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Who were the first farmers in Africa?
The first farmers in southern Africa were Bantu-speakers and archaeology shows that they entered southern Africa between 2 000 and 1 700 years ago This topic focuses on the life of the first farmers of southern Africa and the ways we can find out about them.
Where did farming first begin in Africa?
The first agriculture in Africa began in the heart of the Sahara Desert, which in 5200 BC was far more moist and densely populated than today. Several native species were domesticated, most importantly pearl millet, sorghum and cowpeas, which spread through West Africa and the Sahel.
How did farming start in Africa?
From 3000 BCE to 1000 BCE, the practice of farming spread across West Africa. They grew millet and sorghum (plants used for grain and fodder), and later began growing a special strain of rice native to Africa. … These migrants were the Bantu people, who spread farming across the rest of the continent.
Who were first farmers?
Agriculture began in the Fertile Crescent more than 11,000 years ago. DNA samples from ancient farmers reveal their relationship to present day humans. The first farmers made an enormous genetic contribution to diverse European, Asian, and African populations.
Why is there no farming in Africa?
Despite several attempts, the green revolution’s mix of fertilizers, irrigation, and high-yield seeds—which more than doubled global grain production between 1960 and 2000—never blossomed in Africa, thanks to the poor infrastructure, limited markets, weak governance, and fratricidal civil wars that wracked the …
Where did farming begin in the world?
Cattle, goats, sheep and pigs all have their origins as farmed animals in the so-called Fertile Crescent, a region covering eastern Turkey, Iraq and southwestern Iran. This region kick-started the Neolithic Revolution. Dates for the domestication of these animals range from between 13,000 to 10,000 years ago.
What crops are grown in Africa?
A number of vegetables—including tomatoes, onions, cabbages, peppers, okra, eggplants, and cucumbers—are raised in Africa. Tomatoes and onions, the most common vegetables, grow in large quantities along the coast of North Africa. The principal beverage crops of Africa are tea, coffee, cocoa, and grapes.
When did farming begin?
Humans invented agriculture between 7,000 and 10,000 years ago, during the Neolithic era, or the New Stone Age. There were eight Neolithic crops: emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, hulled barley, chickpeas, and flax.
When did trade start in Africa?
Beginnings. From the middle of the 15th century, Africa entered into a unique relationship with Europe that led to the devastation and depopulation of Africa, but contributed to the wealth and development of Europe. From then until the end of the 19th century, Europeans began to establish a trade for African captives.
Why did Africa fall behind?
Africa never had an industrial revolution on the same level as Europe or North America. While western countries developed rapidly, Africa was left behind, their growth further stunted by constant political turmoil. … The economic environment in Africa is not business-friendly at all.
How did early humans start growing food?
The early man learns to grow food gradually as they began to adapt to the land and environment in open areas. Explanation: The early human began to shift from hunting-gathering to cultivation during the Neolithic period. … Cultivation allowed the early human to depend on a staple crop and stay in one place.
Why were early humans called first farmers?
Answer: Farming meant that people did not need to travel to find food. Instead, they began to live in settled communities, and grew crops or raised animals on nearby land. Sometime around 12,000 years ago, our hunter-gatherer ancestors began trying their hand at farming. | https://flairng.com/africa/which-country-in-africa-had-the-first-farmers.html |
A hunter-gatherer is a human living a lifestyle in which most or all food is obtained by foraging (gathering edible wild plants) and hunting (pursuing and killing of wild animals), in the same way that most natural omnivores do. Hunter-gatherer societies stand in contrast to the more sedentary agricultural societies, which rely mainly on cultivating crops and raising domesticated animals for food production, although the boundaries between the two ways of living are not completely distinct.
Hunting and gathering was humanity's original and most enduring successful competitive adaptation in the natural world, occupying at least 90 percent of human history. Following the invention of agriculture, hunter-gatherers who did not change were displaced or conquered by farming or pastoralist groups in most parts of the world. However, the division between the two is no longer presumed to be a fundamental marker in human history, and there is not necessarily a hierarchy which places agriculture and industry at the top as a goal to be reached.
Only a few contemporary societies are classified as hunter-gatherers, and many supplement their foraging activity with horticulture or pastoralism.
Archaeological evidence
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Major types
Hunting and gathering was presumably the subsistence strategy employed by human societies beginning some 1.8 million years ago, by Homo erectus, and from its appearance some 200,000 years ago by Homo sapiens. Prehistoric hunter-gatherers lived in groups that consisted of several families resulting in a size of a few dozen people. It remained the only mode of subsistence until the end of the Mesolithic period some 10,000 years ago, and after this was replaced only gradually with the spread of the Neolithic Revolution.
During the 1970s, Lewis Binford suggested that early humans obtained food via scavenging, not hunting. Early humans in the Lower Paleolithic lived in forests and woodlands, which allowed them to collect seafood, eggs, nuts, and fruits besides scavenging. Rather than killing large animals for meat, according to this view, they used carcasses of such animals that had either been killed by predators or that had died of natural causes. Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers survived in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover.
According to the endurance running hypothesis, long-distance running as in persistence hunting, a method still practiced by some hunter-gatherer groups in modern times, was likely the driving evolutionary force leading to the evolution of certain human characteristics. This hypothesis does not necessarily contradict the scavenging hypothesis: both subsistence strategies could have been in use sequentially, alternating or even simultaneously.
Starting at the transition between the Middle to Upper Paleolithic period, some 80,000 to 70,000 years ago, some hunter-gatherer bands began to specialize, concentrating on hunting a smaller selection of (often larger) game and gathering a smaller selection of food. This specialization of work also involved creating specialized tools such as fishing nets, hooks, and bone harpoons. The transition into the subsequent Neolithic period is chiefly defined by the unprecedented development of nascent agricultural practices. Agriculture originated as early as 12,000 years ago in the Middle East, and also independently originated in many other areas including Southeast Asia, parts of Africa, Mesoamerica, and the Andes.
Forest gardening was also being used as a food production system in various parts of the world over this period. Forest gardens had originated in prehistoric times along jungle-clad river banks and in the wet foothills of monsoon regions. In the gradual process of families improving their immediate environment, useful tree and vine species were identified, protected, and improved, whilst undesirable species were eliminated. Eventually superior introduced species were selected and incorporated into the gardens.
Many groups continued their hunter-gatherer ways of life, although their numbers have continually declined, partly as a result of pressure from growing agricultural and pastoral communities. Many of them reside in the developing world, either in arid regions or tropical forests. Areas that were formerly available to hunter-gatherers were—and continue to be—encroached upon by the settlements of agriculturalists. In the resulting competition for land use, hunter-gatherer societies either adopted these practices or moved to other areas. In addition, Jared Diamond has blamed a decline in the availability of wild foods, particularly animal resources. In North and South America, for example, most large mammal species had gone extinct by the end of the Pleistocene—according to Diamond, because of overexploitation by humans, one of several explanations offered for the Quaternary extinction event there.
As the number and size of agricultural societies increased, they expanded into lands traditionally used by hunter-gatherers. This process of agriculture-driven expansion led to the development of the first forms of government in agricultural centers, such as the Fertile Crescent, Ancient India, Ancient China, Olmec, Sub-Saharan Africa and Norte Chico.
As a result of the now near-universal human reliance upon agriculture, the few contemporary hunter-gatherer cultures usually live in areas unsuitable for agricultural use.
Archaeologists can use evidence such as stone tool use to track hunter-gatherer activities, including mobility.
Ethnobotany is the field of study whereby food plants of various peoples and tribes world wide are documented.
Common characteristics
Habitat and population
Most hunter-gatherers are nomadic or semi-nomadic and live in temporary settlements. Mobile communities typically construct shelters using impermanent building materials, or they may use natural rock shelters, where they are available.
Some hunter-gatherer cultures, such as the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and the Yakuts, lived in particularly rich environments that allowed them to be sedentary or semi-sedentary. Amongst the earliest example of permanent settlements is the Osipovka culture (14–10.3 thousand years ago), which lived in a fish-rich environment that allowed them to be able to stay at the same place all year. One group, the Chumash, had the highest recorded population density of any known hunter and gatherer society with an estimated 21.6 persons per square mile.
Social and economic structure
Hunter-gatherers tend to have an egalitarian social ethos, although settled hunter-gatherers (for example, those inhabiting the Northwest Coast of North America) are an exception to this rule. For example, the San people or "Bushmen" of southern Africa have social customs that strongly discourage hoarding and displays of authority, and encourage economic equality via sharing of food and material goods. Karl Marx defined this socio-economic system as primitive communism.
The egalitarianism typical of human hunters and gatherers is never total, but is striking when viewed in an evolutionary context. One of humanity's two closest primate relatives, chimpanzees, are anything but egalitarian, forming themselves into hierarchies that are often dominated by an alpha male. So great is the contrast with human hunter-gatherers that it is widely argued by paleoanthropologists that resistance to being dominated was a key factor driving the evolutionary emergence of human consciousness, language, kinship and social organization.
Most anthropologists believe that hunter-gatherers do not have permanent leaders; instead, the person taking the initiative at any one time depends on the task being performed.[page needed]
Within a particular tribe or people, hunter-gatherers are connected by both kinship and band (residence/domestic group) membership. Postmarital residence among hunter-gatherers tends to be matrilocal, at least initially. Young mothers can enjoy childcare support from their own mothers, who continue living nearby in the same camp. The systems of kinship and descent among human hunter-gatherers were relatively flexible, although there is evidence that early human kinship in general tended to be matrilineal.
The conventional assumption has been that women did most of the gathering, while men concentrated on big game hunting. An illustrative account is Megan Biesele's study of the southern African Ju/'hoan, 'Women Like Meat'. A recent study suggests that the sexual division of labor was the fundamental organizational innovation that gave Homo sapiens the edge over the Neanderthals, allowing our ancestors to migrate from Africa and spread across the globe.
This view was challenged by feminist anthropologists in the 1970s who pointed out that anthropology had historically overly emphasized men. The stereotype of "man the hunter, women the gatherer" may have described a common division of labor, but men in hunter-gatherer societies still help with the gathering, especially when women are tired or sick, or the hunt is unsuccessful. Women hunted with different weapons. Women hunted with dogs or blowpipes and poison darts. Women could trap animals too, using nets or baskets to snare crabs and fish.
A 1986 study found most hunter-gatherers have a symbolically structured sexual division of labor. However, it is true that in a small minority of cases, women hunted the same kind of quarry as men, sometimes doing so alongside men. Among the Ju'/hoansi people of Namibia, women help men track down quarry. In the Australian Martu, both women and men participate in hunting but with a different style of gendered division; while men are willing to take more risks to hunt bigger animals such as kangaroo for political gain as a form of "competitive magnanimity", women target smaller game such as lizards to feed their children and promote working relationships with other women, preferring a more constant supply of sustenance.
9000-year-old remains of a female hunter along with a toolkit of projectile points and animal processing implements were discovered at the Andean site of Wilamaya Patjxa, Puno District in Peru.
At the 1966 "Man the Hunter" conference, anthropologists Richard Borshay Lee and Irven DeVore suggested that egalitarianism was one of several central characteristics of nomadic hunting and gathering societies because mobility requires minimization of material possessions throughout a population. Therefore, no surplus of resources can be accumulated by any single member. Other characteristics Lee and DeVore proposed were flux in territorial boundaries as well as in demographic composition.
At the same conference, Marshall Sahlins presented a paper entitled, "Notes on the Original Affluent Society", in which he challenged the popular view of hunter-gatherers lives as "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short", as Thomas Hobbes had put it in 1651. According to Sahlins, ethnographic data indicated that hunter-gatherers worked far fewer hours and enjoyed more leisure than typical members of industrial society, and they still ate well. Their "affluence" came from the idea that they were satisfied with very little in the material sense. Later, in 1996, Ross Sackett performed two distinct meta-analyses to empirically test Sahlin's view. The first of these studies looked at 102 time-allocation studies, and the second one analyzed 207 energy-expenditure studies. Sackett found that adults in foraging and horticultural societies work, on average, about 6.5 hours a day, whereas people in agricultural and industrial societies work on average 8.8 hours a day.
Researchers Gurven and Kaplan have estimated that around 57% of hunter-gatherers reach the age of 15. Of those that reach 15 years of age, 64% continue to live to or past the age of 45. This places the life expectancy between 21 and 37 years. They further estimate that 70% of deaths are due to diseases of some kind, 20% of deaths come from violence or accidents and 10% are due to degenerative diseases.
Mutual exchange and sharing of resources (i.e., meat gained from hunting) are important in the economic systems of hunter-gatherer societies. Therefore, these societies can be described as based on a "gift economy."
A 2010 paper argued that while hunter-gatherers may have lower levels of inequality than modern, industrialised societies, that does not mean inequality does not exist. The researchers estimated that the average Gini coefficient amongst hunter-gatherers was 0.25, equivalent to the country of Denmark in 2007. In addition, wealth transmission across generations was also a feature of hunter-gatherers, meaning that "wealthy" hunter-gatherers, within the context of their communities, were more likely to have children as wealthy as them than poorer members of their community and indeed hunter-gatherer societies demonstrate an understanding of social stratification. Thus while the researchers agreed that hunter-gatherers were more egalitarian than modern societies, prior characterisations of them living in a state of egalitarian primitive communism were inaccurate and misleading.
Variability
Hunter-gatherer societies manifest significant variability, depending on climate zone/life zone, available technology, and societal structure. Archaeologists examine hunter-gatherer tool kits to measure variability across different groups. Collard et al. (2005) found temperature to be the only statistically significant factor to impact hunter-gatherer tool kits. Using temperature as a proxy for risk, Collard et al.'s results suggest that environments with extreme temperatures pose a threat to hunter-gatherer systems significant enough to warrant increased variability of tools. These results support Torrence's (1989) theory that the risk of failure is indeed the most important factor in determining the structure of hunter-gatherer toolkits.
One way to divide hunter-gatherer groups is by their return systems. James Woodburn uses the categories "immediate return" hunter-gatherers for egalitarianism and "delayed return" for nonegalitarian. Immediate return foragers consume their food within a day or two after they procure it. Delayed return foragers store the surplus food (Kelly, 31).
Hunting-gathering was the common human mode of subsistence throughout the Paleolithic, but the observation of current-day hunters and gatherers does not necessarily reflect Paleolithic societies; the hunter-gatherer cultures examined today have had much contact with modern civilization and do not represent "pristine" conditions found in uncontacted peoples.
The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture is not necessarily a one-way process. It has been argued that hunting and gathering represents an adaptive strategy, which may still be exploited, if necessary, when environmental change causes extreme food stress for agriculturalists. In fact, it is sometimes difficult to draw a clear line between agricultural and hunter-gatherer societies, especially since the widespread adoption of agriculture and resulting cultural diffusion that has occurred in the last 10,000 years. This anthropological view has remained unchanged since the 1960s.[clarification needed]
Nowadays, some scholars speak about the existence within cultural evolution of the so-called mixed-economies or dual economies which imply a combination of food procurement (gathering and hunting) and food production or when foragers have trade relations with farmers.
Modern and revisionist perspectives
Some of the theorists who advocate this "revisionist" critique[clarification needed] imply that, because the "pure hunter-gatherer" disappeared not long after colonial (or even agricultural) contact began, nothing meaningful can be learned about prehistoric hunter-gatherers from studies of modern ones (Kelly, 24–29; see Wilmsen)
Lee and Guenther have rejected most of the arguments put forward by Wilmsen.[clarification needed] Doron Shultziner and others have argued that we can learn a lot about the life-styles of prehistoric hunter-gatherers from studies of contemporary hunter-gatherers—especially their impressive levels of egalitarianism.
Many hunter-gatherers consciously manipulate the landscape through cutting or burning undesirable plants while encouraging desirable ones, some even going to the extent of slash-and-burn to create habitat for game animals. These activities are on an entirely different scale to those associated with agriculture, but they are nevertheless domestication on some level. Today, almost all hunter-gatherers depend to some extent upon domesticated food sources either produced part-time or traded for products acquired in the wild.
Some agriculturalists also regularly hunt and gather (e.g., farming during the frost-free season and hunting during the winter). Still others in developed countries go hunting, primarily for leisure. In the Brazilian rainforest, those groups that recently did, or even continue to, rely on hunting and gathering techniques seem to have adopted this lifestyle, abandoning most agriculture, as a way to escape colonial control and as a result of the introduction of European diseases reducing their populations to levels where agriculture became difficult.[dubious ]
There are nevertheless a number of contemporary hunter-gatherer peoples who, after contact with other societies, continue their ways of life with very little external influence or with modifications that perpetuate the viability of hunting and gathering in the 21st century. One such group is the Pila Nguru (Spinifex people) of Western Australia, whose habitat in the Great Victoria Desert has proved unsuitable for European agriculture (and even pastoralism). Another are the Sentinelese of the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean, who live on North Sentinel Island and to date have maintained their independent existence, repelling attempts to engage with and contact them. The Savanna Pumé of Venezuela also live in an area that is inhospitable to large scale economic exploitation and maintain their subsistence based on hunting and gathering, as well as incorporating a small amount of manioc horticulture that supplements, but is not replacing, reliance on foraged foods.
Americas
Evidence suggests big-game hunter-gatherers crossed the Bering Strait from Asia (Eurasia) into North America over a land bridge (Beringia), that existed between 47,000–14,000 years ago. Around 18,500–15,500 years ago, these hunter-gatherers are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific coast to South America.
Hunter-gatherers would eventually flourish all over the Americas, primarily based in the Great Plains of the United States and Canada, with offshoots as far east as the Gaspé Peninsula on the Atlantic coast, and as far south as Chile, Monte Verde. American hunter-gatherers were spread over a wide geographical area, thus there were regional variations in lifestyles. However, all the individual groups shared a common style of stone tool production, making knapping styles and progress identifiable. This early Paleo-Indian period lithic reduction tool adaptations have been found across the Americas, utilized by highly mobile bands consisting of approximately 25 to 50 members of an extended family.
The Archaic period in the Americas saw a changing environment featuring a warmer more arid climate and the disappearance of the last megafauna. The majority of population groups at this time were still highly mobile hunter-gatherers. Individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally, however, and thus archaeologists have identified a pattern of increasing regional generalization, as seen with the Southwest, Arctic, Poverty Point, Dalton and Plano traditions. These regional adaptations would become the norm, with reliance less on hunting and gathering, with a more mixed economy of small game, fish, seasonally wild vegetables and harvested plant foods.
Scholars like Kat Anderson have suggested that the term Hunter-gatherer is reductive because it implies that Native Americans never stayed in one place long enough to affect the environment around them. However, many of the landscapes in the Americas today are due to the way the Natives of that area originally tended the land. Anderson specifically looks at California Natives and the practices they utilized to tame their land. Some of these practices included pruning, weeding, sowing, burning, and selective harvesting. These practices allowed them to take from the environment in a sustainable manner for centuries.
California Indians view the idea of wilderness in a negative light. They believe that wilderness is the result of humans losing their knowledge of the natural world and how to care for it. When the earth turns back to wilderness after the connection with humans is lost then the plants and animals will retreat and hide from the humans.
See also
Modern hunter-gatherer groups
- Aeta people
- Aka people
- Andamanese people
- Angu people
- Awá-Guajá people
- Batek people
- Efé people
- Fuegians
- Hadza people
- Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast
- Inuit people
- Iñupiat
- Jarawa people (Andaman Islands)
- Kawahiva people
- Maniq people
- Mbuti people
- Mlabri people
- Moriori people
- Nukak people
- Onge people
- Penan people
- Pirahã people
- Raute people
- San people
- Semang people
- Sentinelese people
- Tjimba people
- Yakuts
- Yaruro (Pumé) people
- Ye'kuana people
- Yupik people
Social movements
- Anarcho-primitivism, which strives for the abolishment of civilization and the return to a life in the wild.
- Freeganism involves gathering of food (and sometimes other materials) in the context of an urban or suburban environment.
- Gleaning involves the gathering of food that traditional farmers have left behind in their fields.
- Paleolithic diet, which strives to achieve a diet similar to that of ancient hunter-gatherer groups.
- Paleolithic lifestyle, which extends the paleolithic diet to other elements of the hunter-gatherer way of life, such as movement and contact with nature
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- ^ Sahlins, M. (1968). "Notes on the Original Affluent Society", Man the Hunter. R.B. Lee and I. DeVore (New York: Aldine Publishing Company) pp. 85–89. ISBN 020233032X. See also: Jerome Lewis, "Managing abundance, not chasing scarcity" Archived May 13, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, Radical Anthropology, No. 2, 2008, and John Gowdy, "Hunter-Gatherers and the Mythology of the Market", in Lee, Richard B (2005). Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers.
- ^ Sackett, Ross. 1996. "Time, energy, and the indolent savage. A quantitative cross-cultural test of the primitive affluence hypothesis". Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles. via Semantic Scholar Corpus ID: 146347757
- ^ Guenevere, Michael; Kaplan, Hillard (2007). "Longevity amongst Hunter-gatherers" (PDF). Population and Development Review. 33 (2): 326. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2007.00171.x.
- ^ Smith; Alden, Eric; Hill, Kim; Marlowe, Frank W.; Nolin, David; Wiessner, Polly; Gurven, Michael; Bowles, Samuel; Borgerhoff Mulder, Monique; Hertz, Tom; Bell, Adrian (2010). "Wealth transmission and inequality among hunter-gatherers". Current Anthropology. 51 (1): 19–34. doi:10.1086/648530. PMC 2999363. PMID 21151711.
- ^ Collard, Mark; Kemery, Michael; Banks, Samantha (2005). "Causes of Toolkit Variation Among Hunter-Gatherers: A Test of Four Competing Hypotheses" (PDF). Canadian Journal of Archaeology (29): 1–19.
- ^ Torrence, Robin (1989). "Retooling: Towards a behavioral theory of stone tools". In Torrence, Robin (ed.). Time, Energy and Stone Tools. Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–66. ISBN 978-0521253505.
- ^ Kelly, Robert L. (1995). The Foraging Spectrum: Diversity in Hunter-Gatherer Life ways. Washington: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 1560984651.
- ^ Portera, Claire C.; Marlowe, Frank W. (January 2007). "How marginal are forager habitats?" (PDF). Journal of Archaeological Science. 34 (1): 59–68. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.03.014. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 27, 2008.
- ^ Lee, Richard B.; Daly, Richard, eds. (1999). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521609194.
- ^ Hayes-Bohanan, Pamela (2010). Birx, H. James (ed.). "42: Prehistoric Cultures". 21st Century Anthropology: A Reference Handbook. 1: 409–18. doi:10.4135/9781412979283.n42. ISBN 978-1452266305 – via Gale Virtual Reference Library.
- ^ Svizzero, S.; Tisdell, C. (2015). "The Persistence of Hunting and Gathering Economies". Social Evolution & History. 14.
- ^ Kelly, Raymond (October 2005). "The evolution of lethal intergroup violence". PNAS. 102 (43): 15294–98. doi:10.1073/pnas.0505955102. PMC 1266108. PMID 16129826.
- ^ Wilmsen, Edwin (1989). Land Filled With Flies: A Political Economy of the Kalahari. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226900150.
- ^ Lee, Richard B.; Guenther, Mathias (1995). "Errors Corrected or Compounded? A Reply to Wilmsen". Current Anthropology. 36 (2): 298–305. doi:10.1086/204361. S2CID 144885091.
- ^ Lee, Richard B. (1992). "Art, Science, or Politics? The Crisis in Hunter-Gatherer Studies". American Anthropologist. 94: 31–54. doi:10.1525/aa.1992.94.1.02a00030. hdl:1807/17933.
- ^ Marlowe, Frank W. (2002). Ethnicity, Hunter-Gatherers and the 'Other'. Smithsonian Institution Press. p. 247.
- ^ Shultziner, Doron (2010). "The causes and scope of political egalitarianism during the Last Glacial: A multi-disciplinary perspective". Biology and Philosophy. 25 (3): 319–46. doi:10.1007/s10539-010-9196-4. S2CID 21340052.
- ^ Peterson, Nicolas; Taylor, John (1998). "Demographic transition in a hunter-gatherer population: the Tiwi case, 1929–1996". Australian Aboriginal Studies. Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. 1998.
- ^ Pandya, Vishvajit (2009). In the Forest: Visual and Material Worlds of Andamanese History (1858–2006). University Press of America. p. 357. ISBN 978-0761842729. OCLC 673383888.
- ^ Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: "North Sentinel Island: A Glimpse Into Prehistory". Retrieved 30 May 2017 – via YouTube.
- ^ Kramer, Karen L.; Greaves, Russell D. (2016). "Diversify or replace: what happens when cultigens are introduced into hunter-gatherer diets.". In Codding, Brian F.; Kramer, Karen L. (eds.). Why Forage? Hunters and Gatherers in the Twenty-First Century. Santa Fe; Albuquerque: School for Advanced Research Press and University of New Mexico Press. pp. 15–42. ISBN 978-0826356963.
- ^ "Atlas of the Human Journey-The Genographic Project". National Geographic Society. 1996–2008. Archived from the original on 2011-05-01. Retrieved 2009-10-06.
- ^ "The peopling of the Americas: Genetic ancestry influences health". Scientific American. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
- ^ Fladmark, K. R. (January 1979). "Alternate Migration Corridors for Early Man in North America". American Antiquity. 1. 44 (1): 55–69. doi:10.2307/279189. JSTOR 279189.
- ^ Eshleman, Jason A.; Malhi, Ripan S.; Smith, David Glenn (2003). "Mitochondrial DNA Studies of Native Americans: Conceptions and Misconceptions of the Population Prehistory of the Americas". Evolutionary Anthropology. University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. 12: 7–18. doi:10.1002/evan.10048. S2CID 17049337. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
- ^ Broster, John (2002). "Paleoindians in Tennessee". Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation. Tennessee Historical Society. Online Edition provided by: The University of Tennessee Press. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
- ^ "Blame North America Megafauna Extinction On Climate Change, Not Human Ancestors". ScienceDaily. 2001. Retrieved 2010-04-10.
- ^ Fiedel, Stuart J. (1992). Prehistory of the Americas. Cambridge University Press. p. 151. ISBN 978-0521425445. Retrieved 2009-11-18.
- ^ Stuart B. Schwartz, Frank Salomon (1999). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521630757. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
- ^ a b Anderson, Kat (2013). Tending the Wild. pp. 1–10. ISBN 978-0520280434.
Further reading
- Books
- Barnard, A. J., ed. (2004). Hunter-gatherers in history, archaeology and anthropology. Berg. ISBN 1859738257.
- Bettinger, R. L. (1991). Hunter-gatherers: archaeological and evolutionary theory. Plenum Press. ISBN 0306436507.
- Bowles, Samuel; Gintis, Herbert (2011). A Cooperative Species: Human Reciprocity and Its Evolution. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691151250. (Reviewed in The Montreal Review)
- Brody, Hugh (2001). The Other Side Of Eden: hunter-gatherers, farmers and the shaping of the world. North Point Press. ISBN 057120502X.
- Codding, Brian F.; Kramer, Karen L., eds. (2016). Why forage?: hunters and gatherers in the twenty-first century. Santa Fe, Albuquerque: School for Advanced Research Press, University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 978-0826356963.
- Lee, Richard B.; DeVore, Irven, eds. (1968). Man the hunter. Aldine de Gruyter. ISBN 020233032X.
- Meltzer, David J. (2009). First peoples in a new world: colonizing ice age America. Berkeley: University of California. ISBN 978-0520250529.
- Morrison, K. D.; L. L. Junker, eds. (2002). Forager-traders in South and Southeast Asia: long term histories. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521016363.
- Panter-Brick, C.; R. H. Layton; P. Rowley-Conwy, eds. (2001). Hunter-gatherers: an interdisciplinary perspective. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521776724.
- Turnbull, Colin (1987). The Forest People. Touchstone. ISBN 978-0671640996.
- Articles
- Mudar, Karen; Anderson, Douglas D. (Fall 2007). "New evidence for Southeast Asian Pleistocene foraging economies: faunal remains from the early levels of Lang Rongrien rockshelter, Krabi, Thailand" (PDF). Asian Perspectives. 46 (2): 298–334. doi:10.1353/asi.2007.0013. hdl:10125/17269. S2CID 56067301.(subscription required)
- Nakao, Hisashi; Tamura, Kohei; Arimatsu, Yui; Nakagawa, Tomomi; Matsumoto, Naoko; Matsugi, Takehiko (30 March 2016). "Violence in the prehistoric period of Japan: the spatio-temporal pattern of skeletal evidence for violence in the Jomon period". Biology Letters. The Royal Society publishing. 12 (3): 20160028. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2016.0028. PMC 4843228. PMID 27029838.
Our results suggest that the mortality due to violence was low and spatio-temporally highly restricted in the Jomon period, which implies that violence including warfare in prehistoric Japan was not common.
- Ember, Carol R. "Hunter Gatherers (Foragers)". Explaining Human Culture. Human Relations Area Files. Retrieved 22 February 2018.
Most cross-cultural research aims to understand shared traits among hunter-gatherers and how and why they vary. Here we look at the conclusions of cross-cultural studies that ask: What are recent hunter-gatherers generally like? How do they differ from food producers? How and why do hunter-gatherers vary?
External links
Media related to Hunter-gatherers at Wikimedia Commons
- International Society for Hunter Gatherer Research (ISHGR)
- History of the Conference on Hunting and Gathering Societies (CHAGS)
- The Association of Foragers: An international association for teachers of hunter-gatherer skills.
- A wiki dedicated to the scientific study of the diversity of foraging societies without recreating myths
- Balmer, Yves (2013). "Ethnological videos clips. Living or recently extinct traditional tribal groups and their origins". Andaman Association. Archived from the original on January 11, 2014. | https://www.wikizero.net/wiki/en/Hunter-gatherer |
Ancient Civilization Describe Paleolithic and Neolithic cultures. What were the main characteristics of each? The Paleolithic Old Stone era began in about 40,000 – 10,000 B. C. The beginning of this period was marked by the first human hunter-gatherer societies. Hunting, fishing, and gathering of fruits and nuts were the main economic endeavors at the time.
The responsibilities in these hunter-gathering societies were shared. The men of this period did the very dangerous hunting of large wild animals like bison and reindeer, while women gatherer fruits and nuts for an entire year. The small communities of 25-50 people came to consensus on decisions and ideas were shared. The extended family was core. Men and women both played a roll in child bearing.
The people of this era lived in huts and caves. Caves were idealistic living quarters; they could be heated in the cold weather months and were cool in hot weather months. Caves were also good advantage points for observing prey. Caves were also the sites of representational art. Paleolithic cave paintings were of bison, horse, reindeer and mammoths. Historians believe that art may have been the cave dwellers’ attempts to control the environment through magic.
Other representational art of this time included (Venus) figurines of women. The female figurines exaggerated the buttocks and breasts of women, perhaps in attempt to control fertility of women. Men spent a lot of time fashioning tools, like the javelin for hunting. The skilled craftsmanship of tools and the artists demonstrates at least a limited specialization of skills and division of labor, so these societies required organization in the villages. The desire to trade ideas and merchandise with other societies developed. The Neolithic New Stone era began sometime around 10,000 B.
C. The beginning of this period was marked by the domestication of animals and plants. With men occupied in hunting, it may well have been females who first unraveled the secrets of agriculture. Humans specialized in the wild plants they collected and the animals they hunted. They began to learn how to control the environment in order to domesticate plants and animals.
The domestication of animals perhaps started with dogs, which were useful in hunting. Then they learned to keep sheep, goats, chickens and cattle. Next came farming. They learned to grow wheat, barley, then legumes (beans). Craft specialization was evident, in addition to farming and shepherding, occupations in trading and accounting, iron working, clothing making, jewelers, artists and mining developed. The villagers mined copper (period was also known as Copper Age), gems, perhaps for pottery and hunting tools.
Accountants were used for trade transactions. Technological advancements came into use like the wheel and complex metal casting. In Europe, elaborate temple complexes and other monuments were built, which required complex mathematics. Also during the Neolithic period, religions developed. Gods and goddesses controlled everything.
Gods and goddesses of the earth and fertility were worshipped. There was a strong urge to create cities near water. The organization and engineering that took place in this period is what lead humans to civilization. Discuss the causes of ancient civilization. Civilizations evolved in response to the need in the Neolithic communities for organization and engineering.
Early civilizations were very complex. In early civilizations there is evidence of large and specialized labor forces, strong government, technology to control the environment, significant projects in art and thought and the invention of writing. As Neolithic communities grew, there was a strong urge to create cities near water. The first civilizations began in Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and in the valley of the Nile River in Egypt around 3500 – 3000 B. C. Large and efficient irrigation and drainage projects created channels, dikes, or dams to control floodwaters and to improve the fertility of the land.
There was a need for social and economic hierarchies. The city was a society of strangers. There were single people as well as nuclear families in monogamous relationships. Civil rights came because you lived in a city. With individual freedoms came more responsibilities. There were five main social classes. The first class was the royal family, which marked the first form of government – monarchy.
The position of king or queen was inherited. If there was not an eldest son, the daughter became queen. The second class in the hierarchy was the aristocracy. The third class was made of the burghers or the artisans, mechanics, teachers, accountants, scribes and translators. The fourth class was made of the serfs. Serfs could not be bought or sold, but could not leave the land on which they worked, they had specific jobs.
The river valley society developed into city-states, independent political units that each contained a rural countryside with villages controlled by a capital city. The urban landscape’s most visible sign of centralized authority was the temple. The temple was the most important authority in religion, politics and economics. Temples were wealthy and powerful and commanded loyalty because only a strong institution could control the large amount of manpower required to build these elaborate works of architecture. Religion and politics went together, and this was the monarchy’s way to prove their legitimacy.
The religions at this time were polytheistic. For instance there could be 3 gods per city and 1 national god. There were military forces in early civilizations. The original police were the king’s guards and temple guards. There were special military drills developed to train the armies to address the military’s main concern, how to deal with outsiders.
Discuss Egyptian art, architecture, literature, and religion. Art – Egyptian art consisted mainly of sculptures carved in stone, wood, or metal. They were statues of kings, queens, gods and goddesses, husband, wives, adults and children, officials, priests, scribes. The body posture was rigid and stiff. The face was very individualistic and drawn from life. Other art was exemplified in the tombs.
The tombs were decorated with rich, multicolored wall paintings, the first narrative painting. There are scenes of the gods, court ceremony, ordinary life, war and recreation. The paintings served a religious purpose – representations of the living were meant to perpetuate them in the afterlife. Egyptian craftsmen were masters of gold jewelry-work, glassmaking, and wood working. Architecture – Egyptian architecture included royal tombs, palaces, forts, pyramids and temples.
These structures were built in harmony with the unique landscape. Stone temples like Ramesses II’s project at Abu Simbel, two chambers were carved out of rock, and in front of the larger chamber were four seated colossal statues of Ramesses carved out of rock. Great Pyramids demonstrated the king’s abililty to organize a vast labor force. Literature – Ancient Egyptian literature is notable for its variety. Religious subjects, historical and commemorative records, technical treaties in mathematics and medicine, business contracts, and royal proclamations.
The fibers of the papyrus plant could be made into writing paper. Egyptian writing is best known for hieroglyphics, a system of pictures and abstract signs that represent sounds or ideas. Hieroglyphics were used only for monuments and ornamentation. Religion – Polytheistic – human, animal cats dogs crocodiles gods were worshipped or Henotheist worship of one god without denying the existence of others, Moral do unto others – you come before judges in the underworld where your sins are weighed.and the sinless are admitted into eternal life, Immortality – focus on the afterlife. Death could be an extremely pleasant continuation of life on earth. Preserved bodies – embalming the Egyptian mummy.
The ka soul was immortal. Chief Gods Re (Sun) Osiris (Earth/Death) 4 Mesopotamian Groups Sumerians – The Sumerian city-states were the foundation for all civilizations. They were the first literate society. The potesi was the king or governor of the city state. He was a representative on earth of the gods.
Cities were really governed by the gods, Ziggarats, or stepped towers were the main temples of the city-state. Epic of Gilgamesh was a story of heroic deeds. It showed the connection between gods and humans. The main themes are friendship, loss, and the inevitability of death. Babylonians – absolute monarchy – Hammarabi’s Code was harsh and it showed the inequity of law. Serfs had little rights.
Nobility had more rights, privileges and responsibilities. Weights and measures. Fate divination. All humans are weak/defective. Sacrifices to the Gods were given. Humans are very separated from the Gods Assyrians – War and conquest.
Asshur was their main God, a war-god,. Cavalry units First state to rule both Tigris and Euphrates and the Nile River Valleys. Expansionist theory. Military and merchantile power. Mass deportation. Conquered a country and uprooted the people.
Punished rebellion. Chaldeans – Neo Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar conquered and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 BC. He deported the Judeans to Babylon in an event remembered as Babylonian Captivity. Cosmopolitan empire. Diverse, but superior and sophisticated. He rebuilt Babylon on a grand scale.
Great interest in astronomy and astrology for religious reasons. Planets were Gods, can’t be contained. Astronomers of that time could predict equinoxes and lunar eclipses and could calculate the movements of the moon and stars. History. | https://redcowonline.com/ancient-civilization-essay/ |
One significant factor that contributed to the development of civilization from the primitive hunter-gatherer societies was the development of agriculture. After the last ice age (around 10,000 B.C.E.), humans learned to produce food on their own rather than simply rely on hunting animals and gathering plants for sustenance. Along with the planting of grains and other edible plants, people learned to domesticate animals and take care of them until such time that they could be used or consumed as food. The organized development of agriculture seems to have evolved relatively at the same time in various parts around the world. Certain areas of the Middle East began to cultivate and grow wheat and barley and domesticate pigs, goats and sheep by 8000 BCE, and farming was evident in the Balkan region by 4000 BCE. The growing and harvesting of wheat and barley from the Western part of Asia spread into the Italian part of Europe and soon spread into other parts of the continent.
As agriculture became part of society, the people no longer remained nomadic. Their dwellings became more permanent as they had to attend to planting, growing, harvesting and the domestication of animals. Permanent villages first sprouted in the Middle East, and farming communities in Jericho, Canaan and the Dead Sea area during 8000 BCE. People began to live in simple but more permanent dwellings. One of these communities is Catal Huyuk, in Turkey. It is said that the walls of this community contained 32 acres at one time. Surpluses in the food supply led to people engaging in activities other than farming and domesticating animals, and soon there were skilled individuals manufacturing jewelry, weaponry and other items. Another activity that developed was religion. Gods and goddesses molded in the image of individuals soon were present within these communities. Also, with the surpluses, people engaged in trade. Those producing certain goods and who had surpluses of these traded these for goods which they could not grow or make.
Early Civilizations and their Characteristics
The earliest centers of civilization could be found in the Fertile Crescent in what was called Mesopotamia, which is now centered in Iraq. The cultivation of wheat and barley began in the Fertile Crescent area, the area between two huge river systems – the Tigris and the Euphrates. Men took care of the plants in the field and the women stayed at home to do the chores and to raise the children. It is also said that the first cities developed in Mesopotamia as more efficient means of cultivation evolved. Food was being produced with more regularity and bigger groups of people could live off the produce of less land.There was also the Nile Valley civilization, as well as the Indus River Valley civilization (3000 BCE). There was also the Yellow River civilization in Northern China (1570 BCE). It should be noted that these early civilizations first became permanent near river systems, and the communities needed irrigation systems for their crops to grow. These early civilizations had the following characteristics:
An urban focus – these communities evolved into cities that were centers for religious, economic, social and political development;
Military and political structures – these societies devised military and political structures in order to develop strategies to protect their people, properties and other interests;
Social structure – social strata developed with the people in the various strata assuming different roles in society;
Development of more complexities in material issues – surpluses in agriculture allowed people to have some more time to engage in other activities;
The development of religion – the gods were seen as deities taking care of the communities, and a priest class arose in order to take care of the relations between the gods and men;
Writing – writing evolved such that records became available;
Artistic and intellectual activity – among the extracurricular activities were the arts and thinking and reasoning.
Opinion
In order for a civilization to evolve, several important characteristics must be present in the community. One can note that all the major early civilizations evolved near bodies of water – near the mouths of rivers and seas, because these bodies of water provided irrigation for the crops and as a means of transport for these people, and also as a means for trade with other civilizations and communities. Without irrigation, agriculture would die out. A second major requirement is the rise of a leader and a warrior class. The warrior class along with a leader or a king was essential for the protection of the group and for the expansion of the civilization as it grew into an empire. Along with the development of a warrior class was the rise of several strata in society such that the members of society occupied their designated roles. Thus there was the king or the leader, the priests, who took care of the religious functions and activities, the farmers, the fishermen, the craftsmen, and the women who took care of the home and the hearth. Within the city or the community, there must be relative peace. This meant that the leader was strong and consistent, such that the classes or entities in society did not fight against each other. If they did, then this would make excellent fodder for the community to be conquered by another kingdom. Finally, the presence of excess harvests or excess food is essential, such that people can also pay attention to other activities such as engaging in trade, crafts, and other skilled work, or even in the development of informal and formal education. Therefore without any distinct culture or patterns or ways of life, there would be rise of civilization.
Bibliography
Alfred Andrea and Carolyn Neel. World History Encyclopedia, Volume 2. (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2011). 248.
Jiu-Hwa Upshur, Janice Terry, James Holoka, George Caesar and Richard Goff. World History, Fifth Edition, Advantage Edition, Volume 1. (Boston Wadsworth, 2012). 17.
Samuel Huntington. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. (NY: Simon and Schuster, 2003). 40-41.
William Duiker and Jackson Spielvogel. World History, 7th edition, Volume 1: to 1800. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). 6.
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The agricultural surplus gave the Babylonians stability in their economy, which also made their empire stable (Bible History). They traded their agriculture for raw materials because that was rare in the Babylonian Empire (Albright, Paragraph 23). These raw materials were needed for daily life and used in the flourishing textile business. The raw materials were also used to create cabinet-making, gem-cutting, and metal-working industries in the empire that created jobs for the people (Bible History). All of this is credited to the protection offered by Hammurabi’s Code.
They didn't have much technology because they didn't have many people to work on it. They always got sick from the dust and stuff because it wasn't good for their health. Then they would die off and then they'd get less people. Hunter gatherers and agriculturalists population was never big. They both didn’t have a lot of people.
Even though medicine was very trivial at the time, access to a physician can be the difference between life and death. The lower class were objectified to dealing with this disease without any medical help. The Bubonic Plague affected society drastically in England during this time. People lived in constant fear of the bubonic plague.
Staying in one place gave the settlers time to study the growth patterns of local plants and develop methods to grow them in large quantities. The switch from a nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle to one of settlement and agriculture is what allowed the formation of civilization. The surplus of food provided by agriculture allowed for rapid growth of population. Farmers would replant the seeds of the plants that had the
In addition they were able to have a long growing season and boost their economy. In the Middle Colonies they grew staple crops such as corn, barley, oats, and wheat. Again, they were able to succeed because of their rich land and soil, and a great climate. Last, New England also took advantage of crops such as wheat and corn even though they had rocky soil, forests and harsh cold weather. On the other hand, New England mainly depended on fishing and shipbuilding.
You get wood from trees, so it would be super easy to just go
1 Diseases Today I want to tell you about the diseases in World War one. Many of those diseases led to the dead of the soldiers because they had little knowledge and medicine. The conditions in the trenches were horrible. Little foot and fresh water, living in wet trenches, no medical care were the cause of those diseases: Trench foot, trench fever, gas, trench mouth, venereal diseases... Soldiers were sick, hungry and were exposure to the elements of nature.
There have been many changes throughout history, though the Neolithic revolution is often considered the most noteworthy. This era is when systematic agriculture was developed, fundamentally changing the way people lived. This was a major change in history: from hunting and gathering, to farming and domesticating animals. Occurring from around 10,000-3,000 BC, it changed the way history would be perceived. There were many consequences of the Neolithic revolution, which changed life greatly.
There were many causes for the Neolithic revolution. Some of these reasons included climate change and increased population. Climate changed was one of the causes because the end of the ice age brought good seasonal conditions that favored
The Neolithic Revolution was a crucial starting point for civilizations mainly because it was the period in which agriculture was discovered, successfully practiced, and acknowledged by many other societies as it spread to other regions of the world from its starting point in the fertile Middle East. Although it is referred to as a “revolution,” the progression from mobile hunting and gathering groups to more complex, stationary farming societies took thousands of years before finally becoming an essential base for many large societies. Farming led to important means that might now serve as fundamentals, or at least elements, of our very definition of civilization today, such as the construction of houses. These advancements caused further
I believe that in Egypt a complex society emerged because of the location they chose to inhabit. The Egyptians had a more productive and protected area of land. The Nile River was predictable and made it easier to grow crops (Wallech, 2013, p. 54). In addition, the Egyptians had only one of four frontiers susceptible to invasion (p. 54).
What horrible things did the continental army have to suffer in their six- month encampment? They experienced hunger, diseases, and death. Since it was cold some couldn 't bathe causing them to have bad hygiene. Also at the time smallpox and pneumonia was being spread. Since there weren 't many medical supplies, some couldn 't be treated.
Mesopotamia was a successful civilization because of it 's farming. I know this beause If they weren 't successful in farming, they couldn 't build up theire civilization. The text stated that the two rivers would bring in silt, which made rich farming land. This in turn, made them need less farmers, so people got other jobs.
The Jamestown colonists had many risks to get to where they were. There wasn’t enough food/water supply for the abundance of people. The food/water they did have was mostly spoiled. Another reason, is sickness throughout the ships. Since it wasn’t hygienic or safe, many did get diseases.
These rivers caused floods and destruction, yet they deposited fertile soil that allowed these early civilizations to grow crops and survive without traveling great distances to gather food. These states of people had evolved enough to have values and needs beyond that of the basic needs such as food, water, and shelter. These higher values are pretty basic. People wanted to find a meaning in life, to cope with death and the afterlife, and to have justice. Mesopotamians were the first said to have a government, codes of laws, and ethical systems. | https://www.ipl.org/essay/The-Neolithic-Revolution-In-History-FJTWYJZVYV |
The Paleolithic Era began approximately 2.5 million years ago and ended with the advent of modern agriculture about 10,000 years ago. Food sources of this era included animals and plants that were part of the local environments in which people lived. Animals slaughtered for food were hunted — not confined and/or bred for this purpose. The plants people ate were gathered, and not produced by systematic agricultural practices. Animals weren’t domesticated for food until the Neolithic Period, making it unlikely that the Paleolithic human consumed eggs and milk regularly. Today many modern versions of the Paleo Diet exist. Some include eggs and raw milk, while most advocate eating seafood and grass-fed animals.
An Impossible Standard for Modern Times
It’s impossible to construct an accurate modern-day food triangle representing the diet of Paleolithic humans because we don’t know their ratio of meat to plant consumption. The prehistoric Paleo diet would have varied considerably depending on geographic region (e.g., a tribe living inland did not consume seafood) and weather conditions. There is no recorded history of the Paleolithic Era; most of what we know has been extrapolated from artifacts and fossils by archeologists. On the fossilized teeth of recently excavated 36,000- to 44,000-year-old Neanderthal skeletons, researchers found starch granules from a variety of plant life: wild grasses, roots, tuber foods, dates, barley, and legumes. (Interestingly, the barley had been cooked.) It’s clear that Paleolithic humans gathered and ate a number of different plants, but how much meat they consumed continues to be a topic of debate.
Today’s Animal Products are Far from Wild Caught
Today’s Paleo Diet promotes eating grass-fed animals, but it’s important to remember that the animals our Paleolithic ancestors ate have been hunted to extinction or have vanished due to climate change. Today’s grass-fed animals are domesticated, and genetic manipulation is the norm. The Paleo Diet also encourages seafood consumption. At present, foodborne illness (food poisoning) linked to seafood is a regular occurrence. Fish, crustaceans and shellfish are the hosts of viruses and bacteria that commonly cause disease in humans. In addition, modern rivers, lakes, and oceans contain the toxic runoff from industrial plants and commercial agriculture, which are then ingested by the marine life we regard as food.
Today’s fish often contain DDTs, dieldrin, dioxin, mercury, methylmercury, and PCBs: man-made chemicals that were never meant for ingestion. Some of these compounds have been banned in the US, but their spontaneous breakdown is incredibly slow. They persist in the environment, even decades after their last use. Plastic waste is non-biodegradable, and our waterways are full of it. Fish commonly mistake smaller bits of plastic for food and eat them. Water samples often contain more plastic than plankton — in some locations, a 10:1 ratio! Furthermore, the Fukushima nuclear catastrophe following the 2011 Japanese tsunami is an ongoing environmental crisis, and radioactive bluefin tuna has now made its way into our food supply.
Unsustainable, Rooted in Speculation
There seems to be a noble or romantic association with eating a “natural diet” like our Paleolithic ancestors, but it’s important to consider how vastly different the earth is today as compared to prehistoric times. Modern humans are conducting a massive, uncontrolled environmental experiment. We destroy natural habitats to make way for both factory-farmed and grass-fed animals, displacing and wiping out untold numbers of species of plants and animals. This practice of allocating land for farmed animals is not sustainable for the earth’s seven billion inhabitants. In the US alone, 80% of our arable land is dedicated to the nearly 10 billion land animals slaughtered annually for our consumption. There simply aren’t enough resources, given today’s global population, to support the dietary practices of prehistoric times. Furthermore, the chemicals used in modern agribusiness and industrial plants have become pervasive in our food — even in grass-fed animals and especially in seafood. It would be nearly impossible and, at best, highly impractical to have our diet match that of our prehistoric ancestors. The Paleo Diet is rooted in speculation and even fantasy. It is just another fad that encourages people to eat animals while seeking justification through pseudoscience.
Facing our Current Realities
We can look behind us or look ahead. We are not cavemen. We drive cars, use computers, purchase our food in supermarkets, and have a far less physically demanding lifestyle as compared to our distant ancestors. We know nothing of the diseases and nutritional deficiencies that affected them, yet we attempt to combat modern-day ailments through their postulated diet. There is an ever-growing mass of scientific data that links preventable disease to the consumption of a diet laden with animal fat and protein. The benefits of a plant-based diet are becoming widely accepted and recognized by health care professionals and dieticians. The more we learn about the abundant benefits of not eating flesh, dairy, and eggs, the less “natural” eating them will seem. We humans are evolving — and our diet should follow suit. | https://freefromharm.org/health-nutrition/vegan-doctor-weighs-paleo-diet-craze/ |
What is Sedentary?
A sedentary lifestyle is one in which people spend most, if not all, of the year in one area for long periods of time. Most well-known sedentary societies have been agricultural societies, but sedentary hunter-gatherer societies are also common in history and in the archaeological record. A lifeway defined by sedentary living is often referred to as sedentism.
Origins of sedentism
It is not known when the first permanent settlements emerged. Houses made of mammoth bones, for example, have been found in Eurasia that date to as early as 20,000 years ago. Furthermore, humans have built temporary shelters throughout history and prehistory. The first permanent structures appear to have been built as public structures rather than as residences. These include Gobekli Tepe and the tower of Jericho. It is possible that these structures were ritual centers where otherwise mobile societies gathered.
The earliest evidence of true sedentism dates to about 12,000 years ago in the ancient Near East with the Natufians. The Natufians were a hunter-gatherer population represented by the Natufian archaeological culture. By 10,500 years ago, this lifestyle had grown into agrarianism and led to what were likely the first true farming societies. The emergence of sedentism is often associated with the rise of agriculture. Permanent agricultural settlements also appear independently in South America, North America, Africa, and China early in the archaeological record. This indicates that there was not one location from which civilization flowered. People seemed to have independently arrived at the idea in many different parts of the world.
Effects of sedentism
A transition to a settled lifestyle has a significant effect on a society’s economy, food production, socio-political structure, and health conditions. Examples of traits associated with sedentary societies include agriculture, large populations, craft specialization, social inequality, and slavery. None of these, however, necessarily require a sedentary lifestyle and they are not required for sedentary living. Living in one location can also lead to reliance on less diverse sources of food. This consequence of sedentary living combined with high population growth can lead to unhealthy conditions and the spread of disease in densely populated settled communities.
Future of sedentism
Most people living in the world today practice a sedentary way of life. This trend is likely to continue as cities become larger and the percentage of the global population that lives in cities increases.
What is Nomadic?
A nomadic lifestyle is a lifestyle defined by mobility. A nomadic lifestyle, or nomadism, does not imply random or undirected movement but movement based on access to food supply and other resources. Nomads will travel between specific areas which have the necessary food and natural resources for them to survive. There are several different types of nomadism, three of them are hunter-gatherer nomadism, pastoral nomadism, and tinker and trader nomadism.
Hunter-gatherer nomadism
Before about 12,000 years ago, it is likely that most, if not all, humans were nomadic hunter-gatherers. Hunting and gathering typically involve some degree of nomadism, but the degree to which hunter-gatherers are nomadic varies from community to community. The Kalahari San, for example, move daily form place to place. Other hunter-gatherers may only move a couple times a year. Because nomadism favors low numbers, nomadic hunter-gatherers will space apart births to avoid adding too many people to a group. They tend to consist of small bands traveling to find food and water.
Pastoral nomadism
Many nomadic groups will raise livestock. Pastoral nomads migrate to find grazing land and water for their animals. Nomadic pastoralists typically also practice a form of agriculture or hunting and gathering to supplement their diet. Other pastoralists will trade with agriculturalists to gain access to grain.
One specific form of nomadism is transhumance. Transhumance is the practice of migrating between higher and lower altitudes, or latitudes in some cases, at different times of the year. Transhumant groups will typically migrate to higher elevation during the summer so their livestock can graze and then move back down to the lowlands during the winter when the mountains are not suitable for grazing. The Kohistani of central Asia, one example of a transhumant group, migrate between 600 m and 4,300 m in elevation throughout the year. Kohistani families have at least four or five houses throughout the year. At any given time of the year, the entire population will be at a particular altitude level consistent with the season.
Tinker and trader nomadism
Another type of nomad is the nomad that lives an itinerant lifestyle within a larger society that may or may not be nomadic. These nomads will usually make a living as traveling artisans or laborers. A well-known nomadic group of this sort is the Roma, also known as the Gypsies. The Roma are a nomadic people that originated in northern India but are now known all over the world. The Roma have practiced this form of nomadism for centuries, traveling to distant lands and finding work that supported their itinerant lifestyle. Historically, the men would typically work as livestock traders, traveling craftsmen, and musicians. The women would tell fortunes, sell potions, and work as entertainers. Nomads of this sort are often misunderstood and not trusted by the host society and often become scapegoats and targets of persecution and expulsion.
Future of nomadism
Modern trends such as urbanization, the development land for agriculture, urban development and industry, and the enforcement of political boundaries between nation-states will likely make the nomadic lifestyle more difficult in the 21st century. Some nomadic groups still exist, but this ancient way of life may become increasingly more difficult as the world becomes smaller. Unless humans begin to leave Earth’s surface and become interplanetary or interstellar wanderers, the future of the nomadic lifestyle is uncertain.
Similarities between Sedentary and Nomadic
Sedentary and nomadic lifestyles are similar in that both can involve agriculture, pastoralism, or hunting and gathering.
Differences between Sedentary and Nomadic
Although there are similarities between sedentary and nomadic lifestyles, there are also important differences. These include the following.
- Nomadic lifestyles limit population growth, whereas sedentary lifestyles tend to encourage population growth.
- Nomadic lifestyles encourage relying on a variety of food sources, while sedentary lifestyles tend encourage reliance on a narrower range of food sources.
- Nomadic lifestyles encourage egalitarianism, while sedentary lifestyles encourage social stratification.
- Nomadic lifestyles date to the earliest periods of human prehistory, whereas sedentary lifestyles only appear within the last 12,000 years according to the archaeological record.
Sedantary vs. Nomadic
Summary Sedantary and Nomadic
The sedentary lifestyle is a lifestyle defined by staying in the same location for all, or at least most, of the year. Sedentism has its origins about 12,000 years ago and arose independently in many parts of the world including the ancient Near East, China, and Mesoamerica. The sedentary lifestyle is typically associated with agriculture, social stratification, slavery, craft specialization, and population growth. It is likely to become more common. A nomadic lifestyle is defined by periodic movement of a population. The earliest human societies were likely nomadic societies. There are three types of nomadic societies, hunter-gatherer nomads, pastoral nomads, and tinker and trader nomads. Tinker and trader nomads differ from the other nomadic groups in that they live in host societies that may or may not be nomadic themselves. Nomadic societies and sedentary societies are similar in that they both can accommodate hunter-gatherer, pastoral, and agricultural lifestyles. They also differ in important ways. Nomadic societies tend to restrict population growth, focus on a variety of food sources, tend to be more egalitarian, and date to the earliest phase of human prehistory. On the other hand, sedentary societies tend to encourage population growth, focus narrowly on fewer food sources, tend towards greater social stratification, and only date to within the past 12,000 years. | http://www.differencebetween.net/miscellaneous/difference-between-sedantary-and-nomadic/ |
Preventing Employee Injuries at Nursing Homes, Assisted Living Facilities
A common Workers Compensation risk for nursing homes involves resident lifting and repositioning. The risk factors that workers in nursing homes face include: force – the amount of physical effort required to perform a task (such as heavy lifting); repetition – performing the same motion or series of motions continually or frequently; and awkward postures – assuming positions that place stress on the body, such as reaching above shoulder height, kneeling, squatting, leaning over a bed, or twisting the torso while lifting.
According to OSHA, excessive exposure to these risk factors can result in a variety of disorders in affected workers. These conditions known as musculoskeletal disorders, or MSDs, include low back pain, sciatica, rotator cuff injuries, epicondylitis, and carpal tunnel syndrome. Following are some OSHA guidelines for nursing home and assisted living clients to help minimize work-related musculoskeletal disorders losses and keep employees safe at their facilities.
Provide Management Support: Employers should develop clear goals, assign responsibilities to designated staff members to achieve those goals, provide necessary resources, and ensure that assigned responsibilities are fulfilled on an ongoing basis.
Involve Employees: Get employees involved in problem solving and hazard identification assistance, which will help to enhance worker motivation and job satisfaction, and lead to greater acceptance when changes are made in the workplace. Employees can: submit suggestions or concerns; discuss the workplace and work methods; participate in the design of work, equipment, procedures, and training; evaluate equipment; respond to employee surveys; participate in task groups with responsibility for ergonomics; and participate in developing the nursing home’s ergonomics process.
Identify Problems: Nursing homes that recognize problems by establishing systematic methods for identifying ergonomics concerns in their workplace are more successful in injury prevention. Information about where problems or potential problems may occur in nursing homes can be obtained from a variety of sources, including reports of workers’ compensation claims, accident investigation reports, insurance company reports, employee interviews and surveys, and reviews and observations of workplace conditions. Once information is obtained, it can be used to identify and evaluate elements of jobs that are associated with problems.
Implement Solutions: When problems related to ergonomics are identified, appropriate options can then be selected and implemented to eliminate hazards. Effective solutions usually involve workplace modifications that eliminate hazards and improve the work environment. These changes usually include the use of equipment, work practices, or both. When choosing methods for lifting and repositioning residents, individual factors should be taken into account. Such factors include the resident’s rehabilitation plan, the need to restore the resident’s functional abilities, medical contraindications, emergency situations, and resident dignity and rights.
Address Reports of Injuries: Even in establishments with effective safety and health programs, injuries and illnesses may occur. Work-related MSDs should be managed in the same way and under the same process as any other occupational injury or illness. Like many injuries and illnesses, employers and employees can benefit from early reporting of MSDs. Early diagnosis and intervention, including alternative duty programs, are particularly important in order to limit the severity of injury, improve the effectiveness of treatment, minimize the likelihood of disability or permanent damage, and reduce the amount of associated workers’ compensation claims and costs.
Provide Training: Training is necessary to ensure that employees and managers can recognize potential ergonomics issues in the workplace, and understand measures that are available to minimize the risk of injury. Ergonomics training can be integrated into general training on performance requirements and job practices. Effective training covers the problems found in each employee’s job.
Evaluate Ergonomics Efforts: Nursing homes should evaluate the effectiveness of their ergonomics efforts and follow-up on unresolved problems. Evaluation helps sustain the effort to reduce injuries and illnesses, track whether or not ergonomic solutions are working, identify new problems, and show areas where further improvement is needed. For example, after introducing a new lift at a nursing home, the employer should follow up by talking with employees to ensure that the problem has been adequately addressed.
Nursing homes that have implemented injury prevention efforts focusing on resident lifting and repositioning methods have achieved considerable success in reducing work-related injuries and associated Workers Compensation costs.
Caitlin-Morgan specializes in the insurance and risk management needs of nursing home & assisted living facilities. Please give us a call at 877.226.1027 to discuss our programs. | https://www.caitlin-morgan.com/preventing-employee-injuries-at-nursing-homes-assisted-living-facilities/ |
Why Study it?
Engaged employees are enthusiastic and committed to the organisation. Enthusiastic and committed employees lead to organisation growth. Organisations want, therefore, engaged and motivated employees. The focus in this unit is on understanding engagement and exploring ways to improve and enhance the engagement of employees in an organisation.
What will I Learn?
On completion of this unit, you will know what employee engagement is and you will also know what it is not. You will be able to distinguish between engagement and such concepts as job satisfaction and employee involvement. You will be able to evaluate the different types of employee engagement and the components that add together to form engagement. You will also be able to analyse how employee reward can be linked to engagement.
Having studied this unit, you will be able to plan and implement organisational strategies, evaluating the tools and techniques available to increase and develop employee engagement. You will be able to analyse models of employee engagement and evaluate how appropriate they are in different organisational settings. You will understand how to monitor the progress of employee engagement strategies and reflect on the impact that such strategies will have. | https://kpmglearningmalta.com/courses/employee-engagement/ |
The Global Brand & Communications (GB&C) organization has an exciting opportunity for an experienced internal communications or executive communications professional to join the Executive Communications team in a role responsible for strategic communications for the Legal and Talent & Enterprise Services organizations.
Summary
The Director II, Internal Communications works collaboratively with executive leadership and talent teams to develop a strategic communications plan and drive innovative and integrated communication strategies within two aligned corporate functions (Legal and Talent & Enterprise Services) that are both geographically and functionally diverse.
Along with aligned Communications Consultants, this person will build and ensure execution of executive communications programs, campaigns, and channels that significantly influence the way leaders communicate and positively influences the employee experience related to communications. He/she will support change, engage employees, and shape the culture to ultimately enhance and continuously improve the employee experience.
The person in this role will be responsible for ensuring consistent messaging within these two corporate functions and alignment to the overall Liberty Mutual brand & strategy.
In addition to internal communications experience, this position requires strong strategic and analytical thinking, the ability to manage multiple stakeholder relationships and influencing skills in a matrix organization. Candidates must demonstrate ability to drive tangible results.
Responsibilities:
· Develop and own the executive communication strategy and some execution for aligned corporate functions.
· Work with multiple senior executives as a coach and counsel to ensure communications are aligned and coordinated, and focused first and foremost on the employee experience, tied to our corporate narrative and corporate function strategic brief and always underpinned by our Values.
· Understand business objectives and implement programs and processes to drive employee engagement in an impactful and meaningful way.
· Responsible for engagement in monitoring key metrics to evaluate effectiveness of communication plans.
· Work cohesively and collaborate with lead communicators in other business units/corporate functions to ensure smooth and seamless coordination of communications.
· Contribute to the creation and alignment on best practices for cultivating a dynamic employee experience through communications.
· Facilitate communications that span across multiple business units/functional areas requiring the need to influence without authority and build relationships with key stakeholders.
· Successfully manages complex situations with autonomy.
Qualifications:
· Bachelor’s Degree required, MBA preferred.
· Minimum of 7-10 years of relevant experience and progressively more responsible communications experience and a proven track record of developing and executing strategies that drive cultural and organizational change.
· Exceptional program management skills and the ability to organize, plan, and execute communication strategies.
· Advanced knowledge of project management concepts, practices and techniques.
· Experience coaching and managing employees is preferred as this person will contribute to the coaching and development of aligned communications consultants.
- Displays business acumen and integrated thinking.
- Excellent written and verbal communication skills.
- Strong knowledge of various communications vehicles to include both current and emerging technologies.
- Ability to multitask in a fast-paced work environment.
- Collaborative team player
Job Specifications: | https://pac.org/job/director-ii-internal-communications/ |
LandCare is one of the most comprehensive providers of commercial landscape services in the United States. With 4,000 employees working in 20 states, LandCare focuses on landscape management, landscape design and installation, irrigation and water managements, and snow and ice removal.
- Organization: LandCare
- Dates: November 2015 – May 2017
- Position: Vice President – Human Resources
Job Overview
Served as a key member of the executive leadership team and developed and communicated strategies to support a capable and engaged workforce. Key areas of responsibility included talent management and development, employee engagement, training and organizational effectiveness, compensation, benefits, performance management and employee relations.
- Partnered with leadership in delivering on initiatives aligned with the corporation’s strategy, aligning business initiatives with people capabilities and translating the business plans into HR strategic and operational plans.
- Restructured the HR function to create synergy and strategic partnership with the organization while improving HR process efficiencies.
- Planned, developed, organized, implemented, directed and evaluated the organization’s human resources function, policies, processes and overall impact. Defined KPIs aligned with business strategy and delivered HR metrics to measure progress toward deliverables.
- Managed the organization’s HR practices and processes to ensure state and federal compliance.
- Developed staffing strategies and implementation plans and programs to identify talent within and outside the organization.
- Partnered with Marketing on employee branding strategies and initiatives to enhance the broader communication of company culture, values, mission and vision.
- Developed and delivered competitive compensation and benefit programs to attract and retain talent, provide motivation, incentives and rewards for a pay-for-performance culture which also promotes employee and company partnership for the short and long-range health and welfare of employees.
- Implemented a new HRIS for the organization improving the overall accessibility, operation and effectiveness of HR while reducing costs from the previous system.
- Implemented new programs and processes designed to improve and measure employee engagement. Programs include training and development, performance management and employee surveys.
- Managed a staff of 12-15 employees. | https://cfrankhrconsulting.com/portfolio-item/landcare/ |
In level 7 of the Advanced Diploma in Human Resource Management, the optional module 7EEG Employee Engagement explores employee engagement.
Purpose and Aim of the Module
Excellent organizational performance results from how involved, committed and engaged the organization’s employees are. The module delves into the various dimensions of employee engagement, including cognitive, behavioural, and affective dimensions.
The meaning of the concept “engagement” is investigated. Similarly, the reasons why some organizations perform better than others in terms of creating authentic engagement among employees are provided. Furthermore, tips on what organizations can do, with HR professionals’ assistance, to improve workforce engagement levels are shared.
The Employee Engagement module provides learners with a thorough understanding of the concept of “engagement” applied in organizational settings. The philosophical and empirical links between employee engagement and other related values, beliefs, leadership models, and management practices are also investigated.
Learners will understand the significance of employee engagement emerging as a critical priority area for organizations. This is advantageous for those who have achieved or aspire to achieve high-performance working (HPW). Furthermore, the module enables learners to gain the knowledge and skills required for evaluating research, experiential, and anecdotal evidence related to the processes that facilitate employee engagement and the outcomes.
The module warns against assessing and interpreting ‘evidence’ about the processes and benefits of employee engagement. It also explains why students must avoid rhetorical tendencies. Because many studies lack empirical detail, more emphasis is placed on those who have a vested interest in reporting more excellent progress and success.
Employee engagement is a powerful tool for achieving positive reputational and financial outcomes. That is if it is properly understood, implemented, and objectively measured. Learners will investigate various techniques for measuring engagement and taking corrective action. They also learn how to embed cultural practices that improve employee engagement and how to identify and evaluate actions to improve levels of engagement.
Learners are required to critically reflect on theory and practice from an ethical and professional standpoint in this module. Furthermore, it allows for applied learning and continuous professional development.
Who is suitable for this module?
- Individuals with HR decision-making responsibilities within an organization at various levels, operational, tactical, or strategic.
- HR professionals in a team or HR functional management role who want to advance and develop their careers.
- Individuals who have HR roles and responsibilities within a company without a specialized role.
- Consultants who provide services to companies or organizations to meet their objectives.
- Individuals interested in pursuing a career in human resources and becoming a member of the CIPD.
What are the Learning Outcomes of the module?
This module will enable students to:
- Analyze the concept of natural employee engagement and how it can be used to achieve high-level business objectives.
- Explain empirically and philosophically the links between employee engagement, managerial leadership, strategic aspirations, and HR strategies aimed at infrastructure maintenance and the development of human resource management (HRM) competitive differentiators.
- Investigate the significance of employee engagement as a tool for improving reputational, strategic, and competitive excellence in high-performance workplaces.
- Create and analyze a causal or correlational relationship between levels of employee engagement and organizational performance as measured by efficiencies and corporate outcomes.
- Create action plans for increasing employee engagement in their organizations and elsewhere that are justifiable, cost-effective, and strategically defendable.
- Evaluate current levels of employee engagement within organizations, functions, and business units in a systematic manner. Following that, recommend or implement programs to achieve corrective changes or embed previously achieved levels of engagement.
What is the Assessment Criteria?
To ensure that all learning outcomes are assessed to improve the learner’s experience, a multi-sectorial approach assessment is used. The assessment tools are intended to help learners demonstrate conceptual mastery, apply theory to practice, and communicate clearly in the HR field.
Learner evaluation will include the following:
Summative assessment will be used to evaluate at least 50% of the learning outcomes.
The remaining learning outcomes will be assessed using a variety of activities such as learning, teaching, and formative assessment such as;
- Integrated work activities
- Presentations in groups and individually
- Reports
- Time-limited tests
- Examinations
- Assignments for Viva Voce
- Studies in practice
Furthermore, learners in CIPD-approved centres may be subjected to competency-based assessment. The assessment method necessitates the use of occupationally qualified assessors. However, for standardization purposes, centre-marked assessments must be subjected to external moderation. | https://helpcipdassignment.co.uk/7eeg-employee-engagement/ |
836.000 Economic Vitality Council
The purpose of the Economic Vitality Council is to improve the college’s effectiveness and progress, holistically, toward meeting the economic vitality objectives and outcomes as well as recommend improvement strategies within the context of the objectives under economic vitality and guided pathways to decision-making bodies. The work of this council results in improved student learning by assessing and identifying strategies to support the development and delivery of e programs and services that enhance the economic well-being of the students, college, and community. The council will make recommendations to college leadership teams and other appropriate groups. These recommendations will be developed based on careful and continuous assessment and review of the economic vitality outcomes compared with their benchmarks.
The Economic Vitality Council will implement its purpose in the following ways:
- Discuss improvement of student learning by improving the economic conditions of the
college, students, and workforce. The foci of the discussions will be about college
budget planning and development, leveraging resources for innovation, and institutionalizing
external partnerships to ensure student success and enhanced workforce development.
Detailed discussions of strategies and activities related to other existing groups
will occur at the appropriate committee and department.
- Continuously review and evaluate Clark College’s progress toward mission fulfillment,
specifically in regards to the economic vitality core theme objectives. The method
used to evaluate will be the economic vitality outcomes, intended results (i.e., benchmarks),
and annual actual data compared to the benchmark.
- Develop and provide appropriate recommendations of strategies to improve economic vitality to the college’s leadership teams, especially the President’s executive cabinet. When relevant, the council will also make recommendations of strategies to improve economic vitality to college units/departments and other related committees.
Council membership will consist of the following positions ensuring that at least one member is a professional technical faculty member, transfer faculty member, and employee of Instruction, Student Affairs, Administrative Services, and Executive areas (Communications and Marketing, Economic and Community Development, Human Resources, Planning and Effectiveness, and the President's Office) of the college:
- AHE representative (to be selected by AHE)
- WPEA representative (to be selected by WPEA)
- Student (to be selected by ASCC)
- Adjunct faculty member (to be selected by adjunct faculty committee)
The following members will be selected by the council through an application process:
- Classified, including part-time classified employee
- Full-time faculty member
- Administrator/exempt (non-Executive Cabinet members)
- Employee/Student knowledgeable about the consequences of power, privilege, and inequity – appointed by the Office of Diversity and Equity
- At large member, depending on the core theme and needs of the group – could include Foundation representative
The following member will be selected by the President:
- Executive Cabinet member– nonvoting (EC member provides the note-taker.) The President cannot serve as the EC representative.
Members will serve two-year terms. | http://www.clark.edu/about/governance/public-disclosure-and-records/adminProcedures/800/836/index.php |
The Advisory Board recently released its list of 20 ‘Workplace of the Year’ recipients and five ‘Workplace Transformation Award’ recipients for their success in driving employee engagement. These winners were selected because they demonstrated the highest levels of engagement within the Advisory Board Survey Solutions database, which offers organizations the opportunity to use survey solutions with their employees to determine success, change management, and leader-centric action plans.
Advisory Board defines ‘employee engagement’ as the extent to which individuals feel emotionally committed to their role and their organization. Once employees take the survey, they are put into categories (disengaged, ambivalent, content, or engaged).
We believe that workplace engagement within the healthcare industry is extremely important. Engaged healthcare staff can have a direct correlation with patient satisfaction and care outcomes. When an organization takes care of its workforce, resulting in happier employees with lower turnover rates and higher engagement with career path planning. Patients recognize when they are receiving care from nurses and physicians who have a positive attitude about their jobs and workplace. Overall engagement within a healthcare organization can result in happier employees and patients, but also greater financial reimbursement through higher HCAHPS scores. Solutions, such as Infor Talent Science, can align employees to the right position increasing employee satisfaction and reducing turnover too.
Congratulations to our customers for this achievement. To learn more about our solutions for healthcare, visit our website.
What is your organization doing to improve engagement? | https://www.infor.com/blog/infor-recognizes-customers-on-advisory-boards-list-of-most-engaged-workplaces-in-health-care |
Conduct a case study analysis.
Diversity in the Health Care Workforce
Nancy K. Sayre and Sally O. Casey
A human resource manager works at a small hospital in a rural community of 30,000 mostly Spanish-speaking people in southern New Mexico. The hospital has a job opportunity for a business manager for a new outpatient clinic that is about to open. The human resource manager is considering three different candidates for the position:
1. An individual who grew up in the community and just completed an undergraduate degree in Health Administration from an in-state college about 500 miles away. She completed an internship but has no other practical experience.
2. A bilingual man in his 50s who has spent his entire career working at the local bank in finance, helping to get loans for regional farms or other businesses. He wishes to switch to a more personally fulfilling opportunity.
3. A nurse who works at a large hospital in the state capital, about 200 miles away, who would like to transition from direct patient care to management. She is well-liked and has had excellent performance reviews. She grew up on tribally owned lands for the Navajo and needs to return to care for her elderly parents.
The CEO of the hospital catches the HR manager in the hospital cafeteria and he mentions that he has just returned from a national conference and learned a lot about diversity in hiring. He passes on these thoughts. Achieving diversity in health care management requires commitment among all professionals including entry-level staff, middle managers, and senior executives. Five solutions for diversity success include being sensitive to cultural differences in the workplace, establishing strategic goals that emphasize cultural diversity, seeking regular input from employees about diversity initiatives, promoting minorities from within, and mentoring them as well (Witt/Kiefer, 2011). The American College of Healthcare Executives (ACHE, 2010) calls for “awareness of diversity issues, hiring practices that attract diverse staff, development and mentoring in educational programs and organizations, and organization wide diversity training,” which are all key practices on which HR needs to focus. “Our country’s increasingly diverse communities result in a more diverse patient population” (ACHE, 2010) and require a more diverse health care workforce. The Institute for Diversity in Health Management is a resource for strategies, programs, and leadership initiatives with the ultimate goal of having the health care workforce in the United States reflect the makeup of the communities served.
Given the current U.S. demographic trend of moving toward a minority nation and the need for all health care organizations to adhere to the National Standards for Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services in Health Care, achieving greater diversity in the health care workforce will continue to be an important challenge (Office of Minority Health, 2001). Within health professions, the representation of Hispanics, Native Americans, and African Americans is lower than their representation in the general population. The American Hospital Association data indicated that the majority (94%) of hospital CEOs were white; whereas only 65% of the population was white in census data from 2010 (ACHE, 2010). Increasing racial and ethnic diversity has been associated with improved patient care and satisfaction, improved clinical outcomes, and stronger financial performance (Witt/Kiefer, 2011). Studies have suggested that by increasing diversity, the field of health care management can improve work-place culture, enhance community relations, and have an overall positive impact on the health of the community (ACHE, 2010).
Discussion Questions
1. What required and preferred qualifications should be included in the job description or job posting to ensure competitive and appropriate candidates apply for the business manager position?
2. Give examples of three to five questions that could be asked during the interview to determine the candidate’s cultural proficiency.
3. Should cultural proficiency and community awareness be rated more highly and thus given greater importance than other qualifications in the hiring process?
4. How important should background and/or experience in health care be rated?
5. What management, training, and leadership practices support a new manager and ensure clinic programs, practices, and services are responsive to the needs of the community?
6. Health care organizations must engage the communities they serve in order to improve cultural proficiencies and reduce health disparities. Describe three to five community engagement strategies the newly hired outpatient clinic could implement.
7. What strategies can health care organizations use to evaluate the effectiveness of their community engagement strategies?
8. What strategies can health care organizations use to evaluate the effectiveness of their diversity and cultural proficiency strategies?
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
American College of Healthcare Executives (ACHE). (2010). Increasing and sustaining racial/ethnic diversity in healthcare management. Chicago, IL: ACHE. Retrieved from http://www.ache.org/policy/minority.cfm
Institute for Diversity in Health Management. http://www.diversityconnection.org/
Office of Minority Health. (2001). National standards for culturally and linguistically appropriate services in health care: Final report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Sayre, N., & Chavez, R. (2012). Addressing health disparities: Cultural proficiency. In S. B. Buchbinder & N. H. Shanks (Eds.), Introduction to health care management (2nd ed., pp. 313–332). Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett.
Witt/Kiefer. (2011). Building the business case: Healthcare diversity leadership: A National survey report. Retrieved from http://www.diversityconnection.org/diversityconnection/membership/Resource%20Center%20Docs/Healthcare%20Diversity%20Leadership-%20a%20National%20Survey%20Report.pdf
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In the past two years, issues related to diversity and inclusion in the workplace have appeared with increasing frequency in headlines, legislation, and shareholder earnings calls, underscoring the growing importance of D&I as a strategic priority for businesses. While it’s encouraging that CEOs and investors are paying more attention to D&I, this trend also puts more pressure on D&I leaders to create effective, sustainable strategies with direct impact on the organization’s priority concerns.
In a panel discussion at Gartner’s ReimagineHR event in Orlando last week, Gartner’s Vice President of Inclusion and Engagement, Rajiv Desai, moderated a discussion with a panel of D&I leaders at major companies on the practical lessons they have learned in adapting their D&I strategies to business needs. Our panelists included Lori McAdoo, Global Lead–Inclusion and Diversity at Alcoa Corporation, and Vanessa Abrahams-John, Executive Director, Global Diversity, Inclusion and Talent Acquisition at Praxair, Inc. While Alcoa and Praxair have taken different approaches to evolving their D&I strategy, both our panelists emphasized the need for D&I leaders to build networked teams in order to create sustainable strategies, and shared two specific ways they are integrating teamwork into their D&I strategies.
A key theme in both panelists’ success stories was that D&I strategy is not only about programming, but also about embedding D&I into the heart of business processes. This requires intentionally engaging senior leaders to increase their buy-in and help them take action on D&I efforts.
Hourly employees make up over 50 percent of the total US employee population and a critical segment of the workforce at many organizations. While employee engagement efforts typically focus primarily on salaried employees who are perceived as having more of a long-term commitment to the organization, hourly employee engagement and loyalty are growing concerns for HR leaders in today’s tight labor markets. According to recent Gartner research, hourly workers are more engaged in their jobs when they are satisfied with their employer’s diversity and inclusion efforts.
In the past year, we’ve seen many large companies launch new initiatives to better engage and retain their hourly employees, whether through education benefits or opportunities to work with local nonprofit organizations. HR leaders have also seen improvement of hourly employee engagement when these employees have positive perceptions of their organization’s D&I activities, our research finds. In fact, when hourly employees are satisfied with D&I, they exhibit almost twice the discretionary effort and almost three times the intent to stay compared to those who are not satisfied. However, only about half of hourly employees are currently involved with D&I efforts and HR leaders are uncertain how to use D&I to engage this population.
HR leaders should integrate D&I efforts into pre-existing engagement initiatives, such as team meetings, to ensure that cultural values and behaviors are articulated and implemented consistently throughout the organization. This approach addresses a key challenge hourly employees face when connecting to D&I at their organizations: They do not feel included on their teams. By building hourly employee inclusion into existing processes, organizations can improve team performance without creating additional structures for HR to manage. | https://www.cebglobal.com/talentdaily/author/emilystrother/ |
Employee wellness has become a key component of engagement and retention. Smart companies include a wellness message in their recruiting. Flexible options help.
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New ‘Work Design for Health’ framework offers viable directions for improving employee health, well-being
The “Work Design for Health” framework—developed by Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and MIT Sloan School of Management researchers—maps how to create work environments that foster worker health and well-being.
The framework offers new and viable directions for improving worker health and well-being while maintaining or enhancing employee engagement and productivity, according to the researchers. It elucidates why employers should shift their focus from offering wellness programs, which aim to change individual behaviors, to creating workplace conditions that ease burdens and support employee health and well-being.
The Work Design for Health framework is outlined in an article published online in the American Journal of Public Health on September 9, 2021. Additionally, the team has created a toolkit and website to guide employers through the process of assessing whether their workplace could benefit from the Work Design for Health approach, as well as how to implement it, and to explain the research underpinning the framework.
Many employers are looking for ways to support the health and well-being of their employees—particularly after a year of high stress and unusual challenges at work and in the wider world. We hope the work design framework inspires more organizations to consider the various ways that work affects employees’ health and well-being.”
Erin L. Kelly, the Sloan Distinguished Professor of Work and Organization Studies at MIT Sloan and co-author of the paper
Lisa Berkman, Thomas D. Cabot Professor of Public Policy and Epidemiology at Harvard Chan School and principal investigator of the paper, explained, “This innovative Work Design for Health framework provides best practices to companies that will help improve employee health and well-being while also maintaining their productivity. The companion website provides concrete, research-tested examples of practical changes that can improve health and well-being.”
For the past several years, discussions about improving worker health have focused on health promotion or wellness programs that focus on individual behaviors, such as increasing exercise, practicing mindfulness, or eating healthy food. Recent rigorous research by others indicates that these programs do not substantially change these behaviors or practices to impact a wide range of employee health outcomes, suggesting that a new perspective on work conditions and work environment is needed. The Harvard Chan School and MIT Sloan team emphasizes that these social conditions are major determinants of poor health and therefore changing them leads to prevention of illness and disability in the first place.
Building on decades of previous work redesign research and frameworks, the team proposes a model of work redesign updated for the realities of work in the 21st century. This framework identifies three strategies to reshape work conditions that not only improve worker well-being but may also benefit the organization:
- Increasing workers’ control over their schedules and giving them greater voice over work conditions;
- Moderating job demands; and
- Offering training and employer support aimed at enhancing social relations at work.
The toolkit provides many examples and case studies of how these strategies have been tested and implemented in a variety of workplace settings. For instance, one study found that giving high-tech professionals more control over their work schedules resulted in workers who were more productive, less stressed, and less likely to quit.
In addition to being more effective at increasing employee well-being, a redesign based on the Work Design for Health framework could save employers money, according to the researchers. Wellness programs now cost on average more than $700 per employee, whereas one extensive redesign initiative reviewed by the authors cost roughly half that much.
“Workplace changes during the COVID-19 pandemic have shown employers that providing workers with more flexibility in where, when, and how they work can be beneficial to employees and their organizations,” said Meg Lovejoy, a co-author of the paper and research program director of the Work and Well-being Initiative at the Center for Population and Development Studies at Harvard Chan School. “The return to more familiar workplace practices and settings offers a key moment for employers to consider how they can reshape the work environment to better promote worker well-being, engagement, and retention. The Work Design for Health approach offers guidance and evidence-based strategies to employers on how they might accomplish this.”
Laura Kubzansky, a co-author of the paper and the Lee Kum Kee Professor of Social and Behavioral Sciences at Harvard Chan School, further emphasizes the importance of workplace conditions as key determinants of happiness and well-being—as important as socioeconomic position, family and community ties, or other aspects of the social environment.
Source:
Journal reference:
Lovejoy, M., et al. (2021) Work Redesign for the 21st Century: Promising Strategies for Enhancing Worker Well-Being. American Journal of Public Health. doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306283.
Most Related Links : | https://newsbinding.com/health/new-work-design-for-health-framework-offers-viable-directions-for-improving-employee-health-well-being/ |
Emotional intelligence (EI) is most often defined as the ability to perceive, use, understand, manage, and handle emotions. People with high emotional intelligence can recognize their own emotions and those of others, use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior, discern between different feelings and label them appropriately, and adjust emotions to adapt to environments.
Table of Contents
The Power of Leadership Behavior on Worker Engagement Engaged staff members appreciate their work, are committed to their companies, and often give more than is required or expected. Employees wish to feel pride, complete satisfaction, acknowledgment, and support, however more than that, they want to believe that their work matters which it resonates with their values.
But more than simply complete satisfaction, staff member engagement is a favorable connection to the work workers do and a belief in the objectives, purpose, and mission of that work. Employee engagement studies and surveys regularly mention management and management trustworthiness as an important factor in this connection. Engagement. "If we do not believe in the messenger, we won't think the message" is the underlying idea of the management practice Model the Way from the leadership model,.
1. Showand tellyour group their work matters Whether you are on a virtual team, working remotely, or handling an in-person group in the 'new regular' the nature of work has actually altered considerably. Brush up on having discussions that surpass, 'Thank you for your work", and ensure that you: Are clear about the values of the company and where workers fit into the huge image Talk about the meaning of work and how your team's contributions matter to the company's general technique 2.
Encourage development on your team Sometimes being innovative is simpler stated than done. It can in some cases be annoying for employees to experiment or fulfill brand-new difficulties when the work environment feels uncertain and deadlines are looming.
Guarantee everybody has an opportunity to stretch their work muscles by: Supplying difficult opportunities for employees to evaluate brand-new abilities Assistance the decisions your team makes on how they do their work Set clear goals, plans, and milestones on jobs to ensure understanding and buy-in 5. Stretch yourself to be the leader that they wish to support and voluntarily follow As we stated above, groups need to believe in the messenger - Employee Engagement.
can be among the most crucial elements to the success of a company. When an employee loves their business and is favorably inspired, their engagement shows in their work. However, this is equally real for the opposite. When a staff member is unengaged, their typically under-perform in their jobs and jobs.
Solving the difficulty of low staff member engagement can appear difficult, but is a step in the best instructions - Leadership Coaching. Coaching is a reliable course to improving staff member engagement throughout a company.
Organizations must do their finest to accommodate this demand for advancement. This is due to the fact that when workers are offered the opportunities they desire, they are normally more engaged with the company providing them. Offering these opportunities with corporate training is an excellent alternative to please profession advancement requirements and increase employee engagement.
Further, coaches are an excellent source of help for any developmental issue, from skill deficiencies to understanding spaces. Workers and their leaders connect with each other and with clients throughout the day. This is why it's so essential that they can recognize the feelings of those they are communicating with.
Coaching can enhance this element of worker engagement by teaching individuals the correct ways to check out nonverbal signs of communication. By improving their psychological intelligence, people can be conscious of how the individual they are communicating with is getting information.
When providing feedback to an employee, you want to encourage development in their work. When supervisors provide feedback, their employees feel that their work is valued and that the organization cares about their advancement.
Leaders do not always comprehend the finest method to give and receive feedback. Coaching can help leaders and workers effectively deliver and receive feedback by directing them to be specific, personalized, and performance-focused.
This leads to a reduction in the level of staff member engagement. Through coaching, a company can improve staff member engagement by preventing such as "learned helplessness".
In addition to preventing bad practices in the workplace, coaching helps leaders to establish strategies to push their workers toward analytical. It likewise motivates leaders to properly deal with employee issues within the work environment. This accountability enables individuals to get the assistance they require from their leaders, increasing employee engagement with the general organization.
We typically seen company goals involving increased staff member engagement and employee retention, improved variety awareness, and much better company culture. Organizations often do not communicate these goals to the employees when they should.
Goals are not limited to the total company. Training increases staff member engagement since staff members feel involved. It has been revealed that 91% of workers' objectives line up with overall organization concerns.
When business and employee goals are aligned, and people are working diligently to achieve them, worker engagement and business culture grow. Insala has over 20 years of experience in talent management. To begin a coaching program today or get more info, please. Related Articles:.
Staff member engagement has actually been considered among the most critical aspects in a company's success. After all, as Timothy R. Clark noted, "Highly engaged employees make the client experience. Disengaged workers break it." Engaged employees those who feel linked to their work and their company are more productive, drive innovation and move the company forward, according to the 2013 Gallup State of the Work Environment Report.
Lots of leaders miss out on the mark when it comes to cultivating employee engagement, partly due to lack of management training. What Drives Engagement? Worker engagement boils down to this: They enjoy their jobs, like coming to work, and want to contribute to their business's success. | https://eq.leadershipsuccessnow.com/page/leader-engagement-development-system-talentkeepers-kahului-hawaii-AJ0jLr-wDJzW |
The Determine Budget process is a planning process that takes the individual activity cost estimates and aggregates them into a total project cost, then applies the project schedule to determine the timing of when costs will be incurred in order to develop the project budget, or cost baseline.
The Determine Budget process covers the following domain task:
2.3 Develop a budget plan based on the project scope using estimating techniques, in order to manage project cost.
Inputs
The inputs used in this process take the individual cost estimates and aggregate them into the project budget.
Cost management plan
The cost management plan is used as a key input into the Determine Budget process because it is the cost management plan that sets out the processes, policies, rules, and regulations that you are going to apply in order to determine a project budget. The cost management plan is an output from the Plan Cost Management process.
Scope baseline
The scope baseline is a very important input into this process because it outlines all the work to be done, and the work not to be done, as part of the project. It is by breaking the scope baseline down into its component parts via the work breakdown structure (WBS), and subsequently down to activity level with the schedule work, that you are then able to estimate individual activity costs. The scope baseline consists of the project scope statement, the work breakdown structure, and the WBS dictionary, and it is an output from the Create WBS process.
Activity cost estimates
The activity cost estimates provide you with individual estimates of cost for identified activities by using a variety of tools and techniques from the Estimate Costs process. In order to put together your project budget you will take these individual activity estimates, aggregate them, and determine the time period in which those costs will be incurred. The activity cost estimates are an output from the Estimate Costs process.
Basis of estimates
The basis of estimates is an important input because it provides further information about each of the estimates you have determined for the individual activities. The basis of estimates is an output from the Estimate Costs process.
Project schedule
The project schedule is used as an input into the Determine Budget process because you need to know when each activity will be performed so that you can determine when the costs of activity will be incurred. This is the essence of developing a project budget, which is taking the project costs and applying them over time. The project schedule is an output from the Develop Schedule process.
Resource calendars
The resource calendars are used as an input into the Determine Budget process because they provide additional and more detailed information about when specific resources are available to work on the project. They are an output from the Acquire Project Team process.
Risk register
The risk register is used as an input into this process because it will identify risks associated with both individual activity cost estimates and elements of the project schedule that need to be taken into account when developing the project budget. It is an output from the Identify Risks process.
Agreements
Any existing agreements are used by the project manager as an input into this process, because they will outline any agreement between parties to the project about costs, payments, and any other matters, such as retention payments, that need to be included in the project budget. For example, you may have an agreement for paying suppliers that requires payment regularly each month, or one that requires progress payments at certain project milestones. These agreements are an output from the Conduct Procurements process.
Organizational process assets
The specific organizational process assets that can assist in the development of the project budget include any organizational policies and procedures relating to the development and presentation of the project budget, and any blank templates for preparing budgets and for reporting the budget.
Tools and techniques
The five tools and techniques of this process are all used upon the separate inputs to deliver the process outputs.
Cost aggregation
Cost aggregation is the process of taking the individual estimates for each of the activities and aggregating upward to work package level, then rolling these estimates up to high level, sub-deliverable level, and deliverable level, in order to arrive at a bottom-up estimate for portions of the project or the entire project. Figure 5-2 shows how individual activities are added up, or aggregated.
Figure 5-2 In bottom-up cost aggregation, individual activities are added up, or aggregated.
Reserve analysis
The reserve analysis is the method of looking at both the contingency reserve and the management reserve required for the project and the timing of access to those reserves. Contingency reserves will be identified for specific activities, and access to the contingency reserve for this will be required when the activity is being performed. Access to the management reserve could be required at any time in the project because it is for the purpose of unknown unknowns, or for elements that could not reasonably have been foreseen.
Expert judgment
Again expert judgment is a key tool and technique in determining the budget. The experts should be from the project team and also from outside the project team; for example, from the organization’s finance or accounts department.
Historical relationships
If the organization is mature enough to have been recording information about historical relationships and the reliability and range of uncertainty in its cost estimating process, it can then use this information to further refine its current cost estimates, or to acknowledge a quantifiable amount of uncertainty in those estimates.
Funding limit reconciliation
As part of the Determine Budget process, you may find that there are funding limit reconciliation issues that need to be considered. For example, you may want to do a great amount of work but simply might not have the funds until a later period in time; therefore, you will have to limit the activity on the project until funds to complete the work become available.
Outputs
The major outputs from the Determine Budget process are the following.
Cost baseline
The cost baseline is one of four baselines that you will use to measure progress on the project. The other three are the scope baseline, the time baseline, and the quality baseline. The key element of the cost baseline is that it takes the aggregated individual estimates of cost for each activity and applies them to the time periods in which the costs will be accrued. This is the baseline against which you are going to measure project cost performance. Figure 5-3 shows an example of a cost baseline represented graphically. It shows the total amount of spend for each time period, in this case in months. Additionally, it shows the cumulative spend over the life of the project. This is represented by the line, which is often referred to as the “S-curve” (it is in the shape of the letter S) because there is little spend at the beginning of a project, a lot of spend in the middle section of the project, and a decrease in spending toward the end of the project.
Figure 5-3 This cost baseline shows the total amount of spend for each month.
Project funding requirements
The project funding requirements acknowledge when the funding for the project will be available; for example, annually, quarterly, or monthly. This recognizes that funding for a project often occurs in incremental amounts, whereas expenditure on a project may be continuous.
Project documents updates
The types of project documents that may be updated as a result of the Determine Budget process are the individual cost estimates, project schedule, and risk register. | https://www.microsoftpressstore.com/articles/article.aspx?p=2224369&seqNum=4 |
Earned Value Management
This course teaches you the fundamentals of EVM so you can understand how to establish an effective project baseline and monitor project progress against known expectations.
Learn how EVM is integrated throughout the project life cycle. Practice the activities you go through to establish an effective baseline. Identify the critical data points that must be collected to analyze project progress. Learn to conduct trend analysis, calculate actual cost, and accurately project final cost, schedule, and performance variances. Understand how change impacts EVM and how approved changes can impact your original baseline. Identify the stakeholders who would benefit from EVM data and learn effective communication methods. Finally, review the differences of EVM in a corporate and federal environment.
Students pursuing a university-recognized and/or accredited certificate in Canada or continuing education units in the US must attend at least 90% of class time, participate in class exercises and section-knowledge checks, and score at least 70% on an end-of-class, multiple-choice assessment.
Overview
- Why EVM is important
- Establishing and managing scope, schedule, and budget
- Creating a reasonable baseline
- Integrating project planning and EVM
- Monitoring and controlling the baseline
- Monitoring and controlling scope, schedule, and cost
- Collecting and analyzing data
- Forecasting final variances
- Managing change and the impact to EVM
- The difference between EVM in corporations and in the federal environment
Hands-On Exercises
- Identify contract negotiation parameters
- Create milestones and a performance measurement baseline
- Measure progress
- End-of-project reporting with scope changes
- Scope analysis: prepare a work breakdown structure
- Create a project schedule
- Create CAPs for the project and prepare a budget estimate
- Complete an earned value baseline
- Monitor project performance
- Prepare a status report
Target Audience
Project managers, IT project managers, project coordinators, project analysts, project leaders, senior project managers, team leaders, product managers, and program managers.
Prerequisites
Project Management Fundamentals, IT Project Management, or Applied Project Management Boot Camp
Expected Duration
4 day
Course Objectives
1. Introduction to Earned Value Management
- The need for EVM
- Project dilemma
- The role of EVM: Monitoring projects
- Project controls
- Management by milestones
- Characteristics of EVM
- Milestones
- Milestones as measures
- EVM project planning
- EVM terminology
- EVM statistics
- EVM data
- Basic EVM terminology illustrated
- Performance statistics
- Forecasting
- Management by exception
- The value of earned value
2. History of EVM
- A hundred years of evolution
- Cost control for government
- Limited adoption in private sector
- A simpler version: EVMS
- Back to basic earned value principles
3. Ingredients necessary for EVM
- EVM planning overview
- Management questions answered by EVM
- EVM stages
- Precision and rigor
- Three-dimensional view of a project
4. Defining scope
- Defining the work to be done
- What’s in and what’s out
- Work breakdown structure
- Decomposition to work packages
- Decomposition to task and activity
- WBS terminology
- WBS principles
5. Scheduling the project
- Scope and then schedule
- EVM scheduling requirements
- Master schedule
- Vertical integration
- Horizontal integration
- Example schedule
6. Integrating scope, schedule, and costs through CAPs
- Control account plans
- The role of CAPs
- CAP ingredients
- CAP size and number
- The CAP rule
- CAP example
- What is left to complete a project plan? | https://www.knowledgenet.com/it-training/courses/earned-value-management-2/ |
The Project Management Triangle
Project management control can only be achieved when cost, schedule, and technical objectives are clearly documented, realistically derived, and managed deliberately.
The planning process should result in major parties to the project having a clear sense of the cost, schedule, and technical objectives. The establishment of these three should attempt to define the possible. The projects technical objectives should be derived from a clear understanding of the business requirements. Project costs should be realistic and affordable. The schedule should be achievable and appropriate for the business needs.
Trade-off studies balancing technical performance, schedule, and costs may be used to adjust project parameters to fit with organizational priorities. The realism inherent in determining these three project parameters can largely effect the perceived success or failure of the project.
Efforts to accelerate project schedules will usually increase project risks. Innovative techniques must be used to achieve orderly schedule compression without creating unacceptable risks and quality impacts.
Without reducing project scope or attempting radical development methodologies, a project schedule can often be compressed by up to 20% by increasing concurrency of tasks and adding additional staffing. A typical project environment will usually involve pressures to add scope, accelerate schedule, and decrease costs. Nevertheless, changes to project scope and schedule accelerations will tend to make cost the dependent variable, causing cost to expand as if one were squeezing a balloon.
Planning and Establishing the Project Baseline
An Iterative Process
Begin Here:
Project baseline definition begins with understanding the user or customer requirements. Understanding requirements involves making judgments about what the organization, technologies, and markets will be like in the time-frame after project completion. Sometimes a requirements analysis will have to penetrate beyond a mere synthesis of what users think they need. The project requirement may be part of a larger need to improve vital business processes.
After the requirements analysis has resulted in definition of the projects technical scope, the cost and schedule estimates can be refined. Project costs and schedules can be estimated with no greater certainty than that inherent in the definition of technical scope. Cost and schedule estimates will require assumptions about labor categories, availabilities, and rates - knowing who will do the work - so assumptions and commitments about organizational involvements are needed. When cost, schedule, and requirements definition are acceptable to the organization, a project planning baseline must be established.
Very often, establishing the project baseline will be an iterative process involving a number of successive approximations before a baseline is established. The first pass may result in a project that is too costly and will take too long. This can happen if the requirements analysis is done well. If the requirements analysis is done incompletely, the project plan may look affordable and achievable, but further emerging requirements may drive the project over budget and prolong the schedule.
A rigorous requirements analysis and a realistic cost and schedule estimate are necessary to establish a project baseline plan that provides a practical map for project success.
Manage Your Project as a Closed-System
The only way to really control a project is to treat it as a closed system. That means you put the project "in a box" and then control what goes into the box and what comes out. The closed system must address each element of the project management triangle. Each element must be established as a BASELINE, and then changes tracked and managed methodically. You will never be able to stop changes on a project, but if you don't manage them methodically, your project will go out of control. Don't be surprised if establishing and maintaining control of the schedule, cost, and scope baselines is a continual struggle.
Most project environments are so turbulent that you will have to work hard to control the project as a closed system. This means you need to manage the scope, cost, and schedule in such a way that you understand and can generally quantify anything that changes as the project progresses. The primary way to do this is by various forms of "baseline controls."
The project scope needs to be defined clearly in a scope document or specification, and then any changes to that document need to be incorporated into the project plan very carefully. The cost estimates, project budgets, and project schedule (with associated commitments of work hours and resources) need to be baselined in order to have a useful standard against which to measure.
You need to be able to measure the work that goes into a project in dollars and work hours and the productivity that comes out of the project, in percent completions and tasks accomplished. Without a stable baseline and measurement of input and output, the project cannot be measureable and in control.
On modest sized projects and in informal project management environments you will need to develop innovative ways to set up a performance measurement baseline and keep that baseline stable enough to be able to track project progress. In some cases, scope changes will be small enough so your baseline can still be useful for project tracking. For larger changes in project scope, the baseline will have to be updated. This is a judgment call for the project manager and for those involved with the project control function. You just need to have a sense that your baseline is useful for tracking schedule progress and for measuring project team productivity. | http://www.hyperthot.com/pm_prin2.htm |
Whether you’re developing a new app or training for the high jump, having a benchmark for success is key. It shows you how you’re progressing and whether you need to adjust your current game plan. But it needs to be well thought out: aim too high, and you’ll stress yourself out trying to reach an impossible goal. Go too low, and you’ll underperform.
In the world of project management, this benchmark or target is known as the project baseline. Essentially, it’s a fixed point against which you measure progress and future performance.
It’s an essential concept to understand. So, to help you get to grips, we’ll run through the what, how, and why. When you start your next project, you’ll know exactly what it involves and what you need to do.
What is a project baseline in project management?
A baseline in project management is simply a set of measurements used to track progress and performance against specific objectives. You can also use it as a reference point for future decision-making.
Let’s say you have a project due in six months. At the two-month mark, you check in to see how things are going. You compare your current progress against the project baseline, and you can see that you’re ahead of schedule. This gives you some options:
- You could relax the schedule a little bit and give yourself some breathing room.
- Or, you could use the extra time to add some features that weren’t originally planned.
On the other hand, if you’re behind schedule, the project baseline can help you understand where you need to make up for lost ground.
In short, it’s a valuable tool for keeping projects on track and deciding how to move forward.
The core components of a project baseline
A baseline is usually made up of three components:
- The scope baseline: this includes the project objectives, deliverables, and requirements.
- The schedule baseline: this covers the project timeline, milestones, and deadlines.
- The cost baseline: this outlines the project budget, costs, and funding.
Imagine being tasked with developing a new software application. Some key metrics you might use to establish a baseline could include:
- The amount of time it takes to develop the app
- The number of defects or errors in the code
- The level of customer satisfaction with the final product
Once these benchmarks are established, you can track your progress against them throughout the project. If at any point, you start to deviate from the baseline, it can be an indication that something is going wrong.
Top tip: once you’ve established these three elements, consider them more or less set in stone. Changing them would make it difficult to measure progress accurately — so, hands off!
What are the benefits of having a project baseline?
There are five key reasons why having a baseline is so important in project management:
- It provides a clear target for the project team to aim for. Without a baseline, it can be difficult to measure progress and know whether or not you’re on track. By having specific goals, everyone knows what they need to do and can work together to achieve them.
- It helps identify issues early on. If something starts to go wrong, a project baseline can help you spot the problem early and take corrective action. This can save time and money in the long run, as problems are much easier to fix when they’re first identified.
- It allows you to track progress. A baseline provides a clear way to measure how well the project is doing. This information can then inform decisions about the project’s future, such as whether or not to continue with it or make changes.
- It makes it easier to estimate future projects. Once you have a baseline in place, you can use it to estimate the time, cost, and resources needed for future projects. This can be a valuable tool for planning, as it can save time during the planning stage and help you secure and allocate resources more effectively.
- It helps you calculate earned value. Earned value is a measure of how much work you’ve completed so far against your original plan. This information can help you make decisions about the project, such as whether or not it’s on schedule and within budget.
- Check out our guide to earned value management
What problems might you encounter without a project baseline?
If you don’t have a baseline in place, you might encounter a few issues, such as:
- Difficulty measuring progress: without a baseline, you won’t have a clear way to track how well the project is doing. This can make it difficult to identify issues early on and take corrective action.
- No clear target for the team: without a baseline, it can be hard to know what they need to do and by when. This can lead to confusion and frustration amongst the team and, ultimately, impact the quality of the final product
- Decisions based on inaccurate information: if you don’t have a baseline, you may find yourself led astray by dodgy data, which will impact your ability to make informed decisions about the project’s future. This could lead to wasted time and money down the line.
- Inadequate resourcing: no baseline means you could struggle with accurate resource allocation. This can impact the quality of the final product and lead to delays.
- Quality issues: without a baseline, it can be difficult to spot issues with the quality of the project. This can lead to problems further down the line, such as customer dissatisfaction or recalls. And they cost money (not to mention cause frustration all around)!
- A lack of adequate change management: you might not have a clear process for managing changes to the project. This can lead to confusion and costly delays.
How to set a project baseline
Now that we know what a baseline is and why it’s important let’s take a look at how to go about setting one. There are four steps you need to follow:
1. Define the project’s scope
The first step is to define the objectives of the project clearly. What exactly are you trying to achieve? What are the deliverables? What are the requirements? Once you have answers to these questions, you can start to put together a baseline.
- Read our guide to creating a project scope document for more tips
2. Create a project schedule
The next step is to create a project schedule. This should include all of the milestones and deadlines for the project, as well as a timeline for each task. We recommend using a cloud-based Gantt chart for this.
A cloud-based Gantt chart is the best choice for creating a project schedule because it makes collaboration easier. You can add tasks, milestones, and deadlines and share the chart with others who need access — all in real-time, so you’re always up-to-date. Plus, all your data is stored in the cloud, allowing the whole team to access it from anywhere.
3. Estimate the project costs
The third step is to establish the costs associated with the project. This includes the budget and any other costs. Once you have all this information, you can start to put together a cost baseline.
3 popular cost estimation techniques
- Delphi estimating: this popular method for calculating costs involves breaking down the project into smaller tasks and estimating how much each one will cost. The estimates are then collected from a panel of experts and averaged out.
- Analogous estimating: this involves looking at similar completed projects and using the information to estimate the cost of the current project. For example, if you’re building a house, you might look at the cost of similar completed houses.
- Parametric estimating: this is a more complex method that involves using mathematical models to estimate the cost of a project. For example, you might use the parametric estimation technique to figure out the cost of building a bridge based on the length and width of the bridge.
Once you’ve worked out your costs, ensure it aligns with your schedule. If the two don’t match up, something will likely go wrong further down the line. It’s also a good idea to learn a technique known as Estimate at Completion, which will help you plan costs when unexpected changes throw things off track.
4. Get approval from stakeholders
Getting approval from the stakeholders is important, as they must sign off on the baseline before the project begins. Once you have approval, you can start to work on the project. And if anything changes, you can always go back and refer to the baseline to make sure you’re still on track.
A real-world project baseline example
Let’s take a look at a real-world example of a project baseline.
Let’s say you’re developing an app. Your manager has given you a budget, and your objective is to have a usable, bug-free app by the end of the year, along with a set number of downloads in the first month.
Using this example, your project baseline could look something like this:
- Objective: to have a usable, bug-free app by the end of the year and 5,000 downloads in the first month.
- Scope: the project scope includes the app’s development, testing, and launch.
- Schedule: six months with milestones for each phase of development, as well as a timeline for the launch.
- Budget: $25,000
In this example, you should first outline the tasks which will form the basis of your schedule. This could include design and developer briefs, a prototype, user testing, app store submission, and launch.
You should then break down each task into smaller milestones to track your progress and ensure you stay on schedule. For instance, the design milestone could include the completion of the design brief and the prototype. The user testing milestone could include recruiting users and conducting the tests, and so on.
Can you change a project baseline?
Adjusting a project baseline isn’t ideal, but yes, it is possible to change it after the project kick-off. But it’s important to note that stakeholders should approve any changes.
This is because the baseline is a fixed point for measuring progress, and stakeholders tend to have the final say as to whether a project has been a success or not. So, if you chose those specific goalposts, make sure all invested parties know about it. This means officially updating the scope, cost, schedule, and objective.
Final thoughts
A project baseline is a vital tool for project managers. It provides a clear and concise way to track the progress of a project, as well as a reference point if anything changes.
Project management software can be hugely useful when setting and managing baselines.
With Backlog, our own project management tool, project planners can simply create a new project, add objectives, set the scope and schedule, and invite the team to get started. Then, once the project has begun, everyone on the team can log in and see detailed progress reports in real-time. No more chasing progress reports; there’s full transparency across the whole project, from the big-picture to the tiniest details. | https://nulab.com/learn/project-management/how-to-set-a-project-baseline-and-manage-it-like-a-pro/ |
4 edition of Program cost and schedule baseline found in the catalog.
Program cost and schedule baseline
Published
1991
by U.S. Dept. of Energy, Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management in Washington, DC
.
Written in English
Edition Notes
|Statement||Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management|
|Contributions||United States. Dept. of Energy. Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management|
|The Physical Object|
|Format||Microform|
|Pagination||1 v. (various pagings)|
|ID Numbers|
|Open Library||OL14448009M|
|OCLC/WorldCa||26345555|
The section includes designing the scope of the baseline, baseline schedule, and cost baseline. There are several inputs for designing the scope of the baseline including making a WBS. Schedule Baseline is a fixed project timeline that is used for tracking progress upon the project plan and budget or contract performance, so it is utilized as a preplanned standard to measure the project performance in the major aspects. Schedule Baseline is “approved” version of the Project Schedule (it is taken as a standard to be followed). The purpose of baseline schedule is to .
A project’s baseline is defined as the original scope, cost and schedule. The project’s baseline must be completely defined and documented before the project execution and control activities can begin. Once the project starts execution, the project’s baseline is put under change control to help you evaluate any further change and its. Each time the schedule is updated and accepted for use as the schedule update for the period, the updated schedule essentially becomes the “new” baseline schedule. This update represents the plan to execute the remaining work on the project and .
Project Schedule is the "actual", whereas Schedule Baseline is the "plan". Project Schedule is a Project Document, whereas Schedule Baseline is a part of the Project Management Plan. Project Schedule is updated as the project is being executed, whereas Schedule Baseline is revised only as a result of an approved change request. Note that if you introduce changes to your project, then your cost baseline will change, and you will need to take another snapshot to compare the actual cost to the planned cost. The cost baseline is actually a subset of the project baseline (there are 3 project baselines: cost baseline, schedule baseline, and scope baseline).
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Baseline control of the Program's cost and schedule will result in changes that only take place with OCRWM senior management approval, by way of the change control process. Program cost and schedule baseline book Program Management System (PMS) Manual describes how the Program Cost and Schedule Baseline (PCSB) is integrated into the OCRWM management system.
Schedule baseline is the approved version of a schedule model that can be changed only through formal change control procedures and is used as a basis for comparison to actual results. The project management contains the schedule baseline, used as a reference to compare with the actual results to determine if a change, corrective action, or preventive action is necessary.
Cost Baseline vs Budget. Cost Baseline: Cost Baseline is the authorized time-phased spending plan for the project on which the project cost performance is to be measured the Cost Baseline is baselined and managed under configuration management, changes to the Cost Baseline must undergo proper change management processes.
The Acquisition Program Baseline (APB) formally documents the program’s critical cost, schedule, and performance parameters, expressed in measurable, quantitative terms that must be met in order to accomplish the program’s goals. By tracking and measuring actual program performance against this formal baseline, the program’sFile Size: KB.
COVID Resources. Reliable information about the coronavirus (COVID) is available from the World Health Organization (current situation, international travel).Numerous and frequently-updated resource results are available from this ’s WebJunction has pulled together information and resources to assist library staff as they consider how to handle.
Schedule and cost control are the key elements of successful project management. Yet, over 80% of all projects start with underestimated schedules and costs and are doomed to exceed projections before they begin.
This clear and concise book demonstrates how to establish realistic estimates for successful project by: Baseline Cost (resource fields) Entry Type Calculated or entered. How Calculated The baseline cost is calculated as the sum of the planned costs of the resource, including scheduled work, scheduled overtime, and per-use costs for all work assigned to the resource.
This is the same as the contents of the Cost field when the baseline is saved. Program Milestones Initial Program Financing Program Execution and Completion Program and Financial Closeout RTA Completion Deadline Program Planning and Preliminary Design NWC Capital Build Baseline Book Schedule - FINAL - 23Augxlsx Author: Scott Created Date.
The schedule provides information on progress against the plan, along with estimates of the time required to complete the remaining technical scope. The schedule baseline, progress, and estimated time to complete, should be integrated with the financial view (budgets, EV, and estimated cost to complete) of the technical Size: KB.
Owning the technical baseline: Air Force program managers and personnel have sufficient technical knowledge of their engineering development programs to enable program success by making informed, timely, and independent decisions 5 to manage cost, schedule, and performance risk while ensuring disciplined program execution.
Owning the technical. program. This schedule guide is a companion to the Cost Guide. A cost estimate cannot be considered credible if it does not account for the cost effects of schedule slippage.
An effective methodology for developing, managing, and evaluating capital program cost es. "Finally, there is a book that describes the theoretical and practical applications of project schedule and cost planning and control covering the how and what it means for two difficult practical problems in all projects.
This book explains, simply and practically, how to produce a schedule, create an estimate, and then execute the project. PMI Scheduling Professional (PMI-SP)® Exam Content Outline 4 Domain 2: Schedule Planning and Development (31% of examination) Activities related to defining and sequencing activities and milestones, developing the work and resource breakdown structures, and establishing the performance measurement baseline (PMB).
Challenges to Cost-Loading a Project Schedule Notes 1. Taken from Book II: Contractual Terms and Conditions, Section 5 – Project Schedule Requirements, Subsection of Agreement No.
between Tri-County Commuter Rail Authority and The Washington Group International for TRI-RAIL Double Track Improvement Program New River Bridge Project. Size: 69KB. THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
The baseline schedule should reflect a feasible and reasonable plan to meet all contractual requirements. If it is not feasible and reasonable, the baseline schedule is rather useless as a tool to either manage the ongoing work or to evaluate time extension requests.
File Size: KB. schedule throughout the life of the program. The Baseline Scope and Baseline Schedule shall further serve as the sole basis of scope and schedule information for the evaluation of potential risks, issues, changes, trade -offs and impacts on program scope, schedule and cost to aid in management decision -making.
Attachment: NWC Capital Build. Planning & Scheduling Excellence Guide (PASEG) – Purpose & Scope. Page 7 of - Planning & Scheduling Excellence Guide (PASEG) Purpose & Scope. Description This guide provides the program management team, including new and experienced master.
The Defense Acquisition Visibility Environment (DAVE) provides Department of Defense personnel with access to accurate, authoritative, and reliable data to support acquisition oversight, insight, analysis, and is the authoritative source for Program Information for major programs and provides access to data and capabilities that can give you Author: Kathy Norton.
What is the cost baseline. The cost baseline is the basis for the earned value reporting system. It is the budget for the estimated cost of the project spread over the time periods of the project. As we noted in Chapter 1, in managing a project we are concerned about three baselines: the schedule baseline, the cost baseline, and the scope baseline.
The national average salary for a Program Cost Control Analyst is $67, in United States. Filter by location to see Program Cost Control Analyst salaries in your area.
Salary estimates are based on 3, salaries submitted anonymously to Glassdoor .More projects are doomed by poor cost and schedule estimates than anything else. But it doesn't have to be that way. This book presents powerful, scientific techniques for confidently producing—and defending—accurate software development estimates and by: 8.
A project baseline is an approved version of a work product that includes cost, scope and schedule. It is common to separately document cost baseline, scope baseline and schedule integrated and matching set of the three is commonly referred to as a performance measurement baseline. | https://kojomasekecafeqo.dirkbraeckmanvenice2017.com/program-cost-and-schedule-baseline-book-15568mo.php |
Learn what makes up a project plan, the role of project management, defining the project goals, five phases of a project plan, post-project review, representation, and scheduling. Also explore task definition and assessment.
What is a project?
“An initiative aimed at achieving a defined goal”. “Is a set of activities which ends with specific accomplishment and which has (1) Non-routine tasks, (2) Distinct start/finish dates, and (3) Resource constraints (time/money/people/equipment)”.
Role of project management
- For achievement of defined goal
- Within a limited budget
- Using limited resources
- Within a defined time-frame
The Project Goal
If the project goal is not clearly defined, the project will never be a success. The system analysis team must have the same understanding of the project goal.
Project phases
- Define the project/initiation
- Plan the project
- Implement the project/execution
- Project closure
- Evaluation
Initiating the project
- Establish a project initiation team
- Establish relationship with customer
- Establish project initiation plan
- Establish management procedures
- Establish project management environment and workbook
Planning the project
Describe project scope, alternatives and feasibility
Scope and feasibility
- Understand the project
- What problem is addressed
- What results are to be achieved
- Measures of success/indicators
- Completion criteria
Divide the project into manageable tasks
- Work breakdown structure
- Gantt chart
Estimate resources and create a resource plan
Develop a preliminary schedule
Utilise Gantt and PERT charts
Develop a communication plan
Outline communication processes among customers, team members and management
Determine project standards and procedures
Specify how deliverables are tested and produced
Identify and assess risk
- Identify sources of risk
- Estimate consequences of risk
Create a preliminary budget
Create a statement of work
Describe what the project will deliver and duration
Set a Baseline Project Plan
Estimate of project’s tasks and resources
Executing the project
Execute Baseline Project Plan
- Acquire and assign resources
- Train new team members
- Keep project on schedule
Monitor project Progress
Adjust resources, budget and/or activities
Manage changes to Baseline Project Plan
- Slipped completion dates
- Changes in personnel
- New activities
- Bungled activities
Maintain project workbook
Communicate project status
Closing down the Project
Termination
Types of termination
- Natural – Requirements have been met
- Un-natural – Project stopped
- Documentation
- Personal appraisal
Conduct post-project reviews
- Project deliverables
- Project management process
- Development process
Close customer contract
Representing and scheduling project plans
Gantt Chart – Useful for depicting simple projects or parts of large projects; Show start and completion dates for individual tasks.
PERT Charts – Stands for Program Evaluation and Review Technique. A graphical network model that depicts a project’s tasks and the relationships between those tasks. Shows order of activities.
“Tasks”– “Are activities which must be completed to achieve project goal”. Break the project into tasks and subtasks. Tasks have start and end points, are short relative to the project and are significant (not “going to library”, but rather, “search literature”).
Defining tasks – Define tasks of a project so that they are actually carried out. Use verb-noun form for naming tasks, e.g. “create drawings” or “build prototype”. Use action verbs such as “create”, “define” and “gather” rather than “will be made”.
Assessing tasks
“Milestones” – “Are the indicators of performance” – Are important checkpoints or interim goals for a project. Can be used to catch scheduling problems early. Name by noun-verb form, e.g. “report due”, “parts ordered”, “prototype complete”.
Project Management Tools
There are many PM tools. Selection of tools to use depends on:
- Preferences
- Your organisation preferences
- Your clients preferences
- The nature of the project
Examples of PM tools include:
- Work breakdown structure
- Critical Path Analysis
- Gantt chart
- Time cost Matrix
- Log frame
- PERT
- Written reports
System life cycle
Experience a similar fate as living things.
Birth: an idea concerning a new and better way of doing something is born. “There is a better way!”
Growth: after analysis of the current project, parties join to design and develop a new and better systems
Full development: The new system is implemented and become fully operational.
Deterioration: organisational requirements keep changing; modifications must be made to the system. The system ages, it no longer perform tasks of the organisation better.
Death: Inadequacies become apparent; the instant a new and practical idea is born, the life of the old system is over. | https://unitanzania.com/information-project-planning-and-task-definition/ |
Project baselines are predefined targets for your project schedule, cost, and scope. When you include baselines in your project plan, you can use them as a point of reference to monitor your project’s performance over time. In this article, learn how to set baselines and use them to keep your projects on track.
Picture this: You’re at an archery range with a bow in your hand, aiming at a huge blank wall. You let loose, and your arrow soars straight into the wall in front of you. You start a victory shimmy, then stop—you think you shot straight ahead of you, but you aren't quite sure since every part of the wall looks the same.
You decide to aim at a target instead. You pull back and let the arrow fly, and it lands with a thunk on the bullseye. This time, you know your shot was a success.
Establishing a target does more than make you feel like Robin Hood (albeit without the tights). Having a target to aim for gives you a reference point to measure your skills—just like how project baselines give you a benchmark to measure a project’s performance.
Project baselines are predefined targets for your project schedule, cost, and scope. You determine baselines as part of your project plan. Then as your project progresses, you use those baselines as a point of reference to monitor your project’s performance over time.
There are three types of project baselines:
A scope baseline clearly defines your project scope. It includes a list of objectives and project deliverables you’ll focus on for your project.
A schedule baseline dictates how long your project should take. Your schedule baseline is your project timeline, and should include clearly defined due dates for each deliverable, plus a final deadline for your project.
A cost baseline is your estimated project budget. Your cost baseline should break down the resources required for each deliverable, then sum them together to illustrate your estimated total project cost.
Your project plan should include all three of these baselines. During your project, you can monitor actual performance against each baseline to ensure your scope, schedule, and budget stay on target.Coba Asana untuk manajemen proyek
Project baselines are an essential component of any successful project. Here’s how they can help you and your team:
Baselines give you a standard for how your project should be performing. As work progresses, you can measure actual performance against the baselines you set during planning. That way, you can check if your project scope, schedule, or budget is on (or off) track—then course-correct before issues get too big.
Together, the three baseline types (scope, schedule, and budget) make up your performance measurement baseline (PMB). When you compare actual performance against your projected baselines in all three areas, you can understand how your project is doing on a high level.
It’s important to measure all three baselines side-by-side in order to visualize how a change in one component affects the others—like how an increased scope impacts schedule and cost. This helps you figure out how you should adjust when you need to change your planned scope, schedule, or budget. And if the difference between actual performance and your baselines gets too big, you can decide whether to re-baseline and change your project goals to make them more attainable.
For example, imagine you’re working on a blog series and you’ve just increased the scope from 10 articles to 11 articles. As a result, your project will cost more money and take more time to complete, causing your budget and schedule to veer off baseline. If you haven’t allocated any buffer time or extra budget into your project plan, you may have to adjust your project goals.Read: What is the project management triangle and how can it help your team?
When you set baselines and communicate them to stakeholders, everyone knows what you’re doing by when—plus how much it will all cost. Here’s how that helps:
Your scope baseline tells stakeholders exactly what you’re planning to achieve. This helps your stakeholders understand what is and isn’t part of the project deliverable. For example, imagine your stakeholders requested a new landing page design with interactive components. But with your current budget limitations, you can build the landing page but not the additional interactive components. Setting a scope baseline lets them know that limitation in advance so everyone is on the same page.
Your schedule baseline clarifies when you will complete each deliverable. This helps stakeholders understand how long each deliverable will take to complete, so they know when to expect a final product. And if stakeholders want to increase your project scope with additional requests, you can clearly demonstrate how that will impact your project schedule and budget.
Your cost baseline establishes the resources required for each deliverable. If stakeholders want to add additional requests, your budget clearly demonstrates how you will need extra funds to make that happen. As a result, you can either push back on requests or make a good case for getting additional budget.
Together, these baselines help stakeholders understand how changes to your scope, timeline, or budget will impact your project’s success. They give you a tool to push back on additional requests and prevent scope creep, plus a way to communicate the impact that changes to the timeline and cost will have on the overall project goals.
When your project is over, you can compare actual performance against your baselines to see how accurate your initial estimates were. This helps you identify areas where you can improve your baselining process—like factors you didn’t consider when calculating your project budget, deliverables that took longer than expected, or tasks that should have been out of scope.
If you analyze actual performance versus baselines for every project, you can see which areas typically under- or over-perform. Then, you can use that knowledge to make better estimates for future projects.
For example, imagine three out of five of your projects this quarter went over schedule by a week due to team members getting sick. Going forward, you could build extra buffer time into each project schedule to accommodate for any last-minute absences.Baca: Cara memahami pelajaran yang dipetik dalam manajemen proyek
Setting project baselines is an important part of any solid project management plan. As you plan your next endeavor, follow these steps to create baselines and communicate them to your cross-functional partners.
Set your project scope baseline first, since this determines both your schedule and budget. Your project scope sets boundaries for your project by defining exactly which deliverables you’ll be working towards. You can document your scope in the form of a project scope statement or statement of work.Baca: Scope of work vs. statement of work: Apa bedanya?
To create your scope baseline, list out all of the deliverables you want to achieve with your project. Then, break each deliverable into actionable tasks or sub-deliverables. For example, if one of your deliverables is to host a recruiting event, you could break that down into the following sub-deliverables:
Reserve event space
Book catering company
Finalize guest speakers
Send reminder emails
You can also create a work breakdown structure to visually lay out all of your project’s deliverables and sub-deliverables. This tool breaks work down into multiple levels, starting with your main objective at the top and branching out into deliverables and sub-deliverables below.
Now that you’ve determined your project scope, it’s time to map out your project schedule and create your schedule baseline. To create your schedule baseline, define clear due dates for each deliverable and sub-deliverable, plus a final deadline for your entire project. Be sure to make each due date realistic and clarify dependencies between tasks. For example, you may need to finalize the guest speaker list for your recruiting event before you can send reminder emails.
Some project management tools let you see dependencies within your project schedule, so you can plan and set end dates accordingly. For example, Asana’s timeline view lays out tasks and milestones within your project and visualizes dependencies, similar to a Gantt chart. You can also see which tasks have been completed and who they’ve been assigned to, so you can monitor and share your project schedule in real time.
Now that you’ve solidified your scope and schedule, you can create your project budget baseline. To create your budget, list out all of the resources required for each deliverable and sub-deliverable within your project. Then, estimate how much each resource will cost.
Your final budget document should include line items for each deliverable, sub-deliverable, and required resource—plus the expected cost of each. You should also include the timeline for when you’ll need each resource and when you expect to spend funds. In addition, it’s also helpful to include the person responsible for each budget component and a total of expenditures for your entire project.
In the example below, the estimated spend column represents the budget baseline for your project. Then as work progresses, you can track actual spend and compare it to your baseline.
Just because you set baselines doesn’t mean your project is sunk if your scope, schedule, or budget gets off track. In fact, planning for change is an integral part of the project baselining process.
After you finalize your three project baselines, create a change control process to outline how you’ll handle change requests from your team and stakeholders. A change control process is a way to stay flexible and let stakeholders request changes while your project is in progress. This helps protect your project scope, schedule, and budget from ballooning out of control. In this context, change requests can include requests for additional deliverables, timeline updates, or budget adjustments.
A change control process typically includes the following stages:
Initiation: A stakeholder submits a change request form to provide relevant information about why this change is important. This typically includes a description of the request, the request priority, and any important deadlines.
Assessment: The project or department lead reviews the request details and determines the resources that would be required, the impact the request would have, and who the request should be passed on to.
Analysis: The appropriate project lead decides whether to approve or reject the request. During this stage, you consider the request in the context of your project baselines to determine how it will impact your scope, schedule, and budget.
Implementation: If the request is approved, you then work with stakeholders to implement the change. Be sure to record which changes were made and how they will impact your project baselines. If the change is significant, you may need to adjust your project goals and create new baselines.
Closure: Close the request and store any documentation, change logs, and communication in a shared space that stakeholders can easily access later on.
Establishing a change control process ensures that each potential update is considered in the context of all three project baselines. For example, if you receive a request to add an additional deliverable to your project scope, you can then analyze how that addition will impact your schedule and budget. If it will push your project too far off baseline, you can reject the change and close out the change request.
Last but not least, present your project baselines to key stakeholders in order to collect and incorporate their feedback. This step is important because it ensures you and your stakeholders are aligned on the scope, schedule, and budget targets for your project. For example, if tasks within your project are dependent on resources from the design team, sharing baselines helps the team understand why deadlines for delivering those resources are important. And if the design team can’t meet the proposed deadline, you can update your schedule baseline accordingly.
This is also an opportunity to tweak and improve your baselines—especially since stakeholders may have more specialized knowledge about certain aspects of your project. For example, the finance team may be able to provide insight into how much deliverables might cost or when payments are due.
In short, yes. But you shouldn’t change your baselines too often—aim to only change them when it’s truly necessary. For example, you might need to re-baseline your project when a significant change occurs, like if a team member leaves and you need to reassign responsibilities. | https://asana.com/id/resources/project-baseline |
Project cost controls are vital in managing and establishing a framework for success of any project. Depending on the complexity and intricicies of the project there are multiple ways to manage and control the costs. The important aspects of managing and controlling costs include establishing a baseline, determining the tools necessary to manage and control the variations and taking corrective actions to keep the project on track regarding schedule and cost variance. This project is utilizing a bottom-up cost estimation analysis which provides a cost and duration for specific work packages. With this information we can use Earned Value Management to help monitor the cost and schedule variances. With this information the project team can take corrective actions to ensure success at the project’s closure.
Project Cost
Once the costs of the project have been identified and the budget has been allocated to perform the work the next steps are to monitor and control the efforts of the project and to control the costs associated with those efforts. Project control is of utmost importance to the project’s successful implementation. The implementation of the new Enterprise Resource Planning tool involves not only a new information technology system but also the corollary business processes to facilitate the new tool (Magal 2011). As a baseline for this project, the overall objectives of the first rollout and the associated budget involves implementation of specific finished goods models assigned to specific plants. Each functional area is responsible for collecting and analyzing their specific inputs for their budgetary needs. These estimates were based on the bottom-up estimation technique. This type of analysis included a detailed work break-down structure in which each functional area developed a breakdown for the tasks needed to implement their area. Costs were then assigned to each breakdown and rolled up by functional area and then integrated into the program level. These estimates included hardware, software, expertise, management and a buffer for potential risks associated with a project of this magnitude. These costs provide a rough order of magnitude for the entire project and establish a baseline cost for the entire project. While it needs to be communicated among stakeholders and the project team that these associated costs are an estimate it must also be understood that the stakeholders have allotted a specified budget for the project and that the monitoring and controlling of this budget is ultimately the responsibility of the project manager. As the project lifecycle progresses the bulk of the cost and staffing levels increase to their highest levels directly after the organization and preparation are completed for the project (PMI 2008). These costs must be controlled and monitored in a way that is conducive to the project being implemented. Each project may need a different method of controlling and monitoring.
Cost Controls
The project cost control system and the management of the system is not very difficult to follow academically. The first step is to establish a reference point or a baseline. This baseline has been established through the cost estimation process and assigning specific dollar amounts to all of the deliverable actions assigned to the project. As these costs were rolled up into the project the budget was then justified by the stakeholders deeming the project deliverables worthy of the inherent costs associated with those deliverables. In the below figure the total project cost for the initial rollout is approximately $6.6 million. Based upon the needs of the business and the benefits associated with implementing the ERP system the project is flagged for implementation.
fig1.
After the baseline is established the next concern is monitoring the work performed. As the work progresses assessments need to be made to understand if the amount of funding utilized for the amount of work being performed is on track with the estimations. If the progress is not as expected it may require modifications to the plan to either increase the amount of work being performed or decrease the associated costs for the work being performed. There may also be an issue of the amount of time it is taking for the specific tasks to be completed. If modifications are necessary the project manager will need to make adjustments to the schedule, cost or quality and ultimately the scope of the project to ensure the governing parameters are met. If the scope of the project changes then ultimately the baseline estimates will also need to be changed. It is not a preferred situation for the project manager to change the scope of the project every time a schedule slips or a certain work package goes over budget. The project manager will need to understand how to consistently manage and control the cost of the overall project and not lose sight of the specific project objectives and budget.
So now both the stakeholders and the project team understand that there are inherent risks and potential deviations from the budget. Although this is known, it is not normally accepted to have underperforming project teams in conjunction with cost overruns. For this project there will be tailored tools that will help the project team understand their performance for both schedule and cost as an overall project as well as for each of the functional work packages. This will be accomplished by utilized Earned Value Management (EVM) to compare work performed with expected work perform and the associated costs with each deliverable area. The reason EVM will be used is for the simple fact that it has the ability to combine the areas of scope, schedule and cost, all of which the project manager is ultimately responsible. The earned value of the project is a calculation of the planned value versus the earned value. The resulting graphical representation can show the project’s schedule variance. The same can be concluded by comparing the earned value and the actual cost of the project to show the cost variance. By concatenating these types of graphs together the technical performance of the project team can be viewed at glance (Fleming, 2006). This tool would be one check on how the project team would show the accountability of their efforts for the project. The example below is a graphical representation of a project that has the associated variances assigned to a work package.
fig2.
Business Processes
Throughout the project execution there will be multiple tollgates the project must proceed through in order to not only level set the stakeholders on the process of the project but to also ensure the project track the team is on is still on track for delivery of the expect results. Through the project management life, the business will go through operating cycles, budget cycles and project evaluation. Through the use of project cost management and the tools of monitoring and controlling the project by documenting and utilizing EVM, the stakeholders will have a fair and accurate depiction of the project’s scope, schedule and cost as well as areas that have meet, exceeded or missed meeting their intended objectives. Each functional area will report up their costs associated to each work package and it will individually be measured against the scope, schedule and costs associated to that work package. The overall project will then include all of the individual tasks brought together into an overall project budget, including overhead and other associated costs that are necessary for the project as a whole but not necessarily attached to a specific task. If each of the functional areas are moving along according to the project plan, meeting their specified deliverables while also meeting their intended schedule requirements there are no necessary changes. If there are areas that need adjustment the project manager must take action and make the appropriate changes to scope, schedule or costs. It is ultimately the responsibility of the project manager to identify and flag risks to the project (Cooper, Grey, Raymond, & Walker. 2005).
Project Risks
To better understand the cost control methods we must first fully understand the risks of the project. Risks to the project include everything that could or could not be controlled by the project manager including scope creep, inflation, lack of technological advances or reprioritization of business needs (Hansen, Mowen & Guan, 2009). Identifying risks prior to them occurring will help control the costs of the project overall. The earlier these risks are identified the easier adjustments to the project can occur and thus leave less impact to the project overall. If the risks are identified in the estimate creation stage, additional resources could be budgeted to mitigate that risk or a different method for accomplishing the same task could be utilized. If the risk is identified during the early stages of the work package or early in the execution phase resources could be temporarily allocated to the effort and the project manager could crash certain tasks to adjust the project timeline or the project manager could run certain tasks in parallel to reduce schedule. The project manager could also reduce the amount of certain tasks that are on the fringe of the project and are seen as just nice to have as part of the project but not necessary for the execution of the project as a whole. As the project progresses toward its scheduled completion date the risks impact to the project exponentially increase. With little schedule, scope or cost left for the project manager to manage it becomes more difficult to adjust out the negative ramifications of an unforeseen risk.
Project Cost Monitoring and Management
In order to properly manage the costs of the project, the project team needs the appropriate tools to monitor and control these items. The project is based on the bottoms-up estimate analysis which allows each sub-section of the project to have its own set of measurable deliverables. This type of analysis lends itself perfectly with the type of management tool the project team plans to use to monitor and control schedule and cost variances. The EVM analysis will provide the insight into the schedule variance for each work package as well as the project as a whole. The associated cost variance will show if the project is over budget or under budget. When these two types of variances are put together, the project manager will be able to report out to the stakeholders if the project is on-schedule, within budget and if we are getting the quality of work for the amount of funding we have spent. The project will then go through monthly reviews with the project team to ensure the appropriate progress is being completed. This will allow the entire project team to fully understand the status of each functional area and gain a broader perspective of the project as a whole.
The coordination between how the estimates for each work package was developed and how the project team uses them in the EVM analysis is important in the fact that the numbers are close to their root estimation and have not been manipulated to fit the method in which the project manager is going to manage and control he costs. With this information regarding cost, schedule and scope, the project manager will be able to manage the risks associated with the project. The tools including EVM and status updates will provide the data the project manager needs to make educated business decisions on how to manage the variances in cost and schedule. The project manager will continuously work to monitor the actual costs throughout the life-cycle of the project and the tools chosen will help enable project management actions to ensure project success.
References
Cooper, D. F., Grey, S., Raymond, G., & Walker, P. (2005). Project risk management guidelines, managing risk in large projects and complex procurements. John Wiley & Sons.
Hansen, D. R., Mowen, M. M., & Guan, L. (2009). Cost management: accounting & control. (6th ed.). Mason, OH: South-western cengage Learning.
Fleming , Q. (2006). Earned value project management. (3rd ed.). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute.
Magal, S. R., & Word, J. (2011). Integrated business processes with erp systems. RRD/Jefferson City: Wiley.
Monk, E., & Wagner, B. (2009). Concepts in enterprise resource planning. (3 ed.). Boston, MA: Course Technology Cengage Learning.
Project Management Institute, P. M. (2008). A guide to the project management body of knowledge. (4th ed.). Newtown Square: Project Management Inst.
Time is precious
don’t waste it! | https://essays.io/cost-control-essay-example/ |
Team Responsibilities in Project Change Management Process
A change is described as any deviation from the baseline documents and underlying assumptions that impact the project’s scope, cost, or schedule. This guideline will define the change management process; the method and obligation relating to the identification, documentation, review, approval, management and integration of changes to the scope, cost, and schedule of the project. It will also describe the responsibilities of each member of the team or change management group working under the project director and the project manager.
The primary objective is to establish a robust structure in which Trends and Changes can be validated, analyzed and agreed upon in a timely manner to minimize the impact on the project.
The Scope and Objectives of Change Management Process
The change management practice allows the project team to identify any change to the project baseline early, and in doing so, enable the control, management of changes and potential risks that could affect the project outcomes. The objectives of change management are as follows:
- Set up a change management system for the project
- Develop a method that allows anyone engaged in the project to initiate a notice of a potential change.
- Facilitate effective management and reporting of all changes, irrespective of origin.
- Deliver early warning and identification of trends (potential changes) to allow for timely assessment (scope, alternatives, cost and schedule) and decision making for work to proceed as required/approved.
- Expedite the processing and resolution of change impacts.
- Ensure that the project’s change management system is maintained and it correctly reflects the current scope changes, cost forecast and schedule impacts on an ongoing basis.
- Effective evaluation of trends and development of identified changes into approved budget reallocations and scope changes.
- Enable the change management validation against budget. Ensure that all changes are approved prior to implementation or commencement of any work.
- Ensure all approved changes are effectively communicated to all affected disciplines, groups and organizations.
- Prevention of unauthorized work being executed.
Baseline Documents
A clearly defined Scope of Work: each project team member is expected to understand his or her scope of work, baseline documents, and work plan, and is responsible for immediately communicating any changes before spending either time or money on such deviations without proper authorization.
Proper authorization is generally construed to be an approved Change order, Budget Shift, or Trend. Although in certain cases (authorized by the project manager) this may be written directly from the contract administrator to perform the work. When the contract administrator has provided written direction to perform the work, the Potential Variation Notice will still need to be submitted to maintain control and meet audit requirements.
As a guide, below are my suggested baseline documents that can be used for an effective change management process. These documents are developed during the bid proposal effort and contract negotiations prior to contract award.
- Project Development Plan
- Project Execution Plan
- Contract Scope of Work Cost Estimate (budget including effort-hours and material quantities, and estimate basis)
- Management Level Schedule
- Risk Assessment
- Commercial Baseline
Additional detail may be developed during the initial alignment process and communicated to the entire project team, but change management is measured against the project baseline documents.
The change management process provides project management with an early warning of conditions that might affect the project cost and/or schedule. This practice allows project management the opportunity to minimize or neutralize the impacts of the potential change.
Recommended Roles and Responsibilities in Change Management Process
Once the change was identified or in anticipation of a change, all personnel on the project are authorized to raise a Trend/Potential Variation Notice/Change Notice and must follow this practice to complete the required documentation for further processing.
Personnel are required to process change paperwork rapidly to minimize any risk to the project, particularly as some changes may have time-related contractual implications. The objective of the project is to identify changes as early as possible. Early identification is critical and will provide the team sufficient time to manage and mitigate the effect of any negative changes; the opportunity to influence the outcome of the change will likely decrease over time.
The cumulative effect of changes should also be adopted because it can greatly increase the cost impact of individual changes. Depending on the project, the cost of the cumulative effect of changes can be included in each individual change, or a separate change impact analysis can be developed quarterly.
Depending on the size of the project, the change management group on major projects, and/or otherwise project lead, and the team will be acting as the change management group, is responsible for:
- administering the change management process
- assisting the project team to identify and quantify potential changes
- providing estimating and forecasting services on identified changes
- facilitating communication of approved changes to the Project manager.
The change management group is led by a project lead, who manages the flows and developments, and reports the status of changes to the project team. The change management register and numbering system will be managed by the project controls. The change management group will be supported by a project controls team (cost/estimate/schedule).
Planning and cost control will assist as required on Trends/Potential Variation Notice/Change Notices as requested by the project manager. These roles will be utilized to expedite reviews and processing notifications received within the team or from contractors.
Project Manager
Reports to the project director and is responsible for:
- Overall management of the change management system.
Responsibilities of the Project Lead (or Change Management Lead)
Reports to the project manager and is responsible for:
- Setting up change management processes and procedures including maintenance, management, change management register, development of change, issue of event change number and ensuring proper sequence numbering system.
- Managing trend review meetings within a structured environment that ensures acceptable trends are processed into approved changes
- Coordinating approved changes and ensuring that they are distributed to the project team for execution and inclusion into the project baseline.
- Ensuring proper establishment and use of the change management system and trend registers.
- Review all Changes for impact on overall project schedule and milestones.
- Ensure that approved changes are incorporated into all schedules and reported.
- Supporting project team in all aspects of change management, including expediting reviews and approvals.
- Organizing and holding regular change management meetings with the project teams and/or with stakeholders
- Providing summary, reporting of changes and monitoring impact on project growth allowances and contingencies.
- Ensuring changes received comply with the change management system and issue approved changes to the team for further action.
- Manage the central filing of change documentation, assuring proper document control over change documentation.
Responsibilities of the Originator
All personnel on the project team are authorized to:
- Raising the Trend/Potential Variation Notice/Change notice form.
- Providing a full and detailed description of the proposed change.
- Providing a description of the current design.
- Providing full and detailed justification for the change.
- Identifying any impacts the change might have.
- Submitting the completed form to the project lead/project manager.
Planner
Reports to the project controls manager and is responsible for:
- Reviewing all changes for impact on overall project schedule and milestones.
- Ensuring that approved changes are incorporated into all schedules and reported.
- Monitoring, analyzing and reporting status of all approved schedule changes.
- Ensuring that resource forecasting includes approved changes.
Cost Controller
Reports to the project controls manager and is responsible for:
- Providing cost control assistance to the change control process.
- Reviewing changes submitted for compliance with project coding systems.
- Updating forecast in cost system to reflect approved trends.
- Updating cost system, budgets and commitments with approved changes
- Providing cost report budget vs revised budget
- Reporting the impact of all approved potential variation notices on the cost and schedule forecast.
Estimator
Reports to project controls manager and is responsible for:
- Preparing and assisting with the development of estimates and backup documentation to support identified changes.
- Reviewing estimate details from external sources and advising the team of findings.
Document Controller
Reports to project controls manager and is responsible for:
- Management of correspondence and change management document.
Reference
A Basic Guide to Change Management by Rodel Marasigan
Over 35 years in the construction industry of combined working experience in the field of oil & gas refinery, pharmaceutical plant, waste water treatment & recycle water treatment plant, high rise building, module assembly, on-shore pipeline installation, power plant, industrial plant, heavy civil and Rails & Railways infrastructure. With a strong professional experience in all engineering works, advance computer knowledge and skills, strong leadership, motivation and can work independently. Has a professional background as Project Controls, Lead Planner, Snr Cost Engineer, System Analyst, Cost Analyst, Bid Estimator, Contract Management/ Administrator and Quantity Surveyor. | https://www.projectcubicle.com/team-roles-and-responsibilities-in-project-change-management-process/ |
A project management company offers a wide range of services to help businesses plan, execute, and deliver projects effectively and efficiently. Some of the services that a project management company might offer include:
- Project Planning: Developing a comprehensive project plan that outlines the scope, timelines, resources, and budget for a project.
- Project Scheduling: Creating and managing a project schedule that outlines the tasks, milestones, and dependencies for a project.
- Resource Management: Identifying and allocating the necessary resources (e.g. personnel, equipment, materials) to complete a project.
- Risk Management: Identifying and assessing potential risks to a project and implementing strategies to mitigate or avoid them.
- Cost Management: Developing a project budget and tracking project expenses to ensure they stay within budget.
- Change Management: Managing and implementing changes to the project plan, schedule, or resources as needed.
- Communication Management: Facilitating effective communication among project team members, stakeholders, and other parties involved in the project.
- Quality Management: Ensuring that the project delivers a high-quality product or service that meets the customer’s needs and expectations.
- Stakeholder Management: Building and maintaining positive relationships with stakeholders and ensuring that their needs and expectations are met.
Overall, a project management company can be a valuable partner for businesses looking to deliver projects effectively and efficiently. They can help businesses to develop a comprehensive project plan, allocate resources, manage risks, and track progress to ensure that projects are completed on time, within budget, and to the satisfaction of all stakeholders. | https://bulletproofventures.com/services-we-offer-as-part-of-our-project-management-expertise/ |
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There are many important documents for project management, and one of them is a baseline. So what is a baseline in project management? Why should a project manager dedicate time to one?
What is a Baseline in Project Management
So what is a baseline in project management? A baseline in project management is also known as a project baseline, and it’s a clearly defined point in a project plan. So it’s used as a reference point to measure performance and progress against. The triple constraints of project management play into the project baseline. They make up the components of a project baseline. Project managers use scope, schedule, and cost to know the health of the project.
The project baseline is what project managers use to determine the overall health of a project. If a project is falling behind schedule, then using the project management triangle, there will be an effect on the cost and/or scope. It also means there is a change in the project baseline. Some changes are unavoidable; however, that means that changes to the project baseline are necessary. Even if changes are made to the original project baseline, the project manager must keep the initial project baseline to better understand the issues.
Benefits of a Project Baseline
Project baselines are a necessary part of project management. So a project manager will probably build some project baseline no matter what. However, when a project baseline is approved by all parties, it can be especially useful. The approved project baseline provides many benefits to the current project as well as future projects.
One of the biggest benefits to an approved project baseline is the improvement in estimating capabilities for the company. Approved project baselines, past project baselines, and documentation of changing project baselines can improve future baselines. Companies can use them to see which projects came under or over the baseline. From there they can make necessary changes.
Companies can also use the project baseline to calculate the earned value of a project. Earned value is a way to compare the actual performance of the project to the original project baseline. One of its great benefits is that project managers can use it to determine project trends and sometimes predict whether the project will have issues in the future.
Creating a Project Baseline
A common starting place for a project is determining the overall goals, responsibilities, and roles. Depending on whether you’re the general contractor or a trade contractor, that will be different. A general contractor is more likely to develop the overall project goals and then turn to the subcontractors to fill out the finer details for their specific section of a project.
Project managers can’t set a project baseline until they set scope, budget, and timeline. So a project manager must use the estimate and their expertise to establish a scope, budget, and schedule that will work for the project. Then they can break it down into completion periods to better judge the project against. The completion periods, percentages, or other units of measurement are the project baseline.
Revising Your Baseline
Most projects have changes to the schedule or scope of work. While project managers try to avoid this, unforeseen circumstances happen which cause changes. These changes can impact the project performance, resources, and especially the baseline. When this happens, project managers must change the baseline for the project. Because the way the current project is no longer matches the scenario for the original baseline.
Baseline revisions should only take place if the appropriate change process must take place. Project managers should only make changes to the baselines moving forward. When project managers change the entire baseline to fit the current time frame, it changes historical data. It also makes it more difficult to use old baselines and project performance data to make better estimates. Changing the entire project baseline alters the history of the agreement between trade contractors and general contractor and/or owner.
Project Baselines Help Project Managers Avoid These Problems
Not having a project baseline can be detrimental to a project. A project baseline helps project managers avoid these problems. Project baselines are helpful in avoiding inadequate resources. They are similar to plans and schedules; project managers can use them to get the right resources to the site on time. This, in turn, prevents schedule delays and other issues with resource issues.
Baselines are also a good way to enforce proper change management. Proper change management involves tracking and managing all changes and change orders. Project baselines are a great way to determine the outcome from those changes. A project manager should know what the original baselines were and what the expected outcome of the changes. From there they can determine if the changes were effective and if it is a good way to adjust the project. This data is especially important since it can be used to prevent similar issues in future projects. | https://esub.com/blog/what-is-a-baseline-in-project-management/ |
Management Reserve (MR)
Management Reserve (MR) is an amount of the contract budget set aside by the project manager at the beginning of a project. The sum of the Performance Measurement Baseline (PMB) and MR equals the Contract Budget Base (CBB). By definition, Management Reserve does not have a specific scope of work and therefore it is not part of the PMB. Management Reserve is established to provide budget for known-unknowns that are within the scope of the contract but out of scope to any control account.
The project manager has authority and control over the use of Management Reserve. The project manager will establish the MR based on examination of the contractual scope of work. Factors affecting MR establishment are high technical risk and opportunity areas, complex schedule problems, or an anticipated shortage in a critical resource area such as labor, material, or support services. Once anticipated problems and risks and opportunities have been identified, and management judgment included, the Management Reserve is established.
Management Reserve is decreased to provide budget to control accounts for unplanned tasks within the contract scope of work. Management Reserve is increased if work scope and its associated budget is removed from a control account. Management Reserve is not to be used to offset cost overruns, nor is it increased by transferring budgets from control accounts that are underrunning. Management Reserve cannot be a negative value. | https://www.humphreys-assoc.com/evms/management-reserve.php |
Baseline control is a concept that is fundamental to many aspects of project management. To truly manage an effort, a plan must be created and approved, and progress must be measured and compared to the plan.
Changes to the plan must be controlled to preserve its integrity as a management tool. A contract level (Level 1) baseline schedule, consistent with contract requirements, is required for all projects. This schedule is typically a contract deliverable early in the project. Most projects (except for simple studies and level-of-effort work) must establish a Level 3 baseline schedule to measure and manage the work for comparative and variance purposes throughout the project.
On projects that include conceptual planning or preliminary engineering, the official baseline schedule is sometimes established only after completion of these early phases of work. Similarly, on a project with multiple phases, it is common for the entire project to be “rebaselined” when transitioning to a new phase. For example, during detailed design, the construction plan often evolves so that the baseline schedule bears little resemblance to the current schedule upon kickoff of the construction phase.
Approval of Baseline Schedules
Baseline schedules for cost reimbursable projects normally require client approval. On lump-sum projects, a company typically “owns” the schedule and we are obligated to meet only those dates required by the contract. The approving manager must approve the baseline schedule for any lumpsum project. Project schedules for cost reimbursable projects with any form of schedule incentive or penalty must be approved by the approving manager before they are submitted to the client for approval.
Contractual requirements and overall execution strategy drive the development of the schedule. During the review and approval process, the project manager provides documentation of the key points that form the basis of the schedule to ensure that all parties have a mutual understanding and common expectations.
Changes to the Baseline Schedule
The baseline schedule is revised, as appropriate, with approved changes. As contractual scope or requirements change, those changes are reflected in the baseline schedule. The project’s change order form should include a required field for identifying schedule impacts and a field to indicate whether the baseline should be updated to reflect the change. If a change does not impact schedule, this should be stated in the change.
Some changes impact schedule but are not valid changes to the baseline (e.g., productivity issues or supplier performance.). These changes represent variances from the baseline. In extreme cases, variances from the baseline may accumulate to the point that the baseline schedule no longer is a useful comparison to the current work plan. If so, it may be appropriate to rebaseline the schedule (i.e., to replace the baseline with an entirely new version without the logical audit trail of approved changes). Approval of a new baseline is a formal process that must be approved at the same level as the original baseline. | http://www.planningplanet.com/wiki/422408/baseline-management |
At the end of this training course, you will learn to:
- Appreciate the need to apply Value-driven Project Management
- Create Key Performance Indicators & establish additional metrics to measure the increasingly complex nature of modern projects
- Compose effective dashboards and scorecards to report project performance
- Initiate projects effectively by incorporating success criteria to charters
- Apply generally accepted project management techniques to establish an integrated project plan baseline
- Measure, forecast, present status and control project performance by employing earned value techniques
- Embrace the dynamic nature of many project environments through proactive change management
CONTENT
Understanding Project Success and Failure
- Characteristics of Projects
- Fundamentals of Project Management
- Starting a Project - The Charter
- Starting a Project - The Team
Value-Driven Project Management
- Value Modelling and Value Metrics
- Metric Characteristics, Selection, Training and Management
- Project Scope Planning - work breakdown structures
- Schedule Planning - build and optimize project timeline
- Cost Planning - estimation and construction of the project budget
Monitoring Performance through Effective Planning and Reporting Techniques
- Controlling Uncertainty - Risk Management
- Controlling Stakeholders - communications considerations
- Key Performance Indicators
- Status Reports and Project Dashboards
Monitoring and Controlling Project Performance
- Variance Analysis using Earned Value Management
- Forecasting to Control Project Budgetary and Schedule Concerns
- Managing Change
- Advanced Status Reporting Techniques
Stakeholder Management
- Issues Management
- Scope Verification - requirements traceability
- Management of Project Records
- Problem-Solving: Identification, Analysis and Generation of Solutions
- Decision-making Tools and Techniques
FOR WHOM:
Works, Services and Maintenance Personnel
TRAINING METHODOLOGY
The training methodology combines lectures, discussions, group exercises and illustrations. Participants will gain both theoretical and practical knowledge of the topics. The emphasis is on the practical application of the topics and as a result participant will go back to the workplace with both the ability and the confidence to apply the techniques learned to their duties.
1ST BATCH: 27th – 29th May, 2020
2ND BATCH: 3rd – 6th November, 2020
Other Dates
|Start Date||End Date|
|27 May, 2020||29 May, 2020|
|Start Date||End Date|
|03 Nov, 2020||06 Nov, 2020|
-
Venue
Alpha Partners Professional Training Conference Centre. 200, Muritala Mohammed Way (3rd Floor), Yaba Lagos. | https://www.alphapartnerstrainings.com/course/2978-project-performance-measurement-and-management |
This post gives an overview of the first of the three planning processes in the Cost Management Knowledge Area, namely process 7.1 Plan Cost Management, with summaries of the inputs, tools & techniques, and output of the process.
1. Inputs
As far as inputs are concerned, the most important ones are the scope baseline, because that represents the work that needs to be done, and the budget will tell you how much money is required to do it. The schedule baseline, which was the output of process 6.1 Plan Schedule Management, is necessary as an input. Other knowledge management plans may provide input as well, some of which are completed after the cost management plan in the list of planning processes. This shows that the planning process is iterative and may require several passes through in order to integrate the various knowledge area management plans.
The project charter will give the high-level summary budget, and those project approval requirements that have to do with the project cost constraints (i.e., the project may absolutely have to be done within a certain amount of money).
The main EEF or Enterprise Environmental Factor is probably going to be the project management software used to create the schedule; the main OPA or Organizational Process Asset is probably going to be the historical information on prior similar projects that can be used to help estimate the schedule.
|7.1 PLAN COST MANAGEMENT|
|INPUTS|
|1.||Project Management Plan||The following elements of the PM Plan are used in the development of the Cost Management Plan:
|
|2.||Project Charter||Provides the summary budget from which detailed project costs are developed, as well as project approval requirements (particularly those dealing with project cost constraints).|
|3.||EEFs||
|
|4.||OPAs||
|
|TOOLS & TECHNIQUES|
|1.||Expert judgment||Uses historical information from prior similar projects and adapts it appropriately to the current project.|
|2.||Analytical techniques||Used to choose strategic options related to funding the project.|
|3.||Meetings||Planning meetings are used to develop the cost management plan.|
|OUTPUTS|
|1.||Cost Management Plan||Establishes the criteria and the activities for developing, monitoring and controlling the schedule.|
2. Tools & Techniques
The tools & techniques of the process are exactly parallel to those on process 6.1 Plan Schedule Management: expert judgment, analytical techniques, and meetings.
3. Output
The output of the process Plan Cost Management, it will be no surprise, is the Cost Management Plan itself. Essentially what this does is give a framework for of the other processes in the Cost Management knowledge area, and the next post will discuss the detailed contents of the Cost Management Plan. | https://4squareviews.com/2013/04/ |
Project Baseline Fields
The table below lists the fields of the Project Baseline form and provides utilization guidelines for each field.
|Field Label||Utilization Guideline|
|Baseline||
|
The
|Baseline phases||
|
The
|Schedule||
|
The
Apart from this difference in calendar days, this field also shows the start and end dates of the schedule. These dates were set when the project baseline was generated.
|Budget||
|
The
|Current scope||
|
The
This field is displayed only if the current scope is different from the budget, i.e. when there is a scope deviation. A scope deviation occurs when: | https://help.4me.com/help/project_baseline_fields/ |
Have you had PMP training and presently you are filling up the PMP exam registration form? Filling the PMP exam form is not difficult. The main criteria to fill in the form is that you have used terminologies in the project descriptions that you will enter, which you have learned in the your PMP training.
Have a look at sample project descriptions below, and you too should write similar project descriptions in your PMP exam form.
Display adequate knowledge and skills to apply a methodology to projects that have defined project requirements and deliverables. Project descriptions should be written to determine whether or not the documented projects are actually projects.
I was involved in creation of project charter. Obtained project requirements from stakeholders. Project management plan was created which included project scope statement, WBS, plans of schedule, cost, quality, HR. I assisted to create project deliverables during project execution, monitored project management plan, including cost and schedule, ensured proper execution. Stakeholders were informed of approved changes. Project was reviewed, closed successfully, lessons learned documented, archived documents, and project was accepted by sponsor.
Produced project scope statement, created WBS, defined activities, estimated their duration. Determined quality standards, produced quality plan, estimated cost and created project budget, identified risks, including their qualitative & quantitative analysis. Prepared risk responses. Project management plan was prepared, Directed and managed project work during project execution. Project was monitored, including cost, time, risks. Conducted project review, and project was successfully closed by acceptance. Lesson learned were documented.
Developed project charter, collected project requirements from stakeholders, and project scope was defined. Produced project management plans, including project schedule, cost plan, HR plan, and procurement management plan. Identified quality standards, and quality management plan. Team was acquired and directed project work. Conducted procurement, and produced deliverables. Project was monitored and controlled, including control of schedule, cost, quality. Project was reviewed, accepted by user. Documents were archived. Created lessons learned.
Identified major stakeholders and assisted in creating project charter, which included summary budget, high level project description etc. Defined project scope by producing project scope statement, created WBS, scope baseline, defined activities, and developed schedule. Assisted in developing budget. Produced project management plan, according to which executed project and produced deliverables. Monitored work, evaluated and corrected variances of cost, time etc. Project was successfully closed by acceptance. Reviewed project and created lessons learned. Archived documents. | http://innovativeprojectguide.com/pmp-exam/6-pmp-exam/294-project-description-examples-pmp-exam-form.html?tmpl=component&print=1&layout=default&page= |
We currently looking for Sr. Project Manager to work at Client site (4 WTC)- Port Authority.
GENERAL SKILL/KNOWLEDGE REQUIREMENTS 1. Thorough knowledge of engineering design, construction estimating, facility operation, project budgeting and scheduling. 2. Proven ability to manage multiple projects simultaneously and effectively, utilizing limited resources to achieve complex goals. 3. Expert knowledge of the principles, methods, and tools for developing, scheduling, and managing projects and resources, including monitoring costs, work, and contractor performance. 4. Experience in managing and influencing diverse work groups and project teams. 5. Demonstrated customer service, decision-making, problem solving, negotiations and people skills. 6. Demonstrated knowledge of capital planning and assessment, cost-benefit analysis, planning and evaluation, and risk management protocols. 7. Proven skills at effective communication both at the interpersonal and group level. 8. Proven ability to work effectively within groups and to complete assigned tasks independently
GENERAL QUALIFICATIONS REQUIRED 1. Bachelor of Science Degree in an engineering discipline or a Project Management Professional certification along with a technical degree. A Professional Engineering license is highly desirable. 2. Minimum of 10 years of progressively responsible experience in Project Management. 3. Proficiency in the use of standard Microsoft Office products, Primavera (Oracle’s Project Management software) and ability to become competent with Port Authority software and reporting systems. 4. Must possess a valid driver’s license.
DESCRIPTION OF GENERAL TASK ASSIGNMENTS- General tasks to be performed by the Consultant may include but shall not be limited to the following:
Task A –Project Management Plans 1. Develop Project Management Plans covering conceptual development through construction completion, including staff budgets and baseline schedules for all project/program elements. 2. Establish project team. 3. Develop the project scope, schedule, and budget for various stages of project delivery. 4. Participate in facility scoping, design team update, program level coordination and other related progress meetings. 5. Conduct presentations and prepare documentation, as required, to obtain approval for the project plan.
Task B –Implementation of the Management Plans 1. Coordinate the implementation of the management plans and the work performed by all the program and/or project members, as required. 2. Conduct project kick-off and progress meetings with the project team and record attendance, prepare all minutes and agreements of meetings. 3. Follow-up with project stakeholders to ensure action items assigned are completed. 4. Prepare and maintain issues lists to keep track off open issue resolution and completion 5. Monitor all elements of the design development effort to meet the project’s approved scope, schedule, and budget. 6. Coordinate preparation of study reports, construction cost estimates and preliminary and final contract documents. Coordinate all elements of the contract document review process, including notifying all design development participants of the resolution of all comments. Establish contract conditions and precautions and hours-of-work restrictions. 7. Establish through meetings with facility personnel staging restrictions/requirements based upon operational and maintenance constraints. Coordinate the resolution of project related issues with facility operating and maintenance staff, including negotiating agreements on client requested changes. 8. Review studies, preliminary designs, and contract documents for conformance to approved scope and budget. 9. Prepare project documentation, correspondence and maintain project file. 10. Coordinate bidding and award of construction contracts including: • recommending procurement options • coordinating preparation of Addenda, as required • evaluating bids • preparing award authorization documents and briefing materials for executive staff 11. Ensure the timely review of the contractor shop drawing submittals and respond to contractor’s Request for Information (RFI’s). Coordinate preparation of Post Award Contract Changes (PACC’s). Review and approve all elements of design or field change implementation to meet contract schedule requirements. 13. Coordinate preparation of authorization documents and briefing materials for any required increase in project funding, including those required for cost/schedule/budget control. 14. Attend construction progress meetings and coordinate facility force account work as required. Actively engage construction management staff located at the Authority’s facilities to ensure contract is proceeding on time, within scope and within budget. 15. Lead and provide project close-out support, including coordination of such activities including but not limited to testing, commissioning, acceptance, and turnover of assets. 16. Attend on-site project activities during and outside of business hours as directed by the Authority manager 17. Prepare project completion documentation, including but not limited to certificates of completion, certificates of occupancy
Task C –Monitoring and Reporting 1. Monitor and report on the actual consultant/contractor/staff performance, comparing the approved management plan versus the recommended corrective action, when required. 2. Update and review actual and forecasted project costs and schedule(s) monthly and develop and implement necessary corrective measures to meet approved plans. 3. Monitor progress of construction, including review of actual and forecasted construction in place (CIP) and schedule verses authorized contract budget and schedule. 4. Prepare monthly status reports addressing accomplishments, issues, schedule, and budget status, including corrective actions, if required. 5. Evaluate design consultant invoices for earned value and recommend payment. 6. Evaluate impact of changes on approved scope, schedule and budget and obtain approval for the change. 7. Provide stakeholder coordination 8. Brief executive staff on status of project.
Task D –Program Level Management Services 1. Assist Authority staff in the scheduling and implementation of selected programs and/or group of projects including coordinating and managing the activities of subordinate Project Managers. 2. Establish annual and/or program level resources requirements. 3. Ensure that selected projects and/or programs are staffed and started as planned. 4. Update program level schedules. 5. Evaluate and recommend appropriate M/WBE sub-contractor goals.
Task E –Program Management Support 1. Provide ancillary program management support services. 2. Maintaining records for and preparation of As Build Drawings /Record Drawings. 3. Provide support services, as required, to prepare technical presentations and assist in responding to inquiries from outside entities and the public. 4. Provide support services for the following: a. Maintaining and updating, as needed, the existing Program Management Manual b. Document control including, tracking, and expediting shop drawing process using Primavera Expedition Program currently used by the Authority c. Project Control functions using Primavera currently used by the Authority d. Provide Project Management training/workshop sessions, as required. | https://jobs.ezelogs.com/job/managerial-grade-a-emergency-management-3-2-2-2-2-3-2-2-2-2-2-2-3/ |
Vapor IO plays a crucial role in re-architecting the internet. We build and operate data centers at the edge of the "last mile" network, presenting them as an interconnected fabric of remotely operated facilities we call the Kinetic Edge. The Kinetic Edge connects the centralized cloud to the last mile network and enables a new class of local, real-time applications'including IoT, mobile augmented reality, and autonomous driving. These applications need optimized connections to the last mile network and require compute and storage to be located more closely to the device or application. This is called infrastructure edge computing and Vapor IO is the leader in this category.
The Kinetic Edge will be the largest system of edge colocation and interconnection, serving the world's largest wireless carriers, media companies, cloud providers, and web-scale companies. The company's Kinetic Edge combines multi-tenant colocation with software-defined interconnection and high-speed networking, delivering the most flexible, highly-distributed infrastructure at the edge of the wireless network.
Commitment to our employees
We provide our employees with an exciting work environment founded upon equal opportunity for learning and personal growth. Creativity and innovation are at the core of what we do, bringing ever-evolving service offerings to our customers.
Job Overview
As a Sites Projects Director, you will have responsibility for site selection, development and deployment to establish new markets for Vapor IO's Kinetic Edge.
You will use your deep understanding of managing large scale buildout projects to lead Vapor IO through an accelerated deployment schedule in 2019 and 2020. The ideal candidate will combine excellent program/project management, vendor/contracts management, product and business skills to make the projects run smoothly.
This role will work closely with the Director of Facilities and Customer Success to ensure handoff is effective and all elements of the operations are incorporated. This role will have a tight integration with Vapor IO's partners that plays an integral part to the sites project.
Responsibilities and Duties
- Identifying, tracking, forecasting and managing the project budget, expenditures and communicating and resolving project issues.
- Proactively managing scope to ensure only what was agreed is delivered, unless changes are approved through scope management.
- Reviewing and management of contracts with accuracy and thorough attention to detail while following specific legal and client guidelines.
- Seek ways to provide cost-effective solutions that equal or better baseline needs/functionality.
- Establish and refine mass-deployment process.
- Managing the overall Project Plan to ensure work is assigned and completed on time and within budget at the scope and quality identified in the project plan.
- Works with partners as needed to establish project-specific architectural/engineering standards and specifications; controls project schedules recommending changes or modifications as needed.
- Contribute in creating process, policy and troubleshooting documentation according to company standards.
- Traveling is a requirement to successfully execute projects.
- Performance reporting and measuring to assess how the project is progressing, whether deliverables produced are acceptable and taking corrective action to bring the project in line with the plan.
Required Skills
- 5 years + Experience managing, organizing and leading large complex IT projects with high risk.
- Experience in managing and developing a team of project managers and contractors.
- Experience working with business functions to document processes and identify areas for improvement.
- Experience developing, managing and monitoring the integrated master schedule for highly complex projects or multiple phases of a project.
- Knowledge required to ensure that integrated master schedule is followed and must be accountable for changes to the schedule.
- Ability to apply established program/project management frameworks for developing and managing budgets, risk assessment/mitigation, schedules, issues/actions tracking etc.
- Excellent problem solving and critical thinking skills.
- Working knowledge of datacenter and telco environments, processes and terminologies.
- Experience with counseling and advising senior level management and leadership regarding issues and risks, process re-engineering and technology issues.
THIS POSITION HAS BEEN CLOSED! PLEASE CHOOSE ONE OF THE OPTIONS BELOW: | https://vapor.hirecentric.com/jobs/151597.html |
• Knowledge of Confluence, Jira, MS Office (Excel, Word, PowerPoint, Outlook).
Personal characteristics:
• Strong analytical and problem-solving skills;
• Strong communication skills;
• Team work oriented;
• Responsible;
• Active and independent approach;
• Strong presentation skills.
Will be plus:
• Knowledge of MS Project, MS Visio, TFS or VSTS (for project tracking), TargetProcess, Rally, Jenkins/Hudson is a plus;
• PMP certification is a plus.
Функциональные обязаности
• Manage small projects or aspects of larger ones;
• May participate in team members formal assessments;
• Create and update a detailed project plan;
• Help to establish work plan and assist with the staffing for each phase of project, including recruitment / assignment of personnel;
• Provide management and strategic direction to a team; to be responsible for the project development, budget and schedule;
• Establish goals, negotiates project commitments and develop project plans;
• Review and providing input into the project scope definition;
• Coordination development and approval of the business and technical requirements documents;
• Coordination definition of technical scope and objectives in collaboration with technical subject matter experts;
• Assistance with the resolution of issues and escalation those that may not have an established precedence;
• Represent the company with contractors, suppliers, customers, departments, and other parties as required;
• Coordinate activities of project personnel to ensure projects progress on schedule and within the budget;
• Recommend and make adjustments to the project plan and staffing;
• Monitoring, measuring, and reports on project progress to management and clients.
Описание вакансии
We offer:
• Comfortable office;
• Flexible working hours;
• Paid vacation, paid sick leave;
• Salary based on results of an interview;
• A monthly social package (lunches, English, sports, home internet).
• High salary
• Social perks
• Sick pay, vacations
• Flexible work schedule
• Friendly environment
#работа #вакансия
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Для того что-бы отправить Ваше резюме работодателю, войдите на сайт. | http://pm-way.com/job/vacans_id/544 |
When you press a key on the piano it causes a small hammer inside the piano to hit a string or strings. Each key is connected to its own hammer or hammers which hit a specific string or number of strings. When the hammer hits a string, it vibrates and makes a sound that is tuned to a specific note.
What sound waves does a piano make?
For a piano, the mixture is typically a very strong one-hump vibration (the fundamental), plus weaker one-, two-, and three-hump vibrations (the “higher harmonics” or “overtones”). This combination of many sines waves that are all integer multiples of the fundamental is what gives a piano its distinctive sound.
How does the sound from a piano becomes energy?
The sound box in turn forces air particles inside the box into vibrational motion at the same natural frequency as the string. The entire system (string, guitar, and enclosed air) begins vibrating and forces surrounding air particles into vibrational motion.
How does a piano use resonance?
If you press the sustain/damper pedal on a piano and sing a note, the strings in the piano that make the same note that you sing will vibrate. When you stop singing, you can hear the piano sounding the same note. When the vibration from one object causes another object to vibrate, it is called resonance.
How does a piano make sound physics?
The vibrations of the strings are transmitted to the soundboard through the bridges, and a loud sound resonates as a result of the soundboard vibrating the air. The entire piano, notably the soundboard, vibrates to produce sound.
How does a piano change pitch?
Piano strings change pitch due to the initial stretching and settling of strings when the piano is new and soundboard movement due to variations in humidity. With new pianos, the pitch drops quickly over the first few years as the strings stretch and the wood parts settle.
How does a real piano generate different frequencies?
Strings tuned to the same note are called unisons. If unison strings are not all at the proper tension, they will produce different pitches, and the piano will sound “out of tune”; tuning the piano involves adjusting string tensions so they match again. Strings lengths and diameters increase from treble to bass.
How many keys are on a piano?
As piano music developed and evolved, the keyboard compass was gradually expanded in response to requests from composers who sought a broader potential for expression. By the 1890s, today’s modern keyboard had become established with 88 keys spanning 7¼ octaves (from 2A to C5; 27.5 Hz to 4,186 Hz*).
How many strings are on a piano?
A piano keyboard has 88 keys. The number of strings depends on the model, but is usually around 230. For the tenor and treble notes, three strings are strung for each key, and for bass notes, the number of strings per note decreases from three, to two, and then to one as you approach the lowest bass notes.
How can you explain the sound has energy?
In simple terms, sound energy comes from vibrations moving through something. Solids, liquids, and gases all transmit sound as energy waves. Sound energy is the result when a force, either sound or pressure, makes an object or substance vibrate. That energy moves through the substance in waves.
What is a resonance in physics?
Resonance in physics is a phenomenon in which an external force or a vibrating system forces another system around it to vibrate with greater amplitude at a specified frequency of operation.
Is sound energy potential or kinetic?
Sound energy comes in both potential and kinetic energy forms. Sound energy is released by vibrating objects in the form of a wave.
How does an electromagnetic piano work?
The piano features a series of electromagnets, one for each note, which are suspended above the strings of a grand piano. Each one is controlled through a MIDI interface. An electromagnetic field is created by the MIDI signal controls. This causes the corresponding strings to vibrate, indefinitely if required.
How does an electric piano work?
An electric piano is similar to a traditional grand in how it amplifies a vibration created by hammers and strings. Unlike a grand, however, electric pianos use electromagnetic pickups to amplify the sound instead of a soundboard.
What is keyboard resonance?
This is a function on a filter in which a narrow band of frequencies (also known as the resonant peak) becomes relatively more pronounced. If the resonance is set high enough, the filter will begin to self-oscillate, producing a sine wave audio output even without a note being played on the keyboard.
What frequency is a piano?
The piano has 88 keys which span the frequency range 27.5 Hz (A0) to 4186 Hz (C8). The strings are sounded by hammer mechanisms which are activated by the keys.
Are piano waves longitudinal or transverse?
Although transverse waves are known to dominate the sound produced by a piano, recent research has shown that longitudinal waves are important to the sound as well.
Why do pianos have 88 keys?
So, why do pianos have 88 keys? Pianos have 88 keys because composers wanted to expand the range of their music. Adding more piano keys removed the limits on what kind of music could be performed on the instrument. 88 keys have been the standard since Steinway built theirs in the 1880s.
Is piano high or low pitch?
As we learned in the introduction to this section, the piano has a huge range. This means that it has a very broad span of pitches, from very low to very high. This range of 88 notes represents the most commonly used range of pitches in music.
What is the highest note on a piano?
The highest note on the piano is called C8. That means the note “C” in the eighth octave. The black keys on the piano represent the “slash” notes on the list above (C# / Db, D# / Eb, etc.).
How much force does a piano have?
In a grand piano, the tension in each string is over 100 pounds, creating a total force on the frame of between 40,000 and 60,000 pounds. A large variation in tension between the lower and the higher strings could lead to warping of the piano frame, so…
How many years can a piano last?
Ten to Thirty Years Normal regulation and voicing will maintain good tone and touch if usage is moderate. If the piano suffers wide temperature and humidity swings, it will being to show permanent deterioration during this time: loose tuning pins, rusty strings, soundboard cracks, and aging of the finish.
What affects the sound of a piano?
The strings. The actual vocal cords of the piano, these are responsible for the production of the audible tones, vibrations, and sounds we hear.
Why are pianos black?
So why does piano have black and white keys? The white keys represent the musical tones and the black keys represent the half step intervals between those musical tones. The colored keys help pianists decipher between the natural pitches and semitone pitches.
What is a fact about a piano? | https://scienceoxygen.com/how-does-a-piano-work/ |
From cars to homes to portable devices, audio is all around and is only growing in its applications. When it comes to audio system design, size, cost, and quality are important factors to consider. Quality is influenced by many variables but typically comes down to a system’s ability to recreate the necessary audio frequencies for a given design. In this article, learn more about the basics of audio frequency range and its subsets, the impact of enclosure design, and how to determine what audio ranges might be needed depending on the application.
20 Hz to 20,000 Hz is the commonly referenced audio frequency range. However, the average human can hear less than this 20 Hz to 20 kHz range and, as individuals age, this detectable range only continues to shrink. Audio frequency is most well-understood through music where each subsequent octave doubles the frequency. A piano’s lowest note of A is around 27 Hz, while its highest note of C is close to 4186 Hz. Outside of these common frequencies, any object or device that produces sound also produces harmonic frequencies. These are simply higher frequencies at a lower amplitude. As an example, a piano’s 27 Hz “A” note also generates a 54 Hz harmonic, 81 Hz harmonic, and so on with each harmonic being quieter than the last. Harmonics become particularly important in high-fidelity speaker systems where accurate recreation of the audio source is needed.
The table below lists the seven frequency subsets within the 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz spectrum that assist in defining the target ranges used in audio system design.
Table 1: Audio frequency range subsets. (Image source: CUI Devices)
Frequency response graphs are a good way to visualize how a buzzer, microphone, or speaker will reproduce various audio frequencies. Because buzzers are typically only outputting an audible tone, they usually feature a narrow frequency range. On the other hand, speakers generally carry wider frequency ranges because they are commonly tasked with recreating sound and voice.
The y-axis on a frequency response graph for audio output devices, such as speakers and buzzers, is represented in decibels of sound pressure level (dB SPL), which is basically a device’s loudness. The y-axis for audio input devices, such as microphones, instead represents sensitivity in dB since they are detecting rather than producing sound. In Figure 1 below, the x-axis represents frequency on a logarithmic scale with the y-axis listed in dB SPL, which makes this a graph for an audio output device. Note, because dBs are also logarithmic, both axes are logarithmic.
Figure 1: Basic frequency response graph. (Image source: CUI Devices)
Representing how many dB of SPL will be produced with a constant power input at different frequencies, this graph is relatively flat with minimal changes across the frequency spectrum. Other than a steep drop-off below 70 Hz, this audio device provided with the same input power would produce a consistent SPL between 70 Hz and 20 kHz. Anything below 70 Hz would produce less SPL output.
The frequency response graph for CUI Devices’ CSS-50508N speaker (Figure 2) is a better example of a more typical speaker profile. This graph includes varied peaks and valleys which denote points where resonance either strengthens or reduces the output. This 41 mm x 41 mm speaker’s datasheet lists a resonant frequency of 380 Hz ± 76 Hz, which can be seen as the first main peak on the graph. This quickly drops off at around 600 to 700 Hz but then provides stable SPL performance from roughly 800 Hz to 3,000 Hz. Due to the speaker’s size, a designer could presume the CSS-50508N would not perform well at lower frequencies compared to higher frequencies, which is confirmed by the graph. By understanding how and when to reference a frequency response chart, a design engineer can confirm whether a speaker or other output device can reproduce their target frequencies.
Figure 2: Frequency response graph for CUI Devices’ CSS-50508N 41 mm x 41 mm speaker. (Image source: CUI Devices)
Audio range can impact enclosure design in several ways as outlined in the sections below.
Smaller-sized speakers move faster compared to larger speakers, allowing them to produce higher frequencies with less unwanted harmonics. However, when trying to achieve similar SPL output at lower frequencies, larger speaker diaphragms are required to move enough air in order to match the same perceived dB SPL as higher pitches. While larger diaphragms are much heavier, this usually does not create an issue at lower frequencies where they are moving much slower.
Deciding between a smaller or larger speaker will ultimately depend on the requirements of the application, but smaller speakers typically lead to a smaller enclosure, which can reduce cost and improve space savings. Learn more in CUI Devices’ blog on How to Design a Micro Speaker Enclosure.
Resonant frequency represents the frequency at which an object naturally wants to vibrate. Guitar strings vibrate at their resonant frequency when plucked, which means that if a speaker were placed next to a guitar string playing its resonant frequency, the guitar string would begin to vibrate and increase in amplitude with time. However, when it comes to audio, this same phenomenon can lead to unwanted buzzing and rattles with surrounding objects. CUI Devices’ blog on resonance and resonant frequency provides additional information on this topic.
To avoid having a speaker with both a non-linear output and unwanted harmonics it becomes important in enclosure design to confirm that the enclosure does not have a natural resonant frequency in the same spectrum as the intended audio output.
Speaker and microphone design strikes a delicate balance between components that must remain still, flexible, and rigid during movement. A speaker’s diaphragm (or cone) should be light to allow for quick response while remaining as rigid as possible to avoid deformation as it moves. CUI Devices’ speakers commonly use paper and mylar, which are both light and rigid. As a type of plastic, mylar also has the added benefit of being resistant to moisture and humidity. In addition to the diaphragm, rubber is used to connect the diaphragm to the frame. To prevent breaking due to extreme movement, this material must be strong as well as pliable so as to not restrict movement of the diaphragm.
Figure 3: Basic construction of a speaker. (Image source: CUI Devices)
These same trade-offs can also be seen when comparing microphone technologies. Electret condenser microphones and MEMS microphones afford users durability, compact packages, and low power, but with more limited frequency and sensitivity. On the other hand, ribbon microphones offer improved sensitivity and frequency range with the trade-off of poor durability.
Material is also an important choice in enclosure design, impacting both the resonance and absorption of sound. An enclosure’s primary goal is to dampen the out-of-phase rearward generated sound, meaning the material chosen must be effective in sound absorption. This is particularly crucial in lower frequency sound applications where it is harder to dampen.
At the end of the day, there are a limited number of audio systems and no individual audio output device that can span the entire audio spectrum with any level of fidelity. In general, most applications will not require this level of fidelity, and a perfectly linear output is likely not needed. However, understanding the audio frequency range will still play an important role in selecting an appropriate audio component for a design. By having this understanding, engineers can better weigh the trade-offs between cost, size, and performance. CUI Devices provides a range of audio solutions with varying frequency ranges to support a full suite of applications.
Disclaimer: The opinions, beliefs, and viewpoints expressed by the various authors and/or forum participants on this website do not necessarily reflect the opinions, beliefs, and viewpoints of Digi-Key Electronics or official policies of Digi-Key Electronics. | https://www.digikey.ca/en/articles/a-look-at-audio-frequency-range-and-audio-components |
C (musical note)
In terms of musical pitch, C or Do is the first note of the fixed-Do solfège scale. Its enharmonic is B♯, which is by definition a diatonic semitone below C♯.
Contents
Middle C
With a frequency around 261.6 Hz, Middle C is designated C4 in scientific pitch notation because of the note's position as the fourth C key on a standard 88-key piano keyboard.
Another system known as scientific pitch assigns a frequency of 256 Hz but, while numerically convenient, this is not used by orchestras. Other note-octave systems, including those used by some makers of digital music keyboards, may refer to Middle C differently. In MIDI, Middle C is note number 60.
The C4 designation is the most commonly recognized in auditory science, and in musical studies it is often used in place of the Helmholtz designation c'.
While the expression "Middle C" is generally clear across instruments and clefs, some musicians naturally use the term to refer to the C note in the middle of their specific instrument's range. C4 may be called "Low C" by someone playing a Western concert flute, which has a higher and narrower playing range than the piano, while C5 (523.251 Hz) would be Middle C. This technically inaccurate practice has led some pedagogues to encourage standardizing on C4 as the definitive Middle C in instructional materials across all instruments.
In vocal music, the term Soprano C, sometimes called "High C" or "Top C," is the C two octaves above Middle C. It is so named because it is considered the defining note of the soprano voice type. It is C6 in scientific pitch notation (1046.502 Hz) and c''' in Helmholtz notation. The term Tenor C is sometimes used in vocal music to refer to C5, as it is the highest required note in the standard tenor repertoire. The term Low C is sometimes used in vocal music to refer to C2 because this is considered the divide between true basses and bass-baritones: a basso can sing this note easily while other male voices, including bass-baritones, cannot.
In organ music, the term Tenor C can refer to an rank is not full compass, omitting the bottom octave.
For the frequency of each note on a standard piano, see piano key frequencies.
Designation by octave
|Scientific designation||Helmholtz designation||Bilinear music notation||Octave name||Frequency (Hz)||Other names||Audio|
|C-1||C͵͵͵ or ͵͵͵C or CCCC||(-uC)||Subsubcontra||8.176|
|C0||C͵͵ or ͵͵C or CCC||(-vC)||Subcontra||16.352|
|C1||C͵ or ͵C or CC||(-wC)||Contra||32.703|
|C2||C||(-xC)||Great||65.406||Low C|
|C3||c||(-yC)||Small||130.813||Bass C|
|C4||c′||(zC)||One-lined||261.626||Middle C|
|C5||c′′||(yC)||Two-lined||523.251||Tenor C (vocal), Treble C||Play|
|C6||c′′′||(xC)||Three-lined||1046.502||Soprano C (vocal), High C (vocal), Top C (vocal)||Play|
|C7||c′′′′||(wC)||Four-lined||2093.005|
|C8||c′′′′′||(vC)||Five-lined||4186.009||Eighth octave C|
|C9||c′′′′′′||(uC)||Six-lined||8372.018|
|C10||c′′′′′′′||(tC)||Seven-lined||16744.036|
Graphic presentation
Common scales beginning on C
- C Major: C D E F G A B C
- C Natural Minor: C D E♭ F G A♭ B♭ C
- C Harmonic Minor: C D E♭ F G A♭ B C
- C Melodic Minor Ascending: C D E♭ F G A B C
- C Melodic Minor Descending: C B♭ A♭ G F E♭ D C
- C Dorian: C D E♭ F G A B♭ C
B sharp
Twelve just perfect fifths (B♯) and seven octaves do not align as in equal temperament.
- Pythagorean: 701.955 × 12 = 8423.46 = 23.46 = B♯+++
- ET: 700 × 12 = 8400 = 0 = B♯ = C
- 1200 × 7 = 8400 = 0 = C
This difference, 23.46 cents (531441/524288), is known as the Pythagorean comma. | http://community.worldheritage.org/article/WHEBN0000049220/C%20(musical%20note) |
Move over, countertenors and sopranists. Someone has set the record for the highest vocal note sung by a male. On 27 December 2017, Wang Xiaolong of China set the Guiness World Record for just this achievement. Broadcast on the Happy Camp programme of Hunan TV Station, in Changsha, China, Wang, who hails from the city, performed the feat before a “live” audience.
With officials from the Guinness World Records present, complete with their electronic measuring equipment, Wang managed to sing the E8 note. That note has a frequency of 5,243Hz, well above the highest frequencies that humans typically manage.
Where exactly is the E8 note? On a standard piano keyboard, there are about seven octaves in all, numbered 1 to 7. The last note, located in the upper register, is C8. The note that Wang sang, E8, does not exist on the keyboard and would have been located two tones away from the last key C8. How Wang managed such a feat is anyone’s guess but he did it, not just before a “live” audience, but also with Guinness officials in attendance.
Prior to this record, the record for the highest vocal note sung by a male was held by Adam Lopez, who sang the C#8 - the black key just one semitone higher than the last key, C8.
With more people pushing the envelope, one can’t help wonder what might come next in the quest to make the highest-pitched sounds! | https://www.thepiano.sg/piano/read/highest-vocal-note-sung-male |
As an advocate for helping people with criminal records seek the legal criminal expungement process to help clear their criminal past, I have been asked by several people over the past few month’s the same question: Where are we at with the passing of House Bill 4186?
For those who may not know, currently in Michigan, a person who has a misdemeanor or felony conviction on their record, along with multiple additional misdemeanor offenses is ineligible for an expungement if the previous misdemeanor offenses occurred after their 21st birthday. For example, a person who was convicted of a misdemeanor offense at age 21, then subsequently convicted of a felony at age 30 (or vice versa) is ineligible for a criminal expungement.
House Bill 4186 eliminates this by allowing a person with a felony on their record to still seek an expungement so long as they 1) have no more than two (2) misdemeanor convictions, and 2) qualify with all of the requirements of HR 4186, regardless of their age at the time the misdemeanor offenses occured. The reasoning behind the introduction of HR 4186 was to help stimulate Michigan’s economy by potentially allowing a larger sector of individuals who once would not have qualified for most jobs due to their criminal record to once again join and strengthen the workforce. To read more about the pros and cons of House Bill 4186 click below:
House Bill Provides New Hope For A Second Chance For a …
My issue with the Michigan Legislature rests with the complete inaction on their part to move this bill forward to a vote. House Bill 4186 was originally introduced on February 5, 2013 by Rep. Stacy Oakes. On May 7, 2013 a summary of the bill was drafted, followed by an analysis completed on May 28, 2013. Since May 28th virtually no actions have been taken on HR 4186. The question remains as to why this bill has lost its steam in the legislature with no legislative action taken in over six months?
As someone who studied Political Science and the legislative process as an undergraduate student in college, I understand that many legislative proposals will often die in the house without ever seeing the possibility of reaching a vote. I also know that the legislative process is one that does not happen overnight and tends to move at its own pace. However, when faced with the public and political outcry HR 4186 initially received by persons who believed that “criminals” should not get second,third, and fourth chances to redeem themselves, makes me wonder if this proposed bill has succumbed to outside pressure and political influences.
If so, then why spark the interests of many persons who at last may finally see a glimpse of hope in their future with the potential of one day finally finding themselves eligible to pass an employer’s background check. Or even the many employers who throughout the years who have welcomed rehabilitated offenders to work in their stores and places of business, but now have to wait for legislators to decide “if” they want to act and move forward with this bill. At this point, I demand that the Michigan Legislature either move forward with a resolution of HR 4186 or get off the pot and let other ideas surface to hopefully seek the legislative outcome that HR 4186 intended to have.
I thank Rep. Stacey Oakes for leading the charge in the the introduction of this bill, but now it maybe time for “we the people” to voice our own opinions to seek the change we desire to see. What do you think?
You must be logged in to post a comment. | https://kevinbessantlaw.com/blog/detroit-criminal-lawyer-demands-action-on-expungement-legislation/ |
The European Space Agency today landed an unmanned spacecraft on a comet. (Actually, they landed a “lander” named Philae, that was carried to the comet by a spacecraft named Rosetta.)
The mission is intended to explore the origins of our solar system, and specifically earth.
Comets aren’t terribly large — they can range from several hundred feet across to several miles. The comet in question, with the inauspicious name “67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko,” is 3 kilometers by 5 kilometers, or around 2 miles by 3 miles.
At their core, comets are made of an “amalgamation of rock, dust, water ice, and frozen gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, and ammonia.”
Note that ice made from water is includeded in the list. Scientests long believed that the water in earth’s oceans came from comets. Though, recently, a number of studies are discounting that theory.
Here’s more from ESA about the mission:
Rosetta’s prime objective is to help understand the origin and evolution of the Solar System. The comet’s composition reflects the composition of the pre-solar nebula out of which the Sun and the planets of the Solar System formed, more than 4.6 billion years ago. Therefore, an in-depth analysis of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko by Rosetta and its lander will provide essential information to understand how the Solar System formed.
There is convincing evidence that comets played a key role in the evolution of the planets, because cometary impacts are known to have been much more common in the early Solar System than today. Comets, for example, probably brought much of the water in today’s oceans. They could even have provided the complex organic molecules that may have played a crucial role in the evolution of life on Earth.
ESA also explains the various “firsts” that Rosetta will accomplish:
Rosetta will be undertaking several ‘firsts’ in space exploration. It will be the first mission to orbit and land on a comet. That makes Rosetta one of the most complex and ambitious missions ever undertaken. Scientists had to plan in advance, in the greatest possible detail, a ten year trip through the Solar System. Approaching, orbiting, and landing on a comet require delicate and spectacular manoeuvres. The comet, 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, is a relatively small object, about 4 kilometres in diameter, moving at a speed as great as 135,000 kilometres per hour. We know very little about its actual surface properties – only when we get there will we be able to explore the surface in such detail that we can choose a safe landing scenario. Rosetta is very special because of the unique science it will perform. No other previous mission has had Rosetta’s potential to look back to the infant Solar System and investigate the role comets may have played in the beginnings of life on Earth.
Rosetta will be the first spacecraft to witness, at close proximity, how a comet changes as it approaches the increasing intensity of the Sun’s radiation. The comet develops the so-called ‘coma’ (essentially the comet’s atmosphere) and the two characteristic ion and dust tails. Rosetta’s lander will obtain the first images from a comet’s surface and make the first in-situ subsurface analysis of its composition.
It will also be the first mission to investigate a comet’s nucleus and environment over an extended period of time.
I’m jealous as hell when I read and watch this kind of stuff. I’d always wanted to be a scientist, but the Honors Biology program at the University of Illinois rather amazingly bored me to death (the first time I’d ever found science boring, and even distasteful, in my life), and thus led me to other careers. (I still love it, though. In another life, I’d be an archaeologist. And isn’t the Rosetta mission simply space archaeology?)
Scientists also recorded a “space song” that the comet appears to be emitting into space:
“The comet seems to be emitting a ‘song’ in the form of oscillations in the magnetic field in the comet’s environment,” the ESA says. “It is being sung at 40-50 millihertz, far below human hearing, which typically picks up sound between 20 Hz and 20 kHz. To make the music audible to the human ear, the frequencies have been increased by a factor of about 10,000.”
The ESA has created a video of how the landing should go: | http://americablog.com/2014/11/europeans-land-spacecraft-comet-historic-first.html |
A soprano ([soˈpraːno]) is a type of classical female singing voice and has the highest vocal range of all voice types. The soprano's vocal range (using scientific pitch notation) is from approximately middle C (C4) = 261 Hz to "high A" (A5) = 880 Hz in choral music, or to "soprano C" (C6, two octaves above middle C) = 1046 Hz or higher in operatic music. In four-part chorale style harmony, the soprano takes the highest part, which often encompasses the melody. The soprano voice type is generally divided into the coloratura, soubrette, lyric, spinto, and dramatic soprano.
Etymology
The word "soprano" comes from the Italian word sopra (above, over, on top of), as the soprano is the highest pitch human voice, often given to the leading female roles in operas. "Soprano" refers mainly to women, but it can also be applied to men; "sopranist" is the term for a male countertenor able to sing in the soprano vocal range, while a castrato is the term for a castrated male singer, typical of the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, and a treble is a boy soprano who has not reached puberty yet and still able to sing in that range.
The term "soprano" is also based on the Latin word superius which, like soprano, referred to the highest pitch vocal range of all human voice types. The word superius was especially used in choral and other multi-part vocal music between the 13th and 16th centuries.
Vocal range
The soprano has the highest vocal range of all voice types, with the highest tessitura. A soprano and a mezzo-soprano have a similar range, but their tessituras will lie in different parts of that range.
The low extreme for sopranos is roughly A3 or B♭3 (just below middle C). Within opera, the lowest demanded note for sopranos is F3 (from Richard Strauss's Die Frau ohne Schatten). Often low notes in higher voices will project less, lack timbre, and tend to "count less" in roles (although some Verdi, Strauss and Wagner roles call for stronger singing below the staff). However, rarely is a soprano simply unable to sing a low note in a song within a soprano role. Low notes can be reached with a lowered position of the larynx.
The high extreme, at a minimum, for non-coloratura sopranos is "soprano C" (C6 two octaves above middle C), and many roles in the standard repertoire call for C♯6 or D6. A couple of roles have optional E♭6s, as well. In the coloratura repertoire several roles call for E♭6 on up to F6. In rare cases, some coloratura roles go as high as G6 or G♯6, such as Mozart's concert aria "Popoli di Tessaglia!", or the title role of Jules Massenet's opera Esclarmonde. While not necessarily within the tessitura, a good soprano will be able to sing her top notes full-throated, with timbre and dynamic control.
In opera, the tessitura, vocal weight, and timbre of voices, and the roles they sing, are commonly categorized into voice types, often called Fächer (sg. Fach, from German Fach or Stimmfach, "vocal category"). A singer's tessitura is where the voice has the best timbre, easy volume, and most comfort.
In choral music
|Voice classification|
in choral music
In SATB four-part mixed chorus, the soprano is the highest vocal range, above the alto, tenor, and bass. Sopranos commonly sing in the tessitura G4-A5. When the composer calls for divisi, sopranos can be separated into Soprano I (highest part) and Soprano II (lower soprano part).
In contrast to choral singing, in classical solo singing a person is classified through the identification of several vocal traits, including range, vocal timbre, vocal weight, vocal tessitura, vocal resonance, and vocal transition points (lifts or "passaggio") within the singer's voice.
These different traits are used to identify different sub-types within the voice. Within opera, particular roles are written with specific kinds of soprano voices in mind, causing certain roles to be associated with certain kinds of voices.
Subtypes and roles in opera
Within the soprano voice type category are five generally recognized subcategories: coloratura soprano, soubrette, lyric soprano, spinto soprano, and dramatic soprano.
Coloratura
The coloratura soprano may be a lyric coloratura or a dramatic coloratura. The lyric coloratura soprano is a very agile light voice with a high upper extension capable of fast vocal coloratura. Light coloraturas have a range of approximately middle C (C4) to "high F" (in alt) (F6) with some coloratura sopranos being able to sing somewhat lower or higher, e.g. an interpolated A♭6 in the Doll Aria, "Les oiseaux dans la charmille", from The Tales of Hoffmann, e.g. by Rachele Gilmore in a 2009 performance, and a written A♮6 by Audrey Luna in 2017 in The Exterminating Angel, both at the Metropolitan Opera in New York.
The dramatic coloratura soprano is a coloratura soprano with great flexibility in high-lying velocity passages, yet with great sustaining power comparable to that of a full spinto or dramatic soprano. Dramatic coloraturas have a range of approximately "low B" (B3) to "high F" (F6) with some coloratura sopranos being able to sing somewhat higher or lower.
Soubrette
In classical music and opera, a soubrette soprano refers to both a voice type and a particular type of opera role. A soubrette voice is light with a bright, sweet timbre, a tessitura in the mid-range, and with no extensive coloratura. The soubrette voice is not a weak voice, for it must carry over an orchestra without a microphone like all voices in opera. The voice, however, has a lighter vocal weight than other soprano voices with a brighter timbre. Many young singers start out as soubrettes, but, as they grow older and the voice matures more physically, they may be reclassified as another voice type, usually either a light lyric soprano, a lyric coloratura soprano, or a coloratura mezzo-soprano. Rarely does a singer remain a soubrette throughout her entire career. A soubrette's range extends approximately from middle C (C4) to "high D" (D6). The tessitura of the soubrette tends to lie a bit lower than the lyric soprano and spinto soprano.
Lyric
The lyric soprano is a warm voice with a bright, full timbre, which can be heard over a big orchestra. It generally has a higher tessitura than a soubrette and usually plays ingénues and other sympathetic characters in opera. Lyric sopranos have a range from approximately middle C (C4) to "high D" (D6).
The lyric soprano may be a light lyric soprano or a full lyric soprano. The light lyric soprano has a bigger voice than a soubrette but still possesses a youthful quality. The full lyric soprano has a more mature sound than a light-lyric soprano and can be heard over a bigger orchestra.
Spinto
Also lirico-spinto, Italian for "pushed lyric", the spinto soprano has the brightness and height of a lyric soprano, but can be "pushed" to dramatic climaxes without strain, and may have a somewhat darker timbre. Spinto sopranos have a range from approximately B (B3) to "high D" (D6).
Dramatic
A dramatic soprano (or soprano robusto) has a powerful, rich, emotive voice that can sing over a full orchestra. Usually (but not always) this voice has a lower tessitura than other sopranos, and a darker timbre. Dramatic sopranos have a range from approximately A (A3) to "high C" (C6).
Some dramatic sopranos, known as Wagnerian sopranos, have a very big voice that can assert itself over an exceptionally large orchestra (over eighty pieces). These voices are substantial and very powerful and ideally even throughout the registers.
Other types
Two other types of soprano are the Dugazon and the Falcon, which are intermediate voice types between the soprano and the mezzo-soprano: a Dugazon is a darker-colored soubrette, a Falcon a darker-colored soprano drammatico. | https://detailedpedia.com/wiki-Soprano |
Pythagoras, an ancient greek philosopher and mathematician, discovered that music could be expressed in perfect numerical ratios. He believed music could unlock the unseen order and harmony existing in nature through the use of these perfect ratios. He is known as the Father of Mathematics, of Geometry, of Music, and of Philosophy. Important guy I think!
1.) Modes: In Western Music, a mode is a a type of scale with a certain set pattern. It is inspired by Pythagoras’ theory. For example: there are 5 major modes named after Ancient Greek subgroups: Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian. I may explain these in more detail later, but for now, just know they are each a set pattern of 7 notes including 5 whole steps and 2 half steps, called diatonic scales. Each one is a different pattern. The Ionian mode is very familiar to us: it is the scale from The Sound of Music- Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Ti Do , a Major Scale.
2.) Scale degrees:To establish order and understand theory, names and numbers are given to each note in these diatonic scales.
1-tonic
2-super tonic
3-mediant
4-sub dominant
5-dominant
6-sub mediant
7- leading tone (sometimes subtonic)
8(1)-tonic again
So continuing with The Sound of Music:
Do-tonic, Re-super tonic, Mi-mediant, Fa-sub dominant, Sol-dominant, La-sub mediant, Ti- leading tone (sometimes subtonic), and 8(1)-tonic again.
3.) Ratios:
*Octave (Do to Do, 1-8) has a ratio of 2:1
*Perfect 5th (Do to Sol, 1-5) 3:2
*Perfect 4th (Do to Fa, 1-4) 4:3
Very thought provoking, isn't it? Math is everywhere, there is order amidst what may seem to be chaos, and music has the ability to unlock the harmony in this world.
Larissa
Theory Thursday No. 6
7/14/2016
The vibrations of sound are measured in cycles per second. The unit to measure sound is called Hertz (Hz). This has no relation to Hertz car rental by the way... ;)
The human ear can register 20 to 20,000 Hz. This changes as we age. The violin's range is about 220 Hz to around 3,500 Hz. In orchestra, we tune to A 440 Hz. The image below shows a sine wave of A 440 Hz and then the A an octave above it.
Below are some interesting videos you should check out. More proof for how much of an impact sound, music, and this form of energy have on our daily lives. Music can move you! Literally.
Interesting facts:
**Ferrets have one of the lowest Hz wave frequency ranges of hearing (as low as 10 Hz). They have a strong ability to sense and map the direction of where a sound came from. Bottlenose dolphins have some of the highest frequency ranges of hearing (going above 150,000 Hzs. That is 7 times more sensitive than the human ear). These animals can hear things humans are incapable of. That is pretty cool!
**The term Hertz was named after Heinrich Hertz, a German physicist who proved the existence of electromagnetic waves.
Below is a link that illustrates different instrument ranges. Can you find the violin?
http://www.guitarbuilding.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Instrument-Sound-EQ-Chart.pdf
What to learn even more about the physics of sound?
http://acousticslab.org/psychoacoustics/PMFiles/Module02.htm
Have fun exploring the science of sound waves!
Larissa
'What will people think?'
'What if I miss that note?'
'What if I forget that passage?'
'Is what I do really important?'
These are all questions that may come to mind due to performance anxiety and the fear of failure. Not just restricted to the music profession or the violin, these feelings bleed into everyone's lives and in any profession. I still struggle with the fear of performing.
Below is a Ted Talk by Charlie Siem, a British concert violinist who really inspires me. Watch this video for his thoughts on performance anxiety and how playing the violin has brought meaning to every area of his life. As Charlie states in his talk, "Performance is a risk, you never know what is going to happen...But, expectation of how people perceive you, is a negative thing...it holds you back from possibly greater opportunities."
I love his boldness and dedication to his music. These concepts and his insights can be applied to anything you are fearful of. That upcoming recital, or that presentation in your science class you are dreading. Just remember that life is a journey of learning. We are all learning, we all make mistakes. The important thing is to learn from your mistakes, to get up and keep going. Embrace the process. Find beauty in-between reaching your goals.
Thanks to Charlie for his thoughts!
Larissa
P.S.
Remember to love yourself even when things don't go well.
"Your life isn't defined by the few successes you have, but the bits in between." -Charlie Siem
Theory Thursday No. 5
7/7/2016
Clefs
Have you ever wondered what the intricate symbols in front of music are? You have probably seen them. There are actually a few different symbols. They are called Clefs.
-Clef is a French term for ‘key’.
-A clef indicates the pitch of the note heads on the Staff (the 5 ledger lines on your sheet music).
In the picture below I have included the three clefs used in string orchestras.
So why are there different clefs you may ask....
I am glad you asked! It is for different ranges. The violin for instance is tuned in a higher range, the viola is in a middle range, and the cello and double bass are in lower ranges.
-The Treble Clef is also called the G Clef:
its circular swirl encircles the G above middle C on the piano.
-The Alto Clef is also called the C Clef:
its two curves meet at middle C.
-The Bass Cleff is also called the F Clef:
its two dots encircle F below middle C.
The different clefs help the notation to remain more centralized within the staff.
Middle C or C4 in scientific pitch notation is the 4th C on a standard 88 key piano keyboard.
On the piano, two clefs are used on every page of sheet music. This is called the grand staff.
The Treble Clef and the Bass Cleff are combined with a brace. The Treble Clef indicates all of the notes the right hand plays and the Bass Cleff indicates all of the left hand notes.
This was a lot of information. But don't be overwhelmed.
If you are a violinist, all you need to know is the Treble Clef.
Lucky you! Remember that the swirl encircles the G and you are all set!
Larissa
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Author
Larissa Fall
Follow my studio blog for tips, tricks, & performance updates. | http://www.larissafall.com/blog/archives/07-2016 |
In mathematics and signal processing, the constant-Q transform, simply known as CQT transforms a data series to the frequency domain. It is related to the Fourier transform and very closely related to the complex Morlet wavelet transform.
The transform can be thought of as a series of filters fk, logarithmically spaced in frequency, with the k-th filter having a spectral width δfk equal to a multiple of the previous filter's width:
where δfk is the bandwidth of the k-th filter, fmin is the central frequency of the lowest filter, and n is the number of filters per octave.
The short-time Fourier transform of x[n] for a frame shifted to sample m is calculated as follows:
Given a data series at sampling frequency fs = 1/T, T being the sampling period of our data, for each frequency bin we can define the following:
The equivalent transform kernel can be found by using the following substitutions:
After these modifications, we are left with
The direct calculation of the constant-Q transform is slow when compared against the fast Fourier transform (FFT). However, the FFT can itself be employed, in conjunction with the use of a kernel, to perform the equivalent calculation but much faster. An approximate inverse to such an implementation was proposed in 2006; it works by going back to the DFT, and is only suitable for pitch instruments.
A development on this method with improved invertibility involves performing CQT (via FFT) octave-by-octave, using lowpass filtered and downsampled results for consecutively lower pitches. Implementations of this method include the MATLAB implementation and LibROSA's Python implementation. LibROSA combines the subsampled method with the direct FFT method (which it dubs "pseudo-CQT") by having the latter process higher frequencies as a whole.
The sliding DFT can be used for faster calculation of constant-Q transform, since the sliding DFT does not have to be linear-frequency spacing and same window size per bin.
In general, the transform is well suited to musical data, and this can be seen in some of its advantages compared to the fast Fourier transform. As the output of the transform is effectively amplitude/phase against log frequency, fewer frequency bins are required to cover a given range effectively, and this proves useful where frequencies span several octaves. As the range of human hearing covers approximately ten octaves from 20 Hz to around 20 kHz, this reduction in output data is significant.
The transform exhibits a reduction in frequency resolution with higher frequency bins, which is desirable for auditory applications. The transform mirrors the human auditory system, whereby at lower-frequencies spectral resolution is better, whereas temporal resolution improves at higher frequencies. At the bottom of the piano scale (about 30 Hz), a difference of 1 semitone is a difference of approximately 1.5 Hz, whereas at the top of the musical scale (about 5 kHz), a difference of 1 semitone is a difference of approximately 200 Hz. So for musical data the exponential frequency resolution of constant-Q transform is ideal.
In addition, the harmonics of musical notes form a pattern characteristic of the timbre of the instrument in this transform. Assuming the same relative strengths of each harmonic, as the fundamental frequency changes, the relative position of these harmonics remains constant. This can make identification of instruments much easier. The constant Q transform can also be used for automatic recognition of musical keys based on accumulated chroma content.
Relative to the Fourier transform, implementation of this transform is more tricky. This is due to the varying number of samples used in the calculation of each frequency bin, which also affects the length of any windowing function implemented.
Also note that because the frequency scale is logarithmic, there is no true zero-frequency / DC term present, which may in some cases be a drawback. | https://www.knowpia.com/knowpedia/Constant-Q_transform |
In the past, it was believed that snakes were deaf and could not hear anything. This belief stems from the fact that snakes do not have external ears, and they seem not to respond to noises. Current scientific studies have refuted such thoughts. The truth is that snakes do hear but not in the same way humans do. With humans, the sound wave travels through the air and hit the eardrum and causes vibrations in the tiny hair cells and the movement of small bones located in the inner ear. These vibrations translate into nerve impulses that travel to the brain.
The Ear Anatomy Of A Snake
The snakes have two ears lying behind their eyes, just like other reptiles. They only lack the external ears, which are known as ear flaps, auricles, or pinnae. They have small holes located on the sides of their heads, which are the ear openings. Inside these tiny ear-holes are fully formed inner ear structures but without eardrums or the middle ear. Unlike other animals with inner ear filled with fluids, the inner ear of a snake is filled with air. The inner ear is also connected to the jaw bone that rests on the ground as the snake slithers.
How Snakes Hear?
Besides the inner ear structure, snakes have a quadrate bone in their jaws that move in response to vibrations as they slither on the ground. For several years scientists were not sure if the snake could hear airborne vibrations. Recent research has indicated that the bone can also respond to airborne vibrations. It is believed this is possible because of spinal nerves that conduct vibrations from the skin. This type of hearing is known as somatic hearing. Just like the ears of other animals, the vibrations are sent through the bones to the inner ear and transmitted to the brain as signals where they are interpreted as sound.
What Snakes Can Hear?
Hertz (Hz) is a unit of measuring the frequency of sound or a pitch (low or high sounds). Scientists use hertz to establish if snakes can hear sounds. Some scientists have said snakes can detect low-frequency airborne vibration as well as ground vibrations that range between 50Hz and 1,000Hz. Other studies have determined that snakes have peak sensitivity that ranges between 200Hz and 300Hz, while others have put the range between 80 Hz and 160 Hz. Much is not understood about the exact range that a snake can hear. Humans with excellent hearing capabilities can hear anything within the range of 20Hz and 20,000 Hz. The range between 20Hz and 25 Hz is the lowest sound of an organ pipe, and 4,100 Hz is the highest note on a piano. Therefore, the snake can only hear low sounds.
Super Snakes
The world is home to more than 3,000 different species of snakes, and they are found in virtually all the continents except Antarctica. According to National Geographic, the smallest snake in the world is the thread snake, which grows to about 3.9 inches long. On the other hand, the largest snake is the green anaconda. The largest fossil of a snake that has been discovered so far is the Titanoboa. The snake lived on Earth about 60 million years ago and is believed to have been about 50 feet long. | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/do-snakes-hear.html |
or C-8:
PFOA is perfluorooctanoic acid and is sometimes called C8.
It is a man-made chemical and does not occur naturally in the environment.
The "PFOA" acronym is used to indicate not only perfluorooctanoic
acid itself, but also its principal salts.
The DuPont site where APFO is used as a reaction aid is the Washington Works (Route 892, Washington, West Virginia 26181) located along the Ohio River approximately seven miles southwest of Parkersburg, West Virginia.
The Little Hocking Water Association well field is located in Ohio on the north side of the Ohio River immediately across from the Washington Works facility. Consumers of this drinking water have brought a Class Action suit against the Association and DuPont for the contamination of their drinking water with DuPont's APFO, which residents and media refer to as C8.
PFOA is used as a processing aid in the manufacture of fluoropolymers to produce hundreds of items such as non-stick surfaces on cookware (TEFLON), protective finishes on carpets (SCOTCHGUARD, STAINMASTER), clothing (GORE-TEX), and the weather-resistant barrier sheeting used on homes under the exterior siding (TYVEK).
The Marietta Times
(Marietta, Ohio)
June 7, 2003
EPA hears from local citizens
By: Callie Lyons
WASHINGTON - Residents of the Mid-Ohio Valley asked that they not be forgotten at the first U.S. Environmental Protection Agency public hearing Friday to gather information about the manufacturing chemical known as C8.
"Please do not forget us," said Robert Griffin, general manager of the Little Hocking Water Association. "Please give us data and information we can have confidence in."
The issue is of great significance to Griffin and the 12,000 consumers of the local water district, particularly since C8 has been detected in their drinking supply in quantities greater than any other place.
Industry experts, scientists and environmentalists agreed to combine their efforts Friday and participate in testing that the EPA has determined will help paint a clearer picture of the manufacturing chemical known as C8 and its impact on humans and the environment.
The agency has decided more information is needed about the substance, which has been detected in the bloodstream of more than 90 percent of the population, particularly since it causes developmental and reproductive problems in laboratory animals.
While the EPA continues to refine a preliminary risk assessment evaluating the chemical's toxicity, Charles Auer, director of the EPA Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, said they also want to research the sources of the chemical and the pathways by which humans become exposed to it.
A large hearing room in the building that formerly housed the Interstate Commerce Commission was filled to capacity with hundreds of people with an interest in the future of the chemical. The public forum, which lasted about five hours, was conducted to negotiate terms of the tests, which need to be performed with the assistance and resources of industry experts.
People who live in the Mid-Ohio Valley and are exposed to the chemical because of emissions from a nearby DuPont plant are anxious for a solid determination of its potential hazards to humans. The issue has prompted a class-action lawsuit in Wood County Circuit Court against the Washington Works plant in West Virginia that has been using and releasing C8 for 50 years. DuPont officials maintain their stance that C8 is not harmful to humans. But, many local residents would like scientific evidence to confirm their claims.
Della Tennant of Lubeck, W.Va., was one of the first local residents to become aware of the presence of C8, which is known to scientists as PFOA, even though DuPont had been using it for decades. Tennant and her husband own property near the plant and began to suspect something was wrong when their herd of cattle began to die of an unexplainable wasting disease.
"The cause of death was never proven, but it was associated with contamination from DuPont," Tennant said before testifying at the Friday hearing.
Over time, the Tennants lost 280 cattle. Then family members who lived nearby began to get sick.
"Our lawyers went to battle for us and discovered the C8," Tennant said.
The Tennants' lawsuit against DuPont prompted a number of investigations into the manufacturing chemical, which are now in progress. It became apparent at Friday's hearing that EPA officials will be coordinating their efforts with several agencies in order to get the final answers on PFOA.
The Centers for Disease Control, the Consumer Protection Commission, the Ohio EPA, and the West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection will be cooperating with the EPA.
Griffin asked the EPA to consider medical monitoring of his customers to observe them for the effects of exposure to C8. Although the water in several districts that border the Ohio River have contaminated water supplies, the Little Hocking Water Association has the highest test levels of contamination.
Griffin believes the water customers would make the best possible test subjects for the chemical because they are directly exposed through several known pathways. C8 is not only in their water, but has been found in their air and soil.
"Unfortunately, we are a ready-made study group," Griffin said. "We believe there is a need for this study. We request that we not be forgotten in the process."
Auer said the agency would not be pursuing blood testing of the local residents as part of this process, but may revisit the issue at a later date.
C8 is a key ingredient in the making of Teflon by DuPont. Global Vice President, Dr. Uma Chowdry, testified that the corporation was committed to "further reduce exposure and provide information" although they do not consider the chemical a toxin.
"We are more than willing to share information about the chemical," Chowdry said. "We have high ethical standards and respect the rights and desires of consumers around the world to know the products they rely on are safe. In 50 years there have been no known adverse human health effects. We are confident PFOA poses no danger to the public at current levels based on scientific evidence."
The Telomer Research Program and the SPI Fluoropolymer Manufacturers Group, industry trade organizations of plastics producers, took on voluntary but integral roles at Friday's hearing and agreed to begin outlining terms for several of the proposed tests immediately.
Kristina Thayer, a scientist for the Environmental Working Group, requested that the EPA keep all of the study results open for analysis and not subject to rules governing confidential business information. The trade organizations agreed to form a technical committee along with Thayer and other interested parties to iron out the details for releasing information. | https://www.fluoridealert.org/wp-content/pesticides/effect.pfos.class.news.2.htm |
Using HVSC and smart search of specific parts in the music player for 1987 Street Sports Basketball (C64) I was surprised to see that the player went back to 1983's Mountain King. In fact, the player was found in more games. here's a list:
; Mountain King 1983 Beyond ; Donkey Kong 1983 Nintendo ; Track and Field 1984 Atarisoft ; WarGames 1984 Coleco Vision ; Sesame Street letter Go Round 1984 CCW, CBS Software ; Pole Position 1984 Atarisoft ; Math Mileage 1984 Douglas D. Dragin ; Chevytech 1985 Chrevrolet, unknown programmers. ; Crystal Castles 1986 Unknown ; World Games 1986 Epyx ; Street Sports Basketball 1987 Epyx ; Street Sports Soccer 1988 Epyx ; Street Sports Football 1988 Epyx ; Chevytech 1988 Chrevrolet ; The Sporting News Baseball 1988 Epyx
I went on and disassembled the player that is in Mountain King, which I consider the first version for now and since Douglas D. Dragin is the one credited as programmer (and also on some other games in the list above) I think it is safe to assume it was Dragin that coded the player.
In the file you can read up on the player specifics and the source code as well.
But I will show some details in this post, and provide example programs (PRG) to run. See below.
Take a look at the global variable list:
; Global variables at zero page ; ; $d6 Player playing frame boolean (0 = not playing, $ff = playing) ; $d7-$d9 BLOCK repeat counter for each voice ; $e0-$e1 voice 0 track position ; $e2-$e3 voice 1 track position ; $e4-$e5 voice 2 track position ; $e6-$e7 pointer to jump for effect routine ; $e8-$e9 $e9 signals song playing (if 0), if the song data signals "end" then $e8/$e9 will be updated to point to offset of effect 0, and e9 will be non-zero ; $ea voice/track (doubled: 0, 2, 4) ; $eb voice number (0, 1, 2) ; $ec-$ed voice 0 starting track position ; $ee-$ef voice 1 starting track position ; $f0-$f1 voice 2 starting track position ; $f2 voice 0 note duration ; $f3 voice 1 note duration ; $f4 voice 2 note duration ; $f7-$f9 pattern repeat counter for voice 0, 1 and 2 ; $fa filter state of voices (bits 0, 1 or 2 set) ; $fb filter mode (low, band, hi) ; $fc filter resonance ; $fd current volume ; $fe current effect/note
As shown, these are all at the zero page.
Song init
Each player can have multiple songs, and each song is initialized by passing the track index to $8006 in the accumulator to assign a track to a voice. In the ripper code (not original game code) the voice song/sound fx number is passed in the accumulator when calling the ripper Init routine. The routine sets the timer to 17512 cycles. Which is ~58 Hz on NTSC machines, and 56 Hz on PAL machines. So the ripper used the timer to call the play routine as well. In the game code, depending on a hard coded number in the software it is either 17000 or 17512 cycles, for 17000 basically 60 Hz (NTSC) or 57 Hz (PAL). My guess is that this hard coded number was different in PAL and NTSC versions.
Tracks
Each track is assigned to a specific SID voice. At initalization, the starting track for each voice is identified. It is an array of effects and notes. Parts in each track can repeat, and whole blocks can repeat. A song can end, but it may also loop. The player can handle whole three voice songs, or just sound effects assigned to a single voice.
Effects
Take a look at the possible effects:
; C0 Get voice 3 ADSR output, divide by 4 and set high frequency byte of voice 3 to the outcome. Also "Default" effect, when the song ends. ; C1 XX SET WAVEFORM/VOICE CONTROL REGISTER (XX=WAVEFORM/VOICE value) ; C2 XX SET PULSE WIDTH (XX=PW value) ; C3 XX YY SET ADSR (XX=AD value, YY=SR value) ; C4 XX YY SET FILTER CUT OFF FREQUENCY (XX=cut-off lo byte, YY=cut-off hi byte) ; C5 XX SET FILTER RESONANCE (XX=filter control value, including resonance nibble) ; C6 XX SET MAIN VOLUME $D418 (XX=volume and filter modes, volume nibble is used) ; C7 XX SET NOTE DURATION (XX=duration in ticks) ; C8 LOOP TO STARTING POSITION (RESTART SONG) ; C9 TURN ON FILTER ON CURRENT VOICE ; CA XX SET FILTER MODE: LOW, BAND, HI. (XX=filter mode as high nibble) ; CB TURN OFF FILTER ON CURRENT VOICE ; CC XX SET IN-PATTERN REPEAT NUMBER (XX=repeat value) ; CD XX YY DO THE IN-PATTERN REPEAT (XXYY is the offset of the start of the repeat, lo byte hi byte) ; CE SET NOTE FREQUENCY (not used) ; CF XX SET BLOCK REPEAT NUMBER (XX=repeat value) ; D0 XX YY DO BLOCK REPEAT (XXYY is the offset of the larger block to repeat, lo byte hi byte)
Effect 0, or C0, is a weird one. This can only be useful for a sound effect really, for voice 3. It converts the volume envelope of Voice 3 to the high frequency byte of Voice 3. So with increasing volume, the pitch will become higher, and with decreasing volume the pitch will become lower.
Note frequency table
Notes are looked up in a frequency table that is generated at initalization. In a clever way, the Fn values for the SID are taken from the highest octave for each note, and the rest of the lower octaves are then calculated from those by simply dividing by two each time for the next octave. However, the table is based on NTSC clock speed and not PAL clock speed. In fact, this method would never be possible on a PAL machine, since B-7 has a theoretical Fn value of 24-bits, $106d0.
You have to realize that the PAL machine is slower than an NTSC machine. PAL is running at 985248.4 Hz while NTSC is running at 1022727 Hz. That means that each cycle on a PAL machine is 1.01497 microseconds, but on an NTSC machine it is 0.97778 microseconds. So taking the impossible B-7 on a PAL machine, we would need to be able to tell the C64 that we need a higher frequency of $106d0 (16-bit Fn value), since our clock is slower, to meet the tone frequency of 3951 Hz!
Remember: Fout = (Fn * Fclk / 16777216) Hz !
The frequency table generated in the Mountain King player assumes the machine is NTSC, it doesn't correct for different clock speeds. As a result of using the timer on top of that, the game music will be slower in speed, but also lower in pitch, and out of tune in the higher ranges. Take again the example of B-7. In the game an Fn of $FD2E is used. That is 3951 Hz on an NTSC machine, all is well. But on a PAL machine that is actually 3806 Hz, closer to an A#7 (3729 Hz). Similarly, A-5 is 880 Hz, but using the NTSC Fn number on a PAL machine, we end up with 847 Hz, closer to G#5 (830 Hz). This is why many of the NTSC games had pretty out of tune sounding songs. In the zip file below I also have a fixed version of Mountain King, for PAL. Note the difference on a PAL machine!
Repeat parts and block effects
;--------------------------------------- ; Any piece of a track that needs repeating is first marked with the command CC (0C) followed by how many times it should repeat. ; this piece is then followed by command CD (0D) which means do the repeat, followed by the offset to start from. (which is the byte following the CC command + repeat value) ; Example: ; ; |-----------------------| ; v | ; $0100 CC XX ..............CD 00 01 -- ; ; ; Larger parts (or blocks) can also be repeated using command CF (0F), that precedes a block and is followed by a byte depicting how many times it should repeat. ; The command D0 (10) then marks the repeat happening, just like command CD, and is followed by the offset to start the repeat from. Again, this is the position ; right from the CF command. ; Example: ; ; |-----------------------| ; v | ; $0100 CF XX ..............D0 00 01 -- ; ;---------------------------------------
Downloads
The source code with my comments here: Mountain King Music Player Source.
Example tunes from different games mentioned above that use this player by Dragin: Dragin Player Tunes.
EDIT: I also added a PAL fix for Street Sports Basketball in the zip above. | https://c64.xentax.com/index.php/19-sidiscovery-1-douglas-d-dragin-music-player-1983 |
Pitch, Loudness, and Quality of Musical Notes
A musical note has three characteristics.
- Pitch
- Loudness
- Quality (or tone)
Pitch
- Pitch is a term used to describe how high or low a note a being played by a musical instrument or sung seems to be.
- The pitch of a note depends on the frequency of the source of the sound.
- Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz), with one vibration per second being equal to one hertz (1 Hz).
- A high frequency produces a high pitched note and a low frequency produces a low pitched note.
Loudness
- Loudness depends on the amplitude of the sound wave.
- The larger the amplitude the more energy the sound wave contains therefore the louder the sound.
Quality
- This is used to describe the quality of the waveform as it appears to the listener. Therefore the quality of a note depends upon the waveform.
- Two notes of the same pitch and loudness, played from different instruments do not sound the same because the waveforms are different and therefore differ in quality or tone.
The same note from different instruments has different qualities because the sounds from instruments are never pure notes, i.e. of one frequency, the only exception being a tuning fork. Rather they consist of one main note which is predominant and other smaller notes called overtones. The main note or fundamental note is also referred to as the first harmonic and if it has a frequency f, the overtone with frequency 2f is called the second harmonic and the overtone with frequency 3f is called the third harmonic and so on. The sum of all the harmonics is the waveform and determines the quality of the sound. | http://passmyexams.co.uk/GCSE/physics/pitch-loudness-quality-of-musical-notes.html |
Your cat is a music therapist
A recent post told how a cat crossed my path at the Sufi shrine of Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi. Cats are cherished in Islam, and in response to my post a friend who is an adept of the Naqshbandi Sufi Order sent me a link to an article on a Sufi resource. This is about the healing power of cats, and I thought it worth sharing an edited and annotated extract with my readers. The article can be read at two levels. At one level it can be taken as an amusing mix of fuzzy science and New Age babble, as indeed can this whole and many other Overgrown Paths. But drilling down further reveals another level. The power of music to nourish and heal the human spirit and body has been conveniently forgotten in the headlong rush to turn classical music into just another tawdry entertainment. Classical music is not about snackable access, celebrity maestros, live tweeting, self-promotion, free streaming, and all those other big new idea. It is about only one thing - sound. Ancient wisdom tells us that Nada Brahma - sound is god. And both science and visionaries such as the Sufi master and musician Hazrayt Inayat Khan tell us that sound is about only one thing - vibrations.
The article explains how medical research has identified that low frequencies can trigger changes in the human body. This takes us on to themes that will be familiar to Overgrown Path readers, including the overlooked importance of infrasound (very low frequencies), the damaging effect on music of limiting frequency range, the role of bass in connecting with new audiences, and above all the healing power of music. The opening reference to the healing power of trance rituals such as the Sufi dhikr (and also the Gnawa lila) is also relevant to classical music. One of the most popular and enduring Western classical compositions is Ravel's Bolero, and this is thought to have been inspired by a Sufi dhikr that Ravel attended in Tunisia (Claudio Naranjo). Research has shown that the frequency of brain waves determines our moods, and trance and other beneficial moods are induced by low frequency Theta waves; while the the theory of auditory driving postulates that rhythmic low frequencies can 'drive' brainwave frequencies down.
That classical music must change has become a mantra. But to date the change has been no more than ineffectual cosmetic surgery aimed at enhancing the art form's mass market appeal. The article's conclusion that if you are recovering from an injury you should hug a purring cat may be pure whimsy, but recognising the power of great music to nourish and heal the human spirit and body is not. Now here is the article:
A cat's purr is often compared to the dhikr, the rhythmic chanting of the Sufis, which was also used in early Islamic hospitals as a healing process. Research has identified the healing powers of a cats' purr, specifically how the sound frequency of the purr has as an anabolic effect which stimulates growth and maintenance of the human body. Dr. Clinton T. Rubin of the SUNY Department of Biomedical Engineering is an authority on the use of vibration for non-invasive, non-pharmacological treatment of bone injuries. His research has confirmed that exposure to frequencies between 20-50 Hz* (at low dB) assists healing and increases bone density.
The frequency of a cat's purr falls well within this optimum range for bone growth and fracture healing, and extends up to 140 hertz. Which confirms the old veterinary saying that is still repeated in veterinary schools: " If you put a cat and a bunch of broken bones in the same room, the bones will heal." (Research in China independently corroborates the beneficial effects of low frequencies on fracture healing, and biomechanical stimulation using frequencies between 18 - 35 Hz is widely used in sports medicine to relax strained muscles and increases the stretching ability of tendons.) Other research shows that low frequencies can alleviate pain and speed the healing of soft tissue injuries in tendons and muscles. Exposure to frequencies between 50-150 Hz has been found to relieve suffering in 82% of persons suffering from acute and chronic pain. The non-profit Fauna Communications provides an online resource drawing together the studies of the cat's purr as a bio-mechanical healing mechanism.
Vibrations at frequencies between 20 and 140 Hz are therapeutic for bone growth, fracture healing, pain relief, swelling reduction, wound healing, muscle and tendon repair, increasing mobility of joints and the relief of dyspnoea. Research has identified that the dominant frequency of a cat's purr lies within this range, while prominent harmonics enhance and extend the therapeutic effect. In summary there is powerful evidence that the cat's purr is a healing mechanism - so if you are recovering from an injury, you should hug a purring cat.
* Frequencies of low register instruments: Piano - A0 (28 Hz) to C8 (4,186 Hz or 4.1 KHz), Cello - C2 (65 Hz) to B5 (988 Hz), Double Bass - E1 (41 Hz) to B3 (247 Hz), Drums (Timpani) - 90Hz to 180Hz, Tuba (Bass) - F1 (44 Hz) to F4 (349 Hz), Trombone (Tenor) - E2 (82 Hz) to D5 (587 Hz) Organ - C0 (16 Hz) to A9 (7,040 KHz).
My thanks go to Yahya Lequeux of the Naqshbandi Haqqani Order for the heads up on the article and for his continuing wisdom. All the Sufi cats were photographed by me in Essaouira, Morocco; the cat in the header photo was one of three resident on the roof terrace of our rented apartment. Any copyrighted material is included as "fair use" for critical analysis only, and will be removed at the request of copyright owner(s). Also on Facebook and Twitter. | https://www.overgrownpath.com/2016/05/your-cat-is-music-therapist.html |
Electrobiology studies the effects of exposure to man-made EMR/EMFs (electromagnetic radiation/fields) on the human body. The proliferation of EMFs worldwide; from cell phones, wireless technologies, computers, TVs, and microwave ovens, etc., has created an electric smog that is becoming hard to escape.
Our landscapes are littered with cell phone masts and power lines that crisscross our once pristine countryside. What effect is this having on our health? This is something that has been studied for more that 40 years and the answer is – not good.
“We are electrical beings having a spiritual experience”
– Jeannie Tower
Our bodies are made up of a web of various electromagnetic frequencies; therefore, we truly are electrical beings. Our brain wave frequencies range from approximately .5 Hz – 30 Hz* (hertz).
Human Brainwave Frequencies
Delta – .3-3.5 Hz
Theta – 4-7 Hz
Alpha – 8-13 Hz
Beta – 14-30 Hz
*Note:
1 Hz (hertz) = 1 cycle/second
1 KHz (kilohertz) = 1,000 Hz
1 MHz (megahertz) = 1,000,000 Hz
1 GHz (gigahertz) – 1,000,000,000 Hz
Household wiring is at 60 Hz in the US and 50Hz in the UK. That is almost twice as fast as the human body, but for the most part, we have evolved and adapted to those frequencies. However, cell phones and wireless home phones range from 900 MHz (megahertz) to 5.3 GHz (gigahertz). You can see from the chart above that gigahertz (GHz) is one billion cycles/second… this is far from any frequency in the human body.
The earth’s electromagnetic field, the Schumann wave, ranges from 7.5 – 7.8 Hz, which almost directly corresponds to the frequency of human Theta and Alpha brainwaves. This frequency is healing and aligned with our own, however, because of our lack of exposure to nature, where we can absorb the earth’s frequency, combined with our increasing exposure to higher man-made EMF frequencies results in a disruption in our bodies electrical system. That disruption can deplete your vitality and manifest in ill health.
Feng Shui and EMFs
As I mentioned in the section on Feng Shui, we have many modern day influences, such as EMFs, that were not an issue even 100 years ago. We need to consider these influences when applying Feng Shui in our homes.
For example, the Form School of Feng Shui (the original) defines a commanding position for a bed as one with a solid wall behind and a wide view of the entrance – preferably not aligned with the door. It is usually the area diagonally across the room from the door.
In the Classical/Traditional School of Feng Shui there are formulas to calculate your personal directions and these directions are often used to place your bed or desk, if it is practical and reasonable to do so, otherwise we always default to the form school placement. However there are other things to consider with both of these placement principles.
EMFs penetrate all building materials, cement, drywall, brick and metal. Because of this, we always need to consider what is on the other side of the wall from where your bed is going to be placed or is currently placed. This may be an internal wall of your apartment/home, an external wall to the outside or one that you share with a neighbor. Should there be a TV, Computer or other office equipment and/or a refrigerator etc. on that wall then placing your bed there will expose you to very high EMFs.
What is on the other side of the wall from your bed should be the first consideration when doing Feng Shui, if that corresponds to either of the principles above then that’s icing on the cake. Electrical equipment in the bedroom should also be placed as far away from your bed as possible. Click here for research on magnetic field exposure and children.
Reducing Your Exposure
Listed below are some simple ways to reduce your exposure to man-made EMFs
• Get rid of your microwave oven
• Remove all electrical appliances from the bedroom- TV, Computer, etc.
• Use a battery alarm clock.
• Avoid electric blankets.
• Turn TVs off at the set, not by remote.
• Make sure you know what is on the other side of the wall from the head of your bed or any other location where you spend a lot of time.
• Avoid fluorescent lighting of any kind.
• Keep cell phone use to an absolute minimum. Use a headset
• Never use a laptop on your lap
• Avoid wireless routers or at least turn them off at night
• Replace wireless home phones with corded ones or 900MHz analog
EMF Testing
As part of every Feng Shui consultation I test around your bed and other areas where you spend a lot of time and consider EMF exposure when making recommendations about placement.
If abnormal readings are detected, additional testing will be recommended at an additional cost, otherwise, I will recommend that you reduce your exposure by following the recommendations listed above and other alternative remedies. | http://www.fengshuimagic.com/electrobiology/what-is-electrobiology/ |
The notes produced by a tuba range in frequency from approximately 45 Hz to 375 Hz. Find the possible range of wavelengths in air produced by the instrument when the speed of sound in air is 343 m/s.
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Expert Answers
mwmovr40 | Certified Educator
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The relationship for wavespeed and the properties of a wave are given by the relationships
S = df where S is speed, d is the distance traveled, and f is frequency
S = d/T where T is the period
S = Wf where W is the wavelength
and S = W/T
For this given problem we can find the minimum and maximum wavelengths rearranging the S = Wf equation.
W = S/f
for the lowest note of 45 Hz (45/second) we get W = (343m/s)/(45/s) = 7.62 m
for the highest note of 375Hz (375/seconds) we get
W=(343m/s)/(375/s) = 0.915 m.
Therefore the range of wavelengths is between 0.915m to 7.62m.
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Professor Caitlin “Cat” Moon comes to us from Vanderbilt University School of Law and will be speaking on the Legal Design panel at our Spring Symposium: Lawyering in the Future: Impact of Technology on the Law.
Professor Moon is scholar in the field of legal design. Her professional experience centers around bringing a “human-centered design perspective” into the legal profession. She serves as the Director of Innovation Designat Vanderbilt Law School. Professor Moon has developed an “interactive” curriculum to inspire innovation within the legal profession by focusing on helping lawyers and legal practitioners adapt to the rapid advance of both technology and design.
Vanderbilt actually has a special department called the Program on Law and Innovation, which is dedicated to informing both its students and the larger legal community about the impact the advancement of technology and design has had on the practice of law in America. Professor Moon serves as a Director of Vanderbilt’s Program on Law and Innovation Institute (PoLI), which is a smaller group under the umbrella of the larger PoLI program that goes out and teaches legal professionals and scholars about the importance of integrating technology into their law practices and studies. She also helped co-discover Vanderbilt’s Summit on Law and Innovation as a part of the program.
Symposium attendees can expect an engaging conversation from Professor Moon about how technological advancements are altering the management of legal practices in the US. Based on her roles at Vanderbilt and her professional experience, the audience can expect Professor Moon to discuss both legal innovation and entrepreneurship, and how these concepts are being influenced by the advancement and development of new technologies.
Professor Moon will be able to provide an insightful perspective on how lawyers can adapt their careers and change their practices to be concurrent with the advancement of technology and data computation that is rapidly infiltrating the legal system. She will likely provide us, as law students and soon-to-be legal practitioners, with a set of practical tools to embrace the changing legal landscape and add value to whatever legal practice or professional endeavor we engage in.
Professor Moon’s professional experience and dedication to fostering education surrounding the evolution of the legal landscape resulting from the development of new technologies promises to spark an exciting presentation about how we can become successful lawyers of the future and thrive as our society makes strides in its technological development. | http://ipjournal.law.wfu.edu/2019/03/7553/ |
The American Bar Association and approximately 14 states now require that lawyers remain informed regarding benefits and risks associated with the use of technology in support of the practice of law. This requirement essentially places the duty to remain current on the evolution of legal support technology on par with the obligation to remain current on changes in the law itself. Lawyers are now routinely required to develop and maintain adequate knowledge associated with the opportunities and challenges connected with use of technology. All lawyers thus have a professional responsibility to develop at least a basic fluency in technology use.
It is important to recognize that this obligation regarding understanding of the benefits and risks associated with technology applies to the full range of legal practice uses for technology. Thus for example, lawyers are expected to understand the opportunities and challenges associated with key technologies supporting basic law practice functions such as legal research and documents/records management. The requirement for technological fluency also includes however, an obligation to understand the benefits and risks associated with more generic technology uses such as communications, billing and time management, and marketing/promotions.
It must also be noted that this requirement applies to the full range of technologies employed by legal professionals, not only those most commonly discussed in this context, such as computers, smartphones, cloud systems, and telecommunications platforms. The professional responsibility to understand and evaluate risks and benefits applies to use of many technologies in addition to basic information technologies. Such additional technologies would likely include robotic/automated intelligence systems, surveillance/monitoring technologies, and data acquisition and analytics systems.
The integration of technological literacy into the framework of legal professional responsibility signifies an important step in the evolution of the practice of law. It underscores recognition that effective legal practice requires reliance on a range of technologies and that such reliance carries significant potential benefits and risks. It also clearly places the responsibility for effective management of technology in support of the practice of law on legal professionals.
Perhaps the most significant aspect of this duty of technological literacy is that it is an open-ended requirement for lawyers. As technologies emerge and evolve, their use by the legal community is continually changing. Legal professional organizations have now clearly indicated that they will require lawyers to remain current as to the uses, benefits, and risks associated with all the technologies applied in support of the practice of law. That requirement places a substantial responsibility on lawyers, and it represents a responsibility that will not end and will most likely become increasingly complex as time progresses. | https://blog.legalsolutions.thomsonreuters.com/law-and-techology/the-legal-professions-obligation-to-monitor-evolving-technology/ |
By Hussaini Sani Esq
The bourgeon technological advancements are causing significant disruptive challenges at all levels of our economy, including the old age traditional legal profession which in many cases has been the subject of criticism by pro-modernists for unable to keep up with the pace of change.
Now, the legal profession is finally succumbing and experiencing the digital disruption that has swept through so many industries over the last decade. Legal systems all over the world have already started working hard to keep pace with the rapid evolution of technological changes happening in our societies.
For a profession in which development has tended to be phylogeny and gradational for much of its history, the legal profession is now faced with a tread of change that has put serious pressure and strained exigencies on many lawyers. It’s transforming all aspects of lawyering, creating new ways of working in new emergent markets with new roles and complexities, opening up new opportunities while the moribund traditional norms dissipates with a waning pace.
Law, whether understood as a profession, a method of solving disputes, a tool to achieve justice, a superstructure in the hands of powerful to protect their interest, or more simply, an instrument to guide human behavior, is at its core an intellectual endeavor that depends on handling, storing, interpreting, and sharing knowledge as well as information. This traditional roles have received a huge disruptions in technology as leading technology and resources have been deployed, such as cloud computing, data and artificial intelligence (AI) in the various fields.
On this premise, coming together in a form of mutual synergy between the Bar, the Judiciary and the Council of Legal Education to consider the kinds of technologies that will shape the environments in which we live and how they will impact the laws and governance of Nigeria is an important first step in addressing these challenges.
The NBA administration must focus on equipping lawyers on this aspect of emergent necessary trend both at the business and legal practice sections of the Association. Law firms too must examine their practices and adjust to the new world of technological shift if at all they want to stay afloat in the competitive market the new technological shift carved. But the overwhelmed burden for now lies on the Council of Legal Education. The Council needs to do away with moribund courses and established novel 21st century curriculum that will provides students with the technical skills to thrive in the digital world, and also the ability to navigate the complex ethical, legal and social implications of these new technologies.
They must focus on both readying their students for these challenges ahead and also preparing them for other roles in which their knowledge and skills can be used.
But in adapting to meet these new challenges, it is important Nigerian universities and law schools recognise that some of the traditional skills they impart to students will continue to be valuable for a long time to come. They should rather be harnessed and hybridised with modern novel skills and knowledge.
But on a more serious note, the Council of Legal Education and the universities must not close their eyes, and do nothing while they are faced with the disruptive emergence of technological advancements in an environment into which students are graduating with a burning and necessary need to be innovative so as to be successful.
The educational wing of the profession must be responsive in creating opportunities for students to develop new skill sets that will set them up to succeed against the disruptive digital innovations, even as the expectations of lawyers continues to shift over time.
Hussaini Sani is a Lawyer and a digital technology enthusiast.
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Wellness Resources: Trauma-Informed Lawyering
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Trauma-Informed Lawyering
Guidance for a Trauma Informed Approach
Establishing a Trauma-Informed Lawyer-Client Relationship
The American Bar Association has provided some practical tips on how to balance professionalism, empathy and overextending yourself when interacting with clients who have experienced some form of trauma.
SAMHSA's Concept of Trauma and Guidance for a Trauma-Informed Approach
SAMHSA’s “Concept of Trauma and Guidance for a Trauma Informed Approach” aims to introduce practitioners to a trauma informed approach to working with trauma survivors.
The Pedagogy of Trauma-Informed Lawyering
Co-authored by Professor Haldar, Director of the Civil Justice Clinic, “The Pedagogy of Trauma-Informed Lawyering” discusses teaching trauma-informed lawyering in law school, especially a clinical setting, and its relevance to the legal field in general.
Adopting a Trauma Informed Practice
The Intersection of Racism and Trauma-Informed Lawyering
This article explores the inherent trauma experienced by People of Color as a result of systemic racism. This aids non-POC lawyers in understanding clients of Color may internalize and express their trauma, and how non-POC lawyers can respond appropriately.
Working with Victims of Domestic Violence
The Trauma-Informed Legal Advocacy (TILA) Project offers guidance on applying trauma-informed principles to working with survivors of domestic violence in the context of legal proceedings. This includes a plethora of webinars on the topic and PDF’s of specific scenarios to practice encounters with clients who have experienced trauma.
Working with Survivors of Sex Crimes
This outlines post-traumatic responses from lawyers involved in sex-crimes litigation.
Trauma and Sex Trafficking Victimization
This article outlines practical needs, such as resources for the client and legal professional. It also introduces the question, of how a desirous or committed attorney may acquire courage to enter a client’s trauma which trauma-informed lawyering can answer.
Understanding Trauma
Trauma and the Brain
A wonderful 10-minute YouTube video explaining how trauma impacts the brain.
Understanding Trauma and its Impact on Child Clients
The American Bar Association provides a compilation of various organizations that help professionals educate themselves on child welfare practices. Specifically, these resources discuss how trauma informed lawyering requires a unique perspective when engaging with minors.
Exploring the Relationship Between Trauma and Memory
This is an annotated bibliography that dissects the psychological impact trauma potentially has on a victim’s when engaging with a professional and attempting to recite what abuse they endured.
Vicarious Trauma
General Self-Care
This article has generated general self-care tips for professionals when balancing working with clients who are experiencing traumatic moments
Self-Care for Attorneys
Curated by the National Center on Law & Elder Rights, provides some brief definitions of trauma, how trauma informed lawyering is beneficial, tips on self-care, and an example of what that looks like.
Practice Joy
An uplifting video and a reminder to find joy in your life.
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Allen & Gledhill retains the top spot in the Singapore Business Review’s 25 Largest Law Firms with 386 legal professionals last year, compared to 372 in 2016, followed by Rajah & Tann Singapore LLP with 366 legal professionals in 2017, a 5.5% increase from the 347 recorded in 2016.
Rounding out the top 5 are Wong Partnership with 302 legal professionals in 2017, unchanged since 2016, whilst Drew & Napier LLC and Dentons Rodyk & Davidson LLP saw declines in the number of their legal professionals year-on-year to 256 and 200, respectively. Previous figures (in 2016) for the top 4 and top 5 largest law firms in Singapore were 267 and 206 legal professionals, respectively. Total number of lawyers dropped by 11.7% from last year’s 2,855 to this year’s 2,520. Morgan Lewis Stamford LLC suffered the biggest decline with its total headcount slashed by 11.
The decision of the Singapore Academy of Law (SAL) to launch the Future Law Innovation Programme (FLIP) in early January, a two-year pilot programme to encourage the adoption of technology, drive innovation, and create a vibrant ecosystem for legal technology in the city-state, marks the continuous efforts to bring the legal sector in Singapore to the next frontier: the technology space. This transition is, by all means and purposes, a necessary move as the legal landscape in Singapore looks to cement its position in the Asia-Pacific region.
The rise and integration of technological tools in the legal industry, often termed as “legal tech” is gaining ground in Singapore as more law firms find ways to get ahead of the competition and provide more effective and convenient legal services to its clients. Philip Jeyaretnam, global vice chair and regional CEO of Dentons Rodyk & Davidson LLP, noted that technology can revolutionise the legal space in Singapore—and, possibly, beyond.
This is echoed by Winston Seow, Partner from Withers KhattharWong. “The keyword for the legal sector in 2017 was technology. A greater emphasis was placed on the adoption of technology into the legal sector and using innovation to grow the sector,” he said.
The launch of FLIP, first announced by Singapore’s Chief Justice Sundaresh Menon in July last year, is a testament to this. Basically, FLIP will allow—in three different components—legal stakeholders and policy makers to support the development of a model for the delivery of legal services in the future economy. SAL’s chief operating officer and chief financial officer Paul Neo noted that the legal community in Singapore is already warmly embracing legal tech initiatives like FLIP. The January announcement also saw the launch of two of the three components of FLIP, particularly the Legal Innovations Lab and a virtual collaboration platform called LawNet Community. The third component, which is considered Southeast Asia’s first legal tech accelerator to groom promising legal tech startups, is slated for launch in April.
Adrian Chan, partner and head of corporate at Lee & Lee, noted that technological advances will reap long-term benefits despite the perceived disadvantages in shouldering the costs of being at the forefront of the implementation of these technologies. “These inexorable trends in technological advancement may see a slow initial take-up rate in Singapore, as sometimes there is a ‘first-mover disadvantage’ when the advancements speed up and overtake a firm’s prior investments, making early investments obsolete too early,” he said.
Chan, however, noted that there will be widespread adoption when the technology stabilises and the playing field levels up. “This is to be welcomed as this means more productive legal practices which translate into cost efficiencies for clients,” he explained. Some of these avant-garde areas where legal tech is and will continue to flourish include the review of documents to assess relevance and “red flags”, contract automation, and the automatic “tagging” of precedents and expertise to help lawyers scale up their legal practice.
For instance, Paul Landless, partner for Clifford Chance, shared that his firm’s legal experts are already blazing trails in advising on legal tech issues including antitrust, data privacy and cybersecurity, and financial regulation, amongst others.
This is on top of the potential of technology to revolutionise the way lawyers and clients interact and do business with one another. Jeyaretnam noted that despite the rise of technology, at the very heart of the industry is helping people with their legal issues.
Seow agreed, saying that with time, lawyers may start to incorporate such technologies into their practice and daily work. “We have seen the introduction of technology used to automate legal paperwork. While such a tool will not be able to replace a lawyer completely, it can help speed up tedious amount of administrative work, but leaving the final decision and judgment to the lawyers. Such technology would free up lawyers’ time, and enable them to focus on advisory work,” he said.
Another early technology that should be looked at and can have a significant effect to the legal industry moving forward, is blockchain technology. Jeyaretnam noted that blockchain technology may potentially overhaul the processes currently in place at government registries, financial institutions, and even the execution of contracts, particularly in the realm of contract law in the case of the legal industry.
“Singapore aims to be not just a regional leader in the field of legaltech, but a world class player in this field,” said Lee & Lee’s Chan.
This is echoed by Jeyaretnam, saying that Singapore provides a stable and supportive environment for legaltech efforts to flourish, particularly with the launch of the FLIP initiative. Seow also emphasised Singapore’s long-placed focus on pragmatism and efficiency. “As such, if the use of legaltech contributes to the efficiency and efficacy at which lawyers serve their clients, there can be no doubt that it will be incorporated into the daily work of lawyers,” he said.
But the rise of technology in the legal industry may also pose risks and threats to the professionals within the community and even disadvantage the whole sector itself. So how can these technologies be regulated and used in the most beneficial way?
The Dentons Rodyk senior official noted tips including the need for lawyers to remain committed to handling clients’ evolving needs, particularly with their embracing of technological advances and innovation.
“Lawyers should therefore ensure they are able to diligently and competently engage widely-used technologies and client-specific technologies in enhancing their services to clients,” he said, adding that lawyers should not uncritically rely on technology solutions and continue to employ traditional lawyering skills to confirm the accuracy of the results.
Lastly, Jeyaretnam noted that lawyers should ensure compliance with data protection laws of the various jurisdictions in which they operate, as well as data security best practices—especially considering the sensitive nature of legal work. | https://sbr.com.sg/professional-serviceslegal/exclusive/law-firms-are-riding-digital-wave-in-singapore |
The Master in Science with a specialty in Energetic Engineering allows its students to acquire a solid formation in the foundations of engineering and become an expert according to their focused area in topics such as: Quality and Efficient Use of Electric and Thermic Energy; Design of Efficient Electric Industrial Systems, Boilers and Combined Cycles of Electric Generation; Electronic Control of Power applied to: Electric Systems, Converters of Wind and Photovoltaic Generators, and in Transport Systems, Hybrid Cars, and Flexible Electric Grids (Smart Grids, FACTS, SVCs, etc); Generation, Conversion, and Distribution of the Wind and Solar Energy; Efficient Buildings and Houses: Lightning and Air Conditioner; Regulation and Financing of the Energetic Resources and Environmental Impact of Energies.
Objective of the Program
- Develop professionals highly qualified in relevant topics for the conversion, transmission, distribution, storage, conservation, and efficient use of energy, including clean and renewable sources.
- Develop professionals capable in the technical field and motivated to stay permanently updated in order to solve current problems and to apply engineering to the problems that may arise in the future.
- Develop professionals interested in applied research activities and technological development, solving problems relevant to the energetic field with subjects that have updated contents and a strategic vision of the technological evolutions in the energetic area.
Profile of the Graduate
By the end of the program, students will be able to:
- Solve problems related to the efficient use of energy, in both thermic and electric engineering.
- Evaluate the different alternate sources of energy and assure the good administration of the energetic resources necessary for an adequate sustainable development.
- Understand the impact produced by the technologies of the energetic field on the environment.
- Explore new and promising alternatives in the energetic area, taking into consideration the economic limitations, current regulations, and sensitive to the sustainable development needs of the country.
Audience:
Engineers in Energy, Chemistry. Electricity, Mechanical, or Physics. In specific cases, students from different areas from engineering may be accepted after showing they possess the necessary knowledge or that they are willing to take additional classes to acquire these. | https://energialab.tec.mx/en/masters-degree-in-energetic-engineering |
In the highly litigated area of Special Education, it is imperative that professionals in the field understand the legal requirements of providing a free appropriate public education to students with disabilities. This indispensable textbook prepares the reader with the essential skills to locate pertinent information in law libraries, on the Internet, and other sources to keep abreast of the constant changes and developments in the field. Now in the third edition, the entire textbook has been thoroughly updated and revised with the latest information on the statutes, regulations, policy guidance, and cases on special education law, as well as the most current information on: the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA), and the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). Long-recognized as one of the top special education law books in the field, The Law and Special Education, Third Edition, presents the most important and necessary information for educators to understand the history and development of special education laws and the requirements of these laws in the field of special education.
Overview -- Legislative developments -- The United States Education Department -- The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act ("IDEA") -- The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974 -- Types of disabilities -- Educating the special needs child.
This resource reviews the most influential laws affecting special education services and includes assessments to help readers evaluate their understanding of current legal practices.
The Law of Special Education and Non-Public Schools provides an informed explanation of Section 504, the IDEA, their regulations, and the cases that they have generated. Even though, the authors offer educators information on the rights of children in non-public schools, this book is not a how-to manual. It is designed to help make educators and parents aware of the requirements governing the laws that impact the rights of children with disabilities in order to implement both Section 504 and the IDED. In light of the detail that the book provides, it serves as a current and concise desk reference for educators ranging from building or district level administrators to classroom teachers to resource specialists in special education and related fields.
Now in its third edition, California School Law is the only comprehensive source discussing how federal and state law affects the day-to-day operation of the state's traditional public, charter, and private schools. While the book is comprehensive, the authors have written it for a broad audience. California School Law has become a coveted desk-top reference for administrators, governing board members, school attorneys, union leaders, and policymakers. It also has been widely adopted as a classroom textbook in educational administration and education law classes. The first chapter provides an explanation of the legal framework within which California schooling takes place and key players at the state, district, and school level. Ensuing chapters examine student attendance and truancy, curriculum law, employment law, teacher and student rights of expression, the school and religion, students with disabilities, student discipline, privacy and search and seizure, and legal liability in both state and federal court. Also included are chapters on unions and collective bargaining, educational finance issues, and racial and gender discrimination. Appendices provide a glossary of legal terminology, an explanation of how to find and read legislative enactments and judicial decisions, and a list of sources for accessing law. The book's table of contents is included on this website. Law never stands still. To keep current with changing legal precedent, the authors maintain a cumulative update for the third edition at www.californiaschoollaw.org.
For courses in Special Education Law. Long-recognized as one of the top special education law books in the field, The Law and Special Educationpresents the necessary information for educators to understand the history and development of special education laws and the requirements of these laws in the field of special education. In the highly litigated area of Special Education, it is imperative that professionals in the field understand the legal requirements of providing a free appropriate public education to students with disabilities. This indispensable textbook prepares the reader with the essential skills to locate pertinent information in law libraries, on the Internet, and other sources to keep abreast of the constant changes and developments in the field.Now in the third edition, the entire textbook has been thoroughly updated and revised with the latest information on the statutes, regulations, policy guidance, and cases on special education law, as well as the most current information on: the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA), and the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). | http://bibleandbookcenter.com/read/the-law-and-special-education-3rd-edition/ |
It is unclear if the upper house will approve the law or not. What is clear, however, is that the Bolsonaro administration adamantly opposes any kind of use of cannabis.
On Tuesday, June 8, the Brazilian Chamber of Deputies’ Special Commission very narrowly approved a bill authorizing cannabis cultivation for medicinal, veterinary, scientific, and industrial use.
Government supporters tried their best to prevent the legislation from heading to the upper house for final approval, but Deputy Luciano Ducci’s crucial vote ensured the bill survived.
While the new law would legalize cannabis cultivation, in practice it would impose a series of limitations, allowing only cultivation by companies, patient associations, and NGOs. Individual cultivation would still be illegal should the text be approved in its current form.
ANVISA (Brazil’s analog to the FDA) already allows the importation of certain medicines made from cannabis, but prices are prohibitive for the vast majority of patients. For instance, patients suffering from Alzheimer’s may well have to spend more than 10 thousand reais (around USD 2000) per month to import the medicines they need, restricting its use only to those who can afford such high prices and import delays. Complicating matters is the fact that patients cannot buy products for more than one month of consumption.
It is unclear if the upper house will approve the law or not. What is clear, however, is that the Bolsonaro administration adamantly opposes any kind of use of cannabis, saying that it opens the door for widespread recreational use. In a nutshell, they believe the entire country will get stoned in a daily basis should any concession be made to the evil herb.
Stay tuned! We will continue to track the process of cannabis legalization in Brazil from our office here in São Paolo.
Rodrigo Guedes Nunes heads up Harris Bricken’s Brazil office in São Paulo, using his legal and business experience, combined with a vast array of South American contacts and knowledge, to help companies from all over the world conduct business in Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay.
420 Intel is Your Source for Marijuana News
420 Intel is the leading source for cannabis news from around the world. Get the latest updates on cannabis legalization, politics and technology, as well as developments in medical and recreational marijuana news. Our commitment is to bring you the most important cannabis news stories every day of the week.
At 420 Intel we understand that effective marijuana industry news coverage is a constant endeavor. Every day stories develop regarding cannabis legalization, technological developments, and the medicinal benefits of marijuana use. Each new development carries the potential to impact the marijuana industry regionally, nationally, and internationally. 420 Intel is the marijuana industry news outlet that will keep you up to date on these developments and how they impact the world around you.
With the marijuana industry constantly evolving, you need a cannabis news outlet to keep you abreast of the pertinent information. At 420 Intel, we cover marijuana legalization news throughout the world, offer reliable information for cannabis business owners, detail technological advances that impact the marijuana industry, cover marijuana rallies from across the globe, and everything in between.
You can get 420 Intel news delivered directly to your inbox by signing up for our daily marijuana news, ensuring you’re always kept up to date on the ever-changing cannabis industry. To stay even better informed about marijuana legalization news follow us on Twitter, Facebook and LinkedIn. | https://420intel.com/articles/2021/06/11/brazil-moves-toward-cannabis-legalization |
Dr. Eli Abbo graduated from dental school in 1974 in Venezuela and completed his postgraduate studies in periodontology at Tufts University in 1976 where he was appointed Clinical Instructor. Returning to Venezuela he started his private clinical practice and was appointed Assistant Professor and Clinical Instructor at the Periondontology Department at the University of Zulia in 1978.
Dr. Abbo has over 30 years of experience in dentistry. He has taught dentistry, participated in research and had his own private practice for more than 30 years. Through specialty continuing education courses he stays up to date with the latest advancements in dentistry as well as the most current technologies.
Dr. Bill Abbo earned his dental degree from the University Santa Maria in Caracas, Venezuela in the year 2002. He completed a three year Masters program in Prosthodontics at the University of Michigan in 2006 and was then appointed Clinical Lecturer for their Prosthodontics Department. He also practiced dentistry in a private dental office together with his appointment at the University of Michigan for a period of 2 years.
Dr. Abbo has published numerous articles in peer review various dental journals, and has lectured and conducted workshops both nationally and internationally. His topics of interest have included dental implants, all-ceramic restorations and esthetics.
Dr. Abbo also attends numerous continue education courses to keep up with the latest technology and techniques in the dental world.
Prosthodontist
Dr. Claudia Draizin received a scholarship to Harvard School of Dental Medicine where she graduated 2nd in her class, and she was awarded entry into OKC, the National Dental Honor Fraternity.
After her three years, she moved to N.Y.C, married and began two years of a hospital based General Practice Residency during which time she server as chief resident, and published two dental articles.
In 1974 Dr. Draizin moved to South Florida, and opened her own practice, for 38 years she continuously provided state of the art preventive, restorative and cosmetic dental care.
Dr Draizin attends many hours of continuing education in the dental field each year, and she is an active member of the Memorial Dental Study Club.
Dr. Gabriela Cohen obtained her dental degree from the Universidad Santa Maria in Caracas, Venezuela in 2004 and completed a postgraduate in Operative and Cosmetic Dentistry at Universidad Central de Venezuela in Caracas, Venezuela in 2012. She practiced in a multidisciplinary private practice in Caracas until she moved to the U.S and completed a 2-year program in Advanced Education in General Dentistry including 1 year for adults and children with special needs at Nova Southeastern University where she earned her DDS degree in 2019.
Dr. Cohen was awarded with the Dr. Leonard M. Sakrais Memorial Award for Excellence in General Dentistry in 2018 and served as Chief Resident during her last year of residency.
Her clinical experience in comprehensive dental care with a conservative and cosmetic approach is combined with continuing education courses to stay up to date with the latest techniques and technologies in dentistry.
EDUCATION
Universidad Santa Maria – 2004, Dental Degree
Universidad Central de Venezuela – 2012, Postgraduate in Operative and Cosmetic Dentistry
Nova Southeastern University – 2019, DDS Degree. Advanced Education in General Dentistry.
MEMBERSHIPS
American Dental Association
Florida Dental Association
South Florida District Dental Association
We are a dental practice devoted to restoring and enhancing the natural beauty of your smile using conservative, state-of-the-art procedures that will result in beautiful, long lasting smiles!
HIGH STANDARDS
A standard of excellence in personalized dental care enables us to provide the quality dental services our patients deserve. We provide comprehensive treatment planning and use restorative and cosmetic dentistry to achieve your optimal dental health. Should a dental emergency occur, we make every effort to see and care for you as soon as possible.
EDUCATION & PREVENTION
As a practice, we are true believers that preventive care and education are the keys to optimal dental health. We strive to provide “dental health care” vs. “disease care”. That’s why we focus on thorough exams – checking the overall health of your teeth and gums, performing oral cancer exams, and taking x-rays when necessary. We also know that routine cleanings, flossing, sealants, and fluoride are all helpful in preventing dental disease. Not only are we focused on the beauty of your smile, we’re also concerned about your health. A review of your medical history can help us stay informed of your overall health, any new medications, and any illnesses that may impact your dental health.
UNCOMPROMISING SAFETY
Infection control in our office is also very important to us. To protect our patients and ourselves, we strictly maintain sterilization and cross contamination processes using standards recommended by the American Dental Association (ADA), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the Center for Disease Control (CDC).
TRAINING & EXPERTISE
As your dental health professionals, we want you to be confident knowing that we are a team of highly trained and skilled clinicians. We pride ourselves in providing the care you need to keep your smile healthy. To give you the best possible service and results, we are committed to continual education and learning. We attend dental lectures, meetings, and dental conventions to stay informed of new techniques, the latest products, and the newest equipment that a modern dental office can utilize to provide state-of-the-art dental care. Also, being members of various professional dental associations helps us to stay abreast of the changes and recommendations for our profession.
A POSITIVE EXPERIENCE
Building a foundation of trust by treating our patients as special individuals is vital to our success. We understand how uneasy some patients may feel about their dental visits, and how we can make a difference in providing a relaxing and positive experience. Our entire team is dedicated to providing you with excellent, personalized care and service to make your visits as comfortable and pleasant as possible.
We thank you for allowing us to take care of your dental needs and look forward to serving you. | https://www.davieadvanceddentistry.com/ |
Updated: April 4, 2015 5:16:26 pm
India is capable of developing intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) which can hit targets beyond the range of 10,000 kms, Chairman of Armament Research Board, Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Dr S K Salwan said on Saturday.
“India has successfully test fired nuclear capable Agni V missile recently which has a range of 5,000 kms. But we are capable of developing ICBM that can hit targets beyond the range of 10,000 kms,” Salwan said on the sidelines of 6th National Conference themed ‘Emerging Vistas of Technology in 21st Century’ held in Vadodara.
At the conference, organised by a city-based educational group, Salwan said such seminars should be held by academic institutes across the country so that there is a greater interaction between students, academicians and other stakeholders with the scientific institutions.
[related-post]
He also suggested that the HRD Ministry, UGC should organise such seminars and conferences. Salwan said beside the Agni-VI’s ground version, the DRDO is simultaneously working out on its underground variant.
He said that after ban on import of components for laser technology, imposed by the USA, UK and other countries, India has indigenously developed laser technology and has become self-sufficient.
“We adopt synergic approach towards national needs and priorities in the field of armaments, yet keeping in focus the global advancements in order to develop competence in key areas,” he said.
On the role of Armament Research Board, he said it helps in creating self-sufficiency in critical technologies needed for development of competitive armament stores and put the armament discipline at the fore-front in global scenario.
“The Board’s objective is to lead to technological innovations useful for combat multiplier, both for the near term and future,” he said. During the conference, he spoke on anti-defence missiles, electronic warfare and cyber security.
Over 750 delegates from various cities attended the conference and over 343 research papers were presented. Discussions were held on topics strengthening research and development, advancements in the field of engineering and technology among others.
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LBBA Advogados was created with one vision: to offer a modern, strategic and objective approach of legal challenges brought to us. Transforming this vision into reality is what guides us every day.MORE INFORMATION
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Tell us a little bit about your organisation and why you set it up
Evidence and Methods Lab (EML), is a civic tech organisation that focuses on simplifying, visualizing, and sharing information, as well as collating evidence. Founded in 2016, we are Uganda’s premier civic tech initiative that utilizes technology to simplify, visualize and share information as well as collate what works in generating evidence. Our vision is to become the leading civic tech initiative in Africa.
At its inception, the organisation had a transformative objective to influence the way information sharing on various aspects of life is done in order to reach various audiences. We targeted to work with organizations and individuals that generate knowledge in form of; policies, laws, studies, research, etc. to package this information into formats that enable users to easily understand and use it as well as share it on the platforms that enable the target groups to easily access it. We aimed to use technology to package information into creatively crafted infographics (still and motion graphics) and then utilise the growing tech space (social media/ mobile apps, and other digital spaces) to share the information widely to reach different target groups.
This idea was based on the background that, the information age in the 21st century is driven and dependent on; generation, flow, and access to information. Information is a powerful tool for accountability, transparency, service delivery, knowledge sharing, as well as innovation.
At the core of our work is the belief that when we use the right tools to package information appropriately, we effectively contribute to informed and engaged citizens resultantly contributing to demand accountability, access to justice, a thirst for information, and the overall, improved service delivery and access to justice for all.
What has been your greatest success/are you most proud of so far?
The failure rate for start-ups in our context is quite high. We are proud to have made it through our first five years! Not just existing but having grown into a thriving civic tech organization, with clarity of vision, attracting the attention of various partners and clients including the Ford Foundation, the United States Embassy Kampala, the Voice initiative of the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Makerere University Kampala, the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Open Society Initiative for West Africa, University of Edinburgh etc.
What is the greatest challenge you have faced?
The complexity of the law and legal procedures, as a legal innovation that focuses on simplifying and repackaging legal information in a manner that is easily understandable by an ordinary person. One of the biggest challenges we face is that some laws cannot easily be broken down, some of the laws are too long, and doing away with one or two words or even a punctuation mark would distort its meaning or affect its interpretation.
Poor reception of legal innovations by the general public that believes that legal services and solutions can only be obtained in law firms and the courts of law.
Limited access to stable internet services and restrictive government policies on internet usage. In 2018, the government introduced Over the Top Tax (OTT) that was to be paid by users of the internet on a daily basis, additionally, during the past two presidential elections, there have been internet shutdowns nationwide. To date, Facebook, a platform on which a lot of online legal information is shared is still shut, this has been a major setback to us as legal innovators.
Delays in the passing of laws that are needed by the public, in many cases, bills passed by parliament take a long time to be assented to by the President, this leaves a gap for us legal innovators that need to keep the public updated on the new laws that have been passed. A case in point is the Landlord and Tenant Bill which has been in the pipeline since 2019, and the Succession Amendment Bill which was in and out of Parliament for over 15 years, was finally assented to by the President in April 2022.
Limited use of the internet and appreciation of technology by would-be users of legal innovations that are tech-based.
What are the top challenges facing African lawyers today, in terms of data and technology?
Many lawyers are data and technology illiterate, this can be attributed to the fact that modules around technology have not been adopted and embraced in many law schools, this limits the creativity of lawyers and their ability to use technology as they provide legal services.
The perception society has about lawyers and the legal profession, many people would want to go through the old legal procedures and systems. Selling a legal innovation or product to would-be clients or beneficiaries of the innovation is a challenge many legal innovators face.
How do you think lawyers can make use of legal tech to address those challenges?
Lawyers need to come to terms with the fact that there have been advancements in technology and find means of working towards using technology to better legal service delivery and not be rigid in fighting against technology. Taking a tech-related course to better appreciate how technology can be used in the legal sphere would enhance their appreciation of tech-based legal solutions.
What legal tech innovation do you think will be most widely adopted in Africa in the next decade?
One of Africa’s opportunities but also problems is its rapidly increasing population that will soon escalate land and property rights as well as strain the justice system. There will be growing demand for a legal innovation that focuses on creating a people-driven legal solution as well create more efficient and alternative justice systems.
What regulatory and legislative environment is required to facilitate greater use of legal tech on the continent?
Legislation that allows for cross border legal practice, the existing laws and legislation are restrictive in terms of jurisdiction and practising law in a country where one did his or her bar course and got enrolled as an advocate. A lawyer in Nigeria cannot easily practice in Uganda or any other country within the continent. Legislating a less restrictive tech-based legal environment that allows lawyers to use technology to provide legal services and solutions across the continent irrespective of whether they did the bar course in a particular country or are enrolled as advocates in the country where their services are needed would be an added advantage in the use of legal tech.
If you could change one thing to facilitate the growth of legal tech in Africa, what would that be?
In the legal education system right from the university level, law students should be initiated into tech-based legal solutions at an early stage of their law career. Legal education is somewhat rigid and not alive to the changes that have been brought as a result of technological advancements worldwide such as Artificial Intelligence.
Who or what is your greatest inspiration?
We are inspired by the desire to create a country that works for all citizens where governments are responsive, and citizens are active. We believe that we can only achieve that if citizens are informed enough to play their part to protect themselves from violation and to call leaders to account. | https://www.alt-network.com/in-conversation-with-evidence-and-methods-lab/ |
These fundamental discussions are still valid after the retirement in 2009, when the focus of activities shifted from consulting to large academic publication projects.
An area such as consultancy, focused as it is on practice, is nowadays reliant on having a theoretical basis. The generation and management of knowledge is only “academic” in the widest sense – in the sense of “applied research”. The fact that the “expert knowledge” being referred to here can also be treated as having a profoundly academic focus as part of “basic research” is not of any consequence here.
Take the “international practice of law”, for example where the basic parameters governing the way laws are drafted, applied and enforced have undergone substantial change, as have the parameters governing the closely allied field of legal consultancy work. Important characteristics are e.g. aspects of increasing legalization, “informationalization”, the spread of interdisciplinary activities, professionalization, specialization, market orientation, proceduralization, institutionalization and organization as well as the “tendency towards Americanization”. At present, this multi-causal and multi-dimensional development is not being adequately conceptionalized and considered on a more theoretical level, and as a result, people are not adapting quickly enough or in appropriate ways. The fact that we are registering a more rapid development phase only makes conceptualization more of a challenge — it doesn’t remove the need for it. In this type of phase, when change is occurring, there is a great and urgent need to acquire and disseminate the knowledge required simply to understand the change as well as to redefine and reposition the various fields of relevant specialist knowledge.
The generation of expert knowledge in the sphere of the professions: by professionals for professionals
By the concept of expert knowledge we mean acquiring and disseminating specialist knowledge which is “state of the art” and generated according to “best practices”, in order to guarantee that specific specialist knowledge as applied in the real world is comparable, compatible an interoperable. It is about generating, managing and especially about disseminating and organizing the application of specialist knowledge, for example in the field of the “international practice of law”. Our work with this preliminary concept is mainly geared towards applying this knowledge within the framework of interdisciplinary, integrative and international consulting activities, primarily on a strategic level. The point is to create the preconditions for, to promote and organize the application of the activities of professionals that draw on this expert knowledge and who are engaged in this type of consultancy work within the intellect industry. This expert knowledge is the professionals’ main resource, and is on the whole generated, in our view, by the professionals themselves. Exposed to change and competition and focused on practical application as they are, they are in a position to recognize new needs sooner than the universities, which tend to come into contact with and have knowledge of these realities only after a certain delay.
This new and specific focus on generating this type of expert knowledge will show that, against all expectation, a theoretical discussion of these issues is even more essential in times of rapid change than during periods of social and political calm. As a result, it will also become clear that this kind of professionalism involves the person concerned carrying out their own realistic analysis of the factors accompanying such change, which generally pre-supposes a change-oriented shift in the professionals’ mind-set. Here, we are venturing into a little-explored borderline area arising from the fact that insufficient theoretical knowledge is generated which is application-oriented, and that there is too little practical application of knowledge under altered conditions — and we believe that the importance of this field has been underestimated. There is also a lot of confusion in this area as to whose job it is to generate, disseminate and organize this knowledge to ensure its usefulness to consultants. Obviously, new networks will have to be created by people who have changed their assessment of their professional role as well as having a newly defined, shared view of the necessity of generating such expert knowledge. The relationship between “theory” and “practice”, which is in part weighed down with prejudice, will need to be revised in the area of Strategy & Law, selected areas of the generation of expert knowledge.
Selected areas for the generation of expert knowledge – by professionals for professionals
There follows an unsystematic list of possible areas in which generating expert knowledge may become relevant for my future work. Because strategic legal advice has to do with application and practical matters, most of the examples are drawn (in the widest sense) from the “law” and “lawyer” and “international practice of law” function and relate to providing timely, appropriate and fairly priced legal consultancy services in this field.
– Developing the strategic dimensions of law and the role of strategic legal advice as such requires the generation of relevant expert knowledge, taking a variety of consultancy disciplines and sociological fields of knowledge into account. This is something I shall be spending substantial amounts of time on in the next few months. This generation of expert knowledge can itself be provided as a service.
– The development of new ways of generating such expert knowledge, as well as organizing the way it is generated; overseeing, moderating, facilitating as well as presenting and disseminating this expert knowledge and capturing it in a variety of media: all this can also be provided as a service, which would, incidentally, be seen as “strategic legal advice” under the heading of “law” and “lawyers”. I have had the opportunity to be involved as a consultant in a variety of innovative projects related to knowledge generation and dissemination and organized by the Rüschlikon Center for Global Dialogue at Swiss Re. These dealt with new ways of organizing the generation of expert knowledge within the framework of applied research projects, working jointly with the Program of International Finance at Harvard Law School, and in a key area of interest to the company; with organizing structured, moderated and facilitated non-public expert discussions in the field of information policy, involving a limited group selected on the basis of quality and overseen, as it were, by representatives from the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University; and with organizing non-public meetings of invited experts on the theme of “The Future of the Financial System of the 21st Century: from a European and American Perspective”. My wish-list still includes a similar meeting of experts on the subject of “The Future of Law”.
– I am currently involved in establishing a specialist network designed to make it easier to select experts as well as provide coaching for experts in a variety of disciplines — experts who, on the basis of shared understanding, are prepared to provide expert knowledge on a strategic level in interdisciplinary, integrative and international legal advice sessions as well as working with others on a brief in an ad-hoc manner.
– The necessity of clarifying the relationship and indeed interrelationship between law and communications in a virtualized world where the media rule requires the generation of expert knowledge on an interdisciplinary level. This is the only way to understand the issues of this new reality, to determine suitable methods of “issue management” on an issue-by-issue basis, as it were, and apply these methods to consultancy work in an appropriate, timely and fairly-priced way by drawing on this expert knowledge.
– Traditionally, theories dealing with service companies have followed the pattern set by industrial firms; this includes especially those theories relating to law firms, which were initially based on general ideas about service companies. This is a field where the need to generate expert knowledge is particularly great, whether on issues of organization, the structuring of the law, the formulation of strategy, the use of IT systems and human resources and the devising of services suitable for the market. In this area, there is a great need for expert knowledge which will have to be newly created, though some of it can be generated as a service within the framework of consultancy sessions. These questions also arise in a similar and interrelated way when it comes to law firms and the legal departments of corporations. Law firms and legal departments have now come to realize that they cannot side-step the new expert knowledge constantly being generated within the domain of professional service firms, and that the main insights apply to them as to others — albeit amended depending on the issues and only in the case of organizations above a certain size.
– In the race to catch up when it comes to generating expert knowledge in order to deal with the paradigmatic change in the field of service companies run by professionals, business schools have turned subjects like “Professional Service Firms” into majors, while law schools have done the same with subjects like “Legal Professions”. The expert knowledge being generated as a result can be put to practical use by experts and in some cases by consultants, e.g. law firms and other professional service firms.
– The role of lawyers as experts offering advice within companies and externally has itself become the subject of academic and professional debate, which in turn requires the generation of expert knowledge concerning the role of such experts. This is another area for research and a field in which consultancy services can be provided.
Expert knowledge in the sphere of the professions – No-man’s-land between teaching and practice
But there is another reason why generating the necessary expert knowledge in the field of law, lawyers and the international practice of law, is a neglected area. This is because lawyers working for law firms generally don’t have the time or are unwilling to take the time, and lawyers working in academia don’t generally consider these to be academic issues. As a result, there is a dangerous and widening gap in our knowledge in this “no-man’s-land”, and because of the growing delay, and unless we define some basic positions, it is becoming ever more difficult to close, given the speed of change. Generating expert knowledge in the field of law, lawyers, and the international practice of law, needs to be given a higher priority among professionals, professional service firms and the academic institutions and disciplines working in this area. This is especially true in interdisciplinary, integrative and international consultancy field, which is necessarily linked to the former, notably with a view to improving the appropriate, timely and fairly priced use of this knowledge. The question whether this knowledge should be considered as “theory” or “practice” is pointless and should no longer hamper or delay the exploration of this area of overlap. Alfred North Whitehead’s motto on the relationship between the faculty and the students, in the context of academic teaching when it comes to how “activity” relates to “knowledge”, can also be applied – ceteris paribus – to the relationship between “activity” and “knowledge” when it comes to consultancy services which are based on expert knowledge (“knowledge”) as well as being integrative and interdisciplinary (“activity”):
“What the faculty have to cultivate is activity in the presence of knowledge. What the students have to learn is activity in the presence of knowledge.
This discussion rejects the doctrine that students should first learn passively, and then, having learned, should apply knowledge. It is a psychological error. In the process of learning there should be present, in some sense or other, a subordinate activity of application. In fact, the applications are part of the knowledge. For the very meaning of the things known is wrapped up in their relationship beyond themselves. This unapplied knowledge is knowledge shorn of its meaning.
The careful shielding of a university from the activities of the world around us is the best way to chill interest and to defeat progress. Celibacy does not suit a university. It must make itself with action”
Alfred North Whitehead (1947)
(Jens Drolshammer, “Internationalialisierung der Rechtsausbildung und Forschung – eine Agenda für die interdicsiplinär ausgerichtete Ausbildung zum in Wirtschaft und Management tätigen International Lawyer” in Beiheft zur Zeitschrift für schweizerisches Recht, Basel/Genf/München 2000, p. 29ff, p. 212 f. ). | http://drolshammer.net/expert-knowledge/ |
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Henrietta Swan Leavitt (July 4, 1868-December 12, 1921) is not a name that’s familiar to most people. Her name is certainly not as recognizable as Galileo, William Herschel, or Edwin Hubble, even though it ought to be. I heard about Silent Sky, a play about her that’s opening at Ford’s Theater, which piqued my curiosity about this amazing woman. Henrietta began her higher education at Oberlin College in Ohio before transferring to the Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women, what is now Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, part of Harvard University, in Cambridge, Massachusetts. While at the Society, Henrietta took a course in astronomy and was later an employee at the Harvard College Observatory where she performed stellar photometry under Edward Pickering.
While her time at the observatory was intermittent due to travel and illness, it was there, as a computer, that she thrived. In her day-to-day tasks, Henrietta looked at photographic plates of stars to determine if their brightness had changed. For those that had changed in brightness, or magnitude, she recorded the differences and over time determined their period. These variable stars are known as Cepheid stars. The plates that she looked at came from two observatories: the Harvard College Observatory and their outpost observatory in Arequipa, Peru. The second allowed her to view the stars visible from the southern hemisphere, including the Magellanic Clouds.These clouds, which are actually two dwarf galaxies that are visible in the southern hemisphere sky, are what Henrietta focused her attentions on while searching for variable stars. In her landmark publication “1777 Variables in the Magellanic Clouds” she asserted that regarding these variable stars that the longer the cycle, the greater the brightness. This period-luminosity relationship became known as Leavitt’s Law and though these words may not count for much, among astronomers it was a breakthrough (even though this work didn’t garner much attention upon release). Her observations led to the Harvard Standard, which was a scale that measured the brightness of stars over 17 different magnitudes and was the standard to use when determining the magnitude of stars throughout the night sky.
Henrietta further locked in her law in her 1912 follow-up paper entitled “Periods of 25 Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud.” In this paper, she called back to her previous publication: “In H.A. 60, No. 4, attention was called to the fact that the brighter variables have the longer periods, but at that time it was felt that the number was too small to warrant the drawing of general conclusions. The periods of 8 additional variables which have been determined since that time, however, conform to the same law.” This time, the astronomy community took note and began to use these variables as standards to determine distance in space to other stars that pulsated at the same rate using the inverse square law.
For all her efforts, she was never known professionally as an astronomer, mainly due to her being a woman in very much a man’s world. In the 1920 U.S. Census though, she did take a stand in having her occupation recorded as “astronomer.” And there have been several posthumous honors such as having a crater on the far side of the moon, an asteroid, and a telescope named after her. So the next time you look up at the stars on a clear night, just remember Henrietta made them just a bit clearer.
For more information regarding Henrietta Swan Leavitt and her field, check out these great books:
- Advancing Variable Star Astronomy: The Centennial History of the American Association of Variable Star Observers
- The Glass Universe: How the Ladies of the Harvard Observatory Took the Measure of the Stars
- Miss Leavitt’s Stars: The Untold Story of the Woman who Discovered How to Measure the Universe
- Women in the History of Variable Star Astronomy
- Look Up!: Henrietta Leavitt, Pioneering Woman Astronomer (Juvenile literature)
- Women Astronomers: Reaching for the Stars
- Unsung Heroes of Science (Juvenile literature)
For more information on the Harvard Women Computers and their contribution to early 20th century astronomy, take a look at Project PHaEDRA.
And, for more information on women astronomers in general, consult the Women in Astronomy: A Comprehensive Bibliography by the Library of Congress. | https://blogs.loc.gov/inside_adams/2019/12/henriettaleavitt/ |
Sometimes in astronomy a simple question can have a complex answer. For example, why is the night sky dark? You might think that has an easy answer: the sky is dark because the stars are very far away and appear dim. It’s obvious why the sky is dark, right?
Except it isn’t.
In actuality, stars are quite bright. Many of them are as bright or brighter than the Sun. They only appear dim because they are far away. But there is an interesting catch. The apparent brightness of a star decreases with distance according to the inverse square law. In other words, it two stars have the same absolute brightness, but star A is twice as far away as star B, then star A will appear one fourth as bright. The catch is that the apparent size of a star also decreases according to the inverse square law. This means that while a distant star appears dimmer, it also appears equally smaller. Thus you could argue that a star appears as bright as the Sun, but just over a tiny area.
So if the universe is an endless sea of stars, then if we look in any direction in the night sky we will see a star. That star may be very, very far away, but in that one precise direction the night sky is as bright as the Sun. Of course for an endless sea of stars, that should be true for any direction we look. If the universe goes on forever, then the night sky should be a blaze of light, as seen in the animation below.
This is often known as Olbers’ Paradox, after Heinrich Olbers, who popularized the question in the early 1800s. For about a hundred years it was a real mystery.
Now you might think the answer to this paradox lies in the fact that the universe is not an endless sea of stars. Stars are clumped into galaxies, after all. But this doesn’t solve the paradox. Instead it simply pushes the paradox from stars to galaxies. The apparent brightness and size of galaxies follows the same inverse square law, so an endless sea of galaxies would also produce a blazing bright sky.
What about the fact that there is lots of dust in the universe. The dust doesn’t give off light like stars, so that should solve the paradox. It doesn’t because the dust would absorb light and heat, so if the dustless regions of sky were as bright as the Sun, the dust would be heated to the same temperature and would therefore give off just as much light as the stars.
Olbers’ paradox makes two assumptions about the universe. The first is that it goes on forever, the second is that it has always existed. While the first assumption might be true, the second assumption is not true. The universe is expanding, and it began about 13.77 billion years ago with the big bang. Since the universe has a finite age, and light travels at a finite speed, there is a limit to how far away visible stars and galaxies can be. Light from more distant galaxies simply hasn’t had time to reach us. Also, since the universe is expanding, the light from distant stars is redshifted, making them appear cooler than they actually are. So the night sky is dark precisely because the universe is expanding and has a finite age.
When you look at a dark night sky, you are seeing evidence of the big bang. | https://briankoberlein.com/blog/sky-full-of-fire/ |
In everyday conversation, we often use the words “luminosity” and “brightness” interchangeably. However, these two terms actually have different meanings. In this blog post, we will explain the difference between luminosity and brightness, and discuss how to use each term correctly. We will also provide examples of images that have a high or low luminosity level.
What is Luminosity?
Luminosity is a measure of the amount of light emitted by an object. It is typically measured in units of candela, and the SI unit of luminous intensity. Luminosity can also be measured in terms of luminous flux, which is the amount of light emitted per unit of time. Luminosity is an important concept in astronomy, as it allows for the determination of the distance to objects in space. For example, the luminosity of a star can be used to calculate its distance from Earth. Luminosity is also used to determine the size and age of a star. The luminosity of a star increases as it ages, meaning that more massive stars are brighter than less massive stars. Luminosity is thus a key parameter in determining the properties of stars.
What is Brightness?
Brightness is a photometric measure of how well a light source appears to approximate an ideal point source. Brightness is measured in terms of the luminous flux per unit solid angle per unit projected area of the source. The SI unit of brightness is the candela. Brightness is related to ask but not identical to it; while brightness is always dependent on the distance from the observer to the source, this dependency is only implicit with respect to apparent magnitude. Luminosity, on the other hand, is a measure of the intrinsic power output of a light source. The SI unit of luminosity is the lux. Brightness is a superficial measure that says nothing about the amount of light actually emitted by the source. In contrast, luminosity provides an indication of how much EM radiation (of all wavelengths) is emitted by an object. Because intensity (energy per unit time) and luminosity are related by the inverse square law, an object’s luminosity also says something about its surface area: specifically, an object’s luminosity is proportional to its surface area.
Difference between Luminosity and Brightness
Luminosity and brightness are two concepts that often get confused, but in fact, they are very different. Luminosity refers to the intensity of light or the amount of energy emitted by a source. Luminosity is measured in units called lumens, and it can vary greatly depending on things like the type of light source and the distance from the source to the observer. On the other hand, brightness is a measure of how easy it is for the eye to see an object based on its reflectivity and contrast with other objects. Brightness typically depends more on environmental factors than its actual luminosity, making it a less formal measure than luminosity. Thus, although luminosity and brightness may impact one another to some degree, they ultimately represent different aspects of visual perception.
Conclusion
Luminosity and brightness are two important terms that are often confused. In this blog post, we’ve clarified the difference between these two concepts and how they relate to digital images. We hope you found this information helpful. | https://differencebetweenz.com/difference-between-luminosity-and-brightness/ |
What is this all about?
For this lab, students will investigate Python and Jupyter Notebook to analyze real astronomical images in order to calculate the interstellar distance to a star cluster across the Milky Way from our solar system. They will learn how to write Python code that runs in a Jupyter Notebook such that the brightness of stars in an astronomical image can be determined. Next, students will complete the functions in the project to determine how far away a single star in the cluster is from Earth. This is a chance to try hands-on astronomical research techniques in the field of aperture photometry. The real astronomical image data will be directly manipulated and analyzed by code the students create. Groups can compare their final images and results to answer questions about the astronomy of stars and stellar distances within the Milky Way. Students can experience their discoveries the same way Harlow Shapley first learned the true size and shape of the Milky Way.
Summer 2020 Update: Check out my iPoster about this project presented at The 236th Meeting of the American Astronomical Society!
Just so we’re clear…
- This page is meant as a primer for other educators on how to use this lab with their classes. The text is both meant for “teacher talk” and as instructions for the instructor. The linked Jupyter Notebook1 below is what students are meant to use for the the activity. If you want to just download the notebooks:
- Teacher Notebook as HTML with answers
- Teacher Jupyter Notebook with answers
- Student Jupyter Notebook without answers
Background before we dive in…
Did you know the first person to figure out the size and shape of the Milky Way galaxy, Harlow Shapley, had nothing more than some pictures of stars in far-off star clusters? All we need is light from a star to figure out a lot about the star, including how far it is from us. How can we measure astronomical distances? (listen for student responses) One technique is to use “standard candles,” which are astronomical objects that have well-known brightnesses. What are some other standard candles we have discussed in astronomy so far? (listen for student responses) By measuring how bright an object appears to us and knowing the actual brightness from some analysis, we can work out how far the object is from us. This is where the inverse square law comes in.
Remember that the inverse square law is one of the most useful tools in astronomy. It says that light spreads out as it rushes away from a star such that the brightness of the light decreases by a factor of 1 divided the change in distance squared. How is the inverse square law related to the relation for finding the surface area of a sphere? (allow the students time to recall the formula)
Harlow Shapley used a handy tool for a standard candle called RR Lyrae variable stars. We will do the same thing here. A variable star literally swells up and gets brighter and redder and then after a time shrinks again and gets dimmer and bluer. Imagine if the sun became 50% bigger than normal in the morning but by the evening shrink to 50% smaller than normal. It would make Earth a hard place to live. But luckily for us, for a star that takes a day to dim and then brighten and dim again, like the RR Lyrae type of variable, we know exactly how bright that star really is. What is the astronomical term we use for the intrinsic brightness of a star? (again, wait for responses) All we need to do is use some clever math and the inverse square law and we can measure distances in the Milky Way once we find one of these variable stars.
We are in luck! We have 5 images of a globular cluster full of these RR Lyrae stars. Each image was taken in the same night. If we look at the images as an animation, the RR Lyrae stars are the ones that appear to blink brighter and dimmer. We will choose one and measure its light using some Python code.
Scientists often have to work on software engineering projects like this. We will write only some code, but we will take existing code, and make it do something new! We will engineer a solution to the given problem using the software tools and techniques available to us.
This is an interactive programming project called a Jupyter Notebook. There is background information, examples, and live code to run, test, and complete. All of this happens directly in your web browser rather than using a separate development application.
Need more info before starting?
- If students need some background, the free OpenStax Astronomy text is a great choice. Here is the section about variable stars as standard candles. https://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:vdWWIntw@8/19-3-Variable-Stars-One-Key-to-Cosmic-Distances
- Here is an animation of these images with the RR Lyrae stars clearly visible as they change brightness. https://i1.wp.com/www.jimmynewland.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/ngc3201-rrlyrae.gif
- Students can use the free web-based Microsoft Azure Notebook service to complete their project. https://notebooks.azure.com/
- You can also have students install the Anaconda Distribution on their own Windows, Linux, or Mac computers so they can run the Python-based Jupyter Notebook locally. https://www.anaconda.com/distribution/
- Animation of a variable star changing as it shrinks and expands. (Hubble and ESA) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sXJBrRmHPj8
- Included with the student Jupyter Notebook is a teacher notebook with solutions provided.
Let’s get started!
The best way to start is to dive in! The supplied Jupyter Notebook has some background information, sample code, and the start code for you to complete. Start by loading the Jupyter Notebook on your computer. That might be by uploading the notebook to the Azure Notebook server or by starting Jupyter Notebook on your own computer and opening the starter notebook. We are using the Jupyter Notebook software (either local or online) to edit and write Python code. Python coding is becoming a big part of modern astronomical research. You’re using the same tools as professional astronomers in this activity.
The challenge here is to complete the code left blank by reading through the example code and working with other students to make your code work as expected. There are questions scattered throughout for you to answer in addition to the code to be completed.
Read through the background info until you get to the “Coding and Questions” section. Each cell in the Jupyter Notebook will have questions for you to answer as you interact with completed code or code to complete on your own and sometimes both. Don’t forget to test your solutions using the examples provided before moving on to the next cell. You’ll need all the parts to work individually before putting them together as a whole.
Many of the code cells are meant to be read and then run, but not altered, since they run correctly to start with. Below is a list of the functions to complete and descriptions of the incomplete cells for students to finish. Any code that has an ellipsis (…) needs to be completed.
Functions to complete:
- distance_modulus – Function to find the distance of
an astronomical object in parsecs if given the apparent, m, and absolute, M,
magnitudes of the object. Use some algebra and rearrange the distance modulus
equation to return the distance in parsecs of the object. Don’t forget how
exponents work: x^2 (x squared) would be written as x**2.
Distance modulus formula:
- process_image –
- This function consumes:
- a filename which can be local or a URL for a FITS file,
- the starting and ending points marking the bounding box for the image,
- and whether or not the image needs to be flipped (both vertical and horizontal)
- This function returns:
- the apparent magnitude of the target star
- The process image function is where
we bring the steps together. Here is where the engineering process is needed.
- Get the image data using the filename and mirror flag.
- Get the subtracted data and background using the data from step 1
- Extract a list of sources using the subtracted data, the background, and the given x and y pairs (2 x values and 2 y values).
- Set the target as the center of the image.
- Get the flux for our target star.
- Get the flux for our calibration star.
- Determine the apparent magnitude of the calibration star.
- Calibrate the apparent magnitude of the target star.
- Print and return our target star magnitude.
- This function consumes:
The 5 cells that call the “process_image” function will produce a number and also an image. This is image number 5 with the targets selected.
Note that the calibration star magnitude should be around 14.81 for each of the 5 processed images. The magnitude of the target star should vary between about 14.2 at the brightest and 15.5 at the dimmest.
The distance in the teacher notebook to cluster NGC 3201 yields a distance of 4.87 kpc or 15884 light years. For comparison, the Milky Way is about 100,000 light years across, and the sun is about 25,000 light years from the edge of the Milky Way galaxy.
Description of cells for students to complete using Jupyter Notebook:
# Process image 1 """ Run process_image using the following parameters: filename='http://jimmynewland.com/astronomy/ngc-3201/ngc3201_1.fits' x1=860 x2=1060 y1=668 y2=868 """ # Process image 2 """ Run process_image using the following parameters: filename='http://jimmynewland.com/astronomy/ngc-3201/ngc3201_2.fits' x1=869 x2=1069 y1=673 y2=873 """ # Process image 3 """ Run process_image using the following parameters: filename='http://jimmynewland.com/astronomy/ngc-3201/ngc3201_3.fits' x1=205 x2=435 y1=190 y2=420 """ # Process image 4 """ Run process_image using the following parameters: filename='http://jimmynewland.com/astronomy/ngc-3201/ngc3201_4.fits' x1=262 x2=462 y1=195 y2=395 """ # Process image 5 """ NOTE: This image was taken by a different telescope in the network and subsequently was slightly different than the other 4 images. Be sure to set mirror to True for this star. Run process_image using the following parameters: filename='http://jimmynewland.com/astronomy/ngc-3201/ngc3201_5.fits' x1=641 x2=841 y1=709 y2=909 mirror=True """ # Print out list of determined magnitudes for target star from the 5 images. # Note the more negative a magnitude is, the brighter. # Did the star vary in over the 5 images as expect for an RR Lyrae? # Do the magnitudes make sense? Are any brighter or dimmer than the others? print(target_mags) print(...) # Select the brightest magnitude to use in the distance modulus calculation # The command np.min(list) will return the smallest value in list. # Why the smallest magnitude if we want the brightest one from the list? brightest = np.min(target_mags) brightest = ... # Subtract off the reddening factor from our brightest value: 0.25 # The 0.25 is to correct for dust scattering some of the light. # This is known as stellar reddening. The value was taken from literature. m_target = ... # Print our new apparent magnitude for our target star. print(...) # Finally we find the distance to the globular cluster based on our analysis. # Convert the given distance from pc to kpc. distance = ... # Print the distance in kpc . print('Distance to NGC 3201: '+str(...)+' kpc')
Wrap thing up!
How far away is NGC 3201? According to other researchers, the distance to NGC 3201 is 16 kly or 4.9 kpc. How does your analysis compare?
Students should share their code and their results with one another. Consider a gallery walk or take volunteers to project the final result from various groups for the class to see. Discuss where difficulties arose and tackle questions about how students’ algorithms compared with one another.
What would have to change if we selected a new target star? How could we apply what we have done here for a different star cluster?
Tips
- You probably want students to turn on the line numbering in Jupyter Notebook.
- Have students go to View->Toggle Line Numbers in the menu bar.
- Software engineering is meant to be a collaborative process. It’s best to treat this activity as a group activity and have groups share ideas and solutions to problems between themselves.
Acknowledgements
This project was developed through a combination of two NSF grant-funded programs: Teacher research internship at McDonald Observatory under the direction of University of Texas at Austin Department of Astronomy (NSF Grant No. AST-1616040 principal investigators Dr. C. Sneden & Dr. K. Finkelstein) and Expeditions in Computing Research Experience for Teachers under the direction of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and the Office of STEM Engagement at Rice University (NSF Grant No. IIS-1730574 principal investigators Dr. A. Sabharwal & Dr. C. Nichol). Thanks also to Christina Crawford and Allen Antoine from the Rice Office of STEM Engagement. And thanks to Asa Stahl from Rice astrophysics and my colleague Justin Hickey from Episcopal High School in Bellaire, Texas, for inspiring me to create a Python astronomy lesson and helping with feedback. The project extensively depends on the SEP3 and Source Extractor4 libraries. The code uses standard implementations of the Numpy2 and AstroPy5,6 libraries. All images were taken using the Skynet Robotic Telescope Network7.
Copyright
Measure the Milky Way with Stars Maker Challenge by Jimmy Newland is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Maker Challenge Testing Info
A similar activity was field-tested during the Research Experience for Teachers at Rice University in the summer of 2019 in conjunction with the Landes Research Group coding day. Most of the teachers and all of the students had never done any programming. There were 6 teachers and 6 students from public high schools in the area. The students were juniors and seniors. As an engineering activity, the students were asked to combine existing code with code they tested an wrote to complete a task. | https://www.jimmynewland.com/wp/astro/measuring-the-milky-way-with-stars/ |
The absolute magnitude is an auxiliary variable in astronomy, to compare the actual brightness, ie the luminosities of celestial objects can.
From Earth, we see a star with its apparent brightness as it is affected by its distance and interstellar matter.
For determining the absolute brightness using a uniform distance. This is 10 parsecs ( 32.6 light years) for stars and one astronomical unit ( AU) for ( reflective ) objects of the solar system. The relative brightness that would measure from this standard distance, an observer is called absolute brightness. In stars which are less than 10 Parsecs removed, the apparent brightness is greater than the absolute magnitude and vice versa. As with the apparent brightness, a smaller numerical value greater luminance.
Absolute magnitudes are as apparent brightnesses in magnitudes (mag ) specified. Especially in older works on astronomy one often finds the notation with a superscript M on the decimal point, for example, in a star of the third ( absolute ) size class. The use of the capital letter illustrates this is that it is an absolute brightness.
The brightest fixed stars reach absolute magnitudes of about -9 mag ( about 100,000 times the luminosity of the sun ), the faintest contrast 17 mag ( about one ten -thousandth of the solar luminosity).
Bolometric magnitude
This indicates the brightness of a star across the electromagnetic spectrum. The required correction depends on the sensitivity range of the instrument and of spectral type of the object in question. The photographic brightness of the sun is, the bolometric magnitude against it.
Distance modulus
The difference between apparent magnitude m and absolute magnitude M is called the distance modulus, because it is in a fixed relation to the distance. For the determination of levels of brightness follows:
Respectively
Are you the Entfernungsmaßzahl as a dimensionless number, so it is
From the definition of parallax follows as the relationship between Entfernungsmaßzahl and annual parallax π ( as a dimensionless number in seconds of arc )
This then results in
With the help of this important for astronomy formula ( eg Cepheids or supernovae of type Ia ), the distance can be calculated for stars whose luminosity is known. In this way it was 1923, the distance of the Andromeda nebula can be determined.
Comparison Apparent / Absolute brightness of some stars in the visual
Objects in the solar system
When comets and asteroids, the term absolute magnitude is defined differently, as they only reflect light. Here the situation is assumed that the object ( comet or asteroid ) exactly one astronomical unit is removed from the sun and is observed from the Sun. The brightness of the object would be seen is referred to as absolute brightness. | https://memim.com/intrinsic-brightness.html |
He called the brightest ones "of the first magnitude," simply meaning "the biggest. For comets and asteroids, a very different "absolute magnitude" is used. Current opposition brightness . Vega was used as the reference star for the scale. Astronomers are careful to distinguish between the luminosity of the star the total energy output and the amount of energy that happens to reach our eyes or a telescope on Earth. While magnitude generally refers to a measurement in a particular filter band corresponding to some range of wavelengths, the apparent or absolute bolometric magnitude m bol is a measure of an object's apparent or absolute brightness integrated over all wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum also known as the object's irradiance or power, respectively. November
Here are some example apparent magnitudes: Sun =Moon =Venus The absolute magnitude is a measure of the star's luminositythe total amount of energy radiated by the star every second.
Star, Apparent magnitude (m) is a measure of the brightness of a star or other astronomical object as seen from the Earth's location. An object's apparent magnitude depends on its intrinsic luminosity.
The Stellar Magnitude System Measuring Brightness Sky & Telescope
Absolute magnitude (M) is a measure of the luminosity of a celestial object, on an inverse logarithmic astronomical magnitude scale. An object's absolute.
Their brightness can be approximated as. Classical and Quantum Gravity.
Video: Visual magnitude to lumosity app Properties of Light: Brightness, Luminosity and Flux
This can be done by adding the brightnesses in linear units corresponding to each magnitude. Get the HTML code.
Introduction to Astrophysics: The Stars. Bibcode : ApJ
Luminosity and apparent magnitude calculations
Hello everyone, I've been reading up on apparent magnitude and luminosity, and have tried using some of the formulas that I've read about to.
In the left triangular relationship, the apparent brightness, distance, and luminosity are tied together such that if you know any two of the sides, you can derive the third side. When using an absolute magnitude, one must specify the type of electromagnetic radiation being measured.
Stony Brook Astronomy Program.
Video: Visual magnitude to lumosity app Star Magnitude, Luminosity
Depending on the type of star, they could be bright in some of these wavelengths and dimmer in others. Then, after canceling the constants, we arrive at the luminosity equation:.
Properties of Stars
Thus astronomers created the absolute magnitude scale.
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RASMUS KLUMP TIVOLI GLASSELL POOL
|The red dwarf Proxima Centauri, the closest star to the solar system, would appear to be magnitude For example, first magnitude stars are about 2.
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For Solar System bodies that shine in reflected light, a different definition of absolute magnitude H is used, based on a standard reference distance of one astronomical unit. An object's absolute bolometric magnitude M bol represents its total luminosity over all wavelengthsrather than in a single filter band, as expressed on a logarithmic magnitude scale. Star B is brighter by 5.
For one thing, your eye lenses turn yellow with age; old people see the world through yellow filters. | http://potlatchpoetry.org/page/visual-magnitude-to-lumosity-app-109623492.html |
In this blog post, I would like to share with you some ideas about the relationship between openness and the inverse square law of light and its effects on the decline of light. In general, we multiply the distance by itself to calculate the increase in this area. However, a larger surface area results in light intensity inversely proportional to the square of the distance, because the same amount of light must be distributed over a larger area at a time. For static subjects, a fixed aperture value is sufficient. However, moving subjects require flexible aperture values, especially if they are very close to the light source: due to the inverse law of the square, a small change in the distance to the light source results in an extreme change in lighting. A fixed aperture value, on the other hand, is sufficient for a distant subject – even if on a larger scale. The inverse law of squares states: “The intensity of the radiation is inversely proportional to the square of the distance.” In 1663-1664, the English scientist Robert Hooke wrote his book Micrographia (1666), in which he discussed, among other things, the relationship between the height of the atmosphere and atmospheric pressure at the surface. Since the atmosphere surrounds the Earth, which is itself a sphere, the volume of the atmosphere acting on any surface of the Earth`s surface is a truncated cone (extending from the center of the Earth to the vacuum of space; obviously, only the section of the cone from the Earth`s surface to space carries the Earth`s surface). Although the volume of a cone is proportional to the cube of its height, Hooke argued that atmospheric pressure at the Earth`s surface is rather proportional to the height of the atmosphere, as gravity decreases with altitude. Although Hooke did not explicitly state it, the relation he proposed would only be true if gravity decreased as an inverse square of the distance from the center of the earth.
Read more about the solved problems of the inverse law of squares. The inverse-square law generally applies when a conserved force, energy, or other quantity is uniformly outward radiated from a point source in three-dimensional space. Since the area of a sphere (4πr2) is proportional to the square of the radius, as the emitted radiation moves away from the source, it is distributed over an area that increases proportionally to the square of the distance from the source. Therefore, the intensity of radiation passing through any unit surface (directly opposite the point source) is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the point source. Gauss`s law for gravity is also applicable and can be used with any physical quantity acting in accordance with the inverse quadratic relation. Imagine that we try to expose a piece of X-ray film and move the X-ray source twice as far in each shot, is the film more or less exposed? Although inverse quadratic law refers to radiation protection, it also helps us determine the source-to-film distance (SFD), X-ray exposure time and intensity (KV) of our X-ray tube. Due to the inverse quadratic relationship of the law described, the light intensity decreases quite sharply when the subject is farther from the light source for the first time. After that, it continuously decreases to a lower level. For example, if we increase the distance between the light source and the subject from 1 meter to 2 meters, 75% of the light intensity on the subject is lost. But if we increase the distance from 4 to 10 meters, we lose only 5%. A number of physical properties (such as the force between two charges) decrease as they diverge further, so they can be represented by an inverse law of the square.
This means that the intensity of the property decreases in some way as the distance between interacting objects increases. In particular, an inverse law of squares states that the intensity is equal to the inverse of the square of the distance to the source. For example, radiation exposure from a point source (without shielding) decreases as it is remote. If the source is 2x as far away, that`s 1/4 as much exposure. If it is 10 times further, radiation exposure is 100 times lower. The unit of illumination is the lux. This is the lighting produced by a lumen on an area of one square meter. The non-metric equivalent, lumen per square foot (lm/ft2), is still used in the UK and is known as the “foot candle” in the US. It corresponds to about 10 lux.
The fractional reduction of electromagnetic fluence (Φ) for indirect ionizing radiation with increasing distance from a point source can be calculated using the inverse square law. Because emissions from a point source have radial directions, they cut off when the incidence is perpendicular. The area of such a shell is 4πr 2, where are the radial distance from the center. The law is particularly important in diagnostic radiography and planning of radiotherapy treatments, although this proportionality does not apply in practical situations, unless the dimensions of the source are much smaller than the distance. As it is said in Fourier`s theory of heat: “Since the point source is magnification by distances, its radiation is diluted in proportion to the sin of the angle, the arc increasing circumference from the point of origin.” If the distribution of matter in each body is spherically symmetric, objects can be treated as point masses without approximation, as shown by the shell theorem. Otherwise, if we want to calculate the attraction between massive solids, we must add up all the point vector gravitational forces, and the net attraction may not be exactly the inverse square. However, if the distance between massive bodies is much larger relative to their sizes, then, in a good approximation, it makes sense to treat the masses as a point mass when calculating the gravitational force, which lies at the center of mass of the object. It is quite obvious that almost all forms of wave energy decrease in intensity as the distance from the source increases. In practice, this rate of reduction varies considerably depending on the conditions. An idealized relation is given by the inverse law of the square, as in equation 8.1, which states that for a point source of waves that can radiate omnidirectionally and without close obstacles (free field conditions), the intensity I decreases with the square of the distance d from the source. Newton knew that gravity had to be somehow “diluted” by distance.
But how? What mathematical reality is inherent in gravity, which makes it depend inversely on the distance between objects? In photography and stage lighting, the law of the inverted square is used to determine the “fall” or difference in illumination of a subject as he approaches or moves away from the light source. For quick approaches, just remember that doubling the distance reduces the lighting to a quarter. Or similarly, to halve the illumination, increase the distance by a factor of 1.4 (the square root by 2), and to double the illumination, reduce the distance to 0.7 (square root by 1/2). If the illuminant is not a point source, the inverse quadratic rule is often still a useful approximation; If the size of the light source is less than one-fifth of the distance from the subject, the calculation error is less than 1%. As a law of gravity, this law was proposed by Ismael Bullialdus in 1645. But Bullialdus did not accept Kepler`s second and third laws, nor did he appreciate Christiaan Huygens` solution for circular motion (movement in a straight line discarded by the central force). In fact, Bullialdus claimed that the power of the sun was attractive in aphelion and repellent at perihelion. Robert Hooke and Giovanni Alfonso Borelli both declared gravity an attraction in 1666. Hooke`s lecture “On gravity” took place on March 21 at the Royal Society in London.
Borelli`s “Theory of the Planets” was published later in 1666. Hooke`s Gresham lecture of 1670 explained that gravity applied to “all celestial bodies” and added the principles that the gravitational force decreases with distance and that bodies move in a straight line in the absence of such forces. Around 1679, Hooke thought that gravity had an inverse quadratic dependence and shared this in a letter to Isaac Newton: I suppose attraction is always doubly proportional to distance from the center. For an irrotational vector field in three-dimensional space, the inverse-square law corresponds to the property that the divergence outside the source is zero. This can be generalized to higher dimensions. In general, for an irrotational vector field in an n-dimensional Euclidean space, the intensity “I” of the vector field decreases with the distance “r” according to the inverse power law (n − 1) Newton`s law of inverted squares suggests that the gravity acting between any two objects is inversely proportional to the square of the separation distance between the centers of the object. | https://www.meemekhevron.org/2022/12/13/why-is-the-inverse-square-law-is-important/ |
Additional reading from www.astronomynotes.com
The flux (or apparent brightness) of a light source is given in units similar to those listed on the previous page (Joules per second per square meter). In this set of units, or in any equivalent set of units, the more light we receive from the object, the larger the measured flux. However, astronomers still use a system of measuring stellar brightness called the magnitude system that was introduced by the ancient Greek scientist Hipparchus. In the magnitude system, Hipparchus grouped the brightest stars and called them first magnitude, slightly fainter stars were second magnitude, and the faintest stars the eye could see were listed as sixth magnitude. If you notice, the magnitude system is therefore backwards–the brighter a star is, the smaller its magnitude.
Our eyes can detect about a factor of 100 difference in brightness among stars, so a 1st magnitude star is about 100 times brighter than a 6th magnitude star. We have preserved this relationship in the modern magnitude scale, so for every 5 magnitudes of difference in the brightness of two objects, the objects differ by a factor of 100 in apparent brightness (flux). If object A is 10 magnitudes fainter than object B, it is (100 x 100) or 10,000 times fainter. If object A is 15 magnitudes fainter than object B, it is (100 x 100 x 100) or 1,000,000 times fainter.
Remember that an object’s apparent brightness depends on its distance from us. So, the magnitude of a star depends on distance. The closer the star is to us, the brighter its magnitude will be. That is, the apparent magnitude of a star is its magnitude measured on Earth. However, astronomers use the system of absolute magnitudes to classify stars based on how they would appear if they were all at the same distance. If we know the distance to that star and calculate what its apparent magnitude would be if it were at a distance of 10 pc, we call that value the absolute magnitude for the star. In this system:
The apparent magnitude of a star has an equivalent flux, or apparent brightness. The absolute magnitude of a star is equivalent to its luminosity, since it gives you a measurement of the brightness at a specified distance, which you can then convert into the amount of energy being emitted at the surface of the star.
Because the magnitude system is backwards (brighter object = smaller magnitude), it can be confusing. For this reason, we will not use magnitudes in this course, and I would even recommend not using it in your own courses. Instead, I will continue to refer to the apparent brightness or flux of an object to mean the measurement we make of its brightness on Earth, and the luminosity of an object to refer to the intrinsic amount of energy it emits. However, you should be aware of the existence of the magnitude system because you are likely to see it used in most astronomy publications you read during this course.
If you have a strong desire to learn the magnitude system for your own benefit, I recommend the discussions at the following locations: | https://www.e-education.psu.edu/astro801/print/book/export/html/1730 |
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe how some stars vary their light output and why such stars are important
- Explain the importance of pulsating variable stars, such as cepheids and RR Lyrae-type stars, to our study of the universe
Let’s briefly review the key reasons that measuring distances to the stars is such a struggle. As discussed in The Brightness of Stars, our problem is that stars come in a bewildering variety of intrinsic luminosities. (If stars were light bulbs, we’d say they come in a wide range of wattages.) Suppose, instead, that all stars had the same “wattage” or luminosity. In that case, the more distant ones would always look dimmer, and we could tell how far away a star is simply by how dim it appeared. In the real universe, however, when we look at a star in our sky (with eye or telescope) and measure its apparent brightness, we cannot know whether it looks dim because it’s a low-wattage bulb or because it is far away, or perhaps some of each.
Astronomers need to discover something else about the star that allows us to “read off” its intrinsic luminosity—in effect, to know what the star’s true wattage is. With this information, we can then attribute how dim it looks from Earth to its distance. Recall that the apparent brightness of an object decreases with the square of the distance to that object. If two objects have the same luminosity but one is three times farther than the other, the more distant one will look nine times fainter. Therefore, if we know the luminosity of a star and its apparent brightness, we can calculate how far away it is. Astronomers have long searched for techniques that would somehow allow us to determine the luminosity of a star—and it is to these techniques that we turn next.
Variable Stars
The breakthrough in measuring distances to remote parts of our Galaxy, and to other galaxies as well, came from the study of variable stars. Most stars are constant in their luminosity, at least to within a percent or two. Like the Sun, they generate a steady flow of energy from their interiors. However, some stars are seen to vary in brightness and, for this reason, are called variable stars. Many such stars vary on a regular cycle, like the flashing bulbs that decorate stores and homes during the winter holidays.
Let’s define some tools to help us keep track of how a star varies. A graph that shows how the brightness of a variable star changes with time is called a light curve (Figure). The maximum is the point of the light curve where the star has its greatest brightness; the minimum is the point where it is faintest. If the light variations repeat themselves periodically, the interval between the two maxima is called the period of the star. (If this kind of graph looks familiar, it is because we introduced it in Diameters of Stars.)
Cepheid Light Curve.
This light curve shows how the brightness changes with time for a typical cepheid variable, with a period of about 6 days.
Pulsating Variables
There are two special types of variable stars for which—as we will see—measurements of the light curve give us accurate distances. These are called cepheid and RR Lyrae variables, both of which are pulsating variable stars. Such a star actually changes its diameter with time—periodically expanding and contracting, as your chest does when you breathe. We now understand that these stars are going through a brief unstable stage late in their lives.
The expansion and contraction of pulsating variables can be measured by using the Doppler effect. The lines in the spectrum shift toward the blue as the surface of the star moves toward us and then shift to the red as the surface shrinks back. As the star pulsates, it also changes its overall color, indicating that its temperature is also varying. And, most important for our purposes, the luminosity of the pulsating variable also changes in a regular way as it expands and contracts.
Cepheid Variables
Cepheids are large, yellow, pulsating stars named for the first-known star of the group, Delta Cephei. This, by the way, is another example of how confusing naming conventions get in astronomy; here, a whole class of stars in named after the constellation in which the first one happened to be found. (We textbook authors can only apologize to our students for the whole mess!)
The variability of Delta Cephei was discovered in 1784 by the young English astronomer John Goodricke (see John Goodricke). The star rises rather rapidly to maximum light and then falls more slowly to minimum light, taking a total of 5.4 days for one cycle. The curve in Figure represents a simplified version of the light curve of Delta Cephei.
Several hundred cepheid variables are known in our Galaxy. Most cepheids have periods in the range of 3 to 50 days and luminosities that are about 1000 to 10,000 times greater than that of the Sun. Their variations in luminosity range from a few percent to a factor of 10.
Polaris, the North Star, is a cepheid variable that, for a long time, varied by one tenth of a magnitude, or by about 10% in visual luminosity, in a period of just under 4 days. Recent measurements indicate that the amount by which the brightness of Polaris changes is decreasing and that, sometime in the future, this star will no longer be a pulsating variable. This is just one more piece of evidence that stars really do evolve and change in fundamental ways as they age, and that being a cepheid variable represents a stage in the life of the star.
The Period-Luminosity Relation
The importance of cepheid variables lies in the fact that their periods and average luminosities turn out to be directly related. The longer the period (the longer the star takes to vary), the greater the luminosity. This period-luminosity relation was a remarkable discovery, one for which astronomers still (pardon the expression) thank their lucky stars. The period of such a star is easy to measure: a good telescope and a good clock are all you need. Once you have the period, the relationship (which can be put into precise mathematical terms) will give you the luminosity of the star.
Let’s be clear on what that means. The relation allows you to essentially “read off” how bright the star really is (how much energy it puts out). Astronomers can then compare this intrinsic brightness with the apparent brightness of the star. As we saw, the difference between the two allows them to calculate the distance.
The relation between period and luminosity was discovered in 1908 by Henrietta Leavitt (Figure), a staff member at the Harvard College Observatory (and one of a number of women working for low wages assisting Edward Pickering, the observatory’s director; see Annie Cannon: Classifier of the Stars). Leavitt discovered hundreds of variable stars in the Large Magellanic Cloudand Small Magellanic Cloud, two great star systems that are actually neighboring galaxies (although they were not known to be galaxies then). A small fraction of these variables were cepheids (Figure).
Henrietta Swan Leavitt (1868–1921).
Leavitt worked as an astronomer at the Harvard College Observatory. While studying photographs of the Magellanic Clouds, she found over 1700 variable stars, including 20 cepheids. Since all the cepheids in these systems were at roughly the same distance, she was able to compare their luminosities and periods of variation. She thus discovered a fundamental relationship between these characteristics that led to a new and much better way of estimating cosmic distances.
These systems presented a wonderful opportunity to study the behavior of variable stars independent of their distance. For all practical purposes, the Magellanic Clouds are so far away that astronomers can assume that all the stars in them are at roughly the same distance from us. (In the same way, all the suburbs of Los Angeles are roughly the same distance from New York City. Of course, if you are in Los Angeles, you will notice annoying distances between the suburbs, but compared to how far away New York City is, the differences seem small.) If all the variable stars in the Magellanic Clouds are at roughly the same distance, then any difference in their apparent brightnesses must be caused by differences in their intrinsic luminosities.
Large Magellanic Cloud.
The Large Magellanic Cloud (so named because Magellan’s crew were the first Europeans to record it) is a small, irregularly shaped galaxy near our own Milky Way. It was in this galaxy that Henrietta Leavitt discovered the cepheid period-luminosity relation.
Leavitt found that the brighter-appearing cepheids always have the longer periods of light variation. Thus, she reasoned, the period must be related to the luminosity of the stars. When Leavitt did this work, the distance to the Magellanic Clouds was not known, so she was only able to show that luminosity was related to period. She could not determine exactly what the relationship is.
To define the period-luminosity relation with actual numbers (to calibrate it), astronomers first had to measure the actual distances to a few nearby cepheids in another way. (This was accomplished by finding cepheids associated in clusters with other stars whose distances could be estimated from their spectra, as discussed in the next section of this chapter.) But once the relation was thus defined, it could give us the distance to any cepheid, wherever it might be located (Figure).
How to Use a Cepheid to Measure Distance.
(a) Find a cepheid variable star and measure its period. (b) Use the period-luminosity relation to calculate the star’s luminosity. (c) Measure the star’s apparent brightness. (d) Compare the luminosity with the apparent brightness to calculate the distance.
Here at last was the technique astronomers had been searching for to break the confines of distance that parallax imposed on them. Cepheids can be observed and monitored, it turns out, in many parts of our own Galaxy and in other nearby galaxies as well. Astronomers, including Ejnar Hertzsprung and Harvard’s Harlow Shapley, immediately saw the potential of the new technique; they and many others set to work exploring more distant reaches of space using cepheids as signposts. In the 1920s, Edwin Hubble made one of the most significant astronomical discoveries of all time using cepheids, when he observed them in nearby galaxies and discovered the expansion of the universe. As we will see, this work still continues, as the Hubble Space Telescope and other modern instruments try to identify and measure individual cepheids in galaxies farther and farther away. The most distant known variable stars are all cepheids, with some about 60 million light-years away.
JOHN GOODRICKE
The brief life of John Goodricke (Figure) is a testament to the human spirit under adversity. Born deaf and unable to speak, Goodricke nevertheless made a number of pioneering discoveries in astronomy through patient and careful observations of the heavens.
John Goodricke (1764–1786).
This portrait of Goodricke by artist J. Scouler hangs in the Royal Astronomical Society in London. There is some controversy about whether this is actually what Goodricke looked like or whether the painting was much retouched to please his family.
Born in Holland, where his father was on a diplomatic mission, Goodricke was sent back to England at age eight to study at a special school for the deaf. He did sufficiently well to enter Warrington Academy, a secondary school that offered no special assistance for students with handicaps. His mathematics teacher there inspired an interest in astronomy, and in 1781, at age 17, Goodricke began observing the sky at his family home in York, England. Within a year, he had discovered the brightness variations of the star Algol (discussed in The Stars: A Celestial Census) and suggested that an unseen companion star was causing the changes, a theory that waited over 100 years for proof. His paper on the subject was read before the Royal Society (the main British group of scientists) in 1783 and won him a medal from that distinguished group.
In the meantime, Goodricke had discovered two other stars that varied regularly, Beta Lyrae and Delta Cephei, both of which continued to interest astronomers for years to come. Goodricke shared his interest in observing with his older cousin, Edward Pigott, who went on to discover other variable stars during his much longer life. But Goodricke’s time was quickly drawing to a close; at age 21, only 2 weeks after he was elected to the Royal Society, he caught a cold while making astronomical observations and never recovered.
Today, the University of York has a building named Goodricke Hall and a plaque that honors his contributions to science. Yet if you go to the churchyard cemetery where he is buried, an overgrown tombstone has only the initials “J. G.” to show where he lies. Astronomer Zdenek Kopal, who looked carefully into Goodricke’s life, speculated on why the marker is so modest: perhaps the rather staid Goodricke relatives were ashamed of having a “deaf-mute” in the family and could not sufficiently appreciate how much a man who could not hear could nevertheless see.
RR Lyrae Stars
A related group of stars, whose nature was understood somewhat later than that of the cepheids, are called RR Lyrae variables, named for the star RR Lyrae, the best-known member of the group. More common than the cepheids, but less luminous, thousands of these pulsating variables are known in our Galaxy. The periods of RR Lyrae stars are always less than 1 day, and their changes in brightness are typically less than about a factor of two.
Astronomers have observed that the RR Lyrae stars occurring in any particular cluster all have about the same apparent brightness. Since stars in a cluster are all at approximately the same distance, it follows that RR Lyrae variables must all have nearly the same intrinsic luminosity, which turns out to be about 50 LSun. In this sense, RR Lyrae stars are a little bit like standard light bulbs and can also be used to obtain distances, particularly within our Galaxy. Figure displays the ranges of periods and luminosities for both the cepheids and the RR Lyrae stars.
Period-Luminosity Relation for Cepheid Variables.
In this class of variable stars, the time the star takes to go through a cycle of luminosity changes is related to the average luminosity of the star. Also shown are the period and luminosity for RR Lyrae stars.
Key Concepts and Summary
Cepheids and RR Lyrae stars are two types of pulsating variable stars. Light curves of these stars show that their luminosities vary with a regularly repeating period. RR Lyrae stars can be used as standard bulbs, and cepheid variables obey a period-luminosity relation, so measuring their periods can tell us their luminosities. Then, we can calculate their distances by comparing their luminosities with their apparent brightnesses, and this can allow us to measure distances to these stars out to over 60 million light-years.
Glossary
- cepheid
- a star that belongs to a class of yellow supergiant pulsating stars; these stars vary periodically in brightness, and the relationship between their periods and luminosities is useful in deriving distances to them
- light curve
- a graph that displays the time variation of the light from a variable or eclipsing binary star or, more generally, from any other object whose radiation output changes with time
- period-luminosity relation
- an empirical relation between the periods and luminosities of certain variable stars
- pulsating variable star
- a variable star that pulsates in size and luminosity
- RR Lyrae
- one of a class of giant pulsating stars with periods shorter than 1 day, useful for finding distances
Contributors
Andrew Fraknoi (Foothill College), David Morrison (NASA Ames Research Center), Sidney C. Wolff (National Optical Astronomy Observatory) with many contributing authors. Textbook content produced by OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/astronomy). | https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Astronomy_and_Cosmology_TextMaps/Map%3A_Astronomy_(OpenStax)/19%3A_Celestial_Distances/19.3%3A_Variable_Stars%3A_One_Key_to_Cosmic_Distances |
Re-examine the relationship between a star's brightness, luminosity, temperature and size with these entertaining videos. The chapter begins with lessons designed to help you take another look at how star size is determined and differentiate between a star's intrinsic and apparent brightness. You'll also review the chemistry and physics concepts behind electron transitions and spectral lines in addition to their uses for determining a star's chemical composition and temperature.
Once you have a firm grasp of these concepts, get re-acquainted with the applications of Kirchhoff's laws and the Doppler effect when studying star spectra. Wrap up your review with lessons outlining the use of the magnitude scale and methods for measuring the distance to a star. This chapter covers the following star characteristics:
- Brightness
- Luminosity
- Temperature
- Emission spectra
Whether you want a quick refresher on spectroscopy topics or need to take another look at the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, this chapter allows you to focus on the subjects you want to study. The short videos are easy to navigate, and the transcripts let you view each lesson's main ideas and key terms at a glance.
1. How to Find the Size of a Star
This lesson will tell you how astronomers figure out the size of stars. You'll learn it has to do with a star's temperature, luminosity, and a cool thing known as the H-R diagram.
2. Electron Transitions & Spectral Lines
This lesson discusses how electrons transition between energy levels, why they do this, how photons are involved, how absorption and emission spectra come into play, and what the Lyman, Balmer, and Paschen series are.
3. Measuring The Distance to a Star
This lesson will tell you how astronomers can measure the distance to a star and how it relates to the way surveyors measure distances to landmarks right here on Earth.
4. The Brightness Of Stars
This lesson will define and describe important terms related to a star's brightness, including luminosity, intrinsic brightness, apparent brightness, and more.
5. Relating a Star's Brightness to Luminosity
This lesson will explore how luminosity, apparent brightness, and distance are related to one another using the inverse square law. You'll also learn how luminosity can be gauged based on distance and apparent brightness.
6. Determining the Temperature of a Star
This lesson will explain to you the concepts of a spectrum, electromagnetic radiation, the temperature of a faraway star and how that relates to something known as a blackbody curve and Wien's law.
7. Spectroscopy and the Chemical Characteristics of Stars
This lesson will explain how astronomers find out the chemical composition of a distant star using spectral lines and spectroscopy, and how this relates to atoms, electrons, and photons.
8. Kirchhoff's Laws and Star Spectra
This lesson will define for you three laws associated with spectra and how they relate to the composition of stars, as well as how they relate to atoms and wavelengths.
9. The Doppler Effect and Star Spectra
This lesson will outline what the Doppler effect is using a very familiar example, then parlay that knowledge into understanding how the Doppler effect is used in astronomy.
10. How Stars Generate Energy
This lesson will tell you how the sun generates energy, energy that depends on much more than the superficial notion of nuclear fusion. We'll delve deeply into this process by exploring protons, positrons, gamma rays, and a whole lot more!
11. The Spectral Sequence and Temperature
This lesson will talk about spectral classes, spectral types, and the spectral sequence. We will break down each spectral class and point out some important characteristics of each.
12. Using the Magnitude Scale to Compare Star Brightness
This lesson will describe the magnitude scale, apparent brightness, and apparent visual magnitude. It will also teach you how to compare the brightness of stars.
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originally posted by: Greggers
3) There is a difference between how far the light has traveled to get here and how far away the object is NOW, due to the expansion of time/space.
originally posted by: Navarro
When utilizing Parallax, wouldn't it be necessary to physically measure the distance between Earth and at least one star and then to compare it to the angle of light relative to opposing points in Earth's orbit? Otherwise, aren't we beginning with an abstract assumption when we attribute a degree of angle to a particular distance, where we've yet to physically measure and confirm a base?
Are we not also beginning with a similar assumption when we estimate that the period and brightness of a Cepheid directly correlates with a specific distance, where we've also not measured a base? Doesn't this issue in fact persist with regard to all means of measurement of stellar distances? That is, even if we were to agree that the Inverse Square Law is generally true, or always true as the term "law" implies, aren't we actually only measuring the distance in which the photons in question have travelled, rather than the actual distance separating Earth from the stellar object itself? Due to phenomena such as the curvature of space, gravitational lensing, and other matters known and unknown, we can't expect the Inverse Square Law to consistently convey the distance between the Earth and the stellar object in question, can we?
Am I entirely missing something, or do we actually not possess a method of determining distance in deep space? Are the distances which we attribute to stellar objects practically pure guesses with what might as well be an infinite margin for error?
originally posted by: Navarro
I've taken a look at the forum you've recommended. It reminds me of a physics forum in which I was once banned "for peddling psuedo-science," then shortly later invited back by another moderator and academic who thought my theory valid and worth consideration. I never returned, and the first thing I saw in the forum you recommended was a sticky warning against posting "new theories" and "psuedo-science." As you see above, I like to imagine, see what people think, and to learn about the concepts proposed both in favor of and as a rebuttle to what I've imagined. I'd love the opportunity to learn what they know, but the environment seems awefully oppressive. | https://www.abovetopsecret.com/forum/thread1114499/pg1 |
Cygnus 17 – the right upper magnification – Brightness is 5 Mag., The double system of stars of the night sky in the constellation of the swan. You can observe this pair of stars from the suburban sky. However, to comfortable observe the double system, a telescope will be needed. The distance between our Sun and Cygnus 17 is 68.2 light years.
HIP 97307 – lower left magnification – HIP97307 is the star reference name in the Hipparcos Star Catalogue. The double system is not a direct part of the swan constellation, but is within the constellation of the swan. Brightness is 6.18 Mag. Based on the spectral type (K2), the color of the star is in the range between orange and red. You can see it with an unarmed eye, but to comfortable observe the dual system you should use a telescope. The distance between our Sun and HIP 97307 is 366,9 light years.
Photographs
(March 2019) made in Zwardoń. A standard place
of meetings of the Polish
association of astronomy enthusiasts – Katowice
dep.
Equipment: Canon EOS 6D, Sky-Watcher 200/1000 [mm] on the EQ6 Pro. | http://www.astrofoto.pekdar.net/en/tag/uklad-podwojny-gwiazd/ |
When you look at the night sky from your backyard, do you sometimes think that there is no order to all of those stars out there? If the star isn’t part of a well known constellation, is it nothing more than a point of light in a sea of other points of light? Nothing that distinguishes it from any other star?
Well, this just isn’t so. In fact, stars have characteristics such as temperature, luminosity (brightness), mass, galactic location, distance to the earth, and even age — all combined forming a stellar fingerprint that uniquely identifies a specific star.
You probably already know this, but did you ever stop to wonder how we came to know these unique characteristics of a star? After all, we can’t run up and stick a thermometer in a star, or run a tape measure from the star to Earth. So, how do we find get information about stars?
Finding the distance to a star
Well, this one had me the most curious, so this is the one I’ll take first. How do we measure the distance to a specific star? If the stars are nearby, we use stellar parallax
When you move towards objects that are near you, they seem to move in relation to the objects that are located much futher than you. You might notice this when you look at signs by the side of the road in comparison to the background detail when you’re traveling in a car. You can also notice this effect when you hold a pencil in front of you and view it through one opened eye and then another (see diagram).
This same effect seems to happen to stars that are close to the Earth. If you measure the angle to a star from a fixed point on the Earth, and then measure it again from the same point when the Earth is at the opposite position in its orbit around the sun (in 6 months time), you’ll find that the two measurements form a triangle where they intersect (see U of Oregon Diagram). If you half the triangle and then take the angle of one half, you’ll get a value in arcseconds (an arcsecond is 1/360 of a degree). You can then find the distance to the star using stellar parallex:
d = 1/p
The distance to the star (in parsecs, roughly equal to 3.26 light years) is equal to the inverse of the parallex angle of the star.
A light year is the distance light travels within a year — roughly 300,000 km/s
Using this approach we’ve been able to find the distances to several stars such as Proxima Centauri at 0.772 parallax (4.22 light years); Sirius B at 0.379 parallax (8.61 light years); and Epsilon Indi at 0.276 parallax (11.82 light years).
Of course, this approach works only for stars that are relatively close to the solar system, but once you have this information, you can use the distance in other calculations — such as to find the luminosity of a star.
Finding Luminosity
A star’s brightness is a measure of its luminosity.
Luminosity is the amount of light energy emitted by the star within a second, measured in watts (joules per second).
You might think that luminosity is directly related to the distance of the object from the Earth. Well, it is, but there are other factors involved such as the mass of the star and its temperature. If star A is further from the Earth than star B, but star A is much, much brighter, it can appear more bright to us than the closer star.
Still, the distance to the star can tell us its luminosity, with a simple formula:
L = 4pid2b
In this, the Luminosity is equal to the distance squared, multiplied by the brightness, and then multiplied by 4 times pi (pi approx equal to 3.1415926...). The brightness is the apparent brightness as its measured here on Earth (or wherever the viewpoint is), through techniques such as photometry. The brightness of a star is usually described by comparing it to Sirius A, the brightest star we see from Earth (and with a brightness of 1.0). A simplified approach to finding luminosity is to plug the Sun's brightness, distance, and luminosity into the formula and then take the ratio of the two equations. By doing this, the value of 4pi falls out of the formula:
L/Lsun = (d/dsun)2 b / bsun
Luminosity can now be found by direct comparison between the star and the Sun.
For instance, if a star has a brightness of 5.2 x 10-12 compared to the sun, and it’s distance from earth is 5.2 x 106 that of the Sun to the Earth, you would use the following to find the luminosity:
Lstar/Lsun = (5.2 x 106)2 5.2 x 10-12 = 140
The star (Regulus) has 140 times the luminosity of the Sun, but appears dimmer because of its distance. You could use this same approach with any two stars — find the ratio of the stars and then solve for the unknown value:
L1/L2 = (d1/d2)2 b1/b2
With this, if you find out that star 1 is 3 times the distance of star 2 and appears twice as bright, you can figure the luminosity without having to use a calculator: star 1 has 18 times the luminosity as star 2.
Another characteristic you can find out about a star from the light it emits is its temperature, found next.
Finding a star’s temperature
Quiz time: which is hotter, a blue star or a red star?
The answer might surprise you — the blue star is hotter. The blue color is because most of the star’s radiation is in shorter wavelengths, hence in the blue to ultraviolet range. A cooler star has a longer wavelength, in the red to infrared range.
Wien’s Law states that as a star’s temperature increases, it’s color shifts to the blue.
You can find the temperature of a star by finding the wavelength of its maximum intensity, and using this value in the Wien’s Law equation:
wavelengthmax = .0029 / T
In the equation just shown, the maximum wavelength emission is equal to a constant value (.0029) divided by the temperature. The maximum wavelength emission can be found using instruments on Earth, so this value is used to find the star’s temperature:
T = .0029 / wavelength max
If a star has a maximum wavelength of 500 nm (5 x 10-7 m), its temperature would then be about 5800 degrees kelvin:
T = 0.0029 / 5 x 10-7
This is the temperature of our own Sun. Its color is due to the fact that the maximum wavelength emission is at 500nm, putting it within the yellow color range in the visible light spectrum.
You can find the maximum wavelength emission of any star using photometry, regardless of its distance from the Earth.
Of course, once you have a star’s temperature, and its luminosity, you can then find its radius.
Finding a star’s radius
Okay, let’s recap what we’ve been able to find out about distant stars.
We’ve been able to find their distance (if close enough to use stellar parallax), as well as their luminosity (regardless of distance). We can also find a star’s maximum wavelength emission, and we’ve used this to find the star’s color as well as temperature. One thing we haven’t found, yet, is a star’s size. We have found, though, the values necessary to find the radius of the star: its luminosity and it’s temperature.
A star’s luminosity is equal to its radius, squared, multiplied by its temperature to an exponent of 4:
L = 4piR2(const)T4
The (const) value in the equation is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, a value of 5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4. (Find other constants.)
You don’t have to remember this rather computationally instensive formula if you look at it as a measure of the ratio between the star and the Sun:
L/Lsun = (R / Rsun)2 (T / Tsun)4
Re-arranging this to search for the radius, you have:
R/Rsun = (Tsun / T)2 SQRT(L / Lsun)
For instance, the star Rigel has a temperature 3 times that of the Sun, and a luminosity 64,000 times that of the Sun (one very bright star). It’s radius in comparison to the Sun’s is:
RRigel/Rsun = (1/3)2SQRT(64,000) = 27.5
Rigel has a radius about 28 times that of our Sun. As the Sun’s radius is 6.96 x 105 km, Rigel’s radius would be about 1.9 x 107 km.
An so on…
There are other things we can find out about stars, but this should give you an idea of what we know, and what we can find out about a specific star.
And we didn’t even have to leave our backyards to find it. | https://burningbird.net/stellar-fingerprints/ |
Counseling for Chronic Illness - Ways Therapy Can Help
Chronic illness can strain your view of yourself, your relationships, your place in society, and your plans for the future. Psychotherapy (also known as 'counseling' or just 'therapy') is a valuable resource when you are struggling with these challenges. This publication provides general information about some of the different ways that therapy can be helpful.
THE COGNITIVE ASPECTS OF VESTIBULAR DISORDERS
The purpose of these articles is to identify common psychological reactions/ phenomena associated with vestibular disorders and to suggest various coping strategies to improve functioning. The information is divided into two separate articles: the first will address cognitive aspects of vestibular disorders; the second will address emotional aspects of vestibular disorders. Download a 1-page summary of this article.
THE EMOTIONAL ASPECTS OF VESTIBULAR DISORDERS
Vestibular disorders affect individuals physically AND psychologically. These disorders are variable not only in their physical manifestation, but in their psychological manifestation as well. And while it is important to understand your physical symptoms, it is equally important to understand your psychological symptoms as they can often trigger and/or exacerbate your physical symptoms.
Dizziness & Psychiatric Conditions infographic
“It’s All in Your Head”: Addressing Vestibular Patients’ Stressors and Self Doubts
Identifies the issues associated with the subtle erosion of self-esteem often experienced by vestibular patients.
Coping with a Vestibular Disorder
This publication contains to articles: 1) "Coping with a Chronic Vestibular Disorder and Other Invisible Illnesses" by Molly-Jane Isaacson Rubinger, MSW, LICSW, and 2) Learning to Cope with Vestibular Disorders: Tips Offered by VeDA and support group leaders to the person who is new to vestibular disorders.
Fatigue, Stress and Responsibilities
This publication explains how one can learn to cope with the fatigue (and contributors to fatigue, including stress and pain) that often accompanies their chronic illness and offers strategies to manage stress.
Stress Management Techniques
Stress is an automatic response for our body to protect itself from threats. This “fight or flight” sympathetic response is beneficial if you are in a life-threatening situation or require a short-term force of motivation. But, if you experience stress over a prolonged period of time, it could become chronic. Chronic stress can have serious consequences for your brain, body, and mind. This article gives you some suggestions for stress management techniques, including progressive muscle relaxation.
Chronic Illness & Vulnerability
This publication discusses the inherant vulnerability present in people with chronic illnesses (such as vestibular disorders), and that by acknowledging our vulnerability we can develop compassion and acceptance.
DID THIS INFORMATION HELP YOU?
Thanks to VeDA, vestibular disorders are becoming recognized for their impacts on people's lives and our economy. We see new diagnostic tools and research studies, more accessible treatments, and a growing respect for how life-changing vestibular disorders can be.
Your support of VeDA matters. Please help us continue this important work by becoming a member or donor. | https://vestibular.org/psychology |
Counseling and Psychological Services (CAPS) is a department within the Division of Student Life and Development that helps undergraduate and graduate students cope more effectively with personal, mental health, and academic issues that arise in their lives. Counseling and Psychological Services is the primary mental health provider for students at St. Cloud State University. We are accredited by the International Association of Counseling Services (IACS).
We offer free and confidential personal counseling and consultation to promote personal development and psychological well-being and assist students in defining and meeting personal, academic, and career objectives.
We've designed our website to provide you with an overview of our services as well as resources that you may use at your convenience. These resources may be sufficient to address your needs or you may decide, upon reading them, that you have more questions or want additional assistance. If so, we are here to serve you.
SCSU was one of the first schools in the nation to take part in the Jed Health Matters Campus Program, meaning it has demonstrated a comprehensive approach to supporting students’ mental health on this campus, based on their analysis of an extensive survey we completed.
The Jed Health Matters Campus Program is a leading national organization working to promote emotional health and prevent suicide in college students.
Counseling and Psychological Services is committed to providing services that are sensitive to human diversity in age, race, gender, ethnicity, nationality, religious and moral beliefs, sexual orientation, socio-economic background, and ability. We endeavor to treat all students, staff, and faculty with the utmost concern and respect, and we continually work to enhance our multicultural competence and our ability to be effective allies to diverse communities on campus. CAPS maintains collaborative working relationships with the Multicultural Student Services, the Women's Center, LGBT Resource Center, Student Accessibility Service, and other campus offices.
Counseling and Psychological Services maintains a staff of professional counselors who hold master's or doctoral degrees in counseling or psychology and provide full-time counseling in our center. Most of our counselors maintain licensure as psychologists with the Minnesota Board of Psychology, Minnesota Board of Social Work, Minnesota Board of Behavioral Health and Therapy, and several hold faculty rank in the university. St. Cloud State University also staffs a clinical case manager to help coordinate services for students in need. In addition, our center supervises a number of graduate assistants and counselors who are training at the master’s and doctoral level.
Are you in a masters or doctoral program in clinical counseling? We offer 9-month (academic year) training positions for students who are seeking a masters-level internship or doctoral-level practicum. | https://www.stcloudstate.edu/counseling/about-us.aspx |
Making the decision to begin therapy is often a difficult one.
As a Licensed Clinical Psychologist with three decades of experience, I take a solution-oriented approach to counseling. My focus is to identify your goals, and work together to help you reach the outcome you desire. A strong therapeutic relationship is critical to success. My approach is both compassionate and supportive as well as straight-forward and direct, adapting my style to your needs. I emphasize your strengths, and utilize basic problem-solving strategies to help you learn the necessary skills to effectively address and cope with the struggles you are experiencing.
I provide services for adults, adolescents, and children, preschool through pre-teen.
My clinical practice is generalized. I have significant experience working with a wide range of emotional problems, from mild to severe, including anxiety struggles, mood disorders, behavioral disorders, and relationship/family problems.
Specialties include marital/couples counseling as well as helping families who are going through divorce. I am strongly committed to assisting couples rebuild their relationships and replace dysfunction with healthier patterns. At the other end of the spectrum, I offer support for individuals and families who struggle with the pain and difficulties of separation and/or divorce.
My practice offers many approaches to therapy including:
I also provide court-ordered counseling for individuals and families.
You may be unsure therapy or counseling is right for you, or that this is the right time. I encourage you to consider a consultation with me to help you determine the appropriate path. I am here to help. | http://drhoneysheff.com/therapy.html |
LifeBridge is both an asset and an essential resource in the community. Our behavioral health counseling services for children, adults, and families help to build the internal resources necessary to recover from adversity. Measures of treatment effectiveness are based on the theory that if behavioral health treatment is successful, clients will increase their overall resiliency and be better positioned to stabilize their living situation to lead healthier lives—not only for them but for their families as well. Our team of licensed social workers, professional counselors, marriage/family therapists, addiction counselors and Advanced Practice Registered Nurses provides you with the tools needed to help you cope, adapt, and overcome challenges. Medicaid and Insurance is accepted.
OUTPATIENT URBAN TRAUMA CENTER
LifeBridge differs from organizations offering similar services due to our designation through the State of Connecticut Department of Children and Families (DCF) as an Outpatient Urban Trauma Center. LifeBridge recognizes the impact of trauma on individuals and communities and desires to strengthen and improve the quality of our service delivery through the provision of culturally responsive services addressing urban and racial trauma. Urban trauma is not a label or condition but is instead a framework to identify, reclaim and heal from structural racism. An essential aspect of advancing racial equity and racial healing is learning about, and addressing, the psychological effects of racism.
We are an extension of our environment. Nurture plays a vital role in our development, including how we handle our challenges and successes. Inequities in urban environments and conditions that sustain modern-day oppression – systemic racism, chronic exposure to poverty, overcrowded housing, poor physical and mental health, violence, crime, drug abuse, and despair – can make Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) more susceptible to developing urban trauma.
Through the support of the Urban Trauma Network (UTN) we will receive coaching, training, technical assistance, and fidelity monitoring from the Urban Trauma-Performance Improvement Center (UT-PIC). The services offered by the UT-PIC will be transformative and will improve our overall quality of services and access to care. The UT-PIC, with support from DCF, will provide a community-based approach to understanding the effects of racism, discrimination, and inequalities for urban youth in our community and throughout Connecticut.
Bridgeport, CT
Fairfield, CT
Domestic Violence
We offer mental health sessions, specifically for survivors of emotional, physical, financial, or sexual abuse by a partner and children who have witnessed Domestic Violence in the home. Other services include: parent and child interventions in family therapy, help to develop a social network and referrals for emergency shelter, legal help, and more specialized services.
General Counseling
Our clinicians work with clients to create and complete their treatment goals, which focus on building resiliency through three key life areas: better self-sufficiency, improved overall functioning, and lessening or elimination of symptoms.
Adolescent Wellness
With a team lead by licensed clinicians, we offer specialized pediatric behavioral health therapy for individuals and families.
Substance Abuse
We offer individual and family therapy, recovery and relapse prevention, and sober living groups.
Family Therapy
We work with families within the community to nurture change and development.
Community Support Program
Provides intensive case management for up to 112 individuals with severe mental illness to live independently and achieve their individual life goals.
If you are interested in services, please contact our Admissions Dept. at 203-368-4291. If we are currently serving other clients, please leave a message and we will return your call as soon as possible. For more information, please email the Behavioral Health Department at [email protected]. | https://lifebridgect.org/behavioral-health-center/ |
By talking with a licensed professional counselor, social worker or therapist, individuals are offered a safe and confidential environment to discuss emotional difficulties, life challenges, relational conflicts, or mental health concerns. According to the National Alliance on Mental Health, 1 out of every 5 adults in America live with a mental health conditional; however, only 40% of these individuals seek help. It can often be difficult or stigmatizing to seek out counseling services; however there many benefits of pursing services if help or change is desired.
The American Psychological Association suggests therapy to individuals who feel that there is something internal that is causes distress and interference with an aspect of life, such as:
If you feel overwhelmed, fatigued, anxious, angry, or hopeless, we encourage that you reach out to learn more about services. If you have tried counseling in the past and it didn't help right away, we encourage that time can often help build rapport between clients and therapists. Within the initial appointment, we will investigate symptoms, previous diagnosis reports, treatment experiences, and options or preferences for counselors. If after a few sessions, you feel that you are not "connecting" with the therapist, we are happy to reassign the case and pair you with someone you feel more fitting. We are able to offering morning, afternoon, evening, and weekend sessions as needed and, if you are uncertain about committing to the services, we are happy to investigate short-term options as well.
To learn more about Restorative Practices or Parenting Programs, click here
Contact & Address: | https://www.flcps.com/services/substance-use-treatment/adolescent-outpatient-treatment |
Hurricane Sandy struck in 2012, propelling serious emotional, financial, and practical problems at millions of people. Many of them experienced ongoing feelings of stress and anxiety following the disaster. 22 individuals with anxiety issues post-disaster were treated with Dialectical Behavior Therapy techniques, and compared to control subjects who received no treatment. The Beck Anxiety Inventory was administered to assess anxiety levels pre and posttreatment. Results indicated that Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) is useful in reducing anxiety levels triggered by natural disaster. This study substantiates earlier studies which demonstrate the effectiveness of DBT, and provides new data on its use with a new sample: post-hurricane survivors. Discovering techniques which can support emotional recovery is useful for individuals, communities, and relief organizations which establish policies and programs. Practical implications of this research include the need for resources to help survivors cope with emotional issues in the wake of disasters. This study yields significant information which can assist survivors of future natural disasters.
Hurricane Sandy devastated the eastern coast of the United States in 2012, crashing with winds of 80 mph and floods of up to 13 feet. An estimated 100 people were killed. Streets were flooded, trees were torn apart, and beach boardwalks were hurled upside down and shredded. More than eight million homes lost electricity and heat, many for more than a month. The disaster resulted in billions of dollars in damages to homes, buildings, and businesses (Sharp, 2012).
Ongoing emotional distress occurs in the wake of a disaster; this is known as a “normal response to an abnormal event.” (Mental Health Association of Nebraska, 2012). More than half of the residents in one disaster experienced anxiety and depression. Follow-up 18 months later revealed that more than one third of the affected residents reported having these feelings (Roorda, Van Stiphout & Huijsman- Rubingh, 2004). In another study of the same disaster, 30 months post-disaster, the incidence of psychological problems in survivors was 30% greater than control subjects. An individual's reaction to emotional trauma is complex and difficult to predict (McFarlane & Yehuda, 1995). Their emotional and physical proximity to actual danger, degree of perceived personal control, and the source of the trauma (e.g., natural disaster) also impact the reaction to trauma (McFarlane & De Girolamo, 1996).
Acierno et al., (2007) found that significant numbers of individuals are negatively emotionally affected by hurricanes. In their sample of those affected by hurricanes, greater than fifteen percent met full criteria for at least one psychological disorder, and more than 100,000 adults met criteria for hurricane-specific PTSD. Abramson, Stehling-Ariza, Garfield, and Redlener (2008) reported that more than half of 1077 individuals affected by a hurricane reported significant psychological distress six months post-disaster and at follow-up the next year. In a study of psychologists working with disaster victims, Madrid and Grant (2008) reported intense trauma and widespread generalized anxiety experienced by those affected by hurricanes. They concluded that it is essential for mental health needs to be included in planning for disaster preparation and recovery.
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) has been used to reduce symptoms of stress and personality issues in various populations (Linehan, 1987, Verheul et al., 2003). It includes behavioral analysis, skills training, and homework exercises for distress tolerance, mindfulness, emotion regulation, and interpersonal effectiveness. It is useful in helping individuals to cope with intense emotions and crises (Linehan, 1993). The current study evaluates the use of Dialectical Behavior Therapy in individuals following Hurricane Sandy. It was hypothesized that the BAI scores would be reduced after treatment, reflecting a reduction in anxiety levels. The participants were diagnosed using the diagnostic criteria in the DSM-IV-TR manual. The study obtained ethical approval, participants gave informed consent, and identifying participant data remains confidential.
The participants in this study were 22 adults residing in the north-eastern United States, who had sustained flood damage to their homes during Hurricane Sandy. The sample was self-selected (the individuals sought psychotherapy for post-disaster stress) during the time frame 6-12 months post-disaster. Subjects were male and female adults ranging in age from 32-61 who gave informed consent and reported anxiety related to the hurricane. They were seen for individual Dialectical Behavior Therapy psychotherapy sessions by the author of the study, and the Beck Anxiety Inventory was selfadministered in the initial session, and again during the final session. They were encouraged to attend weekly sessions for six months. BAI mean scores were calculated, and a Student’s t- test analysis was performed to examine differences between mean scores of subjects pre and post-treatment. Dialectical Behavior Therapy skills (including distress tolerance, interpersonal effectiveness, mindfulness, and emotion regulation) were taught to clients in session, and they were encouraged to practice these skills outside of session to cope with stress. Subjects received weekly sessions during which Dialectical Behavior Therapy exercises were discussed, homework exercises were reviewed, and progress was monitored. A control group was formed with 22 subjects in the same geographical area, in a similar age range, who were impacted by flood damage to their homes and reported anxiety related to the hurricane. These individuals were asked to complete the BAI upon initial contact six months post-hurricane, and at follow-up six months later. The control subjects included were those who scored an anxiety level of 29 or higher on the initial BAI, and did not receive psychotherapy services in the interim.
The Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), created by Aaron Beck and colleagues, is a 21-question multiple-choice scale which assesses the severity of an individual's anxiety. It measures anxiety symptoms in adults and can be completed within ten minutes. This scale can be used for screening for anxiety or for measuring improvements of anxiety symptoms subsequent to treatment. Respondents are asked to rate anxiety symptoms (including heart pounding/racing, fear of losing control, inability to relax) on a scale ranging from zero to three. The total score has a minimum of zero and a maximum of 63 (Beck & Steer, 1993). Research on the Beck Anxiety Inventory has provided support for concurrent validity and reliability. The scale showed high internal consistency (α = 0.92) and test–retest reliability over one week of 0.75. In addition, the BAI was correlated with the revised Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale, (r = 0.51) (Beck, Epstein, Brown, & Steer, 1988). The Inventory was also validated in other studies (Fydrich, Dowdall, & Chambless, 1992, Steer, Ranierik, Beck, & Clark, 1993).
Of the 22 participants who received Dialectical Behavior Therapy, 14 (64%) were female and eight (36%) were male. Mean age was 49.6 years (SD = 8.4), with an age range from 32 to 61. Mean number of sessions attended was 24, and the presenting problems included anxiety, irritability, and sad mood related to the disaster. Results from the Beck Anxiety Inventory demonstrated that 95% of individuals reported a lower level of anxiety at the end of treatment. Student’s t-test revealed that individuals scored significantly higher on the BAI pre-treatment than post-treatment. Higher BAI scores indicate higher anxiety levels; scores between 22-35 are termed moderate anxiety.
Among participants (n = 22), there was a statistically significant difference between the pre (M = 33.90, SD = 5.17) and post-treatment scores (M = 19.22, SD = 2.68), t (21) = 25.69, p ≤ 0.05, CI 95%. Therefore, the null hypothesis that there is no difference in anxiety levels pre and post-DBT treatment can be rejected. Control subjects (n = 22) had an average initial BAI score similar to those of treatment subjects (M = 35.36, SD = 5.28), and their BAI scores six months later (after receiving no treatment) was not significantly lower (M = 30.40, SD = 2.48).
Results of this study show that individuals report significantly reduced levels of disaster-related anxiety following Dialectical Behavior Therapy. These results suggest that this is an effective mode of treatment for individuals post-disaster. Data corroborates the results of other studies which demonstrated the positive impacts of DBT with various other populations (Linehan, 1987, Verheul et al., 2003). Comparison between treatment subjects and controls indicate that those who experienced anxiety post-disaster and did not receive treatment continued to report relatively high anxiety six months later.
Paranjothy et al., (2011) note that the mental health impact of flooding is a growing public health concern. Graham (2012) described the emotional aftermath of Hurricane Sandy, which left millions feeling frightened and frigid. Feelings people experienced include hopelessness, anger, and anxiety. Ruggiero et al., (2012) evaluated the effects of hurricanes and found that post-disaster psychological symptom estimates were 15% for anxiety and stress. Statistical analyses suggested that indicators of hurricane exposure severity such as lack of electricity, food, money, or transportation were most significantly correlated with mental health problems. It was concluded that the “contribution of factors such as loss of housing, financial means, clothing, food, and water to the development and/or maintenance of negative mental health consequences highlights the importance of systemic post-disaster intervention resources targeted to meet basic needs in the post-disaster period” (p.30).
Evidently, disasters have profound impacts on the psychological health of survivors. “Stress and strong emotions are common after a storm like Hurricane Sandy. Many people experience fear, anxiety, anger, and sadness; other reactions may include changes in eating or sleeping habits, and increased alcohol or drug use”. (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Association, 2012). In accordance with previous research studies on disasters (Graham, 2012, Carroll, Morbey, Balogh & Araoz, 2009), it was found that many survivors of Hurricane Sandy experienced psychological symptoms. Participants in the present study reported that their anxiety symptoms were associated with the hurricane. Onset of symptoms occurred after the hurricane, and the content of their anxiety-provoking thoughts were disaster-related. These results are significant due to the enormous number of areas affected, and the impact which these symptoms have on individuals. These symptoms affect quality of life, and can potentially reduce survivor’s abilities to cope with various associated tasks (filing insurance claims and appeals, applications for governmental assistance, purchasing new possessions, and home repairs which are extensive and expensive).
Typically, post-disaster survivors face a range of ongoing stressors that increase their stress levels. Relocation, loss of employment, legal procedures, and financial loss are some of the common burdens. Following a 2005 hurricane in the southern United States, many lives were disrupted for lengthy periods because of relocation, lack of housing, and loss of basic infrastructure (Bryant, 2009). The present study illustrates that the use of DBT can help survivors cope with the emotions and behaviors related to these burdens. One participant noted: “I still think about the hurricane, but now when I get upset I can do exercises and write about how I feel”. Another stated: “I can keep calm on the inside with the skills I learned, no matter what’s going on outside of me”. The skills bring relief, and the idea of having the skills themselves may be empowering for individuals.
Potential limitations of this study include a relatively small sample size. A larger sample size might have yielded different results. Regarding the timeframe during which the research was conducted, it is possible that participant’s needs and symptoms would differ earlier and later than the 6-12 month post-disaster period of the current study. During the first several months after the storm, they were attending to construction recovery and seeking practical help for storm-related needs. It may be that the passage of time (as people emotionally recover after the hurricane) helped to lower stress levels by the end of the research study, in addition to the benefits of therapy lowering stress levels, as control subjects also reported an average reduction in BAI scores of 5 points over six months. Future research can compare larger treatment and control groups to address this question.
Practical implications of this study include the need for programs to help survivors cope with emotional issues post-disaster. To reduce psychological symptoms when facing future events, communities can plan resources for psychological assistance, including DBT after the disaster. As Roorda, Van Stiphout, & Huijsman-Rubingh (2004) and Goldmann & Galea (2014) note, disasters affect large groups of people in terms of psychological health, and aftercare services for disaster victims must be designed to address their psychological needs. Dialectical Behavior Therapy is a practical and effective mode of treatment (Linehan, 1987, Linehan et al., 1999). The results of this study indicate that it is an approach that is also useful for disaster survivors.
Clearly there is sufficient data available demonstrating that the psychological effects of disasters needs to be a high priority for policymakers. Several variables can be quantitatively examined. These include the specific treatments which help people recover, and can be incorporated into the design and delivery of public mental health programs to address survivor’s needs after flooding. Information from the present study can be useful in clinical and administrative arenas as well. Healthcare agencies and individual clinicians need to be educated about the major distress that flooding and its after-effects can cause, in addition to the treatments which enable survivors to improve mental health (Appendix 1).
Abramson, D., Stehling-Ariza, T., Garfield, R., & Redlener, I. (2008). Prevalence and predictors of mental health distress post-Katrina: Findings from the Gulf Coast Child and Family Health Study. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 2(2), 77-86.
Acierno, R., Ruggiero, K., Galea, S., Resnick, H., Koenen, K., & Roitzsch, J. (2007). Psychological sequelae resulting from the 2004 Florida hurricanes: implications for post-disaster intervention. American Journal of Public Health; 97(1).
Beck A., Epstein N., Brown G., & Steer R. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. .Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 893-897.
Beck A., & Steer, R. (1993). Beck Anxiety Inventory Manual. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Brace and Company.
Bryant, R. (2009). The impact of Natural disasters on mental health. InPsych Australian Psychological Society. Retrieved from: http://www.psychology.org.au/inpsych/
Carroll, B., Morbey, H., Balogh, R., & Araoz, G. (2009). Flooded homes, broken bonds: the meaning of home, psychological processes and their impact on psychological health in a disaster. Health and Place, 15 (2), 540-547.
Fydrich, T., Dowdall, D., & Chambless, D. (1992). Reliability and validity of the Beck Anxiety Inventory. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 6, 55-61.
Goldmann, E. & Galea, S. (2014). Mental health consequences of disasters. Annual Review of Public Health, 35, 169-183.
Graham, J. (2012, November 10). The emotional aftermath of Hurricane Sandy. New York Times, p. 15.
Linehan, M. (1993). Skills Training Manual for Treating Borderline Personality Disorder. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Linehan, M. (1987). Dialectical Behavior Therapy for borderline personality disorder: Theory and method. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, May, 51(3), 261-276.
Linehan, M., Schmidt, H., Dimeff, L., Craft, J., Kanter, J., & Comtois, K. (1999). Dialectical behavior therapy for patients with borderline personality disorder and drug-dependence. American Journal of Addiction, 8 (4), 279-292.
McFarlane A., & Yehuda, R. (1995). Conflict Between Current Knowledge About Posttraumatic Stress Disorder & its Original Conceptual Basis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(12), 1705-1713.
McFarlane, A., & De Girolamo, G. (1996). The nature of traumatic stressors and the epidemiology of posttraumatic reactions. In B. A. Van der Kolk, A. C. McFarlane, & L. Weisaeth (Eds.), Traumatic stress: The overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society (pp. 129-154). New York: Guilford.
Madrid, P. & Grant, R. (2008). Meeting Mental Health Needs Following a Natural Disaster: Lessons From Hurricane Katrina. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 39(1), 86-92.
Mental Health Association of Nebraska. (2012, December 5). Psychological First Aid: Mental Health Care after Hurricane Sandy. Retrieved from http://www.mha-ne.org.
Paranjothy, S., Gallacher, J., Amlot, R., Rubin G., Page L., Baxter T., et al. (2011). Psychosocial impact of the summer 2007 flood in England. BMC Public Health; 11, 145.
Ruggiero, K., Gros, K., McCauley, J., Resnick, H., Morgan, M., Kilpatrick, D., et al. (2012). Mental health outcomes among adults in Galveston and Chambers Counties after Hurricane Ike. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 6, 26-32.
Roorda, J., Van Stiphout, W., & Huijsman-Rubingh, R. (2004). Post-disaster health effects: strategies for investigation and data-collection. Experiences from the Enschede firework disaster. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 58, 982-987.
Sharp, T. (2012, November 27). About the Frankenstorm. Retrieved from http://www.livescience.com.
Steer, R., Ranieri, W., Beck, A., & Clark, D. (1993). Further evidence for the validity of the Beck Anxiety Inventory with psychiatric outpatients. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 7, 195-205.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Association. (2012). Retrieved September 10, 2014, from http://www.samhsa.gov.
Verheul, R., Van den bosch, L., Koeter, M., De Ridder, M., Stijnen, T., & Van den Brink, W. (2003). Dialectical behavior therapy for women with borderline personality 12-month, randomised clinical trial in the Netherlands. British Journal of Psychiatry, 18(2), 135-140. | https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/the-use-of-dialectical-behavior-therapy-in-postdisaster-psychotherapy-1522-4821-1000289.php?aid=66575 |
Are you ready to address your challenges?
Life is full of challenges and changes, and often we need support when either of these becomes overwhelming. Through counseling, I promote emotional, physical, and spiritual wellness that empowers you to overcome issues. By working together, I’ll help you gain insight and support you in creating new strategies to resolve current problems and long-standing patterns. With sensitivity and compassion, I will help you find solutions to any life challenge or psychological issue.
COUNSELING CAN HELP YOU:
- Attain a better understanding of yourself, your goals and values
- Develop skills for improving your relationships
- Learn new ways to cope with stress and anxiety
- Manage anger, grief, depression, and other emotional pressures
- Improve communications and listening skills
- Change old behavior patterns and develop new ones
- Discover new ways to solve problems in your family
- Boost self-confidence and take responsibility for life choices
I PROVIDE COUNSELING FOR INDIVIDUALS, FAMILIES, AND GROUPS IN THE FOLLOWING AREAS: | https://www.rebeccalowry.com/counseling/ |
I was drawn to counseling through a desire to prevent and treat psychological distress because this can help individuals lead healthier and happier lives. As a Licensed Addiction Counselor and mental Health Counselor, I help individuals, couples, and families who struggle with substance use, family and relationship issues, adjustment issues, stress, trauma, anxiety, depression, grief, and other mental health-related concerns. Based on my background, I understand the unique culture of professional sports, the unique experiences of professional athletes, and the mental and/or emotional concerns that impact athletes and their families.
I completed my MS degree in Clinical Mental Health Counseling, Colorado state requirements for Addiction Counseling, and COAMFTE requirements for Marriage and Family Therapy. To help clients on their individual journeys, I have expanded my clinical expertise to include a Certified SystemicPlayTherapist, Certified SystemicArtTherapist, and certified Systemic SandPlay Therapist.
As a person-centered counselor, I hope to remind people of their value by being fully present, empathic, genuine and accepting. I also utilize Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, solution-focused Therapy, Dialectical Behavior Therapy, Play Therapy, Art Therapy, and sand play therapy in my work with clients.
In my spare time, I enjoy spending time with my family, working out, going for long walks, and attending sporting events. | https://thebecomingcounseling.com/team/letha-atwater/ |
Hospice and palliative care settings provide medical care, pain management services and treatments, as well as psychological, emotional, social, and spiritual support to patients across the age spectrum who are suffering from severely debilitating conditions or terminal diagnoses. Patients who require hospice care and their families can experience a number of severe hardships, such as depression, anger, and anxiety, intense physical pain or discomfort, financial strain, social isolation, and family conflict.
Hospice social workers help both patients and their families navigate the difficult process of end-of-life planning; manage the mental, emotional, familial, and monetary stressors of debilitating physical illness; understand their treatment plan and be vocal about their needs; overcome crisis situations; and connect to other support services in the area. Hospice workers are advocates for patients and their families, and possess a deep knowledge of what their clients need and what resources are available within and outside of hospice settings to help them.
Hospice and palliative services are delivered, not only at hospice centers, but also through in-home care services and palliative care departments of hospitals. Hospice and palliative care social workers can work in one or more of these settings; for instance, they might conduct home visits to help patients and their families with establishing effective palliative care in patients’ homes, while also providing services to visitors of hospice centers and following up with terminally ill patients who must visit the hospital for intensive medical care.
Hospice and palliative care social work can be a challenging field, as it involves helping individuals through some of the most difficult and stressful times of their lives. However, the rewards of the field can include making deep connections with individuals, learning and celebrating their life stories, and having a dramatically positive impact on patients and their families.
While very much related, hospice and palliative care are distinct from each other in several key ways. Hospice care involves caring for patients who are suffering from an acute terminal illness that has progressed to the point that they have fewer than six months to live. Palliative care is defined as medical treatment that does not seek to cure disease, but rather aims to help patients manage the symptoms of their condition. Hospice care includes palliative care, but palliative care also applies to patients who are not suffering from terminal illnesses and who require non-curative remedies for painful or debilitating symptoms.
The simultaneous distinction and overlap between hospice and palliative care means that social workers who work in hospice care by necessity work in palliative care, while palliative care social workers may not work in hospice settings.
Hospice and palliative care social workers typically work in hospice centers, but also conduct home visits and sometimes work with patients in hospital settings. Depending on their work setting, hospice and palliative care social workers may specialize in serving a particular age group, such as pediatric patients or the elderly, or they may serve patients across the age spectrum.
Hospices are the primary settings in which hospice social workers work. Hospices provide medical care with an emphasis on pain management, emotional and spiritual support for patients and their families (including individual and group therapy and bereavement counseling), and resource navigation services.
Social workers at hospices help to coordinate the care of hospice patients by communicating with all parties involved in a patient’s care, including physicians, nurses, hospice chaplains, and the patient’s family.
Palliative care departments in hospitals are another setting in which social workers provide care coordination services, emotional support, and resource navigation guidance to patients and their families. According to the Center to Advance Palliative Care, palliative care departments are becoming increasingly available at hospitals and have been proven to improve patient outcomes. Social workers in these settings typically work with a team of care providers, such as physicians, nurses, medical assistants, hospital chaplains.
Some hospice and palliative care social workers work for companies that exclusively provide home care to patients with terminal or incurable and debilitating diseases. Social workers in these settings help patients and their families set up the proper structures for effective home care and also ensure that clients get the medical, psychological, and social care they need outside of a medical setting in their own homes. For example, they may help clients and their families complete the necessary insurance paperwork to receive in-home care support or equipment, and may communicate clients’ concerns to their medical care providers, and vice versa.
Hospice social workers’ core responsibilities include conducting psychosocial assessments, coordinating care, providing counseling and psychotherapy, intervening in client crisis situations, and educating patients and families about their treatment plan and the resources and support systems that are available to them.
Any and all social, cultural, financial, and familial considerations, including socioeconomic hardships, family conflicts, engagement and/or disengagement with friends and the community in general, etc.
Upon completing their evaluation of patients’ psychological, emotional, and behavioral health, as well as their familial, social, and financial situation, hospice and palliative care social workers write up recommendations for the types of psychological and social support a patient and his or her family may require. They may also use the information they gather to conduct risk assessments, which are specialized assessments aimed at determining the likelihood that a patient will experience a severely negative outcome in their current situation and state of health.
One of the most important responsibilities that hospice social workers have is coordinating the care of patients in collaboration with a larger team of medical and human service professionals. Care coordination is defined as the delivery of effective medical, psychological, and/or social care through the organization of primary and secondary care providers. With their knowledge of systems of care and support both within medical settings and the larger community, hospice and palliative care social workers are often the point of contact between different care providers, as well as the liaison between clients and their treatment team.
Hospice and palliative care social workers also play an important role in patient intakes and discharges. During the intake process, they gather crucial data from patients upon their enrollment in a care program (through the psychosocial assessment), orient patients and their families to the hospice or palliative care environment, and communicate with the treatment team regarding patients’ ongoing needs.
Social workers in hospice and palliative care settings must also be prepared to intervene and provide emergency psychological support when clients and/or their loved ones are experiencing mental, emotional, social, or familial crises. Crises are generally defined as events that cause a degree of distress that exceeds an individual’s capacity to cope in the short term; qualifying events vary from client to client, but can include the unexpected advancement of a particular condition; traumatic family conflicts; instances of physical violence, neglect, or verbal abuse that result in trauma; or the development of suicidal desires in a client.
During these situations, hospice and palliative care social workers provide immediate psychological support and counseling, while also completing care coordination services by informing the rest of a client’s treatment team so that they can collaborate to effectively address the patient’s distress.
Hospice and palliative care social workers also help patients and their families navigate relevant resources and assistance that are available to them. For example, for patients who qualify for Medicare or Medicaid, social workers help them navigate the process of applying for benefits. In addition, social workers help their clients connect with local resources, such as cancer or terminal illness support groups, pro bono counseling services, and religious communities. Social workers’ resource navigation services are also an important part of patients’ discharge plans, as these services help ensure that patients and their families receive the support they need even after leaving palliative care.
Hospice and palliative care social work requires considerable academic, professional, and emotional preparation. Due to the complex nature of hospice and palliative care patients’ medical conditions, and the need to provide intensive care coordination and therapeutic services, social workers in hospice and palliative care settings typically require an MSW from a CSWE-accredited institution (though social workers who hold a BSW may be able to work in entry-level hospice and palliative care roles under supervision).
Ms. Stiles advises social work students interested in working with hospice and geriatric patients to take as many relevant classes as possible during their MSW program. “I highly recommend taking whatever gerontology-focused classes your program offers. A basic course in death and dying is a wonderful asset, even just for you personally,” she said.
Hospice and palliative care social workers’ mission is to help patients and their families manage incredibly difficult situations with dignity and peace of mind. Through adequate academic and professional training, a solid network of friends and family, and a sound self-care plan, social workers in hospice and palliative care settings can achieve this mission while building a sustainable and fulfilling career. | https://cdn0.onlinemswprograms.com/features/guide-to-hospice-palliative-care-social-work.html |
Baltimore has become a major center for refugee resettlement. Between 2005 and 2009, nearly 4,000 refugees from 44 different countries were resettled in Maryland and more than 40 percent of those came to Baltimore.
Last year alone, the city welcomed more than 1,000 refugees.
But despite the serious psychological and emotional issues that many refugees must cope with because of the trauma of conflict, displacement, and extreme loss, no real network of mental health providers exists in the city to help them.
Lauren Goodsmith’s fellowship will go a long way toward changing that.
“Refugees often flee with nothing but the clothes on their back. They have experienced violence, displacement; some of them have spent years, even decades, in refugee camps before coming here. And then they confront the stress of acculturation, a new society, a different language,” says Goodsmith, who has spent her career in public health, health communications and working with refugees in several countries. “This project is designed particularly to provide therapeutic care and counseling to address the psycho-social needs of people who have been displaced.”
Goodsmith will work in close collaboration with agencies and nonprofits in the area such as the International Rescue Committee (IRC), which is the lead partner agency within the Baltimore Resettlement Center; the Maryland Office of Refugees and Asylees; the state Office of Immigrant Health; the Episcopal Refugee and Immigrant Center Alliance, and Advocates for Survivors of Torture and Trauma.
The first goal will be to train interested and committed mental health providers to work with refugees, some of whom come from places such as Burma, Bhutan, Eritrea, Iraq and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
“There’s no absence of highly-competent, qualified mental health providers in the Baltimore area,” Goodsmith says. “But there are not many who have the depth of experience working with refugees, who have an understanding of the nature of the refugee experience. I know that many would welcome the opportunity to gain training and experience in working cross-culturally.” She emphasizes as well the importance of a strength-based perspective that recognizes the resilience of refugee clients.
Goodsmith already has approached some agencies and individuals about joining this effort and has been warmed by the response.
“I’m honored that so far all the people I’ve approached have said ‘yes,'” she says.
Once the providers are trained, Goodsmith wants to develop a professional network of referrals and mutual support. She hopes that this approach will greatly expand refugee clients’ access to appropriate services, whether for individual therapy, family counseling, or particular needs such as domestic violence response or treatment of conflict-related trauma.
After the network is established and she and her partners have conducted community outreach, Goodsmith hopes that refugees will also directly seek help for emotional and psychological issues they may be dealing with.
“My hope is that refugees will feel they would benefit from speaking with someone who understands what they have been through,” she says. | https://www.osibaltimore.org/fellow/lauren-goodsmith/ |
Concordia offers a variety of services to help students make it through finals
We are approaching the time of the year where students become increasingly more stressed, anxious and sleep deprived. Concordia offers a variety of programs for students anxious about finals and looking for assistance.
Pet Therapy
The Concordia Webster Library organized a Pet Therapy session to help students take a break from their studies. Students crowded around two pugs near the library’s course reserve room on March 29 between 11:30 a.m. and 1:30 p.m.
“I think that pet therapy is a great way for students to take a break from school and de-stress,” said Ana Grubac, a Concordia economics major, who was at the event.
According to the article “Between Pets and People: the Importance of Animal Companionship,” by Alan Beck, director of the Center for the Human-Animal Bond at Purdue University, in Indiana, petting a dog lowers blood pressure and helps your body release hormones like oxytocin, which is linked to happiness.
According to the Journal of Psychosomatic Research, “some people have experienced increased output of endorphins and dopamines after just five minutes with an animal.”
In addition, even brief encounters with pets, such as the ones who visited Concordia, help reduce levels of anxiety.
This year marks Concordia’s third edition of pet therapy, an event organized around the final exam period to help students cope with anxiety and stress.
“Some of the students are away from home and miss their own pets,” said Linda Toy, this year’s event organizer. “I have observed smiles and laughter during these events,” Toy added. “It is really quite special.”
Everyday Therapy
Throughout the semester, Concordia offers a variety of programs for students who need emotional support and guidance. One of these programs is the Everyday Therapy campaign, organized by Concordia Health Services.
The program is geared towards helping students with everyday personal struggles. The campaign hosts four therapy sessions throughout the semester to give students tips and suggestions for dealing with stress, personal relationships and confidence, throughout the fall and winter semesters.
According to Canada’s Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, one in five people will suffer from a mental illness or addiction at some point in their life. Two out of three of those individuals will suffer in silence.
“Concordia offers a [variety] of resources for students, and will discuss internal and community resources to help deal with mental health,” said Dale Robinson, a psychologist and manager at Concordia’s Counselling & Psychological Services, in an interview with The Concordian in February.
Jack.org
For students seeking assistance with stress or mental health, Jack.org, is also available.
Jack.org is a non-profit organization designed by students for students with mental illnesses or suffering from emotional hardships. Concordia has its own Jack.org chapter.
“Jack.org reaches out to students who need help, and we help guide them to different resources available in their area,” said Michael Dorado, a Jack.org representative.
“Most often times, students don’t know that counseling and psychological services exist at Concordia. Our role is to show students that [services] exist and are available to help them,” Dorado said.
Photo by Chloe Ranaldi. | http://theconcordian.com/2017/04/resources-for-reducing-stress-during-finals/ |
Children’s Prevention & Education Program
This East Texas Crisis Center program helps children cope with the emotional trauma of their past experience of violence and abuse in the home and adapt more positive social interaction skills. Special emphasis is given to the academic performance of school age children. Early Childhood Education classes are provided to three, four and five year old children to prepare them for success in kindergarten classroom setting. Additionally, working with parents through specialized parenting classes and engaging in one-on-one intervention encourages healthy interactions and better quality of life for both parent and child alike, even after direct services have ended. Pursuing these goals minimizes the risk factor for children to prevent abusive relationships later in life, as either victims or perpetrators.
Children’s & Family Therapy Program
The Family Violence Counseling Program at the East Texas Crisis Center (ETCC) is focused on providing trauma-informed counseling services that promote emotional and mental health, all the while supporting victims and survivors of domestic violence. The evidence-based trauma-informed approach is sensitive to the individual, family, and child. It works to connect the relation between traumatic experiences and the clients’ current struggles. Through our program, counseling services are provided to families and individuals with the objective of alleviating the effects of exposure to domestic violence; specifically, the trauma that families, particularly children, develop due to their exposure to abuse (physical, emotional/psychological, sexual), neglect and/or drug use. We work to repair the lasting developmental delays, inability to regulate emotions, and disadvantaged social skills. The program seeks to use counseling sessions to foster constructive interactions among mother and children to improve family interaction and communication.
Safety & Self-Sufficiency Program
The purpose of our program at the East Texas Crisis Center is two-fold: SAFETY FIRST then SELF-SUFFICIENCY. Our program’s objective is to increase access to support systems and legal services that will increase the safety of families and provide long term alternatives to their abusive relationships through crisis intervention counseling and support groups. Domestic violence is best understood as a pattern of abusive behaviors that include physical, sexual, and psychological attacks as well as economic coercion used by one intimate partner against another to gain, maintain, or regain power and control in the relationship. SELF-SUFFICIENCY: The purpose of job counseling and economic education classes is to guide women toward job readiness and improve skills for economic independence and autonomy through education and counseling. Economic self-reliance is the key component of preventing the return to an abusive relationship.
Make a donation to support these programs. Our promise to you is that 100% of your designation will go to these programs
and not to cover United Way admin thanks to our Community Pillar Sponsors. | https://uwsmithcounty.org/etcc/ |
Please answer in an essay form. Thank you and I look forward to receiving your application.
- Name and address
- Date of Birth
- Education
- Overall health – How is your overall health – physical, emotional, mental, spiritual?
- Therapy – Have you been in therapy or counseling? If so, what type and for how long? What have been the main issues you have worked through or are working through?
- Psychological – Have you personally experienced substance abuse, eating disorders, co-dependency, incarceration, sexual and/or emotional abuse, bullying, self-esteem issues, and any other physical, emotional or psychological challenges?
- Spiritual experience – Have you been part of a spiritual community? What spiritual practices nurture you on a regular basis?
- Have you ever been in a group training? What do groups bring up for you?
- Group Leading – Have you ever been the leader of a group? What challenges have you encountered? What lessons have you learned?
- Professional experience – Please describe your professional experience. Please note if you are a counselor, therapist, spiritual director or spirtual guide, healer, Reiki or other type of healer?
- Life experience – please add any life experience you feel would be helpful. | http://meganwagner.com/mentor-training-application/ |
I really enjoy the challenge of helping others find the right path towards healthy living, better choices and happier relationships. There is help for a broad spectrum of issues and disorders. A therapist can help you with life issues such as family dynamics, marriage, and life transitions, as well as managing stress more effectively and learning to cope with anxiety and depression. More serious issues can be identified by a therapist and referred to a qualified psychiatrist for evaluation and medication if needed.
The energy and dynamics in marriage are so intense that I really enjoy helping couples navigate the growing pains in their relationships. I have worked with groups, couples, families and individuals across a wide spectrum of challenges, ranging from acute emotional crisis to long term chronic psychiatric issues.
With 43 years of marriage and a solid career as an entrepreneur, therapist and psychiatric hospital director of assessment and out patient clinical services, Kim brings experience and understanding to a wide range of relational and personal issues. Couples therapy, marriage counseling and premarital counseling are all part of Kim's background as a therapist. Whether presenting to groups or counseling individuals, he brings a wealth of maturity and experience to relationship repair.
Areas of Expertise
- Marriage counseling
- Depression and Anxiety
- Family therapy
- Group therapy
- Assessing and referring patients with more severe chronic issues
"Please call if you need to discuss challenges in your life. Listening and providing perspective is what I am trained to do." | https://www.memorialcounselingcenter.com/jon-kim-trostle |
I really enjoy the challenge of helping others find the right path towards healthy living, better choices and happier relationships. There is help for a broad spectrum of issues and disorders. A therapist can help you with life issues such as family dynamics, marriage, and life transitions, as well as managing stress more effectively and learning to cope with anxiety and depression. More serious issues can be identified by a therapist and referred to a qualified psychiatrist for evaluation and medication if needed.
The energy and dynamics in marriage are so intense that I really enjoy helping couples navigate the growing pains in their relationships. I have worked with groups, couples, families and individuals across a wide spectrum of challenges, ranging from acute emotional crisis to long term chronic psychiatric issues.
With 43 years of marriage and a solid career as an entrepreneur, therapist and psychiatric hospital director of assessment and out patient clinical services, Kim brings experience and understanding to a wide range of relational and personal issues. Couples therapy, marriage counseling and premarital counseling are all part of Kim's background as a therapist. Whether presenting to groups or counseling individuals, he brings a wealth of maturity and experience to relationship repair.
Areas of Expertise
- Marriage counseling
- Depression and Anxiety
- Family therapy
- Group therapy
- Assessing and referring patients with more severe chronic issues
"Please call if you need to discuss challenges in your life. Listening and providing perspective is what I am trained to do." | https://www.memorialcounselingcenter.com/jon-kim-trostle |
The idea of Family Therapy or Family Systems Therapy originated from Dr. Murray Bowen in the late 1960's. He believed that human beings function as an emotional unit and that they are best understood when looked at as part of a family rather than a separate, isolated entity. In addition, Dr. Bowen believed that when a client is experiencing difficulty with something, whether it's a personal issue or one related to the family, the family's involvement in the solution generally proves to be beneficial to the client and yields a more positive result.
Many different kinds of therapies can be grouped under the Family Therapy tree. For example, the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy includes professionals who have graduate training (Master’s degree or PhD) in Talking Therapy i.e. Psychotherapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, psychoanalysis, and others. All forms of family therapy can help families and couples work through their problems, improve communication and resolve conflicts. Through this type of therapy, the bond and strength between family members is emphasized and a healthy relationship is encouraged because it helps with mental and psychological health.
While it is agreed that not all families share the same level of interdependence, some interdependence is always present, small or big. This helps family members provide support, protection, and affection to each other, however, in moments of tension or anxiety these bonds can be shaken and can lead to bigger problems and concerns leading to one or more of the members to feel isolated, angry, sad or depressed. Family therapy helps to bridge those differences and brings back unity and cohesion within the unit.
Genograms (representing a family's history) were used by Dr. Bowen to assess and treat his clients. Three generation of family history is gathered through interviews, based on this information Dr. Bowen looked for patterns of behaviour and a history of emotional, mental problems. Eight interlocking principles form the foundation of Dr. Bowen's theory on Family Systems, these principles are:
Family therapy sessions are conducted by a social worker, a licensed therapist or a psychologist and they will work out a treatment plan based on the family's need. According to the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy, family therapy is usually a short term treatment lasting an average of 12 sessions or less, and it includes either the whole family or the people who want to participate.
Numerous types and techniques of family systems therapy are used to help individuals and their loved ones. Contrary to popular belief, therapy does not mean sitting on a chair talking for endless hours to a therapist. Talking is a big part of the treatment but most therapists rely a lot on different kinds of games and activities all of which are designed to improve communication and increase trust between family members. Some of the techniques used in Family Therapy include:
Family therapy is a very beneficial treatment and very effective at resolving problems or helping individuals (within the family unit) understand each other better. In many cases, family therapy is done as a preventative step, to address and resolve a conflict before it happens. When the idea of Family Therapy first took hold, 'family' was defined in a traditional manner with children and their parents. Over the years that definition has evolved to include individuals who are in loving, supporting relationships regardless of whether they are related or married. Basically, this means anyone in a 'family' unit can get help, and there are countless family therapists who specifically specialize in non-traditional family units.
While family therapy is not a one-stop solution for every conflict in the family, going to therapy sessions should help family members communicate in a more effective manner and should help resolve concerns. However, a family therapistcan't make bad things go away permanently unless you keep working at it. Every relationship needs work and commitment on a daily basis, but if nothing else family therapy will arm you with the skills you need to do the work.
Studies have shown that family therapy is an effective method for solving certain problems and it has proven to help families come to grips with mental illness and can help a family process traumatic events (such as a death). Marriage and family therapistshave also helped families understand and deal with behavioural problems along with a myriad of other issues such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, substance abuse, depression, marital problems etc. Many families choose to do interventions and then get help together as a family.
If you or someone in your family is going through something and this is having a negative impact on the family dynamic, then family therapy is something you should strongly consider. Meeting with a marriage and family therapistwill allow every member of the family to voice their opinions and concerns in a safe, non-judgemental environment and will help you arrive at a resolution as a family.
The first step is to speak to your family doctor or a health care professional, explain your concerns, speak to your family and together you can come up with the technique and type of therapy, which will best suit your needs.At BetterHelp, we have thousands of family therapists certified by the American Association of Marriage and Family Therapists that can start working with you and your family today. Family therapy will help you communicate and understand each other better.
Below are some commonly asked questions on this topic:
What therapy is best for families?
Family therapy, sometimes called family counseling, is a branch of psychotherapy that aims to help families improve communication, solve family issues, gain better coping skills, and foster positive change. One key difference between family counseling and individual therapy or couples therapy is that family therapy includes all family members (typically of a nuclear family) who are willing to participate.
Truth be told, there is no one type of family therapy that’s better than other; it all depends on your family’s dynamics as well as what each individual family member wants to achieve in therapy. For example, some families prefer to seek a family therapist that specializes in narrative family therapy, which involves each member narrating their personal stories during therapy sessions to explore how those experiences shaped them in the context of interpersonal conflict and family relationships. Other families, on the other hand, may lean towards a strategic family therapy approach, where the family therapist helps members identify solvable problems and encourages members to bank on their individual and family’s strengths to come up with actionable solutions.
Other popular forms of family therapy include:
What is the purpose of family therapy?
The purpose of family therapy is to improve relationships, nurture positive change, and strengthen connections within a family system. There are many reasons why a family may seek therapy. Research suggests that marriage and family therapist can help with:
What are the four stages of family therapy?
The structure of family therapy varies depending on the type of counseling that your marriage and family therapist practices. In general, though, many mental health professionals follow a rough pattern comprised of four stages, which can help them maintain objectivity and provides direction and structure both themselves and family members. These include:
What are the 3 types of therapy?
The field of psychology is incredibly vast, meaning that there are dozens of different types of therapy that help individuals, couples, and families to deal with intimate issues and learn coping skills using a diversity of methods. Some of them are approved by the Mental Health Services Administration, the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy, the American Psychological Association, and yet others have their own accreditation process for marriage family therapists and counselors. Popular forms of therapy include:
Can family therapy make things worse?
The goal of family therapy is to help family members overcome issues and improve communication, and family therapists are professionals who are trained to facilitate these changes. In the vast majority of cases, family therapy and marriage counseling can be incredibly useful for families who are going through a rough period.But sometimes when one person is open to the idea of therapy and other family members are not, or vice versa, the therapeutic process itself can become more of an issue than a benefit, regardless of the family therapist’s experience or good intentions.
How is family therapy done?
Family therapy can be done in-person or online, through teletherapy platforms such as BetterHelp. Online marriage and family therapy can be extremely convenient for family units that don’t have the time or resources to commute to the therapist office, and some kids and teens may be more receptive to the ideaof seeing a mental health provider if they can do so from the comfort of their own home. During a family therapy session, family therapists ask questions to get to know each member of the group, discusses family dynamics, and offers actionable advice for specific issues or conflict.
What are the three goals of family therapy?
The goals of family therapy vary depending on the issues that the family members and family therapist decide need to be addressed during the first therapy session. Generally, people who attend marriage and family therapy are looking to:
What is an example of family therapy?
According to the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy, this branch of psychology can help families cope with:
Is family therapy a good idea?
Whether we like it or not, individual patterns and behaviors can spill over and affect an entire family system. Seeing a licensed therapist, online or in-person, as a family rather than individually can sometimes be even more effective than solo treatment because it takes into account all individual perspectives and helps family members understand what other persons in the unit are going through, increasing empathy and problem-solving,
What are the disadvantages of family therapy?
Family therapy can become problematic when one or more members refuse to participate. Other potential issues that family units and marriage and family therapists can come across in counseling include: | https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/therapy/what-is-family-therapy-and-why-is-it-beneficial/ |
Nira Patel provides continuing and comprehensive mental and behavioral health care for Childern, individuals and families.She monitor their progress on a regular basis to ensure that their needs are met by the course of action, and to adjust it if necessary.
Her goal is to help people identify their psychological, emotional or behavioural issues and then assist them by defining their goals and a plan of action to help them achieve personal, social, educational and vocational development. She provide services like Parent
1) Child Counselling Services
2) Educational Assessment (Dyslexia)
3) Speech therapy
4) Behavior therapy & Parent counseling
5) Counselling Services
6) Career Counselling Centres
7) Psychological Counselling Services
8) Depression Counselling Centres etc.
You must be logged in to post a comment. | https://www.theholisticliving.org.in/listing/psychologist-30/ |
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