greece, economic development in Turkey, and immigration 'securitizing' have led migrants to conceive... | https://muse.jhu.edu/article/750033/pdf |
Group decision-making is a process in which a group of people come together to make a decision. This can be an effective way to gather diverse perspectives and ideas, and can often lead to better decisions than an individual working alone.
However, group decision-making is not without its drawbacks. In some cases, it can lead to slow and inefficient decision-making, and can even result in groupthink, where the group’s desire for harmony and agreement overrides their ability to make a good decision.
Here are the pros and cons of group decision-making:
Pros:
- Diverse perspectives: One of the biggest advantages of group decision-making is that it allows you to gather a diverse range of perspectives and ideas. This can help you consider a problem from multiple angles and make a more informed decision.
- Better decisions: Research has shown that group decision-making can often lead to better decisions than an individual working alone. This is because groups can bring together different knowledge, skills, and experiences, which can lead to a more comprehensive understanding of the problem and a better solution.
- Greater buy-in: When a group makes a decision together, there is generally greater buy-in and commitment to the decision. This can help ensure that the decision is implemented effectively and that everyone is working towards the same goal.
Cons:
- Slower decision-making: One of the biggest drawbacks of group decision-making is that it can often be slow and inefficient. With multiple people involved, it can take longer to reach a decision, and there may be more discussion and disagreement along the way.
- Groupthink: Another potential problem with group decision-making is groupthink. This is the tendency for a group to prioritize harmony and agreement over making a good decision. As a result, the group may make poor decisions because they are afraid to challenge each other’s ideas.
- Dominance: In some cases, group decision-making can be dominated by a few individuals, who may have more influence or louder voices. This can lead to decisions that don’t reflect the views of the whole group, and can result in resentment and conflict. | https://reediredale.com/group-decision-making-the-pros-and-cons/ |
About systemic barriers
Many people policies and practices were designed for homogeneous workforces and were created without benefit of a range of perspectives during their development.
A systemic barrier is an aspect of a policy, procedure, or process that might appear neutral on the surface, but which has a different impact on some groups of employees. When this impact is negative or exclusionary it can make it more difficult for people who are in the minority to contribute fully in the workplace. Systemic barriers often arise unintentionally.
Many written policies and procedures can have a different impact on people from different backgrounds and with different lived experience such as women, Indigenous peoples, visible minorities, newcomers and persons with a disability, and others.
Common systemic barriers include:
- Recruiting and hiring: If the promotion processes give disproportionate weighting to years of experience or emphasize characteristics such as “has shown dominance in the work,” and do not equally consider other skills and variables, then women are less likely to get promoted and companies will miss out on the benefits that come with having a variety of perspectives and management styles.
- Onboarding and developing: If the rewards and recognition policy focuses on attendance, an Indigenous employee who attends many cultural and community commitments during the year could be disadvantaged.
- Engaging and retaining: A person with a disability may participate in several available workplace flexibility options to balance work and individual needs. If the organizational culture does not truly support individuals using flexible options, this could be reflected in how they are unconsciously treated by others.
Other unintended barriers include:
- Language that is not gender-inclusive (e.g. “tradesman” instead of “tradesperson”; “husband or wife” instead of “spouse”).
- Assumptions about skills required for a job (e.g. requiring a driver’s license when the incumbent doesn’t drive for the role, but needs reliable transportation to a remote location).
- Work-life balance (e.g. promoting work getting done effectively and efficiently, over visible extended working hours).
- Criteria for hiring or promotion (e.g. “ability to lead complex, multidisciplinary projects” instead of “ten years of experience”).
- Facilities and materials that do not recognize the differing needs of some employees (e.g. documents that do not account for colour blindness).
Questions to guide an equity review of your practices:
- Does it comply with the latest legislative requirements and current norms and expectations, including human rights, accommodation and accessibility, labour and employment laws?
- How consistently and fairly is it applied? Does the organizational culture support this (e.g. is it accepted when one group of people use it, but not another group)?
- What impact has it had on different groups of people in the workforce, both positive and negative (i.e. diverse talent groups)? Some ways that various talent groups might be affected differently include:
- Financial impacts: total earnings, benefits, pensions or insurance eligibility.
- Health and wellness, safety and personal risk.
- Ability to manage work-life balance.
- Access to training and career opportunities.
- If any barriers exist, are they valid? Is accommodation possible?
- In terms of both wording and implementation, what changes to it could make it more equitable, inclusive and effective for all talent groups? For emerging needs?
Even “little things” make a difference–they add up. A company’s written policies, processes or procedures shape a workplace. When policies seem to make good sense and yet they unintentionally create barriers, then it is harder for qualified individuals from diverse talent groups to feel they belong in this industry, affecting their willingness to stay in the organization.
Useful links and resources
Electricity Human Resources Canada (2020). Work Transformed (the future of work in Canada’s Electricity Sector)
Marika Morris, PhD (2017). Indigenous recruitment and retention: Ideas and best practices from a literature review of academic and organizational sources. Carleton University.
National Business & Disability Council and the National Employer Technical Assistance Center (2011). A Toolkit for Establishing and Maintaining Successful Employee Resource Groups. | https://electricityhr.ca/workplace-solutions/diversity-inclusion/illuminate-opportunity/onboarding-and-developing-further-learning/ |
My family and I are on a vacation and field trip to Washington, D.C. this week. Because we home school our boys, this is a tremendous way to combine vacation and education. Here, we are able to learn about the foundation and history of our government while seeing the actual system in operation. The division of powers and unique form of representative democracy are ingenious in many ways.
One of the first things we did was to visit the new Capitol Visitor’s Center, tour the capitol building, and observe proceedings in the Senate chamber. Watching debate among the senators was an interesting experience. (Take a look at Tuesday’s news about FEMA funding.) I am thankful this is not the style and tone adopted by most business leaders in their daily work. However, the two-party system comprised of men and women elected by the citizens of our country are indicative of an important principle woven into the fabric of our culture: E Pluribus Unum.
This Latin phrase is found on the Seal of the United States, has been on most coins since 1786, and is found on most of our paper currency. The phrase means “out of many, one.” Originally, this reflected the formation of the nation out of 13 colony states. In recent years, the phrase has also called to mind the great diversity of our people’s races, cultures, and religions.
Recently, my friend Greg, a co-author of this blog, published an article, What’s So Great About Diversity? Greg offered several points in support of organizational diversity: a wider market, more innovation, better decisions, organizational learning, and global networking. I’m sure we could brainstorm a long list of additional benefits.
I agree with the essence of e pluribus unum and I concur with the ideas and arguments in Greg’s post. However, in many organizations, and in our country today, we are doing a poor job with the unum, the “one” aspect. Leaders today do a good job recognizing and embracing the diversity of their employees. Accommodations are made to facilitate various religious and cultural expressions. Language gaps are bridged in a variety of ways. Family traditions are recognized in company celebrations and outings. Innovative perspectives, born out of diverse cultural heritage, are leveraged to solve tough organizational problems. These are all good, but it seems we are missing the unum result.
What I see in organizations today, and in our country, is that the support and pursuit of diversity (a good thing) is not bringing people together. Leaders are doing well in their efforts to value individuals’ unique contributions. They are doing a poor job of integrating the same individuals into a united whole.
Some of the fault falls on individuals who see their personal perspectives and needs as supreme to the organization (or the country). They are not. Balance is required. As individuals we need to ask “How can my experiences and culture contribute to the success of this organization (or country)?” It is also the responsibility of leaders, though, to help individuals understand the importance balancing individual needs and contributions with organizational (and country) needs and results.
Take a moment to assess various organizational problems you are facing. To what degree are these conflicts rooted in, or at least influenced by, lack of organizational unity. Has the e pluribus supplanted the unum? | https://leadstrategic.com/2011/09/28/e-pluribus-unum/ |
Research consistently shows that people experiencing homelessness want to work. In fact, many are employed, but often precariously. The broader homeless population faces a variety of barriers to employment, including the experience of homelessness itself, plus other obstacles such as lack of experience, physical or mental health barriers, and challenges related to re-entry from incarceration or hospitalization.
Fortunately, “there are consistent reports in the literature that homeless people rise above the barriers and find ways to earn income from employment.” Even chronically homeless populations and those facing multiple disabilities can succeed at work with “opportunity, training, and sustained support.” Researchers with the Department of Labor’s seven-year Job Training for the Homeless Demonstration Program “found that with the appropriate blend of assessment, case management, employment, training, housing and support services, a substantial proportion of homeless individuals can secure and retain jobs and that this contributes to housing stability.”
Employers may be reluctant to hire individuals who formerly or are currently experiencing homelessness. A study by the Chronic Homelessness Employment Technical Assistance Center (CHETA) found that provider staff members are “frequently challenged by pervasive negative stereotypes when approaching employers about hiring qualified homeless job seekers.” These stereotypes extend beyond the chronically homeless and include:
- Doubts that this group of people can obtain work, or want to work;
- Questions about the motivation and capabilities and reliability of the population;
- Concerns about how they will integrate into the workplace; and
- Conceptions about appearance, dress, habits, cleanliness and the impact of the ‘popular image’ of homelessness that feeds biases.
The same study found that even participants had personal doubts and fear about overcoming barriers at least partially related to their lack of success in the past.
Trauma also plays a role in the employability of populations experiencing homelessness. For some individuals, traumatic experiences can lead to an episode of homelessness. Others experience trauma during their experience of homelessness.Homelessness itself is also frequently considered to be a traumatic experience.
Overcoming employment barriers requires collaborations between employers, providers, and individuals experiencing homelessness to ensure that the needs of all parties are being met. To help individuals overcome their traumatic experiences, as an example, and succeed in the workplace, providers should follow a trauma-informed approach.
Principles of trauma-informed care include:
- Understanding trauma and its impact;
- Promoting safety;
- Ensuring cultural competence;
- Supporting consumer control, choice and autonomy;
- Sharing power and governance;
- Integrating care;
- Promoting healing through relationships; and
- Emphasizing the possibility of recovery.
Programs need to be trauma-informed because:
- Homeless families and individuals have experienced traumatic stress;
- Trauma impacts how people access services;
- Responses to traumatic stress are adaptive; and
- Trauma survivors require specific, tailored interventions.
Some people experiencing homelessness have both separate and overlapping barriers to employment, so strategies should be tailored to individual needs rather than attempting to apply one-size-fits-all solutions.
One organization, the Heartland Alliance’s National Initiatives, spent a year researching the range of potential solutions that might be implemented. National Initiatives convened a national community of practice “to shine a spotlight on the important role of employment solutions in addressing homelessness and to identify and disseminate promising employment practices.” The result of these efforts is the “Working to End Homelessness Initiative: Best Practice Series.”
The series represents a broadened perspective on employment programs that can help people experiencing homelessness. As emerging practices that have not been rigorously tested with populations of homeless people, these strategies are worth serious consideration in the field of knowledge. The following sections include the key points of National Initiative’’s four main briefs: service delivery principles and techniques, addressing diverse barriers, employment program components, and employment program models.
Service Delivery Principles and Techniques
Employment programs need to be structured flexibly enough to meet individuals where they are while maintaining the ability to adapt as individual needs and realities change. Key considerations include:
- Understanding and facilitating the process of change;
- Offering employment program options that meet individual’s aptitudes, interests, and readiness to change;
- Delivering services that take into account participants’ experiences with trauma; and
- Focusing the organization, services, and program staff on prioritizing employment and reinforcing a culture of work.
Diverse Barriers to Employment and How to Address Them
Helping individuals overcome their barriers to employment requires an understanding that different subpopulations face a variety of obstacles and are likely to need closely tailored interventions:
- Families with Children – provide access to affordable childcare, family management training, occupational skills training, and flexible employment options, in addition to income and housing supports;
- Youth – help develop leadership skills, engage in positive relationships with adults and practice appropriate workplace behavior, and choose a career pathway that works best for them;
- Older Adults – help them understand their employment potential, and tailor training and employment options to their needs;
- Veterans – draw from their previous military work experience and the occupational training, teamwork, and leadership skills they attained there, help manage trauma and the transition back to the civilian workforce;
- Individuals with a Criminal Record and People Leaving Prison – help participants navigate legal obstacles, tailor job search activities and consider employer incentives, and provide follow-along supports; and
- Individuals with Disabling Conditions, Substance Abuse Issues, and Health Issues – provide streamlined access to permanent supportive housing, quality health care, and benefits counseling, provide the necessary accommodations in both the employment program and the workplace, assist with anti-discrimination efforts, help participants navigate the demands of both work and health, integrate employment services with a treatment regimen including collaboration with addiction counselors and drug testing, foster social support, and work with participants to overcome substance use issues on the job.
Employment Program Components
Employment programs require specialized components depending on the population(s) being served. NTJN identified seven components that offer the greatest promise for helping to employ individuals experiencing homelessness and that are flexible enough to be tailored to meet organizational and individual needs. For employment programs that do not offer all of these services in-house, relationships can be built with other organizations to meet participants’ needs through strategic referrals. The components include:
- Person-Centered Assessment;
- Social Support;
- Work Readiness;
- Job Development;
- Retention Support;
- Reemployment Activities; and
- Case Management and Supportive Services.
Employment Program Models
When developing an employment program, organizations have a number of models to choose from. This section provides a basic overview of seven models, but more extensive information can be found within the brief, which cover “each model’s purpose, elements, principles, funding, and research evidence, with examples from the field.” Models can be utilized for either workplace integration or career advancement.
Strategies for integrating people experiencing homelessness into the workplace include:
- Transitional Jobs;
- Supported Employment;
- Alternative Staffing; and
- Customized Employment.
Strategies for promoting career advancement include:
- Contextualized Basic Adult Education;
- Adult Education Bridge Programs; and
- Sector-Based Training.
Conclusion
Many people experiencing homelessness want to work. With the right blend of supports, most can overcome their personal barriers to do so successfully. Diverse models and tools exist for employment specialists and service providers to tailor their approaches for individualized jobseekers and workforce needs. Successful employment interventions can promote not only personal development and healthier habits for individuals experiencing homelessness, but also broader societal goals, including helping to prevent and end homelessness. Employment is just one component of this broader undertaking, but it is a crucial one. | https://endhomelessness.org/resource/overcoming-employment-barriers/ |
Public officials have a responsibility to account for all perspectives and identities by giving them a place at the table in government, Sen. Catherine Cortez Masto (D-Nev.) said in a virtual conversation with the Georgetown Institute of Politics and Public Service on May 28.
The day of the event, Cortez Masto, who had previously been considered as a potential running mate for presumptive Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden, announced she withdrew her name from consideration.
Cortez Masto spoke with GU Politics Executive Director Mo Elleithee (SFS ’94) on the importance of diversity in politics. Conducted over Zoom, the conversation, titled “Diverse Leadership: Why It Matters,” was streamed on GU Politics’ Facebook and YouTube and was co-sponsored by the Georgetown Bipartisan Coalition.
Nevada ranks among the most culturally diverse states in the country. Diverse constituencies require diverse representation, according to Cortez Masto.
“If we’re going to pass laws in this country that really address the issues we are all dealing with or trying to solve problems we’re dealing with, then we need that diversity around the table when we’re making those decisions, when we’re crafting that legislation for those laws, because otherwise, people are going to be left out,” Cortez Masto said.
When Cortez Masto was elected in 2016, she became the first Latina to serve in the U.S. Senate and the first female senator from the state of Nevada.
Her ability to voice the concerns of her community at the highest levels of government is more important than the milestone itself, according to Cortez Masto.
“I realize that my election was historic, and that’s great to make history,” Cortez Masto said. “But to me, the most important part is now I can be at the table, a voice at the table, have a seat there when we’re addressing legislation that I know impacts people in my community.”
Effective political leadership also derives from an ability to connect with constituencies and demographics of different backgrounds, Cortez Masto added.
“I don’t know what it’s like to stand in your shoes and you don’t know what it’s like to stand in mine, but if we stand together, we can be a force to make change,” Cortez Masto said. “And that’s to me what it’s about. It is about listening, understanding, education around issues that are impacting our communities.”
Cortez Masto also touched upon recent popular unrest provoked by the deaths of George Floyd, Breonna Taylor and Ahmaud Arbery. Meaningful change surrounding racial injustice in the United States will only follow a “paradigm shift” in engagement with the issue, according to the senator.
“This is completely outrageous to me that you have a man of color who can’t jog down the street, or a woman sleeping in her bed is killed or what we saw recently in Minnesota with George Floyd—it’s outrageous,” Cortez Masto said. “It mandates justice, but at the same time it also mandates us all not to sit back and say ‘here it goes again.’ We need a paradigm shift here. We need to recognize that it’s happening and figure out what we’re gonna do about it.”
The senator also took aim at President Donald Trump’s response to the protests and pandemic policies. According to Cortez Masto, Trump’s desire to end the Affordable Care Act, despite the global pandemic, demonstrates the need to protect at-risk populations and minority groups.
“Every time we think that we make one step forward in addressing any type of discrimination or a barrier to getting access to healthcare or any type of relief to individuals, someone is going to come along and try to take it away,” Cortez Masto said.
To ensure that the government and legislation work in the best interest of voters, legislators at every level of government must be composed of a diverse group of people who are able to fairly represent the needs of their constituents, according to Cortez Masto. | https://thehoya.com/diverse-representation-essential-for-american-democracy-nevada-senator-says/ |
Determining where, how and with whom a senior loved one should live out her golden years can present challenges for any family. When it’s time to decide on care for an aging parent, relationship rifts can result.
Other types of emotionally charged disputes about senior loved ones can arise as well, as AARP notes. Arguments over the right time to take away a parent’s car keys, how much family members will contribute if a parent needs financial support, and who makes decisions about end-of-life care can lead to costly, ugly court battles that tear families apart.
But there is another way: mediation. Working with a mediator is a frequently used method for averting costly and drawn-out divorce cases, but it also can prove effective in other family law matters, such as disputes among adult children over caregiving for aging parents.
Let’s take a closer look at the most common situations that can lead to tensions among adult siblings and how mediation can help.
More than three-quarters of adults in America have at least one sibling, and 22 percent describe their relationship as indifferent or even hostile. As parents grow older, become sick and frail, and eventually pass away, those sibling relationships can become even more tenuous.
Physical and mental deterioration in parents can result in siblings — who may not ever have had a smooth relationship — being forced to interact and make fateful decisions under stressful, often time-pressured conditions.
An incident occurs that makes it obvious that aging parents can no longer drive or live at home by themselves. Perhaps an aging parent causes a wreck, has a bad fall or continually leaves the stove on. Siblings disagree over whether the parent should stay in his home — with a caregiver, who may or may not be a family member — or move to senior living accommodations.
A parent moves in with an adult child and her spouse. Should the parent pay for adding on a room to the too-small home?
An adult child moves in with his parents to provide care, and siblings disagree over whether — and how much — he should be paid.
One adult child helps his aging parents; for instance, by driving them to appointments and performing home maintenance. Meanwhile, his sibling in another state feels left out and is critical of the decisions her brother makes on behalf of their parents.
While some families are able to work out such issues among themselves, many reach an impasse and need assistance. This is where a mediator can step in.
In many cases, simply having an objective third party evaluate a situation and provide an unbiased opinion can be enough to get family members on the same page regarding their parents’ care and living arrangements. For issues including housing, medical care, finances and end-of-life planning, a professional mediator can help facilitate difficult conversations in a calm manner that encourages everyone to focus on the most important issues and put emotions aside.
Family members remain in control during the process; the mediator does not take any actions or make decisions on behalf of the parties. The mediator simply listens to all sides and encourages participants to remain focused on the issues at hand.
Mediation gives all parties in a family dispute a confidential, objective forum for coming to resolution. A senior parent who is incapacitated may be represented in mediation by a guardian ad litem, usually an attorney who solely represents the parent’s interests.
In many cases, mediation helps families avoid costly and emotionally harmful litigation; the process often ends with a written settlement agreement between the parties. However, mediation is not a legal proceeding, and agreements are not binding.
Mediation does not have winners or losers. The goal is to answer questions, solve problems and help parties find common ground.
When family members talk through their problems with an objective, professional mediator, they often are able to find many more areas of agreement than they thought they would. And when individuals feel that their views are being heard, they’re often much more willing to truly listen to others.
AARP notes that 40 percent of individuals who care for a senior parent report having serious conflict with their siblings. In many cases, though, a skilled mediator can bring together family members who thought they had no hope of reconciling.
Mediation generally works best when parties have ongoing personal relationships but are having some problems communicating. In many cases, the barriers to coming to agreement are emotional or personal, but an incentive — often either related to time or money — exists to solve the problems without costly litigation.
Adult children who are serving as caregivers for aging parents can reap significant benefits from using mediation. The process of working with an objective third party provides the best possibility of coming to agreement in a way that preserves — and even enhances — relationships among siblings. In the end, aging parents also benefit from their children working together to promote their best interests.
Steven Fritsch is a Certified Family Law Specialist in the Carlsbad, CA. He focuses on helping families get through divorce and other matters in court and in mediation. When not practicing law, Steven enjoys spending time with his family and surfing in the Carlsbad and Oceanside area. | https://www.mediate.com/articles/Fritsch1.cfm |
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3 Suggestions For Future Planning Conversations
There are times in life where we need to make important decisions for ourselves or on behalf of a loved one. This is especially critical for families who have a child with special needs or an elderly parent(s) living at home. There are some common questions that frequently arise during a major transition in the person’s physical and/or mental health. Here are a few:
What quality of life do they want for their future? Is this the safest place for them to live? What services and supports are available that will enhance their well-being? What roles and responsibilities will each family member hold?
Everyone involved in the process needs to consider these questions and evaluate other factors before arriving at a common consensus. In this article, I will make recommendations that will facilitate the process of choosing the services, providers, supports and housing that are most beneficial for a loved one. This is by no means an exhaustive list, but they will help you or other families you know decide what is
best
for the person’s mental and physical health.
Family members and close friends are often confused and overwhelmed at the onset of a disability or chronic illness acquired by a loved one. They do not know who or where to turn. For example, someone with MS or another neurological disorder has symptoms that have become progressively worse. He or she is experiencing pronounced physical and/or cognitive limitations that restrict their mobility and activities of daily living (ADLs). Or, an elderly parent has recently become more disoriented and is demonstrating compromised balance when walking. The main concern for both these individuals is their
safety
.
Here are 3 suggestions when discussing and planning your loved one’s future welfare:
1.
Maintain open and honest communication
. There is a potential for conflict when those involved have differing viewpoints, perspectives and personalities. It is of utmost importance that all family members share their feelings and opinions in a respectful tone. Expressing each other’s views contributes value when done with an attitude of humility. Also, a willingness to compromise helps facilitate the decision making process.
2.
Apply appropriate options to see what works best.
Not all opinions are necessarily going to be suitable for the individual’s needs at the time. However, more ideas usually lead to additional options that can be explored. Those ideas that have been agreed upon can then be executed to determine which ones are most beneficial. Each suggestion should have a clear objective, method of implementation, and how it will be measured. Remember that each one can be either modified or dropped depending on whether the outcomes are achieved or not.
3.
Utilize the counsel and advise of a third party.
It is often helpful to have an objective set of eyes and ears to assess a family conversation that concerns the health and well-being of a loved one. That person can either be a professional or close family friend who is familiar with the situation. He or she should have limited emotional attachment, the ability to evaluate input from ALL participants, and delay expressing personal opinions and recommendations until the end of the discussion.
Family members of a person with special needs or chronic illness want to provide a safe and healthy environment. Critical plans and decisions need to be made in advance or at the onset of a major transition. Although conversations can be challenging, decisions will be clear, concise and valuable when all three suggestions are applied. It could prove to be an opportunity for family members to draw closer with one main objective…preserving the dignity and well-being of their loved one.
David
Connect with us
I help individuals and families manage the stress and anxiety associated with aging and disability. They are able to find hope, relief, and peace of mind.
Phone:
612.709.9963
Email:
[email protected]
Your privacy is important to me. Your email address is confidential and will not be rented, sold or shared with anyone. | https://myemail.constantcontact.com/Disability-Resource-Journal.html?soid=1124532814949&aid=5aXO1fem730 |
In 1983, fresh out of college with a bachelor’s degree in biology, my first job focused on science education, which enabled me to address the issue of limited access for groups historically underrepresented in science. STEM participation rates for women, African Americans, Native Americans and Latinos were much lower than I expected. Unfortunately, 40 years later, work still needs to be done to make science inclusive.
Today, as the nation is engaged in conversations about race and equity, we need to reexamine the STEM ecosystem. The science and engineering enterprise faces the same diversity, equity and inclusion challenges that are present in society. These issues prevent the U.S. from having a STEM ecosystem that is representative of the incredible diversity we see in our country, a diversity that is essential to maintaining U.S. global leadership in S&E. Different life experiences and perspectives are vital to the scientific process—they help spur creative solutions to difficult problems and ensure that new technologies and innovations can benefit all of us.
Recognizing the importance of a diverse pool of STEM talent, the National Science Foundation has long championed programs that broaden participation of groups historically underrepresented in various scientific disciplines. But while NSF support of these programs has yielded tremendous impacts, fighting a problem this extensive needs a big solution, one that engages not just a single group but key stakeholders from business and industry, educational institutions, community organizations, nonprofit funders and government agencies to work collectively towards the same goals.
This is the vision for the Inclusion across the Nation of Communities of Learners of Underrepresented Discoverers in Engineering and Science initiative, or NSF INCLUDES, one of NSF's 10 Big Ideas that will shape the future of S&E. Now in its fourth year, INCLUDES has engaged more than 37,000 individual participants and more than 1,200 partner institutions in 49 states. Projects draw from proven strategies to create inclusive learning environments and build pathways into STEM careers for students. This week, NSF released its INCLUDES: Special Report to the Nation II, outlining the progress the program has made.
Instead of building isolated programs that focus on a particular group in specific regions of the country, INCLUDES builds networks. These networks are the key to building and sustaining the kind of systemic change that is needed to move the needle on inclusivity in STEM in a substantial way. INCLUDES draws on regional Alliances, which pull together important individuals from different sectors to work together towards specific goals. The Alliances take on a diverse range of issues like creating more inclusive cultures in higher education; improving calculus skills in underrepresented groups; and improving persistence in STEM during the first two years of college.
For example, the Inclusive Graduate Education Network Alliance, which works to increase the number of physical science Ph.D.s among underrepresented groups, holds workshops for admission officers to raise awareness of the ways that common admission practices often create barriers to access and inclusion in STEM education. It also trains faculty in university higher education departments in ways to better recruit, support and retain underrepresented graduate students. Additionally, the group works with corporations and national laboratories to recruit underrepresented students into prestigious internships and postdoctoral appointments. In all, more than 30 different societies, institutions, organizations, corporations and national laboratories are working collectively towards a specific goal: creating a more diverse population of STEM Ph.D.s within five years.
Another Alliance, the Computing Alliance of Hispanic-Serving Institutions, works to increase the number of Hispanics earning degrees in computing. The group partners with schools in New Mexico and Texas to support computational thinking for students and professional development for teachers. One Alliance-supported project involved working with Google to create computer courses for partner universities that teach skills in high demand by tech companies. Additionally, the group has recruited local and community partners in building bridge programs that help support students and their families during the transition to college.
The collaborative infrastructure method of INCLUDES gives the scientific community a new approach that centers working together to implement multiple research-supported strategies at scale. As a community, we need to build inclusive environments and hiring practices for learning at universities and in K-12 education. We need more mentors from diverse backgrounds and opportunities to engage in research experiences at the undergraduate level. We need a culturally sensitive curriculum and we need to show that the culture of STEM is not solitary but can be an interactive place where teams collaborate on innovations that help people.
These strategies can only be successful if all stakeholders work together, step-by-step, to eliminate the traditional barriers that have kept promising young scientists, engineers, mathematicians and educators from careers in STEM. | https://beta.nsf.gov/science-matters/includes-making-collective-impact-broaden-participation-stem |
Seven Things Organizations can do to Enable Women’s Success — The Kaleel Jamison Consulting Group, Inc.
Recently while reading an e-newsletter from a professional organization, I came across yet another article about a mentoring program for women in the workplace. Although the article itself—about an approach to mentoring women in the workplace—was useful, I found myself upset, not by the content, but by the underlying mindset and approach. For over 20 years, organizations have been implementing mentoring programs to support women’s and people of color’s ability to succeed in the workplace. Yet it is still quite clear that women of color, white women and men of color have not attained the level of success of their white male counterparts. With all the effort, you’d think we would be doing better by now – and although women and people of color have had some success moving into more senior leadership roles, we are far from having equity in the workplace.
The real issue is that we continue to misdiagnose the problem, leading us to use programs and approaches that only address a small part of the challenge. You can’t stop a boulder with a pea shooter and in many ways that is what we have been doing as organizations have worked to address the “women” and “people of color” “problem.” Although this blog is focused specifically on the question of systemic barriers for white women and women of color much of the same could be said about the barriers that men of color experience as well.
I was pleased to see a recent Harvard Business Review article that spoke to this very issue. ”Women and the Labyrinth of Leadership” discussed the fact that calling the barriers that women experience a “glass ceiling” actually is a misnomer; that the real experience is a labyrinth—a maze in which every twist and turn presents challenges and obstacles to success. By mislabeling or misdiagnosing the issue, we have been formulating simplistic approaches to a much more complex set of challenges. Many of the approaches focus more on tactics organizations and individual women can use rather than addressing the systemic issues of organizational policies, practices and structures just don’t work to enable and foster women’s success. Combine that with biases about women’s leadership styles, the lack of flexibility in many organizations and a lack of recognizing the real barriers that still exist for women and a maintenance of systems that are mired in the past without much hope of real change.
While mentoring is important, mentoring is only a small part of the solution. Women’s roles, styles and leadership are still often relegated to second-class status in the workplace and mentoring simply will not change the systemic structures that perpetuate this disadvantage. While organizations do need to consider how they can allow, support and have the flexibility to value and recognize differences, the real question for organizations is “Are you really committed to having a more diverse workforce and making the structural changes needed to support women and people of color to succeed?” If so, it will take radical change and a very different set of assumptions about flexibility, what constitutes a career, leadership styles and contribution.
1. Focus on output and added value rather than on fitting in and face time. Evaluating individuals based on contribution rather than how well they fit or how much face time they can offer can provide the needed flexibility to enable women to excel and succeed.
2. Assure that policies and practices in place create flexibility. Flexibility can be increased through support for on and off ramps in one’s career; part time and job sharing positions while staying on a career track. Create policies that enable women to contribute while recognizing that, at different stages of their career and life, they may need a career track that enables them to address both work and life responsibilities.
3. Develop competent managers who know how to coach and mentor a diverse workforce. Ensure all managers have the skill set to coach, mentor and develop women in the workforce. This includes their ability to manage flexible work arrangements and to support individuals’ career growth in career paths that are cutting edge in the 21st century.
4. Make sure women are working with colleagues and leaders who actively support them. You know who your supportive of a more diverse workplace leaders are—make sure women in the organization are not teamed or paired with leaders who will not actively support them.
5. Broaden the perspective of an effective leadership style to include styles that foster teamwork, engagement and collaboration. Leadership styles need to recognize and reward the different style and approach that women bring.
6. Understand and address that women of color and white women have a differentiated experience. Assure that approaches to women’s success examine and address the differentiated barriers that women of color experience from those of white women.
7. Remove barriers and biases that impact women differentially than men. Some actions to overcome these barriers include ensuring that women receive “stretch” assignments at the same rate as their male counterparts; aggressively auditing women’s and men’s career paths to see if men are progressing more rapidly through the organization; and, auditing compensation to ensure women are receiving equitable salaries. Make sure there are no overt or covert biases impacting women’s success. For example, are women penalized for taking time off for maternity leave or family time?
The conversation about women’s success in organizations has been going on for over 30 years. Many organizations are moving along the path with respect to their desire to retain and promote women, but it’s time to both diagnose the challenges appropriately and to create comprehensive approaches to achieve real and sustainable change. | https://kjcg.com/blog-kjcg-news/index.php/2007/10/seven-things-organizations-can-do-to-enable-women%E2%80%99s-success |
Diversity and Inclusion
ONE is a global organization and wherever we operate we strive to create an inclusive culture in which differences are recognized, valued and celebrated. ONE understands that a diverse and inclusive workforce is an asset to any organization. By building a community of people with diverse backgrounds, experience and perspectives, we believe that we are stronger and better equipped to fight for the world we want to see: where people can fulfill their full potential and be part of decisions that affect their lives. The creativity and innovation that comes from diversity of thought and inclusion of perspectives is essential to achieving ONE’s mission.
What diversity and inclusion means for ONE:
- Recognizing and embracing workforce diversity – creating an inclusive culture for all regardless of race, gender, national or ethnic origin, culture, language, age, religion, sexual orientation, physical ability, political beliefs, as well as any other distinct differences between people.
- Sustaining a welcoming organization – creating and sustaining an environment enriched with diverse views that provides space and opportunities for staff to bring their whole selves to work. Where all individuals have a voice and are encouraged to contribute.
- Valuing diversity of perspective – leveraging the diverse thinking, skills and experience of our employees and other stakeholders. Providing opportunities towards learning, fostering a culture of openmindeness, compassion and inclusiveness among individuals and groups.
- Respecting stakeholder diversity – ensuring we respect the diverse communities and varied stakeholders with whom we work, including employees, volunteers, members, governments, partners and our Board.
Words and exhortations alone will not accomplish these results. Through dedicated energy, effort and learning, deliberate interventions and interactions – and through a deep and abiding respect for one another – we can become the diverse and vibrant organization we aspire to be. | https://www.one.org/canada/about/diversity/ |
YIMBYISM (Yes in My Back Yard ) is a solution focused event addressing the affordable housing crisis in Vancouver.
Brightside Community Homes Foundation will be hosting, YIMBYism – A Solution to Vancouver’s Affordable Housing Crisis on October 9th, 2018. Our CEO Jill Atkey, will be participating as a panelist for the event.
In order to continue being a vibrant community, Vancouver needs to meet the needs of a diverse group of people. Residents of Vancouver must be included and participate in the efforts to solve the housing crisis. As a Vancouver-based affordable housing provider, we wish to invite you to an event where individuals speak of lived experience, and community-based organizations discuss challenges and innovative solutions.
We will also seek to encourage members of the community to express their concerns about the development of affordable housing. The objective will be to learn more from all sides of the community debate about fears, clarify misunderstandings, and brainstorm solutions in a safe nonjudgemental space.
The event will showcase specific examples of how the affordable housing crisis has affected different sectors of the population . The result will be more engaged and informed communities that understand their neighbours’ challenges, while gathering feedback and proposed solutions on how to break down the barriers limiting the construction of affordable housing. | https://bcnpha.ca/events/event/brightside-community-homes-foundation-yimbyism-a-solution-to-vancouvers-affordable-housing-crisis/ |
On February 23, at the ARC conference, Pat Gouhin and I sat down and discussed issues that are substantive to ISA and the automation community. Here’s the interview:
1. What have you learned about ISA so far?
ISA has a great history, a strong foundation to build on, and it operates in a world filled with opportunity. Our strengths include the committed and dedicated volunteer leaders, a strong heritage of serving the profession, remarkably strong brand recognition, a sound financial position, dedicated and highly competent staff, and a cohesive vision of serving the profession. “Setting the Standard for Automation” is a great position for the organization because it effectively captures a very strong component of ISA’s value, our consensus industry standards. It also reflects the quality of all of ISA activities that arise from the hard work of our membership and staff. And, very importantly, it reflects the value that the organization, through its members, brings to industry in enhancing manufacturing efficiency and reliability.
2. What do you think you need to do to make ISA relevant again?
To nearly 30,000 members and another 100,000 or so customers, ISA is relevant. This is reflected in our growth in number of professionals accessing our training programs, growth in numbers of professionals purchasing ISA books and standards, very high readership levels of InTech, 11-14,000 professionals that attend our annual conference and exhibit, and thousands of professionals and practitioners who have sought certification in one of ISA’s three certification programs. Independent market studies conducted over the past three years have affirmed the need for and importance of ISA to automation professionals. The studies acknowledged that ISA is not as revered as it once was, but is very much respected and relevant. Like most institutions that now compete in a much more diverse environment with many more choices available for our constituents, we must be diligent in listening to our members and being responsive to the consensus needs and expectations.
3. Your predecessor was of the opinion that the political power of the “Old Presidents Club” needed to be curtailed. Do you agree, and if so, what do you intend to do about it?
ISA is fortunate to have a large number of dedicated volunteers who give a tremendous amount of their personal time to help further the goals of the organization. This is what distinguishes non-profit volunteer groups from commercial businesses. There is a loyalty and continued commitment that transcends the short-term business relationship you have with commercial concerns. Our volunteer governance system is structured to provide opportunities for new leaders to be active, and provides for people to continue to serve and lend their expertise in continuing roles or in new roles. A balance of new and historical perspectives is what makes an organization successful. I look forward to working with and learning from our past leaders equally with our newest leaders.
4. Does ISA have a value proposition as a member society?
Yes, 30,000 automation professionals from around the world believe that is the case by the fact that they are members of ISA. Over 80% of them renew their membership each year, which is pretty remarkable when you consider the changes that are occurring in the manufacturing sector. While we would like to retain 100% of our members, I am realistic enough to know that some people join for some short-term benefit they need and that people come and go in this profession. Members are the backbone of ISA and are the reason why we exist. Of course, we also serve the needs of other automation professionals who chose not to join since some individuals are not joiners and others engage in automation only part of their time.
5. Does ISA have any value other than as a commercial training, standards and publishing company?
Because ISA is not a commercial, for-profit company, we engage in a diverse array of activities that likely would not be undertaken by commercial companies. This includes functions like:
– Development of consensus industry standards that are vendor-neutral and are feedstock for international standards, including scores of standards that never generate sales revenues that pay for the costs of development
– Publication of books in niche areas that are needed by automation professionals but not in sufficient numbers to make them attractive to commercial publishing concerns
– Development of vendor-neutral training programs in all areas of automation, again including niche topics that may not be financially viable to a for-profit company
– Operating credentialing programs including the Certified Automation Professional, Certified Control Systems Technician, and Certified Industrial Maintenance Mechanic programs, all of which are designed to elevate these professions
– Sustaining the Control Systems Engineer professional engineer licensure program
– Support for institutional accreditation programs for automation and instrumentation education programs
– Funding scholarships for the education of the next generation of automation professionals
Associations like ISA do things that are for the good of the profession rather than being driven by a profit motive of private owners or shareholders. That gives us the luxury of being unbiased and not beholden to anyone other than the consensus needs of our members. The thousands of professionals who volunteer their time to help fulfill the mission of ISA testifies to that value.
6. ISA continues to appear to have a very high overhead for the size of the society. What are you going to do about that?
ISA benchmarks our operations against other engineering societies and non-profit organizations on a continuing basis. We contrast metrics like number of staff, level of revenue in major operating activities, level and types of expenses, benefits, facility costs, etc. For the number of members, number of non-member customers, amount of revenue, and diversity of activities, ISA is very competitive with other similar non-profit organizations.
7. Is there a future for ISA sections?
Yes, as long as there are members who wish to congregate in a local geographic area for purposes of networking and mentoring. Most human beings are social so there is a motivation to interact. Our local sections afford that opportunity, both at a social level and at an educational level. While the internet makes it very easy to access information from anywhere in the world, there remain times when face-to-face contact works best. Local sections afford that opportunity for automation professionals to physically meet with a minimal expense of time and money.
8. What can you do to revitalize divisions?
The ISA leadership is engaged in strategic assessments about how best to organize our volunteer efforts in collecting and disseminating technical information. Our technical divisions, along with our extensive standards committees, are a significant resource and continue to contribute through symposia, technical papers, and technology panels. In any given year, several thousand automation professionals contribute some part of their expertise to the information archives of ISA. Our objective needs to be how to make that a professionally rewarding experience for the volunteers with a minimal amount of administrative burden.
9. ISA governance is complex and wonderful. Should ISA embark on another round of navel-gazing and reform?
All successful organizations periodically review their structure to assure that it is responsive to the needs of the marketplace in which they operate. Non-profits like ISA are no exception, but what is different in the non-profit world is that the structure reflects a consensus of a very diverse group of sincere volunteers. This sometimes results in a more complex structure than you might see in the commercial world. But, the complexity affords an opportunity for a diversity of views to arise and a broad array of individuals to participate. It allows for a balancing of perspectives and keeps any single voice, no matter how loud or strident, from driving the organization. Sometime it means decisions are slower in coming but it usually means they better reflect the consensus of the membership.
10. Can ISA save its magazine and its trade show?
InTech is a very successful magazine that serves the mission of ISA to educate about the automation profession in an unbiased manner without preference to any commercial interests. ISA relies on some degree of advertising income to help defray the costs of publishing InTech and we are fortunate to be very successful in a commercial environment with magazines like yours that are published solely for a profit motive.
ISA EXPO continues to serve the needs of 11-14,000 automation professionals and over 500 companies that wish to reach those professionals. While there is no question that trade shows do not play the same role as they did in the past, there are still individuals and companies that find them useful. Fortunately for those individuals and companies, there are non-profit organizations like ISA that will fill that need because it is a part of the educational mission rather than because of a required bottom-line. | http://www.spitzerandboyes.com/an-interview-with-pat-gouhin-executive-director-of-isa/ |
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Recognizing Defenses :: Class 1: Recognizing Distant Defense Style
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Recognizing Defenses :: Class 1: Recognizing Distant Defense Style
Distant Defense Styles are the result of denying both our masculine and feminine sides.
Ironically, this generates a superficial emphasis on gender roles, such as being a good provider, nurturer, or both. We can recognize this type of individual because of their desire for consistency, even though they, themselves, may be inconsistent. They can be identified by how they operate at a fixed distance from people to maximize comfort. This is because physical distance indicates how safe they feel. Distant people are primarily motivated by Excitement, which means they are fantasy focused, and want more respect and esteem, but feel they must work for it. They typically have minimal expectations and tend to deny outer needs for fear of how others might react to them.
As Distant individuals, we demonstrate strength in thinking (as an experiential modality) but vacillate in our Sensations, Feelings and Emotions, not believing they are critical to having a complete experience. Our primary fear is not being wanted, which means we do not want to impose ourselves on others. This creates a sense of isolation and reinforces familial connections, even if these connections are not great. We are most influenced by Objectification patterns where outer appearances and looking good falsely indicate our internal states of being. We accept authority, but freeze when challenged. We want to negotiate every problem, but do not expect any real answers to emerge. This is because we are anchored in certain activities that we repeat constantly, even when they are not necessary. We are sensitive to guilt, being judged and react quickly with avoidance behaviors when attacked. We validate the truth by what we can physically see.
Distant individuals seek beauty, but do not want to be at the effect of it. The challenge is to clarify our personal Intent. The problem is that we tend to react when others try to tell us what to do. We have difficulty relaxing. Our sense of safety comes from habits or daily rituals where things do not change too much. We hate jealousy but end up being very attached to certain individuals. When we get overwhelmed, we make unilateral decisions that deny input from others. We are selective about our commitments. We have difficulty making public mistakes and try to ignore any discussion about them. In this course we talk about how physically close to operate with Distant individuals. Through the review of hundreds of pictures, we explore the various physical and energetic characteristics that indicate a Distant Defense Style Our objective is to offer enough examples so we will be able to see these characteristics in life. The class also comes with all presentations (in PDF format) and video recordings.
Facilitators:
Larry Byram & Sandra Jaquith
Class Schedule:
Thursday, June 21, 2018, 6-9pm MT
Location:
2945 Center Green Court, Ste. E, Boulder, CO 80301 (or by webinar)
$59.00
Qty:
Larry's Corner
Larry Byram, founder
Enlightened Dating :: Finding Conscious & Complete Partners
Fear in dating causes individuals to lie rather than risk rejection. The desire to be accepted drives us to present only what is appealing about us. Self-importance (or a lack of confidence) encourages us to negotiate for the best deal, despite the odds, believing we may not be able to easily find similar partners. What these compromises miss is the power of Creative Self Affirmation to attract individuals like us, to us. Instead of pursuing a random numbers game, we need to manifest time, energy and space dedicated to being the partner we want to have. This occurs when we transform our Attractions from Excitement to Aliveness, Intensity to Wisdom and Anxiety to Awareness. We are aided when we learn how to identify individuals with similar Compatibility Factors. We also discover how we have been caught in Co-Dependent Attractions that drain us. Letting go of parental patterns, opposite attractions and the need to be superior or better prepared in a relationship frees us up to wisely choose appropriate partners.
The image of dating has taken a hit because of unrealistic romantic expectations. By making love personal, we deny the unity we seek with our partners. Conscious individuals need to prioritize Creative Chemistry over sexual chemistry to manifest long-term partnerships. When we do, it is easy to create sustainable heartfelt connections with great sexuality. More people than ever are caught in Romantic mythology euphoria, where they cannot make decisions for fear that something better will show up. The reality of our relationships is that they are an investment, and that through growth, we transmute, transform and transfigure over time. Enlightened Dating is about seeing the good and bad in our partners to find the one who sees, appreciates and loves us fully for who we are. To accomplish this we must stop looking at our partners as caretakers, power brokers, or needs fulfillment mechanisms. With Co-Creativity (instead of Co-Dependence) we manifest a playful and joyful sharing that is based upon a personal sense of Autonomy. The illusion is that we can figure everything out on our own. While we do need to develop our own understanding, our partner must also be able to share this understanding, or the relationship, being unbalanced, will falter.
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Copyright © 2018 Higher Alignment. All rights reserved. | https://higheralignment.com/recognizing-defenses-class-1-recognizing-distant-defense-style |
1,200 KV is the highest voltage proposed in power transmission. Presently, the highest voltage used is 800 KV by China, which is also developing a 1,100 KV system. Powergrid will lay a 380 km long 1,200 KV transmission line from Deoli to Aurangabad in the first phase.
What is high voltage power transmission?
What is a High Voltage Line? High voltage transmission lines deliver electricity over long distances. The high voltage is required to reduce the amount of energy lost during the distance. Unlike other energy sources such as natural gas, electricity can’t be stored when it is not used.
What is the highest transmission voltage that high voltage switches can handle?
The high-voltage transmission system (or grid) transmits electric power from generation plants through 163,000 miles of high-voltage (230 kilovolts [kV] up to 765 kV) electrical conductors and more than 15,000 transmission substations.
Is 600 volts considered High Voltage?
Generac states that generators less than and equal to 600 volts are medium-voltage and generators greater than 600 volts are considered high voltage. Generators producing 4160 volts are common in many industries for large motors that require high voltage.
What are the transmission voltages?
Transmission voltages are defined as any line with voltage greater than 39,000 volts or 39 kV. The metric abbreviation kV for kilovolts is commonly used when talking about transmission line voltages. Commonly used transmission voltages are 69 kV and 138 kV.
Why transmission is done at High Voltage?
The primary reason that power is transmitted at high voltages is to increase efficiency. As electricity is transmitted over long distances, there are inherent energy losses along the way. … The higher the voltage, the lower the current. The lower the current, the lower the resistance losses in the conductors.
Are transmission lines AC or DC?
Most transmission lines are high-voltage three-phase alternating current (AC), although single phase AC is sometimes used in railway electrification systems. High-voltage direct-current (HVDC) technology is used for greater efficiency over very long distances (typically hundreds of miles).
What is the difference between electricity distribution and transmission?
The Difference Between Transmission and Distribution Line are as follows:- Transmission Line helps in the movement of electricity from a power plant or power station to the various substations whereas the distribution line carries electricity from the substation to the consumer’s end.
How do you reduce power loss in transmission lines?
Some of the options to reduce technical losses include: replacing incorrectly sized transformers, improving the connection quality of conductors (power lines), and increasing the availability of reactive power by installing capacitor banks along transmission lines.
What type of distribution is mostly underground?
Neighborhoods that seem to be free of electric wires and poles have underground power lines. When low-voltage lines are underground but transformers and medium-voltage lines are overhead, this is called a hybrid overhead/underground distribution system.
Can a human survive 10000 volts?
Offhand it would seem that a shock of 10,000 volts would be more deadly than 100 volts. But this is not so! … While any amount of current over 10 milliamps (0.01 amp) is capable of producing painful to severe shock, currents between 100 and 200 mA (0.1 to 0.2 amp) are lethal.
Can 600 volts kill you?
At 600 volts, the current through the body may be as great as 4 amps, causing damage to internal organs such as the heart. High voltages also produce burns. … Even if the electrical current is too small to cause injury, your reaction to the shock may cause you to fall, resulting in bruises, broken bones, or even death.
What happens if the voltage is too high?
If the voltage is too low, the amperage increases, which may result in the components melting down or causing the appliance to malfunction. If the voltage is too high, this will cause appliances to run ‘too fast and too high’ which will shorten their service life. Leads, cables, cords and power lines are not at risk.
Can a 240 volt kill you?
An electric shock from a 240 volt power point can kill you, but on a dry day your car door can zap you with 10,000 volts and just make you swear.
How much power does transmission lose per mile?
So even though electricity may travel much farther on high-voltage transmission lines – dozens or hundreds of miles – losses are low, around two percent. And though your electricity may travel a few miles or less on low-voltage distribution lines, losses are high, around four percent.
What are the losses in transmission line?
Losses Which Occur In Transmission Lines May Be Any Of These Three Types – Copper, Dielectric, And Radiation Or Induction Losses. One Type Of Copper Loss Is I2R Loss. In Rf Lines The Resistance Of The Conductors Is Never Equal To Zero. | https://carbrandswiki.com/auto-parts/what-is-the-highest-transmission-voltage.html |
EVOLUTION OF ELECTRICITY NETWORKS
For electricity from a power station or power-generating unit to be delivered to a customer, the two must be connected by an electricity network. Over the past century these networks have developed into massive systems.
When the industry was in its infancy, networks were a simple pattern of lines radiating from a power station to the small number of customers that each power station supplied, usually with a number of customers on each line. When the number of customers was small and the distances over which electricity was transported were short, these lines could operate with either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC).
As the distances increased, it became necessary to raise the voltage at which the electricity was transmitted to reduce the current and the resistive losses in the lines when high currents were flowing. The AC transformer allowed the voltage on an AC line to be increased and then decreased again efficiently and with relatively ease, whereas this was not possible for the DC system. As a consequence, alternating current became the standard for most electricity networks.
Alternating current continued to dominate across the 20th century, but developments in power electronics led to a resurgence in interest in the DC transmission of power at the end of the century in the form of high-voltage DC lines. These are increasingly used for sending large amounts of power over long distances for which they are proving more efficient than conventional AC lines.
Back at the start of the 20th century, the growth in size of what was initially a myriad of independent electricity networks soon led to overlap between service areas. While competition was good for the electricity market, the range of different operating standards, particularly voltages and frequencies, made actual competition difficult. A proliferation of independent networks was also costly, and in the final analysis it was unnecessary because if different operators standardized on their voltages, the suppliers of electric power could all use the same network rather than each building its own.
Standardization was pushed through in many countries during the first half of the 20th century and national grid systems were established that were either government owned or controlled by legislation to ensure that the monopoly they created could not be exploited. However, there are still vestiges of the early market proliferation of standards to be found today in regional variations, such as the delivery of alternating current at either 50 Hz or 60 Hz and the different standard voltage levels used.
As national networks were built up, a hierarchical structure became established based on the industry model in which electric power was generated in large central power stations. These large power plants fed their power into what is now the transmission network, a high-voltage backbone that carries electricity at high voltage from region to region. From this transmission network, power is fed into lower-voltage distribution networks and these then deliver the power to the customers.
An electricity network of any type must be kept in balance if voltage and frequency conditions are to be maintained at a stable level. This is a consequence of the ephemeral nature of electricity. The balance between the actual demand for electricity on the network and the power being fed into it must be maintained within narrow limits. Any deviation from balance leads to changes in frequency and voltage and, if these become too large, can lead to a system failure.
The organization charged with maintaining the balance is called the system operator. This organization has limited control over the demand level but it must be able to control the output of the power plants connected to its network. For most networks this has traditionally involved having a variety of different types of power stations supplying power. The first of these are base-load power plants. These are usually large fossil fuel and nuclear power plants (but they may also include hydropower) that keep running at maximum output all the time, supplying the basic demand on the network. Next are intermediate-load power plants, often gas turbine based, which do not run all the time but might start up in the morning to meet the daytime rise in demand and then close down in the evening when demand begins to fall again. These two types can supply the broad level of demand during both day and night but there will always be a need for even faster-acting plants that can provide the power to meet sudden peaks in demand. These are called peak-load or peaking power plants. In general, the power from base-load power plants is the cheapest available, that from intermediate load plants is more expensive, and that from peak-load plants is the most expensive. | http://machineryequipmentonline.com/electrical-power-generation/an-introduction-to-electricity-generationevolution-of-electricity-networks/ |
Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation. The interconnected lines which facilitate this movement are known as a transmission network. This is distinct from the local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to as electric power distribution. The combined transmission and distribution network is known as the "power grid" in North America, or just "the grid". In the United Kingdom, the network is known as the "National Grid".
A wide area synchronous grid, also known as an "interconnection" in North America, directly connects a large number of generators delivering AC power with the same relative frequency, to a large number of consumers. For example, there are four major interconnections in North America (the Western Interconnection, the Eastern Interconnection, the Quebec Interconnection and the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) grid), and one large grid for most of continental Europe.
Źródło: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmission
Basic facts
Electric power is the product of two quantities: current and voltage. These two quantities can vary with respect to time (AC power) or can be kept at constant levels (DC power).
Most refrigerators, air conditioners, pumps and industrial machinery use AC power whereas most computers and digital equipment use DC power (the digital devices you plug into the mains typically have an internal or external power adapter to convert from AC to DC power). AC power has the advantage of being easy to transform between voltages and is able to be generated and utilised by brushless machinery. DC power remains the only practical choice in digital systems and can be more economical to transmit over long distances at very high voltages (see HVDC).1415
The ability to easily transform the voltage of AC power is important for two reasons: Firstly, power can be transmitted over long distances with less loss at higher voltages. So in power systems where generation is distant from the load, it is desirable to step-up (increase) the voltage of power at the generation point and then step-down (decrease) the voltage near the load. Secondly, it is often more economical to install turbines that produce higher voltages than would be used by most appliances, so the ability to easily transform voltages means this mismatch between voltages can be easily managed.14
Solid state devices, which are products of the semiconductor revolution, make it possible to transform DC power to different voltages, build brushless DC machines and convert between AC and DC power. Nevertheless devices utilising solid state technology are often more expensive than their traditional counterparts, so AC power remains in widespread use.
Źródło: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_system#Basics_of_electric_power
How alone lay the electrical system?
Although many people isolated attempts to control the domestic installations, usually professional help is highly desirable especially in more complex cases. As far as changing a light bulb or perform other similar tasks require more visits electrician so much already in the case of laying wires or installation of distribution are more complicated. Isolated executed electrical installations can make later, at the stage of operational problems arise, for example, through the inclusion of too many devices to the power supply circuit may occur. So let's take care of it, to the more complex work carried out specialist, because working with electricity can be dangerous for inexperienced employee. | http://polinfor.jupe.pl/technology-and-the-job-of-an-electrician-2/ |
Enhancing the stability and reliability of Turkey’s transmission network first required a thorough test of a UPFC system. Its performance was assessed on one of the country’s most overloaded lines.
Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) are used worldwide to solve static and dynamic control problems associated with power lines, mainly because they offer a degree of planning and control that is essential to achieving good quality, reliable power.
But there is no field application of such a system in Turkey’s transmission grid. Consequently it was necessary, in order to assess the effectiveness of FACTS, to study a specific case in simulation and make a comparison with a classical power flow controller – in this case a phase shifting transformer. In the assessment the most important generation and consumption areas of the system and the heavily loaded transmission lines between them were studied, and a fault analysis for the studied system made. Ultimately, the important control objectives of preventing loop flows and managing balanced load sharing were achieved.
The necessity for this arose mainly from a principal feature of Turkey’s transmission network – the long-distance transfer of power from regions with surplus generation to those where industrial growth is most concentrated. Economic aspects played a dominant role in the building of these lines. This geographical dispersal of generation and load results in very large power flows through long lines, and line trips occur frequently. And wide variations of the load flow may lead to dangerous situations in which small-signal stability is lost and inter-area oscillations occur, and that can affect the whole interconnected power system.
Creation of the 380 kV transmission system started around ten years ago. Following construction, steady state analyses were performed. The system’s critical power flow paths and bottlenecks were determined and a UPFC system (unified power flow controller, a member of the FACTS family) which can independently control active and reactive power flows on the line as well as the bus voltage, was applied to these sectors in an attempt to manage power flows and to prevent loop flows.
Generation statistics
During the last 10 years Turkey’s installed power capacity which stood at 36 856 MW in 2005, has doubled, and is estimated to reach 65 000 MW in the year 2010. Total electricity generation for the year 2004 was 149.6 billion kWh. According to the Government Statistics Institute (DIE), 69.19 % of this total was supplied from thermal power plants, with the contribution from wind and hydro power plants standing at 0.04% and 30.77% respectively. 40.86% of the country’s electricity is generated by Electricity Generation Incorporation (EUAS), 35.75% by cogeneration plants, 15.32% by independent producers and 8.07% by affiliated partnerships of EUAS. The distribution of generation in 2004 by primary source and percentage is shown in Figures 1 and 2.
Today, Turkey’s electricity generation totals approximately 150 million MWh per year and will be 400-500 million MWh per year by the year 2020. The incremental development of Turkey’s installed capacity is shown in Figure 3.
Transmission system
Turkey’s electricity supply system can be described under three main headings – electricity production, transmission, and load. The system is divided into 21 regions. System voltages are 380, 154 and 66kV. Transmission network components and lines* are described in Table 1. On 28 September 2005 Turkey signed an operational agreement with UCTE (the Union for the Coordination of Transmission of Electricity).
Although Turkey has no synchronous operation with other countries it does have many interconnections, such as those with Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Romania, Iraq, and Syria. The structure of its 380 kV system is shown in Figure 4. In 2003 the maximum power load was measured at 21 539 MW and the minimum at 13 380 MW, translating as a 60% load variation during the year. Daily consumption figures for 2004 confirmed this, standing at 469 439 MWh (maximum) and 260 261 MWh (minimum).
It is mainly that the country’s hydroelectric plants are widely spread that has led to a high proportion of power being transmitted over long transmission lines. There are three main hydro power plants – Keban, Atatürk and Karakaya – in the system. Their output is transmitted via series capacitors to load centres located in the west of the country. The result is that power flows by unintended routes through unsuitable lines to where it is needed and sometimes loop flows occur.
Transmission system faults can also be indicators of system stress. Table 2 shows faults on the 380 kV and 154 kV networks, and, as can be seen, they are not distributed according to seasonal conditions.
Real system investigatIon
A considerable amount of power is generated at the three hydro power plants Keban, Atatürk and Karakaya. This power is transmitted through Ankara to the Istanbul load region. Figure 5 shows the diagram of this region. It also indicates (figures shown in boxes) the number of trips in a year.
Two methods of power flow control were compared for their effectiveness in eliminating loop flows, distributing the load, and controlling the power flow of the region generally. One was the classical phase shifting transformer (PST) system and the other the more developed system in the FACTS family known as a unified power flow controller (UPFC) which is capable of controlling both active and reactive power along lines. The tool used was SIMPOW, a highly integrated application for simulation of power systems. It covers a wide field of network applications focusing on dynamic simulation in the time domain and analysis in the frequency domain.
Phase shifting transformers
As power systems get more complex and more stressed, appropriate tools to control the power flow within a given network are increasingly required. Phase shifting transformers can control power flow in a complex power network in a very efficient way. The phase angle variation depending on loading can be expressed as follows:
In this expression:
Da defines phase angle variation according to load current,
ifkt indicates the PST current in pu
xfkt indicates the PST impedance in pu
Y describes the angle between load voltage and load current. Low xfkt decreases this effect.
UPFC
A regular unified power flow controller consists of two voltage source converters with a common DC capacitor as shown in Figure 6. One voltage source converter (VSC1) operates as a static VAr generator and is able to control the AC voltage –Uac1 on the network side of its converter transformer, and the DC voltage of the capacitor.
The second voltage source converter (VSC2) is connected to the network by means of a converter transformer with its network winding in series with a transmission line. The voltage across the series winding, (–Us), can be varied, magnitude and phase, by means of the controllable AC voltage of VSC2.
Figure 7 shows the location considered best for the UPFC and Figure 8 the power flow variations after applying it. The main generation source is at bus 3002, which is also the whole transmission system slack bus. Owing to line reactance and because the series capacitors are not of a controllable type, huge loads are transmitted along the line between busses numbered 3001-3006 and 3001-3007. This also creates an unintended loop flow between busses 3002 and 3003. The main objective is to decrease power flow from 436 MW to 300 MW between busses 3003 and 3002 which means no loop flow and equal power flows between parallel lines having series capacitors. To satisfy this condition a UPFC series voltage 0.4 pu in magnitude with a 60° angle difference must be applied to line. For a PST it is found that the same power flows can be obtained for a 17° phase difference. In Table 3, a comparison between bus voltages at normal system conditions and formed bus voltages after UPFC and PST have been applied are shown and a graphical comparison is given in Figure 9.
Results
By imposing power flow control with either a PST or a UPFC system the loading of the line between busses 3003 and 3002 is decreased, so that no loop flow occurs and power flows from those parallel lines with series capacitors are better balanced.
Judging by the power flow results (Table 4, Figures 10, 11) it can reasonably be said that the PST system is as effective as the UPFC. The UPFC increased bus voltages to approximately 1 pu by virtue of its capability of independent reactive power control with its voltage source converter. For this application the PST, which costs less to install, could be more appropriate, but for longer and more heavily loaded lines in the transmission system, control of active power requires a greater reactive power component, a need that can be more effectively met with a UPFC system. | https://www.modernpowersystems.com/features/featureinvestigating-the-facts-in-turkey/ |
Electric power transmission
Electric power transmission is the bulk transfer of electrical energy, from generating power plants to electrical substations located near demand centers. This is distinct from the local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to as electric power distribution. Transmission lines, when interconnected with each other, become transmission networks. The combined transmission and distribution network is known as the "power grid" in North America, or just "the grid". In the United Kingdom, the network is known as the "National Grid".
A wide area synchronous grid, also known as an "interconnection" in North America, directly connects a large number of generators delivering AC power with the same relative frequency, to a large number of consumers. For example, there are four major interconnections in North America (the Western Interconnection, the Eastern Interconnection, the Quebec Interconnection and the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) grid), and one large grid for most of continental Europe.
The same relative frequency, but almost never the same relative phase as ac power interchange is a function of the phase difference between any two nodes in the network, and zero degrees difference means no power is interchanged; any phase difference up to 90 degrees is stable by the "equal area criteria"; any phase difference above 90 degrees is absolutely unstable; the interchange partners are responsible for maintaining frequency as close to the utility frequency as is practical, and the phase differences between any two nodes significantly less than 90 degrees; should 90 degrees be exceeded, a system separation is executed, and remains separated until the trouble has been corrected.
Historically, transmission and distribution lines were owned by the same company, but starting in the 1990s, many countries have liberalized the regulation of the electricity market in ways that have led to the separation of the electricity transmission business from the distribution business.
Contents
- 1 System
- 2 Overhead transmission
- 3 Underground transmission
- 4 History
- 5 Bulk power transmission
- 6 Modeling: The Transmission Matrix
- 7 High-voltage direct current
- 8 Capacity
- 9 Control
- 10 Communications
- 11 Electricity market reform
- 12 Cost of electric power transmission
- 13 Merchant transmission
- 14 Health concerns
- 15 United States government policy
- 16 Special transmission
- 17 Security of control systems
- 18 Records
- 19 See also
- 20 References
- 21 Further reading
- 22 External links
System
Most transmission lines are high-voltage three-phase alternating current (AC), although single phase AC is sometimes used in railway electrification systems. High-voltage direct-current (HVDC) technology is used for greater efficiency at very long distances (typically hundreds of miles (kilometers)), in submarine power cables (typically longer than 30 miles (50 km)), and in the interchange of power between grids that are not mutually synchronized. HVDC links are also used to stabilize and control problems in large power distribution networks where sudden new loads or blackouts in one part of a network can otherwise result in synchronization problems and cascading failures.
Electricity is transmitted at high voltages (115 kV or above) to reduce the energy losses in long-distance transmission. Power is usually transmitted through overhead power lines. Underground power transmission has a significantly higher cost and greater operational limitations but is sometimes used in urban areas or sensitive locations.
A key limitation of electric power is that, with minor exceptions, electrical energy cannot be stored, and therefore must be generated as needed. A sophisticated control system is required to ensure electric generation very closely matches the demand. If the demand for power exceeds the supply, generation plant and transmission equipment can shut down, which in the worst case may lead to a major regional blackout, such as occurred in the US Northeast blackout of 1965, 1977, 2003, and other regional blackouts in 1996 and 2011. It is to reduce the risk of such a failure that electric transmission networks are interconnected into regional, national or continent wide networks thereby providing multiple redundant alternative routes for power to flow should such equipment failures occur. Much analysis is done by transmission companies to determine the maximum reliable capacity of each line (ordinarily less than its physical or thermal limit) to ensure spare capacity is available should there be any such failure in another part of the network.
Overhead transmission
High-voltage overhead conductors are not covered by insulation. The conductor material is nearly always an aluminum alloy, made into several strands and possibly reinforced with steel strands. Copper was sometimes used for overhead transmission, but aluminum is lighter, yields only marginally reduced performance and costs much less. Overhead conductors are a commodity supplied by several companies worldwide. Improved conductor material and shapes are regularly used to allow increased capacity and modernize transmission circuits. Conductor sizes range from 12 mm2 (#6 American wire gauge) to 750 mm2 (1,590,000 circular mils area), with varying resistance and current-carrying capacity. Thicker wires would lead to a relatively small increase in capacity due to the skin effect, that causes most of the current to flow close to the surface of the wire. Because of this current limitation, multiple parallel cables (called bundle conductors) are used when higher capacity is needed. Bundle conductors are also used at high voltages to reduce energy loss caused by corona discharge.
Today, transmission-level voltages are usually considered to be 110 kV and above. Lower voltages, such as 66 kV and 33 kV, are usually considered subtransmission voltages, but are occasionally used on long lines with light loads. Voltages less than 33 kV are usually used for distribution. Voltages above 765 kV are considered extra high voltage and require different designs compared to equipment used at lower voltages.
Since overhead transmission wires depend on air for insulation, the design of these lines requires minimum clearances to be observed to maintain safety. Adverse weather conditions, such as high wind and low temperatures, can lead to power outages. Wind speeds as low as 23 knots (43 km/h) can permit conductors to encroach operating clearances, resulting in a flashover and loss of supply. Oscillatory motion of the physical line can be termed gallop or flutter depending on the frequency and amplitude of oscillation.
Underground transmission
Electric power can also be transmitted by underground power cables instead of overhead power lines. Underground cables take up less right-of-way than overhead lines, have lower visibility, and are less affected by bad weather. However, costs of insulated cable and excavation are much higher than overhead construction. Faults in buried transmission lines take longer to locate and repair. Underground lines are strictly limited by their thermal capacity, which permits less overload or re-rating than overhead lines. Long underground AC cables have significant capacitance, which may reduce their ability to provide useful power to loads beyond 50 miles. Long underground cables have no such issue and can run for thousands of miles.
History
In the early days of commercial electric power, transmission of electric power at the same voltage as used by lighting and mechanical loads restricted the distance between generating plant and consumers. In 1882, generation was with direct current (DC), which could not easily be increased in voltage for long-distance transmission. Different classes of loads (for example, lighting, fixed motors, and traction/railway systems) required different voltages, and so used different generators and circuits.
Due to this specialization of lines and because transmission was inefficient for low-voltage high-current circuits, generators needed to be near their loads. It seemed, at the time, that the industry would develop into what is now known as a distributed generation system with large numbers of small generators located near their loads.
The transmission of electric power with alternate current (AC) became possible after Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs built what they called the secondary generator, namely an early transformer provided with 1:1 turn ratio and open magnetic circuit, in 1881. The first demonstrative long distance (34 km, i.e. 21 mi) AC line was built for the 1884 International Exhibition of Turin, Italy. It was powered by a 2-kV, 130-Hz Siemens & Halske alternator and featured several Gaulard secondary generators with their primary windings connected in series, which fed incandescent lamps. The system proved the feasibility of AC electric power transmission on long distances.
A very first operative AC line was put into service in 1885 in via dei Cerchi, Rome, Italy, for public lighting. It was powered by two Siemens & Halske alternators rated 30 hp (22 kW), 2 kV at 120 Hz and used 200 series-connected Gaulard 2-kV/20-V step-down transformers provided with a closed magnetic circuit, one for each lamp. Few months later it was followed by the first British AC system, which was put into service at the Grosvenor Gallery, London. It also featured Siemens alternators and 2.4-kV/100-V step-down transformers, one per user, with shunt-connected primaries.
In 1886, in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, a 1 kV alternating current (AC) distribution system was installed, featuring both step up and step down transformes and resorting also to European technology. At an AIEE meeting on May 16, 1888, Nikola Tesla delivered a lecture entitled A New System of Alternating Current Motors and Transformers, describing the equipment which allowed efficient generation and use of polyphase alternating currents. The transformer, and Tesla's polyphase and single-phase induction motors, were essential for a combined AC distribution system for both lighting and machinery. Ownership of the rights to the Tesla patents was a key advantage to the Westinghouse Company in offering a complete alternating current power system for both lighting and power. Regarded as one of the most influential electrical innovations, the universal system used transformers to step-up voltage from generators to high-voltage transmission lines, and then to step-down voltage to local distribution circuits or industrial customers. By a suitable choice of utility frequency, both lighting and motor loads could be served. Rotary converters and later mercury-arc valves and other rectifier equipment allowed DC to be provided where needed. Generating stations and loads using different frequencies could be interconnected using rotary converters. By using common generating plants for every type of load, important economies of scale were achieved, lower overall capital investment was required, load factor on each plant was increased allowing for higher efficiency, a lower cost for the consumer and increased overall use of electric power.
The first transmission of three-phase alternating current using high voltage took place in 1891 during the international electricity exhibition in Frankfurt. A 15 kV transmission line, approximately 175 km long, connected Lauffen on the Neckar and Frankfurt.
Voltages used for electric power transmission increased throughout the 20th century. By 1914, fifty-five transmission systems each operating at more than 70 kV were in service. The highest voltage then used was 150 kV. By allowing multiple generating plants to be interconnected over a wide area, electricity production cost was reduced. The most efficient available plants could be used to supply the varying loads during the day. Reliability was improved and capital investment cost was reduced, since stand-by generating capacity could be shared over many more customers and a wider geographic area. Remote and low-cost sources of energy, such as hydroelectric power or mine-mouth coal, could be exploited to lower energy production cost.
The rapid industrialization in the 20th century made electrical transmission lines and grids a critical infrastructure item in most industrialized nations. The interconnection of local generation plants and small distribution networks was greatly spurred by the requirements of World War I, with large electrical generating plants built by governments to provide power to munitions factories. Later these generating plants were connected to supply civil loads through long-distance transmission.
Bulk power transmission
Engineers design transmission networks to transport the energy as efficiently as feasible, while at the same time taking into account economic factors, network safety and redundancy. These networks use components such as power lines, cables, circuit breakers, switches and transformers. The transmission network is usually administered on a regional basis by an entity such as a regional transmission organization or transmission system operator.
Transmission efficiency is greatly improved by devices that increase the voltage, (and thereby proportionately reduce the current) in the line conductors, thus allowing power to be transmitted with acceptable losses. The reduced current flowing through the line reduces the heating losses in the conductors. According to Joule's Law, energy losses are directly proportional to the square of the current. Thus, reducing the current by a factor of two will lower the energy lost to conductor resistance by a factor of four for any given size of conductor.
The optimum size of a conductor for a given voltage and current can be estimated by Kelvin's law for conductor size, which states that the size is at its optimum when the annual cost of energy wasted in the resistance is equal to the annual capital charges of providing the conductor. At times of lower interest rates, Kelvin's law indicates that thicker wires are optimal; while, when metals are expensive, thinner conductors are indicated: however, power lines are designed for long-term use, so Kelvin's law has to be used in conjunction with long-term estimates of the price of copper and aluminum as well as interest rates for capital.
The increase in voltage is achieved in AC circuits by using a step-up transformer. HVDC systems require relatively costly conversion equipment which may be economically justified for particular projects such as submarine cables and longer distance high capacity point to point transmission. HVDC is necessary for the import and export of energy between grid systems that are not synchronized with each other.
A transmission grid is a network of power stations, transmission lines, and substations. Energy is usually transmitted within a grid with three-phase AC. Single-phase AC is used only for distribution to end users since it is not usable for large polyphase induction motors. In the 19th century, two-phase transmission was used but required either four wires or three wires with unequal currents. Higher order phase systems require more than three wires, but deliver little or no benefit.
The price of electric power station capacity is high, and electric demand is variable, so it is often cheaper to import some portion of the needed power than to generate it locally. Because loads are often regionally correlated (hot weather in the Southwest portion of the US might cause many people to use air conditioners), electric power often comes from distant sources. Because of the economic benefits of load sharing between regions, wide area transmission grids now span countries and even continents. The web of interconnections between power producers and consumers should enable power to flow, even if some links are inoperative.
The unvarying (or slowly varying over many hours) portion of the electric demand is known as the base load and is generally served by large facilities (which are more efficient due to economies of scale) with fixed costs for fuel and operation. Such facilities are nuclear, coal-fired or hydroelectric, while other energy sources such as concentrated solar thermal and geothermal power have the potential to provide base load power. Renewable energy sources, such as solar photovoltaics, wind, wave, and tidal, are, due to their intermittency, not considered as supplying "base load" but will still add power to the grid. The remaining or 'peak' power demand, is supplied by peaking power plants, which are typically smaller, faster-responding, and higher cost sources, such as combined cycle or combustion turbine plants fueled by natural gas.
Long-distance transmission of electricity (thousands of kilometers) is cheap and efficient, with costs of US$0.005–0.02/kWh (compared to annual averaged large producer costs of US$0.01–0.025/kWh, retail rates upwards of US$0.10/kWh, and multiples of retail for instantaneous suppliers at unpredicted highest demand moments). Thus distant suppliers can be cheaper than local sources (e.g., New York often buys over 1000 MW of electricity from Canada). Multiple local sources (even if more expensive and infrequently used) can make the transmission grid more fault tolerant to weather and other disasters that can disconnect distant suppliers.
Long-distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to be used to displace fossil fuel consumption. Hydro and wind sources cannot be moved closer to populous cities, and solar costs are lowest in remote areas where local power needs are minimal. Connection costs alone can determine whether any particular renewable alternative is economically sensible. Costs can be prohibitive for transmission lines, but various proposals for massive infrastructure investment in high capacity, very long distance super grid transmission networks could be recovered with modest usage fees.
Grid input
At the power stations, the power is produced at a relatively low voltage between about 2.3 kV and 30 kV, depending on the size of the unit. The generator terminal voltage is then stepped up by the power station transformer to a higher voltage (115 kV to 765 kV AC, varying by the transmission system and by country) for transmission over long distances. In India, for example, the grid voltage is 440kV.
Losses
Transmitting electricity at high voltage reduces the fraction of energy lost to resistance, which varies depending on the specific conductors, the current flowing, and the length of the transmission line. For example, a 100-mile (160 km) 765 kV line carrying 1000 MW of power can have losses of 1.1% to 0.5%. A 345 kV line carrying the same load across the same distance has losses of 4.2%. For a given amount of power, a higher voltage reduces the current and thus the resistive losses in the conductor. For example, raising the voltage by a factor of 10 reduces the current by a corresponding factor of 10 and therefore the I2R losses by a factor of 100, provided the same sized conductors are used in both cases. Even if the conductor size (cross-sectional area) is reduced 10-fold to match the lower current, the I2R losses are still reduced 10-fold. Long-distance transmission is typically done with overhead lines at voltages of 115 to 1,200 kV. At extremely high voltages, more than 2,000 kV exists between conductor and ground, corona discharge losses are so large that they can offset the lower resistive losses in the line conductors. Measures to reduce corona losses include conductors having larger diameters; often hollow to save weight, or bundles of two or more conductors.
Factors that affect the resistance, and thus loss, of conductors used in transmission and distribution lines include temperature, spiraling, and the skin effect. The resistance of a conductor increases with its temperature. Temperature changes in electric power lines can have a significant effect on power losses in the line. Spiraling, which refers to the increase in conductor resistance due to the way stranded conductors spiral about the center, also contributes to increases in conductor resistance. The skin effect causes the effective resistance of a conductor to increase at higher alternating current frequencies.
Transmission and distribution losses in the USA were estimated at 6.6% in 1997 and 6.5% in 2007. By using underground DC transmission, these losses can be cut in half. Underground cables can be larger diameter because they do not have the constraint of light weight that overhead conductors have. In general, losses are estimated from the discrepancy between power produced (as reported by power plants) and power sold to the end customers; the difference between what is produced and what is consumed constitute transmission and distribution losses, assuming no theft of utility occurs.
As of 1980, the longest cost-effective distance for direct-current transmission was determined to be 7,000 km (4,300 mi). For alternating current it was 4,000 km (2,500 mi), though all transmission lines in use today are substantially shorter than this.
In any alternating current transmission line, the inductance and capacitance of the conductors can be significant. Currents that flow solely in 'reaction' to these properties of the circuit, (which together with the resistance define the impedance) constitute reactive power flow, which transmits no 'real' power to the load. These reactive currents, however, are very real and cause extra heating losses in the transmission circuit. The ratio of 'real' power (transmitted to the load) to 'apparent' power (sum of 'real' and 'reactive') is the power factor. As reactive current increases, the reactive power increases and the power factor decreases. For transmission systems with low power factor, losses are higher than for systems with high power factor. Utilities add capacitor banks, reactors and other components (such as phase-shifting transformers; static VAR compensators; and flexible AC transmission systems, FACTS) throughout the system to compensate for the reactive power flow and reduce the losses in power transmission and stabilize system voltages. These measures are collectively called 'reactive support'.
Transposition
Current flowing through transmission lines induces a magnetic field that surrounds the lines of each phase and affects the inductance of the surrounding conductors of other phases. The mutual inductance of the conductors is partially dependent on the physical orientation of the lines with respect to each other. Three-phase power transmission lines are conventionally strung with phases separated on different vertical levels. The mutual inductance seen by a conductor of the phase in the middle of the other two phases will be different than the inductance seen by the conductors on the top or bottom. Because of this phenomenon, conductors must be periodically transposed along the length of the transmission line so that each phase sees equal time in each relative position to balance out the mutual inductance seen by all three phases. To accomplish this, line position is swapped at specially designed transposition towers at regular intervals along the length of the transmission line in various transposition schemes.
Subtransmission
Subtransmission is part of an electric power transmission system that runs at relatively lower voltages. It is uneconomical to connect all distribution substations to the high main transmission voltage, because the equipment is larger and more expensive. Typically, only larger substations connect with this high voltage. It is stepped down and sent to smaller substations in towns and neighborhoods. Subtransmission circuits are usually arranged in loops so that a single line failure does not cut off service to a large number of customers for more than a short time. Loops can be "normally closed", where loss of one circuit should result in no interruption, or "normally open" where substations can switch to a backup supply. While subtransmission circuits are usually carried on overhead lines, in urban areas buried cable may be used. The lower-voltage subtransmission lines use less right-of-way and simpler structures; it is much more feasible to put them underground where needed. Higher-voltage lines require more space and are usually above-ground since putting them underground is very expensive.
There is no fixed cutoff between subtransmission and transmission, or subtransmission and distribution. The voltage ranges overlap somewhat. Voltages of 69 kV, 115 kV and 138 kV are often used for subtransmission in North America. As power systems evolved, voltages formerly used for transmission were used for subtransmission, and subtransmission voltages became distribution voltages. Like transmission, subtransmission moves relatively large amounts of power, and like distribution, subtransmission covers an area instead of just point to point.
Transmission grid exit
At the substations, transformers reduce the voltage to a lower level for distribution to commercial and residential users. This distribution is accomplished with a combination of sub-transmission (33 kV to 132 kV) and distribution (3.3 to 25 kV). Finally, at the point of use, the energy is transformed to low voltage (varying by country and customer requirements—see Mains electricity by country).
Modeling: The Transmission Matrix
Oftentimes, we are only interested in the terminal characteristics of the transmission line, which are the voltage and current at the sending and receiving ends. The transmission line itself is then modeled as a "black box" and a 2 by 2 transmission matrix is used to model its behavior, as follows:
The line is assumed to be a reciprocal, symmetrical network, meaning that the receiving and sending labels can be switched with no consequence. The transmission matrix T also has the following properties:
- det(T) = AD - BC = 1
- A = D
The parameters A, B, C, and D differ depending on how the desired model handles the line's resistance (R), inductance (L), capacitance (C), and shunt (parallel) admittance Y. The four main models are the short line approximation, the medium line approximation, the long line approximation (with distributed parameters), and the lossless line. In all models described, a capital letter such as R refers to the total quantity summed over the line and a lowercase letter such as c refers to the per-unit-length quantity.
The lossless line approximation, which is the least accurate model, is often used on short lines when the inductance of the line is much greater than its resistance. For this approximation, the voltage and current are identical at the sending and receiving ends.
The short line approximation is normally used for lines less than 50 miles long. For a short line, only a series impedance Z is considered, while C and Y are ignored. The final result is that A = D = 1 per unit, B = Z ohms, and C = 0.
The medium line approximation is used for lines between 50 and 150 miles long. In this model, the series impedance and the shunt admittance are considered, with half of the shunt admittance being placed at each end of the line. This circuit is often referred to as a "nominal pi" circuit because of the shape that is taken on when admittance is placed on both sides of the circuit diagram. The analysis of the medium line brings one to the following result:
The long line model is used when a higher degree of accuracy is needed or when the line under consideration is more than 150 miles long. Series resistance and shunt admittance are considered as distributed parameters, meaning each differential length of the line has a corresponding differential resistance and shunt admittance. The following result can be applied at any point along the transmission line, where gamma is defined as the propagation constant.
To find the voltage and current at the end of the long line, x should be replaced with L (the line length) in all parameters of the transmission matrix.
High-voltage direct current
High-voltage direct current (HVDC) is used to transmit large amounts of power over long distances or for interconnections between asynchronous grids. When electrical energy is to be transmitted over very long distances, the power lost in AC transmission becomes appreciable and it is less expensive to use direct current instead of alternating current. For a very long transmission line, these lower losses (and reduced construction cost of a DC line) can offset the additional cost of the required converter stations at each end.
HVDC is also used for submarine cables because AC cannot be supplied over distances of more than about 30 kilometres (19 mi), due to the fact that the cables produce too much reactive power. In these cases special high-voltage cables for DC are used. Submarine HVDC systems are often used to connect the electricity grids of islands, for example, between Great Britain and continental Europe, between Great Britain and Ireland, between Tasmania and the Australian mainland, and between the North and South Islands of New Zealand. Submarine connections up to 600 kilometres (370 mi) in length are presently in use.
HVDC links can be used to control problems in the grid with AC electricity flow. The power transmitted by an AC line increases as the phase angle between source end voltage and destination ends increases, but too large a phase angle will allow the systems at either end of the line to fall out of step. Since the power flow in a DC link is controlled independently of the phases of the AC networks at either end of the link, this phase angle limit does not exist, and a DC link is always able to transfer its full rated power. A DC link therefore stabilizes the AC grid at either end, since power flow and phase angle can then be controlled independently.
As an example, to adjust the flow of AC power on a hypothetical line between Seattle and Boston would require adjustment of the relative phase of the two regional electrical grids. This is an everyday occurrence in AC systems, but one that can become disrupted when AC system components fail and place unexpected loads on the remaining working grid system. With an HVDC line instead, such an interconnection would: (1) Convert AC in Seattle into HVDC; (2) Use HVDC for the 3,000 miles of cross-country transmission; and (3) Convert the HVDC to locally synchronized AC in Boston, (and possibly in other cooperating cities along the transmission route). Such a system could be less prone to failure if parts of it were suddenly shut down. One example of a long DC transmission line is the Pacific DC Intertie located in the Western United States.
Capacity
The amount of power that can be sent over a transmission line is limited. The origins of the limits vary depending on the length of the line. For a short line, the heating of conductors due to line losses sets a thermal limit. If too much current is drawn, conductors may sag too close to the ground, or conductors and equipment may be damaged by overheating. For intermediate-length lines on the order of 100 km (62 mi), the limit is set by the voltage drop in the line. For longer AC lines, system stability sets the limit to the power that can be transferred. Approximately, the power flowing over an AC line is proportional to the cosine of the phase angle of the voltage and current at the receiving and transmitting ends. This angle varies depending on system loading and generation. It is undesirable for the angle to approach 90 degrees, as the power flowing decreases but the resistive losses remain. Very approximately, the allowable product of line length and maximum load is proportional to the square of the system voltage. Series capacitors or phase-shifting transformers are used on long lines to improve stability. High-voltage direct current lines are restricted only by thermal and voltage drop limits, since the phase angle is not material to their operation.
Up to now, it has been almost impossible to foresee the temperature distribution along the cable route, so that the maximum applicable current load was usually set as a compromise between understanding of operation conditions and risk minimization. The availability of industrial distributed temperature sensing (DTS) systems that measure in real time temperatures all along the cable is a first step in monitoring the transmission system capacity. This monitoring solution is based on using passive optical fibers as temperature sensors, either integrated directly inside a high voltage cable or mounted externally on the cable insulation. A solution for overhead lines is also available. In this case the optical fiber is integrated into the core of a phase wire of overhead transmission lines (OPPC). The integrated Dynamic Cable Rating (DCR) or also called Real Time Thermal Rating (RTTR) solution enables not only to continuously monitor the temperature of a high voltage cable circuit in real time, but to safely utilize the existing network capacity to its maximum. Furthermore, it provides the ability to the operator to predict the behavior of the transmission system upon major changes made to its initial operating conditions.
Control
To ensure safe and predictable operation the components of the transmission system are controlled with generators, switches, circuit breakers and loads. The voltage, power, frequency, load factor, and reliability capabilities of the transmission system are designed to provide cost effective performance for the customers.
Load balancing
The transmission system provides for base load and peak load capability, with safety and fault tolerance margins. The peak load times vary by region largely due to the industry mix. In very hot and very cold climates home air conditioning and heating loads have an effect on the overall load. They are typically highest in the late afternoon in the hottest part of the year and in mid-mornings and mid-evenings in the coldest part of the year. This makes the power requirements vary by the season and the time of day. Distribution system designs always take the base load and the peak load into consideration.
The transmission system usually does not have a large buffering capability to match the loads with the generation. Thus generation has to be kept matched to the load, to prevent overloading failures of the generation equipment.
Multiple sources and loads can be connected to the transmission system and they must be controlled to provide orderly transfer of power. In centralized power generation, only local control of generation is necessary, and it involves synchronization of the generation units, to prevent large transients and overload conditions.
In distributed power generation the generators are geographically distributed and the process to bring them online and offline must be carefully controlled. The load control signals can either be sent on separate lines or on the power lines themselves. Voltage and frequency can be used as signalling mechanisms to balance the loads.
In voltage signaling, the variation of voltage is used to increase generation. The power added by any system increases as the line voltage decreases. This arrangement is stable in principle. Voltage-based regulation is complex to use in mesh networks, since the individual components and setpoints would need to be reconfigured every time a new generator is added to the mesh.
In frequency signaling, the generating units match the frequency of the power transmission system. In droop speed control, if the frequency decreases, the power is increased. (The drop in line frequency is an indication that the increased load is causing the generators to slow down.)
Wind turbines, vehicle-to-grid and other distributed storage and generation systems can be connected to the power grid, and interact with it to improve system operation.
Failure protection
Under excess load conditions, the system can be designed to fail gracefully rather than all at once. Brownouts occur when the supply power drops below the demand. Blackouts occur when the supply fails completely.
Rolling blackouts (also called load shedding) are intentionally engineered electrical power outages, used to distribute insufficient power when the demand for electricity exceeds the supply.
Communications
Operators of long transmission lines require reliable communications for control of the power grid and, often, associated generation and distribution facilities. Fault-sensing protective relays at each end of the line must communicate to monitor the flow of power into and out of the protected line section so that faulted conductors or equipment can be quickly de-energized and the balance of the system restored. Protection of the transmission line from short circuits and other faults is usually so critical that common carrier telecommunications are insufficiently reliable, and in remote areas a common carrier may not be available. Communication systems associated with a transmission project may use:
Rarely, and for short distances, a utility will use pilot-wires strung along the transmission line path. Leased circuits from common carriers are not preferred since availability is not under control of the electric power transmission organization.
Transmission lines can also be used to carry data: this is called power-line carrier, or PLC. PLC signals can be easily received with a radio for the long wave range.
Optical fibers can be included in the stranded conductors of a transmission line, in the overhead shield wires. These cables are known as optical ground wire (OPGW). Sometimes a standalone cable is used, all-dielectric self-supporting (ADSS) cable, attached to the transmission line cross arms.
Some jurisdictions, such as Minnesota, prohibit energy transmission companies from selling surplus communication bandwidth or acting as a telecommunications common carrier. Where the regulatory structure permits, the utility can sell capacity in extra dark fibers to a common carrier, providing another revenue stream.
Electricity market reform
Some regulators regard electric transmission to be a natural monopoly and there are moves in many countries to separately regulate transmission (see electricity market).
Spain was the first country to establish a regional transmission organization. In that country, transmission operations and market operations are controlled by separate companies. The transmission system operator is Red Eléctrica de España (REE) and the wholesale electricity market operator is Operador del Mercado Ibérico de Energía – Polo Español, S.A. (OMEL) . Spain's transmission system is interconnected with those of France, Portugal, and Morocco.
In the United States and parts of Canada, electrical transmission companies operate independently of generation and distribution companies.
Cost of electric power transmission
The cost of high voltage electricity transmission (as opposed to the costs of electric power distribution) is comparatively low, compared to all other costs arising in a consumer's electricity bill. In the UK, transmission costs are about 0.2p/kWh compared to a delivered domestic price of around 10p/kWh.
Research evaluates the level of capital expenditure in the electric power T&D equipment market will be worth $128.9bn in 2011.
Merchant transmission
Merchant transmission is an arrangement where a third party constructs and operates electric transmission lines through the franchise area of an unrelated utility.
Operating merchant transmission projects in the United States include the Cross Sound Cable from Shoreham, New York to New Haven, Connecticut, Neptune RTS Transmission Line from Sayreville, N.J., to Newbridge, N.Y, and Path 15 in California. Additional projects are in development or have been proposed throughout the United States, including the Lake Erie Connector, an underwater transmission line proposed by ITC Holdings Corp., connecting Ontario to load serving entities in the PJM Interconnection region.
There is only one unregulated or market interconnector in Australia: Basslink between Tasmania and Victoria. Two DC links originally implemented as market interconnectors, Directlink and Murraylink, have been converted to regulated interconnectors. NEMMCO
A major barrier to wider adoption of merchant transmission is the difficulty in identifying who benefits from the facility so that the beneficiaries will pay the toll. Also, it is difficult for a merchant transmission line to compete when the alternative transmission lines are subsidized by other utility businesses.
Health concerns
Some large studies, including a large United States study, have failed to find any link between living near power lines and developing any sickness or diseases, such as cancer. A 1997 study found that it did not matter how close one was to a power line or a sub-station, there was no increased risk of cancer or illness.
The mainstream scientific evidence suggests that low-power, low-frequency, electromagnetic radiation associated with household currents and high transmission power lines does not constitute a short or long term health hazard. Some studies, however, have found statistical correlations between various diseases and living or working near power lines. No adverse health effects have been substantiated for people not living close to powerlines.
There are established biological effects for acute high level exposure to magnetic fields well above 100 µT (1 G). In a residential setting, there is "limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and less than sufficient evidence for carcinogenicity in experimental animals", in particular, childhood leukemia, associated with average exposure to residential power-frequency magnetic field above 0.3 µT (3 mG) to 0.4 µT (4 mG). These levels exceed average residential power-frequency magnetic fields in homes, which are about 0.07 µT (0.7 mG) in Europe and 0.11 µT (1.1 mG) in North America.
The Earth's natural geomagnetic field strength varies over the surface of the planet between 0.035 mT - 0.07 mT (35 µT - 70 µT or 0.35 G - 0.7 G) while the International Standard for the continuous exposure limit is set at 40 mT (40,000 µT or 400 G) for the general public.
Tree Growth Regulator and Herbicide Control Methods may be used in transmission line right of ways which may have health effects.
United States government policy
Historically, local governments have exercised authority over the grid and have significant disincentives to encourage actions that would benefit states other than their own. Localities with cheap electricity have a disincentive to encourage making interstate commerce in electricity trading easier, since other regions will be able to compete for local energy and drive up rates. For example, some regulators in Maine do not wish to address congestion problems because the congestion serves to keep Maine rates low. Further, vocal local constituencies can block or slow permitting by pointing to visual impact, environmental, and perceived health concerns. In the US, generation is growing four times faster than transmission, but big transmission upgrades require the coordination of multiple states, a multitude of interlocking permits, and cooperation between a significant portion of the 500 companies that own the grid. From a policy perspective, the control of the grid is balkanized, and even former energy secretary Bill Richardson refers to it as a third world grid. There have been efforts in the EU and US to confront the problem. The US national security interest in significantly growing transmission capacity drove passage of the 2005 energy act giving the Department of Energy the authority to approve transmission if states refuse to act. However, soon after the Department of Energy used its power to designate two National Interest Electric Transmission Corridors, 14 senators signed a letter stating the DOE was being too aggressive.
Special transmission
Grids for railways
In some countries where electric locomotives or electric multiple units run on low frequency AC power, there are separate single phase traction power networks operated by the railways. Prime example are the countries of Europe, which utilize the older AC technology based on 16 2/3 Hz.
Superconducting cables
High-temperature superconductors (HTS) promise to revolutionize power distribution by providing lossless transmission of electrical power. The development of superconductors with transition temperatures higher than the boiling point of liquid nitrogen has made the concept of superconducting power lines commercially feasible, at least for high-load applications. It has been estimated that the waste would be halved using this method, since the necessary refrigeration equipment would consume about half the power saved by the elimination of the majority of resistive losses. Some companies such as Consolidated Edison and American Superconductor have already begun commercial production of such systems. In one hypothetical future system called a SuperGrid, the cost of cooling would be eliminated by coupling the transmission line with a liquid hydrogen pipeline.
Superconducting cables are particularly suited to high load density areas such as the business district of large cities, where purchase of an easement for cables would be very costly.
|Location||Length (km)||Voltage (kV)||Capacity (GW)||Date|
|Carrollton, Georgia||2000|
|Albany, New York||0.35||34.5||0.048||2006|
|Long Island||0.6||130||0.574||2008|
|Tres Amigas||5||Proposed 2013|
|Manhattan: Project Hydra||Proposed 2014|
|Essen, Germany||1||10||0.04||2014|
Single wire earth return
Single-wire earth return (SWER) or single wire ground return is a single-wire transmission line for supplying single-phase electrical power for an electrical grid to remote areas at low cost. It is principally used for rural electrification, but also finds use for larger isolated loads such as water pumps. Single wire earth return is also used for HVDC over submarine power cables.
Wireless power transmission
Both Nikola Tesla and Hidetsugu Yagi attempted to devise systems for large scale wireless power transmission in the late 1800s and early 1900s, with no commercial success.
In November 2009, LaserMotive won the NASA 2009 Power Beaming Challenge by powering a cable climber 1 km vertically using a ground-based laser transmitter. The system produced up to 1 kW of power at the receiver end. In August 2010, NASA contracted with private companies to pursue the design of laser power beaming systems to power low earth orbit satellites and to launch rockets using laser power beams.
Wireless power transmission has been studied for transmission of power from solar power satellites to the earth. A high power array of microwave or laser transmitters would beam power to a rectenna. Major engineering and economic challenges face any solar power satellite project.
Security of control systems
The Federal government of the United States admits that the power grid is susceptible to cyber-warfare. The United States Department of Homeland Security works with industry to identify vulnerabilities and to help industry enhance the security of control system networks, the federal government is also working to ensure that security is built in as the U.S. develops the next generation of 'smart grid' networks.
Records
- Highest capacity system: 6.3 GW HVDC Itaipu (Brazil/Paraguay) (±600 kV DC)
- Highest transmission voltage (AC):
- planned: 1.20 MV (Ultra High Voltage) on Wardha-Aurangabad line (India) - under construction. Initially will operate at 400 kV.
- worldwide: 1.15 MV (Ultra High Voltage) on Ekibastuz-Kokshetau line (Kazakhstan)
- Largest double-circuit transmission, Kita-Iwaki Powerline (Japan).
- Highest towers: Yangtze River Crossing (China) (height: 345 m or 1,132 ft)
- Longest power line: Inga-Shaba (Democratic Republic of Congo) (length: 1,700 kilometres or 1,056 miles)
- Longest span of power line: 5,376 m (17,638 ft) at Ameralik Span (Greenland, Denmark)
- Longest submarine cables:
- NorNed, North Sea (Norway/Netherlands) – (length of submarine cable: 580 kilometres or 360 miles)
- Basslink, Bass Strait, (Australia) – (length of submarine cable: 290 kilometres or 180 miles, total length: 370.1 kilometres or 230 miles)
- Baltic Cable, Baltic Sea (Germany/Sweden) – (length of submarine cable: 238 kilometres or 148 miles, HVDC length: 250 kilometres or 155 miles, total length: 262 kilometres or 163 miles)
- Longest underground cables:
- Murraylink, Riverland/Sunraysia (Australia) – (length of underground cable: 180 kilometres or 112 miles)
See also
References
Notes
- ↑ "A Primer on Electric Utilities, Deregulation, and Restructuring of U.S. Electricity Markets" (pdf). United States Department of Energy Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP). May 2002. Retrieved December 27, 2008. Cite journal requires
|journal=(help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Hans Dieter Betz, Ulrich Schumann, Pierre Laroche (2009). Lightning: Principles, Instruments and Applications. Springer, pp. 202–203. ISBN 978-1-4020-9078-3. Retrieved on May 13, 2009.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Thomas P. Hughes (1993). Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 119–122. ISBN 0-8018-4614-5.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Guarnieri, M. (2013). "The Beginning of Electric Energy Transmission: Part One". IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine. 7 (1): 57–60. doi:10.1109/MIE.2012.2236484.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ National Council on Electricity Policy. "Electricity Transmission: A primer" (pdf). Cite journal requires
|journal=(help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Guarnieri, M. (2013). "The Beginning of Electric Energy Transmission: Part Two". IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine. 7 (2): 52–59. doi:10.1109/MIE.2013.2256297.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Kiessling F, Nefzger P, Nolasco JF, Kaintzyk U (2003) Overhead power lines. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, p. 5
- ↑ Bureau of Census data reprinted in Hughes, pp. 282–283
- ↑ Hughes, pp. 293–295
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Paris, L.; Zini, G.; Valtorta, M.; Manzoni, G.; Invernizzi, A.; De Franco, N.; Vian, A. (1984). "Present Limits of Very Long Distance Transmission Systems" (pdf). CIGRE International Conference on Large High Voltage Electric Systems, 1984 Session, 29th August-6th September. Global Energy Network Institute. Retrieved March 29, 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> 4.98 MB
- ↑ "NYISO Zone Maps". New York Independent System Operator. Retrieved January 10, 2014.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ American Electric Power, Transmission Facts, page 4: http://www.aep.com/about/transmission/docs/transmission-facts.pdf
- ↑ California Public Utilities Commission Corona and induced currents
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 "Where can I find data on electricity transmission and distribution losses?". Frequently Asked Questions – Electricity. U.S. Energy Information Administration. November 19, 2009. Retrieved March 29, 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Donald G. Fink and H. Wayne Beaty, Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers (15th Edition) McGraw-Hill, 2007 ISBN 978-0-07-144146-9 section 18.5
- ↑ Guarnieri, M. (2013). "The Alternating Evolution of DC Power Transmission". IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine. 7 (3): 60–63. doi:10.1109/MIE.2013.2272238.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Raghuvir Srinivasan (August 15, 2004). "Power transmission business is a natural monopoly". The Hindu Business Line. The Hindu. Retrieved January 31, 2008.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Lynne Kiesling (August 18, 2003). "Rethink the Natural Monopoly Justification of Electricity Regulation". Reason Foundation. Retrieved January 31, 2008.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ What is the cost per kWh of bulk transmission / National Grid in the UK (note this excludes distribution costs)
- ↑ The Electric Power Transmission & Distribution (T&D) Equipment Market 2011–2021
- ↑ How ITC Holdings plans to connect PJM demand with Ontario's rich renewables, Utility Dive, Dec. 8, 2014, http://www.utilitydive.com/news/how-itc-holdings-plans-to-connect-pjm-demand-with-ontarios-rich-renewables/341524/
- ↑ Fiona Woolf (February 2003). Global Transmission Expansion. Pennwell Books. pp. 226, 247. ISBN 0-87814-862-0.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Power Lines and Cancer, The Health Report / ABC Science - Broadcast on June 7, 1997 (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)
- ↑ Electromagnetic fields and public health, World Health Organization
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 "Electromagnetic fields and public health". Fact sheet No. 322. World Health Organization. June 2007. Retrieved January 23, 2008.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ "Electric and Magnetic Fields Associated with the Use of Power" (PDF). National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. June 2002. Retrieved January 29, 2008.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Transmission Vegetation Management NERC Standard FAC-003-2 Technical Reference Page 14/50. http://www.nerc.com/docs/standards/sar/FAC-003-2_White_Paper_2009Sept9.pdf
- ↑ National Council on Electricity Policy. "Electricity Transmission: A primer" (pdf): 32 (41 in pdf). Cite journal requires
|journal=(help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Wald, Matthew (August 27, 2008). "Wind Energy Bumps Into Power Grid's Limits". New York Times: A1. Retrieved December 12, 2008. Cite journal requires
|journal=(help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Jacob Oestergaard; et al. (2001). "Energy losses of superconducting power transmission cables in the grid". IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity. 11: 2375. doi:10.1109/77.920339.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ 600m superconducting electricity line laid in New York
- ↑ Superconducting cables will be used to supply electricity to consumers
- ↑ Superconductivity's First Century
- ↑ Albany HTS Cable Project
- ↑ High-Temperature Superconductors
- ↑ High-Temperature Superconductor Technology Stepped Up
- ↑ Operation of longest superconducting cable worldwide started
- ↑ BBC: Spies 'infiltrate US power grid'
- ↑ CNN: Video
- ↑ Reuters: US concerned power grid vulnerable to cyber-attack
- ↑ "Energy Systems, Environment and Development". Advanced Technology Assessment Systems. Global Energy Network Institute (6). Autumn 1991. Retrieved December 27, 2008.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ "India Steps It Up". Transmission & Distribution World. January 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
Further reading
- Grigsby, L. L., et al. The Electric Power Engineering Handbook. USA: CRC Press. (2001). ISBN 0-8493-8578-4
- Hughes, Thomas P., Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society 1880–1930, The Johns Hopkins University Press,Baltimore 1983 ISBN 0-8018-2873-2, an excellent overview of development during the first 50 years of commercial electric power
- Reilly, Helen (2008). Connecting the Country – New Zealand’s National Grid 1886–2007. Wellington: Steele Roberts. pp. 376 pages. ISBN 978-1-877448-40-9.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Pansini, Anthony J, E.E., P.E. undergrounding electric lines. USA Hayden Book Co, 1978. ISBN 0-8104-0827-9
- Westinghouse Electric Corporation, "Electric power transmission patents; Tesla polyphase system". (Transmission of power; polyphase system; Tesla patents)
- The Physics of Everyday Stuff - Transmission Lines
External links
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Electric power transmission.|
|Look up grid electricity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.|
- Japan: World's First In-Grid High-Temperature Superconducting Power Cable System - Link broken
- A Power Grid for the Hydrogen Economy: Overview/A Continental SuperGrid
- Global Energy Network Institute (GENI) – The GENI Initiative focuses on linking renewable energy resources around the world using international electricity transmission.
- Union for the Co-ordination of Transmission of Electricity (UCTE), the association of transmission system operators in continental Europe, running one of the two largest power transmission systems in the world
- Non-Ionizing Radiation, Part 1: Static and Extremely Low-Frequency (ELF) Electric and Magnetic Fields (2002) by the IARC – Link Broken.
- A Simulation of the Power Grid – The Trustworthy Cyber Infrastructure for the Power Grid (TCIP) group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign has developed lessons and an applet which illustrate the transmission of electricity from generators to energy consumers, and allows the user to manipulate generation, consumption, and power flow. | https://infogalactic.com/info/Electric_power_transmission |
How does the voltage affect the current?
Why does current transfer take place at high voltages?
In most cases, electricity is not used where it is generated. It often has a long way to go before electricity flows out of our sockets. The technological challenge lies in keeping the energy loss during power transmission as low as possible.
Electric current consists of the movement of electrons in electrical conductors. The electrons can transfer their energy in two different ways. In the case of direct current, the electrons always flow in one direction: They move through a line to the user, give off part of their energy there and then flow back to the power generator via a second line. In the case of alternating current, on the other hand, the electrons change their direction - around fifty times per second in Europe. In this way, too, the electrons can give their energy to the user.
If a current flows, part of the energy of the electrons is converted into heat due to the so-called ohmic resistance of the lines. This principle is quite useful - for electric heating, for example. For electricity transport, however, it means that the electrical energy at the end of the line is less than at the beginning. In order to keep heat losses as low as possible, the flow of electricity is reduced - but this means that less electrical energy is transported. This effect can in turn be compensated for by increasing the voltage of the current [for details see box below the text].
In order to be able to achieve the required high voltages at all, scientists developed the transformer towards the end of the 19th century. With a transformer, on the one hand, alternating current with high voltage can be generated, which on the other hand can be transformed back down to a lower voltage at the destination. It was only with this technology that electricity grids could be built over ever greater distances, especially in America and Europe. Over time, transformer technology has been further developed and our power grid is still mainly based on alternating current.
However, the transport of energy with the help of alternating current has some disadvantages: In addition to heat losses, there are three other phenomena through which electrical energy is lost - caused by capacitive resistance, inductive resistance and the so-called skin effect. The first phenomenon is caused by the rapid change in the direction of the current, which has a similar effect to the charging and discharging of a capacitor. This effect becomes noticeable as an additional resistance in the circuit - as a capacitive resistance.
In addition, electrical currents always generate a magnetic field around them. This is constantly built up and reduced depending on the frequency of the alternating current, which in turn becomes noticeable as an inductive resistance. These two effects increase with the length of the electrical lines, until they finally make the transmission of alternating current uneconomical over longer distances. On the other hand, the skin effect - the third phenomenon - is caused by the fact that the electrons move almost exclusively on the surface of the power line due to the rapid change of direction. This behavior requires ever thicker cables or several parallel lines, which is also uneconomical for long transport lengths.
Such sources of loss do not occur when the current is transmitted with direct voltage. That is why many scientists are currently researching what is known as high-voltage direct current transmission. To do this, the alternating current must first be converted into direct current at so-called converter systems in order to be converted back into alternating current at the destination. At the moment, however, it is only worthwhile to transport electricity with DC voltage from great distances - for example, to transmit electricity from offshore wind farms to the mainland.
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Apollo designs build and maintain transmission and distribution systems for its customers to ensure the system operates effectively.
Transmission lines carry high voltage current from where the power is produced to the substations, and these power transmissions are for large distances. Very high voltage current is transmitted since the current needs to be transported over long distances.
Distribution lines are recommended for shorter distances and their voltage is a lot lower compared to transmission lines.
We have built a number of turnkey power projects which includes overhead and underground transmission & distribution lines for our customers using our innovative Engineering, Procurement, and construction (EPC) services.
We have the proven expertise and resources to provide quality services in the area of transmission and power infrastructure services.
Erect Steel and wooden towers to enable transmission and distribution of power. | http://www.apollopowersystems.com/electrical-contracting/transmission-distribution/ |
An electrical grid is an interconnected network for delivering electricity from suppliers to consumers.
Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric charge.
How the grid works || BURN Radio by Burn: An Energy Project
It consists of generating stations that produce electrical power, high-voltage transmission lines that carry power from distant sources to demand centers, and distribution lines that connect individual customers.
Our Power Grid Is Failing. What We Can Do About It? by DNews
Power stations may be located near a fuel source, at a dam site, or to take advantage of renewable energy sources, and are often located away from heavily populated areas.
Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that is collected from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat.
A power station, also referred to as a generating station, power plant, powerhouse, or generating plant, is an industrial facility for the generation of electric power.
They are usually quite large to take advantage of the economies of scale.
In microeconomics, economies of scale are the cost advantages that enterprises obtain due to size, output, or scale of operation, with cost per unit of output generally decreasing with increasing scale as fixed costs are spread out over more units of output.
The electric power which is generated is stepped up to a higher voltage at which it connects to the electric power transmission network.
The bulk power transmission network will move the power long distances, sometimes across international boundaries, until it reaches its wholesale customer.
On arrival at a substation, the power will be stepped down from a transmission level voltage to a distribution level voltage.
As it exits the substation, it enters the distribution wiring.
Finally, upon arrival at the service location, the power is stepped down again from the distribution voltage to the required service voltage. | http://gossipsloth.com/article/electrical-grid |
Structure of Power Systems:
Structure of Power Systems – Generating stations, transmission lines and the distribution systems are the main components of an electric power system. Generating stations and a distribution system are connected through transmission lines, which also connect one power system (grid, area) to another. A distribution system connects all the loads in a particular area to the transmission lines.
For economical and technological reasons (which will be discussed in detail in later chapters), individual power systems are organized in the form of electrically connected areas or regional grids (also called power pools). Each area or regional grid operates technically and economically independently, but these are eventually interconnected to form a national grid (which may even form an international grid) so that each area is contractually tied to other areas in respect to certain generation and scheduling features. India is now heading for a national grid.
The siting of hydro stations is determined by the natural water power sources. The choice of site for coal fired thermal stations is more flexible. The following two alternatives are possible.
- Power stations may be built close to coal mines (called pit head stations) and electric energy is evacuated over transmission lines to the load centers.
- Power stations may be built close to the load centers and coal is transported to them from the mines by rail road.
In practice, however, power station siting will depend upon many factors technical, economical and environmental. As it is considerably cheaper to transport bulk electric energy over extra high voltage (EHV) transmission lines than to transport equivalent quantities of coal over rail road, the recent trends in India (as well as abroad) is to build super (large) thermal power stations near coal mines. Bulk power can be transmitted to fairly long distances over transmission lines of 400 kV and above. However, the country’s coal resources are located mainly in the eastern belt and some coal fired stations will continue to be sited in distant western and southern regions.
As nuclear stations are not constrained by the problems of fuel transport and air pollution, a greater flexibility exists in their siting, so that these stations are located close to load centers while avoiding high density pollution areas to reduce the risks, however remote, of radioactivity leakage.
In India, as of now, about 75% of electric power used is generated in thermal plants (including nuclear). 23% from mostly hydro stations and 2%. come from renewables and others. Coal is the fuel for most of the steam plants, the rest depends upon oil/natural gas and nuclear fuels.
Electric power is generated at a voltage of 11 to 25 kV which then is stepped up to the transmission levels in the range of 66 to 400 kV (or higher). As the transmission capability of a line is proportional to the square of its voltage, research is continuously being carried out to raise transmission voltages. Some of the countries are already employing 765 kV. The voltages are expected to rise to 800 kV in the near future. In India, several 400 kV lines are already in operation. One 800 kV line has just been built.
For very long distances (over 600 km), it is economical to transmit bulk power by DC transmission. It also obviates some of the technical problems associated with very long distance AC transmission. The DC voltages used are 400 kV and above, and the line is connected to the AC systems at the two ends through a transformer and converting/inverting equipment (silicon controlled rectifiers are employed for this purpose). Several DC transmission lines have been constructed in Europe and the USA. In India two HVDC transmission line (bipolar) have already been commissioned and several others are being planned. Three back to back HVDC systems are in operation.
The first stepdown of voltage from transmission level is at the bulk power substation, where the reduction is to a range of 33 to 132 kV, depending on the transmission line voltage. Some industries may require power at these voltage levels. This stepdown is from the transmission and grid level to subtransmission level.
The next stepdown in voltage is at the distribution substation. Normally, two distribution voltage levels are employed:
- The primary or feeder voltage (11 kV)
- The secondary or consumer voltage (415 V three phase/230 V single phase).
The distribution system, fed from the distribution transformer stations, supplies power to the domestic or industrial and commercial consumers.
Thus, the power system operates at various voltage levels separated by transformer. Figure 1.3 depicts schematically the structure of a power system. Though the distribution system design, planning and operation are subjects of great importance, we are compelled, for reasons of space, to exclude them from the scope of this book. | https://www.eeeguide.com/structure-of-power-systems/ |
# Commission for Regulation of Utilities
The Commission for Regulation of Utilities (CRU, Irish: An Coimisiúin um Rialáil Fóntais), formerly known as the Commission for Energy Regulation (CER, Irish: An Coimisiún um Rialáil Fuinnimh), is the Republic of Ireland's energy and water economic utility regulator.
## Electricity regulation
The CRU licenses and monitors electricity generators.
On the transmission network, generally, the high voltage lines deliver electricity from Ireland's generation sources to the transformer stations, where the electricity voltage is reduced and taken onwards through the distribution system to individual customers' premises. There are also about 18 very large commercial customers directly connected to the transmission system.
EirGrid is the independent state-owned body licensed by the CRU to act as transmission system operator (TSO) and is responsible for the operation, development, and maintenance. The TSO also offers terms and levies charged to market participants to connect to and use the transmission system regulated by the CRU. ESB Networks is licensed by the CRU as the owner of the transmission system and is responsible for carrying out the maintenance and construction of the system.
The CRU sets the allowed revenue/tariffs for the transmission business and approves the connection policy for generators and suppliers connecting to and/or using the network.
The Distribution Network is the medium and low voltage electricity network used to deliver electricity to connection points such as houses, offices, shops, and street lights. The Distribution Network includes all overhead electricity lines, poles, and underground cables used to bring power to Ireland's customers.
ESB Networks (a ring-fenced subsidiary within the ESB Group) is the Distribution System Operator licensed by the CRU, responsible for building, maintaining, and operating the distribution network infrastructure. The Distribution Network is owned by ESB, the licensed Distribution Asset Owner.
The CER sets the allowed revenue/tariffs for the distribution business and approves the connection policy for generators and suppliers connecting to and/or using the network.
### Supply
The CRU licenses and monitors electricity suppliers. The CRU has overseen the gradual liberalization of the electricity supply market, culminating in a full market opening in February 2005. The regulatory framework created the right environment for competition to develop, and since then, competition has increased in the business and domestic markets. As a result, in 2010, the CRU published its Roadmap to Deregulation, which set out the end price regulation milestones. All business markets were deregulated from 1 October 2010. Since April 2011, the domestic market has been deregulated so that all electricity suppliers may set their tariffs without price regulation from the CRU.
### Single Electricity Market
Since 1 November 2007, the Commission for Regulation of Utilities, (known then as the Commission for Energy Regulation (CER)) and Utility Regulator, together referred to as the Regulatory Authorities or RAs, have jointly regulated the all-Island wholesale electricity market known as the Single Electricity Market (SEM). The SEM covers both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.
The decision-making body that governs the market is the SEM Committee, consisting of the CRU, the Utility Regulator, as well as an independent member (who also has a deputy), with each entity having one vote.
The detailed rules of the SEM are set out in the Trading and Settlement Code, which is overseen by the SEM Committee.
At a high level, the SEM includes a centralized gross pool (or spot) market, which, given its mandatory nature for key generators and suppliers, is fully liquid. In this pool, electricity is bought and sold through a market-clearing mechanism. Generators bid in the Short Run Marginal Cost (SRMC) and receive the System Marginal Price (SMP) for each trading period their scheduled market quantities. Generators also receive separate payments for the provision of available generation capacity through a capacity payment mechanism and constraint payments for differences between the market schedule and the system dispatch. Suppliers purchasing energy from the pool pay the SMP for each trading period along with capacity costs and system charges.
## Natural gas
There are two types of gas pipelines operating around the country. The larger pipes that transport gas long distances are known as transmission pipes, and the smaller pipes which bring gas from the transmission pipes to individual premises are known as distribution pipes. Ervia, formerly Bord Gáis Éireann (BGE), owns the transmission and distribution systems in the Republic of Ireland. Bord Gáis Networks (BGN) is the designated subsidiary within Ervia which constructs and extends the natural gas network in Ireland to the required safety standards. Gaslink is currently the TSO and DSO for gas.
The CRU sets the allowed revenue/tariffs and connection policy for the gas transmission and distribution network (similar to electricity). It licenses and monitors gas suppliers. Since 1 July 2007, Ireland's retail gas market has been open to competition, and all gas customers are eligible to switch their gas suppliers. This represents over half a million domestic customers. It continues to regulate the revenue earned and tariffs charged by Bord Gáis Energy Supply to domestic customers and works to resolve complaints that customers have with energy companies.
## Water regulation
The CRU is the independent economic regulator for public water and wastewater services in Ireland. In the consultation process leading up to the introduction of water charges in Ireland, the CRU has proposed that Irish Water provide two products and one service, with each household receiving a maximum of one product (either "Water" or "Not for Human Consumption Water") at a time. It is proposed that the wastewater service be charged per unit product consumed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Coimisi%C3%BAin_um_Rial%C3%A1il_F%C3%B3ntais |
Electrical energy is generated in large hydroelectric, thermal and nuclear power stations.
These stations are mostly situated away from the load centres. Therefore an extensive power supply network is necessary between the generating plants and consumers loads.
The maximum voltage in advanced countries is 33 kV while that in India is 11 kV.
The amount of power that has to be transmitted through transmission lines is very large and if this power is transmitted at 11 kV (or 33 kV) the line current and the power loss would be very large. Therefore this voltage is stepped up to a higher value by using step-up transformers located in sub-stations.
The transmission voltages in India are 400 kV, 220 kV and 132 kV.
The high voltage transmission lines transmit electrical power from the generating stations to main receiving end sub-stations. At these stations the voltage is stepped down to a lower value of66 kV or 33 kV.
Fig. 9. A typical power supply network.
The secondary transmission system forms the link between the main receiving and sub-stations and secondary sub-stations. At the secondary sub-stations the voltage is stepped down to 33 kV or 11 kV and the power is fed into the primary distribution system.
The 33 kV or 11 kV distribution lines (usually known as feeders) emanate from the secondary sub-stations and terminate in distribution sub-stations. The distribution sub-stations consist of step-down transformers and are located at convenient places in the area in which the power is to be supplied. Sometimes these distribution sub-stations consist of pole mounted transformers located on the road side. These transformers step down the voltage to 400 V.
The 400 V distribution lines (usually known as distributors) are laid along the roads and service connections to consumers are tapped off from the distributors.
All transmission and distribution systems are 3-phase systems.
The transmission lines and feeders are 3-phase 3 wire circuits.
The distributors are 3-phase 4 wire circuits because a neutral wire is necessary to supply the single phase loads of domestic and commercial consumers.
The transmission network is commonly known as ‘grid’.
Fig. 9 shows a typical power supply network. | http://www.electrical-engineering-assignment.com/general-aspects-6 |
How can smarter power grids prevent blackouts?
By Frédéric Lesur, Senior Engineer High Voltage Cable Systems and Power Grids at Nexans and Host of What’s Watt
Following recent extreme weather events in Texas that caused widespread blackouts and left millions without power, many have sounded a bleak warning that such events will become more common in a world rapidly impacted by climate change. The winter storm brought some of the coldest weather the state had experienced since 1989 which caused energy demand to soar to a record winter high.
The icy weather impacted grid operators too: it froze natural gas wells, wind turbines and coal piles, and blocked pipes. This left the grid incapable of generating enough power to meet the heightened demand. As a result, the state’s grid operator introduced rolling blackouts to keep the demand under capacity, thereby preventing a complete blackout.
Market prices hit the cap of US$ 9,000 per MWh. Secondary effects of the grid failure became rapidly apparent with disrupted food and water distribution systems.
In January, Pakistan suffered a similar fate when it experienced a nationwide power blackout. In this instance, an engineering fault was to blame – the second such incident in less than three years. Meanwhile, the U.K. electricity market is also under strain. For the fourth time this winter, the National Grid Plc issued a warning that the buffer needed to guarantee supply was too small.
Power networks are facing two significant challenges that, if not addressed, could result in blackouts. The first is that a large amount of existing infrastructure, such as transformers, switchgear and power lines, is aging. Secondly, the energy transition from fossil-based fuels to zero-carbon means that networks have to deal with complex, intermittent power flows that they were never designed to handle.
Causes of blackouts
The general path that electricity takes from generation to consumption runs through transmission and distribution networks. When a customer is connected by only one line (single supply), just one failure is sufficient to “break the circuit”. As a result, the risk of a power outage is high. The consequences for the customer may be critical because of the required time to restore the power supply (detection and location of the fault, and repair).
A blackout is the most severe form of power outage, as it involves the total loss of power of an area. It may result from power stations tripping, with the risk of affecting surrounding areas. However, blackouts can be solved with neighboring countries’ help if they are able to export part of their surplus supply across the border. Even then, the outage may last from a few minutes to a few days.
Blackouts mainly occur for four main reasons:
The cascade and triggering of transmission line overloads
Owing to the Joule effect, the increase in heat energy in a conductor is roughly proportional to the square of the current rating. Currents that are too high can lead to overheating and can damage vital components, such as lines and cables. Also, for overhead lines, they expand when as they get hotter. As a result, they “sag” getting closer to the ground, reducing the isolation distances, risking arcing or short circuits, and creating risks to people and property.
Frequency collapse
Frequency stability on an electrical network reflects the balance between generation and consumption. If the demand – consumption – exceeds the supply – production – the system becomes off-balance, causing the network’s frequency to drop.
The frequency must be kept within close limits to the operating value (a few tens of herz around 50 or 60 Hz depending on the geographical location of the grid). If the frequency strays outside those limits then equipment starts to trip and a blackout could result.
Voltage collapse
In the same way as frequency, power grids rely on a stable voltage. If it becomes too high or too low then equipment will start to trip out.
Loss of grid synchronization
On a network operating correctly all the large generators are spinning at the same speed. Known as synchronous operation, this common speed defines the frequency of the electrical system. The inertia of the spinning equipment tends to make the generators behave as if they were mechanically bound together. However, if the synchronization is lost, such as when a large power plant goes offline, it could lead to the collapse of the network. The challenge is becoming greater as non-synchronous generation such as wind farms and solar power is introduced into grids and large fossil-fueled generators are shut down, leading to a loss of spinning inertia.
These four phenomena may follow one another, overlap, or combine.
Grid innovation
Maintaining continuity of power supplies is critical for both societal and financial wellbeing across the world. Digitalization is an important solution because it helps operators to focus on managing their critical assets, providing insights and usable information that form the basis of fully informed asset replacement and investment strategies.
The longer-term expectation is that the world’s overall electricity demand will increase. However, it’s more important to track the day-to-day variation of production and consumption flows. Only by measuring, modeling, and simulating these daily variations is it possible to identify critical network hotspots and congestion modes. That will then enable the industry to make targeted investments that enhance network performance in terms of its capacity and flexibility.
Furthermore, monitoring sensors and digitalization enables data collection, which leads to better understanding through AI and smart asset management. The aim is to help networks move from a model based on large-scale centralized power generation to integrating multiple, decentralized, intermittent, renewable energy resources.
Role of interconnectors and superconductors
An innovative approach on a national and continental level is to build interconnectors – high voltage direct current (HVDC) land or submarine power cables that enable the efficient transfer of power over long distances and between grids in different countries. A shortfall in one country can then be supported by drawing excess power from another country. Another benefit of HVDC systems is that they act as a “firewall” to prevent grid faults from rolling from one country to another.
At the city level, superconductor cables offer the capability to carry large amounts of power within a minimal installation footprint. So, they could enable the cost-effective reinforcement of electricity networks in congested urban areas where it is challenging to build new infrastructure.
Going underground
While overhead power lines can play an important role in carrying large amounts of electricity over long distances, they can also be vulnerable to severe weather conditions such as high winds, snow, and ice. The U.S., for example, will see increasingly more extreme weather events in the coming years. It will probably cause electricity demand to rise and fall regularly, which, in turn, will cause more of the devastating blackouts experienced in Texas.
Fallen cables are often a significant element in power blackouts. Taking power cables underground generally requires a greater initial investment. However, underground cables offer greater resilience and lower maintenance needs, making them a better long-term choice.
Conclusion
Global power demand is only going to keep rising to meet society’s changing needs, having to cater for electric vehicles (EVs), year-round air-conditioning, and the data centers essential for the internet of things (IoT). Any interruption in power supplies may have increasingly significant consequences, both for society and the global economy. Therefore, we need to focus on improving power networks in terms of capacity, flexibility, and resilience – all of which should happen at the continental, national, and city level. | https://www.nexans.com/nexans_blog/nexans_blog_posts/how-can-smarter-power-grids-prevent-blackouts.html |
AusNet Services Ltd owns and operates an electricity transmission network in Australia. It operates through Electricity Distribution, Gas Distribution, Electricity Transmission, and Growth & Future Networks segments. The Electricity Distribution segment carries electricity from the high voltage transmission network to end users, including metering. The Gas Distribution segment carries natural gas to commercial and residential end users, including metering in central and western Victoria. The Electricity Transmission segment owns and manages an electricity transmission network, including transmission lines and towers, which carry electricity at high voltages from power generators to electricity distributors in Victoria. The Growth & Future Networks segment provides contracted infrastructure asset and energy services, as well as a range of asset and utility services to support the management of electricity, gas, and water networks. The company operates through an electricity transmission network of approximately 6,852 kilometers of high voltage transmission powerlines, 61 terminal stations, and 13,161 transmission towers; electricity distribution network of approximately 768,460 customers, 77 zone substations, 412,402 distribution poles, and approximately 53,990 kilometer of distribution lines. It also operates a gas distribution network of 752,882 customers and 12,384 kilometers of underground gas pipelines. The company was formerly known as SP AusNet Ltd. and changed its name to AusNet Services Ltd in August 2014. AusNet Services Ltd was incorporated in 2014 and is headquartered in Southbank, Australia.
AusNet Services Ltd’s ISS governance QualityScore as of 30 April 2021 is 6. The pillar scores are Audit: 5; Board: 8; Shareholder rights: 1; Compensation: 4. | https://au.finance.yahoo.com/quote/AST.AX/profile?p=AST.AX |
Distribution Line Poles
Electricity, first created at power stations and then transmitted via transmission lines to substations near consuming areas, is then finally delivered to our customers via power lines called distribution lines.
Distribution lines consist of “overhead distribution lines” (power lines hung on utility poles) and “underground distribution lines” (cables buried in the ground). Although the majority of distribution lines are overhead lines, the amount of underground distribution lines has been growing in the center of Tokyo.
Distribution lines are separated by voltage into special-high voltage (22,000 V), high-voltage (6,600 V), and low-voltage (200-V and 100-V) types. Electricity leaving distribution substations normally has a voltage of 6,600 V and is sent along distribution lines to the homes and offices of our customers. It is finally delivered with a voltage of 100 or 200 volts.
Distribution equipment consist of “transformers” (reduce voltage from high to low), “service lines” (split off from high and low-voltage lines to provide electricity to customers), and “power meters” (measure amount of power used). | https://lalelicce.com/products/poles/distribution-line-poles/ |
Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site, such as a power plant i.e wind,geothermal,hydro.., over long distances to an electrical substation. The interconnected lines which facilitate this movement are known as a transmission network.
Svalbard Cables portfolio for an efficient power transmission comprises high-voltage transmission solutions, high-voltage switching products and systems as well as power and distribution transformers.
During the construction of generating stations a number of factors are to be considered from the economic point of view. These all factors may not be easily available at load center; hence generating stations are not normally situated very nearer to load center.
Load center is the place which consumes maximum power. Hence there must be some means by which we can transmit the generated power
to the load center.
Electrical transmission system is the means of transmitting power from generating station to different load centers.
During the planning of construction of generating stations the following factors are to be considered for the economical generation of electrical power.
Easy availability of water for thermal power generating station.
Easy availability of land for construction of power station including its staff township.
For hydro power station there must be a dam on river. So proper place on the river must be chosen in such a way that the construction of the dam can be done in most optimum way.
For thermal power station easy availability of fuel is one of the most important factors to be considered.
Better communication for goods as well as employees of the power station also to be kept into consideration.
For transporting very large spare parts of turbines, alternators, etc., there must be wide roadways, train communication, and deep and wide river must pass away nearby the power station.
For nuclear power plant, it must be situated in such a distance from common location so that there may not be any effect from nuclear reaction the heath of common people.
The power generated at a generating station is in low voltage level as low voltage power generation has some economical values.
Low voltage power generation is more economical than high voltage power generation. At low voltage level, both weight and insulation are less in the alternator; this directly reduces the cost and size of an alternator. But this low voltage level power cannot be transmitted directly to the consumer end as because this low voltage power transmission is not at all economical.
Hence although low voltage power generation is economical but low voltage electrical power transmission is not economical. Electrical power is directly proportional to the product of electrical current and voltage of the system. So for transmitting certain electrical power from one place to another, if the voltage of the power is increased then associated current of this power reduces.
Reduced current means less I2R loss in the system, less cross-sectional area of the conductor means less capital involvement and decreased current causes improvement in voltage regulation of power transmission system and improved voltage regulation indicates quality power.
Because of these three reasons electrical power mainly transmitted at high voltage level.
Again at the distribution end for efficient distribution of the transmitted power, it is stepped down to it's desired low voltage level.
So it can be concluded that first the electrical power is generated at low voltage level then it is stepped up to high voltage for efficient transmission of electrical energy. Lastly, for the distribution of electrical energy or power to different consumers, it is stepped down to the desired low voltage level.
Fundamentally there are two systems by which electrical energy can be transmitted.
High voltage DC electrical transmission system.
High AC electrical transmission system. | https://www.svalbardcables.com/power-transmission |
What is matter? In science, matter is defined as any substance that has mass and takes up space. Basically, it’s anything that can be touched. Yet, there are also phenomena that are not matter, such as light, sounds, and other forms of energy. A space devoid of all matter is called a vacuum.
Examples of Matter
Anything you can touch, taste, or smell consists of matter. Examples of matter include:
- Atoms
- Ions
- Molecules
- Furniture
- People
- Plants
- Water
- Rocks
You can observe things which are not matter. Typically, these are forms of energy, such as sunlight, rainbows, thoughts, emotions, music, and radio waves.
States of Matter
You can identify matter by its chemical composition and its state. States of matter encountered in daily life include solids, liquids, gases, and plasma. Other states of matter exist near absolute zero and at extremely high temperatures.
- Solid – State of matter with a defined shape and volume. Particles are packed close together. Example: Ice
- Liquid – State of matter with defined volume, but no defined shape. Space between particles allows this form of matter to flow. Example: Water
- Gas – State of matter without a defined volume or shape. Particles can adjust to the size and shape of their container. Example: Water vapor in clouds
Difference Between Matter and Mass
The terms “matter” and “mass” are related, but don’t mean exactly the same thing. Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in the sample. For example, you might have a block of carbon. It consists of carbon atoms (a form of matter). You could use a balance to measure the block’s mass to obtain a mass in units of grams or pounds. Mass is a property of a sample of matter.
What Is Matter Made Of?
Matter consists of building blocks. In chemistry, atoms and ions are the smallest units of matter that cannot be broken down using any chemical reaction. But, nuclear reactions can break atoms into their subunits. The basic subunits of atoms and ions are protons, neutrons, and electrons. The number of protons in an atom identifies its element.
Protons, neutrons, and electrons are subatomic particles, but there are even smaller units of matter. Protons and neutrons are examples of subatomic particles called baryons, which are made of quarks. Electrons are examples of subatomic particles called leptons. So, in physics, one definition of matter is that it consists of leptons or quarks.
Matter vs Antimatter
Antimatter consists of antiparticles. Antimatter is still matter, but while ordinary matter consists of leptons and baryons with a positive number, antimatter consists of leptons and baryons with a negative number. So, there are antielectrons (called positrons), antiprotons, and antineutrons.
Antimatter occurs in the world. For example, lightning strikes, radioactive decay, and cosmic rays all produce antimatter. When antimatter encounters ordinary matter, the two annihilate each other, releasing a lot of energy. But, this isn’t the universe-ending event you see in science fiction. It happens all the time.
Matter vs Dark Matter
Matter made from protons, neutrons, and electrons is sometimes called ordinary matter. Similarly, a substance made of leptons or quarks is ordinary matter. Scientists estimate about 4% of the universe consists of ordinary matter. About 23% is made of dark matter and 73% consists of dark energy. The simplest definition of dark matter is that it consists of non-baryonic particles.
Dark matter is one form of what physicists call “exotic matter.” Other types of dark matter may exist, potentially with bizarre properties, such as negative mass!
References
- de Podesta, M. (2002). Understanding the Properties of Matter (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-415-25788-6.
- Olmsted, J.; Williams, G.M. (1996). Chemistry: The Molecular Science (2nd ed.). Jones & Bartlett. ISBN 978-0-8151-8450-8. | https://sciencenotes.org/what-is-matter-definition-and-examples/ |
Ionizing radiation (ionizing radiation) is radiation that carries enough energy to liberate electrons from atoms or molecules, thereby ionizing them. Ionizing radiation is made up of energetic subatomic particles, ions or atoms moving at high speeds (usually greater than 1% of the speed of light), and electromagnetic waves on the high-energy end of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Gamma rays, X-rays, and the higher ultraviolet part of the electromagnetic spectrum are ionizing, whereas the lower ultraviolet part of the electromagnetic spectrum, and the lower part of the spectrum below UV, including visible light (including nearly all types of laser light), infrared, microwaves, and radio waves are all considered non-ionizing radiation. The boundary between ionizing and non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation that occurs in the ultraviolet is not sharply defined, since different molecules and atoms ionize at different energies. Conventional definition places the boundary at a photon energy between 10 eV and 33 eV in the ultraviolet (see definition boundary section below).
Typical ionizing subatomic particles from radioactivity include alpha particles, beta particles and neutrons. Almost all products of radioactive decay are ionizing because the energy of radioactive decay is typically far higher than that required to ionize. Other subatomic ionizing particles which occur naturally are muons, mesons, positrons, and other particles that constitute the secondary cosmic rays that are produced after primary cosmic rays interact with Earth’s atmosphere. Cosmic rays are generated by stars and certain celestial events such as supernova explosions. Cosmic rays may also produce radioisotopes on Earth (for example, carbon-14), which in turn decay and produce ionizing radiation. Cosmic rays and the decay of radioactive isotopes are the primary sources of natural ionizing radiation on Earth referred to as background radiation. Ionizing radiation can also be generated artificially using X-ray tubes, particle accelerators and any of the various methods that produce radioisotopes artificially.
Ionizing radiation is not detectable by human senses, so radiation detection instruments such as Geiger counters must be used to indicate its presence and measure it. However, high intensities can cause emission of visible light upon interaction with matter, such as in Cherenkov radiation and radio luminescence. Ionizing radiation is used in a wide variety of fields such as medicine, nuclear power, research, manufacturing, construction, and many other areas, but presents a health hazard if proper measures against undesired exposure are not followed. Exposure to ionizing radiation causes damage to living tissue, and can result in mutation, radiation sickness, cancer, and death. | https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/radsafety130/chapter/ionization-defined/ |
In physics , radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or through a material medium. Radiation is often categorized as either ionizing or non-ionizing depending on the energy of the radiated particles.
Ionizing radiation carries more than 10 eV , which is enough to ionize atoms and molecules and break chemical bonds. This is an important distinction due to the large difference in harmfulness to living organisms.
Other sources include X-rays from medical radiography examinations and muons , mesons , positrons, neutrons and other particles that constitute the secondary cosmic rays that are produced after primary cosmic rays interact with Earth's atmosphere.
Gamma rays, X-rays and the higher energy range of ultraviolet light constitute the ionizing part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The word "ionize" refers to the breaking of one or more electrons away from an atom, an action that requires the relatively high energies that these electromagnetic waves supply.
Further down the spectrum, the non-ionizing lower energies of the lower ultraviolet spectrum cannot ionize atoms, but can disrupt the inter-atomic bonds which form molecules, thereby breaking down molecules rather than atoms; a good example of this is sunburn caused by long- wavelength solar ultraviolet. The waves of longer wavelength than UV in visible light, infrared and microwave frequencies cannot break bonds but can cause vibrations in the bonds which are sensed as heat.
Radio wavelengths and below generally are not regarded as harmful to biological systems. These are not sharp delineations of the energies; there is some overlap in the effects of specific frequencies. The word radiation arises from the phenomenon of waves radiating i. This aspect leads to a system of measurements and physical units that are applicable to all types of radiation. Because such radiation expands as it passes through space, and as its energy is conserved in vacuum , the intensity of all types of radiation from a point source follows an inverse-square law in relation to the distance from its source.
Like any ideal law, the inverse-square law approximates a measured radiation intensity to the extent that the source approximates a geometric point. Radiation with sufficiently high energy can ionize atoms; that is to say it can knock electrons off atoms, creating ions. Ionization occurs when an electron is stripped or "knocked out" from an electron shell of the atom, which leaves the atom with a net positive charge.
Because living cells and, more importantly, the DNA in those cells can be damaged by this ionization, exposure to ionizing radiation is considered to increase the risk of cancer. Thus "ionizing radiation" is somewhat artificially separated from particle radiation and electromagnetic radiation, simply due to its great potential for biological damage. While an individual cell is made of trillions of atoms, only a small fraction of those will be ionized at low to moderate radiation powers.
The probability of ionizing radiation causing cancer is dependent upon the absorbed dose of the radiation, and is a function of the damaging tendency of the type of radiation equivalent dose and the sensitivity of the irradiated organism or tissue effective dose. If the source of the ionizing radiation is a radioactive material or a nuclear process such as fission or fusion , there is particle radiation to consider.
Particle radiation is subatomic particle accelerated to relativistic speeds by nuclear reactions. Because of their momenta they are quite capable of knocking out electrons and ionizing materials, but since most have an electrical charge, they don't have the penetrating power of ionizing radiation. The exception is neutron particles; see below. There are several different kinds of these particles, but the majority are alpha particles , beta particles , neutrons , and protons.
Roughly speaking, photons and particles with energies above about 10 electron volts eV are ionizing some authorities use 33 eV, the ionization energy for water. Particle radiation from radioactive material or cosmic rays almost invariably carries enough energy to be ionizing. Most ionizing radiation originates from radioactive materials and space cosmic rays , and as such is naturally present in the environment, since most rocks and soil have small concentrations of radioactive materials.
Since this radiation is invisible and not directly detectable by human senses, instruments such as Geiger counters are usually required to detect its presence. In some cases, it may lead to secondary emission of visible light upon its interaction with matter, as in the case of Cherenkov radiation and radio-luminescence. Ionizing radiation has many practical uses in medicine, research and construction, but presents a health hazard if used improperly.
Exposure to radiation causes damage to living tissue; high doses result in Acute radiation syndrome ARS , with skin burns, hair loss, internal organ failure and death, while any dose may result in an increased chance of cancer and genetic damage ; a particular form of cancer, thyroid cancer , often occurs when nuclear weapons and reactors are the radiation source because of the biological proclivities of the radioactive iodine fission product, iodine The International Commission on Radiological Protection states that "The Commission is aware of uncertainties and lack of precision of the models and parameter values", "Collective effective dose is not intended as a tool for epidemiological risk assessment, and it is inappropriate to use it in risk projections" and "in particular, the calculation of the number of cancer deaths based on collective effective doses from trivial individual doses should be avoided.
Ionizing UV therefore does not penetrate Earth's atmosphere to a significant degree, and is sometimes referred to as vacuum ultraviolet. Although present in space, this part of the UV spectrum is not of biological importance, because it does not reach living organisms on Earth.
Some of the ultraviolet spectrum that does reach the ground is non-ionizing, but is still biologically hazardous due to the ability of single photons of this energy to cause electronic excitation in biological molecules, and thus damage them by means of unwanted reactions. This property gives the ultraviolet spectrum some of the dangers of ionizing radiation in biological systems without actual ionization occurring. In contrast, visible light and longer-wavelength electromagnetic radiation, such as infrared, microwaves, and radio waves, consists of photons with too little energy to cause damaging molecular excitation, and thus this radiation is far less hazardous per unit of energy.
When an X-ray photon collides with an atom, the atom may absorb the energy of the photon and boost an electron to a higher orbital level or if the photon is extremely energetic, it may knock an electron from the atom altogether, causing the atom to ionize. Generally, larger atoms are more likely to absorb an X-ray photon since they have greater energy differences between orbital electrons.
Soft tissue in the human body is composed of smaller atoms than the calcium atoms that make up bone, hence there is a contrast in the absorption of X-rays. X-ray machines are specifically designed to take advantage of the absorption difference between bone and soft tissue, allowing physicians to examine structure in the human body.
X-rays are also totally absorbed by the thickness of the earth's atmosphere, resulting in the prevention of the X-ray output of the sun, smaller in quantity than that of UV but nonetheless powerful, from reaching the surface. Both alpha and beta particles have an electric charge and mass, and thus are quite likely to interact with other atoms in their path. Gamma radiation, however, is composed of photons, which have neither mass nor electric charge and, as a result, penetrates much further through matter than either alpha or beta radiation.
Gamma rays can be stopped by a sufficiently thick or dense layer of material, where the stopping power of the material per given area depends mostly but not entirely on the total mass along the path of the radiation, regardless of whether the material is of high or low density. The atmosphere absorbs all gamma rays approaching Earth from space.
Alpha particles are helium-4 nuclei two protons and two neutrons. They interact with matter strongly due to their charges and combined mass, and at their usual velocities only penetrate a few centimeters of air, or a few millimeters of low density material such as the thin mica material which is specially placed in some Geiger counter tubes to allow alpha particles in.
This means that alpha particles from ordinary alpha decay do not penetrate the outer layers of dead skin cells and cause no damage to the live tissues below. However, they are of danger only to astronauts, since they are deflected by the Earth's magnetic field and then stopped by its atmosphere. Alpha radiation is dangerous when alpha-emitting radioisotopes are ingested or inhaled breathed or swallowed. This brings the radioisotope close enough to sensitive live tissue for the alpha radiation to damage cells.
Per unit of energy, alpha particles are at least 20 times more effective at cell-damage as gamma rays and X-rays. See relative biological effectiveness for a discussion of this. Examples of highly poisonous alpha-emitters are all isotopes of radium , radon , and polonium , due to the amount of decay that occur in these short half-life materials.
It is more penetrating than alpha radiation, but less than gamma. Beta radiation from radioactive decay can be stopped with a few centimeters of plastic or a few millimeters of metal. It occurs when a neutron decays into a proton in a nucleus, releasing the beta particle and an antineutrino.
Beta radiation from linac accelerators is far more energetic and penetrating than natural beta radiation. It is sometimes used therapeutically in radiotherapy to treat superficial tumors. When a positron slows to speeds similar to those of electrons in the material, the positron will annihilate an electron, releasing two gamma photons of keV in the process.
Those two gamma photons will be traveling in approximately opposite direction. The gamma radiation from positron annihilation consists of high energy photons, and is also ionizing. Neutron radiation consists of free neutrons. These neutrons may be emitted during either spontaneous or induced nuclear fission.
Neutrons are rare radiation particles; they are produced in large numbers only where chain reaction fission or fusion reactions are active; this happens for about 10 microseconds in a thermonuclear explosion, or continuously inside an operating nuclear reactor; production of the neutrons stops almost immediately in the reactor when it goes non-critical.
Neutrons can make other objects, or material, radioactive. This process, called neutron activation , is the primary method used to produce radioactive sources for use in medical, academic, and industrial applications. Even comparatively low speed thermal neutrons cause neutron activation in fact, they cause it more efficiently.
Neutrons do not ionize atoms in the same way that charged particles such as protons and electrons do by the excitation of an electron , because neutrons have no charge. It is through their absorption by nuclei which then become unstable that they cause ionization.
Hence, neutrons are said to be "indirectly ionizing. Not all materials are capable of neutron activation; in water, for example, the most common isotopes of both types atoms present hydrogen and oxygen capture neutrons and become heavier but remain stable forms of those atoms. Only the absorption of more than one neutron, a statistically rare occurrence, can activate a hydrogen atom, while oxygen requires two additional absorptions.
Thus water is only very weakly capable of activation. The sodium in salt as in sea water , on the other hand, need only absorb a single neutron to become Na, a very intense source of beta decay, with half-life of 15 hours. In addition, high-energy high-speed neutrons have the ability to directly ionize atoms. One mechanism by which high energy neutrons ionize atoms is to strike the nucleus of an atom and knock the atom out of a molecule, leaving one or more electrons behind as the chemical bond is broken.
This leads to production of chemical free radicals. In addition, very high energy neutrons can cause ionizing radiation by "neutron spallation" or knockout, wherein neutrons cause emission of high-energy protons from atomic nuclei especially hydrogen nuclei on impact. The last process imparts most of the neutron's energy to the proton, much like one billiard ball striking another.
The charged protons and other products from such reactions are directly ionizing. High-energy neutrons are very penetrating and can travel great distances in air hundreds or even thousands of meters and moderate distances several meters in common solids. They typically require hydrogen rich shielding, such as concrete or water, to block them within distances of less than a meter.
A common source of neutron radiation occurs inside a nuclear reactor , where a meters-thick water layer is used as effective shielding. There are two sources of high energy particles entering the Earth's atmosphere from outer space: the sun and deep space. The sun continuously emits particles, primarily free protons, in the solar wind, and occasionally augments the flow hugely with coronal mass ejections CME.
The particles from deep space inter- and extra-galactic are much less frequent, but of much higher energies. These particles are also mostly protons, with much of the remainder consisting of helions alpha particles. A few completely ionized nuclei of heavier elements are present. The origin of these galactic cosmic rays is not yet well understood, but they seem to be remnants of supernovae and especially gamma-ray bursts GRB , which feature magnetic fields capable of the huge accelerations measured from these particles.
They may also be generated by quasars , which are galaxy-wide jet phenomena similar to GRBs but known for their much larger size, and which seem to be a violent part of the universe's early history. The kinetic energy of particles of non-ionizing radiation is too small to produce charged ions when passing through matter. For non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation see types below , the associated particles photons have only sufficient energy to change the rotational, vibrational or electronic valence configurations of molecules and atoms.
The effect of non-ionizing forms of radiation on living tissue has only recently been studied. Nevertheless, different biological effects are observed for different types of non-ionizing radiation. Even "non-ionizing" radiation is capable of causing thermal-ionization if it deposits enough heat to raise temperatures to ionization energies.
Ionizing radiation
We apply expertise in advanced materials, supercomputing, neutrons, and nuclear science to national priorities in energy, security, and scientific discovery. Quantum building blocks. What could you build if you could put any atoms exactly where you want? Read More. Mission to Mars.
Jump to navigation. British poet W. This widespread problem of water pollution is jeopardizing our health. Unsafe water kills more people each year than war and all other forms of violence combined. Without action, the challenges will only increase by , when global demand for freshwater is expected to be one-third greater than it is now. Sip a glass of cool, clear water as you read this, and you may think water pollution is a problem. But while most Americans have access to safe drinking water , potentially harmful contaminants—from arsenic to copper to lead—have been found in the tap water of every single state in the nation.
Reactor Concepts Manual. Natural and Man-Made Radiation Sources magnetic field to produce a shower of radiation, typically beta and gamma radiation.
Nuclear decay worksheet answers types of radiation
Background radiation is a measure of the level of ionizing radiation present in the environment at a particular location which is not due to deliberate introduction of radiation sources. Background radiation originates from a variety of sources, both natural and artificial. These include both cosmic radiation and environmental radioactivity from naturally occurring radioactive materials such as radon and radium , as well as man-made medical X-rays, fallout from nuclear weapons testing and nuclear accidents.
This chapter presents a brief introduction to radioisotopes, sources and types of radiation, applications, effects, and occupational protection. The natural and artificial sources of radiations are discussed with special reference to natural radioactive decay series and artificial radioisotopes. Applications have played significant role in improving the quality of human life. The application of radioisotopes in tracing, radiography, food preservation and sterilization, eradication of insects and pests, medical diagnosis and therapy, and new variety of crops in agricultural field is briefly described. Radiation interacts with matter to produce excitation and ionization of an atom or molecule; as a result physical and biological effects are produced.
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Nuclear decay worksheet answers types of radiation
There are several types of radiation emitted during radioactive decay. Radon polonium alpha rots. What forms of radiation are released when cesium Cs converts to barium Ba?
Radiation Curable Inks Market is likely to experience dynamic growth in the forthcoming years as a result of rapid innovations and technological advancements, along with speedy globalization. The global market is fairly fragmented and a number of global and regional players operate in the market. We understand that this health crisis has brought an unprecedented impact on businesses across industries. However, this too shall pass. Rising support from governments and several companies can help in the fight against this highly contagious disease.
For example, rubidium decays by emitting an electron from its nucleus to form a stable daughter called strontium B artificial transmutation C nuclear fusion D nuclear fission Describe what each number in the notation means. The most common forms of radiation emitted have been traditionally classified as alpha a , beta b , and gamma g radiation. Figure 3 shows the properties of these three types of radiation.
artificial production of Pu. 3) Natural and Artificial Radioactivity (2). Natural Radioactivity. Cosmic Radiation. - Protons (93 %). - Alpha-Particles ( %).
Radiation occurs when energy is emitted by a source, then travels through a medium, such as air, until it is absorbed by matter. Radiation can be described as being one of two basic types: non ionizing and ionizing. People use and are exposed to non-ionizing radiation sources every day. This form of radiation does not carry enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules.
List Of Food Preservatives Pdf. Artificial food additives numbers and codes, their list can be printed out. The Agricultural Vitality Program within the Department is continued and hereafter shall be known as the Office of Farmland Preservation. Citric acid. Molecular formula: C6H7KO2.
In physics , radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or through a material medium. Radiation is often categorized as either ionizing or non-ionizing depending on the energy of the radiated particles.
Ionizing radiation ionising radiation consists of subatomic particles or electromagnetic waves that have sufficient energy to ionize atoms or molecules by detaching electrons from them. Gamma rays , X-rays and the higher ultraviolet part of the electromagnetic spectrum are ionizing radiation, whereas the lower energy ultraviolet , visible light , nearly all types of laser light, infrared , microwaves , and radio waves are non-ionizing radiation. Typical ionizing subatomic particles due to radioactive decay include alpha particles , beta particles and neutrons and almost all are energetic enough to be ionizing. Secondary cosmic particles produced after cosmic rays interact with Earth's atmosphere include muons , mesons , and positrons.
Но и то и другое вряд ли к чему-то приведет. В его мозгу все время прокручивались слова Стратмора: Обнаружение этого кольца - вопрос национальной безопасности. Внутренний голос подсказывал Беккеру, что он что-то упустил - нечто очень важное, но он никак не мог сообразить, что . | https://elmhurstskiclub.org/and-pdf/858-production-of-natural-and-artificial-radiation-pdf-879-724.php |
In my last blog “Things We Can’t See”, we explored the many different ways that our eyes, brains, and/or technology can fool us into seeing something that isn’t there or not seeing something that is.
So apparently, our sense of sight is not necessarily the most reliable sense in terms of identifying what is and isn’t in our objective reality. We would probably suspect that our sense of touch is fairly foolproof; that is, if an object is “there”, we can “feel” it, right?
First of all, we have a lot of the same problems with the brain as we did with the sense of sight. The brain processes all of that sensory data from our nerve endings. How do we know what the brain really does with that information? Research shows that sometimes your brain can think that you are touching something that you aren’t or vice versa. People who have lost limbs still have sensations in their missing extremities. Hypnosis has been shown to have a significant effect in terms of pain control, which seems to indicate the mind’s capacity to override one’s tactile senses. And virtual reality experiments have demonstrated the ability for the mind to be fooled into feeling something that isn’t there.
But even now, long before nanobot swarms are possible, the mystery really begins, as we have to dive deeply into what is meant by “feeling” something.
Feeling is the result of a part of our body coming in contact with another object. That contact is “felt” by the interaction between the molecules of the body and the molecules of the object.
Even solid objects are mostly empty space. If subatomic particles, such as neutrons, are made of solid mass, like little billiard balls, then 99.999999999999% of normal matter would still be empty space. That is, of course, unless those particles themselves are not really solid matter, in which case, even more of space is truly empty, more about which in a bit.
So why don’t solid objects like your fist slide right through other solid objects like bricks? Because of the repulsive effect that the electromagnetic force from the electrons in the fist apply against the electromagnetic force from the electrons in the brick.
But what about that neutron? What is it made of? Is it solid? Is it made of the same stuff as all other subatomic particles?
The leading theories of matter do not favor the idea that subatomic particles are like little billiard balls of differing masses. For example, string theorists speculate that all particles are made of the same stuff; namely, vibrating bits of string. Except that they each vibrate at different frequencies. Problem is, string theory is purely theoretical and really falls more in the mathematical domain than the scientific domain, inasmuch as there is no supporting evidence for the theory. If it does turn out to be true, even the neutron is mostly empty space because the string is supposedly one-dimensional, with a theoretical cross section of a Planck length.
Neutrinos are an extremely common yet extremely elusive particle of matter. About 100 trillion neutrinos generated in the sun pass through our bodies every second. Yet they barely interact at all with ordinary matter. Neutrino capture experiments consist of configurations such as a huge underground tank containing 100,000 gallons of tetrachloroethylene buried nearly a mile below the surface of the earth. 100 billion neutrinos strike every square centimeter of the tank per second. Yet, any particular molecule of tetrachloroethylene is likely to interact with a neutrino only once every 10E36 seconds (which is 10 billion billion times the age of the universe).
The argument usually given for the neutrino’s elusiveness is that they are massless (and therefore not easily captured by a nucleus) and charge-less (and therefore not subject to the electromagnetic force). Then again, photons are massless and charge-less and are easily captured, to which anyone who has spent too much time in the sun can attest. So there has to be some other reason that we can’t detect neutrinos. Unfortunately, given the current understanding of particle physics, no good answer is forthcoming.
And then there is dark matter. This concept is the current favorite explanation for some anomalies around orbital speeds of galaxies. Gravity can’t explain the anomalies, so dark matter is inferred. If it really exists, it represents about 83% of the mass in the universe, but doesn’t interact again with any of the known forces with the exception of gravity. This means that dark matter is all around us; we just can’t see it or feel it.
So it seems that modern physics allows for all sorts of types of matter that we can’t see or feel. When you get down to it, the reason for this is that we don’t understand what matter is at all. According to the standard model of physics, particles should have no mass, unless there is a special quantum field that pervades the universe and gives rise to mass upon interacting with those particles. Unfortunately, for that to have any credibility, the signature particle, the Higgs boson, would have to exist. Thus far, it seems to be eluding even the most powerful of particle colliders. One alternative theory of matter has it being an emergent property of particle fluctuations in the quantum vacuum.
For a variety of reasons, some of which are outlined in “The Universe – Solved!” and many others which have come to light since I wrote that book, I suspect that ultimately matter is simply a property of an entity that is described purely by data and a set of rules, driven by a complex computational mechanism. Our attempt to discover the nature of matter is synonymous with our attempt to discover those rules and associated fundamental constants (data).
In terms of other things that we can’t perceive, new age enthusiasts might call out ghosts, spirits, auras, and all sorts of other mysterious invisible and tenuous entities.
Given that we know that things exist that we can’t perceive, one has to wonder if it might be possible for macroscopic objects, or even macroscopic entities that are driven by similar energies as humans, to be made from stuff that we can only tenuously detect, not unlike neutrinos or dark matter. Scientists speculate about multiple dimensions and parallel universes via Hilbert Space and other such constructs. If such things exist (and wouldn’t it be hypocritical of anyone to speculate or work out the math for such things if it weren’t possible for them to exist?), the rules that govern our interaction with them, across the dimensions, are clearly not at all understood. That doesn’t mean that they aren’t possible.
In fact, the scientific world is filled with trends leading toward the implication of an information-based reality.
In which almost anything is possible. | https://blog.theuniversesolved.com/2012/04/29/things-we-cant-feel-the-mystery-deepens/ |
Let’s talk about particle rain. When we think of a recycling universe, it’s rather obvious what is happening at the SMBH furnaces of the process, with matter and energy ingested, then compacted to the highest particle and energy density possible — a Planck core of densely packed immutable charged Planck spheres with Planck energy, zero information, and zero entropy. When this pure form of matter-energy is exposed to a weakness at the poles of the SMBH it blasts through the event horizon in a pair of enormously powerful Planck plasma jets. Those jets generate new spacetime æther particles as well as composite particles of the standard model. If you have been following NPQG, this process has been discussed in detail.
In the GR-QM-ΛCDM era we have discovered many cyclic forms of nature. One example is the water cycle shown above. One cogent question is “what are the cyclic processes at each scale point in space and energy”? What are the largest scale cyclic process? By eliminating the one time inflationary big bang and replacing it with a recycling mini-bang/inflationary/expansionary galaxy local model and a steady state universe, then we must become aware of additional large scale cyclic processes.
NPQG teaches that a galaxy is an open cyclic process even though many galaxy processes are essentially closed, meaning they stay within the galaxy. However, galaxies interact, so there are many events that cause change or disruption to cycles, the most obvious of which is the galaxy merger. We know there are galaxy clusters. We know there are cosmic webs between clusters. Is the cosmic web the ultimate scale that is repeated throughout the universe with local fluctuations that don’t form a larger pattern? What lies beyond?
Let’s consider the ideal model of a closed recycling galaxy. In the ideal case the surface manifold of the galaxy experiences a uniform pressure of external spacetime æther opposing expansion and a mixing of spacetime æther in the region of the surface of the manifold. In this ideal case we consider a pure spacetime æther with a very sparse stochastic fluctuation of baryonic matter. Even in these sparse conditions, there are many photons and neutrinos passing through.
In reality galaxy to galaxy interfaces and interactions are highly varied based on the large variety of both galaxies and intergalactic distances. This explains why it has been difficult to determine the H0 constant and that is precisely because it is NOT a constant. In every direction photons will have experienced quite a variety of spacetime expansion and contraction fluctuations along their path through the expanding regions nearby many galaxies.
The spacetime æther in the outer surfaces of a galaxy, in purest form, as well as turbulent opposing expansion form, will be experiencing spontaneous reactions that produce composite standard matter particles. We can call this “particle rain“. This is a good metaphor because the conditions in any reaction cloud determine the particle outputs that rain from any reaction. Particle rain is immediately subject to the laws of motion and gravity and each particle will begin an inexorable path that is influenced towards higher energy spacetime æther, which we find where matter-energy is concentrated.
Let’s conclude this article with some information about the contents of outer space.
Outer space, or simply space, is the expanse that exists beyond Earth and between celestial bodies. Outer space is not completely empty—it is a hard vacuum containing a low density of particles, predominantly a plasma of hydrogen and helium, as well as electromagnetic radiation, magnetic fields, neutrinos, dust, and cosmic rays. The baseline temperature of outer space,
as set by the background radiation from the Big Bang, is 2.7 Kelvin. The plasma between galaxies accounts for about half of the baryonic (ordinary) matter in the universe; it has a number density of less than one hydrogen atom per cubic metre and a temperature of millions of kelvins. Local concentrations of matter have condensed into stars and galaxies. Studies indicate that 90% of the mass in most galaxies is in an unknown form, called dark matter, which interacts with other matter through gravitational but not electromagnetic forces. Observations suggest that the majority of the mass-energy in the observable universe is dark energy, a type of vacuum energy that is poorly understood. [Note: NPQG offers several potential solutions for ‘dark matter’ and ‘dark energy’] Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the universe, but even galaxies and star systems consist almost entirely of empty space.
Estimates put the average energy density of the present day Universe at the equivalent of 5.9 protons per cubic meter, including dark energy, dark matter, and baryonic matter (ordinary matter composed of atoms). The atoms account for only 4.6% of the total energy density, or a density of one proton per four cubic meters.
The air humans breathe contains about 1025 molecules per cubic meter. The low density of matter in outer space means that electromagnetic radiation can travel great distances without being scattered: the mean free path of a photon in intergalactic space is about 1023 km, or 10 billion light years.Wikipedia – ‘Outer Space’
One unknown in NPQG is the density of spacetime æther at different energies. I would expect that spacetime æther would be fairly dense even in deep space in intergalactic voids. Such calculations will be deferred until we have a method to relate spacetime æther temperature to its density. | https://johnmarkmorris.com/2020/06/18/particle-rain/ |
At this time our conversation will be entirely about ionizing radiation. One form of Ionizing radiation consists of high energy electromagnetic waves, sometimes called photons, that have the ability to ionize the materials they come into contact with. Gamma rays and X – rays are two forms of ionizing radiation that are electromagnetic in nature.
Other forms include charged particles. These include alpha particles, which are subatomic elements of the nucleus of an atom that break free when a radioactive mineral decays. An alpha particle has two protons and two neutrons, and has a positive electrical charge. Alpha radiation is generally considered to be approximately 20 times more damaging to human tissue than gamma and x rays. Therefore when making dose calculations, a QF, or Quality Factor, of 20 is assigned to alpha radiation.
Beta particles are negatively charged electrons from the outer orbit of atoms undergoing decay, or released by materials exposed to gamma or x radiation. They have the same quality factor (1) as gamma and x rays.
Neutrons and other positively charged particles have a quality factor of 10. | https://geigercounter.com/about-radiation/ |
Ground-based radars proposed to search for dark matter
(ORDO NEWS) — Flying through the earth’s atmosphere, mysterious particles of dark matter can leave an ionized trail. This allows us to hope that they can be detected using conventional radars.
Ordinary matter, which stars, planets and plasma are made of, makes up only a small part of our Universe. Its share is estimated at only a few percent. At the same time, more than 22 percent is accounted for by dark matter.
It does not interact with ordinary light in any way, does not absorb or refract light, but manifests itself due to the gravitational influence on the growth and movement of stars, clusters and galaxies.
What particles dark matter consists of is still not known, and all attempts to capture them remain unsuccessful.
This feeds the most exotic hypotheses about its nature, up to the existence of an “anti-universe” mirroring our world.
The key problem with the search for dark matter particles is that physicists still do not understand what exactly they need to find.
Their mass and other properties are incomprehensible, but it is on this that the search method, the design of detectors, and so on, depend.
However, the new work of scientists from Ohio State University (USA) offers a completely different approach, which, theoretically, can detect traces of dark matter in a wide range of possible characteristics.
To do this, scientists have proposed turning to already existing tools for detecting meteors moving through the Earth’s atmosphere. When flying, such bodies cause ionization, leaving a trail of ions and free electrons.
Electromagnetic waves bounce off charged particles, making them visible to ground-based radars. According to Bikom and his co-authors, similar ionized traces can be left by hypothetical dark matter particles flying through the air.
Scientists have calculated the effective scattering area that these particles can have on radar data, and have proposed to start searching already, turning the entire earth’s atmosphere into a giant detector.
According to them , such work will make it possible, if not to find elusive particles, then at least to test some cosmological observations of dark matter, which are characterized by insufficient accuracy and reliability.
—
Online:
Contact us: [email protected] | https://ordonews.com/ground-based-radars-proposed-to-search-for-dark-matter/ |
Negatively charged subatomic particle that circles the nucleus of an atom.
atomic mass unit (AMU)
exactly 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom
Proton
Positively charged subatomic particle that is a part of the nucleus.
atomic number
the number of protons in an atom
Neutron
Neutral subatomic particle that is a part of the nucleus.
atomic mass
The average mass of all the isotopes of an element
Element
Matter that is made up of only one type of atom.
Atomic Number
Indicates the number of protons found in an atom of a specific element.
Mass Number
Indicates the number of protons and neutrons found in an atom of a specific element.
isotope
atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons
Atomic Mass
Weighted average of the mass numbers of the isotopes of an element.
e-
Symbol for electron
Fission
The splitting of an atomic nucleus to release energy.
Fusion
Creation of energy by joining the nuclei of two hydrogen atoms to form helium.
radioactive decay
A spontaneous process in which unstable nuclei lose energy by emitting radiation
Democritus
Greek philosopher that said all matter is made of tiny particles called "atomos" or atoms
John Dalton
English chemist and physicist who formulated atomic theory and the law of partial pressures
JJ Thompson
1897- Idea of a subatomic negatively charged particle (electron). Made Plum Pudding model of the atom.
Ernest Rutherford
discovered the nucleus
Neils Bohr
electrons are in energy levels, the further an electron was from the nucleus, the higher its energy -developed the planetary model
electron cloud model
a visual model of the most likely locations for the electrons in an atom
quantum mechanical model
the modern description, primarily mathematical, of the behavior of electrons in atoms
Orbitals
areas within each energy level where electrons move around the nucleus of an atom
Pauli Exclusion Principle
states that a maximum of two electrons can occupy a single atomic orbital but only if the electrons have opposite spins
Aufbau Principle
An electron occupies the lowest-energy orbital that can receive it
Hund's Rule
electrons occupy orbitals of the same energy in a way that makes the number of electrons with the same spin direction as large as possible
half-life
length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay
electromagnetic radiation
a kind of radiation including visible light, radio waves, gamma rays, and X-rays, in which electric and magnetic fields vary simultaneously.
gamma radiation
electromagnetic radiation emitted during radioactive decay and having an extremely short wavelength
valence electrons
electrons in the outermost shell
This set is often in folders with... | https://quizlet.com/601669950/unit-2-atomic-structure-flash-cards/?x=1jqt |
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john dalton was finder of the atomic theory. the theory propose that all matter was composed of atoms. atoms are the smallest particle of a chemical element that can exist. indivisible and indestructible building blocks.
my fascination with gases gradually led me to proper that every form of matter was also made up of small individual particle. i reference my work based on a greek philosopher Democritus of Abider's more abstract theory of matter, which centuries ego have been forgotten.
i created the first chart of atomic weights in 1803. since then, i became the first scientist to explain the behaviour of atoms in terms of measurement of weight.
deltons model
j.j. Thomson discovered that all atoms contain tiny negatively charged subatomic particles or electrons.
my discovery were gradually accepted by scientist. the discovery was disproved the part of daltons atomic theory that assumed atoms were indivisible
i was experimenting with cathode ray tubes, and it showed me that all atoms carry small negatively charged subatomic particles or electrons.
plum pudding model
Rutherfords model shows that an atom is mostly empty space. with electrons orbiting a fixed, positively charged nucleus in set, predictable path
i was overturning Thomas's model with my well known gold foil experiment which i clearly demonstrate that the atom has a tiny and heavy nucleus. in my experiment, the positive alpha particles mostly passed trough the foil, but some bounced back.
Rutherfordsmodel
in 1913, Niels Bohr proposed a theory that energy is transferred only in certain well defined quantities. electrons should move around the nucleus but only in prescribed orbits. a light quantum is emitted when jumping from one orbit to another with lower energy.
i spotted a problem in Rutherford theory so i decided to dig deeper. i knew that any charged particle that is moving is going to be giving off electromagnetic radiation as the wavelength of the radiation is going to vary.
shell model
James Chadwick discovered the neutron in atoms. the location of a neutrons are located in the center of an atom, in the nucleus along with the protons. they have no positive or negative charge.
i started with beryllium atoms with alpha particles. an unknown radiation was produced. i interpreted this radiation as being composed of particles with a neutral electrical charge and this particle is known as the neutron. | https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/keziaanakagung02_/science |
Whether CH2Cl2 is polar or nonpolar is still a question of many.
Do we see any separation of any electronic charge in this compound, which led the molecule to have both positive and negative ends?
We will explain how the molecule from the periodic table changes because of molecular geometry and electronegativity.
Table of Contents
Polarity or Nonpolarity of Dichloromethane
First, let us describe the chemical formula CH2Cl2, also known as Dichloromethane.
It is a clear, colorless, volatile liquid with a slightly sweet odor that commonly originates from macroalgae, volcanoes, oceanic sources, and wetlands.
This would be associated with electricity, magnetism, and electronegativity when talking about polarity in a usual scenario.
This is not one of the usual scenarios, though. Still, Dichloromethane, also known as Methyl Chloride, develops a net dipole moment across C-Cl and C-H bonds.
The chemical bond results in a net 1.67 D dipole moment, thus making it a polar compound.
CH2Cl2 Molecular Structure
We look at the Lewis Structure of Dichloromethane or CH2Cl2 to determine if chemical reactions change its structure.
Lewis structure will help us understand, based on the octet rule, the structure of a specific compound with eight electrons in its outer shell to be stable or inert.
In the compound Dichloromethane, you will find Carbon atoms with 4 electrons, and Hydrogen atoms have 2 electrons in their neutral form.
The two atoms need additional electrons to complete the bond formation.
Chlorine atoms, on the other hand, have 17(seventeen) electrons distributed around their nucleus.
However, only 7 of those are valence electrons that are on the outer shell.
Therefore, there are a total of 20 valence electrons. Out of 20 valence electrons, 8 electrons took part in the bond formation.
How to Determine CH2Cl2 Polarity
Shape
You can also determine the polarity of a compound with its shape. If the dipole moment on each molecule does not cancel out, then that is a polar compound.
However, a nonpolar molecule can have polar bonds within it, but the dipoles of these valence electrons get canceled by each other due to the symmetric shape of the molecules.
Electronegativity
The one with the partial negative charge in a polar covalent bond is the more electronegative atom. The electron distribution is more polarized, and the partial charges of these atoms become more prominent. Some electrons have lower electronegativity(1), such as the Hydrogen atom, compared to the electrons found on the chlorine atom.
Related Posts:
- Determining the Number of CS2 Double Bonds
- Determining the Lone Pairs of Sulfur
- Determining the Lone Pairs of Electrons on the S Atom in SF4
- Determining the Polarity & Nonpolarity of a Molecule
- Electron Pair Geometry vs Molecular Geometry
Dipole Moment
What made us say CH2Cl2 is a polar compound?
In the case of Dichloromethane, the distribution of positive and negative charges of the molecules of all the bonding atoms are as follows, Hydrogen=2.2, carbon atom =2.5, and chlorine=3.1.
Electronegativity has an unequal distribution, partly because of Hydrogen molecules, which are lower than the two bonds.
There is symmetry in the compound despite Hydrogen being less electronegative than a carbon atom, causing it not to cancel out; hence there are dipole moments in the compound.
FAQS
Methylene Chloride has many uses after the bonding process of the highly volatile molecules.
It is part of the food industry and beverage manufacturing industries as an extraction solvent. It is used in processing spices, hops extracts for beer, and other flavorings.
It extracts chemicals from plants or foods for steroids, antibiotics, and vitamins. These are also efficient in cleaning medical equipment without causing corrosion issues.
CH2Cl2 is a covalent bond, where central carbon is hybridized, and all the four bonds in the compound are called SP3.
We can also take note that the molecular geometry of CH2Cl2 is tetrahedral with the shape trigonal pyramidal. The physical properties of CH2Cl2, the compound from the molecule bonds formed, are the following.
It has a density of 1.3226g/cm3 with a molecular weight of 84.96g/mol. Its boiling point is at 39.60C, and its melting point is -97.60C.
So, Is CH2Cl2 Polar or Non-polar?
In chemistry, the answer to the question is a definite yes because of many reasons.
Firstly, it has polar molecules shaped trigonal pyramidal.
The second reason is that the geometry of the compound is tetrahedral, which according to chemistry, has a central carbon atom surrounded by four other atoms.
The third is the electronegativity between C-H and C-Cl is 0.4 and 0.6, respectively.
Though a Chlorine atom is nonpolar, the polar molecule emerges after valence electrons of nonpolar molecules bond its properties.
So, it is indeed a fact that even if there are nonpolar molecules, but the bonds do not cancel, and the geometry is showing polarity, then CH2CL2 is polar.
References: | https://wellcometreeoflife.org/ch2cl2-polar-or-nonpolar/ |
A dipole exists as soon as a molecule has areas of asymmetrical hopeful and an unfavorable charge.
You are watching: What determines the degree of polarity in a bond
Key TakeawaysKey PointsA dipole exists once a molecule has areas of asymmetrical positive and negative charge.A molecule’s polarity (its dipole) have the right to be experimentally identified by measure the dielectric constant.Molecular geometry is vital when working v dipoles.Key Termsdipole: any molecule or radical that has delocalized optimistic and negative chargesdebye: a CGS unit that an electric dipole moment identical to 3.33564 x 10-30 coulomb meter; supplied for measurements at the molecule scale
A dipole exists once there are locations of asymmetrical optimistic and an adverse charges in a molecule. Dipole moments boost with ionic shortcut character and decrease through covalent shortcut character.
Bond dipole moment
The link dipole moment uses the idea the the electric dipole minute to measure a chemistry bond ‘s polarity within a molecule. This wake up whenever there is a separation of confident and an adverse charges because of the unlike attraction the the 2 atoms have for the bonded electrons. The atom with bigger electronegativity will certainly have an ext pull for the external inspection electrons than will the atom with smaller sized electronegativity; the higher the distinction in the two electronegativities, the larger the dipole. This is the case with polar compounds like hydrogen fluoride (HF), whereby the atom unequally share electron density.
Physical chemist Peter J. W. Debye was the first to generally study molecular dipoles. Link dipole moment are commonly measured in debyes, stood for by the prize D.
Molecules with only two atoms contain only one (single or multiple) bond, therefore the bond dipole moment is the molecular dipole moment. They selection in value from 0 to 11 D. At one extreme, a symmetrical molecule such as chlorine, Cl2, has 0 dipole moment. This is the situation when both atoms’ electronegativity is the same. In ~ the other extreme, the highly ionic gas step potassium bromide, KBr, has actually a dipole moment of 10.5 D.
Bond Symmetry
Symmetry is one more factor in determining if a molecule has a dipole moment. Because that example, a molecule the carbon dioxide has actually two carbon— oxygen bond that room polar due to the electronegativity difference in between the carbon and oxygen atoms. However, the bonds space on specific opposite political parties of the central atom, the charges publication out. Together a result, carbon dioxide is a nonpolar molecule.
The linear structure the carbon dioxide.: The 2 carbon to oxygen bonds room polar, yet they space 180° personally from every other and also will cancel.
Molecular Dipole Moment
When a molecule consists of much more than two atoms, more than one bond is stop the molecule together. To calculation the dipole for the whole molecule, include all the individual dipoles that the separation, personal, instance bonds together their vector. Dipole minute values deserve to be experimentally obtained by measure the dielectric constant. Some typical gas phase worths in debye systems include:carbon dioxide: 0 (despite having two polar C=O bonds, the two space pointed in geometrically the opposite directions, canceling each other out and also resulting in a molecule through no net dipole moment)carbon monoxide: 0.112 Dozone: 0.53 Dphosgene: 1.17 Dwater vapor: 1.85 Dhydrogen cyanide: 2.98 Dcyanamide: 4.27 Dpotassium bromide: 10.41 D
KBr has actually one that the highest dipole moments since of the far-ranging difference in electronegativity between potassium and also bromine.
Bond Polarity
Bond polarity exists when two bonded atoms unequally re-superstructure electrons, leading to a negative and a confident end.
Learning Objectives
Identify the factors that add to a chemistry bond’s polarity.
Key TakeawaysKey PointsThe unequal sharing of electrons within a bond leader to the development of an electrical dipole (a separation of positive and negative electric charges).To recognize the electron sharing between two atoms, a table the electronegativities have the right to determine i m sorry atom will attract an ext electron density.Bonds have the right to fall in between one of two extremes, from totally nonpolar to fully polar.Key Termselectronegativity: one atom or molecule’s propensity to tempt electrons and thus form bondsbond: a link or force between neighboring atoms in a molecule
In chemistry, link polarity is the separation of electric charge along a bond, leading to a molecule or that chemical groups having an electric dipole or dipole moment.
Electrons are not always shared equally in between two bonding atoms. One atom can exert much more of a pressure on the electron cloud than the other; this traction is referred to as electronegativity. Electronegativity actions a details atom’s attraction because that electrons. The unequal share of electrons within a bond leads to the development of an electric dipole (a separation of optimistic and negative electric charge). Partial charges are denoted together δ+ (delta plus) and δ- (delta minus), icons that were presented by Christopher Ingold and also his mam Hilda Usherwood in 1926.
Atoms with high electronegativity values—such as fluorine, oxygen, and also nitrogen—exert a greater pull on electron than perform atoms with reduced electronegativity values. In a bond, this deserve to lead to unequal share of electrons in between atoms, together electrons will be attracted closer come the atom with higher electronegativity.
The polar covalent bond, HF.: The more electronegative (4.0 > 2.1) fluorine traction the electrons in the link closer to it, developing a partial an adverse charge. The resulting hydrogen atom carries a partial hopeful charge.
Bonds have the right to fall between one of two extremes, from completely nonpolar to fully polar. A fully nonpolar bond occurs when the electronegativity values space identical and therefore have actually a difference of zero. A totally polar bond, or ionic bond, occurs once the difference between electronegativity values is huge enough that one atom in reality takes an electron indigenous the other. The terms “polar” and also “nonpolar” usually refer to covalent bonds. To determine the polarity of a covalent bond using numerical means, discover the difference between the electronegativity of the atoms; if the an outcome is between 0.4 and 1.7, then, generally, the shortcut is polar covalent.
The hydrogen fluoride (HF) molecule is polar through virtue that polar covalent bonds; in the covalent bond, electrons space displaced toward the much more electronegative fluorine atom.
Percent Ionic Character and also Bond Angle
Chemical binding are more varied than terminology might suggest; they exist top top a spectrum in between purely ionic and purely covalent bonds.
Learning Objectives
Recognize the differences between the theoretical and also observed properties of ionic bonds.
Key TakeawaysKey PointsThe spectrum of bonding (ionic and also covalent) relies on just how evenly electrons space shared between two atoms.A link ‘s percent ionic character is the amount of electron sharing between two atoms; limited electron sharing coincides with a high percent ionic character.To recognize a bond’s percent ionic character, the atoms’ electronegativities are supplied to suspect the electron sharing between the atoms.Key Termscovalent bond: two atoms are linked to each various other by sharing of 2 or an ext electronsionic bond: two atoms or molecule are associated to each other by electrostatic attraction
Ionic bond in Reality
When 2 elements form an ionic compound, is an electron really shed by one atom and also transferred to the other? to answer this question, consider the data ~ above the ionic solid LiF. The median radius of the neutral Li atom is about 2.52Å. If this Li atom reacts with an F atom to type LiF, what is the typical distance between the Li nucleus and the electron it has actually “lost” come the fluorine atom? The answer is 1.56Å; the electron is currently closer to the lithium nucleus than it was in neutral lithium.
Bonding in lithium fluoride: wherein is the electron in lithium fluoride? go this make an ionic bond, a covalent bond, or other in between?
The answer to the over question is both yes and no: yes, the electron the was currently in the 2s orbit of Li is now within the master of a fluorine 2p orbital; however no, the electron is now also closer to the Li nucleus than before, so the is no truly “lost.”
The electron-pair link is clearly responsible because that this situation; this gives the covalent link ‘s stability. What is no as obvious—until you look at the numbers such as space quoted for LiF above—is that the ionic bond results in the very same condition; even in the most highly ionic compounds, both electrons space close come both nuclei, and the resulting mutual attractions tie the nuclei together.
The emerging view that ionic bonding is one in which the electron orbitals of adjacent atom pairs are simply skewed, placing an ext electron density about the “negative” element than about the “positive” one. Think that this skewing’s magnitude as the percent ionic personality of a bond; to recognize the percent ionic character, one have to look at the electronegativities of the atom involved and determine how efficient the electron sharing is between the species.
The ionic bonding design is advantageous for many purposes, however. There is nothing wrong v using the term “ionic bond” to define the interactions between the atoms in the very little class that “ionic solids” such as LiF and also NaCl.
See more: What Is The Distance In Pitch Between Any Two Tones, Question 1 The Distance In Pitch Between Any Two
Bond Angle
A bond angle forms in between three atoms across at the very least two bonds. The more covalent in nature the bond, the much more likely the atoms will situate themselves along the predetermined vectors given by the orbitals that are associated in bonding (VSEPR theory). The more ionic character over there is to a bond, the more likely that non-directional electrostatic interactions space holding the atom together. This method that atoms will certainly sit in positions that minimize the amount of room they occupy (like a salt crystal). | https://mmsanotherstage2019.com/what-determines-the-degree-of-polarity-in-a-bond/ |
In chemistry polarity is a separation of electric charge leading to a molecule or its chemical groups having an electric dipole or multipole moment. In one of these there is a linear structure and in the other there is a trigonal structure which both result in no permanent dipoles.
Pcl5 Lewis Structure And Molecular Geometry Youtube
In this chemical structure cl is more electronegative than p.
Is pcl5 polar or nonpolar molecule. So is pcl5 polar or nonpolar. The bonds in pcl5 are polar because of chlorine s greater electronegativity compared to phosphorus. Pcl5 is nonpolar in nature because it has the symmetrical geometrical structure due to which the polarity of p cl bonds gets canceled by each other.
D polar bonds but is a non polar molecule. As a result the net dipole moment of pcl5 comes out to be zero. Pcl5 has symmetric charge distribution of chlorine atoms around the central atom phosphorous.
What is polar and non polar. The chemical compound phosphorous pentachloride which has the chemical formula pcl5 is a non polar molecule. Answer pcl5 phosphorus pentachloride is polar.
Pcl5 is a nonpolar molecule since the electron pull balances it out in both the horizontal and vertical axis of the molecule. The molecular geometry of phosphorous pentachloride is symmetrical which neutralizes the bond dipoles of the molecule to make it non polar. It is one of the common chlorinating reagents.
Pcl5 is a colorless crystal in appearance at room temperature. However the entire molecule is nonpolar because the chlorine s are arranged in a trigonal. Therefore if you check chemical structure of pcl5 below then it is clear pcl5 is a nonpolar substance.
Chlorine is more electronegative than phosphorus so the bonds are polar. Pcl5 has trigonal bipyramidal geometry the molecule is symmetrical therefore. One way to characterize molecular compounds is by their polarity which is a physical property of.
By definition a polar substance contains unbalanced localized charges or rather dipoles. As charge distribution is equal and there is no net dipole moment therefore pcl5 molecule is nonpolar. However there is no dipole moment between phosphorus atom and chlorine atom.
Is pcl5 polar or nonpolar. | https://medarsenal.info/2020/12/16/is-pcl5-polar-or-nonpolar-molecule/ |
Definitions for "Dipole moment"
Related Terms: Dipole, Electric dipole, Polar molecule, Nonpolar, Chemical shift, Magnetic monopole, Domain, Electric field, Polar, Nuclear magnetic resonance, Polarity, Paramagnetic, Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, Diamagnetic, Diamagnetism, Coulomb's law, Magnetic field lines, Paramagnetism, Electromagnetic force, Electron spin resonance, Electronegative, Magnetic induction, Magnetic field, Hall effect, Flux , Magnetization, Nmr, Electric charge, Ferromagnetism, Magnetic field strength, Cyclotron, Mass spectrometer, Electrostatic, Neutral, Nonpolar molecule, Zeeman effect, Electrostatic field, Larmor frequency, Electronegativity, Magnetic, Polar covalent bond, Magnetic flux, Magnetic flux density, Reluctance, Electromagnetism, Coercive force, Magnetic flux, Magnetism, Lenz's law
a quantitative measure of the degree of charge separation in a molecule
a charge multiplied by a distance (the distance between the separated charges)
a property of a molecule whereby the charge distribution can be represented by a center of positive charge and a center of negative charge.
a measure of the overall electric field associated with a molecule. Depends on (i) charges (or partial charges) and (ii) their separation. Units of debye (D). 1 D = 3.33E-30 Cm. A dipole moment of ~10 D corresponds to a +1 and -1 electron equivalent charge separated by 1 Angstrom. Typical molecular dipole moments range from zero to a few debye.
Electric dipole moment () is the product of the positive charge and the distance between the charges. Dipole moments are often stated in debyes; The SI unit is the coulomb metre. In a diatomic molecule, such as HCl, the dipole moment is a measure of the polar nature of the bond; i.e. the extent to which the average electron charges is displaced towards one atom (in the case of HCl, the electrons are attracted towards the more electronegative chlorine atom). In a polyatomic molecule, the dipole moment is the vector sum of the dipole moments of the individual bonds. In a symmetrical molecule, such as tetrafluoromethane (CF4) there is no overall dipole moment, although the individual C-F bonds are polar.
Measure of how polarized a molecule is (how large the dipole is).
NIA] For a transmitter, the product of the area of a coil, the number of turns of wire, and the current flowing in the coil. At a distance significantly larger than the size of the coil, the magnetic field from a coil will be the same if the dipole moment product is the same. For a receiver coil, this is the product of the area and the number of turns. The sensitivity to a magnetic field (assuming the source is far away) will be the same if the dipole moment is the same.
The product of the distance separating opposite charges of equal magnitude of the charge; a measure of the polarity of a bond or molecule; a measured dipole moment refers to the dipole moment of an entire molecule.
for a dipole (a positive charge and a negative charge separated by a small distance) a vector directed away from the negative to the positive charge whose magnitude is the product of the charge and the separation
Without qualification usually means electric dipole moment, the product of charge and separation distance of an (electric) dipole. Dipole moment is a vector, its direction determined by the position vector from the negative to the positive charge. Dipole moments (usually of molecules) are classified as permanent (the centers of positive and negative charge do not coincide even when subjected to no external field) and induced ( charge separation is a consequence of an external field acting in opposite directions on positive and negative charges). Water is often given as the prime example of a molecule with a permanent dipole moment. The magnetic dipole moment of a magnetic dipole is the product of the electric current in the loop and the area it encloses. Magnetic dipole moment also is a vector, its direction determined by the normal to the plane of the current loop, the sense of this normal specified by the right-hand rule. | http://metaglossary.com/define/dipole+moment |
The existence of a hundred percent ionic or covalent bond represents an ideal situation. In reality no bond or a compound is either completely covalent or ionic. Even in case of covalent bond between two hydrogen atoms, there is some ionic character.
When covalent bond is formed between two similar atoms, for example in H2, O2, Cl2, N2 or F2, the shared pair of electrons is equally
attracted by the two atoms. As a result electron pair is situated exactly between the two identical nuclei. The bond so formed is called nonpolar covalent bond. Contrary to this in case of a heteronuclear molecule like HF, the shared electron pair between the two atoms gets displaced more towards fluorine since the electronegativity of fluorine (Unit 3) is far greater than that of hydrogen. The resultant covalent bond is a polar covalent bond.
As a result of polarisation, the molecule possesses the dipole moment (depicted below) which can be defined as the product of the magnitude of the charge and the distance between the centres of positive and negative charge. It is usually designated by a Greek letter ‘µ’. Mathematically, it is expressed as follows :
Dipole moment (µ) = charge (Q) × distance of separation (r)
Dipole moment is usually expressed in Debye units (D). The conversion factor is
1 D = 3.33564 × 10–30 C m where C is coulomb and m is meter.
Further dipole moment is a vector quantity and by convention it is depicted by a small arrow with tail on the negative centre and head pointing towards the positive centre. But in chemistry presence of dipole moment is
represented by the crossed arrow ( ) put on Lewis structure of the molecule. The cross is on positive end and arrow head is on negative end.
This arrow symbolises the direction of the shift of electron density in the molecule. Note that the direction of crossed arrow is opposite to the conventional direction of dipole moment vector.
In case of polyatomic molecules the dipole moment not only depend upon the individual dipole moments of bonds known as bond dipoles but also on the spatial arrangement of various bonds in the molecule.
In such case, the dipole moment of a molecule is the vector sum of the dipole moments of various bonds. For example in H2O molecule, which has a bent structure, the two O–H bonds are oriented at an angle of 104.50. Net dipole moment of 6.17 x 10–30 C m (1D = 3.33564 × 10–30 C m) is the resultant of the dipole moments of two O–H bonds.
The dipole moment in case of BeF2 is zero. This is because the two equal bond dipoles point in opposite directions and cancel the effect of each other.
In tetra-atomic molecule, for example in BF3, the dipole moment is zero although the B – F bonds are oriented at an angle of 120o to one another, the three bond moments give a net sum of zero as the resultant of any two is equal and opposite to the third.
Let us study an interesting case of NH3 and NF3 molecule. Both the molecules have pyramidal shape with a lone pair of electrons on nitrogen atom. Although fluorine is more electronegative than nitrogen, the resultant
dipole moment of NH3 ( 4.90 × 10–30 C m) is greater than that of NF3 (0.8 × 10–30 C m). This is because, in case of NH3 the orbital dipole due to lone pair is in the same direction as the resultant dipole moment of the N – H bonds, whereas in NF3 the orbital dipole is in the direction opposite to the resultant dipole moment of the three N–F bonds. The orbital dipole because of lone pair decreases the effect of the resultant N – F bond moments, which results in the low dipole moment of NF3 as represented below :
Just as all the covalent bonds have some partial ionic character, the ionic bonds also have partial covalent character. The partial covalent character of ionic bonds was discussed by Fajans in terms of the following rules:
- The smaller the size of the cation and the larger the size of the anion, the greater the covalent character of an ionic bond.
- The greater the charge on the cation, the greater the covalent character of the ionic bond.
- For cations of the same size and charge, the one, with electronic configuration (n-1)dnnso, typical of transition metals, is more polarising than the one with a noble gas configuration, ns2 np6, typical of alkali and alkaline earth metal cations.
- The cation polarises the anion, pulling the electronic charge toward itself and thereby increasing the electronic charge between the two. This is precisely what happens in a covalent bond, i.e., buildup of electron charge density between the nuclei. The polarising power of the cation, the polarisability of the anion and the extent of distortion (polarisation) of anion are the factors, which determine the per cent covalent character of the ionic bond. | https://rank1neet.com/4-3-6polarity-of-bonds/ |
Ch. 6 – Molecular Structure III. Molecular Polarity (p. 183) A. Dipole Moment Direction of the polar bond in a molecule. Arrow points toward the more e-neg atom. B. Determining Molecular Polarity Depends on: dipole moments molecular shape B. Determining Molecular Polarity Nonpolar Molecules Dipole moments are symmetrical and cancel out. B. Determining Molecular Polarity Polar Molecules ... I think that dipole moments determine the polarity of molecules, so if one molecule has a larger dipole moment than another, the one with the larger dipole moment is more polar than the other. Is this correct? Can the magnitude of how polar a molecule is be calculated from the difference in...Jul 05, 2006 · CHCl3 would have the greatest dipole moment. The atoms are in a tetrahedron with the Carbon in the center. The negativity of the Clorine is what creates the dipole and three of them create a greater net force. 5. Examples: CHCl3,HCl . Non-polar molecules. 1. These molecules do not have permanent dipole moments . 2. The polarization of polar molecules is temperature independent. 3. These molecules have symmetrical structure and they have centre of symmetry. 4. For these molecules, there is no absorption or emission in the infrared range. 5. Examples ... Distance: The strength of the dipolar interaction depends on the distance between the spins. The effect is inversely proportional to the sixth power of distance (1/r6) The second dipole then precesses at a slightly lower or higher frequency, gaining or losing phase in the process. This mechanism of dipolar...More the electronegativity of an atom, more strongly it pulls the electron. Polar Molecules: The molecules that have their dipole moment value equals to non zero are polar molecules as they have some permanent dipole moment. Let us check what differences the polar and nonpolar molecules actually make. Few examples of polar molecules are HCN, SF4, etc. Your email address will not be published ...
The dipole moment is dependent on temperature, so tables that list the values should state the temperature. At 25°C, the dipole moment of cyclohexane is 0. It is 1.5 for chloroform and 4.1 for dimethyl sulfoxide. Calculating the Dipole Moment of Water.Oct 19, 2011 · d) CHCl3 e) ICl2 - f) HOF. g) NH4 + h) PF5 i) ClF4+ 12) Describe the shape of each of the following: a) H2O2 b) C3O2 c) OSF4. 13) Which of the molecules, H2O or OF2, would you expect to have the larger dipole moment? Explain.
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Springboard geometry page 261
This gives us a net dipole that looks something like this: [CHCl3 molecule with dipoles pointing to chlorine] 03:58. And remember when we started this question approximately twenty years ago, that we were . 04:02. looking for a molecule with NO dipole. 04:05. So this is not the answer. 04:06. So that means B is most definitely our answer. 04:09 Both CH2Cl2 and CHCl3 are bonded in a tetrahedral structure. The net dipole moment of CHCl3 is less than that of CH2Cl2 because the individual C-Cl dipole moments of CHCl3 cancel out each other to ... The compounds ClF,PCl3 and CFCl3 have non zero value of dipole moment. nI these molecules, the individual bond dipoles do not cancel each other. Hence, the net dipole moment of the molecule is non zero.Apr 24, 2010 · A. NF3 B. CHCl3 C. SF6 D. SnCl2 E. SO3^2- F. ClO3^- G. PH3 H. NO3^- Please explain See full list on byjus.com
1. Bond Dipole Moment. The electrons in a covalent bond connecting two different atoms are not equally shared by the atoms due to the electronegativity difference between Such a molecule has a dipole moment, which is equal to the vector sum of the dipole moments of all bonds in the molecule.
A dipole moment is caused by the presence of one or more polar bonds (ie bonds between two different elements) that is(are) not balanced by other bonds. So HCl has a dipole moment because the H-Cl bond is polar (H and Cl have different electronegativity).May 20, 2014 · Which of the following compounds has the smallest dipole moment? a. CF2Cl2 d. CFCl3 b. CF3Cl e. CHFCl2 c. CF4 Mozart Neves Ramos - Possui Graduação em Engenharia Química pela Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (1977), Doutorado em Química pela Universidade Estadual de Campinas (1982) e Pós-Doutorado em Química pela Politécnica de Milão - Itália (1987-1988). Foi Professor da UFPE de 1977 a 2013. Foi Pró-Reitor Acadêmico da UFPE (1992-1995) e presidiu o Fórum Nacional de Pró-Reitores de ... Not true, CHCl3 will have an overall dipole moment if you look at the structure in 3D So there is a net negative charge on the "bottom" of the molecule and a net positive charge at the "top" of the molecule when seen as in the diagram Dipole moment measurements have been reported for some conjugated and cross-conjugated mesomeric betaines. For example, the 1,3-diacetyl derivative of (7) has a dipole moment of 2.12 D 〈66JA5588〉.
The solvation behavior of MeOH CHCl3 mixture shows strong probe dependence with no synergism observed in p-nitroaniline, which is ascribed to its higher ground state dipole moment (8.8 D) relative to C480 (6.3 D). If at that moment, another nitrogen atoms approaches, the slight positive end of the first nitrogen molecule would attract the electron cloud of the second, creating a temporary induced dipole in that molecule, which would allow both molecules to be attracted to each other. This weak IMF is called an induced dipole-induced dipole IMF. Trichloromethane, CHCl 3, is a highly polar molecule because of the electronegativity of the three chlorines. There will be quite strong dipole-dipole attractions between one molecule and its neighbours. On the other hand, tetrachloromethane, CCl 4, is non-polar. The outside of the molecule is uniformly - in all directions. | https://rtb.matrimoniodafiaba.it/dipole-moment-of-cfcl3.html |
Our next goal is to understand "noncovalent interactions". Noncovalent interactions hold together the two strands DNA in the double helix, convert linear proteins to 3D structures that are necessary for enzyme activity, and are the basis for antibody-antigen association. More importantly, noncovalent interactions between water molecules are probably the feature of water that is most important for biogenesis (the beginnings of life in the aqueous environment). Obviously, the topics of the next few sections, are of crucial importance to Biology.
But in order to understand noncovalent interactions, we first need to develop a better understanding of the nature of bonds ranging from purely covalent to ionic.
In other sections, chemical bonds are divided into two classes: covalent bonds, in which electrons are shared between atomic nuclei, and ionic bonds, in which electrons are transferred from one atom to the other. However, a sharp distinction between these two classes cannot be made. Unless both nuclei are the same (as in H2), an electron pair is never shared equally by both nuclei. There is thus some degree of electron transfer as well as electron sharing in most covalent bonds. On the other hand there is never a complete transfer of an electron from one nucleus to another in ionic compounds. The first nucleus always maintains some slight residual control over the transferred electron.
Pure Covalent Bonds
Pure Covalent Bonds are those in which electrons are shared equally between the two atoms involved. This can only happen for pairs of identical atoms. Iodine is a purple/black solid made up of I2 molecules, which should have a pure covalent bond by sharing 5p electrons. It's toxic, and, in solution, used as a bacteriocide. The Jmol models allow us to calculate the net charge on each atom, and it is 0, meaning that the charge is the same as if it were an isolated I atom. The value is displayed if the "Partial Charges" box is clicked. Right clicking on the molecule and selecting measurements" allows the distance between two atoms to be measured by clicking on each one in turn.
It is curious that the iodine molecule, with no net charges on either atom, should attract other iodine molecules to make a solid. This exemplifies one kind of attraction important in biomolecules, the van der Waals attraction, and we'll discuss that a lot more later. It's not the most important kind of attraction, however. To see how stronger attractions between molecules arise, we need to see what happens when we change the I2 molecule slightly.
Polarizability of iodine atoms
Suppose we now change one I atom to atoms in Group I: a Li atom, Na atom, and Cs atom in succession. The products, lithium iodide (LiI), sodium iodide (NaI), and cesium iodide (CsI) look like typical ionic compounds; they are all white crystalline solids. NaI is used as a source of "iodine" (actually iodide) for "iodized salt", and looks just like NaCl. But the relatively low melting point of LiI (459oC) is suggestive of covalent bonding. It is important to realize that all of these compounds exist as crystal lattices, not individual molecules, under ordinary conditions. The individual molecules that we're discussing are gas phase species, modeled in a vacuum. LiI and its crystal lattice are shown here:
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The electrostatic potential surface confirms that there is sharing of electrons in LiF, because there is only a slight minimum in electron density between the atoms, and Li has clearly distorted the spherical distribution of electrons on I, showing that electrons are shared. In a purely ionic compound, there would be virtually no electron density between the two spherical electron clouds of the ions.
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We say that the small Li2+ ion distorts, or polarizes the large electron cloud of I-. Large anions (negative ions) are easily polarized, while smaller ones, like F- are much less polarizable because the electrons are held more tightly. We see that small cations (positive ions) like Li2+ are strong polarizers, while larger cations, like Na+ or Cs+ are less effective polarizers.
Becase Cs+ is least effective in polarizing I-, CsI is the most ionic of the three. The electron cloud around the I- is almost spherical (undistorted), and there is a definite decrease in electron density in the region between Cs and I. But there is still some sharing of electrons in CsI, because we do not see a region of zero electron density between two spherical ions. This is, in part, due to the fact that Cs is large (near the bottom of Group I), so it is also slightly polarized by the iodine core.
Dipole Moments
The extent of polarization in LiI can be confirmed experimentally. An ion pair like LiI has a negative end (I–) and a positive end (Li+). That is, it has two electrical “poles,” like the north and south magnetic poles of a magnet. The ion pair is therefore an electrical dipole (literally “two poles“), and a quantity known as its dipole moment may be determined from experimental measurements. The dipole moment μ is proportional to the size of the separated electrical charges Q and to the distance r between them:
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- μ = Qr (1)
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If the bond were completely ionic, there would be a net charge of –1.6021 × 10–19 C (the electronic charge) centered on the I nucleus and a charge of +1.6021 × 10–19 C centered on the Li nucleus:The dipole moment would then be given by
μ = Qr = 1.6021 × 10–19 C × 239.2 × 10–12 m = 3.832 × 10–29 C m
The measured value of the dipole moment for the LiH ion pair is 2.43× 10–29 C m, which is only about 64 percent of this value. This can only be because the negative charge is not centered on the I nucleus but shifted somewhat toward the Li+ nucleus. This shift brings the opposite charges closer together, and the experimental dipole moment is smaller than would be expected.
As the bond becomes less polarized, there is less electron sharing and the bond becomes more ionic. In the case of CsI, the charge is 0.822 e, so the dipole moment is 82% of the theoretical value for a totally ionic species. The bond distance is 270.0 pm, so the dipole moment is
μ = Qr = 0.822 e ×1.6021 × 10–19 C/e × 270.0 × 10–12 m = 3.56 × 10–29 C m
The polarization of the bond in LiI gives it very different properties than the nonpolar I2. It's interesting that the blood/brain barrier allows nonpolar molecules, like O2 to pass freely, while more polar molecules may be prohibited. Ionic species, like the Li+ and I– that result from dissolving LiI in water, require special carrier-mediated transport mechanism which moderates the ion levels in the brain, even when plasma levels fluctuate significantly.
References
Contributors
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Ed Vitz (Kutztown University), John W. Moore (UW-Madison), Justin Shorb (Hope College), Xavier Prat-Resina (University of Minnesota Rochester), Tim Wendorff, and Adam Hahn.
Contributors
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Ed Vitz (Kutztown University), John W. Moore (UW-Madison), Justin Shorb (Hope College), Xavier Prat-Resina (University of Minnesota Rochester), Tim Wendorff, and Adam Hahn.
Ed Vitz (Kutztown University), John W. Moore (UW-Madison), Justin Shorb (Hope College), Xavier Prat-Resina (University of Minnesota Rochester), Tim Wendorff, and Adam Hahn. | https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book%3A_ChemPRIME_(Moore_et_al.)/07Further_Aspects_of_Covalent_Bonding/7.08%3A_Polarizability/Biology%3A_Polarizability_of_Biologically_Significant_Atoms |
A dipole forms, with part of the molecule carrying a slight positive charge and the other part carrying a slight negative charge. You have to draw two dipoles converging from negative to positive going towards the center, so there is no single dipole. In a nonpolar covalent bond, the electrons are evenly distributed. The polarity of a molecule is directly proportional to the difference between the electronegativity of atoms. Now it’s easier to understand that polarity refers to the distribution of electric charge around atoms, chemical groups, or molecules. Polar materials tend to be more soluble in polar solvents, and the same is true for nonpolar materials. This linear structure creates a situation where even as one of the oxygen atoms attempts to pull electrons from the carbon atom. The dipole across the C=O bonds is non zero and originates towards oxygen, but the equal and opposite dipoles cancel out each other resulting in a nonpolar molecule. Therefore, carbon dioxide is one of the gases that we need in our life in order to survive. As a result, the oxygen has a slightly negative charge and the carbon has a slightly positive charge. How do you think about the answers? Polar Molecules: The molecules that have non zero value of their dipole moment are polar molecules. The […], Since the 1960s, thousands of researches have been conducted in different sectors (immunology, oncology, neuropsychology, etc.) This happens when there is a difference between the electronegativity of each atom.A very obvious difference forms an ionic bond, while a lesser difference forms a polar covalent bond. Can u explain this to me. Polar molecules have a non-zero net dipole moment.Polar molecules are molecules that have areas of both positive and negative charge. The CO2 molecule is symmetrical, so the effect of the bond dipoles will cancel. Thus, producing the so-called greenhouse effect. If you know the polarity of molecules, you can predict whether or not they will mix together to form chemical solutions.
Bonds that have the same types of atoms comprising them are nonpolar and don’t allow the electrons within the bond to shift, because the nuclei of both atoms will cling tightly to the electrons that they have. Some elements want to attract and hold onto electrons more than anything, while other elements just want their electrons to give them some space. Why Does Shaking A Soda Bottle Make It Fizz Even More? The difference between the electronegativity of both atoms is sufficient to have polarity across C=O bonds in the CO2 molecule. The binding energy of electrons in a metal is 180 kJ/mol . Carbon dioxide (CO2) is nonpolar because it has a linear, symmetrical structure, with 2 oxygen atoms of equal electronegativity pulling the electron density from carbon at an angle of 180 degrees from either direction.
He likes Harry Potter and the Avengers, and obsesses over how thoroughly Science dictates every aspect of life⦠in this universe, at least. CO2 gas is also present in soft drinks that we often consume. Would You Feel Anything If You Flew Over An Earthquake In An Airplane? We're sorry to hear that! Let’s get to know what is carbon dioxide before we discover it’s polarity. A polar covalent bond is an unequal sharing of electrons between two atoms with different electronegativities (χ). What Makes Dog Go Crazy Over Beef Pizzle? If a molecule consists of more than one bond, then the combined effect of all these bonds must be considered. CO2 molecule consists of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms. eval(ez_write_tag([[300,250],'youaskweanswer_net-box-4','ezslot_3',116,'0','0']));An element’s ability to attract electrons is called electronegativity.
What Would Happen If You Shot A Bullet On A Train? This gas is also used in fire extinguishers as it stops the fire immediately. Industrially, it is recovered for numerous diverse applications from flue gas. eval(ez_write_tag([[300,250],'youaskweanswer_net-large-mobile-banner-1','ezslot_2',120,'0','0']));Meanwhile, the other end of the atom (oxygen molecule) has a slight negative charge, and these two charges give water its polarity. eval(ez_write_tag([[728,90],'youaskweanswer_net-large-leaderboard-2','ezslot_5',118,'0','0']));You might be a little bit confused because of water molecule. Since it is true that oxygen has a greater electronegative strength than carbon, one would think that the bonds between oxygen and carbon would see the electrons being pulled toward the oxygen and have the molecule become polar.
If […], Despite its modest physical profile — approximately three pounds of water and fatty tissue — the brain is the most […]. This makes a molecule polar. The density of this gas is 1.98 kg/m3 that is 1.67 times to that of dry air. I have a 1993 penny it appears to be half copper half zink is this possible? One of the most famous examples of polar molecules is water. Coefficient Of Restitution: Definition, Explanation And Formula. But before that, let’s find out at what polar and nonpolar molecules mean. You can predict nonpolar molecules will form when atoms have the same or similar electronegativity. Ko Polarity is basically dipole moment which depends upon charge and distance. Dipole Moment: The dipole of the polar molecules is always non zero. These forces nullify one another and the result is that the although both oxygen atoms are pulling on electrons, none of the electrons in the molecule actually shift positions at all. What Is The Huntsman Spider? 7 Scientifically Inaccurate Things They Show in Movies: Most Common Movie Mistakes and Myths. Whereas other atom gets a relative positive charge. Get your answers by asking now.
The shape that it has and the type of bonds it consists of leave it with no regions of charge. The dipole moment of these molecules is non zero. The bond between two atoms is said to be polar if both atoms are different, because if both atoms are the same, then the nuclei of both these atoms will hold on to their electrons and consequently, these electrons wonât be able to shift in any direction. Electronegativity: If there is a difference between the electronegativity of atoms forming a covalent bond, it ensures the polarity of the bond formed. The presence of the gas in the atmosphere keeps some of the radiant energy received by Earth from being returned to space. Although the carbon and oxygen differ in their electronegativity due to which C=O bond is polar, the polarity of both opposite C=O bonds get canceled by each other due to symmetrical shape and result in a nonpolar molecule with zero dipole moment. The polarity of a molecule is decided by the type of bonding it involves across its atoms. In methane , the bonds are arranged symmetrically (in a tetrahedral arrangement) so there is … What Is The Fibonacci Sequence? | http://www.fatransprl.org/blog/archive.php?page=is-co2-polar-0fd41a |
Worksheet polarity of bonds answers. A electronegativity trends are similar to ionization energy. True b as the electronegativity of an element increases the attraction for a shared pair of electrons decreases. Carbon disulfide is nonpolar. Practice the following skills.
Both are polar but oxygen dichloride is less symmetric than nitrogen trichloride making it more polar. Bond polarity and dipole moment. What a covalent bond is the difference between polar and non polar bonds the relationship between electronegativity and type of bond formed skills practiced.
Polar bonds supplemental worksheet. For each of the following pairs of molecules determine which is most polar and explain your reason for making this choice. Some of the worksheets displayed are polar bonds supplemental work electronegativity ap chemistry chapter 8 answers zumdahl 8 organic molecules work 4 functions bond polarity bonding supplemental work chapter 12 chemical bonding electronegativity molecular geometry review. Worksheet polarity of bonds determine the type of bond ionic slightly polar covalent polar covalent or non polar covalent that will form between atoms of the following elements and show the polarity of the bond if it is polar covalent draw the arrows.
The element will have a stronger attraction for the shared pair of electrons. Lesson 9 Molecular Polarity. Chemistry Ii Polarity Homework. Chemical Bonds.
Covalent Bonding Worksheet Answers
Molecular Geometry Worksheet. Unit 4 Bonding Science With Dumars. Polar Covalent Bonds Electronegativity. Bonding Packet. Covalent Compounds Worksheet.
Electronegativity Worksheet I 3. Valence Electrons. Molecular Polarity Chart Atlaselevator Co. Worksheet Polarity Of Bonds Answers.Although we defined covalent bonding as electron sharing, the electrons in a covalent bond are not always shared equally by the two bonded atoms.
This is a nonpolar covalent bond. This is a polar covalent bond.Polar and Non Polar Covalent Molecules, Polar vs. Nonpolar - CLEAR & SIMPLE
Any covalent bond between atoms of different elements is a polar bond, but the degree of polarity varies widely. Some bonds between different elements are only minimally polar, while others are strongly polar. Ionic bonds can be considered the ultimate in polarity, with electrons being transferred rather than shared.
To judge the relative polarity of a covalent bond, chemists use electronegativity, which is a relative measure of how strongly an atom attracts electrons when it forms a covalent bond.
There are various numerical scales for rating electronegativity. The polarity of a covalent bond can be judged by determining the difference in the electronegativities of the two atoms making the bond. The greater the difference in electronegativities, the greater the imbalance of electron sharing in the bond. Although there are no hard and fast rules, the general rule is if the difference in electronegativities is less than about 0. If the difference in electronegativities is large enough generally greater than about 1.
An electronegativity difference of zero, of course, indicates a nonpolar covalent bond. A popular scale for electronegativities has the value for fluorine atoms set at 4. Describe the electronegativity difference between each pair of atoms and the resulting polarity or bond type. In short, the molecule itself is polar. The polarity of water has an enormous impact on its physical and chemical properties.
Thus, carbon dioxide molecules are nonpolar overall. The physical properties of water and carbon dioxide are affected by their polarities. What does the electronegativity of an atom indicate? What type of bond is formed between two atoms if the difference in electronegativities is small? Electronegativity is a qualitative measure of how much an atom attracts electrons in a covalent bond.
Skills to Develop Covalent bonds have certain characteristics that depend on the identities of the atoms participating in the bond. Two characteristics are bond length and bond polarity. Electronegativity and Bond Polarity Although we defined covalent bonding as electron sharing, the electrons in a covalent bond are not always shared equally by the two bonded atoms.
The difference is 0. The C—H bond is therefore considered nonpolar.
Polar Non Polar Covalent
Both hydrogen atoms have the same electronegativity value—2. The difference is zero, so the bond is nonpolar. The difference is 2. With 2.Most compounds, however, have polar covalent bonds A covalent bond in which the electrons are shared unequally between the bonded atoms. Figure 8. In a purely covalent bond athe bonding electrons are shared equally between the atoms.
In a purely ionic bond can electron has been transferred completely from one atom to the other. A polar covalent bond b is intermediate between the two extremes: the bonding electrons are shared unequally between the two atoms, and the electron distribution is asymmetrical with the electron density being greater around the more electronegative atom. Electron-rich negatively charged regions are shown in blue; electron-poor positively charged regions are shown in red.
The polarity of a bond—the extent to which it is polar—is determined largely by the relative electronegativities of the bonded atoms. Thus there is a direct correlation between electronegativity and bond polarity.
A bond is nonpolar if the bonded atoms have equal electronegativities. If the electronegativities of the bonded atoms are not equal, however, the bond is polarized toward the more electronegative atom. The bonding electrons are more strongly attracted to the more electronegative chlorine atom, and so the charge distribution is. Remember that electronegativities are difficult to measure precisely and different definitions produce slightly different numbers.
In practice, the polarity of a bond is usually estimated rather than calculated. Bond polarity and ionic character increase with an increasing difference in electronegativity.
As with bond energies, the electronegativity of an atom depends to some extent on its chemical environment. The dipole moment is defined as the product of the partial charge Q on the bonded atoms and the distance r between the partial charges:. The unit for dipole moments is the debye D :. When a molecule with a dipole moment is placed in an electric field, it tends to orient itself with the electric field because of its asymmetrical charge distribution Figure 8.
In the absence of a field athe HCl molecules are randomly oriented. When an electric field is applied bthe molecules tend to align themselves with the field, such that the positive end of the molecular dipole points toward the negative terminal and vice versa. We can measure the partial charges on the atoms in a molecule such as HCl using Equation 8.
The dipole moment of HCl is 1. Hence the charge on each atom is. By dividing this calculated value by the charge on a single electron 1. To form a neutral compound, the charge on the H atom must be equal but opposite. We indicate the dipole moment by writing an arrow above the molecule. Mathematically, dipole moments are vectors, and they possess both a magnitude and a direction. The dipole moment of a molecule is the vector sum of the dipoles of the individual bonds.
In HCl, for example, the dipole moment is indicated as follows:. The arrow shows the direction of electron flow by pointing toward the more electronegative atom.
The charge on the atoms of many substances in the gas phase can be calculated using measured dipole moments and bond distances.Played times. Print Share Edit Delete. Live Game Live. Finish Editing. This quiz is incomplete! To play this quiz, please finish editing it. Delete Quiz. Question 1. What kind of bond do you have: F and Cl. Which of the following elements has the weakest attraction for electrons in a chemical bond?
The molecule shown in the diagram can best be classified as a. The polarity of a bond between two elements can be best determined by. The difference in electronegativity between the elements. The difference in first ionization energy between the elements. The number of electrons shared in the bond. The difference in atomic radius between the elements. In the diagram shown, what is the total number of electrons shared in the bond between the two carbon atoms? Which bond is most polar?
Which formula represents a polar molecule? CCl 4. Is the molecule H 2 O polar or non-polar? What kind of bond do you have: Br and Br. What kind of compound is CO 2? Non-polar molecule with polar bonds.Chemistry is not the easiest lesson at high-school, and it is even considered as one of the hardest subjects. Chemical bonding might be one of the difficult chemistry subjects. Covalent bonding is included in that chemical bonding. A good way to learn this covalent bonding is by doing a lot of worksheets.
Doing this exercise will make it easier to learn and remember the covalent bonding. Well, covalent bonding worksheet answers can help you to identify whether you are correct or not.
Before you get yourself a covalent bonding worksheet answers, you must know about covalent bonding. It usually happens between non-metal atoms that have relatively big electronegativity.
This bonding can also form atoms that have identical electronegativity values. The covalence term first introduced by Irving Langmuir indescribing the electron pairs that shared by two or more atoms.
The term was then reintroduced as the covalent bond in In covalent bond, there are two important types: nonpolar covalent bonds and polar covalent bonds. Nonpolar or pure bonds happen when two or more atoms equally shared the electron pairs.
Two atoms bonding that have electronegativity difference less than 0. The examples of the nonpolar bonds are N2, CH4, and H2. On the other hand, two atoms bonding that has electronegativity between 0.
The last bond is called ionic bond. It happens if the electronegativity differences between two atoms are above 1. Knowing all these types will help to understand the covalent bonding worksheet answers better.
First, you need to identify each element. After knowing the order of covalent compounds, you must know the names of each atom in that compound. For example, HCl will be named as hydrogen chloride. Be sure to check your worksheet answer with covalent bonding worksheet answers to know the correct answers.
Covalent Bond Practice
The prefix are di- for 2, tri- for 3, tetra- for 4, penta- for 5, hexa- for 6, septa- for 7, octa- for 8, nona- for 9, deca- for 10, and many more. The example for this is dinitrogen trioxide for N2O3. Always check your answer with covalent bonding worksheet answers to know the correct prefix. Leave for many minutes. As a result of Jody Hodges for developing this terrific project!
4.4: Polar and Non-polar Covalent Bonds
It is very important to be in a position to speak and write in proper. English You should to broaden your choices in job and career advancement and be prosperous. The worksheet also has another activity linked to physical and chemical alterations.
It is essential that the goal setting worksheet ought to be followed in any way, and it should be kept where you are able to see it in order to keep track of your progress and remind yourself what you need to achieve. A mole, in this instance, is not a furry little ground-burrowing animal. Nature of Reactants The essence of the reactants determines the essence of the activation energy or the height of the energy barrier that has overcome the reaction to happen.
All matter in the universe is made up of numerous chemical elements. The differences between bonds are simpler to spot, but they are equally important when attempting to understand chemical bonding.Follow your teachers directions to complete each covalent bond. Ionic electrovalent and covalent combination worksheet will challenge learners to learn the concept of bonding in metals to non metals combination and non metal to non metal bonding.
Covalent bonds cooperative bonding worksheet answers. Covalent bonding worksheet covalent bonding occurs when two or more nonmetals share electrons attempting to attain a stable octet 8 outer electronsin their outer shell for at least part of the time.
Dont use mono for first name but always for second name. Some of the worksheets displayed are covalent bonding work chem work 3 ionic and covalent bonding model 1 covalent compound naming work chapter 7 practice work covalent bonds and molecular ionic covalent bonds work key chemical bonding work covalent bonding basics. Covalent compound ionic compound use greek prefixes put prefixes in front of element names to tell how many atoms are there.
Ionic and covalent bonds with answers showing top 8 worksheets in the category ionic and covalent bonds with answers. Li 2s metal and non metal ionic lithium sulfide no not di lithium sulfide no prefixes for ionic compounds n2o4 2 non metalscovalent. Naming Compounds. Course Chemistry Engelhardt. Nanohub Org Collections Posts. Valence Electrons. Ionic Bonding Notes. Covalent Bond. Post a Comment. Share this post. Newer Post Older Post Home.
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The density derived electrostatic and chemical (DDEC/c3) method is implemented into the onetep program to compute net atomic charges (NACs), as well as higher-order atomic multipole moments, of molecules, dense solids, nanoclusters, liquids, and biomolecules using linear-scaling density functional theory (DFT) in a distributed memory parallel computing environment. For a >1000 atom model of the oxygenated myoglobin protein, the DDEC/c3 net charge of the adsorbed oxygen molecule is approximately −1e (in agreement with the Weiss model) using a dynamical mean field theory treatment of the iron atom, but much smaller in magnitude when using the generalized gradient approximation. For GaAs semiconducting nanorods, the system dipole moment using the DDEC/c3 NACs is about 5% higher in magnitude than the dipole computed directly from the quantum mechanical electron density distribution, and the DDEC/c3 NACs reproduce the electrostatic potential to within approximately 0.1 V on the nanorod’s solvent-accessible surface. As examples of conducting materials, we study (i) a 55-atom Pt cluster with an adsorbed CO molecule and (ii) the dense solids Mo2C and Pd3V. Our results for solid Mo2C and Pd3V confirm the necessity of a constraint enforcing exponentially decaying electron density in the tails of buried atoms. | https://eprint.ncl.ac.uk/226469 |
Nitryl Chloride, or NO2Cl, is a volatile inorganic chemical that is primarily employed as a nitrating agent for aromatic compounds.
In less polar solvents, its solutions are colourless; in polar solvents, they are yellow. NO2Cl has a molecular weight of 81.46 g/mol. It has a boiling temperature of -15°C and a melting point of -145°C.
We’ll sketch the Lewis structure and learn about Nitryl Chloride’s hybridization, geometry, and polarity later in the article (NO2Cl). Yet first, let us familiarise oneself with a few minor but crucial principles in order to proceed forward.
Electrons of Valence
The electrons that are held by the atom in its outermost shell and are responsible for bond formation are known as valence electrons.
To create an octet, the atom totally gives or takes electrons, or even shares them together, during the bond formation process. During bond formation, valence electrons are donated, accepted, or shared, which aids bonding.
The Rule of the Octet
The octet rule asserts that atoms must contain 8 electrons in their valence shell or the next stable noble gas configuration to become stable.
In chemistry, there are always exceptions. The octet rule states that, like other noble gaseous atoms, hydrogen only needs two electrons in its one and only shell to create a stable state.
Lewis Structure of NO2Cl
The valence electrons of all the atoms in a molecule are represented in Lewis structure, which is a simplified representation. It offers us a notion of bond order, bonding, and electron lone pairs.
The total number of valence electrons available in Nitryl Chloride (NO2Cl) is 24 (5 from nitrogen + 7 from chlorine + 6(2) from 2 oxygen atoms). To make a single NO2Cl molecule, these 24 electrons are required.
Let’s draw the Lewis structure of the NO2Cl molecule using the techniques below.
Step 1: We’ll start by calculating the total number of valence electrons in the molecule.
The periodic table places nitrogen in group 15, oxygen in group 16, and chlorine in group 17, suggesting that the atoms have 5, 6, and 7 valence electrons, respectively.
As a result, the total valence electrons in NO2Cl are: nitrogen valence electrons + 2(oxygen valence electrons) + chlorine valence electrons.
5 + 2 (6) + 7 =
equals 24
Step 2: Next, we’ll look for electron-deficient atoms as well as the number of electrons they need to complete an octet.
To achieve a stable noble gas arrangement, nitrogen requires 3 electrons, two oxygen atoms require 2 electrons each, and chlorine requires 1 atom.
Step 3: Next, we’ll count the number of bonds and the sorts of bonds that have formed across the molecule.
In the case of NO2Cl, the nitrogen and chlorine make a single shared covalent link, while the nitrogen and one oxygen atom form a coordinate bond, and the remaining oxygen and nitrogen atom form a double bond.
Step 4: Finally, we’ll look for the core atom. And the centre atom is usually the atom with the least electronegativity and is solitary.
It’s Nitrogen in our situation.
The Lewis structure of NO2Cl will now be illustrated and drawn as shown below.
When we look at the Lewis structure of NO2Cl, we see that every atom in the molecule now has a total of 8 electrons, completing their octets.
As can be seen, there are no lone pairs surrounding the nitrogen atom, whereas there are three lone pairs surrounding the chlorine atom and two and three lone pairs of electrons surrounding the respective oxygen atoms.
This is how we sketch and forecast the Lewis structure of diverse molecules in steps, giving us a better understanding of the molecule’s bonding and structure.
Hybridization of NO2Cl
Hybridization is the process of combining atomic orbitals with minor energy differences to produce hybrid orbitals that are identical in energy, shape, and size. In valence bond theory, the new orbitals created are known as hybrid orbitals and are used for chemical bonding.
We discover that a nitrogen atom in Nitryl Chloride(NO2Cl) is sp2 hybridised when we examine its hybridization.
One’s’ orbital joins with two ‘p’ orbitals with nearly comparable energies to make three degenerate hybrid orbitals in sp2 hybridization. In sp2 hybridization, the percentage of’s’ characters is 33% while the percentage of ‘p’ characters is 66%.
The novel hybrid orbitals are arranged in a 120° angle Trigonal planer shape.
As a result, while investigating the electronic configuration of Nitrogen in Nitryl Chloride (NO2Cl), we see: [He]2s22p3. According to valence bond theory, the nitrogen atom must undergo sp2 hybridization in order to connect with two oxygen atoms and one chlorine atom.
The three new sp2 hybridised orbitals make three bonds with oxygen and chlorine atoms during hybridization, while the remaining p orbital forms a -bond with the oxygen atom, resulting in a double-bonded oxygen and nitrogen atom.
The foregoing explanation shows how Nitryl Chloride forms three bonds and one bond (NO2Cl).
Geometrical Structure of NO2Cl
The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR) is used to predict the shape of the molecules. The number of electron pairs surrounding the core atom is used in this theory to predict the molecule’s molecular geometry.
According to VSEPR Theory, each atom in the molecule takes a position in space to reduce repulsion between the electrons in its valence shell.
Drawing the Lewis structure of the given molecule predicts the bonding electrons as well as the lone pairs on the central atom. The needed molecule’s molecular geometry will thus be determined by the bonding units as well as non-bonding electrons present on the central atom.
The presence of 3 bonding pairs and 0 lone pairs surrounding the core atom in NO2Cl suggests a steric number of 3. Molecules with a steric number of three point to a sp2 hybridization.
The geometry of NO2Cl would be ideally Trigonal Planar with a bond angle of 120° if it had no lone, three bonding pairs, and a sp2 hybridization.
NO2Cl has a symmetrical charge distribution due to the absence of lone pairs. The bond angle between N-Cl and N-O is 120°, and the bond length between them is 1.83 and 1.21.
Polarity of NO2Cl
The distribution of electric charge between the individual atoms that make up the molecule is referred to as polarity. This happens because the atoms in the molecule have different electronegativity, resulting in a net dipole moment in the molecule with positively and negatively charged ends.
Because of the electronegativity discrepancy in the molecule, charges are distributed unequally among the constituent atoms, resulting in the molecule’s polarity.
Consider the geometry of Nitryl Chloride (NO2Cl), which is a trigonal planar with the nitrogen atom hybridised to the sp2 position. We’ll find that the charge distribution in the molecule is symmetrical due to the trigonal planer geometry and the absence of lone pairs.
In the case of NO2Cl, the difference in electronegativity between the 2(N-O) bonds causes the dipole moment to be directed towards the oxygen atom. The dipole moment in the N-Cl bond, on the other hand, is directed towards the nitrogen atom. When the dipole moments of both N-O bonds are added to the dipole moment of the N-Cl bond, the net dipole moment of nitryl chloride (NO2Cl) increases. NO2Cl is polar in nature because of its rising net dipole moment.
NO2Cl
Conclusion
We can conclude that nitryl chloride (NO2Cl) possesses sp2 hybridization with trigonal planer geometry based on the previous findings. The polarity of nitryl chloride (NO2Cl) is also seen in nature.
The geometry, hybridization, polarity, and Lewis structure of NO2Cl are now complete. | https://mychinews.com/molecular-geometry-hybridization-and-polarity-of-no2cl-lewis-structure/ |
Polar Covalent Bond
A covalent bond between the different atoms has the possibility of acquiring the ionic characters that can be described on the basis of electronegativity concept. Electronegativity of the element is illustrated as the power of its atoms for attracting “d” pair of electrons or bonding towards itself.
Polar Character of covalent bond
When the covalent bond is formed between two identical atoms, then the “shared pair of electrons” are located halfway between the nuclei of 2 atoms, as both atoms gain the same attraction for “bonding electrons”. The atomic orbital or electron cloud that creates covalent bonds is distributed symmetrically around atoms. This type of covalent bonding is known as a non-polar covalent bond.
For instance, molecules such as H2, N2, O2 and Cl2, all consist of non-polar bonds.
If in any case, there’s the formation of a covalent bond between two dissimilar or unidentical atoms, one out of which bears a large electronegativity value, the bonding electrons pair is distributed towards higher electronegative atom. Specifically, the electron cloud which contains the bonding electrons receive distortion and the charge density is more concentrated around more atom which is having higher electronegativity.
Due to the uneven distribution of electron charging density, more electronegative atom receives limited negative charge (pointed out as 8-, in fact, less electronegative atom acquiring a limited positive charge being indicated as 8+). Therefore, a covalent bond advances to the partial ionic character as a consequence of the dissimilarity of the atoms’ electronegativities which is comprised of the bond. This type of bond is known as a polar covalent bond, shown in the figure below.
For instance, the bond present between H and Cl atoms in the HCl molecule is of polar nature as the shared pair of the electron is dislocated towards the Cl (chlorine) atom that is having higher electronegativity.
For example, hydrogen fluoride is more polar than hydrogen chloride because the difference between H and F is more than that between H and Cl
The limit of an ionic character in the covalent bond is dependent on the electronegativities’ difference of two atoms which form a bond. The greater the electronegativity difference, the higher is the ionic character percentage in a bond. Let’s say, Hydrogen Flouride (HF) has higher polarity than Hydrogen Chloride due to H and F differences which are higher than between Hydrogen (H) and Chloride (Cl).
There has been this notice that the bond features half ionic character and half covalent character, if electronegativity difference is 1.7 of the participating atoms, on the flip side, the covalent character becomes dominant if the electronegativity difference is lower than 1.7, and the ionic character leads if the electronegativity difference is more than 1.7.
Summary
Compounds containing polar covalent bonds consist of electrons which are unevenly shared between bonded atoms. The polarity of this type of bond is decided mostly by respective electronegativities of bonded atoms.
The asymmetrical distribution of charge in polar substances produce dipole moments, which refers to the product of incomplete/partial charge on bonded atoms and the defined distance between them. | https://codesjava.com/polar-character-of-covalent-bond |
excited state EC of boron is 1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1. so it undergoes sp2 type of hybrydisation and has trigonal planar shape.
BF3 is Non-Polar :)
BF3 is the compound Boron Triflouride
trigonal planar
No. The individual bonds are polar, but BF3 is trigonal planar so the overall molecule is not polar.
bromine trifluoride (BF3)
120 degrees
BF3 is a molecule in the trigonal planar shape. It has a central boron atom that is surrounded on three sides by three fluorine atoms.
BF3 and other similar Lewis Acids
BF3 has polar covalent bonds. It is planar and symmetric so the net dipole moment of the molecule is zero.
NH3 is a 3D object (like an open umbrella) but BF3 is all on one plane in a triangle.In the second case the dipoles cancel each other
BF3 is a Trigonal planar molecule due to presence of three electrons pairs around the Boron atom, due to symmetry in molecule the Dipole moment becomes zero, but PF3 is a Pyramidal molecule because along with three bonded electron pairs Phosphorus also have a lone pair of electrons, due to asymmetry in the molecule this molecule has a net Dipole moment.
The geometry of XeCl2 is linear with a symmetric charge distribution.Therefore this molecule is nonpolar.
SO2 is bent shaped and has a net dipole moment.
BF3 is a planar molecule with bond angle 120 0 . The bonds are polar but the bond dipoles cancel one another out - think of it as symmetry or vector addition or that they pull equally in opposite directions.
It is a Trigonal planar molecule three 'F' atoms are arranged around the "B" atom at the angles of 120, due to symmetry in molecule the Dipole moment becomes zero.
Boron trifluoride BF3 reacts with F- ion to form the BF4- ion. BF3 has only 6 electrons around the B atom, is planar, and is a Lewis acid (as it will accept electrons from an electron pair donor such as F-. BF4- is a tetrahedral ion- all four bonds are equivalent.
The shape of this molecule is Trigonal Planar. this is because it has no lone pairs of electrons so it maintains a 2D shape.
name of BF3 is Boron trifluoride.
2
BF3 has 24 valence electrons.
BF3 is the ionic compound Boron trifluoride.
No, BF3 is an single player game only you'll have to wait until BF3 Multiplayer Disc comes out in May. Sorry
BF3 because i have both and BF3 is very realiastic, has many interactive objects like vehicles, the online is very nice. MW3 is almost cartoony compared to BF3 and MW3 is just like the other COD's and gets boring. its predictable. I like BF3 way more. :)
Polar covalent. BF3 is planar with bond angles of 1200. | https://www.answers.com/Q/Ball-and_stick_model_of_a_BF3_molecule |
Chemical formulation of Beryllium Chloride is BeCl2. Is BeCl2 polar or nonpolar? It dissolves in a number of polar substances. Many students might have doubts about if beryllium chloride is polar or not. In the following blog post, we will answer the exact same and will ensure its own chemical properties and its applications.
Is BeCl2 Polar or Nonpolar from dipole moment
Non-polar because of the symmetrical (linear-shaped) geometry. Even though the Be-Cl bond is polar and contains some net dipole, the general BeCl2 molecule is non-polar in character since the dipole of the Be-Cl bonds is equal and opposite and has canceled by every other leading to the zero dipole moment. This makes BeCl2 nonpolar.
Synthesis of BeCl2
In 1797 L. N. Vauquelin undertook to prove the compound identity of this emerald and beryl, which had been guessed by Hauy, also in the course of his analytic research, found a portion of the precipitate that had been assumed to be aluminum hydroxide, was thrown from its own solution in potassium hydroxide on pops.
He discovered this fresh hydroxide was soluble in ammonium carbonate, shaped no alum, and was in several ways distinct from aluminum.
At standard conditions of pressure and temperature, beryllium chloride is present as yellow-white strong crystals nature.
This chemical is formed at elevated temperature from the response of the beryllium metal with chlorine gas.
Beryllium chloride is synthesized by reaction of the metal with chlorine at high temperatures:Synthesis chemical equations
Be + Cl2 → BeCl2
BeCl2 may also prepare yourself by carbothermal reduction of beryllium oxide from the presence of carbon at high temperatures. BeCl2 can be ready by fixing beryllium with hydrogen chloride acid.
The beryllium chloride sublimate is collected on a condenser kept below 400″C and so separated by the carbon dioxide coproduct of this response.
Beryllium chloride is quite hygro-scopic, so minimal contact with atmospheric moisture is essential. A graphite electrode acts as the anode in the electrolysis process of beryllium.
Additions of beryllium chloride to the tub are created while electrolysis is moving so as to keep constant toilet makeup. The beryllium crystal-shaped material is deposited in flake form on the cathode, which can be removed after completion of this run of electrolysis.
The scents are coated with a coating of the electrolyte, which can be eliminated by leaching in chilly water. The recovered salts are dried at low temperatures to prevent excessive oxidation.
Electrowinning of beryllium is no longer used commercially. At the manufacture of metallic beryllium contours by machining, about 75 percent of the beryllium is transformed to scrap.
The scrap metal could be purified by an identical electrolytic process utilizing the garbage as a consumable anode. Electrorefining flake is recovered in precisely the exact same fashion as the electrorefining item. Industrial electrorefining of beryllium is presently being practiced in the U.S.
The noise is in reality a 1-dimensional polymer made up of edge-shared tetrahedra structure. In contrast, BeF2 is a 3-dimensional polymer, using a structure very similar to that of the quartz glass structure.
In the gas phase, BeCl2 is just as a terminal monomer plus a bridged dimer with 2 bridging chlorine molecules in which the beryllium atom is 3-coordinate. The linear form of this monomeric type is referred to as the VSEPR theory.
Below is the response of the creation of beryllium chloride.
Be + Cl2 (chlorine) —-warmth —> BeCl2Simple chemical equation
If we talk about the chemical makeup of this Beryllium chloride, it is made up of 1 beryllium atom and two chlorine atoms on a molar chemistry basis.
The molecular mass of this molecule BeCl2 is 79.92 g/mol
It may be calculated as
Molecular mass of BeCl2 = 2* 35.4(atomic mass of Cl) + 1 * 9(atomic mass of Be) = 79.92 g/mol.
The electronegativity of beryllium is 1.57 and of chlorine is 3.16. The gap between the electronegativity of Be and Cl is 1.59 units.
To put it differently, the electron charge distribution throughout the Be-Cl bond is non-uniform.
The bonded electron pair marginally more towards its negative and gain partial negative charge and beryllium gain relative positive charge.
Along with the bond in the geometric form of this BeCl2 molecule is linear. Because of that, the dipoles created across Be-Cl bonds are equal and opposite to each other. It has canceled by each other.
Consequently, the whole molecule Becl2 is a non-polar molecule.
What exactly is BeCl2 polar or nonpolar?
Covalent bonds could be polar and non-polar determined by the above mentioned parameters.
Polar Molecules: Polar term indicates the terminals of any spices. Here, we are discussing the properties of BeCl2 molecules.
These molecules possess zero value of the dipole moment. The atoms in these molecules have an irregular distribution of electronic charges.
The covalent bond formed by 2 molecules is thought to be polar if the two molecules differ in their electronegativity.
This is because a greater electronegative atom gains semi negative charge since it has a larger effect on the bonded electron pair.
You may take a look at the reason behind the polarity of Ethanol too.(coming soon)
Nonpolar Molecules: These Kinds of molecules Don’t Have any rods generated throughout them.
The covalent bond formed from both atoms is thought to be non-polar when the electronegativity of both atoms is equivalent.
Note: It is also likely to have polar bonds inside a Non-polar molecule since the polarity of bonds has canceled by every other because of symmetric geometrical form.
You may take a look at the reason behind the non-polarity of CCl4 too.(coming soon)
What’s BeCl2 a non-polar molecule? That is right. It is nonpolar.
What’s BeCl2 a non-polar molecule?
Beryllium chloride molecule consists of 1 beryllium atom and two chlorine atoms. The Be atom is the central atom surrounded by 2 chlorine atoms on either side.
The Beryllium and chlorine molecules possess a gap of 1.59 units involving their electronegativity. As a result of this gap, the Be-Cl bond gets polar and also gives a net dipole moment.
And when we talk about the shape of the molecule, then the beCl2 is linear (symmetric in form ). Because of this, the equal and opposite polarity of the Be-Cl bonds has canceled by every other leaving behind a nonpolar general molecule.
Be atom is smaller in size and their two bonded chlorine atom are bigger in size.
Chlorine atom is much more electronegative than
Below is the picture of the geometrical form of this Beryllium chloride molecule.
Factors impacting polarity of a molecule
Electronegativity: This expression depicts the potency of a molecule to draw the bonded electron pairs towards the own side. It is a very common phenomenon in covalently bonded molecules.
- Two atoms diverse in their electronegativity type a polar bond due to the unequal sharing of electrons throughout the bond.
- Closer to the side along with the atom gains partial negative charge and becomes a negative rod.
- Along with other atom gains partial positive charge and produces a positive rod.
- The polarity of a molecule is directly proportional to the gap between the electronegativity of both molecules.
Geometrical contour: The form of a molecule is also an equally important and physiological aspect that may check whether a molecule is polar or not.
- It’s usually found that asymmetric molecules are nonpolar in character since the atoms reveal an unequal percentage of the charge along the bond.
- And, the symmetric molecules are nonpolar in character because they have a uniform distribution of fee. And in a situation like when these molecules possess the occurrence of polar bonds inside it, then the polarity becomes canceled by every other.
- For the detailed arrangement of its bonding and digital geometry, take a look at the article written on BeCl2 Lewis Structure, Geometry, Hybridization.
- Greater the worth of the dipole moment of a molecule creates its own polarity.
- It’s the product of charge on atoms as well as the distance between these atoms. It’s denoted by D using SI unit Debye.
- It’s a sharp and pungent odor.
- It’s soluble in chemicals such as benzene, ether, and alcohol.
- It can used as a catalyst at the Friedel-Crafts reactions.
Conclusion on “Is BeCl2 polar or nonpolar” :
The molecule contains Be and Cl atoms diverse in their electronegativity because of the Be-Cl bond gets polar.
Because of the inherent shape of this molecule, the polarity of the bonds canceled by one another and leads to a nonpolar BeCl2 molecule.
Hi everyone, if you’ve some queries concerning the non-polarity of BeCl2 molecule, it is possible to inquire in the comment section. We’ll reach out to you whenever possible. you can see , the related post on polar vs nonpolar.
FAQ on “Is BeCl2 polar or nonpolar”
What is Beryllium used for?
Beryllium can be used in gears and cogs especially in the aviation market. Beryllium is a silvery-white metal. It’s comparatively soft and has a very low density. Beryllium is used in alloys with aluminum or nickel to earn gyroscopes, springs, electrical connections, spot-welding electrodes and non-sparking tools.
Is beryllium harmful to humans?
Beryllium isn’t a component that’s vital for people ; actually it’s among the very poisonous substances we understand. It’s a metal which may be exceedingly damaging when people breathe in, since it can harm the lungs and cause pneumonia.
Is beryllium used in medicine?
The distinctive attributes of beryllium are crucial to medical technology that save and improve lives. Improving imaging. Beryllium transparency provides the window whereby tissue-penetrating x-rays are concentrated, while keeping the vacuum within the x-ray tube generator.
Is BeCl2 polar or nonpolar molecule explain your choice?
Answer for “Is BeCl2 polar or nonpolar?” BeCl2 is a linear molecule and symmetrical. Though one Be–Cl bond might be polar because Be and Cl disagree in electronegativity, the molecule for a whole is non-polar due to its own thickness.
What type of molecule is BeCl2? | https://sciedutut.com/is-becl2-polar-or-nonpolar/ |
Water is a major chemical component of all cells in building up new cells and is also used in breaking down molecules. It has many important roles within organisms and is a key reactant used in photosynthesis. Essentially, water is known as the medium of life where around 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered with water. It’s useful and unique properties occur due to its structure. It is a chemical compound and is known as a polar molecule where under standard temperatures and pressure water is a liquid, aqueous form and the solid state of water is known as ice.
Chemical structure of water
- Water is much smaller in structure compared to other molecules
- It is an universal solvent
- Water consists of 2 hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom, giving the molecular formula H2O. The hydrogen atoms are bonded to oxygen atoms through covalent bonds which are a type of chemical bond that connects the hydrogen and oxygen atoms together
- A covalent bond is one in which two atoms share the same pair of electrons
- Covalent bonds are formed when electrons are shared between two atoms in order to fill each of the outer shell. For the hydrogen atom it needs one more electron and the oxygen atom needs to gain one electron for the outer shell to be complete
The polar nature of water molecules
An important feature of the water molecule is its polar nature. Polar molecules once placed into water dissolve and dissociate into water ions. Ionic molecules when they are placed into water dissociate into ions. Water is what provides different chemical reactions to take place:
- The electrons in the covalent bonds of water are not equally shared and they lie closer to the oxygen nucleus than the hydrogen nuclei. This is because the negative electrons in the electron pair are more attracted to the oxygen nucleus as there are more positively charged protons. The oxygen nucleus is much larger in nature as there 8 protons whereas, the hydrogen nucleus is 1 proton (Figure 1). Protons are positive in nature and electrons are negatively charged. The covalent bonded electrons are going to be attracted to positive things and because there is more protons in the oxygen nucleus than the hydrogen they are going to be more pulled towards the oxygen atom.
- The unequal sharing of the electrons result in the oxygen atom being polar and slightly negative. There is a slightly a negative oxygen atom and the hydrogen atoms being slightly positive.
The uneven distribution of charge across the water molecules makes it a polar molecule.
Polar molecules are molecules that have an uneven distribution of charge. The polarity of water causes there to be an attraction between water molecules. This force of attraction is known as hydrogen bond.
Hydrogen bonding in water
A bond between molecules where the slightly positive hydrogen atoms in one water molecule are attracted to the slightly negative oxygen atom in another water molecule. The type of attraction is a weak interaction that occurs between a slightly negatively charged atoms and a slightly positively charged atom. It is weaker than a covalent bond but is the strongest intermolecular forces. Each of the individual hydrogen bonds is weak, where water forms many of these hydrogen bonds.
A hydrogen bond is a weak interaction that occurs between slightly negatively charged atoms and a slightly positively charged atom.
Water forms hydrogen bonds within itself. The many hydrogen bonds within water gives it a high stability causing for a large amount of energy to be required to raise the temperature of water.
Physical Properties of Water
While water is the most abundant liquid on Earth the structure of a water molecule causes for it to have several unusual properties.
Specifically many of the properties stated below are due to its dipolar nature and subsequent hydrogen bonds it forms and allows.
Solvent
Water is a good solvent since it is a charged molecule allowing them to easily be transported alongside this its water molecule’s dipole nature allows other polar molecules to be readily dissolved into water. Such examples of charged polar molecules such as salts, amino acids and sugars are able to readily dissolved in water. They are termed as hydrophilic; “water-loving” molecules. Non-polar molecules such as lipids are termed as hydrophobic, “water-hating”.
High heat capacity
The tendency of water molecules to stick together is known as cohesion. Hence it would take a lot of heat energy to separate molecules that are stuck together rather than if they were not bonded together. Relating this to water, water does not change temperature very easily as it has a specific heat capacity of 4.2 J g-1 °C-1 which in simple terms means it takes 4.2 joules of energy to heat 1 g of water by 1 °C. This is remarkedly high and is what keeps aquatic and cellular environments stable.
High Latent heat of Vaporisation
Hydrogen bonding between the water molecules allows it to have a high latent heat of vaporisation. Therefore, a large amount of energy is needed to change water from a liquid state into a gaseous state, where evaporation has a cooling effect on organisms such as sweating in animals and transpiration in plants
Density
Water has a unique property that in a solid state (ice) it is less dense that the liquid state and is able to float on water. This property is different for the normal situation as most substances are in a gas form when they are less dense and more dense are in a solid state. This shows how water is different. The property of water makes it crucial for aquatic organisms to be able to survive in freezing sub-zero temperatures such as in ponds, lakes etc.
Cohesion and surface tension in water
Water has properties of being cohesive, where they have a tendency to stick to other molecules together. This is due to the hydrogen bonding within water molecules that causes it to have a large cohesive forces which allows for the water to be pulled through a tube for example in plants; xylem vessels which are long tubes that help in the transportation of water to provide the plan with mechanical support. Another force called surface tension is also an unique property of water. Surface tension is the attractive force that can be exerted upon the surface of other molecules of a liquid which gives the tendency of the fluid surface to shrink into minimum surface area rather than the body of water escaping. Surface tenion of water allows for skaters to walk on water or allow insects that are usually denser than water, float on a water surface.
pH
Water itself is partially ionized and has a source of H+ ions that cause for several biochemical reactions to be sensitive to pH changes. Pure water is not buffered at a neutral pH unlike the cytoplasm and tissue fluids within living organisms that are buffered at neutral pH 7.5.
Ionization
Ionization is the process for forming or splitting of molecules to their cations and anions. An example is when sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolve into water they ionize and separate into positive and negative ions (Na++, Cl–).
References: | https://alevelbiology.co.uk/notes/dipoles-of-water-molecules/ |
Physicists from the University of Stuttgart show the first experimental proof of a molecule consisting of two identical atoms that exhibits a permanent electric dipole moment. This observation contradicts the classical opinion described in many physics and chemistry textbooks. The work was published in the renowned journal Science.
A dipolar molecule forms as a result of a charge separation between the negative charged electron cloud and the positive core, creating a permanent electric dipole moment. Usually this charge separation originates in different attraction of the cores of different elements onto the negative charged electrons. Due to symmetry reasons homonuclear molecules, consisting only of atoms of the same element, therefore could not possess dipole moments.
However, the dipolar molecules that were discovered by the group of Prof. Tilman Pfau at the 5th Institute of Physics at the University of Stuttgart do consist of two atoms of the element rubidium. The necessary asymmetry arises as a result of different electronically excited states of the two alike atoms. Generally this excitation will be exchanged between the atoms and the asymmetry will be lifted. Here this exchange is suppressed by the huge size of the molecule, which is about 1000 times larger than an oxygen molecule and reaches sizes of viruses. Therefore the probability to exchange the excitation between the two atoms is so small that it would statistically only happen once in the lifetime of the universe. Consequently, these homonuclear molecules possess a dipole moment. A permanent dipole moment additionally requires an orientation of the molecular axis. Due to their size the molecules rotate so slowly that the dipole moment does not average out from the viewpoint of an observer.
Physicists from the University of Stuttgart succeeded in experimentally detecting the dipole moment. They measured the energy shift of the molecule in an electric field by laser spectroscopy in an ultra cold atomic cloud. The same group caused worldwide a stir when they created these weakly bound Rydberg molecules for the first time in 2009. The molecules consist of two identical atoms whereof one is excited to a highly excited state, a so-called Rydberg state. The unusual binding mechanism relies on scattering of the highly excited Rydberg electron of the second atom. So far theoretical descriptions of this binding mechanism did not predict a dipole moment. However, the scattering of the Rydberg electron of the bound atom changes the probability distribution of the electron. This breaks the otherwise spherical symmetry and creates a dipole moment. In collaboration with theoretical physicists from the Max-Plank-Institute for the Physics of Complex Systems in Dresden and from the Harvard-Smithonian Center for Astrophysics in Cambridge, USA, a new theoretical treatment was developed that confirms the observation of a dipole moment.
The proof of a permanent dipole moment in a homonuclear molecule not only improves the understanding of polar molecules. Ultra cold polar molecules are also promising to study and control chemical reactions of single molecules. | https://analytik.news/en/press/2011/137.html |
.
Fill in all the gaps, then press "Check" to check your answers. Use the "Hint" button to get a free letter if an answer is giving you trouble. You can also click on the "[?]" button to get a clue. Note that you will lose points if you ask for hints or clues!
Electron-dot notation is an electron configuration notation in which only the
electrons of an atom of a particular element are shown, indicated by
placed around the element's symbol. Electron-dot can also be used to represent
.
structures are formulas in which atomic symbols represent nuclei and inner-shell electrons, dot-pairs or dashes between two atomic symbols represent electron pairs in covalent bonds, and dots adjacent to only one atomic symbol represent unshared electrons. A structural
indicates the kind, number, arrangement, and bonds but not the unshared pairs of the atoms in a molecule.
bonds occur when 2 or 3 pairs of electrons are shared. Those sharing two are
bonds; those sharing three are
bonds. Double bonds in general have
bond energies and are shorter than single bonds. Triple bonds are even stronger and
.
Some molecules and ions cannot be represented adequately by a single Lewis structure. One such molecule is
(O
3
), which can be represented by either of the following Lewis structures:
O = O - O : or : O - O = O
Experiments revealed that the oxygen-oxygen bonds in ozone are
. Scientists now say that ozone has a single structure that is the average of these two structures. Together the structures are referred to as
structures or resonance
. Resonance refers to bonding in molecules or ions that cannot be correctly represented by a single
structure. To indicate resonance, a double-headed
is placed between a molecule's resonance structures.
Molecular Geometry.
The properties of molecules depend not only on the bonding of atoms but also on molecular
- the 3-dimensional arrangement of a molecule's atoms in space. The
of each bond, along with the
of the molecule, determines molecular polarity, or the uneven distribution of molecular charge.
-VSEPR Theory. The
model (valence shell electrons pair repulsion) states that repulsion between the sets of valence-level electrons surrounding an atom causes these sets to be oriented as
apart as possible. To determine shapes: (1) Draw a dot diagram. Start with the
atom. The electrons of the central atoms are either a shared or
pair. (2) According to the VSEPR model, each pair of electrons surrounding the central atom is considered to
all other electron pairs around that atom. (3) The repulsion causes the electron pair to take a position about the central atom as far away as possible from the other electron
.
- Molecules With No Unshared Valence Electrons. For molecules with the general formula AB
2
, the molecule is linear. The shared pairs are oriented as far away from each other as possible. The angle bond is
. For molecules with the general formula AB
3
, the bonds stay farthest apart by pointing to the corners of an equilateral
. The bond angle is 120°. For molecules with the general formula AB
4
, the mutual repulsion of electron pairs produces a molecule with the shape of a regular
(4 faces all are equilateral triangles, having the same area). The bond angle is 109.47°. The 4sp
3
hybrid orbitals account for this angle.
- B can represent a single type of
, a group of identical atoms, or a group of different atoms of the same
. The shape of the molecule will still be based on the forms given in Table 6-5 on page 186. However, different sizes of B groups can distort bond angles (due to differences in
, for example).
- VSPER and Unshared Electrons. The general formula for
such as ammonia is AB
3
E, where E represents the
electron pair. A has 4 pairs of valence electrons in the molecule, but only 3 are
. The unshared pair has a greater repulsive effect than the shared pairs because there is no
nucleus on one side of the unshared electron pair to help dissipate the negative charge of the electrons. The greater
effect of the unshared pair tends to push the shared electrons closer together. The bond angle is 107°. The shape is
. Molecules like water have
unshared pairs of electrons with a formula of AB
2
E
2
. Only
of the four pairs of electrons are shared. The 2 unshared pairs have a greater repulsive effect than the 2
pairs. The combined repulsive effect of the two unshared pairs give the molecule a
shape and make the bond angle 105°.
- Multiple Bonds. Double and triple bonds are treated in the same way as
bonds. In the case that a central atom is bonded to another atom by a double or triple bond, the second and third shared pairs of electrons in the bond are
counted because they do not affect the shape of the molecule. For example, in acetylene (C
2
H
2
), each C is considered to be a central atom and since only 1 of the triple bonds between these atoms is counted, each C is considered as sharing two pairs of electrons (1 with H and 1 with the other C). Since they share 2 pairs of electrons, the shape is
.
orbitals are orbitals of equal energy produced by the combination of two or more orbitals on the same atom. Methane is a good example.
of carbon's valence electrons occupy the 2s orbital and
occupy the 2p orbitals. To achieve four equivalent bonds, carbon's 2s (spherical) and three 2p (dumbbell shaped) hybridize to form four new, identical orbitals called sp3 (
shaped). The number of hybrid orbitals produced equals the number of
that have combined.
Intermolecular forces: As a liquid is heated, the kinetic energy of its particles
. At the
point, the energy is sufficient to overcome the force of attraction between the liquid's particles. The particles pull away form each other and enter the
phase. Boiling point is therefore a good measure of the force of
between particles. The higher the boiling point, the
the forces between particles. The forces of attraction between molecules are known as
forces.
The strongest intermolecular forces exist between
molecules. Polar molecules act as tiny dipoles because of uneven charge distribution. A
is created by equal but opposite charges that are separated by a short distance.
- Polar Molecules. When one end of a molecule behaves as if it were
and the other positive (like a magnet), you have a dipolar molecule. The uneven distribution of electrons in the molecule is caused by an uneven distribution of one or more polar bonds. For example, in HCl, the shared electron pair is attracted toward the highly electronegative Cl atom and away form the less electronegative H atom. The resulting concentration of negative charge is closer to the chlorine. The end of the molecule containing the Cl atom will be slightly
and the H slightly
. The direction of a dipole is from the dipole's + pole to the - pole. The - region in one polar molecule attracts the + region in adjacent molecules, and so on throughout the liquid or solid. forces are forces of attraction between polar molecules.
- Nonpolar molecules. Nonpolar molecules result from an uneven distribution of
with molecules made of more than
atoms. Geometry determines polarity. Nonpolar molecules consist of either all nonpolar bonds or evenly distributed
bonds. Polar molecules, on the other hand, have unsymmetrical polar bonds. (See figure 6-26 on page 191).
- Hydrogen Bonding.
bonds are formed due to strong electrostatic attraction between the hydrogen in one compound and a strongly electronegative element in a neighboring molecule (F, O, N). Molecules that form hydrogen bonds are highly
because the H only has a very small share of the electron pair. The size of the positive charge on the H end is much greater than on an average dipole. Each H acts like an exposed proton. The
bond is more than just an electrostatic attraction between opposite charges-it actually has some
character.
Normally, as you increase the molecular weight, you
the boiling point. Take the compounds H
2
O, H
2
S, H
2
Se, and H
2
Te. You would think that water would have the lowest boiling point, but it actually has the
due to hydrogen bonding. You have to break the hydrogen bonds before the molecules can boil. It takes additional
to break the bonds. Hydrogen bonding explains why some substances have low vapor pressures, high heats of vaporization, and/or high melting points. Hydrogen bonding has an effect on the
structure of ice. Ice has a lot of hexagonal openings. This accounts for ice's
density. When ice is melted, the hydrogen bonds are
and the open structure is destroyed and the molecules move closer together.
-
Dispersion Forces. These forces are the result of
attraction of molecules for nearby molecules caused by the constant
of the electron cloud. It is a weak attractive force between
(weaker than hydrogen bonds or chemical bonds). Weak forces arise as a result of shifts in the positions of the
within the molecule. The shifting produces an uneven distribution of charge. One portion becomes temporarily negative and, by repelling electrons in a neighboring molecule, makes the near end of the neighboring molecule temporarily
. The attraction of the opposite charges acts to hold molecules together. It can start a chain reaction. The strength of the London forces is directly related to the number of
; therefore, the larger the molecule (the more electrons), the greater the attraction.
London forces cause heavier molecules to boil at
temperatures. They are important only when molecules are
together (liquids and solids, or gases at high pressure and low temperature). They are the only intermolecular force acting among noble-gas atoms,
molecules, and slightly polar molecules. London dispersion forces are the intermolecular attractions resulting from the
motion of electrons and the creation of instantaneous dipoles. | http://iq.whro.org/hssci/chemistry/chemicalbonding/hschemicalbondingclozept2_06tlm.htm |
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