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Critical Theory is not just any philosophical critique. It is a prominent and well-grounded theoretical approach that stems from the “Frankfurt School” of social and political thinkers, philosophers, art critics, and psychologists early in this century in Germany. To thus distinguish Critical Theory from other species of critical social theory and from “critical thinking” in general, it will be referred to herein as a proper noun. Theorists such as Max Horkeiner, Walter Benjamin, Otto Kirchheimer, Friedrick Pollock, Leo Lowenthal and, more famously, Theodor W. Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, Eric Fromm, and Jurgen Habermas are all considered to be members. Critical Theory has been a major inspiration for the agenda of the MayDay group because it offers considerable practical implications for the theorizing of musicians and music educators.
The following is an informal introduction to Critical Theory. Because it is mainly intended for web site readers, most sources and notes have been intentionally excluded and examples and parenthetical comments have had to be included in the body of the text. Formatting is also kept basic. One convention will be the use of double quotes around words, expressions and ideas that function almost as code words for certain taken for granted kinds of received knowledge. The use of single quotes is reserved, then, for coined words, or for attaching the sense of “so-called” to the expression in question. The essay provides in particular a theoretical background to help clarify and place in a larger context the ideals stated in the agenda of the MayDay Group. However, it represents only the views of its author, one of the co-founders of the MayDay initiative, and admits of the possibility that other members may well have other premises behind their support of the MayDay agenda. Examples included to clarify certain points are naturally drawn from the author’s personal experience which is mainly in the US.; members from other countries will no doubt be able to furnish inst ances that are more applicable to their nations or regions.
In order to unify this rationale, several key themes are traced through extensively changing contexts of relevance and importance for the professional conduct of music education — in public schools and higher education, as well. It needs to be mentioned that any “critical” theory will be critical of any number of cherished paradigms. The criticism presented in this essay, however, needs to be understood as a critique in the positive and constructive sense encountered, for example, in good one-on-one musical instruction, rather than as negative and destructive in nature or purpose.
Depending on the font, a hard copy the body of the text will run about 30+ pages. The bibliography should not be considered as final or definitive because it will grow as members add relevant, briefly annotated contributions. Thus it will be useful to continue over time to consult it. Various technical terms are defined in context. It will be useful to take note of them when they are introduced because they will be used later on without further elaboration.
The essay is organized into sections, as follows, plus a brief summary and conclusion:
I. Traditional Theory: Scientific Positivism and Technicist Rationalism. The section below outlines the inherent problems created by the empiricism and rationalism of the Enlightenment — an important example being claims made for a “what works” technology of teaching.
II. Critical Theory. This section provides the basic “critique” of the traditional theory outlined in the first section. It analyzes the problems of an uncritical acceptance of claims to absolute truth and objectivity. Instead, it points out the need for “critical educators” — teachers (including university professors) who possess critical consciousness and use critical knowledge.
III. Origins and Problems of Uncritical Subjectivity. Though the life-world is situated and subjective in important particulars, uncritical subjectivity is shown to be an unsuccessful antidote for unwarranted objectivity, particularly in connection with an almost religious but unwarranted belief in so-called “good methods” and the resulting but false assumption that such methods guarantee “good results.” A distinction is made between “what works” misunderstood as mere practicability of methods, and the need to judge “what works” against standards provided by a warranted and functionally designed curriculum.
IV. Curriculum: Ideology versus a Phronesis of “Good Results.” Negative aspects of various ideological influences — both from outside and from within music education — are presented. The need for “ideology critique” on the part of teachers is argued and a curricular theory of teaching as praxis is developed in terms of an ethical criterion of promoting “good results” for students as a result of their musical schooling. “Good methods,” in this argument, are seen only in connection with “good results” qualified in terms of “action ideals” by a curriculum promotes personal musical agency.
V. Critical Theory, Research Theory and Teaching As and For Praxis. Change agency through teaching as action research is a condition of “critical teaching,” as is the need to draw upon basic research theory. The difference between “standards of praxis” and (mistaken notions of) standard or uniform practice is explained and points to a professional community of shared standards for guiding individual praxis. A praxial theory of music and musical value leads to the conclusion that teaching as praxis means teaching for praxis — i.e., teaching must bring about the ability and desire on the part of students to engage in music is a praxis that is “basic” to the life well-lived.
VI. Summary, Conclusions and Bibliography. A brief final section summarizes the ideas and provides links to a selective, annotated bibliography on Critical Theory and its applications to music education.
I Traditional Theory: Scientistic Positivism and Technicist Rationalism
Scientism
Empiricism, the basic paradigm of science, came into prominence during the 18th century intellectual and philosophical activity known as the Enlightenment. It holds that knowledge is gained only through the senses. Positivism (sometimes called logical empiricism, scientific empiricism, or scientific positivism) takes empiricism to an extreme by claiming that whatever cannot be verified by sensory experience (as observable ‘positive’ knowledge) cannot be explained, is unknowable or unreliable, and is thus not true knowledge. Positivists argue that the scientific method is the only source of valid, objective knowledge about reality — a claim labeled scientism by critics, including Critical Theorists. Scientistic positivism, in sum, holds that non-scientific claims to knowledge are meaningless, misleading, subjectively variable and thus capricious and dubious.
In use, positivism has faith only in the scientific quantification of ‘objective’ data and the corresponding use of statistics to state “laws.” The laws thus “discovered” in nature are used to make predictions: laws are “true” (i.e., scientific, objective, valid, reliable, ‘positive’) to the degree that predictions turn out as the laws forecast. Positivists hold that irregularities not predicted by present laws will eventually be covered by better, more comprehensive laws as they are discovered. Scientistic positivism has also traditionally rejected as meaningless (in the sense explained above) statements in the social sciences, arts, and humanities about the qualities or activities of “mind” and human subjectivity. In particular mentalistic, subjective states such as ideas, intentions and feelings are denied or devalued. Scientific behaviorism, for example, is a key example of this tendency and thus explains all human consciousness in terms of observable behavior. It excludes reference to (covert) mental events or states, or to the subjectivism of introspection of any kind, and in radical form it even denies the existence of mental states. Thus words such as “feeling,” “choosing,” “intending,” etc., are held to have no objective referents; their “meaning” (a condition that positivists in general have trouble explaining) is “seen” only in reference to overt behavior or dispositions for overt behavior.
In the physical sciences, positivism results in laws and predictions about natural “things.” Its results permit control of these things through technology and rationalized or scientized ‘management techniques’. Despite the important difference between “things” and people, most social scientists have tried to gain status as “scientists” by modeling their research on the positivist assumptions and practices of the physical sciences. Whatever the importance of such “basic research” theory, it is easily abused when mistakenly applied as law-like technologies of human functioning (e.g., social, economic, political or learning “theory” acted upon as “fact”). It is worth noting here that because it is modeled on the assumptions of positivistic-oriented social science, the preponderance of empirical research done in music education is clearly neo-behaviorist and thus positivist in its assumptions, practices, and results. Despite its complexities, human behavior is seen as ultimately responsive to statistically determined natural laws by this particular group of empirical researchers in music education and by positivists in the social sciences in general. And, it follows, what is predictable is ultimately controllable through rational means, systems and ‘standards’.
Technicism
Rationalism, the belief in reason as a source of reliable knowledge, also came to full flower during the Enlightenment. Originally the use of reason emphasized by Enlightenment thinkers was opposed to “authority” or “revelation” as sources of knowledge — in particular, the authority of the Church and of kings. The Enlightenment thus brought Western civilization out of the “Dark Ages” and initiated the “modern” era in history and the associated paradigms of what today is called modernism.
However, empiricism and rationalism converged during the Enlightenment in certain ways that excluded other possibilities. These directions ultimately led to: (a) the rise in the scientific method for determining valid knowledge; (b) the rise of technology and the resulting paradigm of technicism and its uncritical faith in “what works” kinds of “techniques” for applying such supposedly objective knowledge to solving human problems; (c) and, above all, the belief in the rational perfectibility of society through just such ‘management techniques’ or ‘methods’. Thus, as shall be illustrated below, when scientistic assumptions are applied to education, learning is assumed to be subject to objective and invariable laws referred to by the misleadingly benign term “learning theory.” And when technicist inspired rationalism applies such laws as “what works” techniques, teaching comes to be considered a technology of methods by which the learning process of learners is controlled. Teaching thus becomes a technicist undertaking rather than a professional praxis.
In the next section scientism and technicism and the “false consciousness” that results from blind acceptance of the positivist-modernist ideology of scientific-technical ‘progress’ are contrasted to the “critical consciousness” advocated by Critical Theory. Such a critique reestablishes the fundamental importance of the kind of personal agency that is situated — a condition that is central to both teaching as a professional praxis and to music as a human praxis.
II Critical Theory and Praxis: Professionalizing Music Education
Critical Theorists have been critical of the scientism and technicism that have resulted from the misuse of the empiricism and rationalism bequeathed by the Enlightenment. While seeing empiricism and rationalism as initially positive developments, Critical Theorists identify an inherent and unresolvable tension between these twin strands of what has come to be called modernism. While not wishing to overthrow modernism altogether (as in the case with other theories critical of postmodernism), Critical Theorists such as Habermas conclude that misapplications of rationalism and empiricism (e.g., rationalized political theories such as communism; technicist teaching “methods” and scientistic “learning theory”) have produced largely negative results. These theorists observed first-hand the extremely negative results of modernism seen during and after World War One, the world-wide economic “Depression,” and as a result of the rise of Nazi Germany and World War Two. In fact, the latter necessitated their departure for the United States for the duration of the war. Even after their relocation they noted critically that science and technology had produced negative results that would long outlast this or that war — for example, the hubris of the technocrats who designed, and the blind credulity of the passengers who sailed on, the supposedly unsinkable, but nonetheless ill-fated Titanic; or, more recently, environmental and ecological problems of industrialization.
Loss of Freedom
They argued in particular that the average person unwittingly forsakes his or her freedom by uncritically having faith in false claims that scientism and technicism promote rational economic planning and thus predictable progress towards a free, compassionate and perfect world. Such ultimate progress clearly has not happened; for example, who among us feels they live a happier more fulfilling life than, say, the Amish people? And the “average” person is generally skeptical of the claims made for modernism — a disappointment and frustration that is, for example, reflected in the tidal wave of both religious and secular conservatism worldwide and in various forms of social ‘unrest’. Nonetheless, people nonetheless continue to have uncritical faith in science and technology. The corresponding unwillingness or inability to take responsibility for their own lives is seen, for example, in their manipulation by media-driven values, “taste-makers,” cult leaders, and ‘movements,’ ‘systems’ and ‘institutionalized’ groups of various kinds. In this view, people everywhere can generally be described as, in the words one analyst used to describe the situation in the United States, a “nation of sheep.” In sum, unfreedom alone has progressed.
Similar conclusions are also reached by postmodernists, a diverse group of thinkers who point out the limitations and social situatedness of reason and science and thus argue that modernism has or should come to an end. Despite their basic agreement on the negative results of modernism, postmodernism and Critical Theory are critical of each other. Critical Theorists such as Habermas hope to reform or repair the misapplications of rationalism and empiricism begun in the Enlightenment. Postmodernists, pointing on the other hand to the ‘breakdown of modernity’, wish to ‘deconstruct’ the absolute and objective truth claims of reason and science in favor of other ways of understanding, guiding and empowering human action.
Critical Theorists complain, thus, that people have been misled into a false consciousness that blindly accepts science as the only source of true knowledge and to the belief that rational (technicist) ‘social planning’ can lead us to the ‘good life’. The ‘masses’ uncritically accept modernist claims that all human problems can be solved through technological, socio-scientific ‘management’ of society, the economy, the political process, the natural resources, and human resources involving the institutions of medicine, education and even entertainment. Thus, for Critical Theorists, scientism has led to a technology for both controlling physical things and human nature. It has denied subjectivity by idolizing false claims of objectivity and thus has become the vehicle for manipulation by ideologues who have brought a variety of crises and suffering to modern life by imposing their own beliefs and vested interests as being in the interests of all people. The result has been the political, social and cultural subjugation of people who are denied the empowering knowledge and social conditions for becoming the authors of their own histories.
Even worse, Critical Theorists conclude, people have succumbed once again (i.e., as was the case before the Enlightenment) to various authoritarian personalities and institutions. Thus they allow political demagogues, cult leaders, politicians, scientists and, yes, even school administrators, teachers and professors to mislead them with false and deceptive ideas of ‘objective’ truth and ‘absolute’ beauty as leading to the good life. So thoroughly have people accepted their new ‘chains’ that, not unlike Plato’s prisoners in the famous “Allegory of the Cave,” they prefer their unenlightened illusions to the full light of day and thus exhibit a fear of freedom that is the result of forsaking personal responsibility for their own lives.
Critical Theorists, then, are critical of the worship of objectivity because “facts” are never impartial or unprejudiced and science is therefore never completely value free. And these theorists are particularly critical of the scientistic misuses of empiricism to deny or otherwise control human subjectivity. Thus they have been centrally concerned with the misuse and abuse of reason in social, political, economic and ethical theories; that is, in all systems of thinking and functioning that deny personal freedom and personal responsibility. They point out that empiricism and reason have been turned back on themselves and have become the unreason of scientism and technicism.
Critical Theorists thus denounce any theory that leads, however indirectly, to practices that “disempower” human beings by taking away their own capacities for personal reason and judgment, and any theory that takes away people’s control over their own lives as agents who are personally responsible for their own being and becoming more fully human. They point to the dangers of uncritically applying totally abstract, merely “academic” theory directly to human problems. Such “academic” knowledge amounts to what Aristotle called theoria. Its danger resides in its claims to be value-free, for-its-own-sake, and thus “objective” and “true.” In the view of Critical Theory, such knowledge is never value free and, because it is influenced by a controlling ideology, never simply for-its-own-sake. For example, in Aristotle’s time, theoria existed to be contemplated by “free men” (not women) in the leisure time made possible by slaves, and modern researchers exchange their findings in return for professional advancement and economic gain. In fact, one criticism of positivism in the social sciences (that includes, I would argue, positivist research in education and music education) is that the resulting “journal science” contributes mainly to tenure and other career-advancement, not to concrete human betterment or to basic theory. The value of what today is called pure research is said to be its contribution to our theoretical understanding of the world as it seems to present itself to us. Such theory can sometimes guide action, but cannot by itself determine what “goods” such human action should serve. Thus Critical Theorists are keenly alert to the likelihood in modernist thinking for scientistic and technicist misappropriations of theory as direct “methods” and “techniques.”
Change Agency
In addition to their critique of the scientism and technicism of modernism, Critical Theorists also have a constructive agenda for change. Rather than rejecting science and reason altogether as postmodernists tend to do, Critical Theorists propose to reform or repair what they see as the mess modernism has made of the Enlightenment’s otherwise good potential — its agenda for jointly employing empirical knowledge and reason to improve the pragmatics of human life. They seek to actualize the heretofore unrealized potential of the Enlightenment for good. Their objective is to do so in ways that empower people to use their own reason to take more personal control of their own destinies rather than being manipulated by impersonal technologies directed by or toward rational, scientistic control of human action. In this “critical” view, human meaning is not “caused” by so-called objective, natural laws or impersonal, value-free, outside forces. For Critical Theory the “meaning” that constitutes the “good life” is internally caused, created or constituted by individuals situated in their own life-world — a situated life experience that is the result of both personal and social intentionality and that therefore involves communication with others. “Meaning” then is personally constituted within socially situated conditions; it is not handed around, passed on ready-made, or discovered “out there” in the world by science as ‘given’ by the laws of the universe. Each person is an agent and, by definition, an agent acts so as to achieve personal goals, needs and intentions that are necessarily situated in a context that has its own social, political, economic and even physical meaning and conditions. According to such situatedness, then, individuals function as autonomous agents who are the “cause” of their own personal meaning (or lack thereof).
Critical Theorists are thus interested in the pragmatics of personal or critical knowledge. Such knowledge is the result of critical consciousness — the perpetual awareness of the criteria and conditions argued by Critical Theory. Being thus critically aware of modernist abuses of science and reason, critical consciousness provides a properly warranted source of agency in personal affairs and serves as a warranted source of change in human affairs such as schooling. Such agents understand that scientific knowledge can only help people understand “things” as they are and that science can never tell them what ought to be the case. Thus any question concerning what ought to be is unavoidably a question of values that requires critical knowledge put into practice according to very ethical values and other philosophical criteria that science claims to avoid.
In schools, teachers who are empowered with critical knowledge and critical consciousness become critical educators. They help their own students rise to a level of critical consciousness and knowledge that empowers them to be more effective agents of their own personal histories. In the case of music education this would involve developing in students a critical consciousness of, for example, the economic imperatives of institutionalized and media-driven “taste makers,” and would promote the kind of critical knowledge that permits an enhanced range of informed musical choices.
Critical theory, in sum, seeks to recognize (i.e., re-cognize or re-think) human subjectivity and individuality as both a means and as an end of becoming fully human, fully rational. This means that if knowledge is to be valid, it must take into account subjective, contextual, situational factors. Humans are ‘subjectivities’ with goals, needs and intentions, not simply ‘objects’ controlled by natural laws. They have reason and therefore can formulate and evaluate personal and collective purposes, goals, and values (i.e., they have intentionality). They are agents who, alone and in communication with others, can act in their own behalf or on behalf of others or society, for example, in teaching or any of the helping professions.
In the next section, then, teachers who succumb to an “it works for me” kind of subjective technicism are revealed as engaging in a form of “false consciousness” that is as pragmatically ineffective in serving the music needs of students as is the “what works” prescriptions and recipes of scientistic technicism. Either form of technicism amounts to what I describe as “methodolatry” — an almost religious or cult-like attachment to particular “techniques,” “methods” or “materials” of teaching that too often fall far short of the kind of effective pragmatic results that are the ethical basis of teaching as a professional praxis.
III Origins and Problems of Uncritical Subjectivity
Human variability
Considered as agents, humans are not interchangeable. Human meanings vary according to context, situatedness, needs, goals and intentions. Ignoring such individuating factors reduces people to theoretical abstractions that are unreal. Whatever its value as basic or pure research undertaken for its own sake, such theoretical knowledge is so abstract that no direct application of it to human affairs qualifies as praxis. To begin with, only actions that serve humans according to the ethical criterion Aristotle called phronesis properly qualify as praxis. And secondly, in being put to such human use, theoria becomes diluted, its abstract purity compromised and reduced by its engagement with situated values. The low-level knowledge that remains becomes instrumental knowledge — a form of what, since the time of Aristotle, has been called techne or “craft.” For example, compare the knowledge of the physics of electricity possessed by a theoretical physicist and an electrician; the knowledge of chemistry possessed by a theoretical chemist and a medical doctor; or the theoretical knowledge possessed by a music theorist and a performing artist. In all these instances, praxis is achieved only in possession of a distant echo of theoretical purity and abstraction.
The academic or merely theoretical quality of “pure” research is the “elsewhereness” (Shor 1992) that most teachers see in positivist research: it comes from “elsewhere” than the very places that can or need to use it. In education, it comes from the research labs in Ivory Towers, not from or even in terms of teachers on the job. Because of this “elsewhereness,” teachers regularly ignore such research. Perhaps they intuit its laboratory sterility and its claims to statistical laws as lacking obvious connection with the untidy contingencies they face in ‘real life’ on the job. In any case, they are unable to understand the technical language of such pure theory enough to even attempt to apply it to their situations for whatever it might be worth as instrumental knowledge.
Teacher subjectivity
Instead, “true knowledge” for most teachers — knowledge of what they tend to call “the real world” — is typically subjective: it amounts to what seems to be the case for their particular situation. On one hand, however, as far as the average teacher knows, the “real world” of teaching begins and ends with her classroom. On the other hand, she assumes (unfortunately, in error) that other teachers experience more or less the same “reality” — that schools and teaching are basically the same except for minor local differences, and that the “things” are similar for most teachers in other classrooms and in other schools. Thus the “elsewhereness” of positivist research is rejected in favor of a radically subjective “hereness and nowness” where particular teachers are typically ‘in touch’ with only their own teaching circumstances, their own ideas and their own personal and teaching paradigms. Each, thus, does his or her “own thing” and the modern school amounts in effect to “x” number of one-room schools under one roof. As a result, “school systems” (note the technicist claim) function as collections of individual ‘operatives’ who are assumed to be contributing uniformly to a collective ‘system’ when, in point of fact, this is not the case at all.
One “thing” tends, unfortunately, to be commonplace. Lacking any consensus concerning tangible and pragmatic outcomes (i.e., outcomes that are useful outside of school), teachers fail to be sufficiently critical of the instruction they give in terms of its results for students and society. Actual benefits, then, are inconsistent, haphazard, variable, and unpredictable. The majority of what is learned is merely “academic”; it is relevant only in terms valued by the demands of the particular classroom and teacher, and the general program requirements of the individual school or state-wide ‘system’. In other words, “academic” learning is so situated, so classroom-based, that it cannot or does not transfer to or advance out-of-school musical benefits for students now and after graduation.
The following examples from the US may or may not be applicable in the same way or degree for other countries, but they serve to illustrate how instruction that is “merely academic” can fall short of making a real or pragmatic difference in the lives of individual students and thus falls short of being professional praxis comparable to the other helping professions. Thus, even though students typically have classroom music instruction for 6 to 8 years, few gain any functional music skills, or any musical independence; for example, the average “graduates” of general music classes cannot read music effectively for personal purposes. Nor do they typically develop a disciplined “taste” for any kind of music as a direct result of schooling. The vast majority who have been in ensembles (perhaps only 15 % of the school population to begin with), lack the independent musicianship to be active performers and the few that have such competency — usually the section leaders — do not seem to have learned to value active performing enough to make time for it in their lives (in the way, for example, amateur athletes continue to use their “physical education”). They do not remain musically active after graduation as performers or listeners; and they otherwise fail to show themselves to be musically different or improved in any way that can be directly attributed to their ensemble participation -beyond, arguably, its strictly social benefits.
Similar and other ineffective or merely academic results can doubtlessly be pointed out for other countries. Such ineffective or merely academic results can be pointed out at length. Faced with such disconcerting examples, music teachers place blame on the students (viz., that students lack talent, intelligence, a work ethic, etc.), parents (they are too lenient, too uninvolved, and don’t make their children practice), society (it doesn’t value education and “good music”), television (it diverts them from studying and practicing), and other scapegoats such as interscholastic sports, after-school jobs and the like.
Technicist teaching
Now it is true that there are many individual and social impediments to public schooling. However, teachers are all too accustomed to blaming these forces and rarely look to their own instruction as the primary source of poor results. As seen by most teachers, then, poor learning is not a matter of the technology of traditional methods and techniques they use for instruction. They take for granted that this technology of traditional “tools” serving traditional and taken-for-granted ends has been passed on as a craft of teaching from one teacher to another. The common wisdom holds that such traditional methods have been “proven” successful by the “test of time.” Teachers tend, therefore, to teach as they were taught. This includes, especially, teaching as they were taught to teach in their student teaching internships and, in general, by the “culture” of teaching that uncritically passes on teaching paradigms as technicist methods. Methods thus become taken-for-granted recipes and prescriptions used without regard for results.
Because such teachers assume that the competent use of the “good methods” sanctified by tradition or a particular institutionalized advocacy group automatically guarantees “good results,” they tend to focus on an quest for such activities and ideas to use. In consequence, aside from keen attention to whether students are generally cooperative, teachers too often ignore the goodness of results in terms of students’ actual musical competence and attitudes. As long as there is no major misbehavior, then, results are uncritically assumed to be good or good enough. That a lesson was merely practicable — i.e., could be “delivered” as “instruction” — becomes the criterion of “it works,” not whether students have the pragmatic ability to do anything new or better as a result of such instruction. Thus “delivering” or providing “instruction” is uncritically assumed to amount to “teaching.”
With the confusion introduced by this verbal self-deception, one’s “teaching” is effectively disassociated altogether from the criterion of whether one’s students are able to demonstrate valuable “learning.” The “process” called “teaching” becomes uncritically equated with the “product” called “learning.” As a result, “teaching” becomes nothing more than a certain generic process a person labeled (i.e., certified) a “teacher” undertakes, not an action or professional praxis qualified in terms of the results brought about for students. The very nature of a profession, particularly “helping professions” such as medicine, law, therapy, dentistry, nursing, teaching, and the like, is to bring about predictable and tangible benefits for the individual clients served. In this sense, a physician whose patients regularly remain sick or get sicker is a “doctor” in name, not in fact. And, applying the example to schooling, when instruction results in “clients” who remain “sick” or get “sicker” — that is, where there is no predictable or valuable learning on the part of students –“teaching” is equally a misnomer. What is called by that name is a certain going through the motions, not a praxis that is defined in terms of the results brought about.
Rationalization of music and teaching
That this conflating of “instructing” with “teaching” exists at all is another unfortunate consequence of modernism run amok. Before the modern development of what sociologists misleadingly call “the professionalization of teaching,” a “teacher” was any person from whom a student learned. The student was, in every sense of the word, a “disciple” of both the teacher and the teaching, and the idea of the scholarly “disciplines” still conveys the sense of being a life-long student of a field of inquiry. However, with the Enlightenment’s dictate for rationalism, all knowledge — along with virtually every aspect of society — was subjected to rationalization. It was thus analyzed, dissected, labeled with technical terms, theorized and codified into “disciplines” and collected in books such as the crown glory of the Enlightenment thinking, the first Encyclopedia. The aestheticizing of music by aesthetic theory is a key and relevant case at point.
A related type of rationalization or relevance to music educators in the Euro-American tradition is the invention and subsequent development of the “theory of music” as a “discipline.” This was also initiated during the Enlightenment, mainly by Rameau, one of the “Encyclopedists” — theorists and philosophers involved in compiling the first Encyclopedia in 1751. This “theory of music” rationalized the “common practice” of its time, yet is still taught today as “fact” in ‘theory’ and ‘harmony’ classes in high schools and universities despite its general irrelevance to contemporary musics of just about any kind or genre –with the possible exception, ironically, of very simple rock and pop musics. In fact, “music” can no longer be accounted for in terms of any traditional, all-embracing, universal or essentialist theory. Rather, with the postmodern explosion in the late 20th century of a pluralism of “musics,” there is no longer any semblance of “common practice.” In any case, “common practice” was at best a misnomer describing a certain rarefied and ‘uncommon’ taste for European Art music during a limited period in history. Thus despite the attempt to define “music” as a singular “thing” or process, or similar attempts to define an aesthetic essence for all music, such singular, universal or essentialist definitions of “music” simply no longer obtain when the pluralism of postmodern musics is properly recognized. These musics, each a separate praxis with its own unique characteristic qualities and criteria of musicianship and artistry, thus give lie to the pretense that any aesthetic theory of musical essentialism can rationalize either the value of such musics or can serve to guide them in praxis.
Teaching has also experienced a similar process of rationalization and systematization — the earlier mentioned “professionalization of teaching.” Beginning once again in the Enlightenment with such thinkers as the philosopher and Enclyclopedist Jean Jacques Rousseau, treatises and theories were issued in increasing number. And especially in the last century, empirical findings and theoretical conclusions from a variety of scholarly disciplines have been applied to educational theorizing. In addition, “schooling” itself became rationalized — formalized, systematized, and institutionalized — as “education,” such forces themselves being a direct consequence of the modernist paradigm that arises from the standardizing rationalism spawned by the Enlightenment. “Teaching” thus became a job description or an employment category in the field or business of “education” more than it described a successful praxis that resulted in a valuable product. And with the “training” of teachers in university departments of education we see this most important human activity itself subjected to a process of rationalization, systematization, standardization (i.e., graduation and certification ‘requirements’) and (supposedly) efficient assembly-line production techniques. This so-called professionalization resulted in the “certification” or official labeling of a standard operative called a “teacher” — a status that is too often quite irrespective of the individual’s ability to produce positive and functional results for students. The term professionalization was thus adopted early on by sociologists solely in consideration of the rationalization of teacher-training and the subsequent certification or licensing of teachers. As a result, it should not be confused with the need to reconstrue teaching as a professional praxis along the ethical and other pragmatic criteria typically advanced for the other major professions.
To be a “teacher,” in the modernist view, is to be “certified” to engage in a subjectively determined and fixed, technicist process called “teaching” that focuses on the competent use of “good (i.e., ‘standard’ or ‘traditional’) methods.” Evaluation of students (for example, “grades” — another invention that results from the quantifying and systematizing practices of modernist rationalism) uncritically assumes “teaching” with “good methods” and leads to the conclusion, “Well, I taught it to them; if they didn’t learn it, it is their fault!” Thus the methods and materials are taken for granted as “good” and, as shall be explained more below, the curriculum is equated with the simple use of those methods and materials (a situation comparable to turning on and going through the motions of using a vacuum cleaner without determining if the rug is actually being cleaned). Unfortunately neither the methods nor the curriculum are ever evaluated in terms of the goodness of actual results for students or society. The paucity of these results for “education” in general are increasingly commented on and criticized by everyone from politicians to taxpayers.
Music educators not only share in this criticism; some, particularly in secondary schools and higher education, are further criticized for their preference for working only with the elite, ‘talented’ few — a situation somewhat akin to a doctor who prefers only healthy patients! Whatever the paucity of results may be in terms of students’ mastery of cognitive and psychomotor skills, then, most music teachers, as is the case with their colleagues in other disciplines, seem to believe that such poor results are good or good enough under the circumstances. They accept that whatever results they manage to produce are rationally all that can be expected and, therefore, that such results are the ‘reasonable’ by-products of the competent use of good methods. However, as we have seen, when certain taken-for-granted methods are used to produce taken-for-granted (i.e., not critically analyzed) ends, a technology of teaching comes into being. The result is an almost religious belief in and thus a search for particular methods, “activities” and materials that are believed “to work.” “Good teaching,” in this uncritical, technicist view, is judged solely in terms of the efficient use of “good methods” and “good materials.”
“Methodolatry”
Such methods can be characterized into two general types: institutionalized and individualized. Each of the former type involves a ‘standardized’ technicist ‘system’ of techniques and materials that is widely adopted and followed along what are assumed to be uniform lines. Each such ‘system’ of uniform methodological practices meets all the standard criteria of a social institution: taken for granted paradigms that generate equally taken for granted practices and values; legitimation procedures that advocate the institution’s existence when actual results fall short of claimed values; proselytizing machinery for attracting, then initiating new conscripts; a historicity of approved practices that are passed on as “good” and accepted unthinkingly by conscripts as received wisdom; and, of course, experts who function as ‘managers’ of the institutional knowledge base, guardians and defenders of the status quo, and gatekeepers for controlling admission. Institutionalized methods, for all their claims to technical or systematic uniformity and standards, are nonetheless highly idiosyncratic in practice and eclectic in key ways dictated by the varying contexts and situatedness of teaching and learning and music, and by musical and personal differences between teachers. But the collective belief in and common discourse about “the method” even more strongly commits adherents and converts to the shared technological view of teaching. The sheer number of “believers” or “disciples” thus leads to an almost religious faith in the method that can be dubbed “methodolatry.”
Individualized methods, on the other hand, are developed by particular teachers from components of systematic methods, the eclectic methods of other teachers, and their own trial and error. They tend to be so personal, so idiosyncratic, so eclectic, so governed by the here-and-now of their situatedness, that two such teachers have very little in common. Thus discourse between them is typically very unproductive. More unfortunately, once formulated, an individualized method typically becomes rationalized, systematized and standardized into a personal technology of “what works for me” that is assumed to be “good teaching.” Thus the teacher assumes that because his methods are good, the results must also be good and, as with institutionalized methods, the goodness of results gets overlooked.
With either type of method, curricular ends are taken for granted and are not critically analyzed or stated in unequivocal terms. The simple use of the method and its associated materials is equated with curriculum. Simply using or “teaching the method” (e.g., “I teach the _____method”) becomes “teaching the curriculum.” Thus the process is automatically assumed to be the product and the medium becomes the message. In other words, “teaching” this or that “activity” may produce a certain degree of collective musical “activity” on the part of students during class, but little or no degree of personal musical agency results for individual students outside of or after graduation from school. Now if carpenters thought in this way, they would claim that simply using their “tools” amounts to “building.” With no “blueprint” in mind, then, they could simply chisel, saw, hammer and screw things together and still consider themselves to be “builders” despite the fact that their efforts never build anything useful. Many music teachers, with comparable assumptions in mind, similarly employ what they subjectively consider to be their “good methods” or “good tools of teaching” without a clear curricular “blueprint” to guide either their instructional efforts or to serve as the basis for evaluating the success of such instruction and of students’ learning.
“Endullment” of students
In practice, then, results too often are not only not good in terms of empowering students musically for life. Negative results and other unintended side effects often worsen the situation: for example, poor attitudes toward the irrelevance of music class itself; or, in ensembles, the averaging effect of large numbers that masks the musical weaknesses of individuals. To once again use a comparison from the health professions, not only don’t many patients get well as a result of treatment, they get sicker! Thus, to refer again to an example given earlier for the US, instead of developing “musical literacy” (i.e., student graduates who can all read, write, perform and understand music better as a result of their musical schooling), students too often give every indication of having been “turned off” in music class to such matters. Instead of gaining an “aesthetic education” (and whatever that might be, and how it is to be observed as evidence of successful teaching and learning are, of course, not specified), the result is an anesthetic education. Thus students too regularly are “endulled” and often undertake a “performance strike” (Shor, 1992) — a work stoppage or suspension of effort — and resist or reject and thus “tune out” or ignore what is taught in terms of their own musical functioning outside of class. And in ensembles, they either ignore practicing their instruments (preferring to use the ensemble as a social club) or quit studying or even playing instruments altogether. Typically the results are of the sort that all but guarantees that students will have little to do in their lives with the kinds of music studied in school. In any case, the musical skills, understanding and appreciation of typical school graduates extends no further than the informal tastes “educated” by the mass media. Thus music education fails to promote the kind of musical independence that could serve students throughout life.
In section four, after a summary of the first three sections, an account of praxis as a basis for professionalizing music education is offered. The need for ongoing ideology critique is also advanced as an ethical condition of the “critical consciousness” of professional problem-solving and responsibility that needs to replace the “false consciousness” of ideology-induced technicist teaching. And, most centrally, the importance to praxis of a warranted and well-designed curriculum is argued.
IV Curriculum: Ideology versus a Phronesis of “Good Results”
From the perspective of Critical Theory, being a teaching professional involves analyzing the kind of scientistic positivism (seen in part one) in terms critical of a technology of teaching (seen in part two) that denies the subjective particulars of individuals teachers, individual students and the situatedness of all teaching and learning. But, as explained in part three, the teacher as a professional is also critical of the “it works for me” kind of hand-me-down traditionalism where the criterion of what “works” has been defined more in terms of students who appear to be cooperative, having fun, etc., than in terms of pragmatic outcomes that empower them to be the agents of their personal musical lives. Whether inspired by scientism or traditionalism, that a method is practicable only means that it can be put into practice (i.e., has a history of past practice), not that it is pragmatic in terms of the beneficial results it brings about. Thus Critical Theory points to the need for teachers to be professionals engaged in praxis. This necessitates attending first and foremost to the goodness of results brought about for “clients” — i.e., the students.
Professional praxis
Professions, properly understood then, are not just specialized or skilled types of employment. A profession is a praxis and, in distinction to just any ‘practice’ or ‘doing’, a praxis is characterized and guided by a condition Aristotle called phronesis. This is the ethical criterion for “good results” that guides a professional practitioner to a primary concern with the pragmatic benefits experienced by the typical client. In the case of music education, individual students in music classes and ensembles are the clients served (i.e., not the class or ensemble as a collectivity). “Good praxis” (i.e., good teaching practice) in this “critical” view, can be judged only in terms of such a phronesis of “good results” for students. And “good results” are seen in terms of the degree to which, in the case of music teaching, individual students have been enabled as a result of their musical schooling to want to and to be able to engage themselves in musical praxis in ways and to a degree they find rewarding and empowering in life outside of and after graduation from school.
Teaching as a professional praxis (i.e., teaching as praxis, or “teaching praxis” for short) is thus distinguished from technicist teaching, the kind of craft-based technology that Aristotle called techne: prescriptive, traditional, instrumental knowledge employed in pursuit of taken-for-granted ends. Critical Theory is critical, then, of the kind of teacher subjectivity that ignores ethical praxis — practical and “good” human results for clients — by concerning itself, instead, with unwarranted reliance on methods of instruction used as a technology in pursuit of unquestioned, intangible goals (e.g., claims made for aesthetic education), atomistic taxonomies (e.g., the current advocacy by MENC in the United States of “teaching to the national standards”), or ideologically determined values.
Ideological consciousness
An ideology, as seen by Critical Theory, is a system of seemingly rational ideas, practices and paradigms that serve to justify or legitimate the values, vested interests, and beliefs of a particular group of people. Such groups either operate as a “ruling class” or “dominant culture,” or are engaged in some kind of “politics of recognition.” In either case, the group seeks to advance its socially created realities and interests against those of other groups. In sum, an ideology advances a group’s interests as being in the best interests of everyone else — even if the others who are supposedly to benefit from the ideology do not wish to have such beneficence forced upon them.
Public schooling is beset by multiple and competing political, economic, social and intellectual ideologies that function as external pressures and impediments to teaching praxis. Some ideologies, however, arise from within education generally and others from within each teaching specialty, such as the music education “establishment.” Individual teachers tend to be unaware of such ideological inconsistency and interference. And they uncritically “buy into” or allow them themselves to be “owned by” a particular ideological view or claim — in music education, for example, the vested interests of the publishing industry to sell music regardless of its quality, or the negative short and long term effects of the competitions and once-a-year festivals sponsored by state teacher organizations. Thus such unsuspecting teachers invariably encounter or create for themselves an often bewildering array of ideology-based obstacles to successful praxis.
Nonetheless, many teachers remain comfortable with their pat and pet assumptions and prefer to be ignorant of and thus untroubled by criticisms and alternatives. They are unwilling, then, to undertake the kind of personal and professional ideology critique that can identify dysfunctional paradigms, taken for granted assumptions, biases and unwarranted personal theories, and other such impediments to bringing about praxial results for typical students. Instead, too many become complacent followers of the status quo, or of every fad or bandwagon. Aside from their discomfort with the inevitable behavioral crises brought on by students who are “endulled” by the irrelevance of such teaching, they derive a certain solace from the predictability of their routines and continue in the same patterns — despite the fact that actual results often contradict the values or “goods” claimed by their curricular assumptions. An example of such a crisis would be the situation in music education where students are “turned off” to music by the very people who are trying to get them to “turn on” to the benefits schooling can make possible beyond what they entered the classroom knowing and valuing. Slogans and promotional campaigns by various music education organizations thus become necessary when music teaching fails to bring about the tangible and beneficial results that would be proof-positive of its value as a part of general education and its value for a life lived more fully as a result of musical schooling. Such advocacy would simply not be needed — in the current forms or degree, at least — if results promised by curricular claims of value were in fact the “goods” delivered.
Legitimation crises and ideology critique
Habermas, the leading Critical Theorist of our day, has analyzed this kind of mismatch between theory and practice — between ideological claims and results. When a system operates according to ideologies and practices that undermine its own raison d’etre, it experiences a state of perpetual crisis brought on by tensions resulting from the mismatch of values claimed for the system and values actually produced by the system. The result is a ‘loss of faith’ on the part of those who are supposed to be the beneficiaries of the ideology and its delivery system. Habermas calls these institutionally self-created contradictions, legitimation crises. They arise from the intractable problems and unintended negative results brought on by inherent contradictions and inconsistencies within the dominant ideology guiding the system and its ‘standards’. These internal contradictions and conflicts make the benefits that are only abstractly claimed in theory progressively more difficult to justify, rationalize or legitimize as being “good.” Thus, in the terminology of sociology, such ‘built-in’ crises bring about the need to legitimate the rationality and values of the system.
In schools and universities, for example, the hegemony of “classical music” that has resulted from the aesthetic ideology concerning music and musical value is widely under attack by postmodern multiculturalism for its ethnocentric bias. The result has been a legitimation crisis regarding the need for a definition of “music” and musical value that is more comprehensive and pragmatic than the aesthetic standards and values claimed for the Eurocentric canon of Art music and High Culture. The consequence has been pressures for a pluralistic inclusion of multicultural and world musics in schooling in order to support the claim that music is truly “basic” because it is truly relevant to the life well-lived.
Unfortunately, however, the resulting clamor for and thus rush to multicultural and world musics has, in turn, become a new ideological bandwagon. Including only token examples of such music fails to put “music” in its broadest and most representative praxial sense at the core of the curriculum and this minimizes the importance of just how “basic” such non- or un-aesthetic, “practical” musics are to life. Thus the only occasional use of these musics in public school, and the “token” and begrudging offering of a “world music” course in universities, pays only lip-service to a breadth and wealth of musics that should be a central part of all instruction that is properly called “music” education. Since broad sociocultural ideologies are at stake, music teachers are regularly subjected to the pressures of various social class interests concerning competing ideas of “classy” and “good” music, and to questions concerning which or whose music should be taught in schools, and why. Without ideology critique that can sort out such competing claims, unsuspecting teachers simply “go with the flow” and not surprisingly end up “swept away” in curricular directions that fall short of teaching as praxis.
The first stage of an ideology critique entails a process called immanent critique where the claims made by an ideology are used as the criteria by which the results of the ideology are evaluated. Music in schools of most industrialized nations is typically supported on the claim that it is “basic” in some way to the general education of all students. However, when the claims made by supporters of the aesthetic ideology for the benefits of aesthetic responsiveness are used as the criteria by which aesthetic-based music education is judged, it is clear that such values are not part of the general education of most school graduates whose musical tastes and habits remain virtually unaffected by such musical schooling. It is not even clear that graduates of school-based ensembles have received an “aesthetic education” since few remain musically active after graduation and since the listening tastes and habits of most have not been turned in more aesthetic directions. Immanent critique can similarly be used to sort out claims sometimes heard that multicultural and world musics in the curriculum somehow lead to better understanding and mutual respect between cultural groups. If in fact such music contributes only to a certain “politics of recognition” where each cultural group in a school has “its music” included in the total curriculum, students can be seen to “tune out” all but “their own” music or at most take a short-lived esoteric interest in certain musical differences from “their own” music. Results not infrequently lead to greater, not lesser musical and cultural insularity. Thus in cases like these, and others that will be characteristic of local situations (including university-level music education), where actual results contradict ideological claims, immanent critique helps teachers from being swept away by either traditions or fads that fall short of praxial results that make some tangible difference in the lives of students.
In addition to immanent critique, teachers must begin to use their own reason to identify praxial results that would empower students to become agents of their own musical destinies in life outside of and after graduation from school. There is always more to teach than there is time and resources to teach. Hence, the diagnoses made in and of a given situation that lead to a curriculum — or, properly speaking, the diagnoses that should lead to a written curriculum — involve decisions that are always philosophical since they rely on critical analyses of value. In music teaching, such curricular theorizing concerning musical value amounts to answering the question “What is music good for in life?” The resulting curricular problem of “What of all that can be taught is most worth teaching?” is a matter determining the most accessible pragmatic “goods'”(values) that music can provide for the greatest number of people.
Curriculum for musical praxis
A pragmatic answer to this over-riding curricular question rejects, first of all, metaphysical issues that cannot be adjudicated in concrete terms at all, or issues that do stand up well to the process of immanent critique. Thus it does not involve fine and noble platitudes and claims about the aesthetic benefits of music that cannot be evaluated in terms of teaching success or in terms of the benefits of the lives of individual students. To be successful, curriculum cannot succumb to the legitimation crises created by the use of aesthetic theory and its claims of “aesthetic disinterestedness,” “aesthetic distance,” and “for-its-own-sake” kinds of musical purity, while at the same time claiming that music education as aesthetic education is somehow basic in a pragmatic, useful sense to general education. Thus, a pragmatic curriculum — a curriculum for music as praxis — will not reflect the kinds of aesthetic claims that involve the increasingly problematic legitimation crisis concerning elitism versus populism — good taste versus popular tastes — and the resulting problem of students who are increasingly turned off to the kinds of “good music” that are alone are said to have appropriate aesthetic benefits.
Instead, a pragmatic curriculum will be guided by a phronesis of “personal action” with music. Music in this praxial sense is “for” personal praxis or agency — that is, for creating or experiencing “good time” in life through music. “Good time” is well spent — the expression “worthwhile” literally means “good time” — and thus musical agency is an important means by which humans make a life worth living. In other words, a curriculum for musical praxis is first and foremost concerned to insure that students want to and are able to avail themselves of a wider and altogether richer variety of musical choices for enriching their lives than would have been the case without formal schooling. For Critical Theory, then, the ethical criterion of successful, professional teaching praxis in music education — i.e., the phronesis of a curriculum predicated on authentic praxis — will be to empower students to improve the quality of their lives through music. “Good music” will be seen or evaluated according to the incredible breath of “good results” that music considered as praxis can bring to humans being and becoming human.
Such a praxial theory of music, then, is not exclusive; for example, in the way major aesthetic theories exclude as properly or fully aesthetic “popular” and other “useful” musical praxes such as Christmas songs, folk music, much-admired “non-classical” instruments such as the accordion and other indigenous instruments, music used in religious worship, music for dance, advertising, film and television dramas, political advocacy, and therapy, as well as a host of other everyday, down-to-earth, examples of how “basic” music really is in life. Instead, a praxial theory of music is inclusive of just such countless important ways in which music of all kinds and types serves humankind — including “concert music” of all kinds intended for “just listening.” Music as praxis serves not just solitary individuals who listen to music as a self-sufficient action, as is the case with the Art music tradition of Eurocentric concert music; instead, it encompasses all types of musical praxis that serve individual and social needs and uses — for example, music for weddings and other ceremonies and celebrations.
Furthermore, music as praxis includes and advances all kinds, degrees or skill levels of individual, recreational and amateur music-making, and all such genres of music involved in creating such “good time,” as valuable or “good” for the individuals directly served. It is therefore not restricted to just the “classy” music of any style or genre, or to performance standards of professional “artists” and other “experts.” A praxial view of music also properly recognizes that music carries an inescapable and important sociality. “Just listening” as an audience member, for instance, is not simply a matter of “listening alone” among others; it is inherently a social experience occasioned by music. Thus it includes the social communality of the audience as part of the “meaning” experienced in connection with the music. Even listening alone at home takes part in a social universe of meaning: aside from the fact such recorded and broadcast music presumes a “virtual” audience, the facticity of the music of the moment itself — the social process by which individuals regard it as a “thing” or a “work” — inherently presumes institutionally sanctioned and culturally created meaningfulness. This sociocultural component extends to the “meaning of music” itself which, in the praxial view, is thus not exclusively internal, intrinsic or for-its-own-sake as claimed by the dichotomizing categories of aesthetic theory. It is instead inclusive of an almost unimaginable variety of social and cultural meanings, intentions, influences and traits that importantly include the broader and ultimately situated influences of society and culture and the inherent sociality of sound and its use (or misuse).
“No man is an island,” it has famously been said. And, in the praxial view of music, the isolated or autonomous audience member is thus a fiction aesthetic theory has taken for granted as part of the larger European paradigm that stresses the isolated individual and correspondingly ignores or minimizes the social amplifiers and determinants of culture and the communal intentionality that conditions any lifeworld. Furthermore, the idea that a “work” of music is self-referential, for-its-own-sake, or otherwise an autonomous “expression” of the composer’s (or humankind’s) “inner life” that is isolated, cerebralized and reified as the absolute (and absolutely Good) formal or expressive meanings claimed to be “in” a score — this idea is equally unwarranted and oversimplified. The “feelings” accounted for by praxial theory are visceral, affective experiences far more direct, immediate, down-to-earth and basic than the typical high-minded claims made for the cerebralized, intellectualized and aestheticized “forms of feeling” or “pure forms” promised by leading aesthetic theories.
With a curriculum in mind that is rooted in the realities of ubiquitous musical praxis that is thus “basic” to the lives of typical people (i.e., not professionally trained musicians), the question “What is good music?” is answered only in terms of how well this or that music serves the particular “goods” (values) identified in the curriculum as advancing “good time” and thus the “good life” through music. “Good pedagogy” (i.e., successful teaching), then, becomes a matter of how well the methods and materials serve the particular “goods” included in the formal curriculum. Thus goodness of results determines the goodness of the teaching. The curriculum itself, in turn, will be judged as “good” to the degree that its hypotheses of value — what music is good for in life — actually prove over time to be good “in action” for typical students throughout life.
Critical consciousness
Starting with the ubiquity of music as basic to the good life, then, the formal school curriculum for music as praxis seeks to enhance and advance the musical skills, attitudes and choices of students beyond what would otherwise be the case without such schooling. In order to create the conditions for such successful teaching praxis, then, critical teachers need to use their reason to identify social, political, economic, and other ideological forces that influence them and their schools in directions opposed to the desirable curricular results needed if students are to be empowered to be effective agents of their own musical destinies. By identifying such contrary or detrimental influences, individual teachers are thus empowered to become more effective agents of their own calling as teachers. Being aware of impediments to their success, critical teachers prepare themselves to solve problems that, for other less aware teachers, directly exert significant negative impact that typically goes unaddressed. For example, being critically alert to the negative potential of the various social, economic, political and intellectual forces seeking to dominate public schooling, a critically conscious teacher is better prepared to minimize and otherwise cope more successfully with the negative impact these forces will invariably have in each and every classroom. Critical music educators, then, will seek to understand teaching praxis in terms of local, regional and national conditions that can divert instruction and impede the curriculum.
But, as has already been pointed out, beyond such broad-based external ideological impositions, various forces and paradigms within the field of music education itself also have important ideological overtones that can exert equally detrimental influence on curriculum and instruction. These need to be critically evaluated as well if legitimation crises and other negative effects are to be avoided or minimized. As we have already seen in earlier contexts, these ideological forces involve the narrow-minded and uncritical acceptance of ideas, theories, practices, values and the like that have great bearing on teaching praxis. Rather than consider alternatives, these traditions are received as matters of fact, and thus are not subjected to immanent or ideology critique, despite the negative potential for the technicist harm pointed out earlier. Evidence of these kinds of potentially detrimental influences are seen at all levels of music education.
Take, once again, the example of a “what works” technological or technicist approach to teaching that was analyzed earlier in relation to scientistic positivism. In this new context, we see it as an ideology that, in essence, claims that certain “good” methods or materials can be identified by empirical research or the ‘field trials’ and ‘traditions’ of practitioners as being invariably successful — as “working” — and thus as technologically “good for” all students and society. While this is not the place to argue the issue in depth, it should be obvious that, just as the successful use of tools by a carpenter is seen only in how well built and how useful the results are, any criterion of “what works” in teaching needs to take into consideration curricular results. And since, as we have seen, curriculum is a matter of answering the question, “What of all that can be taught is most worth teaching?, it is, in essence, a matter of values that require philosophical clarification and determination. In short, “what works” simply cannot be a value free, scientific, technological issue claimed by advocates. Rather, the criterion of “what works” needs to be evaluated according to the criterion of phronesis — that is, “what works” is strictly a matter of getting “good results” for students.
Praxis is not reducible to algorithmic “what works” kinds of formulaic “techniques.” All questions of praxis — in any profession or field of action — are determined in terms of the “presenting” context of each particular situation. In medicine, for example, diagnoses are made in terms of the “presenting” patient — the medical symptoms and other evidence shown by this patient, on this occasion — and prescriptions are not routine, automatic and interchangeable. Similarly, teaching methods and materials can not be routine, automatic and interchangeable “prescriptions” for the same reason that even in medical practice not all prescriptions “work” well for all patients or at all for some patients. Instead, the methods and materials a teacher uses are only “tools.” They need to be properly chosen and used appropriately in terms of the criteria for action provided by the builder’s “blueprint” — in our case, the curriculum.
For example, the MENC organization in the United States unwittingly supports and advances a technicist view through many of its activities, publications and advocacy functions. One current example is the all-out effort to improve music teacher accountability by promoting certain “recommended activities” for teaching this or that item on its extensive list of institutionally created and approved “national standards.” In other countries, the imposition by ministries of education and other agencies of a variety of politically motivated programs, standards and examinations has had similar technicist consequences. To begin with, from the point of view of teachers in-the-trenches at least, these standards are just one more unwelcome instance of “elsewhereness.” And from the perspective of Critical Theory, this kind of hierarchy of codified, rationalized, systematized, standardized ‘quality control’ is but one more manifestation of the technicist rationality already criticized in several earlier contexts. But, in any case, despite the best of intentions, such imposition of standards from on high are usually so extensive, fragmented, technical and abstract that no teacher could ever possibly put Humpty Dumpty together in a holistic way that creates a fully functional, musical individual.
Music teacher organizations are also culpable, for example when they advance the “what works” mentality at their conferences. These become opportunities for certain favored or self-proclaimed teaching experts to demonstrate “if it works for me it will work for you” kinds of methods and materials for other teachers in need of a quick technological “shot in the arm” — i.e., prescriptions — rather than opportunities for critical colloquy and professional analysis. Various institutionalized groups committed to the advancement of this or that “method” are, of course, also primary examples of the technicist approach to “what works.” The resulting “methodolatry” is a prime example of the mistaken assumption that a method and its associated materials are, de facto, a successful and pragmatic curriculum. “Methods” and “techniques” courses in universities based on these and other prescriptive “methods” are often particularly guilty of advancing the idea that teaching is simply a technology of techniques that once ‘perfected’ by practice (particularly during “practice teaching, ” as it used to be called) simply “work” for all times and in all places. This approach to “teacher training” fails to predicate teaching methods on appropriate prior considerations of the types of curricular outcomes such teaching “tools” are supposed to serve — i.e., the formal curricular outcomes that should serve as the criteria for evaluating the success or “goodness” of methods and materials. Hence, it is altogether rare for pre-service music education students to receive any instruction whatsoever in matters of curriculum, in large part because music education “professors” are often woefully uninformed about curriculum writing and theory or have a vested professional interest in advancing only a particular method to the exclusion of all other possibilities. And in any case, the literature available in music education on curriculum theory is in fact negligible — a condition that could be either the cause for or result of the lack of such background on the part of teachers of methods and materials courses.
The lack of any foundational background in curriculum is thus a major impediment to the “student” teacher. Finally given the chance to put theory-taught-as-technological-fact into “practice” (but, unfortunately, not into praxis since the ethical imperative of praxis requires pragmatic benefits for students), the student teaching “internship” all but guarantees that neophyte teachers will be socially inducted into the “what works” mentality. At the very least they are sensible enough to figure out that “success” (i.e., “survival”) and good letters of recommendation result only from adopting many of the techniques used by the cooperating teacher (who, in turn, was similarly influenced years ago). Of course, most beginning teachers quickly discover that the conditions and circumstances of their first jobs are different and that what “worked” in student teaching (or when they were students) doesn’t necessarily succeed at all or in the same way in another situation — in fact, relocated “master” teachers often experience similar problems. In this regard, it is useful to keep in mind once more that the criterion of “what works” is all too often narrowly defined as not much more than “smoothly running classes of cooperative students” rather than in terms of “individual students musically empowered” to a newly enriched musical possibilities “for life.” In any event, exactly how the cooperating teacher over time “engineered” or “mastered” the situation to facilitate his or her methods is not something the student teacher can ever observe. Furthermore, since few “what works” teachers can analyze their successes, their mentoring of interns and beginning teachers is ineffective in promoting a thoughtful and reflective approach to teaching praxis.
One important “lesson” many student teachers learn, then, is the need to adjust the first teaching situation to the “system” or “method” of “activities” they mastered during their internships — rather than, that is, adjusting the method to the situational requirements of praxis. Newly graduated music teachers often have other precedents for single-minded teaching methods since it is all too typical that in their own music lessons in the university of conservatory they were expected to adjust to the pedagogy of their teachers. Few studio teachers have developed a range of pedagogical approaches that meet the needs of students and a single-minded, “what works” approach to musical instruction is unfortunately a paradigm that is difficult for new teachers to resist.
As a result, music teachers typically begin their careers with this model of adapting students and the teaching situation to the needs of the teacher and his or her preferred technology of methods rather than determining the methods that best suit curricular needs. Moreover, curriculum is tacitly based on the technological model of student teaching. Thus, the average music teacher begins a career without a formal (i.e., written) curriculum of his or her own or without any intention of evaluating the de facto curriculum that is instead the haphazard result of the instructional model provided by the student teaching internship. Instead, because the first teaching position demands more or other than what sufficed during student teaching, the beginning teacher is focused from the first on finding, using and “practicing” various “canned” or “teacher-proof” lessons and “activities,” numerous “bags of tricks,” and other technicist prescriptions — many suggested by well-meaning older teachers themselves in the uncritical grasp of technicist assumptions.
As in student teaching, “success” will be judged against the ‘norm’ of cooperative students and smoothly running classes, not in terms of actual musical benefits for the long run in the lives of individual students. Student teaching as presently institutionalized contributes to this less than satisfactory result by its almost single-minded concern with individual lessons or rehearsals and its corresponding lack of concern with demonstrations of long-term learning. Student teachers at best “plug in” to the cooperating teacher’s de facto curriculum. Even if a formal curriculum can be produced for the student teacher who dares to ask to see it, the student quickly notes that it is either not followed at all, or is not “delivered” as designed and thus plays no role in the evaluation of students or of teaching success. Thus instruction by student teachers is rarely evaluated in terms of where or how well the formal curriculum is actually “covered,” and even more rarely evaluated in terms of whether claims as to the value of proposed curricular outcomes are verified as being truly “good for” empowering students to get into action musically in ways that can be attributed directly to their musical schooling. Furthermore, because college supervisors see only random samples of lessons, evaluation of student teaching is focused almost exclusively on isolated instances of teaching, not on overall results.
All of these problems with and negative instances of ideological influences point to the need for individual teachers to engage in ideology critique at both the personal and professional levels. They simply need to identify, analyze and assess personal ideological suppositions, inherited paradigms and other tacit and taken-for-granted assumptions. In fact, from the point of view of becoming a critical teacher, this process ought to begin early in the teacher preparation process and should continue in formal ways throughout student teaching. This way the habits of critical consciousness that need to be applied to one’s own teaching are properly nurtured (see Rose, 1994 for a good example in music education).
Communicative competence and collaborative action
However, the collective nature of schools and schooling eventually requires any teacher to cope successfully with other teachers. Thus, open, reasoned and uncoerced communication among teachers in a school — at the very least the music teachers — and between other teachers in the field of music is needed.
This process of what Habermas calls communicative action must also begin in music education courses. Here, under proper guidance, students should be both exposed to and learn to deal cooperatively and collaboratively with a wide variety of different views and opinions. Thus the essentially philosophical undertaking of developing a warranted point of view based on evidence, competence with basic philosophical knowledge and processes, and clear thinking and writing, should begin in a context of diverse and plural opinions and beliefs not dissimilar from what will be experienced on the job. It should not foreclose or narrow the philosophical and practical options of neophyte teacher, for example by submitting them to a particular technology of teaching. Rather than focusing solely on single-minded and simplistic technical matters and the professor’s pedagogical preferences, “critical instruction” should help expand an awareness of and sophistication in dealing with and expressing philosophically difficult matters of value and questions of praxis.
Such philosophical and communicative competence should be devoted to encouraging productive dialogue on curricular matters. When some reasonable degree of consensus can be reached on such matters, it can be expected, even desired, that — on the job — different teachers will be able to reach common goals by different means. In other words, just as any two lawyers will approach a court case differently yet reach the same result for their clients, so teaching as professional praxis involves both an individual approach to reaching desirable outcomes and the personal and professional rewards associated with such individual achievement. The special problem for teaching as a profession, however, is the lack of easily agreed to or obviously “good” outcomes. In law it is perfectly obvious that winning the case is good, and in surgery that the patient should be relieved of pain and suffering. While there are other ethical dimensions to such professions (for example, questions of “malpractice”), the basic phronesis by which “goods” are observed is usually quite clear.
To attain a similar status for judging the success of this or that teaching technique, curricular results in music education need to be stated in terms of regulative or action ideals. All professions are guided by such ideals — for example, in the case of medicine, to restore health, to minimize or alleviate pain and, above all, to do no harm. Such ideals are not “idealistic.” Even though no perfect or “ideal” state of human affairs can ever be reached, they can be imagined. Thus regulative or action ideals are optimum states towards which people naturally strive or by which they judge the relative success of their actions. Action ideals thus guide or regulate action (i.e., praxis) by guiding it in certain directions that, being posited as ideal, are understood from the first as being incapable of final instantiation or perfect solution. For example, “love” or any one of the Ten Commandments is an action ideal, as is a musical score, or the physician’s ideal of extending life. A curriculum, then, is an articulated and functional arrangement of such action ideals for guiding teaching praxis in the same way a score guides certain kinds of musical praxis.
A written (formal) curriculum for music thus involves hypothesizing action ideals that analyze and represent desirable, optimum states of musical functioning. It describes in holistic terms the “good results” ethically expected from a teacher’s praxis (or from each individual among a group of teachers following an agreed upon curriculum) and from the curriculum itself. To be praxial, such holistic results must be “authentic” and thus capable of being put into action both in the classroom and “in life.” A delivered curriculum (curriculum as “instructed”) can never fully satisfy or reach these optimum states. But, in teaching as praxis, the effective curriculum amounts to the actual results in terms of musically praxial benefits for individual students.
In this ‘critical’ view, then, the process of “instruction” based on “delivering” a formal curriculum is necessarily distinguished from “teaching” as a praxis that results in an effective curriculum. In the first place, a formal curriculum will be incapable of supporting effective curricular results if improperly conceived or written. And, in the case of where appropriate formal curriculum is used to organize and guide instruction, “teaching” is seen only when such “instruction” (i.e., methods, materials, evaluation, etc.) is effective in terms qualified by the curriculum. “Teaching,” thus redefined pragmatically and ‘critically’, is always benefited by being drawn and inspired in the direction of such optimum results, and is judged and changed over time by using such action ideals as criteria for improvement.
Any consideration concerning action ideals for curriculum, in sum, is a philosophical undertaking. When it includes a group of teachers planning curriculum together, it also requires ‘critical argumentation’: the ability first to ‘critique’ an issue, contention, assumption or “problem” in terms acceptable to all, then to argue (in the best professional sense) and communicate successfully the fruits of that critique in the direction of increased empowerment of all concerned. “Teaching,” then, is not the simple use of a technology or tools of instruction; rather, it is the praxis of realizing effective results for students for life. The “standards” of effectiveness for teaching praxis are indicated by the action ideals of a formal curriculum conceived in terms of empowering students to music as a praxis. Such standards for praxis become “common standards” when they are conceived collectively by all those in a community charged with “instructing” students. However, there will be no “standard practice” or technology for reaching the common criteria of the formal curriculum. Thus teaching as praxis is at once an individual and individualizing undertaking. “Teachers,” thus, derive the kind of personal benefits and pleasures from professional praxis that are denied technicists whose efforts and results are at best more like the repeatable, routine, impersonal efforts of factory workers.
In the next section, teaching as professional praxis is seen to draw upon empirical research in generative, rather than prescriptive ways, particularly in the form of action research. The praxial knowledge guiding teaching, then, is not a matter of mere trial and error. It is shown to be a highly reflective process that results in large part from treating teaching as a type of action research.
V Critical Theory, Research Theory and Teaching As and For Praxis
With effective ongoing communication among teachers functioning as professionals, agreement as to what should constitute an effective curriculum is progressively realized — total or perfect agreement being rare. Critical Theory then points to the need for individual and collective action plans of change agency by which such curricular agreement can be translated into the kind of teaching praxis that enhances the role of music as praxis in the lives of students. At the very least, such action plans for change and improvement need to be characterized by some degree or type of action research. Such research is not done in order to make generalizations about learning that can be used as a technology with all learners in all times and places. It is first and foremost undertaken by individuals (or cooperative groups) to improve personal (or local) teaching praxis. Any generalization of results is not considered to be law-like; it holds only for that teacher or group, in that situation, for the near future.
Reflective teaching
Action research can span a range from formal to informal. Critically reflective teaching typically proceeds in the spirit of informal action research. Such teaching involves two levels of hypotheses that are “tested” in action: first, each ‘lesson plan’ is considered to be a hypothesis. Thus the methods and material hypothesized as being “good” for advancing a curricular goal are evaluated in terms of how well observable results meet such curricular criteria. Secondly, over time, the “goodness” of the curriculum itself — the goodness claimed by its theory of particular values — is treated as a theory that needs to be reflected on in terms of the evidence of long-term benefits for students.
This kind of “diagnose-hypothesize-test-observe-reflect” process, carried on in an unending spiral called “teaching” is a rational and empirical approach to teaching that is scientific in spirit without being scientistic or technicist in its claims or procedures. More thorough and systematic formal action research will typically be reserved for major decisions by an individual or group that involve general or overall questions of methods and relevant resources — such as whether curricular ideals for music reading in the elementary levels are served better by systematic instruction on classroom melodic instruments or by the more traditional singing approach. The traditional approach necessarily copes with problems of vocal pitch matching, in addition to decisions concerning whether solfege or number systems will be used and, if so, which ones. On the other hand, while students in choruses who ‘read’ at all or best are most likely those who play melodic instruments, large group instruction on classroom instruments poses its own options concerning the choice of instruments and teaching materials. The issue could be decided through formal action research rather than according to arbitrary and untested technicist claims. Only such an approach can accommodate local differences of resources, scheduling, staffing, and student profiles and needs.
Results of both formal and informal action research also need to be communicated among other practitioners (locally and beyond) with a view to the possibility that the knowledge conditions of a certain practice (i.e., its “theory”) can be adapted and thus ‘practiced’ by others along similar lines. Just as the praxis of one surgeon can be ‘adapted’ and ‘practiced’ by other surgeons, so the praxis of a teacher always has potential for being shared. Thus some teaching theories or models can become something akin to common praxis for reaching certain shared curricular results — that is, common standards — without the expectation of a standard practice or technicist method that is the same for everyone. Such common standards are comparable to “standards of care” in medicine and, as in medicine, there will be no standard practice that can or needs to be qualified in terms of long, detailed lists of “standards,” national or otherwise. In teaching as and for praxis, then, there can be no universal technology of teaching, no slavish “teaching the standards,” no “what works,” no uncritical adherence to ideological influences of any kind. “Good results” will be a matter of individual praxis — a praxis nonetheless informed by a community of practitioners (local and beyond) unified more by their commitment to a common standard or phronesis to get students “into action” musically than by uniform or standard teaching techniques.
Teachers also need the opportunity and the ability, therefore, to be able to analyze the action research and successful teaching practices of others critically in terms of the needs and other conditions of their own instructional situations and practices. For example, instead of “show and tell” demonstrations of discrete techniques and sample “activities” at teacher conferences, presentations would deal with descriptions and analyses of the action research process that has led to the adoption of a particular teaching praxis. Rather than presenting the praxis as a prescription or recipe, the empirical data and theoretical premises of the praxis in question would be shared and discussed in a way that would allow other teachers to formulate ‘experiments’ that are suited to their own teaching circumstances.
Such attempts to share praxis (in distinction to sharing technicist methods) would profitably adopt something of the format of scientific research. First would be a statement of “the problem.” This would amount to an account of the formal curricular action ideals at stake and the relevant philosophical warrants supporting their “goodness” — i.e., why and how the curricular goals in question are “good.” This account would allow audience members to assess the relevance or goodness of such curricular ideals in critical terms for their own praxis. Second, following this statement of the “curriculum problem” would be a review of the relevant theoretical and research “literature” that warrants the praxial application in question — i.e., the hypothesis at stake concerning whether the methods and materials are “good for” the curricular ideals at stake. It is important to note that praxial knowledge of various kinds are at stake in any such praxis, not a discrete practice presented as a method, technique, recipe or prescription. Thus this background of relevant literature would allow fellow teachers to adapt or ‘practice’ for themselves the practical knowledge in question — the knowledge resulting from the presenting teacher’s action research — to the situatedness of their own teaching rather than uncritically adopt it as a “what works” technology.
As a third step, the student population with whom the praxial knowledge in question was developed would also need to be carefully presented as being only a “selected sample,” not as “universally representative” of all students. On one hand, this allows audience members to make relevant comparisons and critical analyses with regard to their own student populations. On the other hand, it removes any possible implication that the praxial knowledge being shared is or can be a universal technique. And, finally, despite the success that warrants the sharing of such praxial knowledge in the first place, results should nonetheless be critically analyzed with a view to ongoing shortcomings that need to be improved. This would make it clear that the knowledge base for praxis being shared is not a “perfected” technique or a definitive “finding” of “what works,” but rather an ongoing hypothesis that, in the best scientific traditions, “needs more research” or refinement. In general, “methods” and “techniques” classes for teachers-in-training and in-service workshops also ought to follow these same four parameters. Teachers, in sum, need to be able to communicate their findings accurately to others if they are to create and contribute to a professional community of shared standards and a sharable fund of praxial knowledge — knowledge that results from successful praxis and that serves as a starting point for further praxis.
Putting theory into practice
In addition to such praxial knowledge, and despite the fact that Critical Theory has been critical of positivist claims that only science provides valid or valuable knowledge, teachers also need to be able to locate, understand and use “basic” research (i.e., theoria in Aristotle’s discourse). Teaching as action research simply needs to be firmly grounded in relevant and practicable empirical and theoretical research of various kinds — especially the kind of philosophical research that draws on warrants from diverse, relevant disciplines. In general, considerable theoria of this kind already exists that can be useful in guiding teaching in the same way that basic research theory supports but does not dictate the practice of medicine. When stripped of any positivist implications that such “findings” represent or point directly to a technology of “what works,” then empirical, historical, sociological and philosophical research can and should serve as part of the process by which action research for teaching is undertaken. Thus teachers should consult applicable research theory and empirical findings. And in their collegiate coursework and student teaching, neophyte teachers need be required to demonstrate this process successfully “in action.”
When theoretical and empirical research is applicable to teaching, it is generative not prescriptive. Such research combined with praxial knowledge generates hypotheses for likely courses of action — i.e., hypotheses that are comparable to a physician’s “diagnoses” — which always must be “tested in action” and evaluated by comparison to the ethical criteria of “good results” provided by curriculum. This process of first generating such hypotheses-diagnoses, then testing and evaluating them against action ideals indicated in the written curriculum, is the minimum condition of teaching as praxis — teaching as a profession! However, successful “tests” never become recipes. To begin with, it is not the “technique” or the “method” chosen that “works”; it is the praxial and theoretical knowledge that “works” in the hands of a suitably informed and reflective teacher to bring about musically praxial results.. And, in any case, no such successful instance is ever final or perfect; and praxial knowledge, by definition, is defined in terms of human values and needs that are forever variable. Thus the action research process is never-ending; it represents a perpetual quest for success that is never completed. Furthermore, teaching praxis also demands that the action ideals of the written curriculum also be treated as hypotheses; they too need to be adjudicated in terms of whether their claimed values (the “goodness” they propose) actually result in discernible benefits — i.e., whether or the degree to which musical values or “goods” result for students in “life.”
Finally, although musical competence is clearly a necessary and absolutely central condition of successful music teaching, it is not a sufficient condition. A more effective, functional balance between musical praxis and teaching praxis is needed in the preparation of teachers than is presently the case. Competent musical performers are fully mindful of and thus constantly reflect on the effectiveness of their practicing in terms of praxis — i.e., the goodness of results. Similarly, music teachers become mindful and reflective critical educators and thus professionals to the degree they become more competent in using basic research findings and curricular theory to improve their praxis.
It has been said that “nothing is so practical as a good theory.” Thus, despite the fact that, since Aristotle, theoria has been undertaken and contemplated for its own sake, theory of various kinds and levels of sophistication is also necessary to guide praxis. However, it is teachers who must adapt theory into praxial knowledge according to situated criteria — just as physicians must do according to the “symptoms” of the “presenting” patient and the other conditions of their medical practice (for example, surgeons on the battlefield “operate” under different conditions than they do in a modern medical center, yet must still get “good results”). Teachers cannot expect theoreticians and researchers to frame such research theory in universal, technicist terms, nor should they expect or accept the misleading “what works” claims of “applied research.” That, from the view of Critical Theory, falls into the scientistic assumptions and ideologies of positivism and of teaching as a “what works” technology. Technicist teaching amounts to renouncing the need and responsibility of each professional to “diagnose” and “treat” each situation according to the ethical criterion of phronesis that guides effective praxis in teaching, just as in medicine or any other professional praxis.
Praxial knowledge
For music teaching to be a profession, then, there needs to exist a reasonable, pragmatic consensus within a community of professionals concerning the nature of the ideal curricular results towards which teaching praxis in music education is devoted and by which it is evaluated. From the point of view of Critical Theory, such common standards should be pragmatic in all respects. Praxis, in this professional account then, involves an ethical commitment to getting the “right results” — meaning, in our case, musical and personal results that empower student-clients to be musical agents of their present and future musical fortunes. Furthermore, music teachers are professional to the degree that through “practice” they develop a personal “feel” for practical judgment (diagnosing and hypothesizing) and decision-making, rather than proceeding uncritically according to received technical traditions. Thus, critical educators function as intellectual models and philosophical leaders within a community of similarly committed professionals, not as unmindful technicians or uncritical followers. They are fully aware of changing research and theory on a broad professional scale, and continually change and improve their practice accordingly. And because they learn in and from the results of their own teaching actions judged in terms of students’ progress, they are their own best knowledge base.
The kind of “learning by doing” that results from the application of theory in terms of practical judgments based on ethics of praxis is referred to as praxial knowledge. Praxis generates personal knowledge on the part of the practitioner. This is why Aristotle considered praxis to be a form of knowledge and not simply any unreflective ‘practice’ or ‘doing.’ Habermas, building on this traditional view of praxial knowledge, has advanced a contemporary theory of praxial knowledge that has been applied by others to teaching as a praxis (viz., Carr and Kemmis, 1986). One component of such knowledge is the realization that no praxis ever attains “final” or “perfected” methods and techniques. Instead, teachers must always be critically alert to their own fallibility. They judge their success as teacher-professionals only in terms of tangible “goods” that clearly benefit students in ways and to a degree that would not have been possible without formal instruction in schools or studios. Medicine as a profession learns (generates praxial knowledge) from its mistakes and failings when patients die or get worse. Teaching requires an ethic based on a formal pragmatic curriculum before teachers can similarly observe and thus learn from their mistakes and failings. The progressive elimination of such failings (however gradual), constitutes the most valuable source of praxial knowledge. The kind of progress that results from praxis, then, gives new meaning for an education that seeks to be “progressive” without on the other hand suffering from the typical criticisms usually attributed to that philosophical description.
Praxial knowledge is thus rooted in personal experience that, in turn, has been guided by informed judgments made in connection with ethical criteria that vary considerably according to the particulars of a situation. It simply cannot be passed on directly as recipes. It can only be shared in theoretical and indirect terms that need to be ‘practiced’ or ‘developed’ anew by other practitioners “in action” in terms of the criteria provided by an evolving phronesis that is itself guided by the ever-changing particulars of their different situations. Therefore, the knowledge-base at stake in “methods and techniques” courses, in methods books, and in research of various kinds, is not and should not be regarded as a fixed, final, objective, applied technology of “what works.” This knowledge should be recognized as being at best a theoretical starting point for developing praxial knowledge and professional competence through ever-improved praxial success, not as a techinicist collection of recipes and techniques that function as the “final word” as to “what works.” And finally, the relevant “diagnoses” or hypotheses required by any adaptive application of such theory to a particular praxial situation requires a functional background in developmental and educational psychology, philosophical dimensions of teaching and curriculum, and a functional sociological familiarity with how schooling is organized. Such foundations from supporting disciplines are basic in every way to the types of diagnosis, analysis, reflection and adaptive judgment required of a music teacher as a professional.
VI Critical Theory and Music Education
Critical Theory is a particular body of literature committed to a particular agenda of human freedom or empowerment; a particular way of analyzing and dealing with a wide range of social problems. Unlike many other philosophies and theories (such as postmodernism’s concern with linguistics and literary interpretation), most of the social issues addressed by Critical Theory have considerable relevance for schooling, education and teaching. It is not claimed here that Critical Theory alone can serve to reform and redirect music education. However, the increasing relevance John Dewey and other pragmatists have for Habermas puts the current literature of Critical Theory directly in touch with and relevant to current issues in education. Similarly, the importance to Critical Theory of the need for pragmatic strategies for social change — that is, the importance of not being just another theory that cannot be put into practice — recommends it as a basis for change agency in music education. Given its central concern with issues central to music and to schooling, and because it already serves as the basis of a growing body of educational philosophy and theory (much of which is unknown to music educators), Critical Theory provides an important component for professionalizing music education that cannot and should not continue to be overlooked.
Critical teaching is especially well-suited to serving as a basis for needed change in music education today. It requires teachers to remain current with regard to changing bases of research, theory and praxis and to engage regularly in ideology critique. In particular it requires systematic reflection upon teaching praxis where success is judged in terms of the benefits for students. This self-correcting feature prevents a Critical Theory-based teaching praxis from itself becoming an ideology and its self-critical spirit also prevents it from becoming part of the problem that it criticizes. In sum, to be professional in terms suggested by Critical Theory means a never-ending quest to insure and improve music teaching as a praxis for bringing about the “good results” of personal musical praxis on the part of students throughout their lives.
Teaching as praxis, then, also means teaching music for praxis — that is, for the purposes of using music as lifelong personal praxis. Seen from the curricular point of view, then, Critical Theory points to the importance of music itself as praxis: music’s value or “good” and thus its reason for being in the general education of all students is to be put into action to bring about pragmatic benefits of a kind that only it can contribute to the life well-lived. Music is thus not an abstract or inert “subject” or “discipline” studied in school; it exists to be put “into action” for its fullest potential in enhancing life.
In conclusion, teaching as praxis is guided by action ideals that judge success in terms of the musical benefits brought about by musical praxis — by music “in action” in the lives of students as a direct result of their musical schooling. Music in this view is an important and basic humanizing praxis because through it “human beings become human in coming to know themselves as human” (Wartofsky, 1979). Teaching music is, therefore, doubly engaged as a praxis where curriculum as a theoretical and ideal claim comes “to life” musically for students to the degree that they can put music “into action” in their lives. Music education, then, is action for a change in the musical lives of students now and in the future as adults. | http://www.maydaygroup.org/1998/04/critical-theory-and-praxis-professionalizing-music-education/ |
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- Toward a Rationale for Music Education in the Public School Context Framed with both Progressive and Essentialist Considerations: Operationalizing the Ideas of William Chandler Bagley
- In music education, aesthetic education and praxial music education serve as two major, guiding philosophical frameworks, yet supporters of each often conflict with one another. Furthermore, both are slightly problematic with respect to the specific context of the public school. Each framework is primarily music-based, however, music education has existed in the wider context of general education since the 1830s. Given the recent core-status designation for music education, as part of all fine arts, in the reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, a framework from general education that supported music education could offer benefits for the domain. However, the wider context of general education is messy as well. Two groups occupy most of the space there, and remain locked in a fundamental disagreement over the purpose of a formal education. The progressive educators, historically framed by Dewey and Thorndike, contend that education functions as societal improvement. In contrast, the essentialists contend that education functions as cultural transmission. Therefore, a more specific need for music education involves selecting a framework from general education that resolves this conflict. The writings of William Chandler Bagley indicate that he balanced both considerations of a formal education while also advancing his notion of essentialism. Bagley differed from the progressive educators predominately associated with Dewey over definitions and ideas surrounding a democratic education. Emergent points of contrast with Thorndike include distinctions between social efficiency and Bagley's alternative idea of social progress. Bagley also diverged from other essentialists over definitions concerning liberal and cultural education. To make these viewpoints of Bagley explicit, I describe characteristics of a progressive education, and an essentialist education separately, before introducing Bagley. Finally, I apply Bagley's ideas into the domain of music education. Ultimately, I contend that through common outcomes of creativity, competition, and literacy, the domain of music education can remain securely grounded in the values within the public schools. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc849619/
- High School Contemporary a Cappella: a Descriptive Phenomenology
- This study examines the phenomenon of contemporary a cappella music making found in high school settings as curricular and extra-curricular offerings. Past music and music education literature has focused exclusively on contemporary a cappella at the collegiate level. Through application of a descriptive phenomenological method and incorporation an educational-sociological lens, this study advances an understanding of the educational benefit and social value of membership in contemporary a cappella at the high school level. Six recent members from three regions of the United States provided data through individual open-form interviews in which questions were derived from the participants’ own speech. I incorporated phenomenological reductions and processes to negate researcher bias during data collection, analysis, and the formation of a general structure and constituent meanings of membership in high school contemporary a cappella. Participants utilized traditional music skills, individual talents, conceptions of popular culture and music, and in-group socialization to facilitate music making and reify membership. Expressing the value of group membership, individuals acted to benefit the group by cultivating social bonds, developing and fostering personal/shared connections to songs, identifying and purposing individual talents and skills, and gaining an understanding of each members’ unique contribution to membership. Discussion includes implications for music education and suggestions for future research. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc822787/
- The Effects of Instruction on the Singing Ability of Children Ages 5-11: a Meta-analysis
- The purpose of the meta-analysis was to address the varied and somewhat stratified study results within the area of singing ability and instruction by statistically summarizing the data of related studies. An analysis yielded a small overall mean effect size for instruction across 34 studies, 433 unique effects, and 5,497 participants ranging in age from 5- to 11-years old (g = 0.43). The largest overall study effect size across categorical variables included the effects of same and different discrimination techniques on mean score gains. The largest overall effect size across categorical moderator variables included research design: Pretest-posttest 1 group design. Overall mean effects by primary moderator variable ranged from trivial to moderate. Feedback yielded the largest effect regarding teaching condition, 8-year-old children yielded the largest effect regarding age, girls yielded the largest effect regarding gender, the Boardman assessment measure yielded the largest effect regarding measurement instrument, and song accuracy yielded the largest effect regarding measured task. Conclusions address implications for teaching, research pedagogy, and research practice within the field of music education. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc804952/
- Middle School Choir Directors’ Perceptions and Applications of Multicultural Music Education
- The purpose of this descriptive study was to discover Texas middle school choir directors’ perceptions and applications of multicultural education in their classrooms. Three research questions guided this investigation: (1) What were middle school choir director’s perceptions about multicultural music education?; (2) How did middle school choir directors apply multicultural music pedagogy in their classrooms?; and (3) How did middle school choir directors perceive professional development opportunities in multicultural music education? Texas middle school choir directors perceived that the purpose of multicultural music was to expose students to different cultures and diverse worldviews through music. Teachers listed several social and musical benefits of studying multicultural music including broadening musical horizons, cultural appreciation, and expansion of student worldviews. Teachers consciously programmed multicultural music for most of their concerts, and some chose literature based on their students’ cultural backgrounds. Although most teachers tried to make multicultural music experiences genuine for students, authenticity was the foremost pedagogical concern regarding multicultural music pedagogy. Teachers tended to utilize a combination of music concept and sociocultural approaches when teaching multicultural music by comparing multicultural music to Western music and using classroom discussions to discuss social issues that lend context to the music. Professional development opportunities in multicultural music education were available through the state music organization (TMEA), but rarely at the district or the campus level. Teachers also reported opportunities at the national level for professional development. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc804861/
- Constructions of Choir Identity in a High School
- The purpose of this study was to investigate constructions of choir identity among high school choir students in the United States public school classroom setting. The research questions were (a) what are the processes involved in construction of choir identity and (b) how are the processes related to the group identity of the choir. The data were collected through participant observations in one selected choir classroom and semi-structured interviews with students from the choir class. The results included six processes of identity construction as well as identification of the ways in which each process was related to the choir group’s identity. The processes and their links to the overall choir group identity provided further insight into the ways in which high school choir students construct their identities, and they also supported methods of teaching commonly used in high school choir settings. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc699994/
- The Measurement of Occupational Identity Among Undergraduate Preservice Music Teachers: a Test Development Study
- A large segment of society is either preparing to enter the work force, or is already engaged in some chosen line of work. Preparing to enter the work force takes a considerable amount of time and effort. The decision to follow one career path over countless others may, on the surface, appear to be discretely individual. But when viewed from a sociological perspective, occupational choices are implicitly and explicitly reached through a consensus of contributing factors. Consequently, an occupational identity is not how an individual describes a personal work-related self, but is rather dialectic. It is the merging, albeit, negotiation of viewpoints which causes persons to view themselves in relationship with how others think of them. It is expected that students newly enrolled in music education degree programs will, with time, replace erroneous lay conceptions of music teaching with those presented in curricula and espoused by significant role models. However, the professional socialization process, characteristic of music education degree programs, has not always been successful in transforming students’ personal perspectives of music teaching. This transformation process is critical toward the development of occupational identities that are congruent with school music teaching positions. There has been an established line of research in music education that examines who school music teachers are from a sociological perspective. When pursuing this literature, however, it became evident that, over time, the term identity had been used under many different guises, incorporating mixed perspectives from among the social sciences. The studies that have dealt with occupational identity have done so for different purposes, employing different theories and methodologies. While any of these previous research protocols may be useful for particular purposes, the reality is that the terms identity and occupational identity have become interchangeable. The term identity is sometimes used to denote self-concept or role concept without being clear about what these mean or how or if they are different from occupational identity. The underlying issue here, and a principle concern for music education, is whether or not music education degree programs are guiding preservice music teachers toward an occupational identity that matches with the occupation. The purpose of this study was to contribute to the field of occupational identity by developing a researcher-designed measurement tool for occupational identity in music education. This study focused solely on preservice music teachers, their perceptions and demonstrable behaviors, associated with the changes that might occur over the course of their professional preparation. The data in this investigation, subjected to principal components analysis, resulted in a 5-component solution rotated to simple structure using oblique Oblimin rotation. Thirty-five items from a pool of 106 with component loadings >.35 explained 57% of the total variance. Reliability estimates using Cronbach’s alpha were .93 for all 35 items and ranged from .92 to .66 for the five components. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc699995/
- Teacher Communication in Title I Elementary Music Classrooms: Perceptions of Elementary Music Classroom Teachers
- The increasing cultural diversity in the United States has brought not only richness, but also complex challenges, to various segments of American society, particularly with regard to public schools. As the student population continues to diversify while teacher population remains predominately White, female, and middle class, teacher awareness in the classroom might be an integral piece to assist students marginalized by stereotypes in feeling more empowered in the school community. Through qualitative data collection and analysis, and framed by Basil Bernstein’s language code theory, this study explored teachers’ perceptions of how classroom interactions, in light of differences in communication, might impact students of different socio-economic backgrounds from the teacher. The findings of this study indicated that the participants expressed a desire to connect with all of their students, regardless of their background. They also discussed challenges that made relationships difficult, such as feelings of disconnect from their Title I students and their families based on differences in home life and background. This dissonance was often difficult for the participants to reconcile due to pressures and difficulties in their teaching situations, such as the large number of students and the scheduling of classes, curricular pressures, and other district expectations such as after-school ensembles. Implications for practicing music teachers and teacher education include ways to understand students’ communities and rethinking ways of approaching relevant terminology in education. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc407827/
- The Effect of Three Compositional Structures on the Compositional and Instructional Self-efficacy of Pre-service Music Teachers
- The purpose of this study was two-fold: 1) to compare the effects of three different composition tasks with varying degrees of structure on pre-service music teachers’ creative self-efficacy as composers and their instructional self-efficacy as pedagogues of composition; and 2) to describe through pre-service music teachers’ talk perceptions of composition and their experiences completing the three composition tasks. Participants (N = 29) were music education majors from three different sized universities in the northern-central region of the United States. At the beginning of the study, the participants answered a researcher-design self-efficacy questionnaire that measured (a) their self-efficacy as composers and (b) their self-efficacy as teachers of composition. Next, they composed three compositions of various task structures (unstructured, poem, and rhythm). Immediately after completing each task they again completed the self-efficacy questionnaire. Statistically significant mean differences between the pre-task administration of the measuring instrument and all three composition tasks were found for the pre-service teachers’ compositional self-efficacy. Statistically significant mean differences were also found between the unstructured task and the rhythm task, but not between the rhythm and poem tasks or the unstructured and poem tasks. For the pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy as pedagogues of composition question, the results were also statistically significant between the pre-task administration of the measuring instrument and all three composition tasks. Statistically significant mean differences were also found between the unstructured task and the rhythm task as well as the poem and rhythm tasks, but not between the unstructured and poem tasks. Additional data were gathered through semi-structured one-on-one interviews. Through their talk the pre-service music teachers commented that they enjoyed the overall composition process. This experience also seemed to challenge the participants’ assumptions about composition and appeared to make creative experiences more tenable and relevant to their future classroom experiences. The results of this study suggest that incorporating composition activities regardless of structure within a music teacher’s pre-service training might impact their self-efficacy beliefs not only as composers, but also as pedagogues of composition. This study suggested that teacher educators might want to consider using a rhythmic structure as the first task to help provide an initial framework to guide and initiate their composition. Pre-service teachers engaged in similar compositional activities might also gain further insights about what it means to be a composer and into the pedagogy of composition. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc149601/
- Resilience Among High Achievers In An Instrumental Music Program
- Positive adaptations experienced in spite of challenges faced is known as resilience. Comparatively little research has focused on in-depth descriptions regarding how resilience is manifested in children. The purpose of this study was to add to previous research in the identification of characteristics of resilience in students, and to determine the extent to which band membership has aided their resilience in other domains. Data was collected from a random sample of band seniors from the class of 2011 (n = 3) who attended a large high school in the South. Specific research questions were: (1) What characteristics of resilience are present in the talk of participants in a high school instrumental music program? (2) To what extent has this population perceived that membership in band aided their resilience in other domains? A descriptive study design was chosen that used qualitative data. Following data analysis that included category matrices, prominent themes emerged from the participants’ responses. These included self-improvement, forward thinking, optimism, inner drive, increased achievement, determination, development of relationships to peers and adult mentors, and development of connectedness to the school. The findings of this study complemented previous research on characteristics of resilient students, and suggested that the participants derived positive benefits from group membership and from positively contributing to the school. Recommendations based on these findings for researchers included the need for resilience to be studied across other subject areas in school, and across different populations of students. Recommendations for teachers and administrators included varied opportunities for extra-curricular and co-curricular student engagement. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc103376/
- Texas Middle School Choral Directors’ Beliefs About Repertoire Selection
- Secondary choral directors often demonstrate a wide variety of organizational, instructional, and musical skills to promote and nurture thriving programs. Among the many tasks executed, choosing repertoire might be viewed as one of the most important duties performed. Material chosen for study is often the vehicle through which curricular concepts are taught. Multiple factors might influence middle school choral directors’ beliefs about repertoire choices. Ironically, repertoire choices might or might not reflect educators’ actual teaching philosophies; nevertheless, these decisions could influence student learning. This study surveyed a stratified random sampling of Texas middle school choral directors who participated in the 2010 University Interscholastic League Concert and Sight-reading competition (n = 209). Seventy middle school choral directors participated in the study. Each director took an online survey and indicated the degree to which they agreed or disagreed with 14 statements concerning repertoire choice. Many of the belief statements showed teachers were overwhelmingly in concordance with their beliefs (92.9%). Results indicated that beliefs were similar, regardless of who chose the curriculum or the amount of discussion perceived in undergraduate training. The only belief statement that continually showed differences between teachers concerned students’ ability to vote on repertoire. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc103409/
- Music Career Opportunities and Career Compatibility: Interviews with University Music Faculty Members and Professional Musicians
- This study used a semistructured interview schedule to identify the music career opportunities available to students who graduate with an undergraduate music degree, and the skills, interests, work values, and personal characteristics that may determine a person's suitability for these music careers. Six university faculty members from each of the 11 NASM-accredited undergraduate music degree fields participated in the study (n = 66). Fourteen professional musicians who were recommended by these faculty members also participated in the study. Concerning the musical and non-musical skills that may determine a person's suitability for a music career, participants consistently noted the importance of performance skills in their respective fields. Participants also consistently cited people skills, and noted that most musicians interact with people on a daily basis, and use people skills to build social networks that may lead to employment. When asked about the interests that may lead someone to a music career, participants commonly cited the importance of good high school ensemble experiences in students' music career decisions. Concerning the rewarding aspects of music careers, many participants noted that they were more rewarded by the ability to support themselves doing what they loved, than by fame or wealth. Concerning the personal characteristics that may determine music career compatibility, participants noted that tenacity is essential to contend with intense competition, extended periods of unemployment, and other common struggles of professional musicians. When asked about music career opportunities in their respective fields, participants reported numerous music careers, some of which were excluded from previous music career inventories. In addition, participants noted that there may be careers for non-musicians in some music career fields. Participants also noted that some music careers may be listed in more than one music career field, creating potential confusion for music career advisors. Finally, participants noted transitions in many music careers that may change the professional expectations of these careers. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc28398/
- Attitudes of International Music Students from East Asia toward U.S. Higher Education Institutions
- Nine universities in the United States with the greatest number of international students and having an accredited music program through the National Association of Schools of Music (NASM) were selected. Survey research methodologies were used to identify the status of the international music students from East Asia in U.S. higher education institutions and to determine their attitudes toward their schools. Among East Asian international music students at US higher education institutions, the results indicated that the professor's reputation, scholarships, and the program's reputation were perceived as the most influential factors impacting the program choice; a good relationship with professors, good feedback from professors, and emotional stability were perceived as the most influential factors impacting academic success; and the professor's teaching, the professor's expertise, and the improvement of musical skills were perceived as the most influential factors impacting students' satisfaction level. The most problematic issues reported were the language barrier and the cultural differences between their host and own countries. In addition, many of the East international music students in this study noted financial difficulties. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc9856/
- The relationship between collegiate band members' preferences of teacher interpersonal behavior and perceived self-efficacy.
- The first purpose of this study was to describe collegiate band members' preferred teacher interpersonal behaviors and perceptions of self-efficacy based on the gender, year in college, instrument, and major. The second purpose of the study was to measure the relationship between preferences of interpersonal teacher behavior and self-efficacy scores. The non-probability purposive sample (N = 1020) was composed of band members representing 12 universities from different regions of the United States. There were 4 large public, 4 small public, and 4 private universities that participated in the study. Participants completed 2 questionnaires, the Teacher Interaction Preference Questionnaire (TIPQ) and the Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (SEQ). Descriptive statistics were calculated for each of the questionnaires. Results for the TIPQ showed that all sub-groups most preferred the dominant-cooperative behaviors, followed by submissive-cooperative behaviors, and least preferred the dominant-oppositional behaviors. Results for the SEQ showed subtle variations for all subgroups. Three Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were calculated to measure the relationship between the three teacher interaction styles (dominant-cooperative, submissive-cooperative, dominant-oppositional) and students' perceived self-efficacy. Due to the possible over-use of the data with multiple correlations, a Bonferroni adjustment was made to avoid a Type I error (.05/3 = .016). A significant positive relationship was found between self-efficacy and dominant-cooperative with 22% shared variance. A significant positive relationship was found between self-efficacy and submissive-cooperative with 7% shared variance. Finally, a significant positive relationship was found between self-efficacy and dominant-oppositional with 5% shared variance. This study's results indicate that it may be beneficial for band directors to measure students' preferences and perceptions of teacher interpersonal teacher behavior in order to find ways to interact better with the students. In addition, due to the relationship between students' preferences of teacher interpersonal behavior and perceived self-efficacy, collegiate band directors may wish to examine their own behaviors to determine how they align with the students' preferences. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc9826/
- The Effect of Ethnicity on the Age-of-onset of the Male Voice Change.
- The purposes of this study were to describe the characteristics of the changing male voice in 4th, 5th and 6th grade students using Cooksey's maturation stages and, to compare the age-of-onset of the male voice change in African American, White, and Hispanic male students. Participants included volunteer 4th (n = 61), 5th (n = 73), and 6th grade male students (n = 63) from 2 urban elementary schools, 5 suburban elementary schools, 1 suburban middle school and 1 urban middle school in the North Texas region. The three ethnic groups represented in this study were: African American (n = 62), White (n = 58), and Hispanic (n = 77). Results indicated that approximately 46% of 4th grade participants, 62% of 5th grade participants, and 67% of 6th grade participants were classified as changing voices. A descriptively larger percentage of African American participants were classified as changing voices than Hispanic and White participants. Also, a larger percentage of African American and Hispanic participants were descriptively classified in the more advanced stages of the voice change than White participants. Urban African American, White, and Hispanic participants had a larger percentage of males classified as changing voices than suburban African American, White, and Hispanic participants. Results of a one-way, between subjects ANOVA revealed no significant main effect for ethnicity, F (2, 51) = .42, p = .66, η2 = .02. The overall mean age-of-onset for participants in this study was approximately 11.20 years of age. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc9781/
- An Investigation of the Nonverbal Communication Behaviors and Role Perceptions of Pre-Service Band Teachers who Participated in Theatre Seminars
- This qualitative study used a multiple case study methodology to explore the nonverbal communication behaviors and role perceptions of pre-service band teachers, and the extent to which these individuals found meaning and value in theatre seminars with respect to those factors. The informants participated in three theatre seminars taught by theatre faculty at the researcher's university. The researcher collected data in the form of videotaped theatre seminar observations, videotaped classroom teaching observations, videotaped informant reflections of teaching episodes, online peer discussions and journaling, and informant interviews. Data were analyzed, coded, and summarized to form case summaries. A cross-case analysis was performed to identify emergent themes. The broad themes identified were past experience, adaptation, realization, and being aware. The informants found that the theatre seminars increased their awareness of nonverbal communication behaviors in the classroom, and had the potential to be meaningful and valuable with respect to their perceptions of their roles as teachers. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc9019/
- String student self-efficacy and deliberate music practice: Examining string students' musical background characteristics, self-efficacy beliefs and practice behaviors.
- This study examined the musical background characteristics, self-efficacy beliefs, and practice behaviors of string students auditioning for an all-region orchestra in one large South-Central district. Purposes of the study were: (1) to describe the musical backgrounds and self-efficacy beliefs of high school string students, (2) to measure the relationship between self-efficacy scores and performance achievement, and (3) to describe the practice behaviors and thoughts of high and low self-efficacy string students. Questionnaires were given to 101 high school string students; 65 competed in all-region orchestra. Descriptive data from the questionnaire revealed information such as how many took private lessons and that those who did tended to have a higher sense of perceived self-efficacy in relation to playing their string instruments. Other descriptive items asked questions such as whether or not students started in public school and how much they practiced outside of orchestra. The relationship of summed self-efficacy scores to a competition ranking was found to be statistically significant and inverse. For all string participants (n=65) Spearman's rho was, rs= -.37, (p=.001) with 14% of the variance explained (r2 =.14). This inverse relationship documents the linear trend for students with better rankings (lower ranking numbers) to also tend to have higher self-efficacy scores. Observation and interview data of 8 higher and 8 lower self-efficacy sub-group students were also analyzed. The higher self-efficacy sub-group students tended to use more cognitive practice strategies, while the lower self-efficacy sub-group tended to use dissimilar and less advanced strategies. Understanding string students' musical background experiences and characteristics and the possible relationship self-efficacy may have with practice and achievement could benefit certain students. Helping these students gain a higher sense of perceived self-efficacy in their musical endeavors, or obtain certain characteristics that successful students share, could possibly enable them to develop and understand more complex practice strategies and compete more confidently. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc9116/
- The Effects of Amplification and Selected Vocal Exercises on the Perceived Vocal Health of Elementary Music Educators.
- The main purpose of this study was to consider the effects of amplification and vocal function exercises on the perceived vocal health of elementary music educators (N = 37) from Oklahoma (n = 11) and Texas (n = 26). Participants were assigned to the use of the ChatterVoxTM amplifier or vocal function exercises based on pretest scores on the Voice Handicap Index with Music Teacher Voice Questionnaire (VHI/MVQ). Following the 4-week study period, participants completed the posttest VHI/MVQ. The results of a one-way ANCOVA that used treatment group as the independent variable, the summed posttest scores as the dependent variable, and the summed pretest scores as the covariate or control variable indicated that there was a statistically significant difference between the adjusted means for the posttest scores, favoring the exercises group. The overall group and both treatment groups reported frequent loud voice use in work settings and in public places. The overall group and the amplification group reported hoarseness after prolonged talking. The exercises group did not report as great a problem with hoarseness after prolonged talking. Secondary purposes addressed demographic variables. Women perceived greater overall vocal difficulties than men; men frequently reported specific vocal complaints that were not commonly indicated by women. The vocal problems of women may have been associated with loud voice use. The following common vocal complaints of men may have been related to the use of falsetto while teaching: need for vocal rest, worse voices in the evening, dry throats, loss of voice, obvious pitch breaks in their singing voices, pain after singing for an extended time, and limited use of their high range. VHI/MVQ scores indicated that the study participants with 21 to 39 years of teaching experience had more vocal difficulties than other participants and indicated limited use of the low range of their speaking voices, inconsistency in the sound of their voices, dry throats, throat pain after singing for a prolonged time, difficulty singing softly, and the need for vocal rest. Participants with 6 or more years of experience experienced hoarseness after speaking for an extended time. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc6041/
- Taiwan music teacher attitudes toward the arts and humanities curriculum.
- The purpose of the study was to investigate teacher attitudes toward following the Taiwanese arts and humanities curriculum and the relationship of teacher attitudes to four selected curriculum integration factors. These include (1) The quantity of content areas taught in music class, (2) Teachers' satisfaction of their students' learning outcomes, (3) Teachers' confidence in planning lessons, and (4) The number of years spent in curriculum integration. Questionnaires were distributed to 85 stratified random selected junior high schools throughout Taiwan. The school responses rate was 74%. Content validity was checked. The internal consistency reliability ranged from 0.74 to 0.92. Recorder playing, group singing, and music appreciation were found to be the most frequently taught musical skills, the most satisfied students' learning outcomes, the most confident lesson planning areas, and the most important to be included in the music instruction. Writing-by-ear and playing-by-ear were found to be the least frequently taught musical skills, the least satisfied students' learning outcome, the least confident lesson planning area, and the least importance. The two most frequently encountered barriers were insufficient administrative leadership and shallow student learning. The results of the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient showed a low positive significant relationship between teachers' overall attitudes and the quantity of musical content areas taught (n = 83, r = 0.29, p = 0.007*, r2 = 0.09). Based on prior research, if attitudes that are formed from personal histories are difficult to change, and in order to change attitudes, multiple strategies must be used. The majority of teachers did not strongly support or reject this new curriculum, and strong support would be needed for the curriculum to be successfully implemented. One of the most important things that the Taiwan MOE could do is to provide music teachers with on-going in-service teacher development programs and monitoring mentor systems, in addition to the exploration and development of additional strategies that might possibly impact teachers' neutral beliefs about this new curriculum. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3951/
- A status and vision investigation of US university piano pedagogy programs.
- The two major research questions were: “What is the current status of 20 prominent piano pedagogy programs?” and “what is the vision of an ideal future piano pedagogy program from the perspective of 20 piano pedagogy leaders?” Subjects were the leaders of the top 20 US university piano pedagogy programs. A survey study with interview questions was used as the instrument for the study. The results showed that faculty, curriculum, and teacher training were three top factors that contributed to the quality of the programs. Most interviewed subjects held a doctoral degree in music. The curricular content and degree options were diverse across the selected programs. The content of teacher training included private and group teaching. The perceived best qualifications of a piano pedagogy instructor were to have a balanced education. Most programs had small or little to no budget, however, the preparatory program was perceived to be an enhancement to teacher training program finances. The greatest challenges were faculty acquisition and financial limitations. Gaining more money was the most common improvement priority for programs. To envision an ideal future piano pedagogy program, most leaders stated that an ideal program should contain encourage: (1) collaborating with other divisions' faculty members for developing a diverse curriculum, (2) providing multiple types of teacher training, (3) offering knowledge that is highly pertinent to students' future careers, (4) continually adjusting topics in the curriculum, and (5) utilizing all the possible resources to establish up-to-date facilities. The chief obstacle was a lack of money. However, finding a major donor, and developing a preparatory program to generate money may help to overcome the obstacles. Having administrators with positive attitudes toward pedagogy could help programs to gain more resources. Encouraging students to participate in workshops and conferences could enrich the training. Several recommendations may help emerging pedagogy programs, such as : (1) raising faculty's visibility in public, (2) developing a diverse curriculum and collaborating with other faculty from different divisions, (3) establishing a preparatory program, (4) offering diverse degree options, (5) developing a general pedagogy degree, and (6) educating administrators on the importance of piano pedagogy. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3671/
- The Role of Self-Efficacy and Modeling in Improvisation: The Effects of Aural and Aural/Notated Modeling Conditions on Intermediate Instrumental Music Students' Improvisation Achievement
- The first purpose of this study was to investigate whether different modeling conditions (Aural and Aural/Notated Transcription) produced significant differences for improvisation achievement. Another purpose was to investigate whether music learning theory-based improvisation instruction had an effect on students' self-efficacy for improvisation and for instrumental music. Participants (N = 76) from an accessible population of 6th through 8th grade instrumental music students were assigned to either an aural model group or an aural and notated transcription model group based on scores from Gordon's Harmonic and Rhythmic Readiness Records (1998). All students were administered two researcher-designed self-efficacy scales before and after a 10 treatment session music learning theory-based improvisation instruction. Following the treatment sessions, each participant was individually recorded and assessed by three experienced music educators. The posttest improvisation scores were subjected to an ANOVA, while the pretest to posttest scores of the students' self-efficacies for music improvisation and instrumental music were subjected to two repeated measures ANOVAs. The Bonferroni technique was used to adjust the alpha level from .05 to .017. The statistical analysis showed that there was no significant difference in improvisation achievement for the modeling conditions of aural and aural/notated transcription. Further statistical analyses showed there were significant increases in students' self-efficacy for improvising and for instrumental music following improvisation instruction. This study's results suggest that music educators should consider using either modeling technique for improvisation learning experiences. Results also suggest that music educators may wish to consider using a music learning theory-based improvisation approach to facilitate greater confidence in improvising. Additionally, results suggest that classroom music educators may wish to consider improvisation instruction as a means for achieving greater student confidence in instrumental music. This study concludes with issues for further study. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc5502/
- Toward a Framework for a New Philosophy of Music Education: Løgstrup as Synergy Between the Platonic and the Aristotelian Perspectives in the Music Education Philosophies of Bennett Reimer and David Elliott
- In the domain of music education philosophy there are, at present, two foundational systems that purport to be self-contained philosophies of music education. These are music education as aesthetic education, often referred to as MEAE, espoused by Bennett Reimer, and the praxial philosophy of music education posited by David Elliott. The debate between these two philosophies has been contentious and has had the effect of fracturing the philosophical underpinning of the music profession in an irreconcilable way. It is the purpose of this dissertation to introduce a third voice, that of the Danish philosopher Knut Løgstrup, to serve as a synergy between the philosophies of Reimer and Elliott and lead toward a framework of thinking for music education philosophy. I assert that the philosophies of Reimer and Elliott represent a modern articulation of an ancient dialectic between Platonic and Aristotelian ideals. Thus, the Reimer philosophy has its foundation in Platonic thought and Elliott has embraced an Aristotelian philosophical perspective. Løgstrup's position provides a third fundamental viewpoint that includes both Platonic and Aristotelian thinking and can therefore provide a synergy for these two music education philosophies. He refers to his philosophy as an ontological ethics. As a methodological approach, I utilize a metaphilosophical analysis in which I examine the Platonic tendencies of Reimer and the Aristotelian foundation of Elliott by examining both the content and the methodology of their prospective philosophies. I then make an application of Løgstrup's philosophical system, which is an ethical system, to music education philosophy and bring the most important aspects of Reimer's and Elliott's philosophies into a synergy using Løgstrup's ideas. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc5425/
- The Centralized Higher Education System in Turkey and the National Music Teacher Training Program Since 1998: An Analysis.
- The purpose was to analyze Turkey's current music teacher training curriculum as situated in the centralized educational system, focusing on the extent to which the written document (1) reflects the core elements of the overall centralized educational system; (2) prescribes the nature of teaching materials and methods, assessment tools and other forms of evaluating and monitoring performance as teachers and musicians; and (3) acknowledges cultural diversity by addressing repertoire, musical activities and concepts according to geographic and cultural regions. Qualitative-descriptive and quantitative content analysis, including the methods of (a) Inverse document frequency and (b) relevance feedback model, were the analytic tools. Of the required 147 credit hours, 138 are the core. The music core consists of 87 (63%) and the non-music core of 51 credit hours (37%). On paper, there is a conceptual overlap in wording between the music core, the general core, and the teacher training core, suggesting curricular cohesion and consistency. Noticeably less cohesion exists between the document and three major policy papers on teacher competencies. By word count, preparing teachers for instruction in Turkish folk music and multicultural issues appears to hold a low priority in the curriculum. However, course descriptions, where they exist, speak to skills and knowledge linked to performing and understanding Turkish folk and art music, not Western art music alone. Missing from those descriptions is any reference to teaching materials and methods, specific assessment tools, and other forms of evaluating and monitoring students. With reference to works by Max Weber, Karl Mannheim, and Robert Merton, the study concludes with a discussion about issues and problems inherent in a centralized teacher program that seeks to prepare music teachers for a culturally diverse society. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc5365/
- Observed Eye Contact between Selected Students and Teacher in the Music Making Process
- High school band members (N=13) and their teacher were observed during six rehearsals of two contrasting band compositions over a six-week period. The contrasting compositions were selected by means of a detailed process between me (the researcher) and the teacher (the conductor). One 60-second excerpt of each composition was selected, during the performance of which, the students were observed. Three video tapings of each composition was done in order to capture occasions when the students would look up from their music. Using a technique adapted from Ekman (1997), the band members and teacher were then interviewed in order to reveal the reasons they recalled for looking up from their music. The results showed that the band members looked up in places where the teacher expected eye contact, that the frequency of eye contact changed little from one rehearsal to the next, and that the frequency of eye contact changed little between the two contrasting compositions. In all cases, the band members were able to recall the reasons for looking up from their music, a fact which led to a detailed analysis about the students' own thoughts while they were engaged in playing as an ensemble. The results are discussed in terms of strategies for teaching practice and implications for future research. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc5380/
- Elementary music teachers instructing English language learners: Reflection on practice.
- This qualitative study investigated four monolingual, English-only speaking Caucasian elementary music teachers and their reflections regarding instruction of English language learners (ELL). The purpose of this multiple case study was to investigate the teaching practice and curricular decisions of elementary music teachers who instruct Hispanic ELL students. The investigation was conducted during a nine-week period, and data collection included classroom observations, phenomenological interviewing, and teacher audio journals. None of the teachers had prior education or pre-service preparation in teaching music to ELL students. The major theoretical base from which the study was developed was the reflective teaching theory of Donald Schön (1983). The main research question was: "What are the participating teachers' reflections about their curricular and pedagogical decisions when teaching ELL students?" Following a description of the elementary music teachers' reflections on practice with ELL students, the study revealed that the majority of elementary music teachers had a lack of preparation and ELL music curriculum, and negative perceptions of the placement program for ESL students. Despite these factors, the teachers made attempts to include ELL students in all music activities. This study showed that while one teacher accommodated specifically for the ELL students' learning, three out of four teachers did not. This study also suggests that music is a subject by which strong interactions between peers, opportunity for language expansion, and other factors occur which have positive correspondence to recommended ELL instructional strategies. A cross-case analysis revealed that the life history and experience of the elementary music teachers had an influence on the teachers' awareness of ELL students. The analysis suggests a relationship between teacher awareness and accommodation. The study also recognized the need for further inquiry regarding ELL students and issues related to their school placement. This study has implications for music education research including suggestions for music teacher preparation in working with ELL students, ELL music resources and curriculum, and pre-service and in-service ELL music preparation. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc4933/
- Experiencing the interdependent nature of musicianship and educatorship as defined by David J. Elliott in the context of the collegiate level vocal jazz ensemble.
- Examination of the relationship of musicianship and educatorship of teacher and students as interacting partners in a specific musical context proceeded with investigation of how formal, informal, impressionistic, and supervisory musical and educational knowledge were evidenced in rehearsal. Attention was also given to how the teaching strategies of modeling, coaching, scaffolding, fading, articulating, reflecting comparatively, and exploring were used to develop student musicianship. The research methodology may best be described as an inductive analytical case study approach. Multiple data sources included: videotaped observations of 19 bi-weekly rehearsals, audio taped interviews of the 12 participants, supplemental materials, (a published interview, journal articles, rehearsal schedules), and member checking with the teacher and David Elliott. Rehearsal data were initially organized into categories identified in David J. Elliott's (1995) model. The relationship of teacher and student musicianship, and teacher educatorship emerged during analysis. Musical details of problem finding, reducing and solving were also identified. Three themes emerged from the student interviews: their perceptions of the teacher's musicianship, general rehearsal strategies, and the teacher's use of specific teaching strategies. Interviews with the teacher illuminated his perception of musicianship and teaching strategies employed in the context. The findings confirmed that as music making transpired in the rehearsals, the kinds of knowing present in the musicianship of teacher and students and the teacher's educatorship were not only intertwined but were utilized at the same time. The level of student musicianship was allied to the relationship of the teacher's musicianship and educatorship. The intricate relationship between the kinds of procedural knowledge that Elliott identifies as integral to music making and music teaching are illustrated in a set of diagrams. Additionally, they show the wide range of technical and musical problems the teacher and students solved together in order for the multifarious nature of the vocal jazz repertoire to be performed effectively in a series of concerts. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc4867/
- The Effect of Individual Versus Collective Creative Problem Solving Experiences on Fourth- and Fifth-grade Students' Compositional Products.
- The purpose of the study was to explore the effects that individual vs. collective structured creative musical problem solving tasks had on students' compositional products. Subjects in a convenience sample of 32 fourth-graders and 32 fifth-graders were randomly assigned to either the individual or collective condition. The 3 treatment sessions were characterized by an open-ended creative problem solving task, which included questions intended to guide subjects through 3 stages of the creative problem solving process: Understanding the Problem, Generating Ideas, and Planning for Action. Subjects participated in the pre- and posttest individually. Three experienced music educators assessed the compositional products in terms of pattern use, cohesiveness, and creativity. The originally intended MANCOVAs could not be carried out because the data did not meet the necessary assumptions. Pretest and posttest scores were explored with individual ANOVAs. The Bonferroni technique was used to adjust the alpha level. The statistical analyses showed that subjects exposed to the individual condition obtained higher scores than subjects exposed to the collective condition on six of the eight explored subtests, but these differences were not significant. The level of interjudge reliability decreased at each of the three measurements of the study: pilot test, pretest, and posttest. The study's results suggest that music educators interested in observing specific characteristics of individual students' compositional products, such as the levels of cohesiveness, creativity, and pattern use, could do so regardless of the condition under which students were exposed to compositional tasks, either individually or collectively. Recommendations for future research include the use of a measurement instrument specifically designed for open-ended tasks, and the exploration of the current study's measurement instrument with closed-ended tasks. The study highlights the need for appropriate measurement instruments designed for the compositional tasks at hand, and the need for research results reported clearly, so that more advancement of this field is possible. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc4723/
- Dialogic Interactionism: the Construction of Self in the Secondary Choral Classroom.
- Examined in this hermeneutic phenomenological study is a transformation in the researcher's choral music teaching in which students' abilities to construct self emerged organically from interactions, or dialogues, that took place among and between the students, the teacher, and the music being studied. To allow for such interaction to emerge organically and meaningfully, students and teacher both shared in the power needed to construct a classroom environment in which the localized issues of the classroom and the specific contexts of students' lived histories were maintained and encouraged. This process of interaction, based upon dialogue among and between equal agents in the classroom, is described in the study as dialogic interactionism. In order to examine the concept of dialogic interactionism, three constructs upon which dialogic interactionism is based were developed and philosophically analyzed. They include the construction of self through the construction of self-knowledge; the localized reference system of the classroom, and the issue of power. Each construct is considered within the context of extant writings both in general education and music education philosophy. Following the analysis, a theoretical description of the dialogic interactive choral classroom is given as well a description of how such ideas might be realized in practice. The study concludes with issues for further study. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc4557/
- High school string orchestra teacher as a career choice: A survey of 11th- and 12th-grade high school string orchestra students in Texas.
- The purpose of this study was to describe 11th- and 12th-grade high school string orchestra students in Texas public schools in terms of their decision to enter the field of string orchestra teaching as a possible career choice or to pursue another field of study. Convenience sampling techniques were used to secure a study population of 1,683 high school string orchestra students. The Junior and Senior High School String Orchestra Student Survey (researcher designed) was used to gather demographic characteristics, students' perceptions on selected intrinsic/extrinsic work values, tangible elements of teaching, intrinsic characteristics of string orchestra teaching, and individuals assisting in students' career choices. Selected elements of teaching cited by students for their lack of interest in string orchestra teaching were also reviewed. Analysis procedures for descriptive statistics included measures of central tendency, crosstabulation, frequencies and percentages. Consistent with prior research, it was found that a larger number of female students over male students were interested in string orchestra teaching. Students interested in fields outside of string orchestra teaching reported higher class grades, more honors and advanced classes and higher SAT/ACT mean scores. Students interested in string orchestra teaching reported a higher percentage of brothers/sisters, mothers and fathers who played instruments and relatives who were teachers. These students also reported a greater importance of a career that was self-rewarding, that would be directly helpful to society and where they could help contribute to the welfare of society. Students interested in string orchestra teaching expressed the great importance of their deep devotion to music and their desire to be a positive role model for children. Students interested in string orchestra teaching reported the great importance of their high school orchestra director as one of the individuals assisting them in their career decisions. Also consistent with prior research, the number one cited reason for a lack of interest in string orchestra teaching was found to be that teacher's salaries were perceived as too low. Examinations of ethnic group differences relative to the characteristics under investigation were also explored. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc4434/
- The Benefits of Adult Piano Study as Self-Reported by Selected Adult Piano Students.
- The purpose of this study was to assess the benefits that selected adult piano students reported receiving from their study. Adult piano students (N = 711) from 24 states representing all geographic regions of the U.S. each completed a questionnaire containing 31 individual benefit items. These benefits were organized into 3 categories: Personal, Skill, and Social/Cultural. The demographic characteristics of the study population were consistent with the findings of other adult music research. Students indicated the existence (yes or no) of each benefit and rated the importance of existing benefits on a scale of 1-10. The category of Skill Benefits was the most agreed upon and highest rated category in the study, with over 90% agreement for each of the 7 Skill Benefits. The 14 Personal Benefits were also rated highly, particularly benefits related to self-actualization and fun. Self-related Personal Benefits were rated moderately, while more introverted Personal Benefits such as Imagination/Creativity, Spirituality, and Aesthetic Appreciation were lower rated benefits. The 10 Social/Cultural benefits were the lowest rated and least important benefits in the study. The most agreed upon benefits were Skill Improvement, Musical Knowledge, Musicianship, Accomplishment, Skill Refinement, Technique, Play/Fun, Escape from Routine, and Music Listening. The highest rated benefits in terms of importance were Dream Fulfilled, Technique, Accomplishment, Escape from Routine, Skill Improvement, Musicianship, Musical Knowledge, Play/Fun, Skill Refinement, and Personal Growth. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc4205/
- A Case Study of Characteristics and Means of Person-to-Person Influence in American Kodály Music Education: Katinka Scipiades Dániel
- The purpose of this study was to investigate the characteristics and means of Katinka Dániel's interpersonal influences through the perceptions of 20 selected students, protégés, and colleagues, and to study the behavioral and attitudinal changes they attributed to her influence. A case study design and structured interview questionnaire were used to study four variables coming from the social sciences' literature on influence: legitimate authority, attractiveness, expert authority, and trustworthiness. Responses were qualitatively analyzed to determine the role those variables played in Dániel's interpersonal influence. All interviewees were music teachers who used the Kodály method in their teaching and have studied or worked with Dániel. Two images of Dániel emerged from the interviews. The first, a business-like image, emanated from Dániel's work in the classroom, and the second, a maternal image, came from personal relationships with her students and associates. Attractiveness (defined as a willingness to respond positively to the requests of an influential person because one respects that individual and wants to obtain that person's approval) proved to be the principal characteristic of influence, followed by legitimate authority, then expertise. Trustworthiness played a lesser role. The greatest effect of Dániel's influence was on the interviewees' teaching. Among the factors interviewees described as influential were her expectation they would succeed, her position as role model, praise and encouragement, and gestures of generosity and concern. Interviewees were not in agreement as to whether she used persuasion or coercion. Direct verbal communication served a principal role in Dániel's influence, and though her criticism was described as forthright and bluntly honest, interviewees often accepted it. This was because most believed she was focused on their best interest, because her motives were not considered self-serving, and because they saw the reasons for her criticism as stemming from her high ideals and the desire to see them improve as teachers. The dissertation includes a biography of Dániel. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc4218/
- The Effects of Practice Procedure and Task Difficulty on Tonal Pattern Accuracy.
- The study investigated the relative effectiveness of different proportions of time spent on physical and mental practice, in the context of a music performance of a tonal pattern over harmonic progressions of two difficulty levels. Using a sampling without replacement procedure, sixty undergraduate students were assigned to four practice groups partially blocked for musical instrument. The groups included a physical practice group, a mental practice group and two combined mental and physical practice groups in the proportions of (a) 66% physical and 33% mental, and (b) 33% physical and 66% mental. Each subject performed a pretest, a 3 minute practice session, and a posttest on both harmonic progressions. Presentation of the harmonic progressions were counterbalanced to control for practice effects All pre- and posttests were recorded and scored according to number of note errors. An ANCOVA procedure using pretest scores as covariates revealed that: (a) there were no differences between the different practice groups on the measure of note errors, (b) there was a significant difference between the two harmonic progressions on the measure of note errors, such that performance on the easy progression was significantly better than performance on the hard progression, and (c) there was a significant interaction between harmonic difficulty level and the practice groups. Post hoc comparisons between the adjusted means of the practice groups on the two tasks revealed that for the mental and the 33:66 combined practice groups, groups consisting of a higher percentage of mental practice, performance on the easy harmonic progression was significantly better than on the hard harmonic progression. However for the physical and the 66:33 combined practice groups, groups consisting of a higher percentage of physical practice, performance on both harmonic progressions was not significantly different and was as good as the performance of all practice groups on the easy task. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc4230/
- The predictive influence of variables in three different academic learning environments on the intentions of music education majors to leave the degree program.
- Attrition rates among students in music teacher training programs have contributed to a shortage of qualified music teachers for the nation's schools. The purpose of this study was to investigate the predictive relationship of academic variables in three different learning environments and the intent of a select population of music education majors to leave the degree program. The study drew upon the work of Tinto, Bean and Astin to form a theoretical foundation for examining variables unique to student withdrawal from the music education degree plan. Variables were examined within the context of three different learning environments: (1) applied lessons, (2) ensembles and (3) non-performance courses. Participants were 95 freshmen and sophomore music education majors at a public university who were enrolled in the music education degree program during the spring semester, 2002. Data included participant responses on the Music Student Inventory (MSI), a questionnaire developed specifically for the study, and grade data from university records. Independent variables in the study included participants' perceptions of (1) Ensemble experiences, (2) Applied lesson experiences, (3) Non-performance music course experiences, (3) Course requirements, and (4) Performance growth. Additional variables included: (1) Ensemble placement, (2) Course grades for music theory, applied lessons and aural skills, and (3) cumulative grade point averages. Gender interactions were also examined. The dependent variable in the study was intent to withdraw from the music education program. Data were analyzed using a binary logistic regression procedure. Results of the analysis indicated that none of the variables tested were statistically significant predictors of subjects' intentions to withdraw from the music education degree program. Gender interactions were not evident among the variables. Although statistically insignificant, the strongest predictor of the variables represented by questionnaire responses was lesson experiences. The ana ysis of course grades for music theory, applied lessons and aural skills failed to produce a statistically significant main effect, but applied lesson grades produced the strongest effect in the model. Results of the study suggest that students' intentions to withdraw from the music education program are related to variables other than those representing the academic component of the music education program. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc4228/
- Music student teaching in Texas: A Delphi study of issues in the new millennium.
- The preparation of prospective music educators is a very complex undertaking that culminates with the student teaching practicum. However, the music student teaching experience may have less predictable expectations and results than the curriculum that precedes the event. The two-fold purpose of this study was (a) to investigate the music student teaching practicum in the State of Texas in an effort to establish current levels of success as perceived by the music educators involved in the process and (b) to identify any potentially problematic areas which might be in need of attention or revision. Thirty-six music educators (12 university supervisors, 12 cooperating teachers and 12 student teachers) who were recently involved in the music student teaching practicum in Texas were chosen as the sample in this two-round Delphi study. The first round Delphi survey, based on related literature, achieved consensus on 79% of the 108 item responses, and 15 of the 22 unresolved items reached consensus in round two of the Delphi process. The 34 sample members who completed the study ranked a final item in the second Delphi round concerning suggestions for the improvement of student teaching. The respondents showed a very high opinion of the music student teaching practicum. However, the cooperating teachers' responses were often lower, hence the recommendation that collaborative efforts between universities and public schools be strengthened. Recommendations for improvement were also made advocating: (a) adequate rehearsal time to be afforded the student teacher, (b) expectations to be clearly defined and articulated, (c) classroom management, measurement and media, and content area reading classes to be taught by music faculty, (d) videotaping to be used in the teacher-training and student teaching process, and (e) the length of the student teaching practicum to be extended. Five additional recommendations for improvement were made in areas deemed less urgent. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3356/
- A Comparison of Aural and Visual Instructional Methodologies Designed to Improve the Intonation Accuracy of Seventh Grade Violin and Viola Instrumentalists.
- The purpose of the study was to compare two instructional methodologies designed to improve the intonation accuracy of seventh grade violin and viola instrumentalists. The collection of data was in regard to (1) instructional methodology: aural and aural/visual, (2) performance tasks: A, B, and C; (3) individual pitches (seven from each of the music tasks), and (4) differences between instrument groups: violin and viola. Sixty-eight seventh grade string students from three string classes of two middle schools were randomly assigned to two experimental groups: (a) aural and (b) aural/visual. The instructional period was implemented daily in ten-minute sessions during twenty days by the orchestra instructors of each school. A pretest-posttest format was used to determine if there were any changes in the subjects' intonation accuracy from prior to after the instructional phase was implemented, and if these changes could be attributed to any of the methodologies. The testing material used on both testing sessions included three performance tasks composed of seven notes each. Subjects were recorded on both testing occasions. The data were the scores of absolute pitch deviation, measured in cents from equal temperament, from the pre- and postest; these were treated with analysis of variance. The ANOVA on the posttest scores indicated a non-significant difference between the instructional methodologies in their effectiveness to improve the subjects' ability to play in tune. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3122/
- The Characteristics of Teacher-Directed Modeling Evidenced in the Practices of Three Experienced High School Choral Directors.
- The purpose of this study was to analyze the characteristics of teacher directed modeling evidenced in the practices of three experienced high school choral directors. Research questions were: 1. What modeling activities were exhibited in each teacher's rehearsals? 2. When viewing a 45-minute composite tape of each teacher's instructional activities representative of all rehearsals, what instructional behaviors did each choral director recognize and identify as modeling? 3. What instructional episodes on the composite tape not identified by the teachers contained elements of modeling? 4. What other episodes from the remainder of each choral director's rehearsal practice contributed to an understanding of modeling? Videotapes of three high school choral directors were recorded over the course of one semester. Excerpts from rehearsals were combined to form a 45-minute composite tape of each choral director. A text transcription was made of the composite tape. Participant directors viewed their tape and identified instructional episodes that they recognized as examples of modeling. Identifications were analyzed, and descriptive categories of modeling behaviors were established. Modeling was found to be a teacher generated or delegated act of demonstration. Demonstrations were musical or non-musical and belonging to either of three distinct categories: audible, visible, or process modeling. Subdivisions of each category were found further describing modeling in the high school choral rehearsal. In addition, types of modeling were noted in increasing cognitive complexity required on the part of students beginning with simple imitation and concluding with models as tools for musical problem solving. Research is recommended on a larger sample of participants, including junior high/middle school directors to confirm categories and levels and to develop an observation tool based on results for describing, assessing, and modifying instructional techniques of practicing and pre-service music educators. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3053/
- Music preferences, music and non-music media use, and leisure involvement of Hong Kong adolescents.
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Access: Use of this item is restricted to the UNT Community. | http://digital.library.unt.edu/explore/partners/UNT/browse/?sort=date_d&fq=str_degree_discipline%3AMusic+Education&display=brief |
I have enjoyed teaching since I began at 15 years of age. I currently teach at all levels in studios in the Twin Cities and West Central Minnesota.
As a college graduate I was hired by the Vienna Conservatory of Music to teach piano and coach voice. During my years in Europe, I performed concerts in the Vienna Festivals, composed and performed for Austrian theater and cinema, and served on the faculty of the American Institute of Musical Studies in Graz as a German Lied coach.
I coached on faculties with Geoffrey Parsons and Martin Katz, John Wustman at Valparaiso and worked with singers and teachers, Elizabeth Holleque, Julie Prohaska, Glenn Winslade, Ricardo Visus, Elio Battaglia, Georg Tichy, Waldemar Kmennt, and Christa Ludwig among others.
I toured as a founding member of Cantares de Espana with Spanish tenor, Ricardo Visus, performing concerts in Austria, Spain, Switzerland and the United States under the auspices of arts organizations, universities, and the Spanish Ministry of Culture.
Over the last fifteen years I developed creative process workshops for use in education at all levels and founded a non-profit for advancing creativity in communities.
My Musical Education Background
Certificate of Independent Study - Vienna Conservatory of Music
BA - MSUM, MN
University of Vienna-German
Harpsichord building
MRE-Western Theological Seminary
Piano pedagogy and performance graduate of Minnesota State University Moorhead, where I studied with Ernest and Nancy Harris. Student, accompanist and musical director for university productions as well as the Fargo-Moorhead Civic Opera Company.
Assistant Director/Accompanist/Intern-First International Course for Interpretation of Spanish Musicin Madrid.
Year abroad in Austria studying accompanying and coaching at the Conservatory of Vienna with Hans Peter Schilly and Kurt Richter. That year, as a student of Professor Hammer (principal timpanist in the Vienna Symphony) I had the unusual honor of becoming the first female percussionist to perform publicly with an orchestra in Vienna.
Genres and Subjects Taught
While no one can promise a career in piano, finding each student's potential is guaranteed.
The focus is on learning how to play the instrument by means of technique, reading, improvisation. Repertoire and theory are based on student interests and abilities, using notation as a guide to comprehension, musicianship and performance. Methods are chosen and tailored to each student. Recordings are made of pieces learned and made available to students online.
Electronic keyboard is used for experimentation and layered composition.
Lesson Rates
Unless otherwise arranged all lessons are one-hour.
Ten-week tuition plan: $50.00/hour
Family rate: 10% discount for each additional child
Single lessons: $75.00/extended lesson
Bi-monthly lessons: $60/hr.
Half-hour lessons are possible by arrangement.
Some scholarships may apply.
Ages / Skill Levels Taught
While age 9 is an optimum age for fast progress and highly recommended, there are many exceptions. All ages and levels are accepted by arrangement.
My Certifications and Awards
Among others:
MMTA
MTNA
NAPAMA
AIMS
My Musical Influences
My teachers were classically trained and of course, European masters, colleagues, coaches and conductors all influence how I learned.
My early teaching experience was invaluable as a teenager, but the music itself and the instrument are the best teachers.
Other influences are children's songs, modern influences, popular Basque, Asian and other world music.
It is good to experience specific classical training in order to apply it to individual interests. | http://www.lessonrating.com/lshores |
1) Below are your program's student learning outcomes (SLOs). Please update as needed.
Epidemiology Competency
1. Identify patterns of disease and injury in human populations and apply epidemiological methods to the identification and control of health problems.
2. Identify key sources of data and apply descriptive techniques commonly used to summarize public health data used to inform scientific, ethical, economic, and political discussion of health issues.
3. Calculate basic epidemiological measures, apply common statistical methods, and interpret results of statistical analyses used in public health studies.
Social and Behavioral Health Sciences Competency
4. Identify basic theories, concepts, and models from a range of social and behavioral disciplines that are used in public health research and practice.
5. Identify the causes of social and behavioral factors that affect health of individual and populations.
6. Describe the merits of social and behavioral science interventions and policies.
7. Apply evidence-based approaches in the development and evaluation of social and behavioral science interventions.
Biostatistics Competency
8. Apply basic statistical methods to address, analyze and solve problems in public health.
Environmental Health Competency
9. Describe how environmental factors (biological, physical, and chemical) affect the health of a community.
Health Policy and Management Competencies
10. Identify the main components and issues of the organization, financing and delivery of health services and public health systems in the US.
11. Describe the legal and ethical bases for public health and health services.
12. Apply the principles of program planning, development, budgeting, management and evaluation in organizational and community initiatives.
13. Apply “system thinking for resolving organizational problems.
Diversity and Culture Competency
14. Explain why cultural competence alone cannot address health disparities; be able to interact with both diverse individuals and groups on public health issues.
Leadership Competency
15. Organize community partnerships to create and communicate a shared vision for a changing future; discuss solutions to organizational and community challenges; and maximize motivation to reach public health goals.
Public Health Biology Competency
16. Discuss how public health biology – the biological and molecular context of public health – impacts public health practice.
Systems Thinking Competency
17. Recognize system-level properties that result from dynamic interactions among human and social systems and how they affect the relationships among individuals, groups, organizations, communities, and environments.
Program Planning Competency
18. Plan for the design, development, implementation, and evaluation of strategies to improve individual and community health.
Ethics and Professionalism Competency
19. Demonstrate ethical choices, values and professional practices implicit in public health decisions; consider the effect of choices on community stewardship, equity, social justice and accountability; and to commit to personal and institutional development.
Communication and Informatics Competency
20. Collect, manage and organize data to produce information and demonstrate ability to present this information in meaningful ways to different audiences.
2) Your program's SLOs are published as follows. Please update as needed.
Student Handbook. URL, if available online: http://manoa.hawaii.edu/publichealth/sites/manoa.hawaii.edu.publichealth/files/downloads/student-handbook.pdf
Information Sheet, Flyer, or Brochure URL, if available online:
UHM Catalog. Page Number: http://www.catalog.hawaii.edu/schoolscolleges/medicine/phse.htm
Course Syllabi. URL, if available online: www.manoa.hawaii.edu/publichealth/academics/courses.html
Other:
Other:
3) Select one option:
- File (03/16/2020)
4) For your program, the percentage of courses that have course SLOs explicitly stated on the syllabus, a website, or other publicly available document is as follows. Please update as needed.
1-50%
51-80%
81-99%
100%
5) Did your program engage in any program assessment activities between June 1, 2013 and September 30, 2014? (e.g., establishing/revising outcomes, aligning the curriculum to outcomes, collecting evidence, interpreting evidence, using results, revising the assessment plan, creating surveys or tests, etc.)
No (skip to question 14)
6) For the period between June 1, 2013 and September 30, 2014: State the assessment question(s) and/or assessment goals. Include the SLOs that were targeted, if applicable.
MPH students are required to complete the 6 core courses and 7 specialization courses with a passing grade of an “A”, “B”, or “C”. The SLOs competencies are linked to a range of required courses in the MPH degree program. The specific selected competencies are listed in each syllabus that show which competencies were obtained upon completion of course by the student and through assessment of specific course assignment/participation/attendance. The teaching faculty members select the appropriate competencies and note them in their syllabi that are obtained by satisfactory completion of their course.
7) State the type(s) of evidence gathered to answer the assessment question and/or meet the assessment goals that were given in Question #6.
The methods of evidence for MPH include the following five (5) items: 1) MPH portfolios collected in final PH 789 Integrative Seminar course, 2) the final competency matrix completed by the students themselves, 3) passing grade with “A” “B” or “C” as assigned by the faculty of the courses that is linked to competencies,4) faculty's syllabi with selected linked competencies, and/or 5) competency-course system re-designed to link more closely with MPH curriculum (map) and link to competencies that MPH graduates need to get a job in the public health workforce.
8) State how many persons submitted evidence that was evaluated. If applicable, please include the sampling technique used.
The number persons included both: 1) the 21 public health faculty members (grades of courses and students' committee members) who teach in the MPH program and submit the MPH students’ grades for those SLOs courses: and 2) the 30 graduating MPH students for 2013-2014 school year.
All MPH students submitted the following: 1) their MPH portfolio of papers and completed assignments, 2) SLOs completed by the student with use of the tool of OPHS competency-course linking table, 3) their final paper as part of their capstone outcomes and 4) their final oral examination presentation with approved signed off on Form 19 by committee members in the student's OPHS student file. The MPH student is not allow to complete graduation until adequated evidence is received, reviewed, and approved for degree check by PH 789 (MPH Integrated Seminar) faculty instructor, by the student service specialist, and the student's MPH committee advisor and second committee members.
9) Who interpreted or analyzed the evidence that was collected? (Check all that apply.)
Faculty committee
Ad hoc faculty group
Department chairperson
Persons or organization outside the university
Faculty advisor
Advisors (in student support services)
Students (graduate or undergraduate)
Dean/Director
Other: Student Services Specialist
10) How did they evaluate, analyze, or interpret the evidence? (Check all that apply.)
Scored exams/tests/quizzes
Used professional judgment (no rubric or scoring guide used)
Compiled survey results
Used qualitative methods on interview, focus group, open-ended response data
External organization/person analyzed data (e.g., external organization administered and scored the nursing licensing exam)
Other: Integrated portfolio with all completed five elements as described in question #7
11) For the assessment question(s) and/or assessment goal(s) stated in Question #6:
Summarize the actual results.
Summary of the results produced positive results of graduating MPH students for total of 30 MPH students for school year 2013-2014. All 30 students at 100% completed and were approved all five pieces of evidence for SLOs (MPH competencies) for those graduating at December 2013 and May 2014 graduation. This was necessary in order for each student to be cleared for degree check and allowed to graduate.
12) State how the program used the results or plans to use the results. Please be specific.
The results were reviewed and approved for completeness and adequateness by each student's academic committee members. Then the assessment results are shared with the OPHS Department’s Curriculum Committee and these members use the results to refine courses, improve assessment tools, and help any troubled students. The results are use to refine the next year's assessment process and the improvements and plans are recorded in the curriculum committee meeting's minutes and share in the full department faculty meeting once a year after the spring curriculum meeting.
13) Beyond the results, were there additional conclusions or discoveries?
This can include insights about assessment procedures, teaching and learning, program aspects and so on.
The Office of Public Health Studies' Office (OPHS) of Public Health Student and Academic Services (OPHSAS) office collects an exit survey for each student to get more feedback on how the graduate student feels about his/her MPH education. Within three years after graduation, OPHSAS collects an alumni survey to see if the graduates have gotten employed and to give feedback about their preparation in the MPH program.
14) If the program did not engage in assessment activities, please explain.
Or, if the program did engage in assessment activities, please add any other important information here.
OPHS faculty and MPH student did engage in assessment with very good GPAs, final paper, passed final oral examinations, and complete portfolio. | https://manoa.hawaii.edu/assessment/update2/view.php?view=1263 |
The aim of this exploratory study was to investigate the perceptions, experiences, and practices of six Solomon Islands secondary science teachers, based on the types of assessment they use in their science classrooms to serve a summative purpose. The study was divided into two parts. The first part involved a baseline study which explored the teachers’ existing summative assessment practices with the intent to understand how their views and knowledge of the summative assessments influenced their practices, and to identify their professional learning needs in creating assessment tools. The second part of the study involved a small-scale professional development intervention, which aimed to enhance the science teachers’ skills and confidence in summative assessment as well as to identify the factors that influenced teachers’ development and transfer of new assessment skills to their classroom practices in the Solomon Islands context.
The study adopted a qualitative-interpretive research approach and used methods of teacher interviews, participant observation and documentary analysis to generate data related to the teachers’ existing summative assessment practices, and the new or revised processes that they adopted as a result of the professional development intervention. Various analytical procedures including thematic analysis procedures and frameworks that researchers have used previously to study teachers’ classroom practices were employed to analyse the collected data.
The findings of the baseline study indicated that the science teachers employed summative assessments to compare students’ ability through grading and reported their students’ achievements to parents and students. The unit test is the dominant form of assessment used by teachers to assess year nine students’ learning, performance and achievements in science. Examinations are administered to students at the end of each school term. An analysis of the test and examination questions indicated that teachers focused on assessing mainly low cognitive skills. Teachers’ views indicated that neither they nor the school leaders have used student achievement results in the past or present time as a basis to review and evaluate their teaching practices or plan ways they might improve student achievement and school performance.
The science teachers generally expressed varying levels of satisfaction in their conduct of assessment activities but also perceived the need for professional support in certain areas of assessment such as construction of a test using a test blueprint, grading, analysis and interpretation of student assessment results. The study also identified a range of factors that influenced the six science teachers’ classroom-based summative assessment practices. Factors that tend to have impacted positively on their summative assessment practices include; their initial teacher education experiences, knowledge and beliefs about teaching, learning and assessment, and colleagues in the school. However, the teachers also reported certain contextual factors that impacted negatively on their assessment practices. These included institutional and extracurricular responsibilities, heavy teaching loads, large class size, lack of clear assessment policy guidelines, lack of exemplary assessment resources, and national examination pressures.
Findings of the impact of professional development intervention indicated that the teachers made small to moderate changes in their summative assessment practice. Their involvement in the group activities during the professional development workshop made them become more reflective on their assessment practices and also indicated that the professional development activities enhanced their knowledge about alternative assessment strategies, and increased their confidence in carrying out summative assessments in class. However, the existing contextual factors that were identified during the baseline study continued to impede their transfer of new assessment ideas and procedures into their classroom practices. | https://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/handle/10289/8526 |
Making Learning R.E.A.L.: Accessible
Accessible: Capable of being reached; Being within reach; Capable of being used or seen; Capable of being understood or appreciated; Capable of being influenced; Easily used or accessed by people with disabilities: adapted for use by people with disabilities.
“Accessible.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/accessible. Accessed 5 Jan. 2021.
I love how Merriam-Webster defines accessible. By utilizing the word capable, the intimidating factors that come with learning something new, are removed. I equate capable with the word possible. Learning that is accessible, means making learning possible. Possible to understand, appreciate, see, used, be influential, and adapted when necessary. Learning that is accessible is learning that is within reach.
Making learning accessible will look different in every circumstance. This is due to the different abilities, backgrounds, biases, and cultural norms that composes each one of us. What is accessible to one student or classroom, is not to another. For this reason, I find it best to ask several guiding questions to ensure I am making my teaching accessible to all. These questions are not an exhaustive list, simply one that will get us thinking about accessibility.
Is my teaching accessible?
Am I teaching to all learning styles? Consider having a visual aid, using hands-on activities, provide interactive experiences, etc..
Have I arranged my learning environment in a manner that makes learning possible for all? Consider students who have visual impairments, are hard of hearing, have sensory needs, or require specific adaptations to the physical environment.
Are the resources I’m using diverse? Look at the teaching materials you are utilizing. Be sure that students can see themselves reflected in the materials as well as exposing students to a diverse landscape of people and cultures.
Am I allowing multiple ways for students to demonstrate their learning? Instead of a pencil and paper task or test, experiment with other methods of assessment. Click here for a list of ideas.
Do I have a good understanding of my students as individuals? Take time to familiarize yourself with each students’ needs (I.E.P.’s, modifications needed, past report cards, and other documentation). Of course, nothing can replace a one-on-one interview with each student to speak to them personally about how they see themselves as learners.
Take time to get to know your students. As you begin to better understand who they are and what they need to be successful, you will become better equipped to create learning opportunities that ensure success!
Here is a resource that you can use to explore this topic more. | https://makinglearningreal.ca/2021/01/06/making-learning-r-e-a-l-accessible/ |
- Available for Study Abroad and Exchange students, subject to proof of pre-requisite knowledge.
- Module Leader(s): Dr Larry Zazzo
- Owning School: Arts & Cultures
- Teaching Location: Newcastle City Campus
Semesters
|Semester 1 Credit Value:||10|
|Semester 2 Credit Value:||10|
|ECTS Credits:||10.0|
Aims
• to learn and be part of the production of an opera from the Baroque period, comprising the time period from c. 1600 to 1750.
• to understand and practice historically-informed approaches to the performance of music of this period.
• to give singers the opportunity to experience the staging of opera, and to give instrumentalists the specific experience of accompanying singers who may be acting on stage.
Outline Of Syllabus
The module introduces students to the performance of early opera, through a year-long study through practical workshops and seminar readings of a chosen set opera or opera scenes. Students will develop performance skills as singers, instrumentalists, and stage managers/assistant directors in ways that are informed by Historical Performance Practices. However, given the flexibility of resources deployed at the time of the composition of such works, part of the module may well include devising appropriate ways to deploy "modern" instruments in the absence of suitable "originals". Alongside professional vocal, instrumental, and movement coaching, students will gain an insight into what it takes to put an opera of this period onto the stage. Alongside practical workshops students will be required to undertake set readings that document historically-informed performance practice, the socio-cultural contexts inside of which early opera developed and was presented, and the ways in which such work is realised from the score through to public presentation. The range of characters and the musical styles in the piece allow for the participation of students with any background (classical, pop, or folk). The module will culminate in a fully-staged performance in a suitable venue, with the possibility of further performances in other venues/cities.
Teaching Methods
Teaching Activities
|Category||Activity||Number||Length||Student Hours||Comment|
|Scheduled Learning And Teaching Activities||Lecture||4||1:00||4:00||Introduction, dance, baroque technique (PIP)|
|Guided Independent Study||Directed research and reading||10||4:00||40:00||independent study; preparation of essay|
|Guided Independent Study||Skills practice||9||10:00||90:00||individual practice|
|Scheduled Learning And Teaching Activities||Small group teaching||3||2:00||6:00||dance workshops, not all students required (PIP)|
|Scheduled Learning And Teaching Activities||Workshops||10||3:00||30:00||Musical and Staging rehearsals; Not all students required for each rehearsal (PIP)|
|Guided Independent Study||Independent study||1||30:00||30:00||Preparation of Essay|
|Total||200:00|
Teaching Rationale And Relationship
workshops develop students' practical skills (K1, K3, S1, and S2 above).
directed research and reading introduce and develop contextual understanding of early opera in its historical period, as well as historically-informed approaches to performance (K1, K2, K3, S1 and S2 above).
skills practice is where individual musicians work on their own parts, embedding the material, and memorising (K3, S1, S2, and S3 above)
student-led group activity allows for further embedding of the materials for performance, developed memory, and also requires working as a team with a clear agenda to fulfil (K3, S3 and S4 above)
independent study is scheduled in order that students may bring together their individual and collective experience with the scholarly work they have undertaken throughout the module to produce a reflective and evaluative essay (K1, K2, K3, and S4 above).
Assessment Methods
The format of resits will be determined by the Board of Examiners
Exams
|Description||Length||Semester||When Set||Percentage||Comment|
|Performance||90||2||M||60||remote options of submitted video demonstrating baroque techniques or longer essay possible|
Other Assessment
|Description||Semester||When Set||Percentage||Comment|
|Essay||2||A||40||Essay 2000 Words|
Assessment Rationale And Relationship
• The performance tests, in a professional-style public event students learning of the required practical, and by implication historically-informed performance practice skills for the module.
• The essay gives students the opportunity to reflect on their experiences and at the same time relate these to what they have learned about opera/music dramas of this period, and the approaches and challenges to performing this kind of work in the present day. | https://www.ncl.ac.uk/mobility/newcastle/study-abroad/MUS2009 |
Reporting to the Audit Supervisor, the Senior Auditor is responsible for performing or leading a team in the planning and execution of financial, operational, and compliance audits, as well as special projects. The Senior Auditor regularly interacts with mid- to senior- level management in the areas of Accounting and Finance, Operations, and Gaming Commission to discuss and resolve issues or recommend improved business practices. The Senior Auditor trains and reviews the work of lower-level auditors to ensure the execution of audits are adequately addressing risk and are meeting acceptable auditing standards.
Essential Duties & Responsibilities
- Leads the planning and performance of financial, operational, and compliance audits and reviews relevant records for compliance with regulatory requirements, financial accounting and auditing standards, and company policies and procedures.
- Develops risk-based audits and identifies areas of concern or weakened internal controls within the gaming operation.
- Performs Title 31/Bank Secrecy Act audits including applying various data analytics to identify unusual activity.
- Executes proactive fraud based reviews (e.g.; vendor analytics) by application of data analytic techniques to identify unusual trends.
- Reviews business processes and assesses the design and effectiveness of controls.
- Reviews and coordinates the work for compliance, information technology, financial and operational audits.
- Completes interviews and observations with key personnel throughout the organization and auditing process.
- Researches and reviews the function to be audited; utilizes business knowledge, analytical skills and work experience to identify control risks.
- Evaluates and resolves highly sensitive and complex issues.
- Contributes to overall continuous improvement initiatives by providing advisory and consulting services to improve efficiency, effectiveness, and utilization of company assets.
- Prepares accurate, logical and detailed workpapers clearly describing the scope of work performed, test results and conclusions.
- Writes and reviews clear and concise audit reports for distribution to department management, senior gaming management, the Gaming Commissioners and the Business Committee.
- Examines and reviews workpapers completed by other auditors to ensure compliance with regulations and auditing standards.
- Provides feedback and guidance to auditors on all work executed and confirms that all department goals are being achieved.
- Coordinates and schedules projects with management staff and auditors.
- Exhibits strong teamwork and communication skills at all levels of the organization and consistently displays appropriate judgment.
- Monitors and enforces predetermined deadlines between auditors and management staff.
- Conducts follow-ups on audit findings.
- Perform other duties as assigned to support the efficient operation of the department.
Supervisory Responsibilities
The Senior Auditor may also be responsible for the functional supervision of staff on audit projects as directed by audit management. Additionally, the position is responsible for ensuring clear communication and coordination with other Senior Auditors (including IT) in the execution of the audit plan.
Education/experience
- College degree in business or accounting related field required; will consider six additional years of work experience as a substitute for degree.
- Five-year minimum work experience and/or training in Audit, Accounting, Fraud, Risk, Compliance, or other professional investigative or risk-based experience required.
- Advanced proficiency in Microsoft Word, Excel, Power Point and Outlook required.
- Advanced proficiency in Internet Research mandatory.
- Advanced knowledge of the audit process including, but not limited to; interviews, observations, documentation review, workpapers and reporting.
- Extensive knowledge of Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), Generally Accepted Auditing Standards (GAAS), the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission (COSO), Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB), the International Standards for the Professional Practice of Internal Auditing, and Code of Ethics promulgated by the Institute of Internal Auditors required.
- Professional certification such as Certified Internal Auditor (CIA), Certified Public Accountant (CPA) or Certified Fraud Examiner (CFE) highly desired.
- Knowledge of the rules and regulations of the Tribal Gaming Industry preferred.
- Knowledge of Title 31 Banking Secrecy Act Regulations.
- Related experience in regulating, auditing or accounting in the Casino industry preferred.
- Employee must have experience demonstrating the utmost discretion and confidentiality as they will have access to private information such as Social Security Numbers, credit cards, personal data or financial data from colleagues, personnel or customers.
Certificates/Licenses/Registrations
- At the discretion of the San Manuel Tribal Gaming Commission you may be required to obtain and maintain a gaming license.
- A qualified candidate/employee must have a valid driver’s license with an acceptable driving record as determined by the company’s insurance carrier.
- Must complete and pass the Internal Training Program.
San Manuel Band of Mission Indians and San Manuel Casino will make reasonable accommodations in compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990.
As one of the largest private employers in the Inland Empire, San Manuel deeply cares about the future, growth and well-being of its employees. Join our team today! | https://www.ziprecruiter.com/c/San-Manuel-Casino/Job/Senior-Auditor,-Gaming-Commission/-in-Highland,CA?jid=DQ062d1c7f38f458f1683e59ef9a973027&source=email-candidate-job-alert-bridged&mid=35835&job_id=9b9f806637bb9d18352cb47fee2494ec |
What to Expect from the Nonprofit Audit Process
Knowing what to expect from the nonprofit audit process can transform it from daunting to doable. There are clear steps to the audit process, with responsibilities for both the auditing team and the organization. Learn what to expect from each step–and what’s expected of your organization–to keep the process moving forward efficiently. You can also download the guide here.
Jump to a section:
- What is a nonprofit organization?
- Why do nonprofit organizations matter?
- What financial statements are used by NFPs?
- What is a nonprofit audit?
- What is the process for a nonprofit audit?
- Step 1: Planning meeting
- Step 2: Items Required List
- Step 3: Preliminary fieldwork
- Step 4: Final fieldwork
- Step 5: Wrap-up
- Audit Considerations and Updates for 2022
- Preparing for an Audit with Aldrich
What is a nonprofit organization?
While a nonprofit organization (NFP) may center itself around humanitarian issues or rely on volunteers, the status is based on three specific factors defined by The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB).
These characteristics, which are typically not found in business enterprises, determine if an entity is a nonprofit organization:
- The organization receives contributions from significant resource providers who do not expect a commensurate or proportionate monetary return.
- The organization operates for purposes other than to make a profit.
- There is an absence of ownership interest in the organization.
Why do nonprofit organizations matter?
Nonprofit organizations provide many services and can have a huge impact on individuals, communities, and the larger environment. NFPs provide valuable programs to the community. They protect, feed, heal, shelter, educate, and nurture bodies and spirits. There are different types of NFP organizations, and they operate in a broad range of areas. Some NFPs exist to serve the public with services and resources; others focus solely on serving the members of the organization.
Among the millions of nonprofits across the country, there are public charities, religious organizations, labor unions, sports clubs, professional associations, advocacy and health services, art and education centers, and more.
To understand their positive economic impact, take a look at NFPs by the numbers:
- There are more than 1.8 million NFPs registered with the IRS.
- The NFP sector contributed $1.24 trillion to the US economy in 2020, 6 percent of the US gross domestic product (GDP).
- In 2018, private contributions to nonprofits exceeded $420 billion.
- An estimated 25% of US adults volunteered at an NFP, providing over 8 billion volunteer hours, in 2017.
- The NFP sector employs more than 12.3 million people.
What financial statements are used by NFPs?
Because of their unique organizational status, some financial statements used by NFPs are different from those used in for-profit organizations:
- Statement of Financial Position: lists an organization’s assets, liabilities, and net assets on the report date. The NFP equivalent of a Balance Sheet.
- Statement of Activities: reports revenues, expenses, and changes in net assets for the whole organization. The NFP equivalent of an Income Statement.
- Statement of Functional Expenses: present the functional classification of expenses in three areas (program, management and general, and fundraising). Unique to NFP organizations.
- Statement of Cash Flows: reports how the organization’s cash and cash equivalents changed over a given time. Same as a for-profit statement.
These financial statements are used by NFPs, donors and granting agencies, “watchdog” groups who monitor charitable organization activity, financial institutions, oversight agencies, and the media. NFP financial statements are a key part of the nonprofit audit process.
What is a nonprofit audit?
There are generally three levels of service that can be provided:
- A compilation: provides the lowest level of assurance, relies on presented information.
- A review: provides a higher level of assurance, relies on information provided with some corroboration.
- An audit: provides the highest level of assurance, requires substantial effort, relies on a significant amount of corroboration from and collaboration with management.
Typically, a nonprofit independent audit refers to an examination of financial records, accounts, transactions, and internal controls by an independent auditor.
An NFP organization may be audited for a variety of reasons. The IRS may select an NFP for a tax audit, conducted as a field audit or a correspondence audit. An IRS agent will be onsite to conduct the audit in a field audit. For a correspondence audit, the NFP will be asked to send documents to the IRS office for review. Or, a nonprofit organization may undergo an independent audit. An independent audit might be required by state law, per certain government contracts, or because the NFP has reached or exceeded a certain level of expenditure in federal funds. Many NFPs will elect to undergo an independent audit even when not legally required for financial transparency or funding eligibility.
Here we’ll discuss what you can expect and how to prepare for an independent audit. If you have questions about tax or correspondence audits, reach out to our nonprofit team.
What is the process for a nonprofit audit?
Regardless of where you are in the audit process, you should expect ongoing communication. Clear and timely communication between the auditor and the client (the NFP organization) helps the audit process proceed efficiently and smoothly.
Some circumstances may warrant particular interest:
- Merger with, acquisition of, or obtaining control of another organization
- Creating a new legal entity or controlled organization
- Pending or threatened litigation
- Actual or suspected fraud
- Infrequent or unusual transactions
- Uncertainty about how to record a transaction
If your NFP has experienced any of these issues, be prepared with relevant documentation and set aside time for specific conversations to address each one.
Step 1: Start with a Planning Meeting
The planning meeting happens before the audit; it’s how everything gets started. The purpose is to discuss items that have or may have audit significance and set a timeline for the audit. Expect the auditor to explain the timeline clearly and identify the items of audit significance with no ambiguity. By the end of the planning meeting, you should know which items are required and when they must be made available to the auditor. Your responsibility is to answer questions, get clarification as needed, and specify any reasons that the proposed timeline is not feasible.
Items of audit significance may include the following:
- Starting, suspending, or closing a program or service
- Gaining or losing control of a consolidated organization
- Obtaining a significant new grant or contribution
- Starting a new fundraising appeal
- Obtaining new or additional federal funding
- Entering into new debt or lease agreements
- Changes in key personnel
- Converting to new accounting, payroll, or billing software
Efficiency tip: Have the right people in the room, including the executive director, department managers, and any staff members assigned to assist auditors during fieldwork. It may be helpful to have representatives from the board or audit committee present.
Step 2: Round Up Required Items
The audit is officially underway, but you can expect to receive the list of the required items prior to fieldwork. This step enables efficiency during fieldwork. The auditor will stipulate required items, with a date specified for when the items should be available. You should receive two lists: one for preliminary fieldwork and one for final fieldwork. The items and the dates will be based on the discussions from the planning meeting. If relevant, you should communicate with the auditor about any tasks or items you need assistance with or cannot have available by the specified date. However, remember that the auditors cannot make management decisions or be part of internal control systems.
Efficiency tip: Delegate items and tasks to the most relevant person in the organization. Stay organized by setting up a triage station where you can gather and check that all documentation for each item is complete and available. Create a computer folder to save all shortcuts that auditors need to access documentation.
Step 3: Conduct Preliminary Fieldwork
This step is when the fieldwork begins. Expect the auditor to require time with key personnel. Auditors understand that your daily work continues and will attempt to minimize interruptions; however, fieldwork requires significant corroboration with key people in the NFP organization. Be prepared to explain substantial variances in assets, liabilities, revenue, and expenses from year to year.
Expect the auditor to focus on these areas:
- Obtaining an understanding of internal controls
- Performing walk-throughs of significant transaction cycles
- Reviewing interim financial information
- Conducting routine fraud inquiries
- Obtaining significant policies and procedures, as well as grant, lease, and debt agreements
- Obtaining audit confirmations
- Developing an audit plan
Efficiency tip: While you can’t pause the daily duties and work of the organization, it’s a good idea to reduce responsibilities for key personnel as much as possible. This might include delaying new projects, process changes, or other looming deadlines.
Step 4: Wrap Up Final Fieldwork
A small team often conducts audits onsite. You’ll need to provide adequate space for them to work. Additionally, auditors may wish to conduct private interviews with various organization members during this time—set aside an office or smaller meeting room for them. The auditors will request additional information during the audit. Designate staff members to be available for these requests and either fulfill them or carry the request to the appropriate person.
The first three steps of the audit process are set up to give NFP members adequate time to prepare needed items and be available for corroboration and interviews as the audit proceeds. The expectation is that you, the client, will be fully prepared. Books must be closed and all work papers ready for review—any delay on the client-side delays the entire audit process.
Efficiency tip: This step of the audit process is the most involved and intensive. If possible, pause any significant projects or initiatives until the audit is complete.
Step 5: Finish and Finalize
As the client, once you have met the requirements for each step, you can expect the auditors to honor the timeline too. At the agreed-upon date for delivery, auditors should provide the draft audit report and a letter to management, which recommends areas for improvement and notes deficiencies in internal controls. Before the findings are presented formally, there should be a discussion between the auditor, management, and the audit committee.
Efficiency tip: Effective auditor-client relationships are built on mutual respect and collaboration throughout the process. Don’t be afraid to communicate, and conversely, be available and open to communication from the auditors during this process.
Audit Considerations and Updates for 2022
The unique circumstances of the last two years may bring some special considerations to the audit process. Auditors may wish to examine operations in the current fiscal year and disrupted operations in the prior fiscal year. There may also be a particular emphasis on auditing more varied funding sources in the current year. As updates go into effect for both lease accounting standards and reporting standards for gifts-in-kind, these areas may become an area of focus during an audit. Be sure to make appropriate transitions to meet the new standards if you haven’t already done so.
New federal awards in the current year may require a “Single Audit.” A Single Audit is a compliance-based audit that must be completed by any entity or organization that expends $750,000 or more in federal funds in one year. So, new federal awards such as COVID-related funds and Shuttered Venue Operators Grant (SVOG) may have put your NFP organization in this category.
Preparing for an Audit with Aldrich
All in all, remember that while an audit process is involved–and can be intensive–the purpose is for greater financial transparency and effectiveness for NFP organizations. By being prepared, communicative, and collaborative, you and your staff can create a smoother and more efficient audit process. If you have questions about NFP audits or the auditing process, fill out the form below to contact the author and expert Bobby LaCour, CPA, or reach out to your Nonprofit Aldrich Advisor.
PDF Version of the Nonprofit Audit Guide
Download or print a PDF version of this guide to keep it easily accessible as you prepare for an audit. | https://aldrichadvisors.com/nonprofit/nonprofit-audit-process/ |
Audit: Hoffner case shows MnSCU should rethink its investigations
A new report from Minnesota's legislative auditor criticizes the investigative methods of the State Colleges and Universities (MnSCU) after the botched firing of football coach Todd Hoffner.
The 19 page report released by Legislative Auditor James Nobles Thursday suggests MnSCU rethink how it handles investigations but takes no position on whether Minnesota State University, Mankato was justified in firing Hoffner last year.
Hoffner was reinstated as coach in April after an arbitrator ruled the university had no grounds to fire him.
The auditor says the investigation that led to Hoffner's dismissal was separate from child pornography allegations that were dismissed by a judge. The report from Nobles does not explain what allegations led to the university's investigation of Hoffner, citing data privacy concerns. But it says they involved violations of policy and/or concerns about Hoffner's judgment, not criminal acts.
Auditor questions investigative methods
Nobles' report notes that MSU Mankato's investigator interviewed people who were not under oath and did not record the interviews. But, as the Star Tribune points out, the auditor is particularly critical of the investigator for destroying her notes from the interviews after she had filed her report.
The newspaper highlights this section of the auditor's report:
“We bring the issue forth because investigative methods are important in ensuring fairness to all the people affected by an investigation, and because we found confusion and conflicts among the state officials we consulted about how interviews in personnel investigations are and should be conducted and documented. Given what we found, we recommend that [the school] reassess how it conducts and documents interviews in personnel [and possibly other] investigations.”
A representative of MnSCU told MPR News in an email “further assessment by the system of the approaches used is warranted to ensure that we are using best practices."
Response to audit
State legislators and MSU Mankato President Richard Davenport asked Nobles in April to review the handling of Hoffner's case.
The report Nobles submitted Thursday includes two letters responding to his findings. One is from Hoffner's attorney, Chris Madel, the other is co-signed by Davenport and MnSCU's chancellor.
Madel criticizes the report, saying it does not include Hoffner's perspective nor any tally of how much money the university spent investigating him.
The leaders of the university and MnSCU joined Nobles in expressing hope that the report provides some closure to everyone concerned.
Meanwhile, Hoffner is back on the sidelines, leading MSU through another successful football season. The Mavericks are undefeated and recently gained the top spot in a national poll ranking Division II teams. | https://bringmethenews.com/sports/audit-hoffner-case-shows-mnscu-should-rethink-its-investigations |
NACCHO requests local health staff feedback to inform the development of the Integrated Food Safety System Regulatory Training Strategic Plan through a newly released environmental scan from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. The survey closes November 10, 2022.
What is this?
As you may know, an Integrated Food Safety System (IFSS) provides the vision, guiding principles, and key components of a coordinated approach to food safety. See IFSS initiatives, programs, and projects. The IFSS includes the implementation of seamless partnerships and operations among federal, state, local, territorial, and tribal (SLTT) agencies as well as academic, foreign, industry, and consumer stakeholders (“strategic partners”) to achieve the public health mission of a safer human and animal food (HAF) supply.
An IFSS requires a well-trained, integrated workforce, consisting of federal and SLTT personnel involved in all aspects of food safety including inspection, compliance, laboratory analysis, epidemiological investigation, emergency response, as well as leaders and managers. The FDA’s Office of Regulatory Affairs (ORA) Office of Training, Education, and Development (OTED) designs, develops, and delivers free training to FDA, other federal, and SLTT HAF regulatory partners (including laboratories) (known as “HAF regulatory partners”).
What is the IFSS Regulatory Training Strategic Plan, and why is it important?
The Strategic Plan will outline the high-level outcomes, goals, and objectives to help FDA and its partners design and implement an optimal, sustainable, integrated national regulatory training system.
This five-year plan (October 2023 to September 2028) is being developed by the Office of Training, Education and Development, in coordination with key FDA personnel and national association partners — including NACCHO. It will apply to training supporting all HAF regulatory partners in the IFFS (e.g., FDA, other federal and SLTT regulatory partners, laboratories, and associations) and will include the following commodity areas: manufactured food, produce, eggs, animal food, and state cooperative programs - retail, Grade “A” milk, and shellfish.
NACCHO Seeks Local Level Input
Local regulatory program staff input is critical in helping the FDA and partners design an integrated national regulatory training program that advances a national IFSS and domestic mutual reliance. To do so, the FDA has released an environmental scan to gather information on influences on human and animal food (HAF) regulatory training. Your unique perspective will be used to help develop a well-trained, integrated workforce that conducts comparable work at all levels and provide key data as strategic goals are being developed.
Please take 15 to 20 minutes to complete the survey no later than Thursday, November 10.
Please note: The survey link is for one-time use per user. Respondents will not be allowed to save and return to the survey later; each respondent must complete the survey the first time the link is opened.
Help Spread the Word About the Survey
We encourage you to share this email with your colleagues including all HAF regulatory, policy, laboratory, and land/sea grant university personnel who are involved in HAF regulatory training, including manufactured food, produce, eggs, animal food, retail food, Grade “A” milk, and shellfish.
The ORA will communicate summarized survey findings to key stakeholders during the development of the plan. The IFSS Regulatory Training Strategic Plan will publish in the fall of 2023.
For additional background, please review the attached document.
Feel free to send questions to the IFSS Regulatory Training Strategic Planning Team. | https://www.naccho.org/blog/articles/response-requested-national-survey-seeks-to-gather-information-on-influences-on-human-and-animal-food-regulatory-training |
- Reimbursement Officer II
- What will I be doing?
- Do I qualify?
- Can I be successful?
- Benefits
- How do I apply?
This is mid-level technical and supervisory work directing a reimbursement program of substantial scope and complexity involving the investigation of the financial resources of recipients of health and mental health services to obtain reimbursement for the cost of care and treatment.
Supervises technical and clerical staff engaged in financial interviewing, financial investigations, asset research, and fee determinations.
Monitors reimbursement activities and resolves billing problems to ensure program effectiveness and integrity.
Conducts informal on-the-job training for technical and clerical staff.
Conducts investigations of sensitive and/or complex cases; determines amounts to be charged for care and treatment based on investigational findings and prescribed procedures.
Interviews recipients and/or financially responsible persons to gather information concerning available resources for payment of care and treatment and obtain reimbursement for the State.
Communicates with recipients' relatives, employers, financial institutions, insurance companies, and other persons or organizations to gather information concerning financial resources available to recipients which may be applied to their cost of care, treatment, and personal needs.
Serves as liaison with representatives of the Social Security Administration, Veterans Administration, and other federal, state, local government, and private agencies to obtain and maximize reimbursements.
Reviews deeds, wills, trust documents, probate court records, and other official documents for evidence of property and other financial resources available for the care, treatment, and personal needs of recipients.
Testifies for the department in probate court hearings.
Explains billing procedures and purpose of the reimbursement program to recipients and financially responsible persons.
Exercises considerable discretion and independent judgment in decision making within the limits of established policies, directives, and regulations.
Performs other related work as assigned.
(The following minimum qualifications will determine merit system eligibility. Allowable experience and education substitutions are provided in italics below the corresponding minimum qualification statement; no other substitutions will be permitted. These minimum qualifications may also be used to evaluate applicants for Missouri Uniform Classification and Pay System positions not requiring selection from merit registers.)
One or more years of experience as a Reimbursement Officer I with the Missouri Uniform Classification and Pay System.
OR
A Bachelor's degree from an accredited college or university with a minimum of 15 earned credit hours in one or a combination of the following: Public or Business Administration, Accounting, Economics, or a closely related field; and,
Two or more years of experience in health services billing, financial investigation, public or private health insurance claim filing, or a closely related area; including one or more years in the investigation of financial resources of clientele or determination of the ability to incur additional financial obligations.
(Additional qualifying experience may substitute on a year-for-year basis for deficiencies in the required education.)
Please note that documentation that supports your eligibility (i.e. transcripts, employment records, etc.) may be required at any time during the application and hiring process. If you do not possess the minimum qualifications, please consider one of many other employment opportunities with the State of Missouri.
Do you possess the key skills which are considered essential for successful employment in this classification?
Intermediate knowledge of regulations and policies pertaining to reimbursement functions.
Intermediate knowledge of regulations pertaining to benefits available to recipients through the Social Security Administration, Veterans Administration, and public and private health insurance.
Intermediate knowledge of the methods used in conducting financial interviews and investigations.
Intermediate knowledge of accounting and/or bookkeeping procedures and billing activities.
Intermediate knowledge of probate court records relating to the evaluation of available resources.
Ability to comprehend, interpret, and explain policies, rules, regulations, procedures, and requirements pertaining to the reimbursement program.
Ability to plan and supervise the work of technical and clerical staff.
Ability to train personnel in policies, forms, and procedures of the reimbursement program.
Ability to compile clear and concise reports.
Ability to obtain facts by personal contacts and interviews, and by reviewing official records and documents.
Ability to establish and maintain effective working relationships with other employees, agencies, and the general public. | https://oa.mo.gov/personnel/classification-specifications/0624 |
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Job Summary
The Associate Auditor conducts simple to moderately complex operational and financial audits and advisory projects, assessing the adequacy and effectiveness of systems, processes, and controls under close supervision of Audit Service and Institute Compliance (ASIC)management or a more senior auditor. The successful candidate will work closely with ASIC management and staff and Institute management to ensure project objectives are met and issues are identified. The candidate will demonstrate good interpersonal, written, and oral communication skills.
Job Duties
- Conducts simple to moderately complex audits of unit/department/division systems, processes, and controls in accordance with the Standards for the Professional Practice of Internal Auditing.
- Reviews and evaluates organizational controls over financial and non-financial resources for compliance with laws, regulations, contracts, and grants.
- Reviews operations or programs to ascertain whether results are consistent with established objectives and values.
- Through the audit process, grasps an understanding of unit/department/division resources and operations; assesses strengths and weaknesses of a function and may advise clients on methods for taking advantage of opportunities to reduce costs and improve processes.
- Collects information during the audit process, identifies discrepancies and anomalies, conducts analysis and makes recommendations for management action
- Prepares relevant documents to support conclusions for audit projects
- May prepare and assist in communicating audit findings and recommendations to management via written reports and oral presentations
- Develops and maintains relationships with Institute personnel who have responsibility for compliance with laws, regulations contracts, and grants
- May network with other audit professionals or government personnel through external organizations, associations, etc. | https://www.timeshighereducation.com/unijobs/listing/231073/associate-auditor/?LinkSource=SimilarJobPlatform |
There are four phases in the audit process:
1. Planning
2. Executing
3. Reporting
4. Following-up
Planning
Notification: University leadership is made aware of the planned audit projects on an annual basis. The audit area selected is informed about the intent to perform an audit. The auditor may send a request for documentation such as organization charts, procedures, guidelines, checklists, job descriptions, roles and responsibility matrix, etc. which help the auditor gain an understanding before planning the audit.
Scoping Meeting: A scoping meeting is arranged with senior management in the area selected. The meeting serves two purposes – first, the auditor will outline the process, timing and what the auditee can expect, second, the auditee is able to express any issues or concerns with the audit process or areas within their units that they would like to have reviewed. Moreover, any potential timing issues (e.g. vacations, deadlines) that could impact the audit are also discussed. A preliminary scope and objectives of the audit are agreed upon.
Executing
The fieldwork stage is typically the lengthiest part of an audit and helps to gather information necessary in assessing the adequacy and effectiveness of internal controls, risk management and governance processes. Auditors work on this phase mostly through walkthrough, inquiry with staff, reviewing procedures and business processes and testing control activities.
Interviews and Walkthroughs: A walkthrough is often the most efficient assessment procedure auditors can use. The primary purpose is to provide an in-depth understanding of the processes and any control activities.
Flowcharts: The auditor's understanding of the processes is typically documented in a flowchart.
Tests of Controls: Audit conducts tests for compliance with applicable university policies and procedures, laws and regulations, and for assessing the adequacy of internal controls. While one sample may have been selected during the walkthrough to gain an understanding of the process, additional samples, based on audit sampling methodology, are requested to demonstrate the operating effectiveness.
Initial Observations: Once fieldwork is substantially completed, the auditor discusses the initial observations with the area leadership. The purpose of this meeting is to either validate the initial observations or provide additional evidence for reconsideration.
Reporting
Audit report: Once testing is completed, an audit report is drafted and includes several sections: the distribution list, the scope of the audit, the overall conclusion, and detailed commentary describing the findings and recommended solutions. Recommendations that do not address significant risks are handled less formally through discussion. Risk ratings are discussed.
Management Response: The area’s senior management is provided with an opportunity to respond to the findings. The response consists of two components: the action plan to implement the recommendation and the expected completion date. These responses are included in the final audit report.
Finalized Report: The final report is distributed to all senior management of the department (i.e. the Registrar, Provost, etc. as applicable). Copies of all reports are distributed to the President and Vice- Chancellor, Vice-President’s Council, Chief Risk Officer, External Auditor and Chair of the Audit and Risk Committee. A summary of the report is then provided to the Audit and Risk Committee of the Board of Regents.
Following-up
Follow-up: Once the audit is completed, the Office of Internal Audit monitors progress made in implementing recommendations. Limited scope procedures may be performed to validate the recommendation implementation. Semi-annually, a status of open recommendations is reported to the President and Vice-Chancellor, Vice-President’s Council, Chief Risk Officer, and the Audit and Risk Committee of the Board of Regents. | https://www.mun.ca/internalaudit/services/auditprojects.php |
- Location:
- Level 7
50 Manners Street
Wellington 6011
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Here is a summary of the main matters considered:
Auditor rotation
The NZAuASB approved the New Zealand amendments to the Code of Ethics for Assurance Practitioners Provisions Addressing the Long Association of Personnel with an Assurance Client.
The amendments are effective for audits of financial statements for periods beginning on or after December 15, 2018.
The biggest impact of these changes will be to extend the cooling-off period of the engagement partner and engagement quality control reviewer for engagements of public interest entities.
We will send a separate communique when the amendments have been issued, together with explanations for decisions made by the NZAuASB in finalising the New Zealand amendments.
Public interest entities (PIEs)
The NZAuASB approved an invitation to comment (ITC) and exposure draft proposing changes to the definition of a Public Interest Entity in Professional and Ethical Standard 1 (Revised).
During the consultation on ED2017-1, Proposed Amendments to PES 1 (Revised) Provisions Addressing the Long Association of Personnel with an Assurance Client, the Board sought comment about the definition of a Public Interest Entity.
In response to that feedback, the NZAuASB is proposing to amend the definition of Public Interest Entity in PES 1 (Revised) to exclude those entities that are not legally required, but choose, to apply the Tier 1 financial reporting requirements.
The exposure draft seeks feedback on the proposed amendment to define a public interest entity as, “any entity that meets the Tier 1 criteria in accordance with XRB A1 and is not eligible to report in accordance with the accounting requirements of another tier”.
Submissions on the proposals are due by 27 November 2017.
> Access the Invitation to Comment
XRB A1 Application of the Accounting Standards Framework
The New Zealand experience of the new auditor’s report
In conjunction with the FMA, the Board is working on a report that explores the New Zealand experience in implementing the first round of the new auditor’s report for listed issuers, containing key audit matters .
The Board has completed its interviews and surveys and provided feedback on a draft report.
The report is expected to be published by the end of November 2017.
The term “listed issuer” is defined in ISA 701, Communicating Key Audit Matters in the Independent Auditor’s Report.
Auditor reporting FAQs
The NZAuASB approved additional questions to be added to the website dealing with:
- Key audit matters and subsequent events;
- the communication of a key audit matter and/or an emphasis of matter; and
- whether the Director’s Report is 'Other information'.
Find these FAQs on the XRB website
Examination of prospective information
The NZAuASB approved a project plan to develop an assurance standard on prospective financial information.
This project is being undertaken in response to an increased demand for assurance over prospective financial information. There is currently no standard on prospective financial information in the New Zealand suite of standards.
The standard will be developed in accordance with due process for domestic standards and in collaboration with the AUASB as appropriate. It is anticipated that it will take about 15 months to develop and finalise the standard.
Guidance for prescribers
The NZAuASB provided feedback on a draft of guidance being developed for prescribers of assurance engagements, for example, policy makers and regulatory supervisors.
The objective of the guidance is to clarify the correct terms to use when setting assurance requirements in accordance with the NZAuASB standards.
The guidance is expected to be issued by the end of the year.
Outreach on the audit of service performance information
The NZAuASB considered the proposed agenda and break-out discussions for the upcoming roundtable discussions on ED NZAuASB 2017-2 New Zealand Auditing Standard xx The Audit of Service Performance Information.
You can still register for the roundtable discussions being held in Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch in November. | https://xrb-uat.sites.silverstripe.com/information-hub/board-meetings/nzauasb/25-october-2017/ |
The COR (certificate of recognition) is a nationally recognized standard in Canada or health and safety. As part of attaining COR certification, organizations must undergo an external audit of their programs. Like most management system audits they must be audited in three parts: a documentation review, a series of interviews, and site and personnel observations.
In this project, Interaptix collaborated with Ken Black, owner of TECK Safety, with over 20 years of experience as an internal and external auditor, to answer the question:
Could he observe the facilities, people, and processes to the level required to attest that the management system was in place and effective, without ever being onsite?
Ken partnered with Erin Nachbaur, Health and Safety specialist at Central Alberta Co-operative, who collected on-site data for his observations during a two-week audit. Remote Observation was performed asynchronously using the AptixAR Remote Expert solution.
Local data was collected using an iPad. It involved the creation of self-serve digital twins – spatial copies of the facilities, assets, and processes at the worksites of the Co-operative.
Additional evidence was added by capturing photos or videos within AptixAR’s platform, all of which contribute to a heightened situational awareness for the remote auditor
Erin was able to collect the specific photo and video observations that Ken required, which he could review as they were taken. “The local representative captured various work areas which were immediately available online. I was able to review the information and provided further directives to the company representative to validate the information when I needed additional clarity,” said Ken.
When Ken required additional observation, he was able to prompt Erin for additional data. “There can be requests for follow up information. For example, if there is a cabinet in a work area that is closed, the auditor can either include a line item before the scan asking for pictures of the interior of all closets and cabinets, or request this after the scan is complete,” said Erin.
Erin and Ken both commented on how straightforward it was to leverage AptixAR as part of their process. "With a short training session and virtual support, I was able to learn quickly how to use the AptixAR technology,” said Erin, “Once I understood the concepts it was easy to use. Scanning work areas proved to be a quick task and I was able to highlight controls, documents, information, etc. available in the work area."
Ken summed up his experience with the solution in one sentence and answer the question above: | https://www.interaptix.com/project/teck-safety-inc-remote-external-compliance-auditing |
Managing a business means that information is gathered and used to make decisions to improve the operation. Agricultural business managers do that with yield changes, health problems, cost changes and more. However, in the very important area of labor management, we often neglect to gather information, and as a result, the business suffers. This is the case when we don’t understand what factors were involved in employees’ decisions to leave.
Operating an agricultural business successfully usually means that we achieve goals through quality employees. Hiring and keeping good employees, and helping them become better, is critical to that success. When productive employees leave, we often miss the opportunity to gather information from them that will help improve labor management and possibly, farm profitability.
Michigan State University Extension suggests exit interviews as a strategy to collect information with which managers could improve the performance of all present and future employees. However, exit interviews are rarely used among agricultural producers.
Will employees provide honest feedback to their employer when they decide to leave? They may not, which is why businesses typically utilize a third-party interviewer such as a personnel director or employment service. The interview should be about gathering objective information, not defending the way things were done.
There are several areas that managers could gain good information about through exit interviews starting with questions about the employee’s understanding of farm mission, goals and how they contributed to them. What did they believe were their roles and responsibilities? The perception of roles and responsibilities gets to the issue of communication and consistency in management.
Sometimes managers assume that employees know the goals and how their performance relates to those. But assuming that doesn’t make it so.
Find out about the adequacy of employee training and development. Were operations and policies clear to employees? Was adequate training provided and support in place to learn the necessary skills?
Employees who are leaving should be questioned about whether they felt they received feedback about their performance frequently enough and whether or not it was useful feedback. Was the feedback specific enough to allow them to improve performance? Ask your employees. Employees who don’t feel their work is noticed, appreciated or recognized will not be long-term employees.
There are areas of agricultural operations that need to be evaluated and can only be evaluated by asking employees. Did they feel free to make suggestions about improving operations? Were their ideas sought and valued? Was the personal safety of employees a priority? Were the working conditions suitable? Were all employees treated equitably and was compensation fair?
Ask about specific changes that would have improved the work experience in those areas. Finally, ask why the employee is leaving and what key factors resulted in the decision to leave.
The truth is that farm managers can be blind to some things. These blind spots become weaknesses. Employees can help fill in those areas we don’t see well.
Managers often struggle with labor management yet don’t learn from those who could best provide valuable input. Exit interviews don’t take the place of evaluations and getting feedback from employees on a regular basis, but they can provide valuable information through which you can become a better manager.
Think about what you want to know about and start drafting questions. You might try them out on current employees to let them know that you are interested in their opinions. If you have input on this topic, experience to share or questions, please email me at [email protected].
When you ask and listen, you’ll learn. | https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/interviewing_employees_on_the_way_out |
Class Code:
P027C
Job Grade:
GS06
Special Job Requirements:
This position may involve travel to various public relation events
Typical Functions:
Plans and prepares promotional publications by gathering information for releases, selecting articles, format, design, and layout, sending publications to printer, proofreading copy, and arranging for distribution. Coordinates media coverage of events by issuing invitations, entertaining and accommodating media personnel, preparing press guides, and making facility arrangements. Arranges conferences and special events by making facility arrangements, serving as host to visitors, coordinating speakers and agenda, and working with convention personnel. Conducts interviews with individuals to gather information for news articles and stories. Researches past publications and records to obtain pertinent information about subjects of articles and stories. Disseminates news releases to newspapers, radio, and television media. Responds to requests for information by speaking at special events, making public appearances, and providing handouts and brochures. Performs other duties as assigned.
Knowledge, Abilities, and Skills:
Knowledge of language usage for writing and speaking purposes. Knowledge of journalistic writing styles. Knowledge of format, design, and layout for publication purposes. Ability to coordinate conferences, special events, and media coverage. Ability to oversee activities associated with producing publications. Ability to compile and present promotional information through news articles and publications. Ability to speak at public appearances and special events.
Minimum Qualifications:
The formal education equivalent of a bachelor’s degree with a major in communications, journalism, public relations, or related field; plus one year of experience in public relations, communications,or related area. Additional requirements determined by the agency for recruiting purposes require review and approval by the Office of Personnel Management. OTHER JOB RELATED EDUCATION AND/OR EXPERIENCE MAY BE SUBSTITUTED FOR ALL OR PART OF THESE BASIC REQUIREMENTS, EXCEPT FOR CERTIFICATION OR LICENSURE REQUIREMENTS, UPON APPROVAL OF THE QUALIFICATIONS REVIEW COMMITTEE.
Required Certificates:
None
Exempt: | https://www.transform.ar.gov/job_class_codes/public-information-specialist/ |
In this article by Peter Mehta regarding research credit audits, the author shares and concisely presents both the new IRS LBI directives related to Information Document Requests (IDR's) on Large Business and International (LB&I) audits as well as the Appeals Judicial Approach and Culture (AJAC) rules. If you work in this area I think you will find his commentary very useful. I would also like to share some advice I have given to clients regarding both of these processes based on work in this area.
Note that this is the R&E Credit or the Credit for Increasing Research Expenditures and not really the R&D credit. Recently a conversation I had with my client and with an IRS Appeals engineer stressed this point. R&D expenses are code section 174. R&E credit is code section 41. The IRS Appeals engineer took exception with calling the credit the R&D credit. I am offering this for your consideration when discussing this issue with IRS personnel. You are advised to call it the R&E credit or the Credit for Increasing Research Expenditures.
Regarding the IDR process, be proactive. Insist that all initial IDR's (except for the most general such as a request for the general ledger) be considered draft IDR's to be discussed. The IRS directive indicates this too, but I have found several occasions with my clients when this was not the case. R&E credit IDR’s are not basic IDR’s and should be discussed before being issued.
When it comes to research credit, it is complex, it involves good documentation, interviews, and detailed computations. Since the backup material associated with the research credit was usually compiled and completed some time ago, leave yourself time to retrieve and prepare the information requested including interviews of key personnel. Perhaps the request can be broken down into separate IDR's to obtain wages, supplies and contracts as well as with interviews with key personnel. Perhaps it can be broken down into sample units rather than comprehensive documentation. Discuss interests, develop a positive relationship with the auditors to work collaboratively to obtain the information required. Under promise and over deliver. That is, leave yourself time for unexpected difficulties. Since the documents are typically not in the tax department and not under the tax department's control, check out what might be involved with obtaining the information from other parts of the organization. Leave yourself some float. It is better to provide the information on time or early rather than late. With this new IDR process, indicating that the person was out, or an emergency leave took place with a key person may or may not be accepted by the IRS. That has been my experience helping clients through this new process. Many at the IRS now look at the process as simply that, a process, and follow the rules and time frames regardless of extenuating circumstances. Keep that in mind. A summons may be forthcoming that is very comprehensive simply because something unexpected happened with key personnel at the taxpayer location.
Regarding the AJAC rules at Appeals, the Appeals Division is serious. I have assisted several clients in this arena. Regarding research credit, if the auditor did not ask the right questions and correspondingly you did not provide what was really needed, Appeals only works with what was provided. For an auditor than alleges any of the four tests for uncertainty, experimentation, business purpose, and technological in nature were not met, and that the taxpayer simply adapted the product, this is critical. Ensure you offered interviews to key personnel and document this. Indicate why the project was not simply an adaptation. Personnel interviewed should be coached to not only answer the questions, but to ensure they bring up each of these four points clearly and articulately tying their answers to evidence. If the IRS examiner fails to ask the right questions and alleges adaptation, and therefore non-qualification of a project for example, the taxpayer may not have the evidence at Appeals, because it was not provided to the examination team. Clarifying commentary can be offered at Appeals, but no new information may be provided. Also be sure on exam to clearly tie emails, plans, iterative computations, iterative failures, and iterative evidence of experimentation documentation with various projects. If not, Appeals may deem a higher hazard of litigation on the taxpayer, because this was not clearly presented to the examination team. A higher hazard of litigation for the taxpayer means less sustention of your issue at Appeals. For this reason be sure and both present and articulate this completely during the examination process.
I feel the article by Peter Mehta is right on point, but I wanted to share some personal experiences with you as well based on my experiences with helping clients as a disclosure witness. The IRS has a job to do. I have a tremendous amount of respect for the IRS. I want to see the IRS do the right thing. Sometimes processes can keep the IRS from doing the right thing. Be forewarned and take appropriate steps to ensure you make use of all of your rights during the process. | https://mikegreg.com/blog/ramifications-irs-policy-changes-rd-tax-credits |
Crack the IBPS PO interview! What questions to expect and how to answer them
IBPS PO Interview: The Institute of Banking Personnel Selection (IBPS) conducts Common Written Examination and Common Interviews for the recruitment of probable candidates for IBPS PO /IBPS MT in Public Sector Banks (PSBs) every year. The IBPS PO – VI common interviews are expected to start from February 2017.
IBPS calls candidates in a ratio of 3:1 for each post in IBPS PO, which means that there will be three candidates interviewed for each vacant post. So, in-order to crack the IBPS PO exam, you need to score very well in your interview. Here is what you need to know in-order to plan and implement your strategy to crack the IBPS PO interview 2016
- Panel of Interviewers:
- Your interview will be conducted by a panel comprising 5-6 IBPS officials.
- The panel will consist of a main interviewer, who will ask questions based on your personality and aspirations. She/he will be the judge of your personality.
- One of the panel members with technical expertise will ask questions about banking and your decision to pursue a career in this field.
- Another member will analyse your profile/CV and ask questions based on facts mentioned in the same.
The questions asked in the interview can be grouped into some of the following major categories:
- Personal Questions
- Questions based on your hobbies, interests & activities.
- Family background
- Strengths & weaknesses
- Profile-based Questions
- Questions based on your academic background and qualifications, job role and work experience
- Basic definitions & concepts related to your field of education
- Recent developments related to your field of your education/job
- 3. Personality Test & Decision-making Questions
- Questions to check your EQ & IQ
- Situation & behavior-based questions to assess your managerial skills and decision-making ability.
- 4. Questions based on Banking Awareness, Current Affairs and Computer Awareness.
- Questions like “Why do you want to join the Banking Sector?” or “Why do you want a government job?” may also be asked.
IBPS PO Interview Preparation:
- Firstly, list out all the possible questions that can be asked based on the major categories we have enumerated above.
- Prepare standard and comprehensive answers to each of the questions.
- Then, critically analyse these answers and note down questions that may arise from the answers. Prepare answers for these questions also. You can take help from your friends, parents or seniors for this exercise.
- Also, try to modify your original answers to eliminate inaccuracies.
- Make a flow chart of all the questions & sub-questions in-order to clearly understand the direction of the interview. A flow chart will also help to cover all the areas that you may have missed.
- Before appearing for the real interview, practice by giving mock interviews to your friends or parents. It will help you analyse your performance and boost your confidence.
Link for the Most expected questions and their answers for IBPS PO Interview 2017
About IBPS: Synonymous to Banking recruitments, IBPS is a private agency in India. Established in 1975 as Personnel Selection Services, IBPS gained its autonomy in 1984. Gaining its prominence after a key event in the Indian Banking Sector (Nationalisation of 14 Major Banks in 1969), IBPS was entrusted to fulfill the human resource demand for the newly established branches of various Banks.
In 2015-16, a total of 1.27 crore candidates registered for various IBPS examinations. IBPS conducts recruitment exams to all Public Sector Banks, Associate Banks of SBI, LIC, RBI, NABARD, SIDBI and Insurance companies.
The Common Written Evaluation (CWE) conducted by IBPS is a must for anyone who wants to take up a job in any public sector and Regional Rural Banks for posts varying from clerk to probationary officer and management trainee. | https://www.pagalguy.com/articles/crack-the-ibps-po-interview-what-questions-to-expect-and-how-to-answer-them-1476 |
- Additional requirements:
- Identifying key stakeholders and developing processes as well as relationships to influence and embed security requirements into IT, Networks and the Business.
- Understand and research the cyber threat landscape, trends, regulatory requirements and new technologies and document as is required.
- Apply best practices in order to provide practical security guidance to stakeholders in the market and ensure it is sensible and pragmatic as well as fit for purpose.
- Consulting and engagement with BU’s around the Security by Design with Privacy and Assurance (SPDA) for new and older systems. Ensuring that appropriate risk assessments and penetration tests are conducted and documented.
- Services expected to be delivered include conducting vendor and third-party cyber security assessments, coordinating penetration tests and vulnerability scanning of assets associated to BU and projects or programmes.
- Providing insights into group and global cyber security solutions meeting local requirements from a functionality, capability and cost perspective.
- Reporting on Security Targets for the BU portfolio and back to stakeholders.
- Ensuring all Group and local cyber initiatives and programmes are securely implemented within policy and any risks identified are actively managed.
- Actively engaging on the AHRP programme (privacy) and ensuring that BU specific remediation plans are adhered to and reported upon.
- Ensure that AHRP controls evidence is appropriately documented, evaluated, scored and validated.
–
1 x Information Security Consultant:
- Banking experience
- ISO27001 auditor/lead implementor certification
- Willing to travel into Africa one a month
- Additional requirements: | https://za.jobs-vacancies.net/job/information-security-consultants-jobs/ |
In the life of a CA, audits play a vital role in assessing the impact of a program or an organization. Fundamentally, an audit reveals the strengths and weaknesses that can be analysed to produce a favourable outcome.
In this post, we’re going to cover the 5 expert steps to conducting an audit. Whether internal or external auditing, you can follow these 5 steps to get the best results. But first, let’s dive into what auditors do.
What do auditors do?
An auditor is a professional who prepares and examines business operations with accurate data to support expected standards. The set standards may be determined by the audited company, or by the governmental or regulatory organizations. An audit is integral to compliance management and the CA practice itself.
While there are many different types of audits, for various purposes, the agenda is to gain a clear view of an organization or its operations with an action plan to generate good results. An audit can help identify key driving factors of an operation and potential risks or losses that may affect the organization. To understand more about the audit process, we can turn to how professionals perform an audit.
Let’s jump into the 5 best practices of the audit process. Regardless of the audit, the fundamental structure applies to all forms of an audit process.
A risk assessment can help develop an audit plan. At the initial stage, auditors consider all relevant business documents, like previous year’s financial records, CSR charts, third-party investments, employee registers, etc., to consolidate a solid plan for an improved business outcome. The process of selection gives an auditor clear results to focus on, while developing an audit for an organization or any of its operations.
In the planning stage, auditors gather background information about the company and its activities. The client is directly in touch with the auditor to provide a clear view of the business. The objectives of the audit are discussed and determined, including parameters like the report distribution and fieldwork timings. During the planning phase, multiple meetings may be conducted to clearly define the objectives of a company that sets a standard for the audit process. This may include the expectations from staff members, the revenue targets, supply chain performance, logistics data and so on.
Once the auditor has the relevant data about an organization or its operations, the fieldwork begins. Fieldwork is executed by the internal audit staff and can include multiple interviews with relevant stakeholders or employees from an organization. By obtaining regular status updates, the available data can be consolidated into an action plan. This process of execution maintains clear communication with the client and thus gives an added weightage to the audit process. Potential findings, audit observations, recommendations are clearly defined and discussed with the client organization. Thus, execution is the plan in action.
The audit findings, specific recommendations, conclusions are all summarized and put together into a consolidated report. The goal of reporting is to keep track of the audit process in real-time. With data driven insights, the auditor can assess the functional and practical aspects of the organization’s activities. The report is submitted to the client as a draft, which gives the client an opportunity to analyse the results of an audit. It is only after a report is generated that a refined action plan can be formulated.
The client’s response to the suggested action plan is vital to establishing the effectiveness of the audit findings. After all, the action plan is substantiated with data about the organization and its activities to arrive at a beneficiary conclusion. The finalized findings and action plans comprise a final report for the organization to implement.
Following up after the audit is conducted is vital to the relationship with a client. The succeeding audit can be a follow up on the previous audit. Following up on external audits through a voluntary internal audit provides a complete view of the organizational plan in action. The best practice is to support the findings of an external audit by conducting an internal audit within the client company. This is just to assure that your strategic insights were implemented correctly. The follow up is recommended to be conducted at least one year from issuing the first audit report.
Leveraging task management software for efficiency
Whether for internal or external audits, more professionals are leveraging technology for the best results. Following each step correctly is not enough, unless there’s a standardized and rational methodology to carry out the audit process, by saving time, energy and resources.
The use of a task management software can help auditors examine and compile client documentation easily. As an added advantage, an in-built revenue management system will help them account for every task performed in relation to an audit process. A dedicated client management platform will boost efficiency of the CA client relations. There are plenty of innovative features that Unpaper provides CA’s and auditors, which can enable ease and efficiency.
Since the audit process involves large sums of documentation, a streamlined office management software for CA’s can be very useful. Unpaper is a full-fledged CA practice management software with inbuilt controls to manage compliance, filing, client records, branch management and tasks. So how does this help an audit process?
Benefits of an innovative software or auditing
As part of our commitment to the CA practice, we have compiled some useful pointers about the importance of following a standardized and well-documented audit process. Using a powerful task management software like Unpaper will not only boost efficiency of the audit process, but transform the CA practice with a collaborative and effective workflow mechanism.
Here’s how!
Essentially, a structured audit process can safeguard against errors, bringing out the many advantages of task management software for improved operations. A minor error could cost valuable time and resources; thus positioning Unpaper as the best software for Chartered Accountants with user-friendly and valuable features.
Unpaper was built to make the life of auditors and CA practitioners easy and error-free. If you found these tips useful, check out the many advantages of a refined practice management software for your CA operations and explore the pricing options here.
Powerful work management tool.
Get in touch with us to get exclusive offers. | https://unpaper.com/blog/5-expert-steps-to-get-your-audit-process-right/ |
Manager of Audit IIJob ID RISK-11781 City Los Angeles State California Exempt/Non Exempt Exempt Shift Day Work Schedule M-F, 8-5
The Risk Management Audit Manager II position is a leadership role as an auditor-in-charge to guide a team of auditors to assess risks, develop detail audit programs, identify data analytic opportunities, execute audit programs, analyze results of testing performed, and effectively communicate audit results to Sr. Audit Manager and senior management in a form of meetings, presentation, and written reports and memorandums. The position reports to the Sr. Audit Director and works closely with Senior Manager who oversees the entire Second Line of Defense Risk Management function of the Bank. Additionally, the position provides a guidance for continuous monitoring program and execution based on industry/institutional knowledge, emerging risks, and regulatory changes and expectations. Key areas of focus and involvement include:
- Enterprise Risk Management
- Credit Risk Management
- Compliance Management
Thrives in a dynamic team-based environment, effectively manages ambiguity, works independently, innovative thinking with data analytics and artificial intelligence, and demonstrates critical problem-solving leadership.
Responsibilities:
- Plans, executes and evaluates audit test plans within a risk based audit methodology.
- Manages staff assigned to the engagement and reviews audit work for sufficient scope, testing, and for accuracy.
- Assesses risks and controls, designs comprehensive audit programs, executes audit procedures, supervises and reviews the work of others, analyzes and synthesizes results of testing performed, effectively communicates results to senior management to affect change, and delivers well written audit reports and other forms of communication.
- Collaborates with other audit groups to effectively plan, integrate and execute audits.
- Utilizes analytical, auditing and automation skill to complete assigned responsibilities. Partners with the Internal Audit Technology and Data Analytics team to gain insights from use of data analytics.
- Understands general IT risks in order to identify key risks and controls in the business process or activity being audited.
- Assess information security and privacy policies and procedures to identify weaknesses within the business process or activity being audited.
- Leads and performs continuous monitoring activities periodically for the area assigned.
- Ability to manage multiple audit assignments and work in a dynamically changing environment.
- Complies fully with all Bank policies, procedures, audit methodologies, training and regulatory requirements.
- Supports the Senior Manager proactively in their ongoing monitoring and discussions with business management.
- Continuously builds trusting relationships with Internal Audit peers and business management.
- Challenges others' thinking or approaches in a constructive manner.
- Advises stakeholders on internal controls and governance, during audit fieldwork and reporting and conduct proactive and ongoing risk management discussions with business leaders.
- Ability to influence key stakeholders to gain buy-in, overcome challenges and deliver on high priority initiatives and draw conclusions or make recommendations based on audit evidence that may involve significant risk or ambiguity.
- Acts as a role model/mentor to lower level Auditors
- Enhances and maintains morale of the audit staff
- Performs on-the-job training of staff auditors, and prepares and conducts formal/informal training for less experienced staff members.
- May participate with interviews and evaluations of new applicants.
Basic qualifications:
- Bachelor's degree.
- Minimum 5 to 7 of relevant experience with some audit exposure.
- Minumum 3 years' experience conducting internal audits within financial institutions and supervising staff.
- Certification in at least one or more of the following:
- Certified Public Accountant (CPA)
- Certified Internal Auditor (CIA)
- Certified Regulatory Compliance Manager (CRCM)
- Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA)
- Chartered Financial Analyst (CFA)
- Certified Anti-Money Laundering Specialist (CAMS)
- Certified Fraud Examiner (CFE)
Skills and Knowledge:
- Strong verbal and written communication skills, to effectively present to peers and business management.
- Ability to exhibit the leadership skills needed to convey ideas and obtain management buy-in for constructive change.
- Strong understanding of internal auditing standards, COSO and risk assessment practices.
- Strong understanding of internal control concepts and experience in applying them to plan, perform, and report on the evaluation of various business processes/areas/functions.
- Strong working knowledge of banking industry laws and regulations.
- Experience in performing multiple projects and working with varying team members.
- Ability to apply agile methodology and best practices to audit engagements.
- Ability to work independently.
Disclaimer
This preceding job description has been designed to indicate the general nature and level of work performed by employees within this classification. It is not designed to contain or be interpreted as a comprehensive inventory of all duties, responsibilities, and qualifications required of employees assigned to this job. | https://careers.cnb.com/job/los-angeles/manager-of-audit-ii/1557/14939751 |
The Department of Audits and Accounts is required to provide the Legislature with financial information regarding retirement legislation and other bills that are under consideration by the General Assembly. Legislative services fall under two categories: services related to retirement legislation and fiscal notes.
|Office of the Inspector General - independent state agency with responsibility to uncover fraud, waste, abuse and corruption in the executive branch of state government. The OIG investigates complaints regarding management and operation of state agencies within the executive branch to determine if wrongful acts or omissions have been, or are being committed by state officers or employees. Reports of investigation are provided to the Governor and the department head of the agency/person under investigation.|
|Kentucky||Auditor of Public Accounts, Office of Technology and Special Audits - Performance and Examination Audits Branch of this office conducts performance audits of state programs to determine the effectiveness and efficiency of state programs and examinations to identify fraud, waste, or abuse of public funds. Examinations may be requested by the Auditor of Public Accounts, legislature, governor, constitutional officers or the public.||Office of Inspector General (OIG) - responsible for conducting administrative and criminal investigations involving the Labor, Public Protection, and Energy and Environment cabinets, including violations of environmental laws and other violations of state statutes and cabinet policies. The office also provides quality audit services in an objective manner to ensure the cabinets' operational integrity, accountability, efficiency, and effectiveness and to determine whether they are in compliance with the laws and regulations of the Commonwealth. The OIG strives to prevent, identify and eliminate fraud, waste, abuse and mismanagement.|
|Louisiana||Office of State Inspector General - independent office within the Office of the Governor. The office is a law enforcement agency with all the investigative powers and privileges appurtenant to law enforcement.||Louisiana Legislative Auditor - carries out performance audits designed to address specific objectives regarding economy, efficiency, and effectiveness of programs, functions, and activities of state agencies. Provides the legislature with evaluation and audit of the functions and activities of the agencies of state governments, and directs the office to conduct at least one performance audit of each of the 20 executive branch departments over a seven-year period. It is also possible for the office to bring audit topics to the Legislative Audit Advisory Council for approval. In addition, the Legislature may request that the office conduct a performance audit on a particular agency or in response to a particular issue or problem.|
|Mississippi||Office of the State Auditor - performs specific duties and powers related to prescribing systems of accounting, budgeting, and financial reporting for public offices in Mississippi. Also has further responsibilities including study and analysis of existing public managerial policies and practices; pre-audit and post-audit functions; investigation of suspected fiscal violations; recovering misspent and stolen funds; and a variety of related duties and responsibilities.||Joint Committee on Performance Evaluation and Expenditure Review - analyzes state agency programs and operations and helps the Legislature make state government more effective, efficient and accountable. The forms which PEER analyses take include: performance evaluations, investigations, and expenditure reviews. The PEER Committee is comprised of seven members of the Senate and seven members of the House of Representatives and employs a staff of twenty-one.|
|Missouri||State Auditor - works to ensure the proper use of public funds and to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of Missouri government by performing audits of state agencies, boards and commissions, the circuit court system, the counties in Missouri that do not have a county auditor, and other political subdivisions upon petition by the voters. These audits examine financial accountability, waste, opportunities for fraud, and whether government organizations and programs are achieving their purposes and operating economically and efficiently.||Joint Committee on Legislative Research, Oversight Division - investigates and assesses state agency performance in the implementation of laws and report the findings to the Legislature. The Oversight Division conducts its work in an independent manner utilizing trained professional staff. An evaluation generally includes examination of state agency records, interviews of agency staff, surveys of affected citizens, on-site observation of program operations and review of similar programs in other states. The objectives of the evaluation usually include determining efficiency, effectiveness and quality of the program. The Division is assigned evaluations pursuant to a concurrent resolution of the General Assembly or a resolution adopted by the Committee on Legislative Research.|
|North Carolina||Office of the State Auditor - serves as the watchdog for State government by providing citizens, legislators, and government officials with professional, independent evaluations of the State's financial records and public program performance. The State Auditor also assesses the security and integrity of the State's information technology systems, as well as providing monitoring and technical assistance for private non-profit recipients of State grant funds.||Office of State Budget and Managament - responsible for coordinating statewide performance initiatives by focusing on services and results, promoting improved performance in agency management, and facilitating executive oversight of agency performance and management. These efforts ensure that agencies are adequately preparing for the future, decision makers are provided with detailed information in order to assess agency management, and citizens are informed about state government work and subsequent results. The overarching goal is to improve state government performance and management.||Program Evaluation Division - assists the General Assembly in fulfilling its responsibility to oversee government functions. The mission of the Program Evaluation Division is to evaluate whether public services are delivered in an effective and efficient manner and in accordance with the law. |
The Joint Legislative Program Evaluation Oversight Committee, in consultation with the Division Director, determines evaluation topics and establishes the work plan of the Division. Evaluations examine what state agency programs are really doing, at what cost, and to what effect if any. The Division recommends policy options for consideration by the General Assembly for programs that are determined ineffective or no longer necessary. The Division follows up to determine if recommendations have been implemented by agencies or if further action is needed by the General Assembly.
|Oklahoma||Office of State Auditor and Inspector - establishes accounting procedures, and forms, and provides assistance to counties and other forms of local government. The State Auditor and Inspector also performs special investigative audits upon request by certain state officials and upon petition by citizens.|
|South Carolina||State Auditor's Office - serves as a deterrent to fiscal mismanagement, fraud, and misuse of assets by state agencies and providers of Medicaid services and provides audit coverage of those entities as required by law or regulation. The State Auditor's Office performs the audit of the State's General Purpose Financial Statements, and the Single Audit of the State's Schedule of Expenditures of Federal Awards.||Office of Inspector General (OIG) - established for the purpose of detecting, exposing and preventing fraud, waste, abuse, mismanagement and misconduct in all of the executive agencies. The OIG is dedicated to strengthening the trust between the citizens of South Carolina and their public officials and employees.||Legislative Audit Council - conducts independent, objective performance audits of state agencies and programs, as requested by the General Assembly and mandated by law. The purpose of this oversight role is to provide information which will assist the General Assembly and the public in determining whether state agencies are efficiently, effectively, and lawfully managing public resources, and whether agency programs are meeting their intended objectives.|
|Tennessee||Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury, Division of State Audit - comprises three divisions ‐ State Audit, Local Government Audit, and Municipal Audit, and employs approximately 300 people. Each division is administered by a director. The three directors are responsible for coordinating the audit function within the department and for addressing concerns and issues in auditing and financial reporting. |
The Department of Audit is a post-audit agency. The basic purpose of post-audits is to identify and report past errors and recommend future improvements. Pre-audits, in contrast to post-audits, are performed within an entity by its own employees to prevent errors, detect problems, and suggest improvements. The most important distinction between pre-audits and post-audits is that post-audits are organizationally independent of the audited entity. In this respect, a post-audit agency in government is comparable to an independent public accounting firm in the private or business sector.
The Department of Audit is in the legislative branch of state government. The department is accountable to the General Assembly and provides information to assist the legislature in overseeing the use of public funds and the efficient operation of government.
|Texas||State Auditor's Office (SAO) - examines the accuracy of reported performance measures and determines the related internal controls. The SAO assesses the accuracy of reported performance measures so that the Governor and the Legislature can determine to what extent they can rely on the reported performance measures when making decisions or evaluating state agencies. The SAO also verifies that the performance measures are produced by management systems that have adequate internal controls.||The Legislative Budget Board (LBB) and the Governor's Office of Budget, Planning, and Policy (GOBPP) jointly approve performance measures and definitions; however, it is the expectation of the Governor and the Legislature that agency management is meaningfully involved in developing, monitoring, and using performance measures. |
Agencies establish performance projections as part of their biennial appropriations requests. The LBB and GOBPP use performance measures when making funding recommendations to the Legislature and Governor. The Legislature determines which key measures and what performance targets will be included in the general appropriations bill. | https://www.slcatlanta.org/research/index.php?pub=471 |
Every year on Sept. 30, the United Nations observes “International Translation Day” in recognition of language careers. This date is the Catholic feast honoring St. Jerome, an Italian priest who translated books of the Bible from Greek and Hebrew into Latin during the fourth century. Today, St. Jerome is the patron saint of the Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center (DLIFLC) and military linguists.
Linguists – although often invisible – are responsible for many of the resources that make living overseas more comprehensible and convenient onboard Naval Support Activity (NSA) Naples. Sailors, civilian employees and family members within the NSA Naples community take classes and converse with locals to learn Italian, but it takes years of studying and practice to even broach fluency. Navigating daily life in one’s non-native language is often challenging. Significant tasks, such as preparing housing contracts or dealing with a traffic accident, may be too difficult for novices. Thankfully, that is where the experts come in: professional translators and interpreters. Translators work with the written word, and interpreters with the spoken.
Onboard NSA Naples, Italian employees translate and interpret in a variety of settings. Interpreters assigned to the NSA Naples local dispatch center connect Americans with Italian first responders and facilitate communication between the parties in emergency situations. Translators throughout NSA Naples and its tenant commands support regular contact between military personnel and host nation authorities, analyze and explain Italian laws and protocols, and share significant base-centric announcements with area news outlets.
Teresa Merola, NSA Naples community relations specialist, studied languages – English and Spanish – and modern literature at L'Università IULM in Milan. As a liaison between the NSA Naples public affairs office and the Neapolitan community, she often translates installation information and press releases to disseminate to the local media.
“My translation work is very diverse. Recently, I translated the poem ‘Olde Glory’ from English into Italian for the change of command last month. It was particularly challenging because the American flag was personified, and I had to reverablize that in a creative way,” said Merola. “On the other hand, a few years ago, I translated a lengthy operational guide publication that was very technical. It was full of ‘military speak,’ and referenced specific organizations and strategies that are unique to the U.S. Navy. This kind of translation requires a lot of precision, preparation and research.”
In addition to local national employees onboard NSA Naples, Sailors throughout the Navy work as translators and interpreters behind the scenes and on the frontlines to ensure readiness, meet the mission, and carry out operations in foreign language areas and with non-English speakers.
One of these naval linguists is Chief Mass Communication Specialist John Hageman, assigned to Navy Public Affairs Support Element East Detachment Europe, Naples, Italy. Hageman grew up in Switzerland and France, and for a part of his life, French was his primary language. He has an associate degree in Mandarin and studied at DLIFLC. Since he is bilingual and learned in a third language, he previously served as a lithographer on USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN 71) and a cryptology technician (interpretive) (CTI) at National Security Agency/Central Security Service Hawaii, respectively.
“Originally I was used as the ship’s interpreter while in French speaking areas. I would translate pamphlets and such prior to arriving. Then, I would interpret for meetings, receptions and speeches,” said Hageman. “Once a CTI, I specialized in the analysis of foreign language materials and the preparation of statistical studies and technical reports. I translated, interpreted and transcribed foreign language communications data, analyzed and reported highly technical information of strategic and tactical importance to fleet commanders and national intelligence agencies.”
The work Hageman did and other military linguists do every day is no small feat: taking a word and rendering it into a different language is not straightforward. In Italian, the saying “traduttore, traditore,” or “translator, traitor,” suggests the idea that exact equivalents do not exist between languages. Cultural nuances, historical connotations and subtext are intricate parts of communication that create an inherent divide between what an author, or speaker, intends the meaning to be and how it is expressed in another tongue.
“There are a few rather challenging aspects to interpreting. Since it is real time, you must be able to convey not only the actual translation, but also the proper cultural context. What might makes sense in one language, might not make any sense in the other,” said Hageman. “For example, the French saying ‘chercher la petite bête’ directly translated is ‘to look for the little beast,’ but what that means is ‘to find something to complain about.’”
Translators and interpreters are intermediaries, both in formal and informal contexts, and they engage with texts and conversations across various fields of knowledge. They may encounter specialized terminology that is unfamiliar even in their native languages, as well as slang words or idiomatic phrases used only in specific areas by particular groups.
“Most interpreters have a very large vocabulary in both languages, but there will be times where a speaker uses a word that you might be unfamiliar with,” said Hageman. “Especially when it comes to technical terms or some local colloquial sayings.”
Hageman noted that although at times complex, he found his work rewarding, especially when it directly impacted naval success.
“When you are able to use your skills to get the missions done, you really get that sense of achievement,” he said. “You know that you are an incredibly valued member of the team, and they couldn’t do what they needed to without you.”
Multicultural and multilingual communications are vital in today’s military global operations. Thanks to the Sailors who provide high-quality translation, interpretation and language-related support to the fleet and personnel – along with the service of local national employees onboard NSA Naples and installations worldwide – the Navy is able to accomplish quotidian tasks and mission success across ships, across seas and across languages.
NSA Naples is an operational ashore base that enables U.S., allied, and partner nation forces to be where they are needed, when they are needed to ensure security and stability in Europe, Africa, and Southwest Asia.
For more news about NSA Naples and the Sailors who serve onboard the installation, please follow us on Instagram @NSANaples and Facebook at facebook.com/NSANaples.
|Date Taken:||09.16.2020|
|Date Posted:||10.08.2020 09:30|
|Story ID:||380536|
|Location:||NAPLES, IT|
|Podcast Hits:||0|
This work, Military Linguists Appreciation for International Translation Day, must comply with the restrictions shown on https://www.dvidshub.net/about/copyright. | https://www.dvidshub.net/news/380536/military-linguists-appreciation-international-translation-day |
The translation profession: translators, interpreters and beyond
Large-scale reports on the translation industry estimate that there are around 250,000 people working in the global translation industry, including 110,000 in Europe. Some sources also suggest that there may be over 300,000 human translators (& interpreters) worldwide (EUATC, 2005), but the actual number may be even greater.
One of the factors that makes it difficult to have a clear picture of the translation industry is the relative flexibility of the professional status of the translator. Unlike lawyers and doctors, translators and interpreters do not legally require formal qualifications to practice. This means that, at least theoretically, anyone could call themselves a translator or interpreter. However, the majority of countries have strong professional associations for translators and interpreters, which help to guarantee quality, professional standards of competence and conduct and reliability of service.
Professional translators are expected to be able to translate from one or two foreign languages into their native language. Translators also have different areas of specialisation (e.g. literature, science and technology, law, medicine). The more a translator knows about a subject, the easier it will be to render texts accurately and quickly and spot errors. Being an expert in law doesn’t make one an expert in medicine!
Alongside translators, the language profession employs a number of other figures who help systematise the process of translation (or translation workflow) for large organisations. Among these, we find: localisers, who specialise in the translation of software/video games/websites; specialists who research texts and systematise terminology (terminologists, phraseologists); those who look after texts after they have been translated and perform quality controls (post-editors, proofreaders, revisers, Quality Assurance Specialists); and those who provide technical support (linguistic engineers, technical writers).
One of the first questions clients ask translators is what combination of working languages they work between and in which direction. Generally, in the industry, translation languages are classified as:
- Language A: Native language/mother tongue
- Language B: First foreign language or “active foreign language” because the translator can read, understand and speak it almost like a native
- Language C: Second foreign language or “passive foreign language” because the translator can read and understand it almost like a native but not speak it so well
Language combinations work slightly differently for interpreters, who usually have native or near-native competence in two or more languages and interpret in both directions. | https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/working-with-translation/2/steps/157987 |
In the globalized world, competent translators are needed in almost every sector including media, education, business, logistics, tourism, publishing, law, et cetera. Particularly, in the Turkish import-export companies, the demand for competent interpreters with a high command of English has mounted in the recent years.
Being aware of global market demands and developing sectors in Turkey that meet international demands, Istanbul Aydın University started the Translation and Interpreting undergraduate program in English in 2012 with the intent of giving a four-year license education. Our professional curriculum prepares students to be experts in the areas of translation and interpretation. As we consider the specific needs of the developing markets, we understand the importance of expertise in our age and train our students as interpreters who are experts in their subjects. We encourage students to become familiar with computer-assisted translation tools, so that they are able to take advantage of technological advances in the translation field.
In our department, the courses are intended to raise the English level of our students, deepen their awareness of the nuances of language as well as social, cultural, historical, linguistic specificities. Our students have access to internships and professional opportunities at companies and organizations. They are also given projects that can ease their preparation for an interpreting assignment, while the spontaneity necessary for interpretation can increase their speed of completing translation assignments. Our program is, therefore, proud of teaching students the skills that will help them get ahead in today's competitive job market. | https://studylink.com/institutions/istanbul-aydin-university/courses/cid-si-153169 |
Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, or national origin in any program or activity that receives Federal funds or other Federal financial assistance. This includes language access.
The National Standards for Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services in Health and Health Care (The National CLAS Standards) say:
Principal Standard
1) Provide effective, equitable, understandable and respectful quality care and services that are responsive to diverse cultural health beliefs and practices, preferred languages, health literacy and other communication needs.
Communication and Language Assistance
5) Offer language assistance to individuals who have limited English proficiency and/or other communication needs, at no cost to them, to facilitate timely access to all health care and services.
6) Inform all individuals of the availability of language assistance services clearly and in their preferred language, verbally and in writing.
7) Ensure the competence of individuals providing language assistance, recognizing that the use of untrained individuals and/or minors as interpreters should be avoided.
8) Provide easy-to-understand print and multimedia materials and signage in the languages commonly used by the populations in the service area.
This link provides guidance material regarding Limited English Proficiency. Its purpose is to clarify to members of the public, and to providers of health and social services who receive Federal financial assistance from HHS, the responsibility of such providers to Limited English Proficient (LEP) persons, pursuant to Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
The U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division has prepared this Language Access Assessment and Planning Tool for Federally Conducted and Federally Assisted Programs. In other words, it is a tool for programs that benefit from the use of federal funds. It has a useful checklist for planning.
There is much more information, constantly updated, on www.lep.gov
Reporting complaints:
The Oregon Health Authority has a link for reporting Civil Rights complaints. These complaints cover Discrimination and ADA complaints.
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has a link for reporting complaints about civil rights violations, including language access.
Complaints can be filed anonymously, and in foreign languages. That means that the reporting party has significant options: to be totally anonymous (not state their name at all, which makes it difficult to investigate the claim) or to state their name, but request that their name not be revealed to the organization being investigation. This request is always honored.
Investigations often result in voluntary compliance, not always in a need for enforcement.
Complaints can also be filed on behalf of another party, not just by the affected party, though it is more effective when the affected party can be interviewed.
Role of interpreters:
The role of interpreters in an interaction is simply to interpret neutrally, as it always has been! Possibly, a good venue for this topic would be at a community center, in sessions dedicated to cultural adjustments to the United States, or in other settings where people are made aware of their rights. As translators and interpreters, our role is simply to convey the message we are there to convey accurately and completely, neutrally, in a culturally appropriate manner, without taking sides. We are not investigators. We are interpreters.
Advocacy tenet from the National Council on Interpreting in Healthcare:
When the patient’s health, well-being, or dignity is at risk, the interpreter may be justified in acting as an advocate. Advocacy is understood as an action taken on behalf of an individual that goes beyond facilitating communication, with the intention of supporting good health outcomes. Advocacy must only be undertaken after careful and thoughtful analysis of the situation and if other less intrusive actions have not resolved the problem.
You can also report a safety complaint to the Joint Commission through this link.
In Washington State, only certified and registered interpreters can interpret through the union contract. This report details the complaints received. When working with truly qualified interpreters who have all been tested on their interpreting skills, the quality of service is reliably good. | https://www.gauchatranslations.com/language-access-and-civil-rights/ |
I went into my master’s program at Spain’s Universidad de Alcalá convinced I wanted to be an interpreter. A year later I was a passionate translator. Sitting on the edge of my seat in a conference booth interpreting for a Finnish researcher; sandwiched next to an African immigrant across from a Spanish social worker; carefully situated between a Spanish therapist and her American patient—all of these experiences were exhilarating. It’s just that somehow I took much greater pleasure in searching tediously for parallel texts as I translated a 50,000-word European Union bill.
The two internships I did as part of the master’s program couldn’t have been more different: half of my time was spent interpreting for a drug and alcohol abuse program through Madrid’s public health department, and the other half was spent working alongside two classmates to translate a lengthy bill for the Spanish Ministry of Justice on the exchange of criminal background data among EU member states.
Interpreting, though thrilling, made me nervous, while translating made me feel absolutely exuberant. One thing that good translators and good interpreters have in common is that both are perfectionists. I too am a perfectionist—for better or for worse. But studying translation and interpreting at the same time made me realize that I am the kind of perfectionist who cannot live with providing perfection on the spot. I’d much rather take my time finding the perfect solution—and that’s how I came to be a translator.
I began the Master’s in Intercultural Communication and Public Service Interpreting and Translation at Universidad de Alcalá (UAH) in 2013. The university, one of the oldest in Europe, is located in Alcalá de Henares, a small city in the autonomous community of Madrid. Among its claims to fame, Alcalá is the birthplace of Miguel de Cervantes and the location where the first polyglot Bible was printed.
The university has offered a master’s in translation and interpreting (T&I) since 2006, and the program has belonged to the prestigious European Master’s in Translation network (EMT) since 2009. The EMT vets universities based on certain standards for translator education, with the aim of improving the quality of the incoming workforce.
The master’s at UAH is geared towards students with undergraduate degrees in T&I or those who are already working as translators or interpreters, though these are not strict requirements for admission (proof of language command is!). Some of my classmates were already sworn translators or practicing interpreters, while others were medical professionals or paralegals. One was even a teacher who won a popular game show on Spanish TV and decided to spend the prize money on taking his career in a new direction. I myself had been working in education and public services (at a library in the US and later as a cultural ambassador for the Spanish Ministry of Education in Madrid) for three years leading up to my discovery of the field of translation and interpreting.
In line with the program’s goal of improving the skills of existing translators and interpreters, the curriculum is more practical than theoretical. The first half of the program consisted mostly of interpreting role plays and independent translation assignments that we reviewed together in class. Our instructors were all talented translators and interpreters whose engagement in the profession allowed them to offer us relevant insights and anecdotes, giving us a taste of the world outside the classroom.
The program is organized in cohorts based on language pair, with a considerable offering (all in combination with Spanish):
- Arabic
- Bulgarian
- Chinese
- English
- French
- German
- Polish
- Portuguese
- Romanian
- Russian
Students with opposite A and B languages are placed together in each cohort (for example, there were native Spanish speakers as well as Americans and Brits in my cohort), and all students practice bidirectional translation. In my case, this meant translating not only from Spanish to my native English but also from English to Spanish. Translating in both directions allows students to offer better feedback and to benefit from one another’s strengths. I found that translating into Spanish improved my Spanish writing skills and also deepened my knowledge of equivalent terms and concepts in both languages and cultures.
Some other noteworthy aspects of the program are:
- An equal focus on translation and interpreting (T&I)
- Separate units concentrating on the medical and legal-administrative settings, including classes on comparative law
- Technology and research tool classes (CAT tools, corpora tools, glossaries and termbases)
- Hands-on internships
- A biennial conference on public service T&I with presentations by renowned researchers
- A master’s thesis on a topic of the student’s choice
- Visiting instructors, researchers, and trainers from other institutions: our class was lucky to host Marjory Bancroft of Cross-Cultural Communications, who gave a workshop on interpreting for trauma survivors, as well as Maribel del Pozo Triviño from Universidad de Vigo, who led sessions on interpreting for the police
- Unique opportunities to collaborate with other university departments: we had the chance to interpret for a mock trial involving DNA evidence alongside law students
- Optional intensive training in conference interpreting and the opportunity to interpret for the program’s biennial conference
And I could go on! But at the end of the day, one of the greatest values of the program was being humbled by my fellow students, many of whom have gone from classmates to lifelong colleagues and friends. I still collaborate with some of them on projects now that we are “real-life” translators and interpreters, even though we’re scattered across the globe!
If you live in or near Spain or have the ability to travel, I recommend checking out the university’s conference on public service T&I in early March 2017: 6th International Conference on Public Service Interpreting and Translating. The university is also hosting the 8th International Conference of the Iberian Association of Translation and Interpreting (AIETI8) that same week. | https://atasavvynewcomer.org/2017/02/07/universidad-de-alcala/ |
In our recent posts and articles, we have been providing some useful information tidbits tackling several topics concerning translation and interpreting, proofreading, cross-cultural coaching and much more. In this article, we will share some useful tips that will help prospective linguists improve their chances of getting their introductory email messages and CVs noticed and facilitate successful entry into the professions of translation and interpreting. Let us take a look at what agencies, employers, talent and project managers have observed over the years as it relates to incoming applications. We will also share some insights into what they look for and advise:
1) When offering your services as a translator or interpreter, you should research the company to which you are applying. Familiarise yourself with the company's background, objectives, requirements, languages, legal and payment terms and their reputation in the industry. In your cover letter, mention why you are a good fit for the specific project or organisation if you are considering long-term collaboration. This way you appear more confident and knowledgeable to the talent, human resource or vendor manager. At the same time, you can ensure that your objectives and values are aligned with those of the organisation.
2) Many translation and interpreting companies, also known as agencies, are run by human beings. Surprise! Persons receiving your cover letter and résumé are more likely to consider you if you take the time to address them by name, e.g. 'Dear Mr./Ms. John', instead of the impersonal 'Dear Sir/Madam' or 'To Whom It May Concern'. Most HR managers ignore such correspondence if it is not specifically directed to them. Also, the mass forwarding of generic cover letters often lands your proposal in the bin. Take the time to enquire whether the company needs your services and if they require your specialty areas and don't be afraid to follow up.
3) Naturally, linguists who have received formal training in translation and/or interpreting and who have experience under their belts will have an edge. Agencies, therefore, are more likely to select linguists with an interesting combination of formal training and experience. This leads me to the next point.
5) Specialise. When creating a team of translators for a project in finance, for example, talent managers are going to seek translators who can prove that they have the competencies and qualifications in that specific subject matter. It may seem that you are excluding yourself from a range of opportunities by specialising, but this is not necessarily the case. By having a niche, you can position yourself as an expert in a subject matter and become the go-to person for work in that field.
6) Some additional qualities that talent managers seek include proof of the linguist having lived, worked or studied in the country of their source (and target) language/s; similarly, many talent managers seek linguists who translate or interpret into their native language. Living in the country of one's source language exposes them to the local dialect, cultural expressions and socio-political context, all of which the linguist may not learn in foreign language classes at secondary school and university. Translators and interpreters often come across jargon specific to particular cultural contexts. This knowledge and understanding of a cultural context is gained by living in the country/countries where their source languages are spoken. An immersion experience provides linguists with a unique awareness and understanding of the source language cultural nuances, enabling them to transfer the correct meaning into another language.
At RMC, as part of our quality assurance process, we select and work with linguists who have qualifications and demonstrable experience in their service areas. There are many other steps we take to ensure quality when providing professional services and which will be discussed at another time.
What else might influence a translation/interpreting agency's decision to work with a linguist? Let us know what you think. Be sure to look out for our next Tidbits episode that will continue providing guidelines to linguists. | https://www.rmclanguages.com/blog/archives/03-2020 |
Qualities of a Good Face to Face Interpreter
The most obvious requirement of a good face to face interpreter is the ability to speak at least two languages, but there is a lot more that goes into being a good face to face interpreter than pure linguistic talent. A number of qualities are required of a truly good face to face interpreter, most importantly:
A Strong Vocabulary
A good face to face interpreter must not merely be able to speak the languages they are translating, nor even just be fluent. A great interpreter should have a particularly strong vocabulary in both languages, even stronger than necessary to qualify as fluent. A good face to face interpreter is required to translate what is usually native speech in real-time and with complete accuracy, so it is important that they have the capability to properly understand every single thing that is being said in one language – even if it is an obscure or specialist subject – and translate it properly into the other.
Cultural Awareness
For an interpreter a perform their job as well as they possibly can, good face to face interpreters must not just provide top-notch language skills but also very strong cultural understanding. This is necessary if they are to understand all of the nuances and implications which go hand-in-hand with language use but are not necessarily subject to any linguistic rules, as well as properly interpret non-verbal communication which can be just as important as spoken words.
Observant
Another skill that is required of a face to face interpreter in order to properly handle non-verbal communication is observational ability. Human beings communicate as much through gestures and subtleties of behaviour as through actually speaking, but when there are cultural barriers or when attention is divided between speaker and interpreter then it can be hard to pick up on these in full. A good face to face interpreter should be able to pick up on the non-verbal aspects of the communication they are translating in detail, and ensure that it is properly conveyed in the way they deliver their translation.
Good at Multitasking
Good face to face interpreters have to be strong at multi-tasking, because providing translation in real time is essentially a form of multi-tasking in itself. They are having to listen closely to everything that is being said in one language, making sure they pay enough attention to fully understand its meaning. At exactly the same time, they have to form a translation in their mind that is complete and accurate, juggling the grammatical rules of both languages in their heads and making sure they don’t get the two languages confused.
Cope Well With Pressure
Usually a face to face interpreters is often required to work in stressful situations. This is especially true for those working in settings like law enforcement or medicine, but these are certainly not the only examples. Impassioned conversations or heated negotiations are an occupational hazard for a face to face interpreter, so they must have a strong enough head under pressure to cope well with this stress and – most importantly of all – to remain calm and continue to act as a neutral go-between and facilitator rather than becoming emotionally involved.
Aqua Interpreting Group have high standards when it comes to taking on new good face to face interpreters. We can provide skilled, professional interpreters for more than 250 languages, and you can be sure that all our face to face interpreters and translators will display all of these qualities and provide you with a service that perfectly meets all of your needs. | http://aquainterpretinggroup.com/articles/2016/01/ |
He reports to the 고소득알바 Patient Representative Coordinator and Supervisor of the Surgical Center for Medical Interpreters. Assistance in the translation of medical information for internal and external clients. Provides foreign language interpretation services for patients, staff and other clients of Boys Town National Research Hospital.
Excellent knowledge of foreign languages and English and ability to read, write and speak both languages. Excellent knowledge of English and foreign languages is required, including excellent oral and written skills. One year of experience providing official interpretation and translation services in English and Spanish One year of experience providing interpretation services in a legal setting or setting.
Education or work experience in language areas such as teaching, language assessment, translation or interpretation is preferred. Other experiences of interpreters and translators Other experiences that are helpful in pursuing a career include being in another country, interacting directly with a foreign culture, and studying various subjects in English and at least one other language. For someone looking for an interpreting or translation job, working informally or volunteering is a great way to gain experience.
Employment prospects for interpreters and translators should also differ by profession and language. For example, English interpreters and translators should have good job prospects due to the expected increase in the Hispanic population in the United States. There should be many job opportunities for health and legal interpreters and translators due to the fundamental need of all stakeholders to understand the information being communicated in these areas.
Those who work in the community as forensic or medical interpreters or translators are more likely to complete special training programs or certifications. Many self-employed interpreters and translators can submit resumes and examples to various translation companies that will match their skills for various positions.
This position does not involve translation, however translators and other experienced linguists are encouraged to apply. A court interpreter (non-Spanish speaker) is a non-competitive class position and is filled based on the qualifications and experience of the applicants, as well as the needs of the court. The permanent appointment of a court interpreter (Spanish) is made through a public service competition consisting of a written and an oral test.
The chief interpreter of the court is responsible for timely, accurate and consistent interpretation, written and sign language interpretation. Court interpreters may be employees of the justice system or act as independent contractors for a fixed period.
Accurately and completely document all interpreter appointments, including patient waivers of interpreter services. Keep a record of all interpretation meetings, including relevant details such as location, duration, and purpose.
Communicate client information, client status, and any issues or concerns to the manager. It follows patient electronic programming models and can document in an electronic health record what is applicable to the service being provided or telephone appointments.
The interpreter works in all areas of the program and in a variety of settings, including homes and public spaces. The interpreter is always professional and courteous, uses appropriate terminology and understands generally accepted industry practices and procedures. The translator processes information quickly, concisely and recognizes sensitive cultural differences.
Translators act as accurately as possible, taking into account the idiomatic difference of languages, preserving the spirit and letter of the original message. Interpreters work in spoken or signed language; translators work in written language.
Interpretation sessions may cover simple or complex, technical or non-technical topics. This includes interpretation during consultations and diagnostic tests; medical procedures and operations; consent process and educational forums.
As a translator, you will receive the best training in the industry. You’ll also be supported by advanced linguists as well as LanguageLine translation and technical support. Interpreters strive to improve their sign language skills to provide the highest level of professional interpretation services. Interpreters support and promote the right of all people to communicate fairly in their study and work environments. The hourly rate is $48.70. By joining LSC, you will enjoy being part of an organisation that provides a supportive and university work environment, a good work-life balance, tuition fee waivers, participation in a deferred retirement plan and more. Go to the job search page and click My Activities at the top of the page.
University Health (UH) is committed to being a leader in providing a culturally inclusive workplace for University Health employees. If you want to work where life is in full swing, University Health (UH) is for you. Located in Kansas City’s vibrant Crossroads Arts District, the Healing Canvas Building is the epicenter of UH Behavioral Health and provides an extensive list of outpatient services.
Provides professional interpretation services for Limited English Proficiency (LEP) patients, healthcare professionals, and other members of the care team. Develop and offer training classes and workshops in English and Spanish as a second language. The Medical Translation Educator provides adult education in medical translation, cultural awareness, and Spanish as a second language.
The main purpose of this position is to provide interpretation and translation services in Spanish to non-speaking applicants and/or witnesses, primarily at hearings in various locations, in accordance with the rules and regulations relating to workers’ compensation; provide translation services for WCC documents from Spanish to English for non-English speaking applicants; and assist the IPO in rescheduling or rescheduling interpreters when necessary. Specific duties and responsibilities include providing in-class and on-call interpreting/transliteration services to designated students; review and prepare study materials to aid interpretation in the classroom; and replacement of other interpreters as needed. LanguageLine translators serve clients in many industries, including healthcare, 911, emergency response, education, government, and all businesses.
Initiate and develop positive relationships with patients, visitors, healthcare professionals, fellow interpreters and staff, always showing respect, flexibility and cooperation. Actively looks for situations (and potential situations) involving new, technical or complex information in order to understand what will/could be interpreted. Acts as a mentor for first-level translators. Ethically models positive and inclusive employee behavior. | https://www.alarabynews.com/%EA%B3%A0%EC%86%8C%EB%93%9D%EC%95%8C%EB%B0%94/ |
1A – Who are the Sign Language Interpreters? Are They My Colleagues?
Presented by Sarah D. Baker (B)
As our respective fields bloom and grow, spoken language organizations and signed language organizations rarely meet; however, we share a common goal. For all languages, qualified interpreters shoulder great responsibility to ensure accurate, free-flowing communication within our world, our country, and our communities. During this short lecture, I will share a brief overview of our nationwide ASL interpreting organization (Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf), the ASL/English interpreting certification process, nuances of interpreting for Deaf/Hard-of-Hearing clients, Deaf cultural mediation standards, the RID/NAD Code of Professional Conduct, and strategies for teaming with a Sign Language interpreter when a spoken language interpreter is already present. CEU’s – ATA, CCHI,
1B – Technology has Changed the Language Services Industry: Now What?
Presented by Mike Collins and John Milan (A, C)
This presentation will examine how multiple forces have changed the landscape of the language services industry. We’ll discuss how we got here, what the current industry looks like, and where we might be heading in the near future. We’ll explore some new roles for translators and interpreters as language advisors, consultants, and analysts, while considering the importance of the human element in the work that we do. We’ll also poll attendees on their views of how their occupations are changing and what techniques they are using to adapt. CEU’s – ATA, CCHI,
1C – Word Matter: Etymology as a Tool for Language Professionals
Presented by Susana Gee (A, B)
“Words have Meaning”, Justice Anthony Scalia.
Language professionals are constantly bombarded with words. When a language professional is in a pinch, it is an invaluable tool to be able to consider a word, assess it and decode its probable meaning. Each word has a story behind it and if the language professional can make connections to quickly decipher a term, the translation becomes easier. This skill will prove to be a fundamental tool for any language professional in any setting. To understand the history of words is to commit the meaning of a word to memory. CEU’s – ATA, CCHI,
1D – Stay in your lane! (But who’s drawing the lines?)
Presented by Janis Palma (B)
Interpreters in legal settings have a strict code of ethics that prescribes exactly how to navigate the complexities of constitutional protections afforded to persons who do not speak or understand the language of the courts. The law of the land is meaningless and ineffective when such a person faces a criminal prosecution in either a state or federal court without an interpreter. A professional code of ethics provides the ground rules for the interpreters in legal contexts. But who decided how or why an interpreter should perform according to these ground rules? Do they actually help or hinder the true role of a judiciary interpreter? This presentation explores the meaning of accuracy as it pertains to the judiciary interpreter’s role, encouraging participants to exercise their critical thinking skills as the traditional ethical boundaries for the judiciary interpreter’s performance are challenged on the basis of long-standing language and communication theories. CEU’s – ATA, CCHI,
Session 2
2A – Panel Presentation:
Areas: Translation, Project Management, Business
Moderated by Dr. Mónica Rodríguez-Castro
Presented by Dr. Mónica, Rodríguez-Castro, Ms. Delfina Erochenko; Ms. Yennica Palmer & Ms. Laura Richiez Combas (A, C)
Managing Translation Projects Successfully
Dr. Mónica Rodríguez-Castro
As translation volume and project complexity continue to grow in today’s language industry, the need for advanced project management tools is becoming essential for successful project completion. The role of the project manager is indispensable in handling diverse projects to ensure an effective communication workflow among intercultural virtual teams, particularly in projects with high technical complexity. This panel will focus on mismatched expectations between linguists and project managers with regards to post-editing. The panel will also revisit the role of the project managers in ensuring effective virtual interactions and propose possible communication workflows that could satisfy the needs of culturally diverse teams with the implementation of latest technologies.
Mismatched Expectations of Post-editing in Today’s Industry: Linguists vs. Project Managers
Ms. Delfina Erochenko
Artificial intelligence has been making an impact on the language industry, as a result the topic of machine translation, particularly post-editing, has attracted attention. There is an ongoing debate on whether machine translation is an ‘accelerator’ or a ‘replacement’ for current translation professionals. This presentation will explore the concept of post-editing and its role in the translator’s workstation, as well as mismatched expectations of linguists versus project managers towards the role of post-editing in translation processes. Additionally, the presentation will also provide tips on productivity gains for translators while showcasing the challenges that machine translation continues to face.
Why Cultural Differences are Still Relevant in Today’s Work Settings?
Ms. Yennica Palmer
As the language industry continues its transformation through digitalization, Language Service Providers have seen increasing volumes of work with high project complexity. Often, translation companies have resorted to outsourcing to a network of freelancers working in virtual teams. Virtual teams not only transcend physical spaces but also cultural barriers, and project managers are faced with the challenges of managing complex intercultural communication workflows. The purpose of this presentation is to survey cultural study theories, such as Hofstede’s dimensions of cultural values (2001) and Hall’s approach to high and low context cultures (1992), to understand the communication styles and work values from different cultures. The presentation will discuss such aspects as distinctions in socialization levels, superior–subordinate relationships, etc. and provide possible tips to motivate a diverse workforce for successful team interactions.
Communication Workflows in Translation Virtual Teams
Ms. Laura Richiez Combas
Virtual translation teams are becoming increasingly predominant in the translation industry. Therefore, team members must take into consideration an array of communication strategies. To
that end, translation project managers play a crucial role in comprehending different team members’ communication styles in order to overcome possible misunderstandings while establishing trust and ensuing efficiency. Project managers can design workflows carefully so as to facilitate smooth communication among team members and empower each team member to enhance productivity. This presentation will suggest technologies that could be used to improve collaboration in communication workflows in order to aid project managers in successful project completion.
This panel has been approved for one ATA CEU.
2B – Top Speed Simultaneous Interpreting Workshop: Do you feel the need…the need for speed?
Presented by Lorena N. Devlyn (B)
Participants will improve their speed in the simultaneous interpreting mode and will learn different techniques to interpret judicial proceedings recorded at more than 200+ words per minute. Participants will learn different ways of dealing effectively with judges, attorneys and defendants whose speed makes it difficult to render a full, complete and accurate interpretation into the target language. Utilizing real recordings of federal court proceedings, the presenter will demonstrate how to interpret at a speed of 200 + words per minute. The presenter will give advice on breathing techniques, intonation and delay (EVS or Ear to Voice decalage) to achieve an optimal speed of delivery. The presenter will discuss word expansion and sentencing restructuring on repetitive and formulaic language. The presenter will address coping strategies when fast deliveries lead to lack of comprehension and loss of information and impede the interpreter’s ability to render a complete and accurate interpretation. The presenter will analyze and critique the participants’ renditions. CEU’s – ATA, CCHI,
2C – Interpreting Child Sexual Abuse
Presented by Jeannette Houchens (B)
Trying to obtain information from children about alleged sexual abuse they may have experienced or witnessed can present many challenges for interviewers and investigators. Now Imagine, having to obtain the information from non-English speaking children with different cultural backgrounds. These professionals must rely on expert interpreters so that the information can be used as evidence in criminal cases. This session will provide participants with the tools needed to understand the forensic interview process and how to interpret accurately, applying the interpreter’s code of ethics, without changing the dynamic of the interview or affecting child disclosure due to linguistic or cultural differences. CEU’s – ATA, CCHI,
2D – LatinX: A 21st Century Enigma
Presented by Hernán A. Silva-Zetina and Matthew T. Benton (B)
Whether language purists like it or not, Latinx is here to stay. A 21st century social necessity. What it is, how it is used, and its impact in our daily life. We plan to present what it is, its origins and its usage. The mechanics of its interpretation with Hispanic immigrants at U.S. courts and hospitals. The training of interpreters about how to tackle its linguistic twists to render accurate and precise interpretations when giving a rendition in an open court or in a health care setting. Team participation and discussion will be encouraged during the presentation. CEU’s – ATA
Session 3
3A – How to become a State Department Contractor
Presented by Irene Bruno (B)
Ms. Bruno will make a presentation about the Office of Language Services at the Department of State;
she will explain how to become a contractor, either as a translator or an interpreter. CEU’s – ATA
3B – El intérprete y la gramática de la oralidad
Presented by Dr. Santiago García-Castañón (B)
Si la lengua en general está regida por unas normas que denominamos gramática, la lengua hablada se rige por las leyes de la prosodia, o gramática de la oralidad.
Todos los profesionales de la voz (cantantes, actores, locutores) realizan ejercicios para perfeccionar su técnica de dicción. El intérprete, que también utiliza la voz como principal herramienta de trabajo, debe cuidar la prosodia con el fin de ordenar el discurso adecuadamente. Para lograr tal fin, necesita trabajar aspectos como la entonación, el volumen y la velocidad, así como la acentuación, el ritmo y las pausas, elementos de los que se ocupa la prosodia.
En esta presentación trataré de clarificar diversos aspectos prosódicos para que sea posible producir un discurso diáfano y comprensible. CEU’s – ATA, CCHI,
3C – Overview of ATA’s Certification Exam: Q&As
Presented by David Stephenson (A)
This session will be of interest to attendees seeking a better understanding of ATA’s certification exam and program. The speaker will discuss the nature of the exam, assessment criteria, and recent changes in the program. He will answer questions about certification policies and procedures and provide tips on how to prepare for the exam. CEU’s – ATA
3D – Navigating Ethical Dilemmas in Patient Counseling and Spiritual Care: To Recuse Myself or Not to Recuse Myself, that is the Question
Presented by Indira Sultanić (B)
For many healthcare interpreters, patient counseling and spiritual care are especially difficult settings in which to interpret. They fall between a theological, phycological, and a social encounter. Many interpreters are faced with the dilemma “to interpret or not to interpret?”. Some interpreters simply recuse themselves from these or similar encounters, while others may struggle with self-assessing their readiness and with properly employing their code of ethics. This presentation offers a 5-question approach to checking ones’ own readiness before going into these settings, how to best employ the code of ethics when faced with an ethical dilemma, and when, and how to graciously withdraw from assignments. CEU’s – ATA, CCHI,
Cancellations and Refunds – If an individual cancels in writing by or on March 13, 2020, a $25 cancellation fee will be deducted from the registration amount paid. Allow up to 8 weeks for refunds to be processed. No refunds will be made if notified after March 13, 2020. Substitutions are encouraged. | https://catiweb.org/2020-conference-sessions/ |
Myths and facts about the translation to be clarified now
I think that every profession falls victim to some myths and assumptions. I think that they result from ignorance about the true nature of a given occupation. We don’t know what the occupation is really about and we draw false conclusions. The same applies to the translation profession.
I can tell you that as a child I thought doing translations was boring. For me, it was all about sitting behind the desk and playing with words. BOOOORING. Ironically, today I am a translator myself, and it’s my children’s turn now to think that translations are boring.
I feel I must set the record straight. Let me discuss some myths and facts about translation. Let me clarify some ideas and assumptions related to the work of a translator.
MYTH # 1: A good translator will translate any type of text
FACT: Many people may not realize that a good translator specializes in several different but often related areas. This allows them to be up to date with industry news and follow trends. They also use field-specific jargon and recognise all nuances of the original text. It is only inexperienced or poor translators who claim that they can translate any text that goes into their hands. It takes a lot of skill to write a contract translation, user manual or marketing text, so their translation also requires specific knowledge and abilities.
MYTH # 2: Anyone who knows a foreign language can become a translator
FACT: For translated text to be of good quality, the translator needs:
– Education
– Specialization
– Skills > in a given language combination.
It is thanks to these qualities that the translator can do his work faster and error-free. It is not enough to just know the language. The translator must also have general knowledge about culture, language, and customs relating to the target language. For a translator to be able to translate a text, he must understand the original text well, both the individual words and the text’s message. If these skills/knowledge are not there, the main message of the text will be lost.
MYTH # 3: Translation is about substituting words in another language
FACT: When translating, we translate not only individual words, but the meaning of the entire message. Therefore, each translation is primarily a precise expression of the author’s intentions in the target language.
Word-for-word translation is a common mistake among novice translators. However, if the meaning of the text is not taken into account, the translation result will be full of errors. Its style, tone and meaning will be completely different than intended and it may bring unpleasant consequences for the person who commissioned the translation.
MYTH # 4: A good translator can translate both ways
FACT: Clients often think that the direction of translation, i.e. whether the text is translated into the translator’s mother tongue or into a foreign language, does not matter. Of course, some translators can translate equally well in both directions. Let’s be honest, however, that there are not many such translators. This is because one of the languages spoken by the translator is usually dominant. It should be in the best interests of the client and the translator for the translator to translate into his dominant language.
Translators should specialize in translations into their native language, because they know their culture very well, understand the political situation, current events, widely used language, so they can convey the meaning of words most precisely. In the UK the idea to translate into a native language only is much enforced under the native speaker principle.
MYTH # 5: Thanks to technology, you don’t need translators
FACT: There is no point in denying that translation technology is available and it’s getting better and better. I would even dare to say that it is good to use software such as Google translator. It’s really helpful and quite efficient. However, I would suggest to use it for simple, everyday translation. When a complex, sophisticated translation is needed, there’s nobody else but a human translator you should turn to. In some types of texts, there are simply too many nuances, metaphors, understatements – also in legal and technical texts – that the computer software is not able to fully fill this language gap. A new trend is to combine the technology with human expertise: post-editing of machine translation. It is a new service offered by many translation agencies and individual translators.
MYTH # 6: Translating is not a tiring job
FACT: Translations can be very tiring both physically and mentally. When it comes to the physical aspect, translation often requires long hours of sitting in one position. Scientists have found that prolonged sitting is even more fatal than smoking. I know something about it – due to long-term sitting I developed knee problems and had to start doing yoga every day. Translators are generally required to stand away from their desks every hour. Some useful devices ease the physical strain, such as ergonomic chair. Others suggest using standing desks. When it comes to the mental aspect – translation requires intensive thinking. This is creative work, sometimes done under time pressure – it drains your energy.
MYTH # 7: Translators are people who can speak more than one language
FACT: Just knowing a language does not mean that a person can translate into that language. For example, in Poland, kids start learning English as early as in kindergarten. The learning process is continued throughout their childhood and teenage years. Does it mean they can be a translator? Of course not because knowing a foreign language is just the first step in the process. Also, being the so-called native speaker does not mean that a person can translate or that he will translate well. Translation requires discipline, knowledge and continuous practice. The native speaker does not have to have these qualities.
MYTH # 8: A sworn translator is a better version of a regular translator
FACT: The widespread belief that a sworn translator will do a better job than a translator who does not have such qualifications is obviously a myth. The fact is that the system of state exams for sworn translators has been helping to improve the level of translation services for years. However, sworn translations are required for specific purposes only – to attest that translation is true to the original text. It is usually required for court or legal purposes. Outside the court, sworn translators do translations just as any other “regular” translator. Also, sworn translators have their specialisations and there are texts that they simply won’t translate.
MYTH # 9: A translator can also be an interpreter
FACT: Interpretation and translation are not the same. Translators work with written texts. Interpreters act as an intermediary between two parties to a conversation and interpret in real-time. In result, they use different techniques to translate. These two specializations also need a different set of skills. For example, translators can often work using different software and hardware, they can adjust their working hours. Interpreters, on the other hand, can be required to travel and stay at the client’s disposal for hours.
Takeaway
Myths about translations are not fair to the profession. They are often hurtful because they present the job of the translator as something simple, not requiring much preparation. The prejudice may often be a result of unpleasant experiences with translators. If in the past you dealt with a translator who did a poor job, I’m not surprised you may be biased against translators in general.
I hope now you feel differently. Next time you have to commission a translator prepare a list of questions to check if the translator is right for you. Or better still, contact me and let’s discuss what I can do for you to bring you closer to the Polish audience. | https://eng-translator.pl/myths-and-facts-about-the-translation-to-be-clarified-now/?lang=en |
Date of Adoption: February 22, 2000.
Purpose: The purpose of the proposed rules is to incorporate LIST policies regarding examination, fees, and code of professional conduct. The proposed rules will also bring the Department of Social and Health Services into compliance with a federal court decision regarding certification and qualification criteria for interpreters and translators providing services to the department. By establishing clear regulations, the proposed rules will ensure equal access and due process requirements for the department's limited English proficient clients.
Statutory Authority for Adoption: RCW 2.43.010, 74.04.025, and 74.08.090.
Adopted under notice filed as WSR 99-23-081 on November 16, 1999.
Number of Sections Adopted on the Agency's Own Initiative: New 32, Amended 0, Repealed 0.
Number of Sections Adopted in Order to Clarify, Streamline, or Reform Agency Procedures: New 32, Amended 0, Repealed 0.
Number of Sections Adopted Using Negotiated Rule Making: New 0, Amended 0, Repealed 0; Pilot Rule Making: New 0, Amended 0, Repealed 0; or Other Alternative Rule Making: New 32, Amended 0, Repealed 0. Effective Date of Rule: Thirty-one days after filing.
(2) Establish the requirements and procedures for administering and evaluating the department's interpreter and translator examinations.
What is the scope of these rules?
(3) Provides department services to limited English proficient (LEP) clients.
What definitions are important to understanding these rules?
"Authorized interpreter or translator" means a person who has been certified by a certification agency recognized by the department.
"Certified bilingual employee" means a department employee who is certified, as bilingual, by passing a department fluency examination or a department recognized professional association and is required to use their bilingual skills in their work.
(3) Federal courts interpreter certification examination.
(2) American Translators Association (ATA) accreditation examination.
"Code of professional conduct for interpreters and translators" means department standards that must be met by all interpreters and translators when they provide language services to department programs and clients. Any violation of this code may disqualify an interpreter or translator from providing services to the department.
Or visit the LIST website at: http://asd.dshs.wa.gov/html/oar_list.htm.
"Interpretation" means the oral or manual transfer of a message from one language to another language.
"Language interpreter services and translations" or"LIST" means the section within the department that is responsible for administering and enforcing these rules and providing the services contained in this rule.
"Limited English proficient (LEP) client" means a person applying for or receiving department services, either directly or indirectly, who, because of a non-English speaking cultural background, cannot readily speak or understand the English language.
(2) Is authorized by the department pursuant to WAC 388-03-114 to interpret a language based on certification obtained from another state or country which is comparable to the certification process used by the department for its certified languages.
"Source language" means the language from which an interpretation and/or translation is rendered.
"Target language" means the language into which an interpretation and/or translation is rendered.
"Translation" means the written transfer of a message from one language to another.
What is the department's "code of professional conduct for language interpreters and translators"?
(c) Conserve the tone and spirit of the source language.
(2) Cultural sensitivity-courtesy. Interpreters/translators must be culturally knowledgeable, sensitive, and respectful of the individual(s) they serve.
(3) Confidentiality. Interpreters/translators must not divulge any information obtained through their assignments, including, but not limited to, information from documents or other written materials.
(4) Disclosure. Interpreters/translators must not publicly discuss, report, or offer an opinion on current or past assignments, even when the information related to the assignment is not legally considered confidential.
(5) Proficiency. Interpreters/translators must pass the department's required bilingual fluency certification examinations or screening tests in order to meet the department's minimum proficiency standard.
(c) Not use or attempt to use their position to secure privileges or exemptions.
(c) Refuse or withdraw from an assignment, without threat or retaliation, if they are unable to perform the required service in an ethical manner.
(8) Self-evaluation. Interpreters/translators must accurately and completely represent their certification, training, and experience.
(9) Impartiality-conflict of interest. Interpreters/translators must disclose to the department any real or perceived conflicts of interest that would affect their professional objectivity. Note: Providing interpreting or translating services to family members or friends may violate the family member or friend's right to confidentiality and/or may be a real or perceived conflict of interest.
(10) Professional Demeanor. Interpreters/translators must be punctual, prepared, and dressed appropriately.
(d) Have direct telephone contact with clients unless requested by DSHS staff.
(12) Reporting obstacles to practice. Interpreters/translators must always assess their ability to perform a specific interpreting/translating assignment. If they have any reservations about their ability to competently perform an assignment, they must immediately notify their clients and/or employer and offer to withdraw without threat or retaliation. They may remain on the assignment until more appropriate interpreters/translators can be retained.
(13) Ethical violations. Interpreters/translators must immediately withdraw from assignments that they perceive are a violation of this code. Any violation of this code may disqualify them from providing services to the department.
(c) Regular and frequent interaction with colleagues and specialists in related fields.
What is the responsibility of the language interpreter services and translations (LIST) section in certifying spoken language interpreters and translators?
(2) Ensuring that certified or qualified bilingual employees and language service contractors are aware of DSHS's code of professional conduct for interpreters and translators.
What certification/qualification requirements apply to interpreters and translators?
(c) Individuals not employed by the department who wish to interpret and/or translate for department clients can be retained by contracted interpreting agencies.
(c) Medical interpreters by the department.
(3) Translators can be certified by the department or by the American Translators Association (ATA).
(4) When certified and/or qualified, interpreters and translators providing services to department programs and clients must comply with the department's code of professional conduct for interpreters and translators.
(5) Any violation of the code of professional conduct may disqualify an interpreter or translator from providing services to the department, regardless of whether their contract is directly with the department or indirectly through a language agency serving department clients.
When do I become a certified or qualified interpreter or translator?
(1) For certified languages, you are considered certified once you pass the required tests.
(2) The effective dates of your certifications are the dates shown on your score report letters.
(3) If necessary, you can use your score report letters to verify your certification status.
(c) Contact the LIST section if your certificate is not received within the normal time period.
(5) For screening languages, you are considered qualified once you pass both the written and oral tests. Instead of a certificate, an authorization letter will be issued to qualified interpreters who pass the required screening tests.
Can I become a department certified interpreter or translator without taking a department examination?
There are three ways that you may gain department recognition as an interpreter or translator without taking the department's certification examinations.
(1) If you hold either a state of Washington office of the administrator for the courts interpreter certificate or a federal court interpreter certificate, the department will recognize you as a certified social services interpreter without requiring you to take its examination. However, you must formally submit a written request for recognition and attach a photocopy of your official certificate.
(2) If the American Translators Association (ATA) accredits you as a certified translator, the department will recognize you as a certified translator without requiring you to take its examination. However, you must formally submit a written request for recognition and attach a photocopy of your official certificate.
(3) If you hold either an interpreter or translator certification from another state or U.S. territory or another country that is comparable to DSHS certification and based upon similar requirements, LIST may recognize your certification. In your request for DSHS recognition, you must submit a photocopy of your official certificate and a copy of the official test manual containing evaluation criteria and passing benchmark. Your request should be submitted to LIST. LIST will decide all requests on a case-by-case basis.
Who determines if my request is "sufficiently documented"?
The department determines if your request is sufficiently documented. It may request further proof of your qualification. In all cases, the department's decision regarding the sufficiency of your documentation is final.
What if the certification documents requested by the language interpreter services and translations section are in a foreign language?
(1) All documents submitted to LIST in a foreign language must be accompanied by an accurate translation in English.
(b) Translation is a true and complete translation of the foreign language original.
(3) Applicants must pay all costs related to translating any documents relevant to their request for department certification.
What happens to my request for department recognition as an interpreter or translator?
(3) File your request and enter your name, if your request is approved, into its electronic database of authorized interpreters and translators.
Does the department maintain lists of certified/qualified interpreters and translators?
(1) To enable contracted language agencies and department programs to locate and contact certified and/or qualified interpreters and translators, the department maintains lists of certified interpreters, certified translators, and qualified interpreters.
(2) These lists are published and distributed to department contracted language agencies, local department offices, LEP cluster coordinators and regional LEP coordinators.
(3) Any interpreter or translator who considers some information on the list to be confidential, such as mailing addresses and telephone numbers, can have that information removed by writing the Language Interpreter Services and Translations section at: P.O. Box 45820, Olympia, WA 98504-5820.
(4) These lists are updated quarterly to include newly certified and qualified interpreters/translators.
Who can take the department's interpreter/translator certification and screening examinations?
(d) Wishing to work with DSHS programs through contracted language agencies.
(2) There are no education and experience requirements for taking an examination. If you fit into one of the above listed categories, you are eligible to take an examination. However, you must remember that all written and oral tests administered by the department assess language proficiency at a professional interpreter/translator level.
(3) Screening tests will not be substituted for any certificated language tests.
What type of test is given by the department to certify and qualify interpreters and translators?
(1) Certification examinations evaluate bilingual proficiency and interpreting/translation skills by comparing your proficiency and skill to minimum competency standards.
(2) Minimum competency standards are determined by the nature of the work involved and by experienced practicing court interpreters/translators, social services interpreters/translators, bilingual professionals, and language specialists.
(e) Licensed agency personnel whose agency is providing contracted services to the department (licensed agency personnel test or LAP test).
(4) For a list of the specific types of examinations and languages tested (and other important testing information), see the most recent edition of the "professional language certification examination manual" published by the language interpreter services and translations section.
(5) Examinations for interpreters include written and oral components. Interpreters must pass the written test before they take the oral test.
(6) Examinations for DSHS bilingual employees usually include written and oral components and these can be taken on the same day.
(7) Examinations for translators include only a written translation component.
(1) A screening test is a test administered by the department to candidates who wish to become "qualified interpreters." Qualified interpreters, also referred to as noncertificated language interpreters, are individuals who speak a language other than the department's seven certificated languages, which are Cambodian, Chinese (either Cantonese or Mandarin), Korean, Laotian, Russian, Spanish and Vietnamese.
(2) The scope of a screening test is narrower than the scope of a certificated language examination. Screening tests assess a candidate's English and target language skills but the broader, more comprehensive type of assessment used in a certificated language examination is not possible because of limited department resources.
(3) Screening tests are only available for social services interpreters and medical interpreters.
How do I register for a certification or screening examination if I am a department employee or an applicant for a bilingual position with the department?
How do I register for a certification or screening examination if I am not a department employee or an applicant for a bilingual position with the department?
(1) Call the LIST office and request a copy of the examination manual, an examination application form and a schedule of upcoming test dates.
(2) Complete and return the examination application form with the required examination fee.
(3) Wait to receive your examination confirmation letter and pretest package from LIST. If you have not received your letter and package within fifteen working days after you mailed your application and payment, it is your responsibility to contact the LIST office. It is also your responsibility to inform LIST if your name, mailing address or telephone number changes.
(4) If you are only registering for the oral test or registering to retake a test, you do not need to call the LIST office. Simply complete the application form enclosed with your test score report letter and return it to LIST with the appropriate fee. A confirmation letter will be mailed to you when LIST receives your application and payment.
(5) Walk-in registration at a test site is not allowed under any circumstances.
(6) Telephone registration is allowed only for department employees and applicants for department bilingual positions.
What does my pretest package contain?
Your pretest package contains directions to the testing site and a study guide that includes sample test questions, sample oral exercises, a list of important terminology and a copy of the department's code of professional conduct.
What examination fees must I pay?
How do I pay my examination fees?
(1) You may pay your examination fees with a personal check, certified check, cashier check or money order made out to the "department of social and health services." Do not send cash. LIST will not be responsible for lost cash payments sent through the mail.
(2) If your check or money order is for the wrong amount, LIST will return your payment and your application. You will have to resubmit your application with a correctly prepared check or money order.
(3) If your bank returns your personal check to LIST because of insufficient funds, LIST will not send you a score report letter until your check clears the bank.
Are my examination fees refundable?
(b) If you officially move out of Washington state before taking the examination, your examination fees can be refunded to you.
(2) If you fail to attend your confirmed test session(s) because of an emergency, your test session(s) may be rescheduled but your test fee will not be refunded. A rescheduling due to an emergency will be done only once and only if the emergency is properly documented. Examples of proper documentation would be official police reports or signed physician statements.
What requirements apply to the scheduling of interpreter and translator certification and screening examinations?
(2) If you require special arrangements for taking your test due to a disability, you should indicate this special need during your initial contact with LIST.
(3) LIST testing is currently offered at six statewide locations. (See the examination manual for details.) Testing site locations can change because of scheduling factors and varying demand for testing services. To stay informed, you should regularly consult LIST's master test schedule. Also, carefully read your test confirmation letter because it contains specific information on test date, test time, and test location.
(4) You must attend the test session(s) indicated in your registration confirmation letters. Except in bona fide emergency situations (see WAC 388-03-133(2)), you will not be allowed to reschedule your examination if you fail to attend your assigned test session(s). If you miss your scheduled examination for reasons other than an emergency, you may schedule another examination by reapplying to take the test and paying the appropriate testing fee.
(5) All requests for a change in testing schedule must be made within ten calendar days from the date your confirmation letter is sent; otherwise LIST considers your test appointment "confirmed" and your examination fees will not be refunded.
What procedural requirements apply to administering certification and screening examinations?
(1) The department has a "no-comment, no-return" examination policy. Once an examination is given, it becomes the property of the department and it will not be released to anyone, including test candidates.
(2) The department will not discuss specific examination content, including specific test questions or answers, with test candidates or any other party. Candidates can receive general critiques of their test performance if they submit a written request.
(3) Passing scores for the different examinations are established by the department based on bilingual fluency required by law, testing technicalities and the language needs of the department. Test scores will only be reported to candidates in writing. No score information will be released over the telephone to anyone.
(4) All interpreter and translator candidates must follow the test instructions. A failure to follow the instructions may result in an invalid test. Invalid tests will not be scored and, therefore, no test results will be reported to the candidate.
(5) If a candidate arrives late for the written test but decides to go ahead and take it, they will take the test during the remaining time allowed. The lost time resulting from their late arrival will not be made up.
(6) If a candidate arrives late for an oral test, they may lose their assigned time slot. A lost time slot resulting from a late arrival will not be made up.
(7) Tests will not be rescheduled because a candidate arrives late at a testing site except in the case of a bona fide emergency. If you are too late to take the test for some reason other than an emergency, you may schedule another examination by reapplying for the test and paying the appropriate fee.
What if a test candidate is suspected of cheating?
If a test administrator suspects cheating during an examination with reasonable evidence, the accused candidate may be declared ineligible for all interpreter and translator certification/qualification tests administered by the department.
How does the department score my bilingual examinations?
(1) Depending on the nature of the test or test section, the department uses either an objective or a holistic scoring method to evaluate your examination.
(2) Please consult the examination manual for the evaluation indicators used by the department for each test or sub-test.
When does the department mail my test scores?
(1) For a written test, your scores should be available within two to four weeks from the date you took the examination.
(2) For oral tests, you should receive your scores within four to six weeks from the date you took the examination.
(3) If you wish your test scores mailed to a specific organization or individual, you must personally notify the department in writing and provide the name and mailing address of the organization or individual to whom your score should be sent.
(4) If you do not receive your score report letters within the suggested time periods, you should contact LIST at (360) 664-6037.
Can I appeal my test scores?
(1) Your appeal must be submitted to the department in writing.
(2) Your appeal will not be honored if it is filed beyond the two-month appeal period.
(3) You will not be allowed to reschedule an examination while your score is being appealed.
How many times can I retake a failed test?
You can retake a failed examination until you pass it. However, if you fail a test three times, you must wait six months before taking it a fourth time and wait six months between each subsequent attempt. Each time you retake the test you must pay an examination fee.
Can the department deny or revoke my certification or qualification status?
(2) You have violated the department's code of professional conduct.
What procedures must the department follow if it denies or revokes my certification or qualification?
(3) Within five days of reaching its decision, give you written notification of the decision. The department's notification must be delivered to you by certified mail.
Can I appeal the department's decision to deny or revoke my certification or qualification?
If the department denies or revokes your certification or qualification, you have the right to appeal its decision by using the adjudicative proceeding process in chapter 34.05 RCW and chapter 388-08 WAC. However, the department encourages you to first try to resolve your dispute through a less formal process like mediation.
How do I request an adjudicative hearing?
(1) File a written application with the department's board of appeals within twenty-one days of receiving the department's decision to deny or revoke your certification or qualification.
(c) Your reasons for contesting the department's decision.
(3) Your written application must be delivered to the board of appeals in person, electronically by fax or by certified mail.
(4) Once the board of appeals receives your written application, an adjudicative hearing will be scheduled.
(5) The adjudicative hearing will be governed by the provisions of chapter 34.05 RCW, Administrative Procedure Act. | https://apps.leg.wa.gov/documents/laws/wsr/2000/07/00-06-014.htm |
As interpreters we translate orally from one language into another. We studied this subject for a university degree, acquiring excellent language and intercultural skills abroad. For results to be convincing, it is decisive not only to have a command of the language itself but also to have the ability to give expression to the cultural and atmospheric subtleties and nuances of a language. This is only possible if the language has been internalized by living in another country.
The spoken word is translated at the same time, simultaneously, into one or more languages, requiring the utmost concentration on the part of the interpreter. For this reason, simultaneous interpreters usually work in twos in soundproof booths, alternating every 20-30 minutes.
The advantage of simultaneous interpreting is that no additional time is necessary. What is necessary, however, is excellent conference technology and excellent know-how.
Der Vorteil des Simultandolmetschens: Es erfordert praktisch keinen zusätzlichen Zeitaufwand, jedoch exzellente Konferenztechnik und hohes professionelles Knowhow.
The interpreter works for no more than two listeners, whispering the translation simultaneously into their ears. Just as in simultaneous translation, two conference interpreters work together. As whispering interpreting is extremely strenuous both for the listener and the interpreter, it can only be used in exceptional cases. The listener and interpreter both have problems when the acoustics are bad and there are distracting background noises. Moreover, whispering interpreting may confuse or even annoy other participants.
In some cases it is also possible to interpret for small groups with guide interpreting equipment. However, this is not suitable as a substitute for interpreting booths at big events (distracting as speakers and interpreters talk at the same time and there may be other background noise).
In consecutive interpreting, the translation of the original text takes place after longer passages of speech. Notes are taken, using a special note-taking technique, to capture, in the shortest form possible, the content and context. The length of the passages may vary. The number of consecutive interpreters required depends on the difficulty and length of the task.
As the interpretation is delivered afterwards, not at the same time as in simultaneous interpreting, about double the amount of time is needed. Besides whispering interpreting, it is the form of interpreting that requires most technology.
Dinner speeches and welcoming speeches, bilateral negotiations, festive occasions, official speeches, lectures, guided tours etc.
This is a special form of consecutive interpreting where shorter passages of speech used in dialogue are translated into the other language after they have been rendered.
"Round table" talks, technical discussions, conversations at dinner, table talk etc.
Copyright © 2019 Dolmetscher Nürnberg - Französisch, Englisch - König, Roseeu Konferenzdolmetscher Partnerschaft - Die Dolmetschprofis. All Rights Reserved. | https://www.dolmetschprofis.de/index.php/en/service-en/service-interpreting-en |
At Prestige Network, powerful and effective communication is at the heart of our business. We realise that interpreting is multifaceted, complex and a vital element in the creation of a diverse and successful world. This is why we are particularly proud when one of our valued interpreters is recognised for their contribution in this increasingly important field.
Yelena McCafferty, a Prestige Network interpreter since 2015, was recently awarded the winner of Best Performance on an Interpreting Assignment nomination. To win this prestigious award, Yelena had to show her responsive and refined approach when acting as a conduit between clients, a point that Yelena eloquently stated by saying: “…the ultimate aim for me is always to make sure the communication between the parties is efficient, with the essence of the messages delivered accurately, taking into account linguistic nuances, cultural differences and humour. As interpreters, we have to bear in mind that the impression made by the people we interpret in many respects depends on their interpreter. Building rapport and trust with people within a very short space of time is an absolute must if we want to establish a working relationship quickly.”
Prestige Network wishes Yelena all the best for the future and hopes to support many more interpreters in their quest for excellence. | https://www.prestigenetwork.com/our-interpreter-yelena-mccafferty-wins-prestigious-interpreting-award/ |
I met Loreto at the 2006 AIIC General Assembly and was impressed with her views on organising teams. It's a pleasure to be interviewing her.
MF: How did you become an interpreter? Have you had other professional experiences?
LB: I studied literature in Montreal, where I grew up. At the time it was quite usual for those who wanted to become translators to get a language or literature degree.
My father was an international civil servant at ICAO, and that international organisation kindly allowed me to do a bit of dummy-booth practice in simultaneous interpretation, but after college I settled in Spain and found a job as company translator with a multinational firm in the oil sector.
Since at the time there was no university qualification for interpreters and translators in Spain, and in order to have some kind of an official acknowledgement of my aptitude, I sat the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ Sworn Interpreter examination – paradoxically, an exclusively written affair, at the time.
After an eleven-year stint as company translator with Chevron, I resigned to take up freelance work. Not long after, I began to receive requests for my services as sworn interpreter before the Courts. At the time, APETI, the Spanish umbrella association of translators and interpreters, organised an excellent consecutive interpretation course, which I followed to ensure that the professional services I was providing were adequate. Shortly after that I also began to work in the booth.
MF: You worked as a freelance in Madrid before joining an international organisation as a staff member. What were the main differences in your work? Were your outlook and opinion modified in any way?
LB: The major difference between the work of a freelance translator and interpreter and that of an international civil servant is that the freelance usually works with a variety of subjects, while the staff member’s work is usually circumscribed to a relatively limited number of areas.
I remember when I told my father that I was taking up a job with the OPCW, he told me I’d probably end up as sick and tired of chemical weapons as I had of petroleum issues.
Having said that, no matter how specialised the work of an international organisation or company might be, staff translators and interpreters always encounter a variety of issues in their work: for example, meetings at the OPCW not only cover multinational disarmament negotiations but also deal with medical, scientific, legal, financial, military and security issues, as well as technical inspections and so on.
As far as the work process itself is concerned, the background knowledge acquired as a staff member, and also the availability of support services organised by the language section – terminology, documentation, references, briefing sessions before meetings with interpretation, access to specialists and delegations for the purpose of clarifying terms and concepts – provides greater consistency and continuity, which greatly facilitate the staff interpreter's task compared to that of the freelancer, who usually has to arrange his or her own support services.
On the other hand, the sustained demands on the staff interpreter’s performance, including precision and quality, are very high, and add to that certain political considerations which apply in the case of international organisations, where the interpreters can be “held hostage” by a meeting, since sometimes a perfectly accurate interpretation is used as an excuse to prolong negotiations or to justify misunderstandings. This goes with the job, but it’s never pleasant for the interpreter, who is sure of the quality of his or her performance. In my experience, at least, it only happens in the context of international organisations.
MF: Did you organise teams of interpreters before you joined the OPCW? What differences do you see between freelance consultant interpreters and staff chief interpreters?
LB: I had never organised teams of interpreters before I joined the OPCW, and I seldom do so now. I’m a perfectionist, and I don’t like worrying about having to work in substandard conditions.
When the language services at the OPCW were being consolidated in 1997 when the organisation proper was set up, I was fortunate to have excellent colleagues and a very intelligent supervisor who, though not a language professional, understood the difficulties of our professional activities, our technical requirements and our need for support services as well as the political importance of our work, and who valued and supported us fully.
At the OPCW we were successful in making the language service – rather than the delegations – “own” all languages, with the head of each section recognised as the maximum authority in the corresponding language. This means that the service is duty-bound to provide watertight performance, but it also deserves and earns the respect and support of all users, within both the Secretariat and the policy-making organs.
Being both a manager and a practising professional allowed me to set up optimal technical and administrative conditions for the work of the language section from the interpreters’ viewpoint, since I was able to give first-hand explanations for the reasons behind my demands both to the administration and to the delegations.
I will insist on this point: the quality of the services provided by my colleagues and their professional demeanour made it possible to obtain consistent recognition for our profession and our job-related requirements.
As I already said, I hardly ever organise teams now. Ensuring top-quality interpretation and getting across to users how teams of interpreters work and why certain conditions must be provided is difficult in any circumstance, and doing it for each individual customer must be an exhausting task. I have the utmost admiration for individuals who organise interpretation teams and for freelance consultant interpreters.
MF: You know AIIC, but you are also familiar with other Spanish organisations with different criteria. What led you to join AIIC?
LB: I’ve always been very involved with associations, with group projects and networking. During the first years of my life as a professional, and especially during my first stint as a freelance, I put in quite a few hours at the Spanish professional association of translators and interpreters to improve our professional work in every way and gain recognition for our professions.
It’s also lovely to work with colleagues for the common good, and to meet individuals who are sometimes very different from you and who pursue the same objectives from perspectives you don't always share. I’ve made many very good friends while working for our profession.
When I joined an international organisation, an environment where professional practices are rather well established and specific problems must be solved internally, I stopped my involvement with association-related activities for a while. But I soon had occasion to start cooperating with AIIC in the Netherlands, specifically on lifelong training, which as far as I’m concerned is an essential activity.
MF: What would you say now to an aspiring interpreter who asked for your advice?
LB: That would greatly depend on the aspiring interpreter and on the advice sought. To someone without an aptitude for interpretation or without the sound linguistic and cultural background it requires, I’d recommend taking up another profession. To someone with the necessary aptitudes I’d give advice based on his or her circumstances.
Now there are several good interpretation schools, and it would seem logical to recommend that aspiring interpreters train there. But there are also other ways of joining the profession for individuals whose circumstances preclude conventional training. For example, in view of the difficulties encountered when it came to covering some vacancies at the OPCW, whose language officers are called upon to translate as well as to interpret, in some cases we chose to recruit experienced translators who passed an aptitude test for interpretation. I must say that, during the time I was in charge of the language service there, eight staff members recruited in this way managed to become real interpreters, by dint of enormous personal effort, the support of their colleagues, supervised practice – dummy booth first, and then real-life meetings of a relatively uncomplicated nature – and in several cases subsequent participation in the Cambridge course for professional interpreters.
As far as young professionals are concerned, I think that seasoned interpreters should help them insofar as our circumstances allow, by recruiting them when possible, providing positive professional advice when it might benefit them as well as sound support in the booth, and always by setting a good professional example, not only to help them personally but also to ensure the future of our profession.
MF: What other profession would you have liked to pursue?
LB: I’d also have liked to be a writer or a singer. These two professions are quite close to ours; a command of language is as necessary to be able to write as it is to be able to interpret, and a well-trained voice is essential both for a singer and for an interpreter. I’ve had voice training and I enjoy singing in my free time.
LB: Much as any interpreter with many years of professional activity, I could share many strange and interesting anecdotes, and also many amusing stories. I can think of one which perhaps is a bit of all three. When the first conference was being organised at the time of the creation of the OPCW in 1997, my then supervisor, a diplomat, told me with considerable concern that delegations thought that the cost of interpretation (several weeks of work with two 14-interpreter teams) was too high, and asked whether I thought it feasible to go with a delegate’s suggestion of recruiting students of interpretation, in order to keep costs down. I replied that I thought this was a brilliant idea, provided that the delegations of the States Parties were also made up of students from the corresponding diplomatic schools. It goes without saying that, as soon as the message got through to the delegations, the whole idea was dropped.
Mary FONS I FLEMING. "Interpreter voices: Loreto Bravo". aiic.fr March 15, 2010. Accessed April 20, 2019. <http://aiic.fr/p/3402>. | https://france.aiic.net/page/3402/lang/1 |
Migrant people often travel to Europe through many countries before reaching their destination. Each country they enter has different cultures and customs, and language plays a major role in facilitating or hindering their journey.
Understanding and being able to communicate in a language allows us to access information and make informed decisions. For thousands of people living in transit and in refugee camps, language barriers are a difficult reality of everyday life. They often rely on information from refugees and friends who have gone through the same experience, especially because local authorities, humanitarian aid workers, and volunteers do not usually speak their languages. Refugees and displaced persons are exposed to more threats to their lives when they do not speak the local language. In some refugee camps, volunteers offer language lessons to bridge the gap left by government institutions that have failed to address the needs and rights of refugees. Generally, they can only get professional linguistic help from interpreters and translators via non-profit organisations and NGOs.
In European host countries, languages continue to be a challenge for refugees in the integration process. Language barriers may prevent successful communication with the local population on a daily basis, and significantly reduce access to essential services and support, which is often inaccessible to refugees who are not familiar with the Latin alphabet, or who have low levels of literacy in their own languages. For many refugees arriving in Europe, learning English, or the local language of the host country, is one of the first steps to take. For those who pick up some vocabulary and are able to introduce themselves or manage a short conversation, there is still a long way to go before they can talk about health issues or legal matters. Unfortunately, but unsurprisingly, European governments are slow to provide sufficient language support to people seeking asylum.
Multilingual refugee children, due to their ability to learn languages quickly, are often interpreters for their parents. Their learning is informal and disrupted, leaving significant gaps in their education, and some refugee children are unable to access education in their host countries due to language barriers. This leads to further complications on multiple levels, because schools, educational institutions, and outreach centres are often vital pathways for integration. Many adolescents and young adults have also missed out on education due to long periods of time spent in refugee camps, or between countries. For them, learning the language is another obstacle to overcome. They must be able to speak, read and write the language of their host country before they can access training courses or gain any work experience, to increase their chances of finding employment. Adults face equally frustrating setbacks. Many of them arrive in Europe with advanced skills and experience, but the language barrier prevents them from entering the job market, building relationships, and taking steps towards financial and social stability. This highlights the importance of providing linguistic support to refugees, both during the asylum application process, and as they integrate into a new environment.
Open Cultural Center supports migrants and refugees in Spain and Greece by offering free language classes, with the aim to support refugees’ integration and improve their chances of accessing training and employment opportunities. In Barcelona, there are online classes in Arabic, English, Catalan, and Spanish at the Language Lab. OCC Greece offers Greek and English classes to hundreds of adults and children living in Nea Kavala refugee camp. These classes allow students to improve their linguistic skills, and they also provide them with a sense of community and a chance to make new friends.
Although these initiatives and similar ones by other organisations are very impactful, they are not a sustainable solution to language provision for refugees. They rely on the time and dedication of volunteers, who do not necessarily have teaching qualifications and are unable to provide certificates from accredited language schools. Ultimately, the governments of host countries are responsible for providing adequate services and support for refugees, migrants, and asylum seekers, including quality language education and linguistic assistance. | https://openculturalcenter.org/language-barriers-and-the-importance-of-language-learning-for-refugee-and-migrant-communities-in-europe/ |
The category of documents that are usually authenticated and legalized are either translations of documents made abroad to be used by Romanian authorities or translations of Romanian documents to be used abroad for foreign authorities, such as: diplomas, transcripts, study certificates, criminal records, tax certificates, employment contracts, sales, rent and other types of contracts, driver’s licences, powers of attorney, employment records, company documents a.s.o.
Texts from the technical and scientific fields, from the IT&C field, web-sites, technical manuals and service documents, folders or presentation brochures for companies or products, as well as promotion materials for hotels and restaurants, menus a.s.o. are translated accurately by us. In order to suit the interest of the customers, we collaborate and consult – regarding some specialized terms – with persons who work in companies or collaborators in those particular fields.
The authorization states: translator and interpreter for ….language/s.
The authorization of the Ministry of Justice refers both to the legal capacity of being an authorized translator of texts from and into the languages mentioned in the qualification document, but also to the ability of being an authorized interpreter, for that language/those languages.
Translators (of texts) and interpreters (of dialogues, conversations, interviews a.s.o.) are, therefore, qualified and competent persons who have the legal capacity to translate and who assume to supply such services. | http://www.cluj-traduceri.ro/en/faq-2/ |
Posted September 16, 2018 05:03:13When you think of translation, you think about words, sounds, and colors.
You probably have to take a look at the dictionary to figure out how to read or write them.
However, it doesn’t have to be that way.
In fact, it’s possible to make a more personal translation with the help of a computer, video, and/or audio transcription.
This article will help you understand what a transcription actually is, what words to look for, and how to use them.
In the words of the prophet Muhammad (pbuh): “Whoever is able to interpret, then he is one of the true Muslims.”
For many, the translation process is something that has been passed down for generations, and many people will be familiar with a translator or interpreter who’s been there.
In some cases, the translator is the one who makes the translation.
The translator is an interpreter who is familiar with the translation and has an understanding of the Arabic language and culture.
A translator is also a person who is proficient at interpreting and writing the Arabic text, which means they can create and transcribe the words, words, and sounds that the Quran uses.
There are many different types of interpreters in the Muslim world.
They include:The first type of translator is called a sakhr (pronounced sah-rah), a term that means “an individual who speaks with a clear understanding of what is being said and does not give anything away.”
These people are often hired by businesses, schools, religious institutions, and governments.
For example, a sakhir, or translator, may work at a mosque, an Islamic school, or a school for children.
A sakhir may also be a private individual who has the skills and the motivation to help someone who has difficulties interpreting the Quran.
They can be paid by the government, charitable organizations, and private individuals.
In a few cases, sakhirs can be hired as independent contractors, or paid by government agencies to provide translation services to individuals or groups.
In the early 2000s, a group of Arabic-speaking students at the University of Chicago and the University at Albany created a free online program called Akka.
This program was called “Akka” for short.
Akka allowed them to do the translation for free.
Akkas also provide free translation services for individuals or organizations that wish to hire them.
The second type of interpreter is called kalil, or “a teacher who is good at interpreting.”
These types of translators can be either paid or free.
They are usually hired by governments or charitable organizations.
An interpreter can be considered a “supervisor” who helps to make the translation as the translator does.
They may also work as volunteers and provide translation assistance to people.
Another type of kalils is called an interpreter that can also be hired.
These translators are also called kalis, or teachers.
They might be hired by individuals or businesses, and they can be very skilled in their craft.
They could also be paid to work on a project.
They have been known to teach English, Spanish, French, and Arabic, and are often employed by governments.
An example of a kalilt is the person who performs the translation in the Quran as a translator for the government of the United Arab Emirates, or as a kali for the World Health Organization (WHO).
An interpreter can also serve as an interpreter for religious institutions and individuals.
An Arabic translator is someone who speaks Arabic to people who are unable to read and write in Arabic, but who have the ability to understand and interpret the Arabic.
These interpreters are typically hired by religious institutions to perform translation work, and their services are typically paid.
In addition, interpreters can be employed as translators at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the UAE, the Ministry for Religious Affairs of Saudi Arabia, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation of the GCC (a GCC group), and the Organization for Islamic Cooperation.
The third type of translation is called sakir, which is a term used to describe a person skilled at translating.
There is a misconception that these types of translations are not very good, but in fact, the best translators have a good grasp of Arabic, can create good translations, and have a very clear understanding.
A translator can also work in the field of education, including teaching, and for a time work in a community organization.
A sakiri is a sessional or personal translator who has a specific skill set and who works with individual students.
They also may work in other fields such as nursing or social work.
There are also many types of interpreter employed by private organizations, such as a teacher who teaches Arabic, or an interpreter to assist an individual who is deaf or hard of hearing.
In other cases, there may be a
Posted September 16, 2018 05:03:13When you think of translation, you think about words, sounds, and colors.You probably have to take…
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A hush fell over the Riverside student section as close to 50 kids sat down, put on their safety harnesses and prepared to ride the roller coaster.
During crucial points of a basketball game, senior Corey Belonzi will inform the first row of students that it is time to ride the roller coaster. And the word quickly spreads through the student section.
While the students sit, Belonzi, along with a fellow student - Alex Downs, Connor Domhoff or Evan Hart, just to name a few - lead the student section through a simulated roller coaster ride. The leaders face the crowd and point which way the roller coaster turns or dips, and the kids pretend as if they are at their favorite thrill park.
The roller coaster has quickly become a favorite of a student section that has recently seen a dramatic rise in participation. Belonzi said the students first got the idea from a youtube.com video, and made its debut during the Riverside football game against Ellwood City.
For the past three years, Belonzi said student attendance was sparse at best, and he wanted to have more students attending, at the very least, home sporting events.
This year, boys and girls home basketball games draw anywhere from 30 to 50 Riverside students while a faithful few also travel with the team to away section games.
The typical routine for the Riverside student section will be to go through some light stretching as the varsity team warms up, chant for their team as well as do whatever they can to mentally derail their opponents.
During a home game against Neshannock, Riverside students had close to 40 cutouts of Lancer guard Ernie Burkes glued on to popsicle sticks, and chanted his name throughout the contest.
The chants and gestures range from the roller coaster to typical basketball cheers one would expect to hear from a team�s cheerleaders. But the Riverside faithful have thought up a few chants of their own.
Late in Tuesday�s game against Laurel, the student section sang their own version of �If You�re Happy and You Know It, Clap Your Hands� but substituted �winning� for �happy�.
Guard Brent Mulneix - who was on the court for the Panthers - said he couldn�t help but laugh when he heard the chant during the game.
While it may not be �Renegade� at Heinz Field, Belonzi said the cheers are used more to keep the students involved rather than to pump up the Riverside players.
The roller coaster is Belonzi�s go-to cheer when he wants the crowd to get back into a game.
Three regulars in the student section for boys games are girls basketball players Sam Weir, Alex Deep and Ariana Kelly. While during the season, it was typical to see members of the girls team at boys games and vice versa, Weir can remember a time when no students would attend her games.
Weir added that teams� success has helped draw more students. The girls are competing to win their third section championship in three years, and the boys have clinched a spot in the WPIAL playoffs.
The senior forward, who eclipsed the 1,000-point mark last week, said she has a hard time playing in a gym that is completely quiet. During the game, Belonzi kept a countdown of how many points Weir needed to break 1,000 on a dry-erase board.
But whether it is the dry-erase board, themed T-shirt nights or simply chanting �defense� Belonzi said he wants the student section to continue to grow. | https://www.ellwoodcityledger.com/f7a576bd-91db-50c0-a00a-ec9929a05cfa.html |
In this Tuesday, June 17, 2014 photo, a fan wears contact lenses with a Brazilian flag motif, as she waits for the live broadcast of the group A World Cup soccer match between Mexico and Brazil, inside the FIFA Fan Fest area, in Sao Paulo, Brazil. They flock to games with faces painted and draped in flags. They hold up signs and wear funny hats. They chant and sing until theyâ??re hoarse. Theyâ??re the traveling fans, and theyâ??re helping give the World Cup the feel of Carnival.
In this June 22, 2014 photo, a soccer fan with his face painted to represent the national flag of the United States, cheers before the start of the group G World Cup soccer match between the United States and Portugal at the Arena da Amazonia in Manaus, Brazil. The U.S. reached the knockout stage, just not the way the Americans wanted. Germany beat the U.S. 1-0, on Thomas Muellerâ??s 55th-minute goal to win Group G, but the Americans held onto second place when Portugal defeated Ghana 2-1 in a game played simultaneously in Brasilia. The Americans will play Belgium in Salvador, Monday, June 30.
In this June 24, 2014 photo, a Greek supporter wears a homemade outfit before the group C World Cup soccer match between Greece and Ivory Coast at the Arena Castelao in Fortaleza, Brazil. Greece doubled its total scoring tally at World Cup tournaments by netting twice against the Ivory Coast on Tuesday â?" the second coming through an injury-time penalty that secured a 2-1 victory and a spot in the knockout rounds. Greece goes up against Costa Rica in Recife, Sunday, June 29.
In this June 24, 2014 photo, a supporter celebrates Costa Rica's classification at the end of the World Cup group D match against England, at the Mineirao Stadium, in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, Tuesday. Costa Rica finished first in what many considered the World Cup's toughest group after a dour 0-0 draw against England. The Central Americans face Greece in the knockout stage, in Recife, Sunday, June 29.
In this June 13, 2014 photo, a Chilean fan poses for a photo before the start of the group B World Cup soccer match between Chile and Australia in the Arena Pantanal in Cuiaba, Brazil. The knockout stage of the World Cup begins Saturday with host Brazil playing Chile, the South American rival it has dominated over the years. Brazil hasnâ??t lost to Chile in more than a decade, and has never lost to it on home soil. But for the first time Chile arrives to face its neighbor with plenty of confidence, thanks in part to a convincing campaign in Group B that included a victory over defending champion Spain.
In this June 26, 2014 photo, a Belgian fan cheers for his national team before the start of the group H World Cup soccer match between South Korea and Belgium at the Itaquerao Stadium in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Belgium advanced to the next round by defeating Russia 1-0 in their group H match, to face the United States in the knockout phase, in Salvador, Tuesday, July 1.
Tommy Harpel cheers for the United States as he watches a World Cup soccer match between the United States and Portugal, Sunday, June 22, 2014, in Orlando, Fla.
A soccer fan cheers while watching a World Cup soccer match between the United States and Germany, Thursday, June 26, 2014, in Orlando, Fla.
In this June 21, 2014 photo, a Nigerian fan cheers before the group F World Cup soccer match between Nigeria and Bosnia at the Arena Pantanal in Cuiaba, Brazil. Nigeria plays France in the last 16 in Brasilia, Monday, June 30.
In this June 25, 2014 photo, a French supporter poses for a photo before the start of the group E World Cup soccer match between Ecuador and France at the Maracana Stadium in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. France's much-vaunted attack missed a series of chances as it drew 0-0 with 10-man Ecuador to reach the knockout stage to face Nigeria in Brasilia, Monday, June 30.
In this June 21, 2014 photo, a German supporter cheers for her national team before the group G World Cup soccer match between Germany and Ghana at the Arena Castelao in Fortaleza, Brazil. The Germans finished with two wins and a draw, topping group G with seven points. The three-time World Cup champions will face Algeria in the next round, in Porto Alegre, Monday, June 30.
In this June 15, 2014 photo, a soccer fan with his face painted to represent Argentina's national flag, cheers as he poses for a photo outside the Maracana Stadium before the group F World Cup soccer match between Argentina and Bosnia in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Argentina beat Nigeria 3-2 in their World Cup F group match, advancing to the knockout round of 16 to face Switzerland, in Sao Paulo, Tuesday, July 1.
In this June 19, 2014 photo, a soccer fan, with his face painted to represent his Uruguay's national flag, watches a live broadcast of the World Cup match between England and Uruguay in downtown Montevideo, Uruguay. Uruguay edged 10-man Italy 1-0 to reach the second round of the World Cup, although the victory was overshadowed by a biting incident involving the South American side's star forward Luis Suarez. Uruguay is set to play Colombia in the knockout round in Rio de Janeiro, Saturday, June 28.
In this June 24, 2014 photo, a Colombian soccer fan decked out in his team's colors, cheers before the start of the group C World Cup soccer match between Japan and Colombia at the Arena Pantanal in Cuiaba, Brazil. Colombia demolished Japan 4-1, advancing the South Americans to the next round where they will face off with Uruguay, in Rio de Janeiro, Saturday, June 28.
In this June 23, 2014 photo, a Mexican soccer fan wearing his team's colors, poses for a photo while he waits for the for the start of a group A World Cup soccer match between Croatia and Mexico at the Arena Pernambuco in Recife, Brazil. The Netherlands, the World Cup's highest-scoring team will meet on Sunday, June 29, arguably the tournament's best goalkeeper, Mexico's Guillermo Ochoa. If the Dutch want to progress to the quarterfinals, it will have to do what only one man has done so far â?" beat Ochoa, who conceded just one goal, a late consolation strike by Croatia's Ivan Perisic in Mexico's 3-1 win.
In this June 26, 2014 photo, an Algeria fan sporting his team's colors, waits for the beginning of the group H World Cup soccer match between Algeria and Russia at the Arena da Baixada in Curitiba, Brazil. Algeria drew with Russia 1-1, and advanced to the round of 16 for the first time in their World Cup history. Algeria will play against Germany, three-time World Cup champions, in Porto Alegre, Monday, June 30.
In this June 26, 2014 photo, a Belgian fan cheers for his national team before the start of the group H World Cup soccer match between South Korea and Belgium at the Itaquerao Stadium in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Belgium advanced to the next round by defeating South Korea 1-0 in their group H match, to face the United States in the knockout phase, in Salvador, Tuesday, July 1.
In this June 13, 2014 photo, a Dutch fan wears a helmet with a Brazilian flag motif, decorated with carrots hanging from its sides, during the group B World Cup soccer match between Spain and the Netherlands at the Arena Ponte Nova in Salvador, Brazil. The Netherlands, the tournament's highest scoring team, is set to meet arguably the tournament's best goalkeeper in Mexico's Guillermo Ochoa in the round of 16 in Fortaleza, Sunday, June 29.
An USA supporter shouts out before the group G World Cup soccer match between the United States and Portugal at the Arena da Amazonia in Manaus, Brazil, Sunday, June 22, 2014. | https://www.pe.com/2014/07/01/world-cup-fans-fans-fans/ |
With the Holte End being in the papers the last week, Villan Dale Spencer looks back on the Liverpool game from his view in the North Stand
The first of three games against a trio of the last season’s top four teams, saw Liverpool visit to Villa Park in a game that brought much prematch expectation. There was promise of snow, a possible protest in the Holte and a chance of a rare double over Liverpool, none of which really materialised though.
It was a decent crowd of almost 40,000, from the North Stand, the Holte looked pretty full, a few strolled up from the concourse on the eighth minute and small chants of “Poor Support, My Lord” broke out. The build up and media hype transcended the actual event. The Brigada 1874 banner being held up in the corner of the Holte and Trinity facing the North, reading “FIGHT LIKE LIONS”, typified the mood.
The North stand was busier than usual. The seats to the right and in front of me were occupied by very unfamiliar looking fans. I suspected a few Liverpudlians may have gotten into the home end ala the United game.
The match got underway and it was more of what we are used to seeing from Villa at home this season, the Liverpool fans were loud as their team started brightly and bursts of ‘You’ll never walk alone’ and chants about Steven Gerrard filled Villa Park.
The Villa crowd seemed to be a lot more tolerant to the flat Villa performance this week, as they were playing a decent Liverpool side who had hit a little bit of form lately winning their last four away games before arriving in B6. The loudest cheer from the Villa fans came when a late flag denied a massively celebrated Liverpool goal, all four stands of Villa replied in typical fashion with ironic cheers back to the Scousers.
The first real goal came from absolutely nothing and there was no real reaction from the home support. There was almost a defeatist attitude in the North Stand of ‘here we go again’; the team had shown them nothing and they were giving nothing back. My suspicions of the gentlemen sitting to the right of me were confirmed as one of the stood up as the goal went in, the stewards came to give him a stern word and most of the North seemed to be more concerned with him rather than what was happening on the pitch.
Liverpool kept pushing forward with real quality and pace. Sterling should have made it two and myself among another 35,000 Villa fans sat there thinking there was no way back for the Lions. The invertible half-time boos came for Lambert and his men.
One comment I overheard from the seats behind was “Right, now for the real entertainment, the half time shootout”. It’s a game that Villa host every half-time where they lay down a mat on the half-way line opposite the Villa dugout with different sections, each of which represent a different prize. Four Villains get to try and kick the ball from the byline in front of the Holte and if it lands in one of the segments then they win the respective prize. We had our first winner since mid-way through last season, which brought the second biggest cheer out of the Villa faithful after the disallowed goal.
Villa started brightly in the second half, but Liverpool still looked menacing. The Villa pressure slowly eased off and the home crowd started to get frustrated once more. Villa then made two substitutions.
First Cleverley was taken off, this was met by massive ironic cheers, which I must admit I was a little uncomfortable with, I know the lad hasn’t done much since joining, but he does work hard…the cheers seemed to be unanimous with the supporters, the thing that I found slightly strange was that his replacement, Weimann had exactly the same treatment in Villa’s last home game against Crystal Palace. In my opinion it was unneeded and was probably born out of frustration with the team more than anything else.
Next it was Westwood off and Carles Gil on, and the Spanish midfielder was met with a good reception as all new signings are.
Villa burst into life after the changes, Gil and Sanchez looked to have little bit of chemistry together after being teammates at Elche. The crowd really did take to the new boy, he beat a man and the crowd were on their feet, it was such a contrast in emotion to the previous ten minutes. Villa did have Liverpool on the ropes for a while and some real chances did fall our way with the switch to a more direct approach.
The 20 minutes of promise from Villa was undone when Liverpool caught us on the counter. Delph gave the ball away deep in the Villa half and they were punished by a clinical strike from Rickie Lambert. The crowd were more hurt by this goal, as it really did kill the game after a little bit of promise going forward from Villa.
The away fans were louder than ever and a massive chorus of ‘You’ll Never Walk Alone’ broke out from the Doug Ellis corner, which you could only admire even as a Villa fan. There were a few echo’s of ‘Lambert Out’ from the Holte towards the end and one or two individuals from the North voiced their discontent with the team and around the ground an early exodus began in protest.
And still no goal for Villa! UTV
Away Fans – 7/10
Their team played well and they when they did sing it was loudly, although there were some bleak periods in the game which wouldn’t really get anybody excited.
Home Atmosphere – 6-10
Despite a decent turnout of 39,758, the atmosphere was subdued for the majority of the game, however the home fans reacted passionately when the team showed them a bit of attacking flair after the introduction of Gil .
Check out Dale’s Youtube video as he reviews the season so far and transfer talk. | https://www.myoldmansaid.com/north-stand-villa-park-carles-gil-liverpool-fans/ |
“Embrace this moment. There’s so many of our fellow fans back home who wished they were here with us. We have to bring it for them.” That was my challenge to the hundreds of fans who packed Le Diskret in the center of Lyon Sunday afternoon for the American Outlaws pregame before the Women’s World Cup final. The United States Women’s National Team were on the verge of winning a 4th World Cup title, but in their way stood a tough Netherlands team. The Oranje were not just bringing it on the field, their fans had been the darlings of the tournament. The noise in the stands was setting up to be a great atmosphere.
Still, this was a big moment for the players and the fans who were in Lyon for the final. The streets were buzzing with traffic as fans dressed in orange or red, white, and blue were all over town. But for the American fans, they were all ready to watch their team make history again. The challenge put forth: embrace the moment. Do it for everyone who couldn’t be here to share. Let the world know that the Americans were there.
After the mini-rally at Le Diskret, it was to the stadium, where FIFA was on the prowl. While security was very inconsistent, it also became stringent for a few supporters. Security tried to take their scarves, citing that it was club apparel that was not allowed in the stadium. Nevermind that every 8th or 9th jersey was a club jersey from somewhere in the world, but eventually after speaking with security they were let inside. Inside the stadium, people were seeking out last minute souvenirs from the shop, getting some food, or just walking around the exterior concourse of Groupama Stadium. The fans were alive, but there was a somewhat tense mood about the air. It’s the World Cup final...of course there were a few butterflies in the stomachs of some. But, everyone was excited to be in the stadium for the biggest match in women’s soccer.
The teams come out for the anthems and before you know it, the match is underway. The first “U-S-A” chant was spine tingling and it zooms around the stadium as the teams battle on it. The Dutch fans also are bringing some noise, but every chant from one side was met with a chant from the other set of fans. It wasn’t quite the noise level of the USWNT match against France, but it’s an atmosphere certainly worthy for a final. As the first half ticks away, every possible chance is met with a growing roar and then, ultimately, a large sigh as a chance was thwarted.
We reach halftime with the match still scoreless, but it’s a chance for fans to catch their breath. Then, in the 60th minute, Alex Morgan is kicked across the body by a Dutch defender. It’s initially not called, but then the VAR buzzed in. The ref takes a look at it and changes the call to a penalty. The American fans go wild at the call. Megan Rapinoe steps up to the spot and knocks it home right in front of the American Outlaws, who turn the stands into a sea of euphoria.
Just 8 minutes later, a demonstration of brilliance by Rose Lavelle ended with her sending the ball into the back of the net, and the American fans went crazy. There were still 20 minutes left in the match, but a 2-0 lead in this match was just that much more breathing room. As the match entered the 80th minute, the feeling started around the stadium that this was it...the USWNT may have just pulled this off. For me, it was a moment to try and get them across that finish line one last time, singing songs to try and keep everyone’s emotions at bay. Myself included.
One last “boom boom clap” chant began when 90:00 hit the clock, and the fans now were starting the celebration. With around 4 minutes gone in stoppage time, the U.S. bench started to run down towards the field, and that’s when everyone knew. They were just waiting for the final whistle.
The whistle sounds for full time. A primal yell erupts from the pro-American crowd as the team storms the field. Me? The emotions overcame me and I started crying. All the tears. Every tear duct was overrun with moisture, but it was all happy. I thought about how hard the team had worked to once again achieve this dream. Players like Crystal Dunn and Jessica McDonald had been working their whole lives to get to this point, Dunn famously the last cut from the 2015 World Cup title team. For Megan Rapinoe, Carli Lloyd and Becky Sauerbrunn, among others, it was probably their last World Cup match, and they were going out in style. Not only did I become emotional because of how hard the team had worked, I thought back at the work we had done in the stands this entire month. Every single chant, the days of waking up early to drink tea to heal the vocal chords I destroyed every single match, the late nights of travel and early mornings of work back home so that I would have the time to commit to the events we had planned here in France. The scores of people who were at every single match, from start to finish, because they believed in us and this team and this dream of a successful Tour de Four. Everyone in that stadium gave everything they had for this to happen, whether it was their voice or their athletic talent. And the dream came true. The Tour de Four was complete. That’s why I broke down with tears of joy. And I wasn’t the only one.
Men supporting women’s sports to tears is what we need pic.twitter.com/HIJXgUIbjC— Heather Haavisto (@othersuns) July 7, 2019
Tears and cheers were followed closely by hugs and high fives as the chanting continued for the players as they celebrated on the field. While the crowd waited for the trophy presentations, a huge chant of “Equal Pay!” rang out.
EQUAL PAY #USWNT pic.twitter.com/hQMGz6q54H— Mina Park (@minapark) July 7, 2019
Then, it was time for the trophy presentations. Megan Rapinoe won the Golden Boot and the Golden Ball, while Alex Morgan earned the Silver Boot and Rose Lavelle the Bronze Ball. Then, it was the World Cup trophy presentation. And The Gals, fresh in new championship jerseys, hoisted it high and proud.
CHAMPIONS.— U.S. Soccer WNT (@USWNT) July 7, 2019
⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️ #OneNationOneTeam pic.twitter.com/0T8Ml1mK5v
The celebrations continued around the field, with players eventually making it all the way over to the end where the American Outlaws and other U.S. supporters were still going strong. The party began in that area, with the team dancing and lifting the trophy as the crowd serenaded them with songs and chants. After that, the party for the team went into the locker room and the crowd started to slowly disperse, some remaining for final pictures or just for hugs with some of the people they had witnessed history with.
Finally, the party for the fans moved out into the parking lots, confetti cannons popping and beers flowing. The after party for fans was back at Le Diskret, where a few hundred celebrated with dancing and partying until the club closed its doors at 1:00am. Today, for most fans, it’s a travel day as we begin our departure from France and back to the United States. But, no matter where we go, the motto is really simple: | https://www.starsandstripesfc.com/2019/7/8/20686073/french-baguettes-quatre-etoiles-usa-uswnt-four-stars-womens-world-cup-title-trophy |
Ghana crushed Guinea, six goals to two, in a Olympic qualifying soccer match in Ghana's capital, Accra on sunday (14 December).
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Short Summary
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Description
1.
GV Guinea kick off playing from right to left wearing all white. Guinea scores first goal
1.00
2.
SV Spectators
1.01
3.
GV Ghana kicks off and attacks
1.26
4.
SV Crowd
1.28
5.
SV Ghana scores equalising goal by Kwasi Owusu
1.33
6.
SV Scoreboard
1.36
7.
LV SECOND HALF: Corner to Ghana - Hammond scores second goal for Ghana
1.46
8.
SV Crowd
1.49
9.
SV Ghana attacks and scores third goal through Dan Owusu as crowd cheeers (4 shots)
2.08
10.
GV Guinea attacks and scores second goal through Coude
2.26
11.
SV Scoreboard
2.27
12.
GV Ghana scores fourth goal from Kwasi Owusu from penalty
2.34
13.
SV Crowd
2.37
14.
SV Ghana scores fifth goal by Kwasi Owusu
2.45
15.
SV Scoreboard
2.46
16.
GV Ghana breaks away and scores final and sixth goal through Polo as crowd looks on (3 shots)
2.59
Initials
SOCCER
Script is copyright Reuters Limited. All rights reserved
Background: Ghana crushed Guinea, six goals to two, in a Olympic qualifying soccer match in Ghana's capital, Accra on sunday (14 December).
Before a large and ecstatic crowd the home team began the game with perhaps a touch of overconfidence.
But such optimism seemed misplaced when the visitors slammed home the first score of the match within the first minute.
The goal appeared to rattle the Ghana Black Stars who, in their enthusiasm to equalize, made many elementary mistakes.
It was not unit 25 minutes into the first half that the Ghana skipper, Kwasi Owusu, took full advantage of beautiful pass from Robert Hammond to put the ball beyond the reach of the advancing Guinea goalie, and made the score one all.
With the crowd thundering its support the Black Stars attacked unmercifully but again, due to bad mistakes by the forward and the steady pressure of the Guinea defence, the home side was not able to score.
After half time Guinea adopted "go-slow" tactics which appeared to baffle the Black Stars who were becoming increasingly frustrated by such "gamesmanship".
However at the 58th minute Hammond managed to smash home a well taken corner kick from Yaw Sam to put Ghana one goal up.
Shortly afterwards Sam was replaced by Dan Owusu who justified the decision by flashing a quick one past the Guinean goalie to bring the score to three to one.
But the Guineans continued to be unruffled and played some masterful football with substitute, Bargaly Coude, dribbling where and when he liked.
And just when the home crowd had began to celebrate Ghana's inclusion in the next round of the series, Coude cooly placed home another goal for the visitors.
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Data
- Film ID:
- VLVA6FYP3X68FGDEP4S01VI6MYED4
- Media URN:
- VLVA6FYP3X68FGDEP4S01VI6MYED4
- Group:
- Reuters - Source to be Verified
- Archive:
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- HD Format: | https://www.britishpathe.com/video/VLVA6FYP3X68FGDEP4S01VI6MYED4-GHANA-GHANA-CRUSHES-GUINEA-6-GOALS-TO-2-IN-OLYMPIC-QUALIFYING |
Illinois High School Athlete’s Heartwarming Sacrifice Is a Lesson For All of Us
Sometimes it takes very little effort to create a heartwarming moment that will never be forgotten, sometimes it takes a sacrifice. This example involves sacrifice and selflessness, which is arguably lacking in society today.
THE BACKSTORY
Winnebago Indians has a varsity soccer match recently in Watertown, Illinois on the grounds of Indian Creek Middle School. This was a special night for the home team as it was their Senior Night. As similar to most Senior Night festivities, the celebration included player introductions, a 50/50 raffle, barbecue, and something completely unexpected
WARNING: HEARTSTRING PULLING MOMENT AHEAD
The story, shared on Facebook, goes like this.
Winnebago Indians were setting up for an on-the-road victory when something much more important was about to happen.
WINNEBAGO 7, INDIAN CREEK 0
With a few minutes remaining in the match, Winnebago picked up another goal leading to a shutout for goalkeeper Braylon Garrigan. In between plays one of Indian Creek's players approached a competing player in need of a favor. Now, remember, Bago is about to take a win and Garrigan is about to get a shutout for the game.
Before Indian Creek kicked off following the Bago goal, an Indian Creek player approached one of our defensemen and asked for a favor. On their team, they have a player with special needs, and they wanted him to have a chance to score a goal during their Senior Celebration.
Indian Creek kicked off and passed it off to their teammate. Cheers and applause started to grow as he made his way down the field with the ball, moving through our Bago defense as they tried to defend, and took a shot that was a little off target.
Can you guess what happens next?
Indian Creek’s forward was able to get to the ball, pass it back to him, and he was able to put it in the back of the net with 10 seconds remaining in the game. Both benches, all the coaches, all the players on the field, and every fan in the stadium that day erupted with cheers at his accomplishment.
The lesson? A sacrifice that leads to a heartwarming lifelong memory is absolutely worth it. | https://1440wrok.com/illinois-high-school-athletes-heartwarming-sacrifice-is-a-lesson-for-all-of-us/ |
VIDEO US Women's World Cup Parade: Thousands Show Up In New York To Celebrate USWNT, Chants Of 'Equal Pay'
After a successful defense at the 2019 FIFA World Cup, the U.S. Women’s National Team celebrated Wednesday with a parade in New York City. Thousands of fans gathered along Broadway to support the U.S. team, which won its fourth title since the Women's World Cup began in 1991.
The parade began with the team riding through Manhattan’s "Canyon of Heroes," just as they did after their win in 2015. Players were greeted with cheers from supporters filling the streets to see the World Cup winners in person before the parade ended with a rally at city hall.
Social media was buzzing with excitement from the parade.
U.S. stars Alex Morgan, Carli Lloyd, and Megan Rapinoe addressed the crowd at the rally. Rapinoe, arguably the most outspoken player on the roster, won the Golden Ball and Golden Boot award for the tournament.
There were also chants of "Equal Pay" for the players, who don't earn the same amount as the men's side. This has been a running theme throughout the 2019 World Cup, as the women’s team is suing the U.S. Soccer Federation for gender and pay discrimination.
The sentiment has even reached Congress. Sen. Joe Manchin of West Virginia introduced a bill that would block funding for the 2026 FIFA World Cup until the U.S. Soccer agrees to equal pay for the men’s and women’s teams.
“No federal funds may be appropriated or otherwise made available to provide support for the 2026 World Cup, including support for a host city, a participating State or local agency, the United States Soccer Federation, the Confederation of North, Central America and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF), or the Federation de Football Association (FIFA), until the date on which the United States Soccer Federation agrees to provide equitable pay,” the bill reads. | https://www.ibtimes.com/video-us-womens-world-cup-parade-thousands-show-new-york-celebrate-uswnt-chants-equal-2805844 |
President Donald Trump was greeted with a chorus of boos, some cheers and a “Lock him up!” chant during Game 5 of the World Series between the Washington Nationals and the Houston Astros Sunday night.
The president showed up shortly after the first inning, and was announced to the crowd on the scoreboard during Nationals Park’s salute to veterans, prompting loud boos:
The reaction pic.twitter.com/qvp3DqRiJm
— Dan Steinberg (@dcsportsbog) October 28, 2019
The boos directed toward Trump & the other Republicans shown on the scoreboard were.. very evident on radio pic.twitter.com/qE5U2B15k0
— Timothy Burke (@bubbaprog) October 28, 2019
Look how Trump’s face changes when he realizes an entire stadium is booing him pic.twitter.com/E46rzbzmbl
— Arlen Parsa (@arlenparsa) October 28, 2019
As the fourth inning began, the crowd initiated a “Lock him up!” chant, a throwback to Trump’s campaign trail chant directed at Hillary Clinton in 2016.
President Trump was booed loudly by the fans at Nats Park when he was shown on the big screen. Then came a loud chant: “Lock him up.” @wusa9 pic.twitter.com/LBbgSAHd6k
— Adam Longo (@adamlongoTV) October 28, 2019
Full on “LOCK HIM UP! LOCK HIM UP!” chants heard throughout the crowd at Nats Park after President Trump was announced and shown on screen here #WorldSeries pic.twitter.com/1ktVXkHYFy
— Monica Alba (@albamonica) October 28, 2019
Some cheers were also audible:
Both cheers and boos for Pres Trump at game 5 of the #WorldSeries: pic.twitter.com/KSXiCnsczR
— Frank Thorp V (@frankthorp) October 28, 2019
Humanitarian chef and outspoken Trump critic José Andrés threw the ceremonial first pitch, drawing rousing applause from fans. There was some chatter over the announcement that he would throw the first pitch instead of the president, who had announced he would arrive to the game late to reduce interference with fans arriving to the stadium.
Wall Street Journal White House reporter Michael Bender noted the difference in decibels between the anti-Trump chants and the applause for Andrés:
Nationals fans boo President Trump, then chant “lock him up.” pic.twitter.com/P2tfNFc3HW
— Michael C. Bender (@MichaelCBender) October 28, 2019
The boos for Trump at Nationals Park registered about 95 decibels, about as much noise as food blender. The cheers for Jose Andres hit 96.6, a little closer to the sound of a subway pic.twitter.com/cGC35u8Do5
— Michael C. Bender (@MichaelCBender) October 28, 2019
First lady Melania Trump and a number of GOP politicians joined the president in the Washington Suite, including Sen. Lindsey Graham (R-S.C.), Matt Gaetz (R-Fla.) and Liz Cheney (R-Wyo.).
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Source Link: | https://spectrumreport.com/trump-greeted-with-lock-him-up-chants-and-boos-at-world-series/ |
'Trump!' game delivers latest sportsmanship lesson
Monday night’s chants from within the Dallas Center-Grimes student section traveled across the court faster than activities director Steve Watson could silence them.
The Class 3A district playoff game turned sour for Perry fans and boys’ basketball players who heard the cheers — "Trump! Trump! Trump!" Perry’s multi-ethnic and growing Latino population got the message that picked up GOP presidential front-runner Donald Trump's anti-immigration comments.
Now, the programs northwest of Des Moines are thrust into a complex conversation about sportsmanship, respect and crowd control at high school athletic events. DCG and Perry are approaching the fallout as a learning opportunity.
“(DCG) has addressed our concern and certainly we’re all wishing it hadn’t happened,” Perry activities director Tom Lipovac said. “I’ve spoken to Steve the last two days. Their superintendent has been in contact with our superintendent. Their principal has contacted our principal. Their basketball coach has been in contact with our basketball coach.
“What a few might do doesn’t represent the sportsmanship of a school district, its fans, students or administrators.”
Perry won the first-round game in Adel, 57-50, and students spoke out on the chant to area TV stations and across social media.
“It's honestly disrespectful. That's how I take it. I hear it during the game, on and off the court. Everywhere I go,” Perry senior Shammond Ivory told WHO TV.
No Perry varsity players are Latino, the team's coach, Ned Menke, said, but 48 percent of the student body population is a minority, according to Perry school leaders.
Like the cheers or yells that spread in the bleachers, Twitter or Snapchat posts can escalate a sportsmanship problem before administrators can stop it. Both schools said they were made aware of social media banter between students after the game.
Watson said the Trump chants came from 10 to 15 individuals of the 100- to 120-member student section. He estimated the chant was yelled "four or five times."
In the noisy playoff atmosphere, some on the Perry sideline couldn’t even hear the chant.
"When they saw me come down the bleachers, they knew it was wrong," Watson said. "As an administrator you'd like to think you wouldn't even have to tell them to stop, or they wouldn't even start it."
Watson declined to discuss any disciplinary measures taken against the students participating in the chant, citing student privacy.
"Whenever anything turns personal or offensive, it's out of line, and this is definitely out of line,” Watson said. "Our kids know that. They knew it before. They chose to do it."
The Iowa High School Athletic Association and Iowa Girls High School Athletic Union allow districts to handle disciplinary issues that stem from behavior on-site or online.
“Unless requested by a school administrator, the athletic association does not become involved in resolving the issue because we believe that is best left to the school administrators of the schools involved,” IHSAA Executive Director Alan Beste said Wednesday.
Iowa’s prep programs follow “Conduct Counts,” which encourages spectators to stay positive and avoid disrespectful conduct that could result in warnings or an ejection from the event.
The policy’s posters are found in gyms statewide and their message will be reinforced after Monday’s incident.
“We emphasize cheering for and not against,” Lipovac said, “but we all face challenges when it comes to sportsmanship. You see it at all levels and for some sports, it’s more of a challenge than others.”
In an editorial to the Perry Chief newspaper, Perry junior Kevin Lopez wrote that Monday marked the fourth time the “Trump!” cheer had been used in a negative manner toward the Bluejays.
“It is a chant said to intimidate and discriminate our Latino/Hispanic students and it is a chant that is fueled by racism,” Lopez said in the editorial.
Storm Lake boys’ basketball coach Heath Stille said Wednesday that his program had yet to encounter any similar discrimination this season. According to 2014 Census estimates, Buena Vista County counts Latinos as nearly 25 percent of its total population, while the number is 5.6 percent statewide.
“I’m not saying it hasn’t happened, but it’s not something the basketball team has had to deal with, so I don’t think about it. I haven’t heard anything at our school or anything to keep an eye out for, which is good.”
Whether political and technological changes continue to affect student section behavior, the state’s athletic associations acknowledge that cheers and policies are constantly evolving.
“Activities are an extension of the classroom,” Lipovac said. “It’s a lesson best learned with the proper respect shown to everyone. And we all struggle with that. Where is that line when it comes to sportsmanship?”
Specific words and phrases won’t be banned because new ones will come along. But the hope for both programs is to build sportsmanship — on and off the court — going forward.
"Our goal in every event is that our kids will support our own kids in a positive way,” Watson said. "No kid that puts a basketball uniform on deserves to go out on the court and be personally attacked or offended.
"I talked to some of our kids this morning, asking, 'How do we move on?' It'll be a long educational process for us. Unfortunately, but probably fortunately, our basketball season is over. Generally, we need to be more respectful."
Perry (13-9) plays Boone (8-14) in the Class 3A District 15 final at 7 p.m. Thursday in Johnston. | https://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/sports/high-school/2016/02/24/dcg-perry-game-delivers-latest-sportsmanship-lesson/80877724/ |
On Wednesday night, when Eddie Nketiah was shown a red card for Arsenal against Leicester after a reckless, studs-up challenge, the reaction in the stadium was understandably muted compared to the usual roar of protest you might expect to hear in a packed Emirates. After the card was brandished by referee Chris Kavanagh, the 21-year-old skulked off while his teammates argued half-heartedly. Due to ongoing coronavirus-related crowd control, there were no fans to light the fire they might have needed to mount a more convincing challenge.
Yet, in a tiny, windowless studio in Osterley, West London, something magical was happening. Sat at a desk with three monitors and several Midi soundboards – a device with volume controls and buttons that are typically used to helm digital musical instruments – sound engineer Adam Peri had a split second to react. He turned up a dial marked “whistles” (scribbled in black biro on white stick-on labels) and tinkered with buttons on a touchpad labelled “ohhh”. TVs across the country erupted with the sounds of artificial outrage and viewers barely registered that they were watching a game of football in a dystopian future wherein the Premier League is being played in empty stadiums.
When English football restarted on 17 June, there was plenty of talk about the decision to follow in Germany’s footsteps in artificially re-creating the sounds of the crowd. Much of it was negative. The Guardian wrote a think piece; fans threw toys out of prams on Twitter. But three weeks in, it’s proving the more popular option (Sky allows viewers to turn the crowd noises on and off during all of its matches). “Percentage-wise, it has borne out that significantly more people prefer the augmented version than the natural sound,” Sky’s director of studios Kevin Ramsey tells us. “But each to their own.”
And, for their part, Sky are putting in the work to ensure that the crowd sounds aren’t simply a gimmick or an add-on. The broadcaster has assembled a team who have been working long hours since early May to build an entirely new artificial audio system and they’ve tapped into their long-standing relationship with EA Sports – the developers behind the hugely popular football video game Fifa – to do so. EA has granted the broadcaster access to their gargantuan library of crowd noises – many of which are, ironically, sourced from Sky in the first place.
Peri is one of a team of six sound engineers who have been asked to go above and beyond their day job in order to improve the football viewing experience in these bizarre circumstances. The New Zealand native normally mixes microphones for presenters and follows the ball around the pitch – sonically speaking, via 17 pitch mics – during live games. Long before the date for the restart had been decided, he was invited to participate as part of an experimental team to work on something dubbed “crowd effects”. He was soon sent a Midi keyboard to play with and within a week the whole thing had expanded into a large-scale operation, as they endeavoured to add specific chants for specific clubs in building a quite impressive and near-seamless sound collage.
© CHRIS_LOBINA
“Even today we’re still changing things,” Peri tells GQ over Facetime from his desk, as he prepares to play the crowd in a Championship match between West Brom and Derby County. “Every game you do you learn something else and you can improve it, so it’s constantly evolving.”
You’d think that it would be near-impossible to bottle the emotion of a live audience, but they’ve done quite an impressive job. Peri demonstrates the process, toying with various nozzles on his desk, which is as daunting to an outsider as a pilot’s control panel. He turns up the “goal” sound via a fader, followed by the “miss”, a gasp of frustration followed by a smattering of claps that we all know so well.
On first glance, the process looks simple, but there are several layers to it. While there is one “bed loop” that plays throughout and replicates the wall of sound and chatter created by a group of 30,000-plus people, there isn't one blanket reaction for each event – a goal, a miss, a red card – but several reactions of varying degrees of intensity, hence the need for numerous pieces of equipment. A near-miss for the losing home side in the 90th minute of an important game will be a lot louder and more distraught than one early on in a 0-0 draw. There are “home” and “away” controls, which are uploaded with specific chants and sounds for the respective teams in each match. The away team is panned off to the side, to mimic the typical placement of away fans in one section of the stadium. The home fans will almost always be louder than the away fans.
The first few games were a learning curve and there were plenty of vocal detractors on social media. But three weeks in, they’re really in the swing of things. “It’s funny ’cause it went from a lot of people saying, ‘The DJ at home is doing a terrible job’ – a lot of people think we’re just DJs, which is funny – but now you won’t even see a comment. For sound engineers our goal is to be invisible, so it’s good that we’re not being harassed any more on YouTube.”
Peri and his colleagues don’t have a delayed feed to get ahead of broadcast, which means they are playing live in real-time. “We have to just kind of nail it,” he says. “We’ve come up with quite a good way to avoid errors. If you trigger a goal sound and it’s not a goal you can actually kind of disguise it by quickly following it up with a miss sound. It sounds like the crowd’s going ‘yeeeaaa-ohhhhhh’, which does actually happen in the live situation. The only one you can’t fix is if you hit a ‘miss’ sound and it ends up being a goal. Most of the time we just wait to see it hit the back of the net. At the end of the day, we’re just one person sitting behind a desk.”
In an early match – the 0-0 draw between Liverpool and Everton on 21 June – he mistook a near-miss from Richarlison for a goal and let off the “goal” sound, before quickly switching to “miss” (at the 20-second mark in the video below). But, as evidenced by the “brutal comments” on YouTube afterwards, the damage had been done. “Whoever was in charge of the audio deserves the sack,” Danqz 97 commented. It got 57 likes. A bit harsh.
Other mistakes have been more nuanced: “During my first game I had the Arsenal fans much louder than the Man City fans even though it was Man City at home, so the producer who happened to be a Man City fan wasn’t very happy about that. Nowadays we know not to use as much away team chants – we only add that if the away team score a goal and even then it’s still quite subtle.”
Adam Peri outside Sky Studios in Osterley
There are still challenges to overcome – for one, they're struggling to replicate the nervous energy of a losing home side – but if the progress they have made in this new environment in a few weeks is anything to go by, they'll have most of the kinks worked out by the end of the season. And, while those bemoaning a lack of authenticity in the game in 2020 may never be convinced, many of us will continue to be satisfied and soothed by the invisible presence of Peri and his chorus of boos, cheers and whistles. | https://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/sport/article/artificial-crowd-noises |
The Passionate Customer
For me going to away games is a very different experience from the regular trips to Valley Parade – and not just because some of the away trips are shorter. Saturday’s (longer) journey to Meadow Lane gave me cause to think about one of the main differences – the fans. I choose that word ‘fans’ carefully, for reasons I shall come to in a moment.
Back at our home ground I have had the same seat in the Midland Road ever since the stand was rebuilt. Around me are many of the same faces that have always been there, albeit the younger ones are grown up now. (The forty somethings who have become fifty somethings don’t look a day older, of course.) Through all those Midland Road years no one around me has ever shouted abuse at opposition fans or started a chant that has more to do with the team we hate. I still wonder how either of those helps my team.
I wouldn’t want you to think that we sit in silence. That would be very far from the truth. We have plenty to say and, even if the comments of one regular – ‘McCall, do something!’ – are less than obviously constructive, we have plenty to say about the team’s performance, be it good or bad. I am especially fond of letting the officials know what I think of them, although I doubt that they hear me.
Away from home, those around me are a different crowd and can be vocal in an altogether dissimilar style. There were over 1,200 City fans at Meadow Lane, about 10% of those who go to home games. A fairly representative sample, you might think. For the 90% who are relying on Jason Mckeown’s match report for their knowledge of how the fans reacted to the performance, I want to add a few thoughts of my own, particularly about supporters, as contrasted with fans.
The cries of ‘You’re not fit to wear the shirt’ were loudest in that short interval between the third goal and the players leaving the field at half-time. There were other chants, some of which are not for a site like this, but the more interesting ones showed a different slant on the fans’ views of the team performance. It was ‘We want our money back’ and ‘What a waste of money’ that got me thinking.
What those latter chants showed was that the fans go to watch their team with certain expectations. On Saturday the expectations were clearly not met when the second and third goals went in before half time. Had it been Chelsea scoring those goals, that response might not have happened. But this was a mid-table fourth division side and City were supposed to be better than them, especially after the promises of improvement after Barnet.
What the fans were complaining about was not just that the team was playing badly (which was plainly true), but that they had come to expect better. They had spent their hard earned twenty pounds each (plus travel costs and the rest) not just to see a game of football and to support the team, but to see them perform well and preferably to win. The whole notion of supporting the team through thick and thin had gone out of the window. It had been replaced by the customer’s privilege to complain about the quality of the product he had paid for.
If I go to my local supermarket and buy a full priced tin of beans, only to get home and discover that there is more juice than bean, then I am well within my rights to take it back and complain. I do that because I feel I have paid for better; I have been cheated; I want some recompense from the store; and perhaps I hope for improvement in the future. But nobody would dream of calling me a supporter of the store. I am a customer.
Professional football, as must be obvious to the thoughtful observer, is a curious mixture of sport and business. The business end has taken an increasingly leading role for some years now. The Prawn Sandwich Brigade are the extreme example of this change toward the customer. But the vocal away fans at Meadow Lane are different from the Prawn Sandwich Brigade only in the way they express their desire to obtain value for money. One lot keep quiet, because they don’t care about what is happening out there on the field; the other lot do care, but in the same sense as a customer cares.
Experience suggests that constructive criticism, especially from our managers, is the best way forward. Very few professionals in any walk of life improve by being abused by their customers. Many more will react by saying ‘I don’t have to take this, even though your custom is going toward paying my wages.’ Just try shouting abuse down the phone at a call centre employee and see where it gets you. Cut off, is where it gets you and you still haven’t got your complaint resolved. And shouting abuse face to face at the customer service desk when you return your beans will get you arrested.
Now I would be the first to agree that supporting (and this time I chose that word carefully) your team is a passionate business, not to be compared with buying baked beans. But I thought we’d all agreed after BarryBooGate that support means just that. You cheer and clap the good moments, few as they might have been on Saturday, and encourage improvement in the not so good moments.
There is a story often repeated where I live about the Liverpool team that won the European Cup in 2005. They went off at half time 3-0 down and all they could hear was their own supporters still singing at the tops of their voices all the way through the interval. We all know what happened in the second half and the likes of Jamie Carragher and Steven Gerard will tell you that they couldn’t let down their own supporters.
There was a little less hostility from the away crowd in the second half on Saturday. Some of it turned to sarcasm – the olés when the opposition kept passing the ball among themselves – and some of it became quite amusing – the chants of ‘Let’s pretend we’ve scored a goal’ followed by a mock celebration. Just how these changes of mood come about would no doubt be a fascinating study for some psychologist. But what would they know?
What I’m trying to find out is whether football fans, and City fans in particular, have stopped being supporters and have become customers.
Supporters can still express any view after the match, especially in this Internet age. Sometimes for the players during the match silence says it all and I have to say that’s my attitude. If I’ve nothing to cheer or encourage, I stay quiet. Lots of people back in the Midland Road adopt a similar approach. We support whenever we can; we criticise among ourselves, not directly at the players while they’re still out there and there’s still hope. Even as a passionate customer, always seeking improvement in the quality of the product, how can I expect to achieve what I’m looking for by joining in mass negativity?
I may feel it appropriate to be negative and even abusive, if I want to be a passionate customer and put the ‘customer’ part above anything else. But is that still part of being a supporter? Haven’t I stopped supporting in any meaningful sense of that word? | http://www.boyfrombrazil.co.uk/2009/03/the-passionate-customer/ |
This is the moment the Labour Party Conference erupted with the famous “Oh Jeremy Corbyn ” chant as he started to address the crowd.
Fresh from snatching Theresa May’s majority in the election, thousands of Labour party members are currently in Brighton for their annual conference.
In the video Corbyn can be seen attempting to get the cheering crowd under order, jokingly shouting: “If we could bring the conference to order.”
However the Labour leader’s calls go unheard as the chants continue to get louder until the crowd erupts with “oh Jeremy Corbyn.”
The scenes were similar to those seen at a ‘f*** the Tory Party Party’ held in Liverpool the night after Corbyn’s stunning election performance.
The sold out event, held at 24 Kitchen Street in the Baltic Triangle , was arranged in celebration after Labour defied polls and took a number of key Tory targets.
Hundreds of Scousers joined the crowd in cheers featuring the Labour leader’s name .
Singing along to The White Stripe’s Seven Nation Army, the crowd changed the lyrics of the song to include Corbyn’s name in a reenactment of the memorable moment he appeared at the Wirral Live festival in May.
Later in the night, the crowd sang World Cup hit Three Lions, changing the lyrics to “Corbyn’s coming home”.
The song shot to fame when Corbyn appeared at the Wirral Live Festival in May alongside The Libertines - which many people said was the turning point in his campaign. | https://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/news/liverpool-news/labour-party-conference-erupts-oh-13682374 |
Corona del Mar High School’s Girls Junior Varsity and Varsity volleyball team competed against Huntington Beach High School last Thursday in their first league game of the year. The Junior Varsity game was first and suspense hung thick in the air. Both the heat spilling in through the open doors of the gymnasium and the anticipation of the game caused the crowd to stir. The team was “feeling great, hyped, and pumped” as described by Kristy Riddle, a junior. As the crowd continued to fill in, vigorous music started blaring and its volume could be felt throughout one’s ribs. This was the signal for both teams to start practicing. The crowd was buzzing with excitement, despite the drowsiness the sultry weather-induced.
CdM had a strong start, but unfortunately couldn’t defer Huntington Beach’s team for long. The scores for the first set were 16-25, in favor of Huntington Beach. However, that didn’t stop the players’ teammates from cheering their support during the second set. The next scores weren’t far from the first though, landing at a similar 15-25. The Junior Varsity team didn’t let this bring them down on the inside, but rather fueled them for their upcoming games. Matisse Robertson is 15, and the only freshman to make it onto JV. She said the team “could’ve done a lot better” but that they just “weren’t there mentally”. She did end on a more positive note, saying that she’s “very excited to be on the team” and is “hoping for a good season”.
After a short break, the Varsity team was ready to take on Huntington and whatever lay ahead. The loud music that had played in between games faded away and the silence that followed hung heavy in the air. The first set was closer than that of Junior Varsity, but Huntington still took the victory with the scores being 19-25. The second set was 17-25, causing both the team’s and the crowd’s hopes to dwindle slightly. The JV team supported their fellow athletes from the sidelines, hoping that the Varsity team would persevere. The third set would determine if CdM lost or if they were still in the game, and tension blanketed the gymnasium.
The third set began and the tension was quickly replaced by the crowd’s cheers for both CdM and Huntington. Would this be the end of the event or would CdM give it their all and take an unexpected victory? To the team’s dismay it was the former, with the last set’s scores being 19-25. When asked how she was feeling before and after the game, Paige Carillo–a junior on the Varsity team–said she was “feeling optimistic to start” but she thought that they didn’t play their best. Nevertheless, the CdMHS Girls Volleyball team has many experiences yet to come with the new season that will surely have the crowd on the edges of their seats once again. | https://cdmtridentonline.com/5209/sports/girls-volleyball-cdm-vs-huntington-beach-jv-v/ |
What is the purpose of imagery?
The function of imagery in literature is to generate a vibrant and graphic presentation of a scene that appeals to as many of the reader’s senses as possible. It aids the reader’s imagination to envision the characters and scenes in the literary piece clearly.
How do you write an imagery essay?
To start an IMAGE paragraph, you will need a topic sentence. This sentence should focus on how the author’s description contributes to the tones in the story. Example: Imagery throughout the passage increases the sense of danger the narrator feels upon seeing the snake.
What does imagery do in a speech?
Imagery can be defined as a writer or speaker’s use of words or figures of speech to create a vivid mental picture or physical sensation. Many good examples of imagery and figurative language can be found in Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, a sermon delivered by the Puritan minister Jonathan Edwards.
What is a good example of imagery?
Common Examples of Imagery Taste: The familiar tang of his grandmother’s cranberry sauce reminded him of his youth. Sound: The concert was so loud that her ears rang for days afterward. Sight: The sunset was the most gorgeous they’d ever seen; the clouds were edged with pink and gold.
How do you describe imagery?
Imagery is the literary term used for language and description that appeals to our five senses. When a writer attempts to describe something so that it appeals to our sense of smell, sight, taste, touch, or hearing; he/she has used imagery. Glittering white, the blanket of snow covered everything in sight. 3.
How do you talk about imagery?
How to analyse imagery – A step-by-step guideRead the passage to see if there is something recognisable to the senses.Identify the examples using sensory imagery; and then: Ask yourself what this imagery is representing?Write about what this imagery does, and how it supports your argument using a T.E.E.L structure.
How do you teach imagery in a poem?
Ask your students to choose one of the photos and write a five-sentence paragraph or 10-line poem about the picture, including imagery in their writing. Instruct them to use descriptive adjectives, action verbs and similes or metaphors to articulate emotional elements in their stories or poems.
How do you explain imagery to a child?
Imagery is when a writer uses very descriptive language, sometimes figurative language (like similes, metaphors, and personification) to appeal to all of your senses. When imagery is written well, the reader can see, hear, taste, touch, and feel the text.
How do you make poetry lessons interesting?
Poetry Activities: Six Simple Ways to Make Poetry Instruction…Entice them with music. Write poems that are fun and nonthreatening. Focus on reading comprehension. Use picture books. Use poetry to teach a writing skill. Play games.
What is literary imagery?
Imagery is language used by poets, novelists and other writers to create images in the mind of the reader. Imagery includes figurative and metaphorical language to improve the reader’s experience through their senses.
How do you identify imagery in literature?
An easy way to spot imagery in a text is to pay attention to words, phrases, and sentences that connect with your five senses (sight, smell, taste, touch, and sound). That’s because writers know that in order to capture a reader’s attention, they need to engage with them mentally, physically, and emotionally. | https://turningtooneanother.net/2021/06/11/what-is-the-purpose-of-imagery/ |
Imagery is powerful. It can evoke a wide range of emotions and sensations. It’s no secret that visual imagery is an important part of storytelling, but what exactly is imagery?
You’ve probably heard the term “imagery” before and maybe you’ve been told to use more of it in your writing. But what is imagery?
Imagery includes all of the mental pictures that readers experience when they are reading something. The images can be made up of any of the senses: sight, taste, touch, smell, or sound.
For example, if a writer describes a person as having hair as “mousy,” readers will conjure up an image in their minds of a mouse.
If the writer then says that the woman’s eyes were like “dark pools” and her teeth were like “tombstones,” readers will see those things in their heads as well.
What Is imagery
What Is imagery in literature and film?
Imagery is a literary or film technique that evokes an emotional response in the reader or viewer.
Images are the essential building blocks of any piece of visual art, including film and literature. Imagery is also important because it can influence how a reader or viewer interprets the work.
There are multiple types of imagery that can be used. The tone of imagery involves the message that the imagery conveys.
Whether an author wants to focus on something beautiful or ugly, he can convey those feelings through his use of imagery. This can be seen in Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s “The Grand Inquisitor,” in which he uses imagery to portray his opinions about Christianity and other religions.
What Is Imagery?
Imagery is the use of vivid, descriptive words to give the reader a detailed picture of what is going on in your writing so that they can easily picture, or visualize, it in their own mind.
Imagery can also pertain to details about movement or a sense of a body in motion (kinesthetic imagery) or the emotions or sensations of a person, such as fear or hunger (organic imagery or subjective imagery).
Imagery draws on the five senses, namely the details of taste, touch, sight, smell, and sound.
What Is Imagery In Literature
Imagery is any literary device that appeals to the senses. This includes all the ways that writers appeal to the reader’s sight, sounds, touch, taste and smell.
A writer can use imagery in many ways.For example, an author might describe a huge storm or a beautiful sunset.
The picture the writer paints in the reader’s mind can be very vivid and memorable.Another way that writers use imagery is by describing things in terms of what they look like.
They might say something looks like an apple or a pig.In this case, the writer is using simile and metaphor to appeal to the reader’s imagination and senses.
Writers usually use imagery for specific purposes in their works of literature.Imagery frequently appeals to more than one sense at once.
For example, consider this passage from “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe:The term “imagery” is used to describe the use of descriptive language in the form of words, sounds, colors and images.Imagery is an important aspect of writing because it allows writers to create a vivid picture in readers’ minds. Because imagery is so crucial to writing well, there are certain elements that make up imagery.
Because imagery is so crucial to writing well, there are certain elements that make up imagery.
Tone:friendly
What Is Imagery In Film
What is Imagery in Film? Imagery is the presentation and use of visual images and objects that are perceived through sight. In film, Imagery is a very powerful tool.
It can be used to represent an idea, a character, an event or even a mood. In film, imagery is used to create a certain mood for the audience.
For example, in the film “Rosemary’s Baby,” the director Roman Polanski presents a lot of death imagery. He does this to show that something sinister and evil is going on with Rosemary’s pregnancy and force the audience to feel anxious about her situation.
What Is Imagery?Imagery is usually presented in film through techniques like cinematography (the style of filming), lighting (how the lighting is used), camera shots (how the shot is framed) and editing (the cutting of scenes).
These techniques use color, shadows, lines and angles to create a style that best represents what the director wants to portray. For example, if there was a scene in which someone was sick with cancer and had no energy left to do anything else but lie down on their bed all day long, this scene could be portrayed by using dark colors like blacks, browns or greens.
Characteristics Of Effective Imagery In Literature
If you want to make the best impression possible, you need to be able to convey your thoughts and feelings through effective imagery. In this article, we will take a look at the techniques which make this kind of imagery so powerful and how you can use them in your own work.
Description:Effective Imagery TechniquesThere are several different techniques that are used in creating effective imagery. Many of these techniques have been around for years, but many modern writers have added their own twist to them as well.
This has led to the creation of new techniques which are equally as powerful as the original ones. However, before we get into the details of these techniques, we first need to go over a few fundamentals.
Description:Fundamentals Of Effective Imagery One of the key elements of effective imagery is to make sure your descriptions are impactful and descriptive. Description is what allows you to paint a picture with your words and allow it to come alive for the reader.
It is important that you put enough description into your work so that your readers feel like they can actually see what you are describing. However, it’s equally important that you don’t go overboard with your descriptions and end up diverting from the plot or story arc at all.
Characteristics Of Effective Imagery In Film
Using strong visuals in your movie is vital to engaging the audience and creating a memorable experience for the viewer. With all the different images out there, it can be hard to know what will work best.
The following are some of the most important characteristics of effective imagery in film. Image Placement Strong image placement is essential to any movie, but it’s especially critical in documentaries.
The filmmaker must decide whether to place strong imagery at the beginning or end of a scene.There are pros and cons for both techniques:Beginning – This technique provides a powerful hook that pulls people into the scene.
The footage from beginning to end builds a story as it goes along, so that viewers sit through the entire film, even if they’re not interested in the topic at first glance.However, viewers must stay engaged throughout; if they get bored or distracted, they might miss the powerful ending you’ve planned.
End – Placing strong imagery at the end of a scene creates a dramatic and emotional climax that leaves an impression on viewers long after they see it.
This makes it easier to hold viewers’ attention throughout the film, because it won’t matter if they drift off during other scenes — they’ll remember your ending long after they forget other parts.
Examples Of Imagery In Literature
What is Imagery?
Imagery is the use of descriptive language to appeal to the reader’s sense of sight, smell, taste, touch, or hearing. In a poem, image is often conveyed through metaphors and similes.
Taking a simple object and comparing it to something more significant is a popular way to create imagery in poetry.
In Flaubert’s Madame Bovary, for example, he describes the young Emma Bovary’s yellow pearls as “a little bit greenish” because they were bought on credit and not new. A simile is an explicit comparison using words such as “like” or “as.”
A metaphor goes further than a simile and actually states that one thing is another thing entirely.A metaphor can be implied by the context.
For example, when you say someone has a “heart of gold,” you are implying that their heart resembles gold in some way and not just that they have a heart that contains gold.
Imagery in Literature
Writers use metaphors and imagery in literature for a variety of reasons: To create beauty through descriptive language To make the experience of reading more memorable and enjoyable Literary works such as novels can take place over a period of years or even decades.
Examples Of Imagery In Film The use of imagery in film is used to create a deeper meaning and understanding in the viewer. The use of imagery can be achieved by a number of different ways. Some of these include:
Visual Metaphor – This can be seen in the Charlie Chaplin film Modern Times. In this film the factory worker is shown as a slave to the machine and is used as a metaphor for how technology can enslave man and strip him of his dignity.
The Shot/Reverse Shot – A shot/reverse shot sequence is where the camera moves back and forth between two characters whilst they talk, normally on opposite sides of the screen to make it clear who is talking. It is often used in documentaries to make it clear who is being interviewed.
Symbolic Objects – Objects can represent something else, or simply mean something within their own right. For example, a rose in a scene could mean hope or love.
Mise-en-Scene – Mise-en-scene refers to everything that can be seen on screen, from costumes and props to set design and lighting.Often when directors want to create a certain atmosphere or affect on the viewer, they will focus on mise-en-scene over dialogue or plot development.
Importance Of Imagery In Literature
The use of imagery in literature is as old as the art of writing itself. In fact, it is this sense of sight that separates a book from a scroll.
It was the discovery of paper around 105 A.D. in China that led to the ancient Chinese practice of printing books on sheets of paper that were then folded and pasted together to form a book.
Many early Chinese books were made up of stitched scrolls rather than bound books that we are more familiar with today. When you have a book, you can carry it with you wherever you go, unlike a scroll which must be unrolled manually and rolled back up again when finished reading.
This meant that people could now read in different locations at different times, meaning that books became incredibly popular after their invention. The invention of the printing press would see holy books translated into languages across Europe, making them accessible to many more people than ever before.
Books became available in multiple languages, allowing people to read foreign texts for the first time ever. The growth in printing presses also saw an increase in the number of books being printed and sold, meaning that more people than ever before were able to own their own personal copies of their favorite works.
What Are The Examples Of Imagery In Literature?
If you want to create a memorable book, you need to include imagery. One of the most common ways that authors use imagery is with similes and metaphors. These are comparisons between things that are not alike on the surface but that share an important commonality.
For example, if you were talking about a woman’s hair, you could write, “Her hair was like a waterfall.” This comparison would bring the image of water cascading down a cliff into the reader’s mind.
Description:Similes and metaphors help bring your writing to life and make it vivid for your readers. You can also use allusions to add imagery to your writing. An allusion is a reference to something in history or literature that will mean something different in the context of your story.
When you read Shakespeare, for example, his work is full of allusions to other literary works. So if one character mentions Julius Caesar without explaining who that person was, your mind goes racing off trying to figure out what he meant by it.
Description:Imagery is one of the best ways to keep people reading and to make them remember your book after they finish it. A good author knows how to weave images into their writing so that the reader sees them in his mind.
The Death Path – What Is Imagery In Literature?
The Death Path: Imagery In Literature
One of the most powerful tools in literature is imagery. With it, writers can paint a picture with words that is so vivid we can see it as if it were a movie.
Tolkien’s “The Hobbit” is a perfect example of the power of imagery.The author uses words to make the imaginary world of Middle-Earth so real, and so alive, that we feel we are walking through the green forests and sitting in front of the cozy fire at Bilbo Baggins’ home with him.
Imagery can be described as a picture created by words. It is an image evoked in the mind of the reader by a combination of sight and sense.
It can also be defined as language used to create mental images, or to present sensations to readers through language.Imagery adds clarity, color and sensory details to writing that would otherwise seem bland and lifeless.
Imagery directly affects how you feel about characters and events in a story. By combining vivid visual descriptions with words that appeal to your senses (such as taste, smell, touch and sound), you can bring your characters and plot lines to life for your readers.
As you write, ask yourself if specific details help you create mental pictures for your.
The Stranger – What Is Imagery In Literature?
Imagery is one of the literary devices used to make writing more interesting for readers. Imagery is the use of descriptions, similes, metaphors and any other comparisons that stimulate our senses.
The purpose of imagery is to make the reader feel like they are experiencing or have experienced the subject in question. Imagery has been employed as far back as literature can be traced, as it helps to characterize an object and make it come alive in a reader’s mind.
Imagery allows a writer to put emphasis on a certain object or character, which can lead to increased understanding of said object or character by the reader. In “The Stranger”, Albert Camus uses imagery to enhance the characterization of Meursault and his actions by creating visual images using comparison and contrast.
A common form of imagery that Camus utilizes is personification. Personification occurs when an inanimate object is given human characteristics, such as when Camus says “the sea was roaring with joy” (Camus 1).
This sentence gives the ocean human characteristics by saying it roared with joy. Personifying nature makes it seem more alive and less like something that cannot think or act on its own accord.
Another example of personification can be found in this quote: “The trees seemed to follow her.
Kinesthetic Imagery
Kinesthetic imagery is the use of movement to improve concentration, enhance performance and increase motivation. It works by stimulating the mind’s kinesthetic or movement center, which helps put you in a more positive frame of mind.
Tennis legend John McEnroe was known to practice his serves by tossing imaginary balls against a wall, pretending he was playing a match. Olympic swimming champion Michael Phelps famously practices his stroke in the empty pool before he competes, making the water move exactly as it would if he were racing.
Even if you don’t have an Olympic gold medal in your sights, you can apply the same technique. One great way to practice mindfulness is through kinesthetic imagery. This can be used to achieve any desirable state of mind that you wish to reach: relaxation, focus or motivation, for example.
All you need is a few minutes of time and your imagination. Here’s how it works: Sit quietly in a comfortable chair with your hands resting on your lap or holding onto the armrests. Close your eyes and take a few deep breaths.
Concentrate on your breathing for a moment, then begin to imagine yourself at some place where you feel relaxed and happy. This could be lying on a beach on vacation, feeling safe and secure at home.
Imagery In Literature And Film – Tools For Imagination
The use of imagery in literature and film is a great tool to stir the imagination. Imagery is used to encourage the reader/viewer’s imagination to create visuals of what they are reading or watching.
Imagery in literature and film can be used as a descriptive tool, to enhance your writing. Imagery allows you to use words to paint a picture for the reader, or viewer, that evokes their individual imagination.
What is Imagery?
Imagery is often confused with figurative language. An example of this is the simile “the sun was as red as blood”. This is a simile and not an example of imagery because it compares two things, it doesn’t create visuals by itself.
Also, it isn’t literal; no one expects the sun to literally be blood red. It also uses metaphors, like “he was as strong as an ox”, which are implied meaning (using one word to describe another).
Finally, it uses personification where an object or animal is given human qualities. An example would be “my heart skipped a beat” because although your heart can’t actually skip anything it is being given human qualities – feelings and emotions – so this is personification. All these examples are different forms of figurative language.
What Is Literary Imagery
Students often misunderstand the phrase “literary imagery.” They sometimes think of imagery as visual images as opposed to literary, that is, language-based. Others confuse it with sensory details and figurative language.
Alternately, some students fail to recognize that not all literature has images. For example, a description of a sunset in prose can be just as effective as one in poetry.
Literary imagery may include any kind of sensory detail, but it is more than that. Imagery forces readers to slow down and actively interpret what they read, rather than merely skimming over the words.
Imagery is most noticeable when it occurs in a surprising or unexpected form. A metaphor or simile is not always an image, but a plain comparison (“The moon rose like an orange”) is almost never one. The sun can be described as rising or setting, but not as “doing a warm-up routine” or “taking its morning jog.”
A good rule of thumb is this: If you have to explain what the comparison means after you read it, then it’s probably not an image. If you have to pause and think about what you’ve just read before you continue reading, then it might be an image.
What Is Figurative Imagery
In poetry, figurative imagery is used to make an image more descriptive and visual. It is used to bring the reader into the poem and have the reader feel what the poet felt when writing it. Figurative language can be broken down into three categories:
Figurative language can be broken down into three categories:
Metaphor – A metaphor is a comparison between two unlike things that share some common element. It is a direct comparison between two unlike objects or ideas. For example, “You are my sunshine.”
The sun does not belong to you, but you are important to me. This is how I see you. Other examples of metaphors include: “Life is a highway” and “Love is blind.” Simile – A simile compares two unlike things using the word “like” or “as.” Similes are usually shorter than metaphors, which makes them easier to spot. For example, “Her eyes were like limpid pools of blue.”
A simile often helps make the meaning of the poem clearer because it describes something more easily understood in terms of something else more familiar to us, as in this example.
Figures of speech – Figures of speech make use of words in ways that distort literal meanings of words. | https://filmlifestyle.com/what-is-imagery/ |
We’ve all been in the audience when a presenter gets on stage and manages to get everyone interested in what they’re saying. You can probably also remember a time when the presenter has difficulty engaging with the audience, and the eyes of those in the audience begin to glaze over. For many people without public speaking experience, it can be difficult to avoid the latter scenario, but with practice, anyone can captivate an audience.
As a business professional, chances are, you’ll need to deliver a speech or presentation at some point in your career, whether it’s pitching to clients or speaking to a large group. Excelling in communication and having public speaking expertise can help advance your career and impress your peers, but it’s also a skill that many people struggle with mastering and try to avoid entirely. The following advice will allow you to build off of your current skills to prepare for a speech and captivate the audience regardless of the subject matter of the presentation.
Structure your speech
Before you step into the hall full of people or conference room with clients, you should think about the structure of your speech. If you know what kind of people will be in the audience, think about what they might like to hear, what information they would benefit from hearing, and why they are there in the first place.
Start out strong
The first sentence of a book is arguably the most important because it piques the reader’s interest and allows them to commit to reading the entire book. The same principle also applies to crafting your presentation. When you begin your speech, you want to start out with a strong statement, alarming fact or fascinating statistic, or you could even ask an open-ended question that will appeal to the audience’s interest. More often than not, people choose to open their presentations with “Hello” or “Thank you,” but you should consider starting right out of the gate with something compelling.
Tell relevant stories
It’s natural for people to want to hear stories. Just by saying, ”Let me tell you a story..” will get the audience to tune into what you say next. Obviously, you’ll want the stories you tell to be relevant to your speech, but they should also be anecdotal or absorbing in nature, so they engage the crowd. If you aren’t sure whether or not to include a story, it’s best to have one as a backup in case the audience begins losing interest in your speech.
Practice your tone
If you’re not well-versed in presenting to a group of people, your nerves may get the better of you during the speech. As a business professional, you’ll want to come off as confident in the information you’re giving, but if you’re nervous you’ll appear unsure and even incompetent. Before delivering your speech, practice it several times in front of a mirror or even a group of friends. Make sure to practice your tone, pitch, and how fast you talk so that the audience will stay engaged in what you’re saying.
Finish with a call to action
You should make sure to finish your speech as strong as you started it with an inspiring call to action. Throughout your presentation, you’ll have described your subject matter and why the audience should care, and the conclusion should give them an idea of what to do with the information you just spoke on. | https://markhozza.com/how-to-captivate-an-audience/ |
Holden tends to speak sarcastically; however, he is making satirical statements about the nature of life.
To judge fairly about tone, we must consider a poem as a whole. Though she is talking about literal things here, her nostalgia about not having done enough for Boo extends to intangible things as well.
Nevertheless, individual lines may set up strong vibrations of tone. Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut: Examples that describe tone are, playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, and somber.
Let us see how writers use the afore-mentioned elements in their literary works to create a particular mood. What is side tone as regards to telephone receivers and how can it be minimised. Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes: What is tone in writing. The content in business communication should be business related.
Therefore, authors use tone to create the type of mood that they want for their piece of literature. Tone in Poetry Citing one brief example from Robert Frost's famous "The Road Not Taken" sums up a great deal of information not only about the poembut also about the effect of tone in general.
Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold; Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world. Crane, "War Is Kind". They feel the way the writer feels about the events taking place and the description provided.
However, the tone also shapes the work as a whole, and whether the piece should be read as a serious, funny, dramatic or upsetting. The sound patter stresses out the poem so you read it correctly. Common Examples of Tone When we tell stories from everyday life to others, we always do so with some sort of attitude toward the story.
Usually, mood is referred to as the atmosphere of a literary piece, as it creates an emotional setting that surrounds the readers. The possible tones are bounded only by the number of possible emotions a human being can have.
Authors create tone through the use of various other literary elements, such as diction or word choice; syntax, the grammatical arrangement of words in a text for effect; imagery, or vivid appeals to the senses; details, facts that are included or omitted; and figurative language, the comparison of seemingly unrelated things for sub-textual purposes.
Youthful, Optimistic—In retrospect, the reader knows that things ended tragically for Anne Frank.
Though the tone can be humorous at times, the subject matter is very serious and this contrast creates the effect of parody. Diction or choice of words conveys deep feelings, and depicts the events, places, and characters in a literary work in specific colors, having an effect on the way the readers feel about them.
If the mother asked "What are your plans for today. What are some examples of tone used in literature. Therefore, the attitude of the writer evokes feelings and emotions in the readers. The general character of a place, situation, piece of writing, etc. YourDictionary definition and usage example.
The negotiations between the two states came to a halt after terms of reference could not be agreed upon. Authors use elements such as syntaxdictionimagerydetails, and figurative language to create tone. A clammy and intensely cold mist, it made its slow way through the air in ripples that visibly followed and overspread one another, as the waves of an unwholesome sea might do.
For example, an author may have a straightforward tone but the mood is amusing. I arose and argued about trifles, in a high key and with violent gesticulations; but the noise steadily increased.
The son struggles with the knowledge of these horrors, and thus the work is quite somber. They were orange trees. Tone gives shape and life to literature, because it is through tone that the attitude and mood of a work are created and presented.
A mummy again endued with animation could not be so hideous as that wretch. The spectacle of sunset was so astounding that people stood watching breathlessly. Tone is an attitude toward the events of the story—humorous, ironic, cynical, and so on." In practice, there's a close connection between style and tone.
In practice, there's. Examples of Tone in Literature. Tone examples in literature: United States President John F.
Kennedy, Jr. presented an Inaugural Address in In the thick of the Cold War and civil unrest, JFK needed to join his citizens toward one purpose. The tone of a sentence is the way authors express their attitudes through their writing.
Tone is expressed in the use of syntax, point of view, diction and level of formality in the writing. The theme of both tone examples is the same. The only way we can differentiate between them is their separate tone.
The tone in the first example is casual or informal while, it is more formal in the second. Tone Examples in Common Speech.
We adopt a variety of tones in our day-to-day speech. Tone in writing is not really any different than the tone of your voice. You know that sometimes it is not "what" you say, but "how" you say it. It is the same with writing. Every adjective and adverb you use, your sentence structure, and the imagery you use will show your tone. | https://kelyjohusejaw.turnonepoundintoonemillion.com/examples-of-tone-21728cy.html |
Riley Elliott a.k.a the Shark Man is at the other end of the ‘get some better work stories’ spectrum.
As a surfer, spear-fisherman, free-diver and scuba diver, this classic Kiwi bloke has always been on the frontline to experience the rarest yet scariest of all natural encounters - a shark attack. His fear was the same as anyone’s - powerfully debilitating but one that is based primarily on a perception of sharks created by the movie Jaws.
Background
Growing up in the Waikato, surfing Raglan and summering in the Coromandel, his upbringing was similar to that of most New Zealanders - his interests much the same; nature, knowledge and adventure, which has taken him to over 60 countries around the globe to surf, dive or experience culture enough to satisfy his constant thirst for perspective.
A Scarfie life at the University of Otago suited his desires well, with ample opportunity to surf, plenty of wildlife to study and long holidays to travel along with a world-class education. Between a BSc Honours in Zoology and a Masters in Marine Science with Distinction, Riley ventured to California, bought a truck with a friend, filled it with surfboards and camping gear and drove 16,000kms through central America in the height of the drug wars, barely surviving border crossings before heading north to snowboard in Whistler Canada.
Whilst completing his Masters degree studying an endangered population of dolphins in Fiordland’s Doubtful Sound, and after a staggering 15 years underwater, Riley experienced his first shark encounter in the wild - a harmless one-meter School shark that sent him panicking to the surface!
Why he asked? Why are we so scared? Is the fear of sharks justified? Are they purposeful man-eaters?
Unlike most, Riley took the ‘bull by the horns’ and went to South Africa on an internship program to literally jump in with these apex predators to figure it out. With obvious passion and talent in the field he was invited to stay on and help run the Oceans Research Great White Shark program.
Current work
By applying academic principles from university, with real world field experience, Riley excelled in the shark research environment. With unbelievable stories such as a 4m Great White shark jumping into his research vessel, to free-diving without a cage, with 25 of the world’s most dangerous shark species, Riley found his niche. Fear to fascination became his life motto and the Shark Man was born.
What resulted has been a decade of adventure, adrenaline and eye opening experiences for this 29-year-old Kiwi bloke, and the public audience that he insists must come along for the ride. He has not only dedicated almost a decade of academic research to these animals for their conservation, presently through his PhD at the University of Auckland, but has written his own book, spoken at over fifty public events, appeared in countless radio, TV and magazines articles, giving him the media experience to film a 10 part TV documentary series on sharks - two of which went direct to Governments to improve legislation.
He says that conservation goals have been achieved by communicating science to the public, because ‘science is for people’. Through non-conventional methods, being public engagement versus industry finance, Riley has raised over $200,000 in funding for a satellite-tagging program of Blue sharks in New Zealand waters. The data is used for his PhD but the research project itself, as a catalyst for public opinion, one that grew so strong, it resulted in the ban of an extremely controversial practice known as shark finning.
Riley’s ‘science for people’ approach took him to Western Australia to help end the WA shark cull, where fear instead of science, drove politicians to some extremely controversial decisions. To make his mark, Riley literally jumped in and resuscitated a 3m Tiger shark, left for dead from a hook set by the Fisheries drum-line culling program. Through stimulating imagery, captured by the various news helicopters flying overhead once the word got out a man was resuscitating a shark IN THE SEA! Riley had his opportunity to convey objective science through the media that in the end helped ban the WA Shark Cull.
When it comes to sharks, Riley ‘walks the walk’. His stories are vivid, backed by endless amazing photos and video; purposeful, reflected by conservation and research achievements; and driven by extreme passion, something necessary to risk life and limb literally. This effective combination has made him a very exciting public speaker on a wide and adaptable number of topics, reflected by his pinnacle public speaking event at TedX Auckland 2014.
Video
Taking science primetime | Riley Elliott | TEDxAuckland
Shark man video
Topics
- Science & Technology
- Media Personalities & Celebrity
- Challenge & Adventure
- Connection & Storytelling
- Environment & Climate Change
A big thank you from us for your attendance at our annual Dive Festival and the highly engaging and informative talk you gave on both your studies into NZ’s Blue Sharks and the situation of ... keep readingthe general health of shark populations. Not all that attended were divers with many being just people from our area interested in what you had to say. The feedback we received showed us that your subjects are of great interest to many and people found what you had to say informative and inspiring. You certainly held the audience with your presentation style. And we guess this showed in the successful sale of your newly released book after your talk. Dive Zone Whitianga Dive Festival
Riley goes well beyond just using the topic of sharks alone for effect. His passion and knowledge of these animals and their environments comes through with his effective and engaging style of presentation pulling the audience into his world. He is a natural character willing to share his knowledge and understanding of sharks with his great sense of humor and he is just as comfortable entertaining a crowd and answering questions as he is in delivering a serious scientific paper.
Riley Elliot gave a presentation at our museum as part of the Shark Whisperers program. The public talk was very well attended, proving Riley’s popularity. He was an incredibly natural, effective and passionate speaker. He engaged a diverse public audience on a very challenging issue with sincere energy and personality. | https://www.celebrityspeakers.co.nz/speakers/riley-elliott |
There is a handful of questions you can ask yourself while writing a descriptive story, all of which will engage the five senses of the reader. This is why it is so important in a descriptive essay to choose words wisely and make sure you are painting a clear picture for your readers.
Narrative stories or essays tend to tell a story from the perspective of a narrator.
Narration often employs first person point of view, using words like “I” and “me,” while description does not.
The biggest difference between the two is that a narrative essay includes action, but the descriptive essay does not.
The next element is the after-math, where the story all comes together.
The last element is the concluding paragraph, in which the narrator would tie together any loose ends and bring the story to a close.Description and narration are often used together because description helps make the story we are narrating clearer and more vivid. A descriptive essay is more compelling than a narrative: even though a narrative is meant to entertain, a descriptive essay creates a better visual image because the language is more specific and helps to make the essay more vivid and clear. : 5: 6) The vivid descriptions in this passage draw a ... Make your own flashcards that can be shared with others.Between the two, descriptive and narrative, there are some similarities. uses her talent of vivid and eloquent writing to ...Both styles have a clear and concise point within the story and both tell about something the writer is passionate about, which makes for a more interesting read. A narrative sentence tells the reader how the story proceeds. Narration often employs the first-person point of view, using words like ‘I’ and ‘me’. A narration is generally done on a more time-framed basis, ideally from the perspective of one time-frame.The dramatic structure of a narrative essay/story has five basic elements.While both narrative and descriptive stories allow a writer to explain an idea or event, they differ in the specific intent.A narrative tells a story about an event, while description creates a clear and vivid picture of a person, place, thing or event.It allows you to create the building of tension throughout the story/essay.The next element is the climax, which is generally where the story resolves problems or conflicts. | https://nexusnotes.ru/descriptive-narritive-essay-729.html |
If you are the maid/man of honor or a best man/woman, you’ve likely experienced a bit of anxiety when thinking about delivering your toast.
Some people are natural born performers, but it’s still best to educate yourself on the ins and outs of toast-giving.
Who Gives Toasts?
The hosts typically begin the toasts.
Traditionally, the hosts — the bride’s parents — welcome the guests or give a blessing before the meal.
This could also be done by the groom’s parents. Once the guests are seated and eating, the groomsman/groomswoman makes a toast and then follows the maid or man of honor.
If the couple wishes, they can give a toast following the bridal party or when cutting the cake.
What Is the Toast?
A toast is an opportunity and an honor.
Being asked to be a best man or maid of honor is a privilege, and it’s your duty to take your speech seriously and make the most of the moment.
The speech is intended to honor and highlight the couple.
Even though you are giving the speech, it should be about them as a couple — not you.
How Long Should It Be?
The sweet spot is three minutes.
This is just enough time to captivate an audience without losing their interest. Anywhere between two-to-five minutes is safe though.
Any less than two minutes, does not allow you to accurately portray what you should say.
At the five minute mark, you’ve begun to lose your audience.
How to Give a Great Toast?
1. Practice Makes Perfect
It is best not to leave everything until the last minute.
Depending on your comfort level with both writing and public speaking, you can begin anywhere from three months to a week before.
Whatever time frame you choose, be sure to allow yourself plenty of time to practice.
Practice reading your speech and time yourself.
Consider what you might need to cut, what words you stumble over and what doesn’t sound natural.
2. Know Your Audience
Remember that you are speaking to everyone at the wedding, including grandma.
Some topics are strictly off limits including exes, embarrassing moments, questionable decisions, explicit language and what happened at the bachelor/bachelorette party.
Consider, will it make anyone uncomfortable? If so, then don’t say it.
If you want to include humor, make sure it is something that will make the majority of people laugh. That also means no inside jokes.
3. Focus on Both
You need to address and talk about both your friend/family member and their spouse, even if you don’t know them well.
Tell a story about their meeting/engagement, your observations of the spouse or how your friend reacts to their partner.
If you know the partner well, feel free to expand on your thoughts, feelings and memories with them.
4. Follow this Format
Introduce yourself and explain how you know the bride or groom.
While some may know you well, others may have no idea who you are.
Keep it light, simple and even comical.
From there you can give some anecdotes and stories about the bride or groom.
These should be important and speak to the person’s character.
The stories and moments shared can be sentimental, funny and a mixture of both.
Next, talk about their spouse.
Again, share stories, moments and compliments.
From here, you can share why you think they work so well as partners. End with congratulations and a toast.
If you find it fitting to your audience and voice, you can sprinkle in quotations or religious verses.
5. Some Additional Tips
Stand up straight. This always helps you to exude confidence even if you don’t feel it.
Use notes. They are a safety net and guide.
The best option is to print two copies, in case you lose one.
Don’t depend on technology as it could fail, but it isn’t a bad idea to have the document saved on your phone just in case you lose your paper or index cards. Look up from your notes.
Select people in the audience that you’re comfortable looking at, whether that is the couple or strangers.
A little bit of liquid courage can help the speech go smoother, but don’t overdo it. | http://northwestfloridaweddings.net/how-to-write-a-great-wedding-toast/ |
Narratives are essays that tell the story of a person, place, thing, or idea; these can be personal or detached narratives, written from the first person (“I”) or third person perspectives (“he did . . . she then . . . they would . . .). Narratives are in general organized chronologically, but may include digressions—relevant tangents that help explain the story’s action—or flashbacks, which are sub-stories taking place earlier in time than the main story.
Your essay should have a thesis statement that states the main idea or purpose of the narrative, explaining why the narrative you are telling is important or relevant to the audience’s life. Similarly, each paragraph in your essay should begin with a strong and direct topic sentence that locates the scene or episode you are talking about in time and in relation to the other scenes or episodes in your narrative. You should also try to use vivid and descriptive language to relay the events in your narrative to the reader (see the “Description” assignment below for more tips on vivid language).
Assignment Prompt:
Compose a short narrative essay (300-400 words) on one of the following:
- The time in your life that you felt most afraid—and why you felt that way. Include in your essay a clear statement of the situation you were in and how you got to that situation, as well as how you dealt with your fear as it was happening and shortly thereafter;
- A concise biography of one of your classmates. What have been the major milestones I this person’s life? Conduct a short interview with your classmate to gather information. Your essay might consider things like where the person was born, what the person’s upbringing was like, where he or she was educated, how he or she came to Coppin, and your classmate’s plans for the future;
- A fictional obituary, dated the year 2070, for yourself, outlining the major accomplishments and challenges of your life;
- The story of your acquiring or losing an object of special value or importance;
- A short story of the life of a piece of technology that you no longer have any use for (i.e., an outdated cell phone, a CD player, a VHS tape, or an old car). Your narrative should cover how the thing came into your possession, what you used it for during its life, and how it came to its present state of disuse.
Description
Descriptive writing is writing that is meant to convey impressions or details of a particular scene, place, thing, or event. Paragraphs that are descriptive usually begin with a topic sentence that introduces a controlling idea or overall impression of the thing being described.
Descriptive writing also appeals to the senses of its readers—hearing, vision, touch, taste, smell—by using relevant sensory details. These details offer specific points of reference to the reader regarding the subject, connecting it to experiences and past impressions that the reader may have had. A key to effective description is the use of vivid language: finding appropriate and sensory-oriented adjectives, using comparisons and analogies, and replacing common or vague nouns and verbs with more specific ones will improve the vividness in your writing.
Assignment Prompt
Choose one of the three pictures below, and write a short (300-400 word) essay describing in detail what is happening in the picture. Remember to start your essay with a strong topic sentence that introduces the overall idea or impression that the image creates, and to use sensory details and vivid language to make your description stand out.
You must limit your description to information available in the picture—don’t imagine or make up information, but rather focus on conveying accurately the impression of what the picture is describing and the associated emotions.
See the pictures below.
Process Analysis
Process writing is writing designed to describe the operation or function of a particular thing or activity. Whether you know it or not, you encounter process analyses every day. Whenever you read instructions on how to do something, get help from a teacher or friend, write a lab report for science class, or read a textbook, you are learning about how things in the world work—and more importantly, how to do them. You are learning about a process.
Understanding process applies not only to the physical operation of something—like an iPod or microwave oven—but also to ideas and more abstract things, like learning how to communicate with your significant other more effectively or how to select the best possible roommate.
Process writing involves first identifying the process to be examined (e.g., how an iPod works, how to succeed in first-year composition, how to conduct a Myers-Briggs personality test, or how to collect evidence from a crime scene without contaminating it) and then identifying the primary steps that make up that process.
The topic sentence (of a Process paragraph) or the thesis statement (of a Process essay) should clearly identify the process being examined and indicate that there are a number of steps or actions that make up that process. Each paragraph in a Process essay should cover one of the steps involved in the process, describing it in detail using precise and direct language.
Assignment Prompt:
Choose one of the following ideas and write a well-developed paragraph (200-300 words) explaining the process involved.
- Explain the process of selecting and registering for classes at Coppin State University.
- Imagine that you own a small business of your choice (perhaps related to the field you are currently studying—healthcare, criminal justice, English, education). Explain to a prospective investor the process you would use to select employees for your business.
- Write an essay that shows the basics of how to use one of the following software applications:
- Microsoft Word
Exemplification
Exemplification, when applied to writing, means “using examples.” The examples explain or support one’s point. An “example” is an instance of something, a specific part of a phenomenon that can be used to explain or characterize the whole. Consider the following:
My little brother is a wonderful student: he takes copious notes, does all his course reading, and almost never misses a class.
Middle school-aged children are especially vulnerable to peer pressure. Twelve and thirteen year-olds are often coerced by their friends into drinking, experimenting with illegal drugs, and participating in petty crimes.
In the above passages, the first part gave a general point: “My little brother is a wonderful student . . .” and “Middle school-aged children are especially vulnerable to peer pressure.”
The second part gave examples of why the general point was valid. When using exemplification, we should also consider how to order our examples: least important to most important? Most common to least common? Most similar to most different? In any case, examples need to explained through good descriptive writing that clearly communicates our ideas.
Examples should be direct and vivid, and should connect directly with the topic sentence (of a paragraph) or thesis statement (of an essay).
Assignment Prompt:
In a paragraph of 200 or so words, use examples to support one of the following topic sentences:
- Hip-Hop music addresses the everyday concerns that young African-American students face.
- Current Hollywood movies rely more on special effects than good stories to draw audiences in.
- There are many different kinds of cheating on college campuses.
- Having a pet is a wonderful experience for a young child, and there are many kinds of pets that are suitable for a young child to have. | http://openwriting.org/index.php/overview-04-major-writing-assignments/assignment-06-short-writing-assignments |
Pacing yourself helps you articulate better and emphasize the most salient parts of your speech. You’re not just putting yourself out there to say something — retention is key. You have to make your message (or at least the crux of it) memorable to your audience.
Just like a novel, the content needs to pack a punch in order to sustain the audience’s interest. If you think about it, a speech should work even harder because (1) it’s shorter and (2) it’s purely an aural experience which requires the full attention of your audience.
Before you start writing,
Jeff Schmitt
of Forbes advises keeping these two objectives in mind: “Make a good impression and leave your audience with two or three takeaways.”
Schmitt also highlights the importance of “striking the right tone.” Know your audience well, their reasons for wanting to listen to your speech, and what they want out of it.
Matt Eventoff
of YPO elaborates on several “memorable ways to open a speech or presentation.” A quote, “what if” scenario, or statistic are some of the methods you can utilize to captivate your audience.
To make your speech more interesting, Gray-Grant advises “to tell stories or give examples” because stories “stick” and people actually recall them. Another approach is to use humor to break the monotony, but only when it serves an “organic” and relevant purpose for your topic or message. Try not to detract from the flow and coherence of your speech or from the essence of your message.
Just like what chapter breaks are to a novel, remember to integrate cues for pauses or breaks in between points of your speech in order to signal the end of one topic and to smoothly transition to the next.
Keep your language simple and conversational to maximize engagement with your audience. Scholastic gives some
tips
like using short sentences, contractions, and colloquialisms in your speech.
Avoid tongue-twisters or big words that are difficult to articulate in one breath. You will only subject yourself to potential blunders. This will deflate your confidence in delivering the speech effectively.
Most importantly, get your facts straight. Any speech can be engaging and witty, but people look for truthfulness and credibility more than anything. Citing concrete examples to prove a point is a persuasive method as well. Real-life actualizations are truths in the minds of your listeners. Thus, they will remain engaged on what else you have to say.
Toss a question or two for a bit of introspection. Some people actually do this either at the beginning or at the end of a speech. Making your audience think brings your message across more effectively because it opens up the opportunity for them to contemplate on an application of your insight into their daily lives.
After writing your speech, review the entire material for clarity and brevity. Simplify and tighten the language if need be.
Attention spans are shorter these days (8.25 seconds, according to a
study
made by the Static Brain Research Institute) so the more succinct you are, the better.
If you can, divide the word count equally among each salient point of your speech. For example, 750 words with 4 key topics would mean around 187 words dedicated for each topic.
Be concise yet comprehensive—and remember to use our
word counter
to keep it brief. | http://www.netmax.no/Webside/4/4Hovedside |
In this blog article, I will share some tips and ideas about story telling and engaging an audience. This information will benefit writers of all abilities.
Are you sitting comfortably? Then I’ll begin.
Storytelling is an art. The art of sharing stories in the form of writing or telling it to an audience, in a way that engages their attention. There are many forms of storytelling, from fiction novels to stand-up comedy. What-ever type of story you share, it ultimately creates a relationship between you and the audience, whether they are physically in front of you or reading your words from a page. The role of the audience is to actively create the vivid, multi-sensory images, actions, characters, and events of the story in their mind. The role of the storyteller is to create these images. The relayed story is re-created in the audience’s imagination, a unique and personalised version.
A statement by the National Storytelling Network defines Storytelling as “an ancient art form and a valuable form of human expression.”
I love storytelling. Taking somebody else on a journey that only existed in my head or taking then through an experience I have had using all my senses to create the environment. Everybody can tell a story, we do it all the time! Telling your friends about the encounter you had with an ex when you bumped into each other or how annoying your manager at work is.
Stories are a building block of human connection. When telling stories orally, you are likely to be rather animated, using your arms as you speak and maybe even changing your voice to sound like a character in your story. When writing a story down, it isn’t as easy to engage an audience with words on a page so we must consider this. What we don’t do when relaying our day to a friend is talk about the environment – unless it is pertinent to the story. Setting the scene for a story will create an image in the mind’s eye of the reader as opposed to just concentrating on the dialogue of the story.
Storytellers usually concentrate on plot, character, setting, action and dialogue. However, description and language are also factors. If the story is to be recited in front of an audience, then delivery would also be something to consider.
I tell stories in Spoken Word form and I also like to rhyme, its my style of writing- but whether you intend on writing poetry or a fiction novel there must be a ‘journey’. That is essentially what you are taking your audience on.
Capturing their attention at the beginning is important but keeping their attention throughout the story is imperative. There are many factors to engaging the audience: suspense, empathy, humour for example. Remember the point of your story and don’t digress too much unless it explains a part of the story, don’t confuse your audience and risk them getting lost or bored.
One of the best pieces of advice I ever got was to use your senses to create the environment in the audience’s mind. What can you see, hear, smell, taste and touch? All these senses will not be used all of the time, it just depends on what you are describing.
Storytelling is used to engage, connect, inspire and empathise. All stories have one thing in common- a narrative, after that, everything is variable so don’t compare your story to other people or published books, instead identify its level of engagement. A good story can convey a message, entertain or ignite a fire within your audience. Some people think that the art of storytelling is something difficult and complex, reserved only for certain skilled members of society. It’s not, we are all storytellers. You have probably already told a story today!
A great way to practice your storytelling technique is to write down something that you did or that happened to you recently and read it. Were you engaged? Did it give the intended impact?
Keep adding to it and re writing. It may start something like this:
“I got up, dressed and headed to work”
Keep adding to it giving more information, using adjectives (describing words) creating an image in the mind:
“…. I headed down the tattered, worn out blue carpeted stairs, barely fitting in the narrow staircase that had long since lost its paintwork on the bannister. I spent 5 minutes scattily searching around the small, messy front room, littered with last nights take away cartons and housing a lingering nicotine aroma for one elusive shoe before stumbling out of the front door- still fixing my shirt underneath my suit jacket.”
Adjectives help you to bring your story to life.
The exciting thing about stories is that they are yours and you can do what you like with them. You can embellish certain parts to make you sound braver than you were (we do this a lot when relaying stories about our life) or add bits to give it extra humour for example- it’s completely up to you. You are the editor!
Happy Storytelling! | https://d3creations.uk/blog/203-storytelling |
“Show, Don’t Tell.”
How many times have you heard that phrase? My high school English teacher used it to explain how descriptive words in our favorite classics, such as F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, help readers understand the action, identify with the characters and visualize the scene in the stories on each page.
In the nonprofit world, “show, don’t tell” is the difference between telling your audiences that your issue matters and demonstrating why it is important. This distinction is crucial: how you describe what you’re doing can significantly alter the frame in which your issue is perceived and dramatically increase engagement with your cause.
“Show, don’t tell” is great advice that still rings true – no matter how long ago you graduated from high school. Here are three ways to incorporate this adage into your communications:
1. Stylistic Description
Replacing clinical, formal terms with descriptive language can transform the way audiences view your issue. For example, if I say “Our client was living in substandard housing,” I’ve given you some information – it’s factual, but not very engaging.
But if I say,
“The first time I met Jim at his home, it took a while for my eyes to adjust to the light, because the windows were covered with tattered, cloudy, yellowed plastic sheeting. I had to pick my way through an obstacle course of pans and plastic buckets that littered the stained carpet. It was clear they only caught most of the rainwater that trickled through the leaky roof.”
Now you’re there with me, and emotionally engaged in the life of a real person. I’ve shown you his “substandard housing” in a way that is much more likely to stick with you.
Here’s another example:
What you want to tell:
“Bridge Meadows helps with the success and stability of youth in foster care, adoptive families and elders.”
Versus.
How to show it:
“A youth in foster care finds a permanent home and finally begins to trust the adults in her life. She goes to school every day and her grades improve.
Adoptive parents gain knowledge and skills to parent youth with confidence who have experienced trauma, along with support and camaraderie to manage stress, and achieve a level of security to provide stability for their children.
Elders gain new friends and family, and feel more alive than they have in years. And it’s all possible because real, meaningful relationships are built and nurtured with intention and purpose.” – Bridge Meadows
By painting a verbal picture of the scene, descriptive writing allows your audience to “see” the impact of the work you do for themselves and reach a conclusion independently. Rather than telling the reader that Bridge Meadows is helping kids in foster care, adoptive families and elders, the second box is showing their successes. Using descriptive language creates a much stronger belief and sense of conviction within individuals. By drawing meaning from information around us, beliefs become stronger, more intrinsic and more engrained in us.
2. Storytelling
The natural next step is to infuse your descriptive language into a narrative to further engage and inspire your audiences. Since the beginning of mankind, humans have connected, informed and inspired one another through the act of storytelling. Telling stories connects your audience to your work and helps your message resonate with audiences in a more profound and emotional way.
We Spitfires love telling stories. A good story can range from how your organization got started, to the people who are impacted by your work. Stories connect audiences to your organization by making your organization’s issue more real for them – and by humanizing your work in a way that nothing else can. For more information on types of stories and how to use them, check out Spitfire’s blog post: How Stories Can Help You Break through Barriers When Fact-Based Arguments Fall Short.
3. Visuals
A picture is worth 1,000 words. It may be a cliché – but it’s true. A strong photograph documenting the impact of your work or the importance of your issue can connect with individuals on a personal level. Photographs of the people and places that benefit from your work can do wonders for making problems real for your audiences, putting a face on what’s at stake and reinforcing the tangible impact your work is generating.
Additionally, graphics (charts, infographics and other illustrations) can be extremely helpful in connecting your audience to your issue. Graphics enable you to take abstract or complex ideas, pull out the central information and frame your work in a relatable way.
Illustrations and infographics can literally show an idea. And I’m not just saying that because I am a graphic designer; I am a graphic designer because I am saying that. A strong visual can set the tone and context for your message. Instead of saying, “this policy was extremely effective,” an infographic can frame an issue and depict it visually for the audience. For example, The “Fearless Girl” statute facing off with the bull on Wall Street paired with Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell’s famous words “Nevertheless, she persisted,” was used to evoke a strong emotional response in favor of closing the gender wage gap.
Social math is also an effective way to create context and put abstract ideas into a package that makes sense to us. “Social math” is the practice of translating statistics and other data in a way that becomes meaningful to the audience. In other words, it’s taking data or statistics that are hard to conceptualize and putting them into a context that is easy to understand.
For example, we wanted to highlight that an additional four million Americans have been insured through the Affordable Care Act in the last two years. Four million is a lot of people. In this infographic, we used social math to help conceptualize the four million Americans insured. With a little Google searching, we were able to determine that four million people is enough to fill every hospital bed in America – four and a half times!
Stylistic description, storytelling and strong visuals are three effective ways to connect your audience with your issue in a more authentic and meaningful way. Creating these connections is crucial to making your issue actionable. If you’re aiming to form a connection between your issue and your audience, it’s simple – don’t tell them, show them. | https://www.spitfirestrategies.com/show-dont-tell-three-ways-create-connection-audience/ |
This week I’m sharing the twelfth of sixteen stories from my upcoming release Love Scenes From the Black Market, a dark anthology.
This week’s excerpt is the first 8 lines from Dance, a post-apocalyptic love story set in the burnt-out shell of a metropolitan city, which opens with a young man running through the streets, looking for the girl he’s fallen hopefully in love with.
Shards of broken glass shattered under the boy’s boots. He ran down a garbage-littered street, leaped over thick streams of brown water and broken fences. The air was grey with smoke and vehicular fumes and tasted of ash and soot.
Sirens and cat screeches echoed through the concrete valleys. The night sky was pregnant with purple clouds. Stagnant rainwater ran through a maze of moss and powder burns on the alley walls. Gunshots cracked like thunder.
He quickened his pace, and cut out into the street.
As usual, you paint a beautiful — well, vivid, at least — scene with your wonderful descriptions.
I love how you always manage to create such movement in your descriptive passages. Excellent snippet as always, Steven.
Looks like a dangerous place to fall in love. Great descriptions as always!
Fantastic descriptions as always, and you bring in multiple senses to enhance the scene.
Not a nice place, as with most of your settings, but oh so wonderfully described! Loved the snippet….
Quite a devastated place. You describe it so well.
Fabulous imagery! Great job, Steven!
Concrete valleys…urban jungle at it’s finest. Great imagery, Steven!
As always, you bring the reader’s senses alive with ease. Awesome snippet!
The place is a bit scary. I hope he’ll find her soon. | http://steven-montano.com/weekend-writing-warriors-love-scenes-from-the-black-market-dance/?replytocom=12353 |
What do you mean by a story? What exactly it tries to do to a reader? What are the benefits that it gives out to you?
So many questions pop in our minds when someone mentions stories. Stories have a long history and were probably being told before a lot of languages that exist today were even invented. It is as old as human communication. We all relate to each other through stories. Stories about what happened to us, with us or our loved ones now or years ago, what we hope and wish for and so on.
The role of stories in our childhood:
Also, there used to be a dedicated time to listen to the stories and people used to be physically and mentally present during the sessions. The plethora of subjects included sagas of the warriors, the rulers ruled, the kingdom and the people involved, the folk tales, fables, moral stories etc. Even the simplest of tales would be admired as an erudite learning and becomes a base to our growing minds. We all have some stories that have made the person that we are and have been a building block to our innocent childhood.
If we look back, our grandparents eagerly talked about the fictional characters and transported us to the world of those beings with so much ease. We used to wait for the story sessions as they involved a lot of interactive learning.
Stories- the simpler, the better: As stories have a great impact on a child and one should make sure to practice with the kids more often. It doesn’t matter if a story is short or very simple but we could always use our imagination to stretch a short story or read a story in the manner that all the imagery comes into action. The power of vivid imagination builds a child’s future. The flying animals and animated talks will not make sense to us but it will definitely trigger the child’s mind, thereby making a child creative.
Today technology has taken control of the time spent by humans making one trapped in its own network. The time spent in mobiles, television and laptops have exponentially increased thereby reducing the session of storytelling and listening. We all are in a tearing hurry from morning till night. In this daily rigmarole, we neither have the liberty to listen to a story nor have time to read a story to our child. But having said that, stories do have an ability to connect ourselves to our child. It helps to maintain togetherness and bonding. Yes, it has an ability to bring a parent and a child closer.
How stories help in parent-child bonding:
Read any story to your child. See her/ his face lit up with your emotions, gestures and words.
Narrate each story from the bottom of your heart. You child sees you and wants your attention and interest.
It does not matter if you are not a good story teller, he/she wants you to make it interesting by the way of emotions, visuals and right ideas. You can re-read a story million times with different perspective or idea of yours.
The fairy tale could be changed according to your thought flow or a very sad ending could be given a nice, rosy kind of feel. Only, your ideas matter and the creativity to weave.
Having said that, remember do not go into the journey of storytelling halfhearted as your child is very clever to notice that. Be mindful about it and also be open to the idea of reading in a manner that your child wants.
Your idea and thought will always support the child but listen to your child too. Let them envision the story like they want to and give them a chance to build it accordingly.
Do not hurry into it. Take necessary breaks and lead them into it. This will make the journey interesting and fruitful.
By Saranya Iyer
Who We Are:
At Spin A Yarn India: our mission is to become the primary outlet of children focused content by encouraging the participation of India’s latent indigenous story telling creativity, knowledge, and culture.
It is through stories that we define our identity, express our history and culture, learn and engage in all aspects of society. Stories are not only the first medium for communication, education and social integration, but are also at the heart of each person’s unique identity, cultural history and memory.
Spin A Yarn India has created a platform to enable “Storytellers” to come together to discover and share their passion for stories. A community of creators, dreamers and explorers united by their love for great stories.
Spin A Yarn India is a partner of the United Nations Indigenous Language and the Bhasha Sangam programs. Spin A Yarn India runs as a social enterprise. Profit is reinvested to support children from underprivileged backgrounds to gain access to books, education and in general to improve the literacy of families across India. | https://www.spinayarnindia.com/post/say-it-with-parenting-one-thing-to-help-you-bond-better-with-kids |
Here Are My 10 Tips for Public Speaking:
How do you speak in public training?
Here Are My 10 Tips for Public Speaking:
- Nervousness Is Normal.
- Know Your Audience.
- Organize Your Material in the Most Effective Manner to Attain Your Purpose.
- Watch for Feedback and Adapt to It.
- Let Your Personality Come Through.
- Use Humor, Tell Stories, and Use Effective Language.
- Don’t Read Unless You Have to.
How can I get high grades in English?
- Adopt a positive mental attitude.
- Work out where you’re falling short.
- Talk to your teachers.
- Pay more attention in class – and ask questions.
- Start organising your life.
- Improve your note-taking skills.
- Improve your essay-writing skills.
- Find the right learning style for you.
Why Being a good speaker is important?
A great public speaker attains the power to motivate his or her audience to do something, stop doing something, change a behavior, or reach objectives. You are not merely giving a speech in the attempt to get your audience to take a certain action; speakers are part of the action and can convey their passion and drive.
How do you speak spontaneously?
3 strategies for superb spontaneous speaking
- Use oral bullet points. Speaking spontaneously doesn’t mean you should say whatever pops into your mind in a stream of consciousness flow.
- Practice your stories. Storytelling is an important part of spontaneous speaking, so you have to practice telling your stories ahead of time.
- Think “flow,” not “flawless”
What is spontaneous language?
Spontaneous language is the phenomenon in which all or part of a language is constructed based on innate assumptions combined with input from an environment that underspecifies the language.
How do I pass GCSE English?
Pass your GCSE English Resit 2020 – 5 Simple Steps for GCSE English Retake
- Know what the examiner wants.
- Make a Plan.
- Quality and Consistent Revision.
- Keep to time in the exam.
- Spelling, Punctuation and Grammar – know your stuff and be confident. | https://www.orderwithme.com/how-do-you-speak-in-public-training/ |
"What you truly wish to know is what lies beyond the veil of death. To know what I have seen."
"Yes."
" And you will... when I kill you."
―Ahmanet addressing Jenny Halsey.
The Underworld, mistakenly referred to as Hell, and also known as Purgatory, Limbo or the Broken Kingdom, is the afterlife in the Dark Universe series. It is where characters go when they die, and also where the higher deities of the universe reside.
History Edit
At some point, the Underworld was created as a final resting place for the souls of those who had passed on.
All souls of deceased people and creatures go to the Underworld after they die.
While the Underworld has had no ruler before this, Set eventually came to the Underworld and took control of the afterlife. The exact circumstances of how and why Set came to take this position is currently unknown, but since then he has ruled over the Underworld with an iron fist.
Nature Edit
There is little proven knowledge concerning the Underworld, as it remains shrouded in mystery. In spite of this, the dimension possesses a few observable properties and characteristics:
- Visible light is present within the Underworld - that being said, there is low visibility due to the omnipresent fog and floating spores.
- Gravity in the Underworld functions exactly the same as in the physical dimension.
- Audible sound exists within the Underworld. Furthermore, noise and sound originating from the physical dimension is somehow audible in the Underworld, almost like an echo effect. However, sound from the Underworld is not seemingly audible in the Land of the Living, unless there is a nearby interdimensional portal which it can pass through.
Known Residents Edit
The following table includes only characters who were known to be in the Underworld at some point during the series. Naturally, it can be assumed that any mortal in the Dark Universe will eventually become a resident. Note: Characters with technical matters will appear with a "*" next to their name.
Current Residents Edit
- Ahmanet † (Queen of the Underworld)
- Ahmanet's Half-Brother †
- Ahmanet's Lover †
- Ahmanet's Mother †
- Ahmanet's Stepmother †
- Greenway †
- Kira Lee †
- Menehptre †
- Pete †
- Set (Supposed Ruler of the Underworld)
Former Residents Edit
- Chris Vail (Resurrected)
- Jenny Halsey (Resurrected)
- Nick Morton (Resurrected)
Visitors Edit
Known Locations Edit
All known locations within the Underworld.
- Heaven - Also known as Paradise, Heaven is the brightest and most holy area in the Underworld. It is here that the race known as Angel was born and thrives and it serves as the throne of the true ruler. It is said that words or drawings cannot describe it's beauty, but all who have seen it have agreed that it fits it's name perfectly. When the souls of the good and just die, they are sent to Heaven to live in peace and splendour for all eternity. The ultimate goal of demonkind is to conquer and control Heaven, to twist it into their version of perfection. Because of this, Heaven's Armies stand ready to defend it with their lives, no matter the cost; for if Paradise were to fall, all of creation would surely fall with it.
- Hell - The opposite of Heaven; Hell, also called the Inferno, is the most horrifying area in the Underworld. Hell was once a barren wasteland, where Set and his followers were banished after they were defeated in the Civil War of Heaven. Set soon twisted the empty realm into a place of sin and terror. It was in this pit of suffering that demonkind was born. Hell is ruled by Set, with his chosen Demon Lords beneath him and everyone else beneath them. Aside from this, Hell is a Meritocracy, where each citizen fights for territory and the most valuable commodity in Hell: the souls of mortals. The strongest rule and the weak serve. It is here the souls of the damned reside, suffering for all eternity. Despite ruling over it, Hell is as much a prison to demons as it is to the tortured souls sentenced there. Because of this, many demons often attempt to escape Hell through many different means, the most common (and effective) of which is the possession of a human host.
- Limbo - An area of the Underworld that is located between Heaven and Hell, also known as the Administration area, it is where the majority of souls end up before they are sent to their final destinations.
Government and Law Edit
The Underworld is currently under the iron fist of King Set. Beyond that, not much is known about the Underworld's politics. It is possible that Ahmanet has become Queen of the Underworld, as it was implied that her and Set were lovers.
Ways to Access the Underworld Edit
- The most obvious way of entering the Underworld is to die.
Ways to Leave the Underworld Edit
Appearances Edit
- The Mummy (mentioned)
Trivia Edit
- Time does not exist within the Underworld, as such anyone still alive who goes to the Underworld risks spending days, months, or even years there, as while time doesn't exist there, it still exists in the land of the living.
- There is no limit to the Underworld. The range of its size is bigger then the Earth itself or space itself.
- The Underworld existed long before mankind and even before the Earth came into existence. | http://universal-monsters-cinematic-universe.wikia.com/wiki/Underworld |
The longest and most tiresome part of working on my yokai books is the translating and writing period. By tiresome I don’t mean that it is boring or uninteresting — on the contrary it is totally engrossing — but just that is it completely exhausting! Some yokai only have a single sentence of back story to their entire name, which I try my best to expand to a full page by giving detailed background information that may not be apparent… while other yokai lead me down long, twisting, turning trails of research that require me to spend hours or even days of translating just to end up with a single paragraph for the book. Down the rabbit-hole of research, so to speak. This generally happens more often with religious-themed yokai, because there is so much more documentation and so many more variations on the same theme (and they are often contradictory!) that it is incredibly hard to distill them down into one single entry. One example of this is a recent entry I did on Meido, or the Japanese underworld — the place souls go before they go to Heaven, get reborn, or get flushed down to Hell.
Many English-language resources refer to Meido as a sort of Japanese version of Hades or Purgatory. While there are a number of similarities between these Western myths and Meido, there is not an actual cultural link between them. The idea of Meido was derived from the Chinese fusion of Indian Buddhism with local folklore, reinterpreted through a Japanese lense, and Hades and Purgatory developed along totally different lines. I don’t like to make too many cross-cultural comparisons in my writing because it can oversimplify and lead to wrong conclusions, and I also think it is more interesting to the reader to hear a fresh description rather than just making comparisons to other myths.
This was a fun topic for me because I studied Tibetan and Indian religions in college, so the Buddhist and vedic origins of Japanese Buddhism were familiar to me, but the way that they have changed on their long journey from India through China and Korea and finally to Japan is just fascinating. While the vast majority of Japanese Buddhism would be recognizable to someone who was only familiar with Indian (or even Western) Buddhism, there are really neat differences that don’t exist in the Buddhist cosmologies that we are most commonly exposed to here in the English speaking world.
Here is a bit of writing I did about Meido, the first stop for souls on their way to the next life, which will appear in The Hour of Meeting Evil Spirits:
When a person dies, he or she either goes to Tengoku (Heaven) or Jigoku (Hell). If the person lived an exceptionally good or an exceptionally evil life, he or she may go straight to Tengoku or Jigoku. However, for most people, who have done both and good and evil in their lives, the soul travels to Meido, where it is test by the judges of the dead, each of whose true form is that of a buddha or a god, and then sent either to Tengoku or Jigoku.
To enter the underworld, the soul much first find and cross the Sanzu River (“the River of Three Crossings”), which marks the boundary between this world and the world of the dead. The Sanzu River is said to be located somewhere on Mount Osore (literally “Mount Fear”), a desolate volcano located in northern Japan. Mount Osore is one of the three holiest places in Japan, despite its appearance — it is covered in blasted rocks, bubbling pits of dark liquid, and open vents spewing out toxic gas.
The origins of Jigoku are strongly rooted in Buddhism. When Buddhism was brought from India to China it took on a structure of its own, merging many aspects with Chinese philosophy and Taoism. This mixture of Chinese Taoism and Indian Buddhism was imported to Japan, after which it began to develop its own uniquely Japanese features as well.
There are many variations on what exactly happens after this life ends, and these are often depicted in graphic “hell scrolls” kept at temples. The depictions can differ greatly from tradition to tradition and place to place. A typical explanation may go like this:
Upon dying, a soul is visited by three oni who escort him or her on a seven day journey to Meido. The journey is harsh and terrible. It is dark, and a strong, howling wind rages constantly. The corruption of the living world materializes into swords on this plane, which pierce the bodies of the travelers, turning the surrounding terrain into a sea of blood.
A few days along the way, the souls are assaulted by horrible birds, which tear at their skin and pluck out their eyes, all the while taunting them and screaming at them to hurry up. “Why didn’t you tell me sooner? I would have hurried from the start!” cry the souls of the dead. “What is this stupid soul saying!” cry the birds. “We were perched on his roof since three days before he died, warning him to start saying his prayers! That fool only said, ‘The crows are being extra noisy today. The old woman next door must be dying. Go bring her some sugar.” That old woman is still alive, happily licking her sugar!”
Next, the souls come to an enormous mountain which scrapes the clouds, covered in sharp thorns. The path up the mountain is steep and impossibly long. The souls cry out, “I was sick and weak in life, how can you expect me to climb such a mountain now?” To which the oni reply, “What is this stupid soul saying! This is the mountain of your greed! Every time you wanted something your neighbor owned, or desired some earthly possession, you added to this mountain! You built it, now you can climb it!” Anyone who lags behind gets hit with the oni’s terrible iron club.
Finally, after seven days, the souls arrive at the Sanzu River and face the first trial put forth by the first judge, King Shinkou (whose true form is that of Fudo Myo-ou; who is known as Acala in English). Shinkou judges the souls on how much killing they have committed, down to every bug that was squashed, every fish that was caught. Those whom Shinkou judges to be wicked go straight to Jigoku. Others may cross the river depending on how well they fared in the trial. To cross the Sanzu River, a toll of 6 mon (an old form of currency) is required. This is buried with the deceased during the funeral; those whose were not properly performed and did not receive the 6 mon cannot cross. This is the reason that the seventh day after death is an important day in Japanese funerary services; the services and prayers performed for the deceased aid them in this trial and allow them to cross the river.
One part of the Sanzu River is crossed by a great bridge. Another part of the river is shallow and fordable. The rest of the river is wild and deep, and filled with poisonous snakes. The souls with the most good deeds are allowed to cross the bridge. Those with a mixture of both good and evil may ford the river in the shallow part. The worst of the souls may only cross by swimming through snake-filled rapids. The crossing of the Sanzu River takes seven days.
After crossing the river, the souls encounter Datsueba and Ken-e-ou. These two oni take the heavy clothes, wet from the crossing of the river, from each soul, and hang them on a tree. The amount the branch bends under the weight of the clothes serves as a measure of the weight of the sin on each soul, to be used as evidence in the trials to come. If a soul arrives with no clothes (perhaps having discarded them while swimming in the river), Datsueba flays his or her skin and hangs it from the tree instead.
The second trial takes place fourteen days after death, and is overseen by King Shokou (whose true form is Shaka Nyourai, or Siddhartha Gautama). Shokou judges the souls on how much they have stolen. As with the previous trial, he sends the most grievous offenders straight to Hell, while allowing the good to pass on to the next trial. Again, the fourteenth day after death is an important day for family members to perform ceremonies in honor of the deceased, in order to help him or her pass this trial.
Before the third trial, each soul must pass through a fortified gate which is guarded by a fierce oni. The oni wields large blades, which he uses to haphazardly chop off the arms and legs of the souls, saying, “That hand helped you to sin. I’ll cut if off for you!” The souls must then cross an enormous bay, wider than the Sanzu River, and filled with boiling liquid. The river gives off foul smelling fumes in all directions for many miles.
The third trial takes place 21 days after death, and is overseen by King Soutei (whose true form is Manji Bosatsu, or Manjusri). Manji judges the souls on their sins of lust and sexuality, using a cat and a snake. The cat is used to judge the souls of men; it bites at their penises, and the degree of the injury — from a slight scratch to completely severed — is used as a measure of one’s sexual sin. The snake is used to judge the souls of women; it is inserted into the woman, and the depth to which it can enter is used to determine the depth of her sin. As before, some will go on to Hell, while others — with the aid of funerary services from their surviving family members — will pass on to the next trial.
The fourth trial, 28 days after death, is overseen by King Gokan (whose true form is Fugen Bosatsu, or Samantabhadra). Gokan judges the dead on the number of lies they told in life. He weighs each soul against a large, heavy stone. The number of stones it takes the balance the scale determines the weight of one’s sins. Excessive liars are damned, those who are not may continue on to be judged again. Once again, the family holds a funerary service to aid their beloved departed in this trial, hoping to sway the mercy of the judge.
Next, the souls must cross a vast blasted, desolate landscape of unfathomable length. Balls of red-hot iron fall constantly like rain from the sky, burning the skin of the souls and causing their feet to blister as they walk the path to the next trial.
The fifth trial, 35 days after death, is overseen by Great King Enma, the ruler of the underworld (whose true form is that of Jizou Bosatsu, or Ksitigarbha). Enma’s judgement is the final chance to appeal one’s fate through the prayers and memorial services performed by the living relatives. Enma shows each soul a large mirror, in which the individual’s former life is reflected back at them, with all of their sins and transgressions clearly laid out. Enma’s job is to decide, based on his and the previous trials, which of the six Buddhist realms each soul will be reborn into: the realm of Heaven, the realm of Humans, the realm of Asuras, the realm of Beasts, the realm of Gaki (or Hungry Ghosts), or the realm of Hell.
After 42 days, the souls which have made it this far now face the judgment of King Henjou (whose true form is Miroku Bosatsu, or Maitreya). Henjou decides the location of each soul’s rebirth based on the reports from Enma’s mirror and Gokan’s scale.
Next, the souls must cross a dark land, full of strange animals whose cries pierce the darkness and fill the atmosphere with dread. Strange birds attack the souls, breathing flames at them and piercing them with their sharp beaks.
On the 49th day after death, the souls reach the trial of King Taizan (whose true form is Yakushi Nyourai, or Bhaisajyaguru). The 49th day memorial service is a very important one, with many family members attending to pray for the deceased; Taizan’s trial is the final chance to avoid going to Hell. He uses the information from the previous judges to determine the remaining conditions of each soul’s rebirth. | http://matthewmeyer.net/blog/2014/02/23/meido-the-japanese-underworld/ |
Pluto, formerly known as Dis Pater or simply Dis, was the Roman deity of the Underworld and wealth, often seen as a counterpart to the Greek Hades. Pluto holds a key and scepter, which he uses to protect his kingdom and guard the dead from escaping.
Description
Much like his Greek counterpart, Pluto was the ruler of dead, but was not the God of Death (for that was taken by Mors). He was also seen as the embodiment of wealth, as many believed the Underworld to locate deep within the Earth. Pluto was previously referred to as Dis Pater, meaning Father of Riches. The god took the name Pluto as the Roman Empire started to spread across the Mediterranean world and became more and more wealthy, notably when Greek culture was incorporated into Roman society.
The god Pluto lived in a palace in the underworld, far away from the other gods who lived at the Roman Mount Olympus. It was his role to claim the souls that inhabited his underworld domain. Those who entered were destined to stay there for eternity. The entrance gates were guarded by his own version of the enormous three-headed dog, Cerberus. The one-eyed giant, Cyclops, gave Pluto the cap of invisibility to help in his battle with the Titans. The cap enables the one who wears it to become invisible to all other supernatural and mortal beings.
History
The three brother gods, Jupiter, Neptune and Pluto, were charged with ruling the worlds after their powerful father Saturn died. Jupiter took the sky, Neptune became ruler of the sea and Pluto’s domain was the underworld. Eventually, Jupiter became the supreme god who ruled all of the earth and sky, while Neptune married and stayed in the sea, and Pluto happily remained in the underworld where he presided over the afterlife. Occasionally, he emerged to earth for a visit or a meeting of the gods.
The King of the Gods, Jupiter, had a niece named Proserpina. She was the daughter of his sister Ceres, the goddess in charge of the harvest. In consideration of her valuable domain, everyone, both gods and mortals, did all they could to keep Ceres happy. Proserpina was a lovely and happy young woman. One day, while she was out in the fields collecting flowers, she was spotted by her uncle Pluto. He was enchanted with her beauty and felt compelled to have her, so he quickly kidnapped Proserpina and took her to the underworld in his chariot before anyone could run interference.
Disheartened at her fate, Proserpina refused to speak to Pluto, who had fallen madly in love with her, and also refused to eat. According to the legends, one who ate a meal in the underworld would seal their destiny and never be able to leave. Hoping for someone to come to her rescue, she held out as long as she could. Finally, after a week of crying and starving, she could no longer bear it, and ate six pomegranate seeds.
At this point, back on Earth, Jupiter was getting increasingly concerned about Ceres and the crops. Ceres was absolutely miserable and tearful about her missing daughter. Jupiter decided to send his youngest son Mercury, the messenger, known for his excellent negotiating skills, to visit the underworld and try to make a deal with Pluto.
Since Proserpina had already eaten the pomegranate seeds, and Pluto was hopelessly in love, Mercury needed to think quickly. After much discourse, Pluto agreed that if Proserpina married him she would live as queen of the underworld for six months of the year and in the spring she could return to earth for six months. Proserpina also agreed to these terms, as did Ceres.
Each spring, Ceres blooms all the flowers as a welcome to her beloved daughter returning from the underworld. In the autumn, when Proserpina returns to Pluto, Ceres cries and lets all the crops die until the following spring when the cycle begins again. And so, according to the legend, this is why they are seasons.
Myths and Legends
Pluto is also symbolized by the pomegranate, the fruit of the underworld. Proserpina ate six seeds from the symbolic fruit and sealed her destiny. The hard outer shell of the pomegranate encapsulates a multitude of seeds representing fertility, prosperity and abundance. Each spring, when Proserpina emerges from the underworld and arrives on earth, she brings the seeds of fertility and the bloom of spring.
Due to being the Roman Ruler of the Underworld, he was often conflated with either Satan or Lucifer with the rise of Christianity, and his old name Dis was even given to a demon. His name was often used as that of a demon or the devil himself in medieval and Renaissance literate and poetry, and Jacques Collin de Plancy, a French demonologist and occultist, referred to Pluto as Prince of Hell (more accurately a Prince of Fire) as well as an Grand Cross of the Order of the Fly and governor of the regions in flames.
Trivia
- Pluto represents a more positive concept of the god who presides over the afterlife. Ploutōn was frequently conflated with Plutus, the Greek god of wealth, because mineral wealth was found underground, and because as a chthonic god Pluto ruled the deep earth that contained the seeds necessary for a bountiful harvest. The couple received souls in the afterlife and are invoked together in religious inscriptions, being referred to as Plouton and as Kore respectively. Hades, by contrast, had few temples and religious practices associated with him, and he is portrayed as the dark and violent abductor of Persephone. | https://the-demonic-paradise.fandom.com/wiki/Pluto |
Odysseus ultimately departs Hades, terrified by all the dead shouting about him. The protagonist, Odysseus, and his crew enter the Underworld in Homer's epic poem The Odyssey. Circe, the sea witch, directs their voyage and urges them to offer a sacrifice at the gateway to the kingdom of the dead. When they reach the river Styx, where passengers can choose which path to take, Odysseus orders his men to pull their ships ashore while he goes alone into the underworld. There he meets the three main rulers of the afterlife: Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades. After praying to these gods for help, he returns to Earth with indications that all his friends have been released from punishment.
In ancient Greek culture, people believed that after death, you went through a series of other lives to be judged by your actions during your current life. If you had been good, you would be allowed to join the gods in paradise after you died. If not, you would be sent to hell where you would be tortured forever. Hell was a very real place for ancient Greeks- it was located beneath the earth. It was filled with evil spirits who were waiting to torture you for all eternity because they were never forgiven for being bad.
In The Odyssey, Odysseus has to navigate his way through Hades to return to Earth. So what does this mean? It means that anyone can do anything, even visit Hades!
The Greeks worshiped Hades, the deity of the Underworld and the name of the realm. Odysseus sails to Hades in the epic poem The Odyssey to discover his fate from Teiresias, the blind prophet. He is instructed that he must not harm Helios' animals or he and his soldiers would perish and be forgotten. That is why Achilles does not kill Trojans when they are wounded; this would anger Hades.
Hades has two main forms in mythology. As the god of the underworld, he is represented as a grim figure wearing a crown and a robe, with a serpent coiled around his waist. As king of the dead, he is described as a handsome man who receives guests at a banquet table laden with food. This second form appears in ancient art.
In some cultures, including Ancient Greece, people believed that if you did not honor your ancestors you would never reach old age or death. So they made many statues of their relatives in hopes that good luck would come their way. Today this practice is called "ancestor worship" and some families still make offerings at shrines or tombs every year in hope of winning health or prosperity for themselves or others.
Ancestors were seen as vital to the living because they carried on living people's names and fought wars for them. If someone had been cruel to their ancestor, they would receive punishment for it in the form of disease or misfortune.
A second instance of Odysseus' heroic character occurs in Book 11, when Circe instructs Odysseus to travel to the underworld, Hades, to confront the dead prophet, Teiresias, about Odysseus' fate. If Odysseus succeeds in this task, he will be able to learn how he can return home.
Circe has been manipulating both men all along in an attempt to get her own way. When Odysseus refuses to help her seduce Zeus, she casts a spell on him that makes him fall in love with her. Once he is dependent on her for food and shelter, she tells him they will have to leave Greece because someone has accused him of murder. He does as he is told without question, until they reach Sicily where he fights Calypso once more for possession of his soul. This time, though, she doesn't win because it is clear that he still loves Athena and would do anything for home and family. So, Circe tricks Calypso into giving up Odysseus by telling her that if he goes home, he will never come back. After this success, she tells him they must travel to the underworld so she can ask Hades about his fate.
Odysseus journeys to the Land of the Dead in order to meet with the prophet Tiresias. When he arrives, he performs a blood sacrifice in order for the spirits of the deceased to rise from the depths of Hades. Only then can Tiresias see their future together.
Odysseus then asks Tiresias whether Penelope will ever remarry. The old man replies that she will one day marry an excellent husband who will take good care of her, but that she is now married to the pain of separation. This refers to the fact that she has not married again since Odysseus left her seven years ago.
After this revelation, Tiresias guides Odysseus through the underworld. They pass many famous sites including the River Styx, the Hall of Judgment, and Hades (the realm of the dead). Finally, they reach the island where Penelope lives. Here, Odysseus hopes to find evidence that will allow him to win back his wife's love, but this will not be an easy task given that she still mourns his absence.
When he gets there, however, Odysseus finds out that she has had four new husbands since he went away! He is devastated and refuses to speak to any of them. | https://authorscast.com/what-happens-when-odysseus-enters-hades |
The Underworld is where the souls of the dead go when they die. The Underworld is divided into various sections. The Judges of the Underworld decide where a soul should go based upon their life's accomplishments. In Ancient Greece, a man named King Rhadamanthus judged the dead and was later joined by King Aeacus and King Minos. It is located beneath DOA Recording Studios in Los Angeles, California.
The entrance is managed by Charon, the reaper of souls. He takes them into an elevator and heads down, where they sail across the River Styx toward the opposite shore. On that shore, Cerberus, a three-headed dog born from the monsters Echidna and Typhon stands guard. The souls must pass by Cerberus toward their afterlife. Once they pass Cerberus, they cannot leave. DOA stands for Dead On Arrival.
The Door of Orpheus is a lesser-known entrance, which stands in Central Park, New York. Orpheus created it to retrieve the dead spirit of his wife, Eurydice. Music is required to open this door and Percy Jackson and Nico di Angelo used it in The Last Olympian with Grover Underwood's reed pipes. It lets out behind the main gates, therefore being more direct to Hades' palace.
The Doors of Death act as way for Thanatos to quickly enter and exit the Underworld. However, he claims that the doors aren't in a physical place and normally only he knows where they are. Unfortunately after Thanatos was captured, Gaea managed to chain down the Doors of Death in Tartarus use them to allow monsters to quickly reform and souls to return to the land of the living, such as Medea, King Midas, and Phineas.
In the film adaptation of The Lightning Thief, Percy Jackson and his friends enter the Underworld through the Hollywood Sign, following the map given to them by Luke Castellan. On the letter "H" of Hollywood, there is an Ancient Greek text. When Percy reads the text aloud "Woe to all depraved souls," a bit of the ground next to the sign crumbles away, leaving an entrance to the Underworld. More specifically, the entrance at the River Styx where Charon awaits them.
While the above entrances are the main ways to get into the Underworld, there are other ways to get out as shown in The Demigod Files. Hades can use his keys for creating and closing the gates to the Underworld almost at will. The exact locations of these entrances are unknown.
Charon's ferry floats along this river on its way to the main gate on the Walls of Erebos. In ancient history, Achilles used the Styx to become invincible (His mother, Thetis, held him by his heel to keep him anchored to the mortal world, dipping him into the river.) Since the river is so powerful, the person bathing in it has to pick one vulnerable spot on their body to make sure they are anchored to their human life, or else they will dissolve into the river. Thus the saying "Achilles' Heel" came to be because he was defeated in his vulnerable spot, his heel. There is also a place on the human heel that is called the "Achilles Tendon", mainly because that is what scientists discovered and named with Achilles.
Luke Castellan used the river to be able to host Kronos. His weakness was a small bit of skin just under his left arm.
Getting the idea from Nico di Angelo, Percy Jackson used the river to become invincible so he could defeat Kronos. His vulnerable point was in the small of his back. Also, swearing on the River Styx is the most serious oath you can make.
Once a spirit enters the Underworld, it enters the Pavilion, where three spirits judge them and put them in a certain place, according to their actions during life. One of the three judges is known, King Minos. Annabeth mentions William Shakespeare and Thomas Jefferson being some of the other judges. In Greek times, a man named King Rhadamanthus judged the dead and was later joined by King Aeacus and King Minos. Now there is a select group of judges that rotate regularly.
King Sisyphus cheated death numerous times with the first one having him chain up Thanatos so that no one can die. He even appealed to Persephone that his wife never gave him a proper funeral. Sisyphus was sentenced to roll a boulder up a hill that would roll back down when it gets close to the top, and was constantly plagued by the fact that he wanted to roll the stone up again, probably as an added side effect.
King Tantalus was invited to dine with the gods and was said to have stolen nectar and ambrosia and brought it back to his people alongside the secret of the gods. Tantalus later chopped up his son Pelops and served him as food to the gods. Upon his death, his punishment was to stand in the middle of a lake under the branches of a fruit tree, but whenever he reached for the fruit, the branches would retreat from his grasp, and whenever he leaned down for a drink, the water would recede from him.
Ixion was the king of the Lapiths, the most ancient tribe of Thessaly. Ixion got mad at his father in law and ended up pushing him onto a bed of coal and woods, committing the first kin-related murder. The princes of other lands ordered that Ixion be denied of any sin cleansing. Zeus took pity on Ixion and invited him to a meal on Olympus. But when he saw Hera, he fell in love with her and did some under the table caressing until Zeus signaled him to stop. Zeus created a cloud-clone of Hera to test him and Ixion made love to her which resulted in the birth of Centauros who mated with some Magnesian mares on Mount Pelion engendering the race of Centaurs who are called the Ixionidae from their descent. Zeus ended up driving Ixion from Mount Olympus and then struck him with a thunderbolt. He was sentenced to eternity in the Fields of Punishment tied to a winged flaming wheel that was always spinning. Only when Orpheus came down to the Underworld to rescue Eurydice did it stop spinning because of the music Orpheus was playing.
It has "miles of barbed wire separating the different torture areas." Some of the torture areas include being burned at the stake, running through cactus patches naked, being chased by hellhounds, and being forced to listen to opera music. It is also noted in The Lightning Thief, that there were lots of people in the Fields of Punishment. One notable prisoner is a Televangelist who used his funds to be richer and died on a police chase in his "Lamborghini for the Lord." Percy mentioned that what he believes in a different hell is exactly the Fields of Punishment and mortals just one to see what they want.
Souls who don't wish to be judged go to the Asphodel Fields. According to Grover, it is described as "standing in a wheat field in Kansas for eternity." Also for people who are judged and who have not done enough good or bad in their life end in Asphodel as Annabeth stated that "most people don't do good or bad in their life." Most souls forget their lives when they are in these fields.
Elysium is the place of paradise for the heroic and the virtuous. The souls of those who had either died a hero's death or led a virtuous life will live in peace in Elysium forever. It is where the demigod and ex-Hunter, Bianca di Angelo, went before she chose to be reborn. Charles Beckendorf, Silena Beauregard, Lee Fletcher, Michael Yew, Ethan Nakamura, Luke Castellan and Jason Grace are also there. In the middle of the Valley of Elysium, there is a glittering blue lake, on which is the Isles of the Blest.
The Isles of the Blest is reserved for people who had chosen to be reborn three times, and three times achieved Elysium. It is described as a glittering blue lake with three small islands like a vacation resort in the Bahamas.
According to Percy Jackson, not many people live in the Isles of the Blest, and not many will, as there are few people who do good in their life, and fewer will prefer rebirth to the eternal residence in the blissful Elysium. However, he knew at his first sight of the Isles that it was where he wanted to go when he died. Annabeth also acknowledged its incredible appeal, stating that it was the ideal place for heroes.
Luke Castellan was one of those who wished to go into the Isles of the Blest, when he sacrificed himself in order to destroy Kronos. According to Nico di Angelo, his sister Bianca also choose rebirth as she was aiming for entry into the Isles of the Blest.
Tartarus is the lowest region of the world, as far below earth as earth is from heaven. Tartarus is described as a dark, gloomy pit, surrounded by a wall of bronze, and beyond that a three-fold layer of night. According to the Iliad, it is a 9-day anvil fall from the other regions of Hades. It was here that Annabeth and Percy spent many days trapped, searching for the doors of death.
When Kronos ruled, he kept the Hekatonheires (Hundred-Handed Ones) and the Cyclopes in Tartarus, guarded by Kampe.
Tartarus is where Kronos, along with some other Titans, were imprisoned after the battle between the gods and the Titans. Their jailer were the Hekatonheires.
The River Lethe is the River of Forgetfulness, and it is used on people who try for rebirth. It has pure black water and is seen in The Demigod Files. According to Annabeth, it is strong enough to wipe the mind of a Titan, proved when Iapetus's mind is gone after he is dragged into the river by Percy. Even one drop can make people start to forget who they are. Percy held up this river in The Demigod Files to let Nico and Thalia get across.
The outside of Hades' Palace in the Underworld in The Lightning Thief movie.
Persephone's garden is Persephone's magic garden filled with pomegranate trees with orange blossoms and sweet-smelling fruit, multi-colored mushrooms, poisonous scrubs, and weird luminous plants that grow without sunlight.
The forges are where weapons are made. Skeletal weapon-smiths work over a forge of black flames, using hammers fashioned like metal skulls.
The main entrance to the Underworld is in Los Angeles, California. A lesser known fact is that the full name of this city is el pueblo de Nuestra Señora, Reina de los ángeles. In English, this means, "the city of our Lady, Queen of the Angels". This could be a reference to Persephone, who is Queen of the Underworld, or, city of Angels, though it is doubtful that this is what the Roman Catholic Spaniards intended when they founded the city.
However, as Chiron mentioned in The Lightning Thief, Spain was once a western civilization, so Los Angeles may have indeed been indirectly named for Persephone.
The map of the Underworld places Cerberus before the Judgement Pavilion, however in The Son of Neptune, Frank and Hazel are in a blackout together when they pass Cerberus after the Judgement Pavilion.
Shouldn't Persephone have a Cabin?
Underworld, Valhalla, or the Land of the Dead? | https://riordan.fandom.com/wiki/Underworld |
The Bible says that all people go to hell when they die.
For example, in the book of Psalms there are words that say that the wicked will go to hell:
“Let the ungodly be turned to hell,* all the nations that forget God” (Psalm 9:18 Synodal Translation, 9:17 NM).
Righteous people also go to hell after death. A devoted servant of God, Job, wanted to go to hell to relieve the suffering that Satan the Devil was causing him.
“Oh that You would hide me in hell and keep me hidden until your wrath passes away, and set a time for me, and then remember me!” (Job 14: 13, SP)
Jesus Christ did not commit any sin, but he was also in hell for a while. This is what David prophesied. The Book of Acts says the following:
“David says of Him [Jesus Christ]:' [ … ]…You will not leave my soul in hell, nor let your holy one see corruption”(Acts 2: 25-27, SP)
It says here that God did not leave Jesus in hell. This indicates that Jesus was there for at least some time.
Hell is not a place of torment, but the universal grave of humanity. The penalty for sin is death, not eternal torment.
“The wages of sin is death” (Romans 6: 23).
Those who have died have already been punished for their sin. The dead are freed from sin (Romans 6: 7).
Soon God will release those who have fallen asleep from death. This will happen during the millennial reign of the Kingdom of God under the leadership of the God-appointed king, Jesus Christ.
Jesus Christ healed the sick, fed thousands of people, and raised the dead. So he showed what he would do for the people when he was King of the Kingdom of Heaven. Then there will be no more death, and no more hell.
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Good afternoon.
The Orthodox Christian Church does not exclude the possibility of saving people who knew nothing about the one God before the coming of Jesus Christ. I offer you a chapter of one article that covers this topic in detail.
§ 100. The descent of Jesus Christ into Hell and the victory over hell.
The first revelation of the royal power of Jesus Christ after His sufferings on the cross and death was the abolition of the power of the devil over those who had died from time immemorial in his kingdom itself, where they were held in the bonds of death by those who had the power of death. Having descended with his soul into hades after death, He brought out his captives from there, and thus trampled under foot the power of the devil over the souls of the dead; for how can any man enter into a strong house, and plunder his vessels, unless he first binds a strong one, then his house will be plundered (Mt 12:29). The healing of those possessed with demons was only the beginning of this victory of the Redeemer over the devil and the destruction of his power over people. Through this victory, He made the whole pre-Christian underworld part of the atonement, opening the way to heaven for all, the entrance to His own all-encompassing kingdom.
The teaching that Jesus Christ really descended into hell after His death on the cross is most fully expressed in the following words of Ap. Peter: Christ alone suffered our sins, the righteous for the unrighteous, that he might bring us the Gods, for he was put to death in the flesh, but was quickened by the spirit, for whom he also preached to those who were in prison spiritually, who sometimes resisted, when they waited for God's longsuffering, in the days of Noah, who made the ark, in which there were few, that is, eight souls were saved from the water (1 Peter 3:18-20; cf. the same apostle's testimonies of this event in 4:6 and Acts 2:27-30). Of the other apostles, only Ap speaks of this event. Pavel. Quoting the words of the psalmist: “When thou didst ascend on high, thou didst take captivity captive, and didst give the gift of man, the apostle explains them thus: And if thou didst ascend, what is there, just as thou didst first descend (i.e., Jesus Christ) into the further regions of the earth? He that cometh down is the same, and he that ascendeth up above all the heavens, that he may fulfill all things (Eph. 4: 8-10; Ps. 67: 19).
The testimonies of the apostles and the Ancient Patristic explanations of the apostolic teaching about the descent of Jesus Christ into hell answer some specific questions raised by this teaching. These are the following.
I. When and how did Jesus Christ descend into hell: after His resurrection, in His already spiritualized and glorified body, or, like all men, that is, only with His human soul, and therefore before the resurrection? AP. Peter says that Christ ϑανατωϑεὶς μὲν σαρκί, ζωοποιηϑεὶς δέ τῶ πνεύματι, ἐν ᾧ καὶ τοῖς ἐν φυλακῆ πνεύμασι, πορευϑεὶς ἐκήρυξεν, i.e. Christ, being put to death in the flesh, quickened the same духу313), where (He) and the spirits that were in prison, went preaching. νΝ ᾧ – in which, i.e. πνεύματι, – cannot be understood in relation to the spirituality in which Christ rose from the tomb and in the body, in which He appeared to the disciples as His court of prisoners (which explanation is accepted by many in Lutheranism). The direct meaning of the apostle's words is that Christ went down to the prison of spirits when He was dead according to the flesh: then He, mortified according to the flesh, being alive according to the spirit, or according to the soul (πνεύματι – an adverbial expression, like σαρκὶ), went down to the prison of spirits. Confirmation that ap. Peter means byνν ᾧ the spirit or soul of Christ, and his words in the speech delivered on the day of Pentecost, etc. David did not say of himself, but of Christ, “Do not leave my soul in hell ,and let your venerable one see corruption” (Acts 2: 27-31). Thus we must believe that the Lord Jesus Christ did not descend into hell as His deity, with whom He is omnipresent, and not in His spiritualized, already glorified body, but only in His human soul.
This is also the ancient church-wide teaching about the Lord's descent into hell. Origen writes: “A soul without a body He preached to souls without a body”(314). According to St. Athanasius: “the body (of Christ) reached only to the grave, but the soul descended to hell… These places are separated by a great distance,.. the tomb received the corporeal advent, and in it was the body, and hell was disembodied. Hell would not have endured the coming of an uncovered Deity ” (315). Against Apollinaris, who rejected the existence of the human soul in Christ, the church teachers asked: how did Christ descend into hell when His body lay in the tomb, and He was omnipresent as a deity?316) According to I. Although Christ “died as a man, and His holy soul was separated from His body in its proper place, yet His divinity remained inseparably with both-that is, with the soul with which He descended into hell and the body” 317). This teaching is immortalized in a famous church song: “in the grave of the flesh, but in hell with the soul.”..
II. Was the descent of Jesus Christ into hell the beginning of His glorification, which He entered upon after His sufferings (1 Peter 1: 11), or was it the last degree of His humiliation, which He was pleased to undergo in order to gain complete victory over His enemy? Those who claim that Christ descended into hell quickened, with His glorified body, think that His descent into hell was already His work in a glorified state (Lutheran view). But ap. Peter, speaking of the descent of Jesus Christ into hell with a human soul, thereby (implicite) solves the question in a different sense. If Jesus Christ was pleased to become a full man and died according to the flesh, as a man, according to the law of human nature, then there is no obstacle to thinking, and it is even more correct to think, that He was also pleased to descend into hell with His human soul, as all men descend there, as one of the dead according to the law of And how could His descent into hell have been a matter of glory only as a human soul, when His body was in the tomb? His descent into hell was the last thing that He, as a Redeemer, was pleased to undergo, voluntarily humbling Himself to the very last degree – a descent in the form of a slave, as one of the dead, although, of course, the darkness and sorrow of hell could not and did not touch Him, and hell could not and had no power over Him.
In this sense, some of the ancient teachers of the church have also expressed themselves. St. Irenaeus, for example, says: “The Lord kept the law of the dead, that he might be the firstborn from the dead; and he remained until the third day in the lowest places of the earth; and then, rising up according to the flesh, he ascended to the Father.” According to Tertullian, “When Christ God died as a man and was buried according to the scriptures, he also fulfilled the law that, like all men who died, he descended into hell”(319). Hilary of Poitiers says: “It is a necessary law of human nature that souls should descend to hell after the burial of their bodies, and the Lord did not refuse this descent, because he was a true man.” 320 In this sense, a church song is sung about the descent of Jesus Christ into hell: “Today the hell wall cries out: my power is destroyed, I will receive the dead, for I am one from the dead, for I cannot by any means keep this one” (Verse of the Great Sabbath).
III. What was the activity of Jesus Christ in hell? Ap. Peter says that when Jesus Christ came down to the spirits who were in prison, he preached to them. Κηρύσσειν in the new Testament it is used to mean: to proclaim, to evangelize, to preach the gospel, the Kingdom of God or of Christ; this word is used in this sense even when after he had not, on the face of add-ons: το εύαγγἐλιον, βασίλειαν τὴν τοῦ Θεοῦ τοῦ Χριστοῦ or (eg. MT. 2:1; MRK. 1:38, etc.). The fathers and teachers of the Eastern Church, beginning with the earliest ones, say directly that He preached or preached the gospel in hell (321). Thus, in the words of St. John the Baptist. Irenaeus, “The Lord descended into the pit of the earth, proclaiming His coming here also, and proclaiming remission of sins to those who believe in Him.” 322 Clement of Alexandria says: “The Lord descended into hell for no other purpose than to proclaim the gospel.” 323 St. John of Damascus even equates the preaching of Christ in hell with His preaching on earth. “The deified soul (of Christ),” he says, “descends into hell in order that as the sun of righteousness may shine upon those who dwell on the earth, so also light may shine upon those who sit under the earth in darkness and in the shadow of death; that as Christ may proclaim peace to those who are on earth, deliverance to the captives, and sight to the blind, and to those who believe, the underworld” 324).
In another place the same Apostle the purpose of the preaching of Jesus Christ in the Ada defines as: se Bo and dead blagovestie (νεχροῖς ἐυαγγελίσϑη), but the court of UBO mastery (ἴνа κριϑῶσι μεν – although convicted) according to men in the flesh, you live as the spirit Bose (ζῶσι δε κατά Θεόν πνεύματι – 4:6). Maximus the Confessor interprets these words as follows:” the word of the knowledge of God (ϑεογνωσίας) was preached to those who died in hell, so that, having been judged according to man according to the flesh during their life on earth (i.e., having been destroyed in the waters of the flood), they would live according to God in spirit, i.e., with all their soul”,
Thus, Jesus Christ went to hell to preach the gospel, and his preaching was the same as on earth, that is, it was aimed at conversion and salvation, although, of course, we do not know the method of communication or the language of souls. In the liturgical books of the Orthodox Church, it is suggested that the souls of the dead were prepared for the reception of His message by the preaching of those who had descended into hell before the Redeemer of the dead, who, while still living on earth, believed in His future coming, such as the prophets, or had already seen His coming, such as John the Baptist. In the troparion to John the Baptist, the church confesses that he not only testified about Christ on earth, but also ” preached the good news to those who are in hell of God made manifest in the flesh, who takes away the sin of the world and gives us great mercy.”
IV. To whom was the message of Jesus Christ addressed in hell? According to the apostle, Jesus Christ came down to those who are in spiritual hell, and sometimes opposed them when they were waiting for God's longsuffering, in the days of Noah… Thus, even Noah's contemporaries, who were once stubborn in unbelief and impiety, and were destroyed from the face of the earth for their depravity, were listeners to the preaching of Jesus Christ. Therefore, Jesus Christ went to the darkest places of hell, where the most ungodly of men were, to preach the gospel to them, so that they too would repent, be converted, and be saved. Hence, it is permissible to think that the word of salvation was offered to the souls of all the dead people who were in hell, i.e., not only to the contemporaries of Noah, but to all sinners in general, not excluding the Gentiles. First of all, of course, the Saviour announced salvation to the pious children of Israel who were in hell, and they recognized Christ the Saviour who had reappeared in hell before anyone else.326 But when He came to the farthest parts of the earth, He preached the gospel to sinners like Noah's contemporaries, and they could learn from Him that God had accomplished salvation through Him, and believe in Him or not.
Some do not admit that the message of salvation can be offered to the dead ungodly people, claiming that such as, for example, the contemporaries of Noah, the Lord ἐχήρυξε-announced judgment, condemnation, and exposed unbelief. But if Christ was not a judge on earth, He did not come to hell to the contemporaries of Noah, as the judge of their past life. On earth, He preached the coming judgment to those who persisted in unbelief, but after He had already preached to them about repentance, He also preached judgment, encouraging them to repent. Nor did He go to hell to announce judgment to Noah's contemporaries. On earth, He preached about the kingdom of God and repentance to all Jews, and especially to sinners; there is no reason to believe that Christ also preached about the kingdom of God and repentance to dead sinners. His preaching in hell might have been a compensation for judgment against them in the same sense that even during His earthly life those who did not believe His word found judgment and condemnation in their very unbelief (Jn. 12: 48), but not directly by proclaiming judgment. Such an idea is more consistent with the concept of divine justice and love, which opened the possibility of salvation even to those of the dead who did not know and did not have during their earthly life revealed knowledge of God and reverence for God, did not have, like the Jews, the promise and prophecies of the Messiah the Redeemer, and in general with the idea of the universal meaning of
V. What were the fruits of the preaching in hell and the descent of Jesus Christ into hell in general? Based on the ap certificate. The ancient teachers expressed the conviction that Christ, who descended into hell, destroyed the kingdom of the devil and freed the captives of hell from the bonds of the cross, and that the Lord, by His cross, took away the power of the rulers and authorities, put them to shame, bound the strong man, and plundered the vessels of his house. So, St. Chrysostom says: “Hell is captured by the Lord who has descended into it, abolished, reviled, put to death, deposed, bound” 327). St. Gregory the Theologian writes: “He (Jesus Christ) repelled the sting of death, broke down the gloomy gates of a dreary hell, and gave freedom to spirits.” 328 According to Eusebius of Caesarea, Jesus Christ “came for the salvation of souls who were in hell and had been waiting for His coming for many centuries, and when He came down, he broke down the gates of brass, broke down the bars of iron, and first led them bound in hell to freedom.” 329
The destruction of hell was expressed in freeing the captives from the bonds of hell, in raising them to heaven. But did God bring all the captives out of hell? There is no direct answer to this question in Scripture. The Church has recognized since ancient times that all the pious prisoners of hell in the Old Testament were set free and taken from there to the holy abodes of the Heavenly Father, 330 or, as the catechism teaches (about 5 ch.), “souls who waited for His coming in faith” were delivered. With a host of these freed prisoners of hell, the Lord, according to the ancient belief of the church, ascended to heaven, and they were the first to form the heavenly body of the church, under the head – Christ. But the mention of ap. Peter's account of the former disobedience of the spirits of Noah's contemporaries, to whom Christ preached in hell that they should live according to God in the spirit, seems to suggest that the spirits of Noah's contemporaries were now converted, and if they believed the preaching of Christ, they were certainly brought out of hell. And some of the ancient teachers directly expressed the idea that the Savior brought out of hell not only the righteous of the Old Testament, but also many others, or even all those who only believed His sermons, everyone and everyone who wanted to follow Him as a Liberator. Of course, this is only a private opinion, but the opinion, it should be noted, is quite likely. It is very difficult to imagine that among the dead prisoners of hell there were people who would be satisfied with their unnatural position and in the presence of God Himself could declare their unwillingness to be saved. 331) This is how this opinion is expressed in St. John the Baptist. St. Gregory of Nyssa. In order, he says, “to catch the wise in his deceit and to turn his evil schemes against him,” the deceased Saviour voluntarily descended into his dwelling – place, the “heart of the earth, “and put an end to his power by extirpating all who were then in the bonds of death. Count to me all the generations of people that have passed by, from the first appearance of evil to its destruction: how many people are there in each generation, and how many thousands can they be counted? It is impossible to embrace the multitude of those in whom evil has spread in succession; the evil richness of vice, being shared by each of them, each increased… So, if you have destroyed in three days (i.e., during the time between death and resurrection) such an accumulation of evil, which was gathered from the creation of the world to the completion of our salvation through the death of the Lord – has he given you a small proof of a superior power? Isn't it stronger than everyone else?.. wonderful?.. One simple and incomprehensible coming of Life and the presence of Light for those who sit in darkness and the shadow of death caused the complete disappearance and annihilation of darkness and death”(332).
Источник: https://azbyka.ru/otechnik/Nikolaj_Malinovskij/pravoslavnoe-dogmaticheskoe-bogoslovie-tom-3/1_35
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Pagans go to Hell.
The Gospel of John
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3:36. He who believes in the Son has eternal life, not eternal life.
He who believes in the Son will not see life, but the wrath of God
abides on it.
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Only God knows whether a person has gone to hell. But about the Gentiles in principle, the apostle Paul in Rom 2:12 says that they will be judged according to the law of their conscience. I.e., if they thought that something is evil, and did it, then they will sin, because they rejected the good. If they tried to live in love as much as they knew, they would probably be saved.
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Pre-Christian pagans did not go to Hell, as Hell is an afterlife only for Christians. The pagans also have a world like the Christian Hell and it is called Inferno. Hell and Hell are similar, but they are different worlds. And the pagans knew and know about many gods, including the god who stands above all religions. And the Christian God is not the highest god. Even on Earth, the Christian God is not the highest. The highest god on Earth is Perun.
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No, for the simple reason that there is no hell. Can a loving God look upon eternal torment, even for sinners?No . He himself came in the form of a man and suffered for our sins on the cross, so that he could give redemption to all those who believe in him. Even for the sake of one person, He would have endured all these unthinkable torments: flagellation, humiliation, abuse, ridicule, crucifixion.
How can you send people to hell without a trial? The holy Scriptures say that the Day of Judgment is set, it is coming. Then why this subsequent trial, if, according to the generally accepted doctrine, the guilt of a person and his further fate are determined immediately after death? If God had created hell, it could be said to be part of His plan. However, this goes against the Lord's gracious character and wisdom.
You can imagine: Cain, the son of Eve, who killed his brother, has been burning in hell for about 6,000 years, and a modern criminal, say, Chikatilo, has only been in hell for 26 years. It turns out that the serial killer will never catch up with Cain in terms of the scale of punishment, although he is guilty of sexual violence and murder of more than 53 people. Where is the justice then? This is illogical.
There's another argument for why hell doesn't exist. In the view of all religions, the ever-burning hell is ruled by Satan. Would God trust the devil, His worst enemy, with fire? How can Satan be allowed to see to the justice of his punishment? And if he lets someone avoid it…Shouldn't Satan himself be the first to burn in hell?
The doctrine of eternal hell is not consistent with the Bible. IT has been imposed for a long time. But it is absolutely absurd, devoid of any meaning. But you might argue ,” How is there no hell if the Bible itself says so? And Christ repeatedly spoke of gehenna of fire.”
Here are some Bible texts:
“And all his sons and all his daughters gathered together to comfort him; but he would not be comforted, and said, I will go down to my son in sorrow into sheol. So his father mourned for him. ” (Gen 37: 35).
“And he said, My son will not go with you; for his brother is dead, and he is left alone; if any evil befalls him in the way that you go, then you will bring down my gray hair with sorrow to the grave” (Gen. 42: 38).
The original text of both texts uses the word “sheol”. It occurs over 60 times in the Old Testament alone. And it really means the abode of the dead-the grave. Only the Russian Synodal translation translates it in various places as hell, coffin, underworld, hyena of fire, grave.
The New Testament is written primarily in Greek. And “sheol” is replaced by the word “hades”, hence the Russian consonant word “hell”. In context, Sheol and Hades refer to the place of burial. In Psalm 88, we see that this is a place where everyone goes, both the righteous and the wicked.
“Who among men has lived and not seen death, and delivered his soul out of the hand of sheol?” (Psalm 88:49).
The righteous can't go to hell.
And Isaiah 14 provides a more detailed description of the underworld.
“Your pride is cast down to Sheol with all your noise; a worm is laid under you, and worms are your covering” (Isaiah 14: 11).
It is clearly stated that Sheol or the underworld – hell) is a place where the dead are located, and worms crawl on them. If you carefully study the Word of God and compare it with the original, you can see the inconsistent choice of translators of the Synodal Bible and the substitution of concepts.
The Lord reveals Himself to all. Everyone gets an idea of It. But whether to accept this revelation or not is already a decision for the person. Yes, to some the truth was revealed to a greater extent, to others to a lesser extent. And the Lord will take this into account in the judgment. But everyone gets the idea of the One God. It knocks at the heart of every person.
“The Lord is not slow in fulfilling his promise, as some regard it as slowness; but he is patient with us, not willing that any should perish, but that all should come to repentance” (2 Peter 3:9).
“Do I want the wrongdoer dead? Says the Lord God. Is it not that he should turn from his ways and live? ” (Ezekiel 18: 23).
“Therefore, leaving the times of ignorance, God now commands all men everywhere to repent.”(Acts 1: 4). 17:30).
God's blessings to you! | https://anyquestions.info/philosophy/did_the_pre_christian_pagans_who_had_no_idea_of_the_one_god_go_to_hell/ |
# Second circle of hell
The second circle of hell is depicted in Dante Alighieri's 14th-century poem Inferno, the first part of the Divine Comedy. Inferno tells the story of Dante's journey through a vision of the Christian hell ordered into nine circles corresponding to classifications of sin; the second circle represents the sin of lust, where the lustful are punished by being buffeted within an endless tempest.
The circle of lust introduces Dante's depiction of King Minos, the judge of hell; this portrayal derives from the role of Minos in the Greek underworld in the works of Virgil and Homer. Dante also depicts a number of historical and mythological figures within the second circle, although chief among these are Francesca da Rimini and Paolo Malatesta, murdered lovers whose story was well-known in Dante's time. Malatesta and da Rimini have since been the focus of academic interpretation and the inspiration for other works of art.
Punishment of the sinners in the second circle of hell is an example of Dantean contrapasso. Inspired jointly by the biblical Old Testament and the works of ancient Roman writers, contrapasso is a recurring theme in the Divine Comedy, in which a soul's fate in the afterlife mirrors the sins committed in life; here the restless, unreasoning nature of lust results in souls cast about in a restless, unreasoning wind.
## Synopsis
Inferno is the first section of Dante Alighieri's three-part poem Commedia, often known as the Divine Comedy. Written in the early 14th century, the work's three sections depict Dante being guided through the Christian concepts of hell (Inferno), purgatory (Purgatorio), and heaven (Paradiso). Inferno depicts a vision of hell divided into nine concentric circles, each home to souls guilty of a particular class of sin.
Led by his guide, the Roman poet Virgil, Dante enters the second circle of hell in Inferno's Canto V. Before entering the circle proper they encounter Minos, the mythological king of the Minoan civilization. Minos judges each soul entering hell and determines which circle they are destined for, curling his tail around his body a number of times corresponding to the circle they are to be punished in. Passing beyond Minos, Dante is shown the souls of the lustful being buffeted in a swirling wind—he surmises that as they were driven in life not by reason but by instinct, in death they are similarly scattered by an unreasoning force.
Within the tempest of souls, Virgil points out notable individuals to Dante, beginning with the Lydian ruler Semiramis, the Carthaginian queen Dido, and Egyptian pharaoh Cleopatra, as well as the legendary figures Achilles, Paris, Helen of Troy, and Tristan. Dante's attention is drawn by two souls who are carried along together; addressing them directly he learns from one that they are Francesca da Rimini and her lover Paolo Malatesta. As da Rimini describes the adultery that condemned them, Dante is overcome with pity and faints; on waking, he is in hell's third circle.
## Background
Dante's use of King Minos as the judge of the underworld is based on the character's appearance in Book VI of Virgil's Aeneid, where he is portrayed as a "solemn and awe-inspiring adjudicator" in life. In the works of Virgil and of Homer, Minos is shown becoming the judge of the Greek underworld after his own death, influencing his role in the Divine Comedy. The role played by Minos in Inferno conflates elements of Virgil's Minos with his depiction of Rhadamanthus, brother of Minos, elsewhere in the Aeneid. Rhadamanthus is also a judge of the dead, although unlike Minos, who presides over a single court, Rhadamanthus is described by Virgil as flogging the dead, compelling them to confession. In describing Minos and his judgments, Dante accurately employed contemporary legal and judicial terminology, and quotations from the canto have been found as marginalia in Bolognese legal registers from the early 14th century.
The pair of lovers encountered in the second circle of hell, Francesca da Rimini and Paolo Malatesta, are historical figures roughly contemporaneous with Dante. A member of the da Polenta family, the rulers of Ravenna, da Rimini was married to Paolo's brother Giovanni Malatesta, of the ruling family of Rimini, by political arrangement. The affair between da Rimini and Paolo was discovered by Giovanni, who murdered them both in what became a widely-known case in Italy at the time. Dante was supported as an artist by the patronage of da Rimini's nephew Guido II da Polenta between the years of 1317 and 1320. Dante gives little direct detail of the story in Canto V, assuming that his readers are already familiar with the events.
## Analysis
Dante's depiction of hell is one of order, unlike contemporary representations which, according to scholar Robin Kirkpatrick, were "pictured as chaos, violence and ugliness". Kirkpatrick draws a contrast between Dante's poetry and the frescoes of Giotto in Padua's Scrovegni Chapel. Dante's orderly hell is a representation of the structured universe created by God, one which forces its sinners to use "intelligence and understanding" to contemplate their purpose. The nine-fold subdivision of hell is influenced by the Ptolemaic model of cosmology, which similarly divided the universe into nine concentric spheres.
The second circle of hell sees the use of contrapasso, a theme throughout the Divine Comedy. Derived from the Latin contra ("in return") and pati ("to suffer"), contrapasso is the concept of suffering in the afterlife being a reflection of the sins committed in life. This notion derives both from biblical sources such as the books of Deuteronomy and Leviticus, as well the classical writers Virgil and Seneca the Younger; Seneca's Hercules Furens expresses the notion that "quod quisque fecit patitur", or "what each has done, he suffers". In the second circle of hell, this is manifested as an eternal storm which buffets souls in its wake; as the lustful in life acted "without reason", so too are their souls tossed about without reason. Literature professor Wallace Fowlie has additionally characterised the punishment as one of restlessness, writing that, like the souls in the tempest, "sexual desire can never be satisfied, never at rest".
Writer Paul W. Kroll compared some of Dante's work in Canto V with the work of 6th-century poet Boethius, noting the similarity between da Rimini's statement that "no sorrow is great than to recall, in misery, the happy times" with the words of Boethius in De Consolatione Philosophiae: "for in all adversity of fortune the most unhappy kind of misfortune is to have once been happy". The depiction of da Rimini and Malatesta within the second circle inspired later works of art celebrating what has been seen as a tragic tale of doomed lovers; 19th-century French sculptor Auguste Rodin depicts the pair in The Kiss, whilst Russian composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky based his 1877 tone poem Francesca da Rimini on the incident. The damnation of da Rimini and Malatesta has drawn also academic attention, often focussing on the circumstance of their affair's beginning—da Rimini describes the pair being inspired by the Arthurian tale of Galehaut bringing together Lancelot and Guinevere as the pretext to their own affair. Writers Michael Bryson and Arpi Movsesian, in their book Love and its Critics: From the Song of Songs to Shakespeare and Milton’s Eden, quote a range of interpretation on this theme. Both Barbara Reynolds and Edoardo Sanguineti cite the couple's flimsy use of poetry as a justification for adultery as their true moral failing, while Mary-Kay Gamel points to the tragic end of the Arthurian story as foreshadowing their demise: "if had read further, she would have discovered how grave were the consequences of Lancelot and Guinevere's illicit love". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_circle_of_hell |
What Did the Ancient Greek Believe Happened After Death?
Charon rowed the dead across the river of Acheron.
The god Hades ruled the underworld, and while he might take an interest in the afterlives of certain mortals, he often appointed specific tasks within the underworld to others. In this manner, every stage of the human afterlife was overseen by a particular deity, ensuring each human followed the appropriate path after burial.
As part of their burial ritual, Greeks always placed coins in the mouth of the deceased so that they could pay the entrance fee to the underworld. Those shades who received improper burials and couldn't pay the toll were turned away. Doomed to wander the upper world for an eternity, the outcast shades joined the retinue of the Melinoe, an underworld goddess. She and her ghostly companies roamed at night, terrifying the living and reminding humans of what befalls those unfortunate enough to receive an improper burial.
Charon, the ferryman of the underworld, was the son of Erebos, or darkness. He would accompany all shades who could pay the fee into the underworld, but refused to allow any to leave. He was aided in his task by Cerberus, a fearsome, three-headed dog who guarded the gates of the underworld. Charon rowed the shades across the Acheron to their final resting place in the underworld, where they would remain forever, untroubled by thoughts of their human lives.
Lethe was the goddess of forgetfulness and her namesake river flowed around the cave of Hypnos. The river murmured to the shades invited lethargy and sleep. Shades drank from the river and immediately forgot their earthly lives. Yet the Judges of the Dead, Minos, Aiakos and Rhadamanthys, did not forget the deeds and misdeeds the shades. Instead, they judged earthly lives determine whether the shades would reside in the gray field of Asphodel, the glorious fields of Elysium, or, for the wicked, the horrible prison of Tartarus.
Awana, Momi. "What Did the Ancient Greek Believe Happened After Death?" Synonym, https://classroom.synonym.com/did-ancient-greek-believe-happened-after-death-13446.html. Accessed 25 April 2019. | https://classroom.synonym.com/did-ancient-greek-believe-happened-after-death-13446.html |
My thoughts on a topic that most people seem to want to avoid, Hell, you know, fire and brimstone, red skinned devils with pitchforks flaying the poor souls that have defied a vengeful god.
There are several words used in the Bible that have been translated to “Hell”.
Hades is the god of the Greek afterlife and represented the underworld where all souls went. From its depths in Tartarus to the heights of the Elysian Fields, depending on your worth in life, this is where you went and were rewarded or punished accordingly.
There is also Gehenna.
Gehenna
Gehenna, Gehinnom and Yiddish Gehinnam, are terms derived from a place outside ancient Jerusalem known in the Hebrew Bible as the Valley of the Son of Hinnom; one of the two principal valleys surrounding the Old City. Wikipedia
Gehenna was a location near Jerusalem where trash and the dead that were not worthy were burned. As an actual location, it probably looked like Hell and undoubtedly smelled like what most thought of the literal hell.
The outer darkness where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth, possibly a description of the separation from the light, after all, it is usually described for those left out of some event such as the wedding feast.
http://www.gotquestions.org/outer-darkness.html
The Lake of fire,
Revelation 20
The Judgment of the Dead
11Then I saw a great white throne and him who was seated on it. The earth and the heavens fled from his presence, and there was no place for them. 12And I saw the dead, great and small, standing before the throne, and books were opened. Another book was opened, which is the book of life. The dead were judged according to what they had done as recorded in the books. 13The sea gave up the dead that were in it, and death and Hades gave up the dead that were in them, and each person was judged according to what they had done. 14Then death and Hades were thrown into the lake of fire. The lake of fire is the second death. 15Anyone whose name was not found written in the book of life was thrown into the lake of fire.
A key phrase I often pick out is the second half of verse 14 “this is the second death” often called the death of the soul.
The word Hell itself is translates from sheol. http://biblehub.com/hebrew/7585.htm
Sheol is, again, the underworld where all go after death.
So, where do we, modern man, get our Ideas of Hell as a place of eternal suffering with tornadoes of dead bodies flinging about amongst the dancing daemons?
Lets look to Dante Alighieri, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferno_%28Dante%29 and his interpretation of the nine circles of hell.
This is the image most people have of the punishment awaiting the unrepentant sinners when they die, but I would ask, “Is God a sadist?”
Any parent that truly loves their children would not wish to see them suffer for eternity no matter what they did wrong. We see this every day with individuals that do wrong and are punished by the justice system. Their parents stand up and say they are good people and are often saddened by what has happened.
Our Heavenly Father wants all his children with Him, not just the ones that always obey, but all…even those that have gone astray.
https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke+15%3A11-32
We are not forced into the presence of God, we are begged to come to it and all are welcome. So when someone tells you, “You are going to Hell,” know that they don’t know what that is and that the Love of our Father is stronger than the hate of man. | https://followtheantares.com/2021/05/02/oh-hell/ |
Alternate post title: Who The Hell Is On My Wall?
I adore it. It was a gift from a one-time next-door-neighbor in Colorado, along with most of my other Egyptian paintings. It is one of my very favorite pieces my neighbor-artist graciously gave me.
I also don’t know, for sure, Who it depicts. I’ve run the gamut in my research and circled back, and forth, and sideways.
A lot of my sources suggest that these twin lions are, in fact, the lions of Yesterday and Today, Sef and Duau, which are akeru, the plural of the Egyptian god Aker, a pre-dynastic earth Netjeru. Other sources say this is Ruti, the “two lions.” Others say this pair is Shu and Tefnut, ancient gods of wind and moisture respectively.
Of course, since Kemeticism is full of polyvalent logic, this tapestry could easily depict all of the above. Conveniently, I am extremely fond of Shu and Tefnut, as well as deeply interested in Aker, so it’s pretty much a win-win situation for me.
For the purpose of this post, I’d like to talk a little more about Aker, Who is not one of the better-known deities of ancient Egypt. Aker is depicted as a single-bodied lion with a head at each end, symbolizing the rising and setting sun on the horizon; in this form, He is often shown with the barque of the sun god Ra on His back. The version we see in my tapestry, however, is of two physically-separate lions, with leopard-like spots, holding the sun rising or setting between two mountains. That sun-and-mountains symbol indicates the horizon, the akhet. Both two-headed and two-bodied versions of Aker can have human or lion heads, making Him occasionally a sphinx (or pair of sphinxes).
Aker, being the earth and the horizon, was both protector and gateway; He defended Ra and the king against serpents small and large, as well as allowing passage into and out of the underworld (which was His body). Because of His guardian aspects and funerary associations, twin lions were often placed near palaces, tombs, and thresholds as protectors and wards against evil. Additionally, Aker could neutralize poisons in those who had been stung by scorpions or bitten by snakes, or even had just swallowed something toxic. He was occasionally shown on protective amulets or apotropaic wands from the Middle Kingdom.
Some sources suggest that Aker’s differing depictions seem to have given clues to His intended role. As the two-headed horizon, He was a more passively beneficial earth deity that held the severed pieces of Apep imprisoned safely. In His form of two lions, however, He was more active in destroying evil, and references in the Pyramid Texts indicate the twin lions had to refrain from “seizing” the deceased king traveling through the underworld, which is likely why that depiction of Aker was more commonly featured on entryways to keep evil from passing through.
References include G. Pinch’s Egyptian Mythology, R. Wilkinson’s The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt, G. Hart’s Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses, and T. Siuda’s Kemet.org.
Last year’s first A post was Apotropaic Deities. | http://unorthodoxcreativity.com/emky/pbp-2013/aker/ |
Ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses, collectively known as the neteru, form a large part of Egypt’s rich history. Although many of these deities have been overtaken by modern religions, some of today’s Egyptians still hold them in high regard along with a number of people throughout the African Diaspora. Some historians have documented more than 1,400 Egyptian gods and goddesses, most of which were believed to exist in the natural form. It was a great taboo to annoy any of them.
Since the list is so long, we have prepared a list of the top six most-worshiped Egyptian gods and goddesses. Although today, many of these deities are known by Greek alterations of the older names, this list refers to them as nearly to the way their worshipers did, accompanied by the artwork they created to represent themselves and their gods and goddesses.
Ra
Considered the sun’s deity, Ra was one of the most-worshiped ancient Egyptian gods. He was the king of other gods and the patron of the pharaoh. Egyptians described Ra as the creator and often depicted him with the head of a hawk. Many temples were built to honor him. According to Egyptian mythology, Ra wept and from his tears came man. While some followers of his cult believed that Ra was self-created, those who followed the deity Ptah believed he created Ra.
Ausar
Historians say Ausar (called Osiris by the Greeks) was the god of the afterlife, underworld and the dead. To symbolize this, he was frequently displayed in a mummified state with green skin. He was also considered merciful and giver of life in the underworld, which made him one of the most worshiped ancient Egyptian gods. It is said that Ausar was the son of Geb and Nut and brother to Set, Nephthys, Auset and Haroeris. He fathered two male deities, Heru (Horus) and Inpu (Anubis).
Auset
Commonly adored as the ideal mother and wife, Auset was also considered the patroness of nature and magic. History records that Auset was largely worshiped by the downtrodden – mostly slaves, sinners and artisans – but she was also a friend of the wealthy, pharaohs and maidens. She was the daughter of Geb and Nut, making her the sister of her husband Ausar, whose body she reconstructed after their brother, Set, killed and dismembered him. Popularly known as Isis, her worship extended to the Roman Empire, England and Afghanistan.
Heru
Perhaps one of the oldest ancient Egyptian gods, Heru (or Horus) was most recognizable by his falcon head, representing focus, vision and far sight. Initially recorded as the national god of Nekhen in Upper Egypt (in the southern part of Egypt), Heru was the god of the sky, war and hunting. Many Egyptians believed that he was magically conceived by Auset after his father Ausar was murdered. Ruling pharaohs were commonly regarded as the true manifestation of Heru in life and Ausar in death.
Tehuti
Believed to be the power mediator between good and evil, Tehuti (Thoth) was considered one of the most unusual ancient Egyptian gods. Some historians claim he was the son of Ra, while others believe he created himself through the power of language. He is said to be the inventor of magic and writing, the teacher of man, messenger for other gods and divine record-keeper. In his hands, Tehuti is believed to have carried life and power.
Ma’at
Ma’at the Egyptian goddess personified truth, balance, morality, justice, order and harmony. She was believed to have power over seasons, stars and how people and other gods behaved. Ma’at was the daughter of another prominent deity called Duat, who determined whether souls of the dead would reach paradise successfully. Egyptian pharaohs used Ma’at’s emblems to emphasize their authority in upholding the rule of law.
One of her most recognized emblems is the feather, which would be used by the gods to judge a newly-deceased person’s heart, or moral deeds. Ma’at is also associated with a moral code known as the 42 Negative Confessions – if a person’s conduct did not violate her code, their heart would be lighter than her feather, granting them access to the afterworld. | https://howafrica.com/top-5-most-worshiped-ancient-egyptian-gods-and-goddesses/ |
Hades is the god of the Underworld, where the souls of the dead lie, and the brother of Zeus and Poseidon. His was a cold and normally indifferent ruler, but if crossed his rage could cause anyone to regret every crossing him. He’s one of the most important figures in Greek mythology, and the stories involving him are absolutely fascinating. This is a list of 10 fascinating facts about Hades.
He Was Eaten By His Father After He Was Born
Hades isn’t famous for being kindest man, but this is understandable when you consider that father ate him and all of siblings alive, as soon as they were born. This included his brother Poseidon, and his sisters Hestia, Demeter, and Hera. They were only freed thanks to their mother interfering before Cronus could swallow Zeus as well. Once Zeus became an adult he freed the others from Cronus’s body, by forcing him to regurgitate them. So it’s understandable that when Hades was finally freed, he wasn’t the warmest person. Although Zeus had freed his siblings, this act would also ensure that a bloody war would soon take place, and turn the world of the gods upside down.
The Titan War
After escaping the bowels of Cronus, they set about gathering allies and growing stronger. This would be essential for the upcoming bloodshed known as the Titanomachy, or Titan War. During the Titan War the gods, and their allies fought against the incredibly powerful Titans, before eventually defeating them. The Titans were the rulers of everything, which meant that the gods now inherited everything. Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus drew lots to decide who would receive, the Sky, who would receive the Sea, and who would receive the dark underworld. Hades was unsatisfied with the result, but didn’t fight it.
Hades And Persephone
Hades desired a Queen and had his eyes set on one woman in particular. Unfortunately, this woman wasn’t interested in him, but he wasn’t going to let something like that get in his way. Zeus had promised his daughter’s hand in marriage to Hades, and Hades was intent on getting what he felt he was owed. Hades kidnapped Persephone while she was in the fields of Nysa, and carried her back to the Underworld where she had little chance of ever escaping. Demeter, Persephone’s mother flew into a rage and took the whole world hostage. She placed a curse on Earth that threatened to wipe out the whole population of the world. Various gods pleaded with Demeter to stop the curse, and free the humans. The gods enjoyed the sacrifices given to them by humans and so wouldn’t want their population to be wiped out.
Hades’ Plan
After Demeter held the world hostage, Zeus decided to send the god Hermes to the Underworld, and relay a message to Hades. Hermes asked Hades to allow Persephone to leave the Underworld and see her mother so that all the humans on Earth could be saved. Hades agreed to let her leave, but before she did, he gave a special pomegranate. Persephone returned to the surface and reunited with her mother. Demeter than asked Persephone whether she had eaten any food from the underworld. Because, if she had eaten any food from the Underworld she would be bound to it forever. Since Persephone had eaten the Pomegranate she was forced to spend a third of every year in the Underworld with Hades.
Hades Wrath
Pirithous and Theseus were both sons of gods, with Pirithous being a son of Zeus, and Theseus being the founder of Athens. Pirithous and Theseus were friends and both of their wives had died around the same time. Because of this they decided that they would both kidnap daughters of Zeus and marry them. Theseus decided that he would wed Helen, and Pirithous decided that he would take Persephone, the wife of Hades. Pirithous would soon learn to regret this decision. Together they successfully kidnapped Helen, and decided to keep hold of her until she was old enough to marry. Then they ventured into the Underworld to try and kidnap Persephone for Pirithous. Hades was aware of their plan, and so decided to trick them. He treated them with great hospitality and even threw them a feast. However, when they sat down, snakes coiled around their legs, and kept them in place. It became impossible for them to move, and it seemed they would be stuck in the Underworld forever.
Hades And Hercules
Hercules entered Hell to perform his last labour, in order to repent for killing his wife. Slaying Cerberus, the three-headed guard dog of Hell. He entered the underworld with Hermes, and Athena as his guides. In hell he found two of his friends who he had expected to find down there. They were Theseus and Pirithous, the two men who had tried to abduct Persephone. Theseus begged Hercules to help him. Hercules pulled Theseus up out of the chair, as he did so part of his thigh ripped from his body and remained on the chair. Despite this, he had still been rescued. However, when he tried to save Pirithous who wanted to keep the goddess for himself, the ground shook around them. His greed was so offensive that he had been doomed to stay in the underworld forever. Hercules had no choice but to leave him and get on with his quest. After speaking with Hades, they came to an agreement, that Hercules could bring Cerberus to the surface, if he were able to beat it with his bare hands. Hercules took up the challenge and succeeded in subduing the three-headed monster.
The Three Realms of The Underworld
The Meadows was the part of the underworld where most people’s souls would go after they die. In this world the souls would become shadowy versions of their previous selves known as shades. The Elysian Fields was reserved for heroes, and humans of exceptional character who performed good deeds while alive. The third part of the Underworld was Tartarus. This is where the souls of evil doers were punished, and it is also where the gods imprisoned the Titans who they had beaten in the Titan War.
What Sort of Ruler Was Hades?
Hades was mostly differently to his subjects but could become quite enraged if someone attempted to steal a soul from the Underworld or attempted to cheat death. Pirithous is a great example of this. Sisyphus was another great example of this. Sisyphus had been sentenced to die by Zeus, but cheated his way out of it. He asked his wife to throw his body into the middle of the public square which would allow him to end up in the River Styx. While there he complained to Persephone that this was a sign of his wife’s disrespect for him, and convinced her to let him return to the Earth. Once he returned to the world of the living he was eventually dragged back by Hades. Hades then gave him perhaps the most severe punishment he had ever handed out. He ordered him to push a large boulder to the top of a hill, only for the boulder to fall back down to bottom when it got near the top. This would repeat for eternity.
The Rivers of Hell
The land of the dead was separated from the land of the living by five rivers. Those rivers were the River Styx, the River Lethe, the River Acheron, the River Phlegethon, and the River Cocytus. Hades domain was the Underworld, literally everything below the surface of the Earth. This includes all of Earth’s minerals, which led to him being called the God of Wealth.
Hades And Cerberus
Cerberus was a three headed dog, and the guardian of Hell. It stopped the souls of the dead from escaping, and unwelcome guests from entering. It’s described as having a mane of snakes, and a long protruding snake for a tail. Some sources claim that the heads of the hell hound each represent past, present and future respectively. Other sources claim that they represent birth, youth, and old age. Cerberus could turn someone to stone just by looking at them. It also had a powerful bite, that was laced with a powerful poison. When this poison fell to the ground it, a plant called wolf’s bane would grow in its place. | http://eskify.com/10-fascinating-facts-about-hades-god-of-the-underworld/ |
In this month of November, the Church invites us to pray for the dead. After having celebrated all the saints in Heaven, we look with compassion on the souls in Purgatory. But what about Purgatory? Does it exist, where is it, what is going on?
We thank Fr. Louis-Marie Carlhian, of the Society of Saint Pius X, for answering these questions.
Is Purgatory a Theory of Medieval Theologians?
This is the classic accusation made by orthodox schismatics and rationalists ... Yet the existence of Purgatory is a dogma of faith, always believed in the Church, and traces of which can be found in Scripture. Indeed there is mention of prayers for the deceased. However, if the deceased are in Heaven, there is no need to pray for them, neither if they are in Hell, since the sojourn in these places is final! The practice of these prayers and these sacrifices is therefore a sufficient sign to establish the belief in an intermediate place between Earth and Heaven, from which one can be delivered by prayers. This point was defined by the councils of Lyon, Florence, and Trent.
Does Purgatory Appear in Sacred Scripture?
The second book of the Maccabees relates that, in the aftermath of a battle against the Syrians, Judas Maccabee discovered under the tunics of his soldiers killed during the battle, idols resulting from the plundering of Jamnia. This was a violation of the law of Moses, and Judas judged the death of these men to be a chastisement of God:
“Then they all blessed the just judgment of the Lord, who had discovered the things that were hidden. And so betaking themselves to prayers, they besought him, that the sin which had been committed might be forgotten. But the most valiant Judas exhorted the people to keep them-selves from sin, forasmuch as they saw before their eyes what had happened, because of the sins of those that were slain. And making a gathering, he sent twelve thousand drachmas of silver to Jerusalem for sacrifice to be offered for the sins of the dead, thinking well and religiously concerning the resurrection, (for if he had not hoped that they that were slain should rise again, it would have seemed superfluous and vain to pray for the dead). And because he considered that they who had fallen asleep with godliness, had great grace laid up for them. It is therefore a holy and wholesome thought to pray for the dead, that they may be loosed from sins.” (2 Mac 12:41-46)
In the New Testament, the existence of Purgatory is nowhere explicitly stated. However, there are several allusions to a state of purification that is not hell: “And whosoever shall speak a word against the Son of man, it shall be forgiven him: but he that shall speak against the Holy Ghost, it shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, nor in the world to come.” (Mt. 12:32)
Did the Early Christians Believe in Purgatory?
The first Christians celebrated the Holy Mysteries around the tombs of the martyrs. Very early on, they prayed for those who, not being martyrs, would have need of suffrages. Thus the Acta Joannis, around the year 160, speaks of St. John praying over a tomb and celebrating the fractio panis on the third day after the death of a Christian. St. Augustine saw it as a universally practiced use, St. John Damascene traces this tradition back to the Apostles, Dionysius also ensures that we pray for the deceased. Here we can apply the theological principle: “Lex orandi, lex credendi” (the law of prayer is the law of belief, because it is a sure testimony of the belief common to the whole Church).
Where is Purgatory Located?
Neither Sacred Scripture nor Tradition gives us precise information on this subject. They speak of “Hades,” a Latin expression meaning the lower places, the underworld, where pagan beliefs placed the hereafter. Christian Tradition uses this expression to oppose Heaven, which is above and Hell, which is below. They have distinguished several different places: the Hell of the damned, the Limbo of Children who died without baptism, the Limbo of the Patriarchs, and Purgatory. But are these places strictly speaking, since those who are there are deprived of their bodies? Theology is cautiously silent on this, pointing out that the answer has no bearing on our salvation.
Since we are redeemed by the superabundant merits of Our Lord, what good is a new purification?
The satisfaction offered by Our Lord on the Cross is of course more than sufficient to redeem all our sins. However, there are two aspects to be considered about sin: on the one hand, the disobedience to the Creator, on the other hand, the unregulated attachment to the creature. If the first aspect is fully repaired through contrition and confession, by virtue of the merits of Our Lord, the second must be by our contribution. God thus allows us to participate in our own redemption. Does not St. Paul declare: “I complete in my flesh what is lacking in the Passion of Jesus Christ”? In other words, it remains for us to expiate our attachment to the things of this earth, which prevents God from fully reigning over our soul. If we are rid of heavy faults incompatible with the love of God, there are still imperfections in our soul to be removed: venial sins not subject to confession, temporal penalties due for accused mortal sins, or remains of incompletely conquered vices. Theology readily compares this purification to a fire which cannot consume heavy material, but destroys the “straw” or “dross” remaining in the soul. This atonement takes place either on this earth, through good works, or in Purgatory.
We may add that it would be improper for God to treat all souls either as saints or as the damned. It makes sense that there is an intermediate state for those who have not atoned for all of their sins. Even some pagan peoples admitted the existence of a temporary punishment after death.
What Are the Penalties in Purgatory?
“There are two penalties in Purgatory: the pain of loss, the postponement of the beatific vision; the pain of sense, the torment inflicted by fire. The slightest degree of either surpasses the greatest pain one can endure here on earth” (St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, IIIa Pars, Q.70 A.3). Our soul, on leaving this life, feels a violent desire to be united to God, because it is no longer limited by the body and glimpses the immensity of Heaven’s happiness. The torment it feels from the pain of damnation is then terrible, and is only tempered by the certainty that it will end. As for the pain of sense, it reaches the soul directly in the sensitivity it gives to the body, and is felt all the more keenly.
However, the pains of Purgatory are very different from those of Hell, because they purify souls instead of punishing them. Souls in Purgatory have the virtues of hope and charity, unlike the damned. They therefore have a great desire to be united with God and accept the penance inflicted on them as a means of salvation. This penalty being imposed by God, the souls cannot accept it freely, because such would make it a means of merit. Charity does not increase in them, but, as the obstacles which yet prevent it from having its full effect diminish, they feel it more and more keenly as they approach salvation.
Should We Help the Souls in Purgatory?
We have a duty to help the deceased who are waiting to enter Heaven:
- it is an act of charity that touches the souls loved by God;
- these souls can pray for us once they enter Heaven;
- we are sometimes responsible for the sins committed on this earth by the deceased;
- we should especially pray for our loved ones and our family.
The Church has always addressed her supplications for the souls of the deceased in the most urgent and official manner: the Memento of the dead, in the Canon of the Mass, makes us pray every day that the deceased find “a place of refreshment, light, and peace.” Mass is therefore the first and most effective means of relieving them, by offering the Holy Sacrifice for them or simply by offering communion for them. The Church also opens the treasury of indulgences for them. Finally we can offer the great works of the Christian life, prayer, fasting, and alms. These are called the suffrages. The reason is that these souls are united to us through the Communion of the Saints, that is to say by union in Our Lord through charity. Just as members of the same body can support one another, so members of the Church can communicate some of their merits with each other.
Can We Ask for Graces from the Souls in Purgatory?
As we have just said, these souls are united to us by charity and can pray for us. God in His mercy can inform them of prayers being made for them or of the needs of those close to them, and, once in Heaven, they are certainly aware of it. However, they can no longer merit, and as St. Thomas points out to us, they are in a state where they need our prayers more than they need to pray for us. We can also add that the Church never addresses them in liturgical prayer. It is therefore possible to pray to them, but without giving them a power superior to the saints in Heaven!
Every Christian must seek to avoid Purgatory, not only to avoid its penalties, but also to accomplish the will of God: “Be you therefore perfect, as also your heavenly Father is perfect” (Mt. 5:48). This is possible by preserving ourselves from the smallest faults and expiating through penance the sins for which we have obtained forgiveness. | https://fsspx.news/en/news-events/news/does-purgatory-exist-61686 |
Did you know that the underworld presented in Journey to the West is actually an amalgam of native Chinese and foreign Hindu-Buddhist beliefs? As far back as the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), hell was considered an otherworldly bureaucracy where souls were kept en masse. With the coming of Buddhism from India, a different view of the underworld evolved wherein souls would be reborn in one of six paths (deva, asura, human, animal, hungry ghost, and hell) and burn off any bad karma via suffering in life until they were pure enough to be reborn in a Buddha realm. But starting around the 7th-century, the idea of purgatory appeared and brought with it the concept of the Ten Judges or Kings (shi wang, 十王). This is where the two previous views were combined. Souls would be brought before a magistrate and suffer punishment for a given sin before being sent onto the next court and so forth. After suffering for a three year period, the soul would finally be sent onto their next life (Teiser, 2003, pp. 4-7).
Detail from a 20th-century hell scroll (larger version)
Two of the Ten Judges stand as perfect examples of the intermixing of the two belief systems. The seventh judge, King of Mount Tai (Taishan Wang, 泰山王), is an allusion to a famous Chinese holy mountain. The fifth judge, King Yama (Yanluo Wang, 閻羅王), is a Buddhist holdover from Hinduism who originally ruled as the god of the underworld (Teiser, 2003, pp. 2-3).
Not everyone living in medieval China could read Buddhist scriptures, so the purgatories were eventually illustrated as a powerful teaching tool. Nothing says behave like seeing a demon eviscerating someone in full bloody color. Such “Hell Scrolls” (Diyu tu, 地獄圖) remain quite popular even to this day. Charles D. Orzech (1994) suggests that one of the reasons why they remained popular through the end of dynastic China was because they served as not so subtle reminders to be a law abiding citizen. Otherworldly judges doling out painful punishments mirrored the actions of their earthbound counterparts. Real-world magistrates were known for using torture to gain confessions. One such device was used to slowly fracture the ankles and shins.
Those interested can see full color versions of hell scrolls here:
http://people.reed.edu/~brashiek/scrolls/index.html
Sources:
Orzech, C. D. (1994). Mechanisms of Violent Retribution in Chinese Hell Narratives. Journal of Violence, Mimesis, and Culture, 1. Retrieved from
https://www.uibk.ac.at/theol/cover/c…n01_orzech.pdf
Teiser, S. F. (2003). The scripture on the ten kings and the making of purgatory in medieval Chinese Buddhism. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. | https://journeytothewestresearch.com/2017/05/30/origins-of-the-chinese-underworld-appearing-in-jttw/ |
Morr, Goddess of Death
"No star complains about its death. Humans are the only beings that do. Could it be because in our language death has a name?"
---------------
"The Lady of Graves", Morr is the Goddess of Death who rules over the underworld at the head of her Court. She is an ancient being, with myths stating that in life, she was a chief of one of the first Khesum tribes to set foot on Tural. Morr is not an evil deity as some would want to believe. Though she is the personification of endings, she has no love for the role, no greed in the taking of life, nor jealousy of those who still possess it. Morr has as many aspects to her persona as there are individuals who have died. More perhaps, since ones perspective must shift once they have passed through the veil.
History
After the Khesum fled their masters continent, they are described as spreading across Tural in migratory bands for many generations, though some decided to settle, creating the first Clanholds. When her husband complains of having no (royal?) house, Morr vows to intercede on his behalf with the God Nartu, threatening to bloody him if he does not grant them a house, also asking his wife Anthi to intercede with Nartu, after which he grants them a house, and thus a Clanhold. The two rejoice and hold a celebratory feast. At this point there are multiple breaks in the scripture making this portion of the tablet obscure, but when it begins again, her husband is dead and Morr has descended into the underworld to retrieve him. The then Death God Dannan however, does not allow this, so in retaliation Morr "seizes him, and splits him with a sword (knife?), winnowing him in a sieve, burning him in a fire, grinding him under a millstone, and throwing what remains in the end over a field for birds to devour."
The other Gods mourn the loss of their fellow deity, and the Sun Goddess Sarass descends from the sky to burn the body to ash, though since Morr had already scattered the remains to the four winds, "the fiery blast shook the entire world. Toppling mountain ranges and setting forests ablaze. The flames leapt up to the sky in all directions, sparing only a few people on the highest peaks. Even the rocks glowed red hot and the Earth herself rebelled against such onslaught"(Perhaps an old myth concerning firefall?). She then ceases to shin for a time until she is convinced to return later, recorded in another myth. During this time, the Pantheon decide it would be best for Morr to remain in the underworld than to continue roaming the earth, and anointed her as the new Lord (gatekeeper?) (Shepard?) of the dead. Morr rages at this, but having drank from the waters of the underworld she was thus bound within, unable to leave.
She grows crestfallen within this apparent prison, and during the decent of the Sun Goddess, the dead cannot enter the afterlife as she has shut and locked the six great gates, and so the spirits roam the World and the Underworld, unable to continue their journey. Monsters move into the Underworld, drawn by the abundant, unprotected spirits lost there, and all wail in despair.
PersonalityThe fires of the old warrior demigod have long been reduced to embers over years of watching the dead pass by her throne to the afterlife. Becoming more quiet and reclusive as one by one people she once knew walked by until she knew there was no one from her birth tribe remaining in the mortal world. She would become keenly aware of the desire for an end, the same desire that no doubt caused Dannan to allow his own destruction she would come to realise.
The coming of Nazmi into her life has rekindled some of that flame, clearing away the cobwebs that had formed in her life and slowly pulling back to the surface the woman she once was, though tempered and cooler than before. She sits straighter in her throne, a little more regal.
A new court has been called. A group of eight beings from among the dead to counsel their queen and aid in ruling the underworld. Beings that in some way are an aspect of the Alltaker, reflecting back at her a portion of her thoughts and feeling, be these choices intended or subconscious. Much can thus be inferred about Morr and her current intentions through these choices.
AppearanceMorr is most often depicted as an scar covered ashen skinned Kesumii woman with white eyes and short white hair. She wears a dark, hooded robe like gown and holds an hourglass filled with red, black, and white sand in one hand, and a long copper glaive, stained near black, in the other.
Worship
Divine Domains
Death, Fate
Divine Symbols & Sigils
Before these roses were available, charms were whittled from wood before a black lacquer paint was applied. They were, and still are worn, as amulets around the neck, usually accompanied by a few fallen ravens or crows feathers. These wooden symbols are also placed over the eye of a deceased at a funeral, along with a symbol to Nazmi, Morrs consort. A true black rose has largely replaced this grave offering however, with the flower being placed as if growing from the eye socket.
Tenets of Faith
Respect the DeadAny body should be treated with respect, and if possible, buried. The Cult of Morr is the organisation that will generally preform this task, and any discovered bodies should be brought to their temples for burial, even if only a few bones remain. If this is not possible, a simple burial with any trinkets available that may aid the spirits journey is best, along with some words of respect over the grave. A body should not be defiled or desecrated, no matter who the person may have been in life,
Honour the DeadThe dead should be treated with respect, buried fittingly and shown the proper rites as dictated in the Book of Morr by the deceased's family.
The body of a deceased should be washed and wrapped tight, preferably with silk though other materials will do, before being ritually transferred to the coffin. They are to be placed on their back with their head resting on a pillow and the body then covered by a scented sheet. All this should be preformed at the families household, where members not within the household will gather to also pay their respects. The body is then moved to the closest Temple of Morr in a procession of family members, where the deceased closest kin (i.e. sons and daughters) are to wear black, while more distant relatives wear garments in different colours of blue, white, and green. The colours of red, yellow, and brown are not to be worn.
Once the coffin has be brought into the care of the Cult of Morr, it is to be brought to the alter where family and friends can pay respects and leave offerings of food, incense, and joss paper inside to coffin. After this, and any final words are spoken, Morrian Priests place the "Ravens Rose" upon the left eye and the "Sculptors Seal" upon the right, as well as the deceased own Book of Morr within the coffin and carry it out and into the Garden of Morr, where it is buried so the body faces west.
Every year the family members should return to clean the grave or tomb and leave offerings.
Hail the Victorious DeadThose who die for a cause or for anything beyond only themselves are to be shown the greatest honour in death by their kin, be this death in battle, or death of a mother during childbirth. These greater honours usually entail a bigger, louder, and longer procession, taking a more circuitous route to the temple, as well as more lavish burial gifts of engraved copper weaponry or sculptures. | https://www.worldanvil.com/w/urash-neeps-n-tatties/a/morr2C-goddess-of-death-article |
Some very mild spoilers ahead
There are plenty of things to say about John Wick Chapter 2 as a movie. I could talk about its disjointed pace, the absence of an emotional hook or the very definite Episode 2 (or is that Episode 5?) feel of it. I could talk about how excellent the death of Gianna D’Antonio was, or how I smiled when Lance Reddick’s maître d’hôtel said the Dog had been a good boy. But it struck me suddenly, amidst all the imagery of Hell and travels through the Underworld, that I may have done John Wick a disservice, that it is much richer in mythology than I realised.
Let’s begin with Lance Reddick’s character: Charon. In Greek Mythology, Charon was not of the Dead, but offered the dead safe passage through the Underworld for a token; a coin. So far so similar. And in this Underworld, it’s Ian McShane’s Winston that has the ident of 11111. Master and First of the Underworld, whose gatekeeper accepts tokens for safe passage and protection. Hades, god of the underworld, the dead and of riches. The man who has just excommunicated John Wick, the Boogeyman and Hell’s own avenging angel.
There are literary references in abundance, from Lawrence Fishbourne’s Fisher (here Bowery) King to Ruby Rose’s Ares. But the most prominent are the references to Hell and redemption that abound and finally cleared the cloud from my eyes. Two stories tell of those who escape Hell. Orpheus, who journey there because of his dead wife, and Dante in the Divine Comedy, who seeks redemption for his sins. However you spin it, this is a Cthonic tale, of demons of the underworld fighting to either keep their brightest and darkest in their midst, or to dim his dark light.
Both Orpheus and Dante survive their journeys in the end, albeit changed. But can John Wick survive if he is to gain redemption? Or must he first tear down the walls of Hell? Only Chapter Three will show us. And while I didn’t enjoy Chapter 2 as much as it’s predecessor, I’m still looking forward to it. | https://endlessrealms.org/2017/02/22/the-hellish-mythology-of-john-wick/ |
Whether you prefer the dazzling feats and powers of the Avengers or you enjoy the technical and physical capabilities of the Batman, everyone loves a superhero. Modern-day blockbuster hits are often based on comic book plots that have entertained generations for their creative although implausible storylines, the devilish villains, and most unlikely superstars. However, gripping stories of drama and action trace back to the tales handed down from one Greek generation to the next. They were more than tales. They were legends of a religious construct, with a homage to gods and their offspring included as a part of Greek ritual and culture. These stories aren’t just about ancient Grecian culture. They are characters that still align with beliefs and cultural displays across the world today.
Kratos- God of Strength
With his status as a son of Titans, Kratos is heralded as a Greek symbol of strength. Given the complexity of the Greek alphabet, there is a lot of confusion and debate on the actual Greek symbol of strength, but there is no doubt about the qualifications of Kratos as a relative of the gods who represents strength in battle. Most myths tell of his position as a most trusted guard for Zeus and guardian of his throne. It was his job to put into motion the will of Zeus and see that it was carried out. Because his lineage as a direct descendant of a god was usually challenged, most characters in Greek myth rely on him as an accomplice in times of need. His most famous act was securing Prometheus to be tortured for all time for stealing fire from the gods. There is a lot to be said about a loyal companion who shows strength in both commitment and physical ability.
Zeus- King of the Olympians
Every group of heroes needs a leader, and the Greek gods were organized and ruled by Zeus, the son of Kronos. His desire for power and leadership and the help of fate allowed him to overthrow his father and establish himself as the supreme deity of the Greek Pantheon. Using a thunderbolt, he would swiftly carry out discipline for those who displeased him, and he rode upon a winged steed named Pegasus as he watched over his subjects. He is known for justice, but perhaps he is most known for his interaction with the affairs of mortals through the Greek stories of The Illiad and The Odyssey. He was also credited with causing the Great Flood to destroy a mortal world that had grown in their longing for blood and war. Each culture and religion still has a head deity that rules and interjects in the affairs of men.
Hades- The God of Death
Also infamously known as the King of the Underworld, Hades was a brother to Zeus but completely different in perspective and behaviors. He helped his brother Zeus overthrow their father, and his part of the reward was to receive the underworld as his kingdom. He established a three-headed dog named Cerberus to be the guard to the underworld, and Hades rarely left the dark imposing world. Greeks would fail to speak his name, given a human fear for death, pain, and suffering. In spite of their fear, they would still seek to honor and worship him, as he was regarded as in important benefactor for earth’s treasures and bounty. The balance between a life of good and evil is still seen in how many view their actions on earth.
Greek mythology is a wonderful way to explore the culture and traditions of ancient Greece, as many of the things celebrated today, such as the Olympics, were developed as a way to please the gods. In truth, many of the religious practices seen around the world follow some of the same hierarchy as that of the Greek gods. | https://mentalitch.com/greek-personalities-still-alive-today/ |
The Quianshuizang ceremony consists of a series of rituals to assure the salvation of those who have met their death through drowning. Qianshuizang includes: 1. Making the shuizang (large cylinders made with specially decorated paper on bamboo frames, which when spinned, are used to guide spirits lost in water to salvation): In the early days, shuizang were made by local residents and delivered on the day of the ceremony. The modern version is made by the Taoist priests and distributed at the temple. 2. Guiding the spirits to take their place: Taoist priests invite and greet the deity statues of Wanshan Temple and then perform the “lighting” ritual, thus imbuing the statues with spiritual power. A drumroll marks the official beginning of the qianshuizang ceremony 3. Reciting Scriptures to the Gods 4. Releasing the Water Lanterns: Water lanterns are released to induce lost souls in the water to come forward and accept salvation. 5. Passage to Salvation: This ritual is also called the Horse Ride to Salvation, because the rituals are conducted by a Taoist priest leading a horse while offering up prayers to the gods to grant salvation to the souls of the deceased. 6. Shuizang Procession: The shuizang are lined up at Jinhu Wanshan Temple and Xiahugang Wanshan Temple. These long rows of ritual cylinders are one of the most impressive scenes of the entire event. 7. Mantra Recitation and Repentance Ceremony 8. Activating and Spinning the Shuizang: In this ritual, Taoist priests first recite sutras to invoke water spirits to come and purify the souls of the deceased; then participants spin the shuizang to mourn for the deceased. 9. Banquet Offering: The deceased are then invited to partake of banquet of offerings prepared for them. 10. Pushing the Shuizang: The shuizang are pushed over to symbolize the souls’ successful passage to salvation. 11. Burning of the Shuizang: At the conclusion of the entire ceremony, the shuizang are burned in an expression of appreciation to the gods.
The latter syllable of the word shuizang is also pronounced zhuàng in Taiwanese, meaning “to spin.” In Taoist teachings, two kinds of spinning rituals are employed to help the deceased receive salvation. Xiezang (blood spinning) is used for blood-related deaths such as those of women who die in childbirth, while shuizang (water spinning) is used for those meet death through drowning. Zang are cylindrical columns made of bamboo and paper, which are used as a sort of spiritual engine to guide deceased spirits to salvation. The making of shuizang requires the use of Makino bamboo that is at least two years old. The bamboo is split into strips to make four large hoops and four smaller hoops. The small hoops are strung together to form a tube, which is then encased in the four larger hoops. Bamboo cross-sections link the large and small tubes together, forming a cylinder within a cylinder. The inner cylinder is pasted with white, gray, or light colored paper decorated in a floral pattern. Vertically, the cylinder consists of three sections which represent the underworld, the water realm, and the heavens. Images of twelve deities are pasted from top to bottom, including the Seventh and Eighth Masters (escorts to the underworld), Tudigong (the God of Soil and Land), and Guanyin (the Goddess of Mercy). A flight of paper stairs leading upward is pasted in the bottom center of the shuizang. At each corner of the cross-sections is affixed a triangular pennant marked with the name of the deceased. During the ritual, descendants pat and spin the shuizang, indicating to the spirit the route it should take and helping it to free itself from each of the underground levels to find salvation.
The salvation ceremony at Kouhu Wanshan Temple actually involves two separate rituals, the quianshuizang ceremony and the yoke-borne meal offering. In this ceremony, local residents place offerings and meals in baskets which they hang across their shoulders on a carrying yoke. They then proceed on foot to deliver the food to their ancestors at the Wanshan Temples in Kouhu and Sihu. The ceremony is held on the 7th day of the sixth lunar month. Those who are not able to participate in the march themselves set up a shrine outside their front door and pray in the direction of Wanshan Temple. The extraordinary number of annual participants forms an impressive line that snakes towards the temple. The ceremony illustrates the cultural and spiritual significance of this act of reverence for and remembrance of the ancestors.
According to legend, during the Great Flood of Jinhu in 1845, there was one local resident, Chen Ying-xiong, who was known to be a good swimmer blessed with a powerful physique and exceptional strength. When the flood struck, he rushed home to save his mother, but arrived too late. While outside his collapsed home, he heard the cries of a group of eight children nearby. Despite the roaring current, he leaped into the water to save the children. Unfortunately, all nine were lost to the flood. Residents dubbed him “the great humanitarian” and erected a statue known as the Water Hero to commemorate his heroic act. The statue is now worshipped in Jinhu Wanshan Temple. A notable characteristic of the statue is that eight children cling to the Water Hero, a memorial to his selfless act. | https://www.taiwangods.com/html/landscape_en/1_0011.aspx?i=66 |
The text of this subtopic, “Looking After the Ancestors: Honoring Virtue and Repaying Merit,” was adapted, with the author’s permission, from Chapter 7 of China’s Cultural Heritage: The Qing Dynasty, 1644-1912, by Richard J. Smith.
• Learn more about ancestor and spirit tablets at the University of Missouri Museum of Anthropology Online Gallery, Ancestors and Deities: Chinese Spirit Tablets.
• Watch the “Ancestor Worship” section of the AFE Asian Topics video unit Confucian Teaching, featuring Myron L. Cohen.
There were two universal aspects of ancestor veneration in traditional China: mortuary rites (sangli) and sacrificial rites (jili). Mortuary rites involved elaborate mourning practices that differed in particulars from region to region but shared certain major features. These were, in the order they usually occurred: 1) public notification of the death through wailing and other expression of grief; 2) the wearing of white mourning clothing by members of the bereaved family; 3) ritualized bathing of the corpse; 4) the transfer of food, money, and other symbolic goods from the living to the dead; 5) the preparation and installation of a spirit tablet for the deceased; 6) the payment of ritual specialists, including Buddhist monks and Daoist priests; 7) the playing of music to accompany the corpse and settle the spirit; 8) the sealing of the corpse in an air-tight coffin; 9) the expulsion of the coffin from the community.(3) In most regions of China a funeral procession for the body and spirit tablet, followed by a feast for family members, marked the formal conclusion of the mourning process.
Visit the Reed College Chinese Hell Scrolls Website to see a full collection of paintings depicting all Ten Courts of Hell.
According to popular religious beliefs in traditional China, when a person died the local Earth God (or, as some accounts went, the god who had accompanied the person throughout his or her life and kept a record or his or her good and evil deeds) immediately took charge of the soul that was to undertake the journey to the Underworld and brought this soul before the local City God, who looked over the record of deeds that accompanied the soul. The City God then sent the soul down into the Underworld to go before the first of ten judges, also called the ten Magistrates of Hell. The Underworld domain of the Chinese cosmos was a transitory space and time for just one of the multiple souls of the dead and could not properly be called “hell” in the Christian sense of a place of perpetual punishment for a permanent, unchanging self. Still, the domain of the ten magistrates was a place where souls were held accountable for their actions in life and harsh punishments were meted out.
Not all souls had to face judgment before all ten Magistrates of Hell. The rare soul that had led an exemplary life could gain immediate release from the Underworld Realm and leave by way of two bridges, often called the “Golden Bridge” and the “Silver Bridge.” Each bridge led to a very different destiny, and the soul had to choose between the two.
The Golden Bridge took the soul to the “Pure Land of the West” (Xifang jingtu; also see Note 8, below), which was not a part of the cosmos. This Pure Land was presided over by the Buddha Amitābha, and after encountering Amitābha face-to-face, the soul could finally achieve what institutional Buddhism called nirvāṇa -- complete release from the cycle of birth and rebirth. Thus, a soul choosing the Western Pure Land attained salvation from the cosmos itself. The Silver Bridge, on the other hand, led to Heaven, which was an important domain of the cosmos. Heaven was ruled by the Jade Emperor and populated by gods and heavenly officials. The soul entering into Heaven via the Silver Bridge would be reborn as a god and become an important figure in the cosmos.
This choice between the Pure Land beyond the cosmos and the Heavenly domain within the cosmos represents a major tension in Chinese popular religion. Was it more desirable to escape the cosmos altogether and experience eternal bliss in the Pure Land, or to remain in the cosmos as a god in Heaven? Both options rely on ideas that originated with the arrival of Buddhism in China and point to the important impact of Buddhism on the totality of Chinese religious thinking.
Though all souls in the Underworld might hope for immediate release to the Pure Land or to Heaven, the majority must face judgment and some punishment before all ten Magistrates of Hell. The basic conduct of mourning and funerary rituals was carried on with this assumption: that very few people, if any, get to cross either the Golden Bridge or the Silver Bridge. Thus, the point of the rituals was to get the deceased through the ten Courts of Hell as quickly as possible.
(1) See James Watson and Evelyn Rawski, eds., Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China (Berkeley, 1988), passim; also chapter by Maurice Freedman in The Study of Chinese Society, ed. G. William Skinner (Stanford, 1979), pp. 296-312.
(2) See Laurence Thompson, Chinese Religion (Belmont, 1979), Chapter 3; C. K. Yang, Religion in Chinese Society (Berkeley, 1961), pp. 40-43, 52-53; Henri Doré (1914-1933), Researches into Chinese Superstitions, trans. M. Kennelly, 6 vols. (Shanghai), vol. 4, pp. 417 ff.
(3) James Watson and Evelyn Rawski, eds., Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China (Berkeley, 1988), pp. 12-15.
(4) See chapter by Richard J. Smith in Orthodoxy in Late Imperial China, ed. Kwang-Ching Liu (Berkeley, 1990); also note (2) above.
(5) C. K. Yang in Chinese Thought and Intuitions, ed. John K. Fairbank (Chicago, 1957), p. 276.
(7) See Myron Cohen, “Being Chinese: The Peripheralization of Traditional Identity,” Daedalus 120:2 (1991), esp. pp. 117-23; Richard J. Smith, Fortune-tellers and Philosophers: Divination in Traditional Chinese Society (Boulder and Oxford, 1991), esp pp. 265-66; P. Steven Sangren, History and Magical Power in a Chinese Community (Stanford, 1987), esp. pp. 191 ff.
(8) The “Pure Land of the West” at the end of the Golden Bridge has nothing to do with the term “the West,” which is now commonly used to refer to Europe and the Americas. The notion that paradise is toward the west is a very ancient one in China, dating as far back as pre-Buddhist times. | http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/prb/journey.htm |
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Amen, The Hidden One (Amon, Amun, Ammon, Amoun) Amen's name means "The Hidden One." Amen was the patron deity of the city of Thebes from earliest times, and was viewed (along with his consort Amenet) as a primordial creation-deity by the priests of Hermopolis. His sacred animals were the goose and the ram. Up to the Middle Kingdom Amen was merely a local god in Thebes; but when the Thebans had established their sovereignty in Egypt, Amen became a prominent deity, and by Dynasty XVIII was termed the King of the Gods. His famous temple, Karnak, is the largest religious structure ever built by man. According to Budge, Amen by Dynasty XIX-XX was thought of as "an invisible creative power which was the source of all life in heaven, and on the earth, and in the great deep, and in the Underworld, and which made itself manifest under the form of Ra." Additionally, Amen appears to have been the protector of any pious devotee in need. Amen was self-created, according to later traditions; according to the older Theban traditions, Amen was created by Thoth as one of the eight primordial deities of creation (Amen, Amenet, Heq, Heqet, Nun, Naunet, Kau, Kauket). During the New Kingdom, Amen's consort was Mut, "Mother," who seems to have been the Egyptian equivalent of the "Great Mother" archetype. The two thus formed a pair reminiscent of the God and Goddess of other traditions such as Wicca. Their child was the moon god Khons. Anubis, God Of The Dead (Anpu) Egyptian god of the dead, represented as a black jackal or dog, or as a man with the head of a dog or jackal. His parents were usually given as Re in combination with either Nephthys or Isis. After the early period of the Old Kingdom, he was superseded by Osiris as god of the dead, being relegated to a supporting role as a god of the funeral cult and of the care of the dead. The black colour represented the colour of human corpses after they had undergone the embalming process. In the Book of the Dead, he was depicted as presiding over the weighing of the heart of the deceased in the Hall of the Two Truths. In his role as psychopomp he was referred to as the "conductor of souls". The Greeks later identified him with their god Hermes, resulting in the composite deity...
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Human Species There were several Homo species related to modern humans including Neanderthals during the paleolithic era but only one - Homo sapiens sapiens - survived until the neolithic age. New ideas came from people trading with other people from other places. Because of that, people stopped being nomads. Shelters of skins laid over bones may have been used, but mainly the people were cave-dwellers or wandering groups of hunters. Government Paleolithic: Families male ruled evolutionary, from family to … village to city. Needed to maintain laws and judge lawbreakers.
The dead were either buried in the corner of a room, or in graves outside the houses, sometimes with grave goods - offerings which probably indicate a belief in an afterlife existence. Villages contained 200 - 300 people. Origins of Government Villages became larger, growing into cities. Gathering and hunting way of life, with stone tools b. Paleolithic Age: Man wore animal hides and leaves in Paleolithic Age. The later strata belong to the Chalcolithic.
Role of Government: Organized to plan large projects control water for irrigation, etc. Neolithic or New Stone Age Stone tools became highly polished and varied. The chief difference was that paleolithic stone tools were chipped into shape, neolithic tools were ground and polished. This later developed into language. Also both of these periods had accomplishments. People also began to live in small communities.
What are differences between the Paleolithic, and Neolithic time periods?
This was a change from the system of hunting and gathering that had sustained humans from earliest. For the gathering part of their lives they specialized in basketry. Societies in he New Stone Age were a settled people, who constantly 1233 Words 5 Pages the globe during the Paleolithic Age. There are many similarities and overlap between the two prehistoric times, but there is also glaring differences that will be talked about in his article. Specialization is the development of different kinds of jobs, or earning a different skill set. Yeah, hunter-gatherers sometimes had a hard time finding what they needed, but in general no more than we do.
It is unknown why Paleolithic people painted these pictures, though they may have been ritualistic. To understand Stone Age art we must first look at how people lived. The Paleolithic and Neolithic societies were a result of the huge leap forward which marked significant of the time technological advancements and more effective social structures. Neolithic humans discovered how to cultivate plants and domesticate animals. Also, the stone tools were often made by grinding and polishing, rather than by chipping flakes.
The Venus of Willendorf is a famous Paleolithic carving. The Neolithic time period begins about 10,000 years ago as the last glacial age faded and a warmer, wetter climate began to provide more opportunities for human expansion across the Earth. For this activity, we will assume that you are travelling in a small family group that is part of a larger group of 31. Paleolithic people later made drill-like wooden tools to start fires. The major Neolithic development was an entirely new agricultural lifestyle, which permitted permanent settlement and a significant increase in population. Other notions such as that of writing likely developed individually in each area.
How did man deal with these changes and what kind of impact did it have on society? It began in the Near East when people discovered farming. The bricks they made were slightly oval, marked on top with a pattern of thumbprints which gave a better key for the mortar when building a wall. The development of specialized occupations and advanced technology occurred. A state of war always existed: either between one people and another, or between the people and a ruler. The Neolithic Revolution was a fundamental change in the way people lived.
Old Stone Age The Paleolithic time period is by far the longest, beginning some circa two million years ago to coincide with the first evidence of toolmaking and ending around 10,000 B. They lived in clans of 20-30 people in caves, outdoors or in cabins made of tree branches and animal skin. Effective ways of producing and working metal had not yet been invented, so cutting, grinding, chopping all had to be done with stone, bone, or wood implements. This was man's first written attempt at the art of storytelling with pictures. Civilization, Difference, Law 583 Words 2 Pages The Neolithic Revolution was the series of technological advances and changes in human groups that lead to the development of agriculture. The walls of the houses were built with hand-made bricks which were slightly curved on top like a loaf of bread. From the Paleolithic Age to the Neolithic Age, the way of food changed from hunting and gathering to agriculture means ways while the use of stone tools for hunting remained the same.
Paleolithic and Neolithic both had a government. Then they started farming, which lead to an era with more technology, surplus, and time to think. It involved the wide-scale change of many human cultures from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to agriculture as well as settlement, which supported larger population. These rocks became tools humans could use to make art. They made tools and shelters from stone, bone, hides, wood, plants, etc. The neolithic period was the newer advance revolution to the stone age - the source of commodity that derived this period was necessity for survival via alliance or the formation of the foundation of civilizations - was alliances of various pools of talent or skills working on key tasks that is shar … ed by the collective in order to survive. Often Paleolithic people lived wherever there was natural shelter, such as the mouths of caves.
A goddess figure found at Catal Huyuk depicts a seated woman flanked by two leopards. Introduction to Comparisons Between the Paleolithic and Neolithic time periods, there are not many things that did not evolve. Neither you, nor the coeditors you shared it with will be able to recover it again. Important Discoveries and Inventions Perhaps the most important invention of paleolithic man was. Class System There were a lot of people with internal struggle; some people felt they were better than others and could bring order and protection from raids. Agriculture, Economics, Fertile Crescent 814 Words 3 Pages The Neolithic period cultivated important material conditions that directly influenced the formation of large towns, great cities, and states in the later, Uruk period of Mesopotamia. | http://gluedtomatoes.com/similarities-between-paleolithic-and-neolithic-age.html |
Key Concepts:
Terms in this set (32)
Different kinds of jobs began because farmers produced more than enough to eat
Specialization
When early humans learned to grow crops for food they had more time for
Arts and crafts
When early humans began using bows and arrows for hunting
Paleolithic Age
What historians call the early part of human history
Stone Age
A person who moves regularly from place to place
Nomad
The revolutionary change that took place during the Neolithic Age
Farming revolution
First humans appeared on this continent and began migrating all over the world
Africa
Another name for the Neolithic Era was the
New Stone Age
How early humans were able to migrate from Asia to North America
Bering Land Bridge
The advantages of forming a community near a river?
Transportation,trade,fertile land for farming
What B.C stands for
Before Christ
People who study and write about human past are
Historians
Another name for the Paleolithic Age is the
Old Stone Age
Another word for farming
Agriculture
Paleolithic people survived the Ice Age because they used
Fire
One of the most important technologies used by the Paleolithic people
Tools
The main concern of hunter gatherers
Searching for food
What occurred during Neolithic era that allowed people to stop being nomadic
Domestication and farming
What the time before written history is called
Prehistory
A weapon,tool or object made by humans is a/an
Artifact
To tame plants and animals is called
Domestication
How farmers irrigate their crops
Canals and dams
Two well-known Neolithic communities
Jericho,Catalhuyuk
One thing that did not occur during the Paleolithic Age
Farming
Importance of fire during Stone Age
Light,warmth,cook food,survival
What led to the development of different jobs
Food surplus
Remains of plants and animals preserved in rock
Fossils
How early humans adapted to their environment
Used fire to scare away wild animals, made clothing from animal hides to stay warm, lived in caves.
Roles of men and women in Paleolithic Era
Men hunted, women gathered.
People were able to have permanent homes during the Neolithic Era because of
Farming, Domestication
Why Paleolithic people were nomads
Followed, hunted animals for food
The kind of homes Neolithic Era people lived in
Mud brick, wood
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Document 5 also displays another difference between the Paleolithic Era and Neolithic Era. They had religions, which meant they believe in life after death. Indeed, though a certain tradition might be superseded in a given region by a more advanced method of producing tools, the older technique persisted as long as it was needed for a given purpose. Each zone itself is subdivided into natural regions by physiographic boundaries and peculiarities of climate or soil. About the Author Bill Atkinson, a retired English and computer science teacher, has been a professional writer since 2011. This time period, beginning around about 9500 B. The origins and history of European Neolithic culture are closely connected with the postglacial climate and forest development.
Perhaps most fascinating are the plaster skulls found around the area of the Levant, at six sites, including Jericho. The men of this period did the very dangerous hunting of large wild animals like bison and reindeer, while women gatherer fruits and nuts for an entire year. However, what they got out of these discoveries, was that it gave evidences of the Paleolithic life of gathering and hunting. Not only did the first humans feed their families, but they also started to become aware of the environment around them. During the Pleistocene, which followed directly after the Pliocene, a series of momentous climatic events occurred. Throughout the , humans were food , depending for their subsistence on hunting wild animals and birds, fishing, and collecting wild fruits, nuts, and berries.
Document 2 shows how the Ice Age changed the way of living, especially hunting. The Neolithic man used smaller, longer, and sharper stones as blades to insert into the animal carcass. The Paleolithic Age is divided into three divisions, including the Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic periods. They show an interest in sharing knowledge, expressing feelings, and transmitting cultural information to later generations. Diggers were drop-shaped flints that were broad at one end and sharper at the other. The people were agriculturist, who domesticate animals, and grew a variety of crops. Bone was extensively used, mainly for javelin points, chisels, perforators, and bâtons de commandement, or arrow straighteners.
Retrieved 26 February 2008 — via University of Western Australia. Mankind was forced to depend less on plants and animals. This is another characteristic of the Neolithic era. The hunter-gatherers of the Paleolithic society were tasked with solving this prevalent issue and they did so with the strategic use of tools and stone. A reconstruction of the head from a skull of a Paleolithic man excavated from Gongwangling, Lantian County.
One difference is that Paleolithic is the Old Stone Age and Neolithic the new Stone Age. It dates from 2,000,000 B. As in the Paleolithic Age, Neolithic art also serves as justification to the changes these societies underwent. The As a further and far-distant example, the Nachikufan culture of southern Zimbabwe might be cited. The Cambridge History of the Pacific Islanders. This led to the change of the jobs of the society. The Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages also have differences in the form of artwork.
In early agriculture at this time, the is used, but it is replaced by a primitive in subsequent centuries. An epidemic of group living was also in effect. In large measure, the development of culture during Paleolithic times seems to have been profoundly influenced by the environmental factors that characterize the successive stages of the. The culture introduced in the Neolithic Revolution moved beyond nomadic styles of living and introduced agriculture, which allowed tribes to settle down and form communities. There were many factors leading to the rise in the patriarchal society, but access to food was one of the main reasons.
But in the Balkans and throughout the temperate zone, wood was used for the construction of gabled houses, stout posts serving to support the ridgepole and the walls of split saplings or. A scraper, on the other hand, had a longer and slightly curved edge, making it easier for the user to scrape out the meat off the animal. Flints were not just found in plenty, but were also easier to sharpen and less fragile as compared to bones and wood that early man used to make weapons out of. The domestication of animals perhaps started with dogs, which were useful in hunting. Their innovations spread from the northward into Europe by two routes: across and into central Europe and across and and thence to. The decision process of the nomadic people with regards to the settlement location and migration patterns were largely a factor based upon the current conditions of the weather. In the next chapter, we will look at four important sites that show of Paleolithic people.
The former includes finger tracings, paintings, engravings, bas-reliefs, and on the walls of caves and rock shelters; the latter is characterized by small engravings and sculptures on stone and bone found in the occupation layers. The New Stone Age Neolithic Era Like the Old Stone Age, the people of the New Stone Age used stone for tools. After all, the effort to build it was extraordinary. The development of pottery products made it easier to cook and transport food. Many aspects of everyday life were modified to suit a new standard of living.
According to the Metropolitan Museum Art, the Neolithic period lasted for a varied span in different parts of the world. The Paleolithic Age man did not experience the same famine and malnutrition as later man because they ate a wide variety of food. Tools are objects that make our lives easier. Though the term of civilization has changed several times and could be considered problematic to define. E Council for Economic Education, 2012. | http://roundtaiwanround.com/paleolithic-era-and-neolithic-era.html |
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What Two Factors Helped The Cattle Business To Grow?? W...
How did Paleolithic people adapt to their environment and use tools to help them survive? The way they lived depended on where they lived. Those in warm climates needed little clothing and shelter. Those in colder climates took protection from the weather in caves or animal hides over wooden poles.
People lived more towards lakes and rivers instead of caves, and tree trunks. This led to the change of the jobs of the society. Unlike Paleolithic time’s, man could have more leisure time to spend. This led him to broaden the society he was living in and led to increased populations in the Neolithic Age.
emerged for land, livestock and tools. Paleolithic people were taller and lived longer than Neolithic people Neolithic people were shorter and had lower life expectancy. Tooth cavities and diseases like typhoid emerged. Since settlement was permanent, women had more children.
Neolithic populations generally had poorer nutrition, shorter life expectancies, and a more labor-intensive lifestyle than hunter-gatherers. Diseases jumped from animals to humans, and agriculturalists suffered from more anemia, vitamin deficiencies, spinal deformations, and dental pathologies.
The Neolithic revolution led to people living in permanent or semi-permanent settlements. Because of this fewer people led a nomadic lifestyle. To be able to know who the crops grown belonged to, the concept of land ownership was developed. … Surplus production from good crop yields helped societies survive bad years.
When community development is effective, there is less crime, less disparity between citizens, better jobs available, a more talented workforce, and less overall issues that impact residents. Community development doesn’t necessarily solve problems in a city; it reduces problems and increases opportunities for growth.
How did the social status of males change in villages during the Neolithic Revolution? They became to dominate family,economic, and politician life. WHat development led to the growth of cities? … Some nomadic rulers lived in camps outside of the city, keeping their own customs.
Paleolithic literally means “Old Stone [Age],” but the Paleolithic era more generally refers to a time in human history when foraging, hunting, and fishing were the primary means of obtaining food.
The Paleolithic Era is significant because people established the process of hunting-gathering, which has supported humans for the majority of their existence on earth.
The first Neolithic communities lived in densely built settlements and numbered 50-300 individuals. … The social roles in each community were defined on the basis of gender, age, kinship and participation in communal productive processes. Through the farming and stock-rearing economy the roles of both sexes were defined.
Explanation: In human society, during the Paleolithic Era, men and women served different functions within their tribes. Men were generally responsible for hunting, whereas women were generally responsible for gathering as well as caring for children and preserving tribal harmony.
First of all, the advantages. The people of the Paleolithic Period had an equalitarian society because no government or laws have been created yet. This allowed all people to be equal as well as having equal rights as everyone else.
The similarity between them is that humans continued to hunt in the Neolithic age, and in the Paleolithic age people hunted and gathered for food. People in the Neolithic age farmed and learned to domesticate plants and animals, but they still hunted for animal protein.
During this time humans used stone to make tools and stone was used many times as part of the actual tool. Tools are objects that make our lives easier. A computer or smart phone are examples of modern-day tools. Paleolithic is a word that comes from the two Greek words palaios, meaning old, and lithos, meaning stone.
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There's evidence of initial metallurgy as well, and also creating more pottery. The Cradle of Eastern Civilization. Exceptions include copper and in the Great Lakes region. In the manufacture of stone , four fundamental traditions were developed by the Paleolithic ancestors: 1 pebble-tool traditions; 2 bifacial-tool, or hand-ax, traditions; 3 flake-tool traditions; and 4 blade-tool traditions. In the early Stone Age, humans could only eat what they hunted or gathered.
French place-names have long been used to designate the various Paleolithic subdivisions, since many of the earliest discoveries were made in France. They were able to settle in fertile areas with predictable climate, usually near river basins. Origin: From νέος + λίθος. Only the three major divisions of the temperate zone are not obvious from every map. They likely spiced up their food with local herbs and plants, but cooking as an art was limited.
Each zone itself is subdivided into natural regions by physiographic boundaries and peculiarities of climate or soil. People of the Paleolithic age made use of tools made up of stone and bones whereas in the Neolithic era, people started using tools made up of as and bronze. Health and longevity In general, Paleolithic people were healthier than Neolithic man. Neolithic also spread eastward to the valley of by 5000 bce. The flakes, which have large, high-angle greater than 90° , plain striking platforms, as well as prominent bulbs of percussion, were detached from roughly prepared, discoidal cores by the -hammer or stone-anvil technique. Bone was extensively used, mainly for javelin points, chisels, perforators, and bâtons de commandement, or arrow straighteners. The Neolithic cultures of advanced hunters and fishermen were widespread in northern Europe, in the forest-steppe and forest zones of Eastern Europe, and in Siberia.
These were mounted as points or barbs in arrows and harpoons and were also used in other composite tools. In Spain, the , and northern Europe axheads were simply stuck into or through straight wooden shafts, but adz heads must always have been mounted on a knee shaft a crooked stick , a method regularly used for axheads, too, by the Bronze Age. These people had developed trade networks and made use of the barter system. Societies across the Americas would soon domesticate beans, corn, and potatoes as well. The picture presented by the culture history of the earlier portion of the Holocene Period is thus one of two generalized developmental patterns: 1 the cultural readaptations to post-Pleistocene environments on a more or less intensified level of food collection; and 2 the appearance and development of an effective level of food production. Our food cultures weren't always this way.
Farming appeared in Greece as early as 7000 bce, and farming spread northward throughout the continent over the next four millennia. Another significant change undergone by many of these newly agrarian communities was one of. People also had time to process food in new ways, turning wheat into bread, olives into oil, barley into beer, and grapes into wine. The rise of agriculture is one of the major changes of this era. As women were the gatherers in earlier bands of humans, they were likely the ones who began the initial practices of agriculture. The period of prehistoric culture in which people made some of their stone tools by grinding the edges to create smooth surfaces; frequently defined as the time interval following the Paleolithic, beginning about 11,000-8000 years ago.
Stilt-houses settlements were common in the and Pianura Padana Terramare region. They were farmers; they used to grow crops. The Formative stage is equivalent to the period in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 33 :11597-11604. The Paleolithic people lived in caves in groups of 20-30 people comprising a family. The neolithic period is the time when and when people started caring for animals, such as , and.
Another interesting physiological change was a decline in pelvic inlet depth, making childbirth more difficult in the Neolithic era compared with the Paleolithic era. The latter seem to derive their form from Mesolithic weapons of antler, but their splayed blades disclose the influence of metal forms. Just as Neolithic people learned to domesticate plants, they also domesticated animals as part of their early agriculture systems. So, ancient humans were breeding wild strains of plants and animals in order to make them more useful. However, evidence of social inequality is still disputed, as settlements such as reveal a striking lack of difference in the size of homes and burial sites, suggesting a more egalitarian society with no evidence of the concept of capital, although some homes do appear slightly larger or more elaborately decorated than others. In most of the world, especially in the temperate and tropical woodland or along the southern fringes of Arctic tundra, the older Upper Paleolithic traditions of life were simply readapted toward more or less increasingly intensified levels of food collection.
Courtesy of the Czechoslovak News Agency, Prague The oldest manifestations of were produced during the Aurignacian, and the development continued during Upper Périgordian times. A painting at Paynes Prairie Preserve State Park showing paleolithic men hunting a mammoth using spears. Magdalenian sites have yielded countless fine examples of both mural and portable art. Archeologists working in Denmark and Germany, for example, found 6,000-year-old pots that had residue of garlic mustard seed, cooked in a broth of oysters and cod. The general level of culture probably shifted directly from that of the Upper Paleolithic to that of incipient cultivation and domestication. The general picture Though there are vast gaps in our knowledge of the Holocene Period in many parts of the Old World, enough is known to see the general cultural level of this range of time. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 3 :1087-1092. | http://maximaconteudo.com.br/neolithic-stone-age-definition.html |
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The Farming Revolution
Taking root around 12,000 years ago, agriculture triggered such a change in society and the way in which people lived that its development has been dubbed the "Neolithic Revolution." Traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyles, followed by humans since their evolution, were swept aside in favor of permanent settlements and a reliable food supply. Out of agriculture, cities and civilizations grew, and because crops and animals could now be farmed to meet demand, the global population rocketed — from some five million people 10,000 years ago, to more than seven billion today.
There was no single factor, or combination of factors, that led people to take up farming in different parts of the world. In the Near East, for example, it's thought that climatic changes at the end of the last ice age brought seasonal conditions that favored annual plants like wild cereals. Elsewhere, such as in East Asia, increased pressure on natural food resources may have forced people to find homegrown solutions. But whatever the reasons for its independent origins, farming sowed the seeds for the modern age.
Plant Domestication
The wild progenitors of crops including wheat, barley and peas are traced to the Near East region. Cereals were grown in Syria as long as 9,000 years ago, while figs were cultivated even earlier; prehistoric seedless fruits discovered in the Jordan Valley suggest fig trees were being planted some 11,300 years ago. Though the transition from wild harvesting was gradual, the switch from a nomadic to a settled way of life is marked by the appearance of early Neolithic villages with homes equipped with grinding stones for processing grain.
The origins of rice and millet farming date to around 6,000 B.C.E. The world's oldest known rice paddy fields, discovered in eastern China in 2007, reveal evidence of ancient cultivation techniques such as flood and fire control.
In Mexico, squash cultivation began around 10,000 years ago, but corn (maize) had to wait for natural genetic mutations to be selected for in its wild ancestor, teosinte. While maize-like plants derived from teosinte appear to have been cultivated at least 9,000 years ago, the first directly dated corn cob dates only to around 5,500 years ago.
Corn later reached North America, where cultivated sunflowers also started to bloom some 5,000 years ago. This is also when potato growing in the Andes region of South America began.
Farmed Animals
Cattle, goats, sheep and pigs all have their origins as farmed animals in the so-called Fertile Crescent, a region covering eastern Turkey, Iraq and southwestern Iran. This region kick-started the Neolithic Revolution. Dates for the domestication of these animals range from between 13,000 to 10,000 years ago.
Genetic studies show that goats and other livestock accompanied the westward spread of agriculture into Europe, helping to revolutionize Stone Age society. While the extent to which farmers themselves migrated west remains a subject of debate, the dramatic impact of dairy farming on Europeans is clearly stamped in their DNA. Prior to the arrival of domestic cattle in Europe, prehistoric populations weren't able to stomach raw cow milk. But at some point during the spread of farming into southeastern Europe, a mutation occurred for lactose tolerance that increased in frequency through natural selection thanks to the nourishing benefits of milk. Judging from the prevalence of the milk-drinking gene in Europeans today — as high as 90 percent in populations of northern countries such as Sweden — the vast majority are descended from cow herders.
Noun
the art and science of cultivating land for growing crops (farming) or raising livestock (ranching).
annual plant
Noun
plant with a life cycle of no more than one year, and often much less.
barley
Noun
grass cultivated as a grain.
cereal
Noun
type of grain, including wheat.
city
Noun
large settlement with a high population density.
Noun
complex way of life that developed as humans began to develop urban settlements.
Noun
agricultural produce.
cultivate
Verb
to encourage the growth of something through work and attention.
Noun
the process of adapting wild plants or animals for human use.
dramatic
Adjective
very expressive or emotional.
evolution
Noun
change in heritable traits of a population over time.
farm
Noun
land cultivated for crops, livestock, or both.
Noun
region extending from the eastern Mediterranean coast through Southwest Asia to the Persian Gulf.
fig
Noun
fruit and tree native to Asia.
genetic mutation
Noun
change to the genetic structure of an organism.
harvest
Noun
the gathering and collection of crops, including both plants and animals.
hunter-gatherer
Noun
person who gets food by using a combination of hunting, fishing, and foraging.
livestock
noun, plural noun
animals raised for sale and profit.
maize
Noun
corn.
migrate
Verb
to move from one place or activity to another.
millet
noun, adjective
a type of grain.
Near East
Noun
imprecise term for countries in southwestern Asia, sometimes including Egypt.
Neolithic
Noun
(~9000 B.C.E. to ~2000 B.C.E.) last phase of the Stone Age, following the Mesolithic.
nomadic
Adjective
having to do with a way of life lacking permanent settlement.
permanent
Adjective
constant or lasting forever.
prehistoric
Adjective
period of time that occurred before the invention of written records.
reliable
Adjective
dependable or consistent.
rice paddy
Noun
rice field.
seasonal
Adjective
likely to change with the seasons.
settlement
Noun
community or village.
society
Noun
large community, linked through similarities or relationships.
Stone Age
Noun
prehistoric period where human ancestors made and used stone tools, lasting from roughly 2.5 million years ago to 7000 BCE.
transition
Noun
movement from one position to another.
wheat
Noun
most widely grown cereal in the world. | https://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/development-agriculture/ |
The neolithic era is a very important era of human evolution. Author's collection Neolithic flake crudely retouched on both edges as a side scraper. While excavating in Jericho, one of the world's oldest cities, archaeologists found obsidian knives and blades that originally came from Catal Hoyuk. It's no wonder ancient civilizations like those in Egypt and Mesopotamia had advanced technology in the Bronze and Iron Ages since they had built such a strong foundation in the Stone Age! So, war could have been another reason. Second, the harvesting of grain required new tools such as scythes and these were made from flint.
Numerous toys have been found with wheels. Paleolithic humans lived a nomadic lifestyle in small groups. Figures in these paintings were very schematic. However, this move from basic materials like stone and wood to metal began the transition from tribal warriors to civilization-based armies. Personally, I find the neolithic era quite fascinating. The University of Houston's College of Engineering presents this series about the machines that make our civilization run, and the people whose ingenuity created them. This created a heavy demand for good rock that depleted local sources and resulted in in well-endowed locations in what are now , , , , , , , , , and.
First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies. Highly skilled craftsman who could work with metals or produce tools became highly valued. They continued to make tools and weapons from flint and some kinds of tool, such as scrapers for preparing hides, stayed the same. Marc is the founder of Vision Launch Development Group. Çatal Höyük Around 6,000 - 5,000 B. Yet they are the stone age functioning on the scale of the 20th century.
These needs drove human beings to learn to work together in more goal oriented ways than hunter-gatherers had. Together with the , fashioning wood for shelter, structures and for example, this enabled them to exploit their newly won farmland. People in the Stone Age learned how to make pottery, which they used to gather and store liquids. As the population density of the villages increase, they gradually evolve into towns and finally into. Neolithic tools were often retouched all over, by pressure flaking, giving a characteristic appearance and were often laboriously polished, again giving them a distinctive look. As the first people, the Stone Age people were the first to discover and use fire.
Rather than a revolution, the archaeological record suggests that the adoption of agriculture is the result of small and gradual changes. Neolithic artisans brought the use of stone, wood, and bone to a complexity that we still don't understand. Regardless of specific chronology, many European Neolithic groups share basic characteristics, such as living in small-scale, family-based communities, subsisting on plants and animals supplemented with the collection of wild plant foods and with hunting, and producing hand-made pottery, that is, pottery made without the. Even within a specific region, agriculture developed during different times. Agriculture was discovered independently at many different locations in the world.
I found this article to be very informative. The grain was ground into flour. Pottery became a medium for group identity and artistic expression as people came to etch designs on the exterior of pots. To think it was possible for these primitive beings to learn how to make tools and learn how to farm as well is definitely something that really scratches the head and makes you wonder just how smart they actually were and truly how their societies worked back in those times as well. South Am … ericana: corn, beans, sqush,llama. Eventually copper replaced stone, leading to the Copper Age. The stores of grain kept by neolithic people were the perfect targets for raiding groups of nomadic people.
Paleolithic people believed in animism or spirits that controlled their environment and animals around them. Thus social hierarchies emerged in societies that were able to produce surpluses of food. The wheel is also believed to have been invented in the Neolithic period. Clan controlled by elders or the powerful according to age Economy The concept of private property and ownership emerged for things such as land, livestock and tools. Then, we see evidence of change: gazelle consumption dropped and the amount of sheep consumption rose wild in the beginning and domesticated in the end. Specialization means doing one thing well. The dependence upon nature was evident in religious practices that came to worship reproduction, fertility, and the natural elements upon which agriculture depended.
There is a large body of evidence for fortified settlements at Linearbandkeramik sites along the , as at least some villages were fortified for some time with a and an outer ditch. In some instances, it was still thriving in the previous 20th century. This occurred centuries before the first cultivation of grains. With copper and then bronze, it became longer and was adapted to slashing as well as to stabbing. When people learned to farm, they built permanent dwellingsPaleolithic man made one of the most important discoveries that humans have ever made: that every plant has the ability to reproduce itself. Although fairly small, if not for those first couple of simple tools, who knows where the human race would be today? The ability to produce a surplus freed some people from having to spend all their time producing food; individuals could now specialize in other skills. The transition from traditional hunter gathering to agriculture and settlement.
License Written by , published on 02 April 2018 under the following license:. I mean, who knew there were so many difference in paleolithic vs. . Bronze would transform human societies by producing larger surpluses of agriculture and allowing for the creation of superior weapons. Many had the remains of infants inside. | http://crowdfynd.com/neolithic-technology.html |
About 45 km from Bhopal lies the most excellent pre-historical site ever! Maybe the direct descendants of Adam and Eve have lived and decided to draw their lives on the walls of the rocks! Over thousands of years have passed, and these paintings still seem as fresh as ever, thus leaving us a rich heritage to admire. We can learn a lot about the lifestyle of these cavemen. A little story about the Bhimbetka caves— Though the caves are famous for their rock paintings, they derive their name from Bheema, one of the five Pandava brothers who lived here during exile. Walking through these intricate caves throws light on the evolution of humanity over the years.
[caption id="attachment_1316" align="aligncenter" width="653"] Bhimbhetka cave entrance[/caption]
Archaeological PeriodsThis might sound like history class but believe me I knew only Ice Age and Stone age till I was here. Apparently there is more to these eras than I thought. It is actually not historic but pre-historic.. Once the Ice age was done starts the stone age. The stone age itself has three different times. Paleolithic aka Old Stone Age, Mesolithic aka Middle stone age and then comes the Neolithic aka New stone age. As we move from Old to New age so does our evolution, culture, domestication, etc. During the Paleolithic age, it was the end of ice age and the stone age begins. The world is warmer, there are caves to live and it is also said that this is when modern homo sapiens evolved. Meaning we started to be like humans. We are still hunting animals, eating raw food, living in small communities, following herds of game animals to hunt them, use simple weapons like bow arrow or stone and lived a nomadic lifestyle. Then we move into Mesolithic where we advance into living a community lifestyle. We start to domesticate animals, rear cattle, goats, pig, etc. We are still hunting animals but domestication of animals has begun. There is significant improvement in the tools we use. Climate has become warmer. This is basically a transition into the Neolithic era. Neolithic is when we try to settle down at a place and build shelters. Community living has grown. We have learnt to dress. We start agriculture and farming has also become a source of food for us. Raising goats and cattle and using them for ourselves has become routine. The tools used show that we are heading towards civilization, there are cups, plates, ladles and hunting tools have become defined and not crude. We have started making clothes too. At Bhimbetka we see human settlements as far as from the paleolithic age. Evidences show that Bhimbetka caves served as shelters for more than 1lakh years. From paleolithic to even medieval period humans have stayed here.
[caption id="attachment_1330" align="aligncenter" width="655"] Scenic view[/caption]
Bhimbetka PaintingsThese cave paintings are made with natural colours. The paintings and their colour have survived the test of time and weather. The colours were obtained from limestones, iron ore, burnt bones, blood, vegetable juices mixed with animal fat or spit that helped the paint stick to the rocks. Over the years, subsequent generations have also drawn the figurines, layers over layers, thereby making the paintings thick. The paintings were made using fingers, feathers, hairs, and brushes made of horsehair, depending upon their era. Guess what?! The paintings from the Paleolithic are cave paintings, whereas the ones from Mesolithic are rock paintings! Wondering what the difference is? Well, during the Mesolithic age, the world was warmer, and the paintings dried quicker. So the paintings were drawn on the walls of the rock. Whereas, during the Palaeolithic age, the painting is seen inside the caves (to protect them). The other way to identify the paintings from the Mesolithic era is to represent humans in the form of stick figures. Now that we know about our ancestors let's walk through the bhimbetka cave. The first painting we see. A man on top of what looks like an elephant. The tool in his hand is crude and not so well defined.
[caption id="attachment_1317" align="aligncenter" width="651"] Man on elephants[/caption] Rough painting of animals from Paleolithic era - Cattle, deer, peacock (the squares you see on right top) [caption id="attachment_1318" align="aligncenter" width="577"] From the Paleolithic age[/caption] Cattle Breeding. Below is a row of not so clear set of paintings that can be noticed in red color. This shows super imposing of paintings from different eras. [caption id="attachment_1319" align="aligncenter" width="651"] Cattle Breeding[/caption] A very good representation of the Mesolithic era. The figurines are like stick figures. It is a war or battle or fight scene. It also shows community is more defined, we can see a chief sitting on top of decorated horse. [caption id="attachment_1320" align="aligncenter" width="651"] War scene from Mesolithic[/caption] This one could be from Medieval era. Colors like yellow and green are used. Also check how the curves of the horse are beautifully drawn. It is more well defined. [caption id="attachment_1322" align="aligncenter" width="651"] Different Colors[/caption] Another area of the cave where we can see paintings from two different era. [caption id="attachment_1323" align="aligncenter" width="652"] From two eras[/caption] The old stone age, the painting has kind of worn out. The weapon on the hand of the man on horse is made of stone. [caption id="attachment_1326" align="aligncenter" width="648"] From the paleolithic era[/caption] Hunting scene where men are trying to bringing down a Boar. [caption id="attachment_1325" align="aligncenter" width="651"] Bringing down a Boar[/caption] Community living - on top is a guy playing an instrument. In the middle are group of dancers and in the down again we can see people playing instrument. [caption id="attachment_1329" align="aligncenter" width="651"] Community living[/caption] The caves are pretty isolated. It seemed as if having your vehicle is the only choice of reaching the place. The content of this blog is based on the information boards placed in the caves and from the guide whom we had hired. If there are more stories to add behind these paintings or any corrections, add them in the comment section. | https://www.masalabox.co.in/bhimbetka-cave-paintings/ |
Introduction The shift from a lifestyle reliant on hunting andgathering to one of practicing agricultural competencies began approximately “10,000years” (p.
103) ago according to Brown, Jones, Powell and Allaby. Thistransition can be attributed to five main factors including topics such asavailability of wild resources, development of technology, populationinfluence, and geography. While these factors were a driving force in thetransition of an individual enacting the role of hunter-gatherer to the role ofagriculturalist they did not impact all areas of the globe on an independent scalenor did they impact them all at the same time. Factors such as climate,availability of wild ancestors, and cultural ideals all played a role in theindependent development of agriculture in the different areas of the world. Thefollowing explores in greater detail the many factors in the shift fromhunting-gathering to agriculture and the locations in which this shiftindependently emerged. Exploration of Key Terms To better understand aspects of the shift from huntingand gathering to agriculture it is important to understand the definitions forthese terms in context of the topic.
Agriculture or “food production” (p. 84)as Jared Diamond also refers to it in his book Guns, Germs, and Steel, is “domesticating wild animals and plantsand eating the resulting livestock and crops” (p. 82). Hunting and gathering incontrast mainly relates itself to killing wild animals, catching fish and otherwater specimens and foraging for wild berries, vegetables and roots to eat.These two terms are also described as “alternative strategies competing witheach other” (p. 105).
The BIG Five As explored by Diamond (1997) the first two significantfactors in the shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture are very closelyrelated. These two factors are the decline of available wild food and thedepletion of wild game. The depletion of wild game is thought to have occurreddue to climate change and highly effective hunters killing many of the bigmammals. Being able to obtain less from hunting made the role of hunter andgatherer less appealing and less reward was being reaped.
Climate changealthough thought to harm wild animals is related to a positive movement foragriculture as it allowed for more desirable growing conditions and madefarming more rewarding (p. 105-106). The third factor in “the shift” is the development oftechnologies. Such technologies allowed for more efficient harvesting,processing and storage of wild food items. The most noteworthy technologiesincluded the sickle for grain harvesting, baskets for transporting grain,mortars and pestles for processing grain so that it did not germinate, andunderground storage either waterproof or not. This factor was an unconsciousact on behalf of hunters and gathers towards the domestication of wild plants(Diamond, 1997, p.
106). The “two-way link” (p. 107) as termed by Diamonddescribes how the rise of human population and the rise in food production gohand in hand. He also uses the term “autocatalytic process – one that catalyzesitself in a positive feed back cycle” (p. 107) to describe how the rise inpopulation causes the need to obtain more food and those who were unconsciouslyparticipating in agricultural practices were rewarded with the needed food,these people became “sedentary” ( Bennett, ND, p.3) and produce more people andthus again required more food. All ofthese steps on the loop play a role in what we define as agriculture. The final factor in the shift from hunting and gatheringto agriculture is geography.
The large population of those settled individuals,who were participating in agriculture, allowed them to attack hunter gathererskeeping them off the land. Technology and advances in agricultural practicesgave producers advantages in creating food. And as a result, hunter-gathererswere left with the choice to become displaced or adopt food production as theirnew mean to provide themselves with food, fuel and fiber (Diamond, 1997, p.
107)Independent Development To answer the question of why agriculture aroseindependently in some areas and then later in other areas Diamond (1997)reviews the two observations of either there were problems with the wild plantsof the land or that there were problems with the people of the land (p. 126). Thesetwo explanations depend on the location of the land, lands with prime climateand many easily domesticated wild resources were thought to have a culturalissue and those lands with subpar climate were thought to have a wild resourceproblem.
There are five areas that were considered to havedeveloped agriculture independently and they include the Fertile Crescent, China,Mesoamerica, the Andes of South America and the eastern United States. (Diamond,1997, p. 94). These locations all had a climate that was supportive ofdifferent wild crops that could be domesticated.
While some of these crops weremore readily domesticated than others, for example the readily domesticatedwild strains of wheat domesticated much faster than the wild ancestors of corn.This eagerness or lack there of is one explanation for why some lands developedagriculture faster than others. It should be noted that many lands did not reach theability to develop agriculture on their own because they did not have the wildresources present to domesticate although they did have fertile lands. Manyregions relied on the introduction of founder crops from other agricultural establishedregions to begin their journey towards agriculture and away from hunting andgathering. Conclusion The many factors that drove the transition from huntingand gathering to agriculture did so in a way that they made hunting andgathering less rewarding and made agricultural practice more rewarding. Thefactors of less available wild resources, technology, geography and linkagemade sure that humans developed a system that was more reliable in feeding, clothingthemselves and producing other goods. The independent development of agriculturerelied heavily on the climate, available wild resources and peoples of theregion.
All together the combined factors of shift and the independent developmentof agriculture assured that the regions around the world adopted agriculture. ReferencesBennett, B.C. (N.D.) Plant domestication and the origins ofagriculture. Miami, FL: Florida InternationalUniversity Brown, T.
A., &Jones,M.K., & Powell, W., & Allaby, R. G. (2008) The complex origins ofdomesticatedcrops in the fertile crescent. Trends inEcology and Evolution, 24, 103Diamond, J.
(1997) Guns, germs, and steel. New York, London : W.W. | https://essayprepper.com/introduction-be-attributed-to-five-main-factors-including-topics/ |
Agricultural communities developed approximately 10,000 years ago when humans began to domesticate plants and animals. By establishing domesticity, families and larger groups were able to build communities and transition from a nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle dependent on foraging and hunting for survival.
Select from these resources to teach your students about agricultural communities. | https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/resource-library-agricultural-communities/ |
What Are The Origins Of Agriculture?
A summary of what is known about the origins of agriculture thousands of years ago.
Humanity, as we know it today, would not have been possible if our species had not transitioned from nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples to sedentary farming peoples.
Agriculture has been crucial for humans to be able to survive without depending on the elements. However, it is also because of agriculture that we live in societies with social and economic inequalities.
Next we will discover what are the origins of agriculture, how it was made over the millennia and how it has influenced the development of modern civilizations.
How was the origin of agriculture?
The emergence of agriculture is considered one of the most revolutionary processes in the history of mankind. Thanks to the cultivation of vegetables for human consumption, our species stopped totally depending on the elements to control them. With agriculture, the human being was no longer subject to how benign and generous nature was, and he began to directly exercise control and dominance over it.
The first humans were nomads and subsisted on hunting and gathering wild vegetables. They survived by exploiting the resources of a region, hunting its animals and gathering its fruits. As in many cases the fruits were toxic or were not sure that it was for human consumption, nomadic peoples directly preferred to hunt animals, no matter how unappetizing and nutritious they might be. Edible vegetables were a rare commodity in the wild.
After spending several days or weeks in the same area, resources were becoming scarce. To avoid starving, they couldn’t wait for that region to naturally replenish itself on its own: the time had come to emigrate again. Thus, the Homo sapiens primeval were in constant motion, seeking new areas in which to spend a few weeks and go on living, always being under the threat of chronic hunger.
Because they were constantly on the move, they rarely noticed how the environment changed over time. The first nomadic peoples did not have enough time to see how one of the seeds of the fruits they had eaten, when falling to the ground and receiving the water from the rains, germinated forming a bud that, with the passage of months or even years, it would transform into a fruit tree. Before that tree had grown, the town that accidentally planted it was already far away, looking for a new place to survive.
This is why it is believed that the most primitive human beings associated the growth of vegetables with magical forces. Hunter-gatherer societies, by not paying enough attention to how seeds germinated, had not related the idea that a new plant could grow from a seed. Surely, they thought that all the fruit trees that were found were there by pure chance, having grown spontaneously and thanks to the designs of forest spirits. How did it come about?
Normally, when we talk about agriculture, it is understood by all the techniques that involve the action of growing more or less domesticated plants, with or without the help of domesticated animals. The farmers’ task is to sow, cultivate and harvest plants from which they will obtain food, tissue, wood and natural remedies. Although this definition is the most widely accepted, it has not prevented a wide debate on what should be considered as the first agricultural techniques and who carried them out.
Be that as it may, for agriculture to resemble what we know today, many attempts were necessary, the use of intelligence, observation and patience. It took many years, even millennia, for the human species to come to make domestic varieties of plants that today cannot be lacking in any home, such as corn, rice, wheat, all kinds of fruits or cotton that we use in many garments.
Agriculture was traditionally thought to have arisen by chance. The first farmers “invented” agriculture without really knowing what they were doing. At some point they must have seen how a seed accidentally buried was transformed into a small sprout and, later, into a plant with the same fruits as those of the plant of the fruit to which that seed belonged and, thus, they discovered by pure chance how to sow , grow and harvest all kinds of vegetables.
However, the scientific community has been critical of this belief. Early agricultural techniques seem too complex to be considered due to chance. Of course, there is a certain trial and error component to all learning, however, figuring out how and when to plant different varieties of plants, when to water them, and when to harvest them must have been the product of extensive and meticulous observation.
Another controversial idea about the origins of agriculture is gender differences. For a long time the idea that men went hunting and women gathered fruits and looked after the little ones has been accepted. At some point, these women, who had direct contact with vegetables, observed how the seeds grew when they fell to the ground and spent a few days, being the discoverers of agriculture. Since the idea that there were marked gender differences in roles within nomadic villages is questioned, this idea has been questioned.
Be that as it may, what is clear is that the first farmers were experimenting with plant varieties and how to obtain better fruits. They must have seen that the seeds of better plants gave rise to good daughter plants and, if they crossed them with other varieties, they could obtain new types of plants with more meat, less husk, smaller seeds, better quality wood or more resistant tissues. With the birth of agriculture came artificial selection. The first agricultural peoples, without even knowing what evolution was, exercised it in their own crops.
Where and when did agriculture arise?
As surprising as it may seem, agriculture did not arise in one place. Different human populations came to develop the first agricultural techniques on their own, sharing many characteristics without even knowing that the same thing was being done in other parts of the world.
They may grow different cereals and fruits, but in many cases the techniques, the tools and the way they did it were very similar. It is as if agriculture, more than an invention or discovery, is a natural step in human evolution, along with bipedalism and the development of language.
Although the chronology of the emergence and development of agriculture is debated, it is more or less accepted that the first agricultural behaviors must have occurred around 30,000 years ago, although they must have been very rudimentary and experimental. Between 20,000 and 30,000 years ago, people from different parts of the world began to care for and then plant wild plants that were of some interest for food, medicine or obtaining fibers and wood.
Subsequently, they selected the seeds of the best plants and, little by little, with the passage of generations and applying artificial selection, plant species began to be domesticated. However, these techniques were not something widespread at all, since the Earth was in an ice age and it would not be until 15,000 years ago that it would end, making the climate milder and more suitable for plants. Before the end of this period it was not possible to intentionally cultivate plants that had a minimal chance of surviving the action of the elements.
Between 10,000 and 12,000 years ago, plants that could be considered domesticated were already being cultivated in the Neolithic. The human being enjoyed very productive crops, ceasing to depend on how generous nature was and leaving behind the constant threat of hunger. It is around this time that we can identify four regions with developed agricultural techniques : the Fertile Crescent, current Iran, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Israel, Egypt, Lebanon and Turkey; China, New Guinea and Mesoamerica, mainly Mexico and Central America.
Some 2,000 or 4,000 years later the domestication of crops was already a worldwide phenomenon. There are eight new regions in which agricultural techniques were applied: African Sahel, Ethiopia, West Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Southeast North America, the Central Andes (Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador and North of Chile and Argentina) and the Amazon (Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador and Peru).
Historical consequences of agriculture
Agriculture gave way to livestock. Thanks to being able to grow vegetables, human beings not only obtained a more or less stable source of food for human consumption, but also could select varieties that were more suitable for animal consumption. Applying the same domestication processes in animals, varieties of chickens, pigs, dogs, cows and goats useful to people were obtained. Some of these animals became bigger, with better meat, better milk or, as in the case of the dog, they were more faithful, using them for hunting.
After all these processes, the human being was acquiring the idea that whoever works on a piece of land is its owner, and everything he obtains from it is his. Agriculture is not only associated with a new production system and an increase in survival, but also with the idea of property. The fruits of the earth are for those who have cultivated them, their families and other members of the village, not for those who are strangers to it. The idea of belonging to a territory arises, in addition to the psychological notion of the endogroup and the outgroup.
Power and influence in the village no longer depends solely on the strength of men or women. Now, the one who has the most influence is the one who has cultivated a land that has given him many fruits. When more food is produced, the less hunger is spent and, in addition, it is easier to exchange other products, be it food, jewelry or tools, with other farmers. Exchange, wealth arises and, in turn, the first classes and estates emerge, in short, social inequalities arise.
As they have settled down and cultivate the land, there is an improvement in living conditions. A better diet implies a higher life expectancy and lower infant mortality, making the villages have more and more inhabitants. The larger the size, the more complex the social interactions and, to prevent anarchy from reigning, the first governments emerged. This, little by little, will give rise to complex civilizations, such as China, Mesopotamia, Egypt or India. In short, without agriculture, humanity would not be as we know it today.
Bibliographic references:.
- Tayles, N., Domett, K., & Nelsen, K. (2000). Agriculture and dental caries? The case of rice in prehistoric Southeast Asia. World Archeology, 32 (1): pp. 68-83.
- Bar-Yosef, O. and Meadows, R. H (1995). The origins of agriculture in the Near East. In TD Price and A. Gebauer (eds) Last Hunters – First Farmers: New Perspectives on the Prehistoric Transition to Agriculture: pp. 39 – 94. | https://smartdaily.net/what-are-the-origins-of-agriculture/ |
The Stone Age period involved early men developing techniques and instruments for their most important need which was survival. The first substance that man made use of was stones and grass. Stones were used to light fire and grass was used to enhance the fire.More...
Stone was used extensively to prepare and make weapons like hand axes, awls, spears and knives. Basalt as well as sandstone was used to make weapons and tools like quern stones. The other materials like wood, shell, grass and bones were used to build homes while clay was extensively used for pottery.
Paleolithic Timeline
The Paleolithic era is also fondly known as the Stone Age period. It existed between (2.5 million - 20000 years ago). The era was beginning of small innovations carried on within the group for survival. It began with preparing and manufacturing tools and hunting. Slowly, the attention went to developing societies and settlements. More...
Mesolithic Artifacts
Mesolithic is considered as a very short time period that started around 10,000 to 5,000 years ago. This was the period that was much involved with the nomadic gathering and hunting that preceded the acceptance of the domesticated animals and plants. This was actually the time when human beings had developed various new techniques regarding the stone working.More...
What Revolution Took Place During The Neolithic Age ?
The Neolithic Age must actually be considered the best out of all. One of the major reasons for this would be the revolutionary innovation that took place. If today we enjoy agriculture and are minting money, it is definitely due to this era that brought the change.More...
Stone Age : | http://www.historyrocket.com/age-of-history/stone-age/index.html |
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