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Plasmid | Plasmide | A plasmid is a small, extrachromosomal DNA molecule within a cell that is physically separated from chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently. They are most commonly found as small circular, double-stranded DNA molecules in bacteria; however, plasmids are sometimes present in archaea and eukaryotic organisms. In nature, plasmids often carry genes that benefit the survival of the organism and confer selective advantage such as antibiotic resistance. While chromosomes are large and contain all the essential genetic information for living under normal conditions, plasmids are usually very small and contain only additional genes that may be useful in certain situations or conditions. Artificial plasmids are widely used as vectors in molecular cloning, serving to drive the replication of recombinant DNA sequences within host organisms. In the laboratory, plasmids may be introduced into a cell via transformation. | En microbiologie et en biologie moléculaire, un plasmide est une molécule d'ADN distincte de l'ADN chromosomique, capable de réplication autonome et non essentielle à la survie de la cellule. Les plasmides sont bicaténaires (constitués de deux brins complémentaires) et généralement circulaires. On les trouve presque exclusivement dans les bactéries et parfois dans d'autres micro-organismes comme le plasmide 2Mu que l'on trouve dans la levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae ("levure de boulangerie"), un eucaryote unicellulaire"." Les plasmides sont présents en nombre de copies variable : les grands plasmides naturels (>50 kb) sont souvent présent à une ou deux copies par cellule, comme le chromosome. Les plasmides construits par génie génétique pour des utilisations biotechnologiques (expression de protéine recombinante, clonage de gène, séquençage de l'ADN) ont souvent été modifiés pour être présents à un nombre de copies beaucoup plus élevé, de l'ordre quelques dizaines à quelques centaines, ce qui permet une amplification de la production d'ADN ou de protéines. | [
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] | null | null | null | null | null | null |
Loebner Prize | Prix Loebner | The Loebner Prize is an annual competition in artificial intelligence that awards prizes to the computer programs considered by the judges to be the most human-like. The format of the competition is that of a standard Turing test. In each round, a human judge simultaneously holds textual conversations with a computer program and a human being via computer. Based upon the responses, the judge must decide which is which. | Le prix Loebner est une compétition annuelle qui couronne les dialogueurs satisfaisant le mieux les critères du test de Turing (avec lesquels il est le plus difficile de déterminer s'il s'agit d'un robot ou d'un humain). L'inventeur américain a créé ce concours en 1990. | [
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Black hole | Trou noir | A black hole is a region of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing—no particles or even electromagnetic radiation such as light—can escape from it. The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole. The boundary of the region from which no escape is possible is called the event horizon. Although the event horizon has an enormous effect on the fate and circumstances of an object crossing it, it has no locally detectable features. In many ways, a black hole acts like an ideal black body, as it reflects no light. Moreover, quantum field theory in curved spacetime predicts that event horizons emit Hawking radiation, with the same spectrum as a black body of a temperature inversely proportional to its mass. This temperature is on the order of billionths of a kelvin for black holes of stellar mass, making it essentially impossible to observe. | En astrophysique, un trou noir est un objet céleste si compact que l'intensité de son champ gravitationnel empêche toute forme de matière ou de rayonnement de s’en échapper. | [
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Genome | Génome | In the fields of molecular biology and genetics, a genome is the genetic material of an organism. It consists of DNA (or RNA in RNA viruses). The genome includes both the genes (the coding regions) and the noncoding DNA, as well as mitochondrial DNA and chloroplast DNA. The study of the genome is called genomics. | Le génome, ou rarement génôme, est l'ensemble du matériel génétique d'une espèce codé dans son acide désoxyribonucléique (ADN) à l'exception de certains virus dont le génome est constitué d'acide ribonucléique (ARN). Il contient en particulier tous les gènes codant des protéines ou correspondant à des ARN structurés. Il se décompose donc en séquences codantes (transcrites en ARN messagers et traduites en protéines) et non codantes (non transcrites, ou transcrites en ARN, mais non traduites). | [
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Finitary relation | Relation (mathématiques) | In mathematics, a finitary relation over sets is a subset of the Cartesian product ; that is, it is a set of "n"-tuples consisting of elements "x" in "X". Typically, the relation describes a possible connection between the elements of an "n"-tuple. For example, the relation ""x" is divisible by "y" and "z"" consists of the set of 3-tuples such that when substituted to "x", "y" and "z", respectively, make the sentence true. | Une relation entre objets mathématiques d'un certain domaine est une propriété qu'ont, ou non, entre eux certains de ces objets ; ainsi la relation d'ordre strict, notée « < », définie sur N l'ensemble des entiers naturels : 1 < 2 signifie que 1 est en relation avec 2 par cette relation, et on sait que 1 n'est pas en relation avec 0 par celle-ci. | [
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MINIX | Minix | Minix (from "mini-Unix") is a POSIX-compliant (since version 2.0), Unix-like operating system based on a microkernel architecture. Early versions of MINIX were created by Andrew S. Tanenbaum for educational purposes. Starting with MINIX 3, the primary aim of development shifted from education to the creation of a highly reliable and self-healing microkernel OS. MINIX is now developed as open-source software. | Minix est un système d'exploitation, clone d'Unix, fondé sur un micro-noyau créé par le professeur Andrew Stuart Tanenbaum à des fins pédagogiques, volontairement réduit afin qu'il puisse être compris entièrement par ses étudiants en un semestre, et qui a servi de source d'inspiration à Linus Torvalds pour créer Linux. | [
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] | null | null | null | null | null | null |
ALGOL | Algol (langage) | ALGOL (; short for "Algorithmic Language") is a family of imperative computer programming languages originally developed in 1958. ALGOL heavily influenced many other languages and was the standard method for algorithm description used by the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) in textbooks and academic sources until object-oriented languages came around, for more than thirty years. | Algol est un langage de programmation. Il a été créé à la fin des années 1950. Dérivé d'un projet de l'UNESCO d'abord appelé IAL (""), son nom est l'acronyme d'. Son objectif était de décrire algorithmiquement des problèmes de programmation. Les principales différences au niveau de la conception par rapport à Fortran furent l'utilisation de blocs marqués par BEGIN END, permettant variables locales et tableaux dynamiques, et surtout la récursivité, concepts qui seront largement repris par ses successeurs. | [
250004,
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COBOL | Cobol | COBOL (; an acronym for "common business-oriented language") is a compiled English-like computer programming language designed for business use. It is imperative, procedural and, since 2002, object-oriented. COBOL is primarily used in business, finance, and administrative systems for companies and governments. COBOL is still widely used in applications deployed on mainframe computers, such as large-scale batch and transaction processing jobs. But due to its declining popularity and the retirement of experienced COBOL programmers, programs are being migrated to new platforms, rewritten in modern languages or replaced with software packages. Most programming in COBOL is now purely to maintain existing applications, however many large financial institutions were still developing new systems in COBOL in 2006 due to the mainframe processing speed. | Cobol est un langage de programmation créé en 1959 (officiellement le 18 septembre 1959). Son nom est l’acronyme de COmmon Business Oriented Language qui révèle sa vocation originelle : être un langage commun pour la programmation d'applications de gestion. Aujourd'hui, il est surtout utilisé dans les secteurs de la banque, des assurances, des grandes administrations. | [
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Triangle | Triangle | A triangle is a polygon with three edges and three vertices. It is one of the basic shapes in geometry. A triangle with vertices "A", "B", and "C" is denoted formula_1. | En géométrie euclidienne, un triangle est une figure plane, formée par trois points appelés "sommets", par les trois segments qui les relient, appelés "côtés", délimitant un domaine du plan appelé "intérieur". Lorsque les sommets sont distincts deux à deux, en chaque sommet les côtés délimitent un angle intérieur, d'où vient la dénomination de « triangle ». | [
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Humphry Davy | Humphry Davy | Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet (17 December 177829 May 1829) was a Cornish chemist and inventor, who is best remembered today for isolating, by using electricity, a series of elements for the first time: potassium and sodium in 1807 and calcium, strontium, barium, magnesium and boron the following year, as well as discovering the elemental nature of chlorine and iodine. Davy also studied the forces involved in these separations, inventing the new field of electrochemistry. | Sir Humphry Davy ( à Penzance, Cornouailles, Angleterre - à Genève), baronnet, est un physicien et chimiste britannique. En 1807 et 1808, il isole le sodium, le potassium, le baryum, le strontium et le calcium grâce à l'électrolyse. Il est également l'inventeur de la lampe de sûreté à toile métallique pour les mineurs, dite lampe Davy, pour la prévention des explosions dues au grisou. | [
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Collective intelligence | Intelligence collective | Collective intelligence (CI) is shared or group intelligence that emerges from the collaboration, collective efforts, and competition of many individuals and appears in consensus decision making. The term appears in sociobiology, political science and in context of mass peer review and crowdsourcing applications. It may involve consensus, social capital and formalisms such as voting systems, social media and other means of quantifying mass activity. Collective IQ is a measure of collective intelligence, although it is often used interchangeably with the term collective intelligence. Collective intelligence has also been attributed to bacteria and animals. | L'intelligence collective désigne la capacité d'une communauté à faire converger intelligence et connaissances pour avancer vers un but commun. Elle résulte de la qualité des interactions entre ses membres (ou agents). Alors que la connaissance des membres de la communauté est limitée, tout autant que leur perception de l'environnement commun et bien qu'ils n'ont pas conscience de la totalité des éléments pertinents par rapport aux buts, des agents au comportement simple peuvent accomplir des tâches complexes grâce à différents mécanismes et méthodes, notamment ceux désignés sous les appellations synergie ou stigmergie. | [
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1340s | Années 1340 | The 1340s were a Julian calendar decade in the 14th century, in the midst of a period in world history often referred to as the Late Middle Ages in the Old World and the pre-Columbian era in the New World. | Années 1320 | Années 1330 | Années 1340 | Années 1350 | Années 1360 1340 | 1341 | 1342 | 1343 | 1344 | 1345 | 1346 | 1347 | 1348 | 1349 | [
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] | null | null | null | null | null | null |
Map (mathematics) | Application (mathématiques) | In mathematics, a map is often used as a synonym for a function, but may also refer to some generalizations. Originally, this was an abbreviation of mapping, which often refers to the action of applying a function to the elements of its domain. This terminology is not completely fixed, as these terms are generally not formally defined, and can be considered to be jargon. These terms may have originated as a generalization of the process of making a geographical map, which consists of "mapping" the Earth surface to a sheet of paper. | En mathématiques, une application est une relation entre deux ensembles pour laquelle chaque élément du premier (appelé "ensemble de départ" ou "source") est relié à un unique élément du second (l’"ensemble d'arrivée" ou "but"). Le terme est concurrencé par celui de fonction, bien que celui-ci désigne parfois plus spécifiquement les applications dont le but est un ensemble de nombres et parfois, au contraire, englobe plus largement les relations pour lesquelles chaque élément de l'ensemble de départ est relié à au plus un élément de l'ensemble d'arrivée. | [
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Primate | Primates | A primate ( ) (from Latin "primat-", from "primus": "prime, first rank") is a eutherian mammal constituting the taxonomic order Primates. Primates arose 85–55 million years ago first from small terrestrial mammals, which adapted to living in the trees of tropical forests: many primate characteristics represent adaptations to life in this challenging environment, including large brains, visual acuity, color vision, altered shoulder girdle, and dextrous hands. Primates range in size from Madame Berthe's mouse lemur, which weighs, to the eastern gorilla, weighing over. There are 190–448 species of living primates, depending on which classification is used. New primate species continue to be discovered: over 25 species were described in the first decade of the 2000s, and eleven since 2010. | Les primates (Primates Linnaeus, 1758) – du latin "", signifiant – constituent un ordre se situant au sein des mammifères placentaires. Ce clade regroupe les petits singes et les grands anthropoïdes, ainsi que les espèces de strepsirrhiniens comme les lémuriens. Selon la classification phylogénétique actuelle, ils sont regroupés dans le clade intermédiaire des Euarchontoglires avec les lapins, toupayes ou galéopithèques. | [
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Carlos Castaneda | Carlos Castaneda | Carlos Castaneda (December 25, 1925April 27, 1998) was an American author. Starting with "The Teachings of Don Juan" in 1968, Castaneda wrote a series of books that describe his training in shamanism, particularly with a group whose lineage descended from the Toltecs. The books, narrated in the first person, relate his experiences under the tutelage of a man that Castaneda claimed was a Yaqui "Man of Knowledge" named don Juan Matus. His 12 books have sold more than 28 million copies in 17 languages. They have been found to be fiction, but supporters claim the books are either true or at least valuable works of philosophy. | Carlos Castaneda, né le à Cajamarca, Pérou et mort le à Los Angeles (Californie), est un écrivain métis américain, docteur en anthropologie. Il est connu pour ses ouvrages relatant l'enseignement chamanique qu'il a reçu d'un « homme de connaissance » yaqui dénommé don Juan Matus. | [
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Group (mathematics) | Groupe (mathématiques) | In mathematics, a group is a set equipped with a binary operation that combines any two elements to form a third element in such a way that four conditions called group axioms are satisfied, namely closure, associativity, identity and invertibility. One of the most familiar examples of a group is the set of integers together with the addition operation, but groups are encountered in numerous areas within and outside mathematics, and help focusing on essential structural aspects, by detaching them from the concrete nature of the subject of the study. | En mathématiques, un groupe est une des structures algébriques fondamentales de l'algèbre générale. C'est un ensemble muni d'une loi de composition interne associative admettant un élément neutre et, pour chaque élément de l'ensemble, un élément symétrique. | [
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Irving Janis | Irving Janis | Irving Lester Janis (May 26, 1918 – November 15, 1990) was a research psychologist at Yale University and a professor emeritus at the University of California, Berkeley most famous for his theory of "groupthink" which described the systematic errors made by groups when making collective decisions. A "Review of General Psychology" survey, published in 2002, ranked Janis as the 79th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. | Irving Janis, né le à Buffalo (New York) et mort le, est chercheur en psychologie de l'université Yale et un professeur de l'université de Californie. Il est l'inventeur du concept de pensée de groupe (ou pensée groupale, selon les traductions), qu'il a mis en évidence dans les années 1970 en analysant quelques fiascos politico-militaires américains particulièrement retentissants, comme celui du débarquement de la baie des Cochons. | [
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Groupthink | Pensée de groupe | Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome. Cohesiveness, or the desire for cohesiveness, in a group may produce a tendency among its members to agree at all costs. This causes the group to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without critical evaluation. | La pensée de groupe (en anglais groupthink) est un phénomène psycho-sociologique de pseudo-consensus survenant parfois lorsqu'un groupe se réunit pour penser et prendre une décision : le groupe se donne l'illusion de penser un problème et de parvenir à une décision bonne, alors qu'en réalité la pensée individuelle et collective est paralysée par des mécanismes nocifs de dynamique de groupe. ("Note :" pour clarifier, on pourrait donc nommer cela "non-pensée de groupe".) | [
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Federal Government of Belgium | Gouvernement fédéral (Belgique) | The Federal Government of Belgium (,, ) exercises executive power in the Kingdom of Belgium. It consists of ministers and secretary of state ("junior", or deputy-ministers who do not sit in the Council of Ministers) drawn from the political parties which form the governing coalition. The federal government is led by the Prime Minister of Belgium, and Ministers lead ministries of the government. Ministers together form the Council of Ministers, which is the supreme executive organ of the Government (equivalent to a cabinet). | Le Conseil des ministres belge se compose de au maximum, s'ajoutant à cela les secrétaires d’État, ce qui forme le gouvernement fédéral, en général issus d’une coalition de différents partis. Le pouvoir exécutif est exercé par le Roi et le gouvernement. | [
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Network switch | Commutateur réseau | A network switch (also called switching hub, bridging hub, officially MAC bridge) is networking hardware that connects devices on a computer network by using packet switching to receive and forward data to the destination device. | Un commutateur réseau (en anglais ), est un équipement qui relie plusieurs segments (câbles ou fibres) dans un réseau informatique et de télécommunication et qui permet de créer des circuits virtuels. La commutation est un des deux modes de transport de trame au sein des réseaux informatiques et de communication, l'autre étant le routage. Dans les réseaux locaux (LAN), il s'agit le plus souvent d'un boîtier disposant de plusieurs ports RJ45 (entre 4 et plusieurs centaines), il a donc la même apparence qu'un concentrateur (hub). Il existe aussi des commutateurs pour tous les types de réseau en mode point à point comme pour les réseaux ATM, relais de trames | [
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Brahman | Brahman | Brahman connotes the highest Universal Principle, the Ultimate Reality in the universe. In major schools of Hindu philosophy, it is the material, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists. It is the pervasive, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes. Brahman as a metaphysical concept is the single binding unity behind diversity in all that exists in the universe. | Brahman (devanāgarī: ब्रह्मन्) est un terme sanskrit qui est utilisé dans plusieurs religions de l'Inde telles que le védisme, le brahmanisme et l'hindouisme. Il désigne selon le contexte :. Le terme "Brahmā" désigne quant à lui la manifestation du "Brahman", c'est le dieu démiurge de la "Trimūrti". | [
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City Hunter | City Hunter | "City Hunter" spawned a media franchise consisting of numerous adaptations and spin-offs from several countries. The franchise includes four anime television series, three anime television specials, two original video animations, several animated feature films (including a film released in February 2019), several live-action films (including a Hong Kong film starring Jackie Chan, and a French film), video games, and a live-action Korean TV drama. It also had a spin-off manga, "Angel Heart", which in turn spawned its own anime television series and a live-action Japanese TV drama. | Une adaptation en série télévisée d'animation de 140 épisodes, intitulée "Nicky Larson" en France, a été diffusée entre avril 1987 et octobre 1991. | [
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Botany | Botanique | Botany, also called plant science(s), plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field. The term "botany" comes from the Ancient Greek word ("botanē") meaning "pasture", "grass", or "fodder"; is in turn derived from ("boskein"), "to feed" or "to graze". Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress. Nowadays, botanists (in the strict sense) study approximately 410,000 species of land plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants (including approximately 369,000 species of flowering plants), and approximately 20,000 are bryophytes. | La botanique, nommée auparavant phytologie, est la science consacrée à l'étude des végétaux (du grec βοτανική ; féminin du mot βοτανικός qui signifie « qui concerne les herbes, les plantes »). Elle présente plusieurs facettes qui la rattachent aux autres sciences du vivant. La botanique générale recouvre la taxinomie (description des caractères diagnostiques et différentiels), la systématique (dénombrement et classification des taxons dans un certain ordre), la morphologie végétale (décrivant les organes ou parties des végétaux), l'histologie végétale, la physiologie végétale, la biogéographie végétale et la pathologie végétale. Certaines disciplines, comme la dendrologie, sont spécialisées sur un sous-ensemble des végétaux. La connaissance fine des végétaux trouve des applications dans les domaines de la pharmacologie, de la sélection et de l'amélioration des plantes cultivées, en agriculture, en horticulture, et en sylviculture. | [
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Cat's Eye (manga) | Cat's Eye | The manga was made into a televised anime series originally broadcast in 1983 to 1984 on Nippon TV, with a second season ending in 1985. It has also received two live-action adaptations; a TV movie in 1988 and a theatrical film in 1997. | Une adaptation en série télévisée d'animation de deux saisons de 36 et 37 épisodes produites par Tokyo Movie Shinsha a été diffusée entre et sur la chaine NTV. En France, elle a été diffusée sous le titre "Signé Cat's Eyes". | [
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] | null | null | null | null | null | null |
Canut | Canut | The canuts () were Lyonnais silk workers, often working on Jacquard looms. They were primarily found in the Croix-Rousse neighbourhood of Lyon in the 19th century. Although the term generally refers to Lyonnais silk workers, silk workers in the nearby commune of l'Arbresle are also called canuts. | Les canuts, prononcé, étaient les ouvriers tisserands de la soie sur les machines à tisser. Les canuts se nomment eux-mêmes. Au sein de la fabrique, ces hommes ou ces femmes sont parmi les plus considérés des ouvriers, ils sont les plus nombreux et gagnent les meilleurs salaires. Ils se trouvaient principalement dans le quartier de la Croix-Rousse à Lyon (France) au. | [
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Angel Heart (manga) | Angel Heart (manga) | The author mentioned in the first "tankōbon" volume that "Angel Heart" shares the same characters as "City Hunter" but is not its continuation. Therefore, the events take place in a parallel universe. | En France, les 33 volumes ont été traduits et publiés aux éditions Génération comics. La deuxième saison est publiée depuis. | [
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Magic Knight Rayearth | Magic Knight Rayearth | "Rayearth" combines elements from the magical girl and mecha anime genres with parallel world fantasy. The manga was adapted into two anime series in 1994 and an original video animation (OVA) in 1997. | Le manga a été adapté en un anime entre le et le pour un total de 49 épisodes. Une OAV de 3 épisodes, sobrement appelé Rayearth, a également vu le jour en 1997. | [
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Angelic Layer | Angelic Layer | The manga was adapted into a 26-episode anime series produced by Bones titled which aired on TV Tokyo from April 1, 2001 – September 23, 2001. Seven volumes of videos were released by ADV Films on VHS and DVD in 2003. It was re-released in 2005 as a five volume box set. North American publisher Dark Horse Comics re-releases "Angelic Layer" in omnibus format in 2011. Sentai Filmworks will re-release the series under their Sentai Selects label on November 24, 2015. Anime Limited announced they would release the series in the UK in 2018. | L’œuvre est adaptée en une série télévisée animée de 26 épisodes par le Studio Bones et diffusé sous le titre "". En France, la série est disponible chez Kazé. | [
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Chobits | Chobits | "Chobits" was adapted as a 26-episode-long anime television series broadcast on TBS from April to September 2002. In addition, it has spawned two video games as well as various merchandise such as figurines, collectable cards, calendars, and artbooks. | En 2002, le manga a été adapté en anime de 26 épisodes par le studio Madhouse. Lors de la sortie en DVD, un ainsi qu'une OAV de six minutes nommée "Chibits" ont été réalisés. | [
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Venice | Venise | Venice (; ; or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is situated on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 bridges. The islands are located in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay that lies between the mouths of the Po and the Piave rivers (more exactly between the Brenta and the Sile). In 2018, 260,897 people resided in the Comune di Venezia, of whom around 55,000 live in the historical city of Venice ("centro storico"). Together with Padua and Treviso, the city is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area (PATREVE), which is considered a statistical metropolitan area, with a total population of 2.6 million. | Venise ( /veˈnɛtʦja/ ; /veˈnɛˑsja/) est une ville côtière du nord-est de l'Italie, sur les rives de la mer Adriatique. Elle s'étend sur un ensemble de îles séparées par un réseau de canaux et reliées par 435 ponts. Située au milieu de la lagune vénète, entre les estuaires du Pô et du Piave, Venise est renommée pour cet emplacement exceptionnel ainsi que pour son architecture et son patrimoine culturel, qui lui valent une inscription au patrimoine mondial de l'UNESCO. | [
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Cardcaptor Sakura | Cardcaptor Sakura | The series was adapted into a 70-episode anime television series by Madhouse that aired on Japan's satellite television channel NHK BS2 from April 1998 to March 2000. Additional media include two anime films, video games, art books, picture books, and film comics. Tokyopop released the manga in English in North America from March 2000 to August 2003. After Tokyopop's license expired, Dark Horse Manga released the series in omnibus editions from October 2010 to September 2012.</onlyinclude> The anime was dubbed in English by Hong Kong's Omni Productions, and was aired in Southeast Asia and South Asia on the Animax Asia channel. | , également connu sous le titre de Sakura, chasseuse de cartes dans la série télévisée ou abrégé en CCS, est un manga du groupe de dessinatrices CLAMP. Il est prépublié entre 1996 et 2000 dans le magazine "Nakayoshi", et compilé en douze volumes reliés par Kōdansha. La version française est publiée par Pika Édition. La série est bien connue pour son accent très shōjo, la plupart des pages étant décorées de fleurs, de bulles, ou de scintillements autour des personnages principaux. Elle a remporté le prix Seiun du meilleur manga en 2001. | [
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Category theory | Théorie des catégories | Category theory formalizes mathematical structure and its concepts in terms of a labeled directed graph called a "category", whose nodes are called "objects", and whose labelled directed edges are called "arrows" (or morphisms). A category has two basic properties: the ability to compose the arrows associatively, and the existence of an identity arrow for each object. The language of category theory has been used to formalize concepts of other high-level abstractions such as sets, rings, and groups. Informally, category theory is a general theory of functions. | La théorie des catégories étudie les structures mathématiques et leurs relations. L'étude des catégories, très abstraite, fut motivée par l'abondance de caractéristiques communes à diverses classes liées à des structures mathématiques. Les catégories sont utilisées dans la plupart des branches mathématiques et dans certains secteurs de l'informatique théorique et en mathématiques de la physique. Elles forment une notion unificatrice. | [
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Ceres, Celestial Legend | Ayashi no Ceres | Ceres, Celestial Legend, known in Japan as, is a fantasy shōjo manga series written by Yuu Watase. It was originally serialized in "Shōjo Comic" from May 1996 through March 2000 and later reprinted by Shogakukan in fourteen collected volumes. | En 1998, le manga est récompensé par le prix Shōgakukan dans la catégorie Shōjo. Une adaptation en série télévisée d'animation produite par le studio Pierrot a été diffusée entre avril et septembre 2000 sur WOWOW. | [
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Angel Sanctuary | Angel Sanctuary | Viz Media published an English-language translation in North America from February 2004 to June 2007. "Angel Sanctuary" was also adapted into a series of drama CDs, published from December 1999 to September 2001, and a three-episode original video animation (OVA) by Bandai Visual and Hal Film Maker published in 2000; Yuki assisted on various aspects of both adaptations. "Angel Sanctuary" was critically and commercially well-received by English-language readers and critics, with Yuki's art and narrative highlighted as its strengths. The OVA received more mixed reviews from critics, who were generally divided on whether they enjoyed it as an introduction to the events of the manga or found its content objectionable due to the sibling incest. | Le premier arc du manga ("Assiah") a été adapté en anime sous forme de trois OAV. De genre fantastique et inspiré des mythologies judéo-chrétiennes dans le cadre d'un Japon contemporain de la publication, la série graphique traite de l'amour, de la violence, de la folie et de la morale, en particulier de l'inceste, ainsi que de la nature de Dieu et d'autres questions philosophiques. | [
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Bastard!! | Bastard!! | Kazushi Hagiwara is an enthusiastic fan of heavy metal music and "Dungeons & Dragons", using ideas from both of these in the "Bastard!!" story. Many characters and places in the story, for instance, are named after members of Hagiwara's favorite bands. | Une adaptation en "anime" composée de six épisodes OAV a été réalisée en 1992 par le studio AIC. En 2008, le manga s'est écoulé à plus de 30 millions d'exemplaires. | [
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Rurouni Kenshin | Kenshin le vagabond | , also known sometimes as Samurai X in the TV show, is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Nobuhiro Watsuki. The story begins during the 11th year of the Meiji period in Japan (1878) and follows a former assassin from the Bakumatsu, known as Hitokiri Battosai. After his work against the bakufu, Hitokiri Battosai disappears to become Himura Kenshin: a wandering swordsman who protects the people of Japan with a vow never to take another life. Watsuki wrote the series upon his desire to make a "shōnen manga" different from the other ones that were published at the time, with Kenshin being a former assassin and the story taking a more serious tone as it continued. The manga revolves around themes of atonement, peace, and romance. | Il est adapté en une série télévisée d'animation de 95 épisodes ainsi qu'en film d'animation. Les 62 premiers épisodes reprennent les 18 premiers tomes alors que les épisodes 63 à 95 sont des épisodes totalement différents du manga. De plus, une série de quatre OAV raconte le passé de Kenshin, et explique notamment la balafre en forme de croix présente sur sa joue. Une deuxième série conclut cette adaptation. Ces OAV diffèrent, par leur noirceur, du manga original. La série, les OAV ainsi que le film d'animation sont disponibles en version française chez Dybex. Un film live est également sorti en. | [
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Basara (manga) | Basara | The manga was serialized in Shogakukan's "Bessatsu Shōjo Comic" magazine from September 1990 to June 1998. Shogakukan collected the individual chapters into 27 bound volumes under the Flower Comics imprint from March 1991 to March 2000. The manga won the 38th Shogakukan Manga Award in the "shōjo" (girls) category in 1993. Viz Media licensed the manga for an English-language release in North America; they published 27 volumes from August 2003 to May 2008. | Le manga, sous sa version reliée en 27 volumes, est publié en français aux éditions Kana entre 2001 et 2006 (il s'agit historiquement du premier shôjo publié par l'éditeur), et en anglais par VIZ Media entre 2003 et 2008. | [
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Fist of the North Star | Ken le Survivant | "Fist of the North Star" was adapted into two anime television series produced by Toei Animation, which together aired on Fuji TV and its affiliates from 1984 through 1988, comprising a combined total of 152 episodes. It has since expanded into a media franchise, including several anime films, a live-action film, OVAs, video games, and a series of spin-offs centering on other characters from the original story. It also has a number of video games and pachinko machines produced by Sega Sammy. As of 2018, "Fist of the North Star" is one of the top twenty highest-grossing media franchises of all time, estimated to have generated more than in total franchise revenue. | Ken le Survivant, aussi connu sous le titre original, est un manga de type shōnen dessiné par Tetsuo Hara et écrit par le scénariste japonais Buronson, prépublié à l'origine entre 1983 et 1988 dans le magazine "Weekly Shōnen Jump" de l'éditeur Shueisha. | [
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Yu-Gi-Oh! | Yu-Gi-Oh! | Two anime adaptations were produced; one by Toei Animation, which aired from April 4, 1998 to October 10, 1998, and another produced by NAS and animated by Studio Gallop titled "Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters", which aired between April 2000 and September 2004. The manga series has spawned a media franchise that includes multiple spin-off manga and anime series, a trading card game, and numerous video games. Most of the incarnations of the franchise involve the fictional trading card game known as "Duel Monsters", where each player uses cards to "duel" each other in a mock battle of fantasy "monsters". This forms the basis for the real life "Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game". As of 2018, "Yu-Gi-Oh" is one of the highest-grossing media franchises of all time. | Le manga a été adapté en deux séries d'animation, la première par Toei Animation entre avril et et la seconde par Gallop entre et. Deux films d'animation sont sortis respectivement en 1999 et 2004. Pour célébrer les 20 ans du manga, une série d'animation est diffusée à partir de 2015 et un film est sorti en. | [
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3×3 Eyes | 3×3 Eyes | 3×3 Eyes, pronounced, in Japanese, is a manga written and illustrated by Yuzo Takada. The manga was serialized in "Weekly Young Magazine" from 1987 to 2002, spanning to a total of 40 volumes. In 1993, it won the Kodansha Manga Award for shōnen. The English language translation was published by Dark Horse Comics, but was discontinued after the release of volume 9 in 2005. | La série a été adaptée en anime sous forme de deux séries d'OAVs. De nombreux produits dérivés ont également vu le jour. | [
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Devanagari | Devanagari | Devanagari ( ;,, Sanskrit pronunciation: ), also called Nagari ("Nāgarī", ), is a left-to-right abugida (alphasyllabary), based on the ancient "Brāhmī" script, used in the Indian subcontinent. It was developed in ancient India from the 1st to the 4th century CE and was in regular use by the 7th century CE. The Devanagari script, composed of 47 primary characters including 14 vowels and 33 consonants, is the fourth most widely adopted writing system in the world, being used for over 120 languages. The ancient Nagari script for Sanskrit had two additional consonantal characters. | La devanagari, du sanskrit, est une écriture alphasyllabaire utilisée pour le sanskrit, le prâkrit, le hindi, le népalais, le marathi et plusieurs autres langues indiennes. C’est une des écritures les plus employées en Inde du Nord et au Népal. | [
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Duklyon: Clamp School Defenders | Dukalyon | The story features two teenagers on Clamp Campus, Kentarou Higashikunimaru and Takeshi Shukaido, who are called upon occasion to become monster-battling superheroes while wearing armored outfits in this comic parody of typical superhero action based manga for boys. They are ordered about by Eri Chusonji, their team leader and informant who has a violent tendency to strike the heads of her subordinates with a mallet. Additional humor results from the story's primary villain falling madly in love with Eri. | Ce manga est une parodie des "sentai" japonais, contenant de nombreuses références à des séries télévisées. Il s’agit d'un des rares mangas entièrement comiques des CLAMP, leur première expérience dans ce genre. | [
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The One I Love (manga) | Celui que j'aime | In 2003, Tokyopop licensed "The One I Love" for an English-language translation in North America, and published it in October 2004. Viz Media republished the manga in February 2015. The manga has also been translated into other languages. Reviewers have identified a few themes in the collection. They had a range of reactions to "The One I Love": some considered it heartfelt entertainment, while others reviewed it less positively, as a badly done take on romance. | Celui que j'aime (わたしのすきなひと, "Watashi no sukina hito") est un manga du studio CLAMP, dessiné par Mick Nekoi sur un scénario de Nanase Ohkawa, qui ne se présente pas sous la forme habituelle d'une série, mais plutôt sous celle d'un recueil de nouvelles très courtes, agrémentées de récits personnels des membres du studio, compilées en un seul volume. En France, c'est Tonkam qui a récupéré les droits de ce manga, même si celui-ci est actuellement en rupture de stock chez l'éditeur. | [
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] | null | null | null | null | null | null |
Love Hina | Love Hina | A twenty-four episode anime adaptation of the manga series, produced by Xebec, aired in Japan from April 19, 2000, to September 27, 2000. It was followed by a bonus DVD episode, Christmas and Spring television specials, and a three episode original video animation (OVA) entitled "Love Hina Again". The anime series, special, and OVA were licensed for release in North America by Bandai Entertainment. In July 2007, the license was acquired by Funimation, who released a boxset of the television series in February 2009. The series is also licensed in Australia by Madman Entertainment and in the United Kingdom by MVM Films.</onlyinclude> | Deux versions romancées de "Love Hina", écrites par deux scénaristes, ont été réalisées au Japon par Kōdansha. La première,, écrite par Sho Aikawa sous le pseudonyme "Kuro Hazuki", a été publiée le. La deuxième,, a été écrite par Hiroyuki Kawasaki et publiée le par le même éditeur. | [
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Butsu Zone | Butsu Zone | The series highlights the adventures of Senju (the Thousand-Hand Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva) who has to find and protect Sachi, an incarnation of the Buddha Miroku (Maitreya Bodhisattva). Miroku is said to appear on Earth at a time when the Dharma is no longer taught and is completely forgotten, achieve complete enlightenment and then re-teach the pure dharma, becoming a successor of Śākyamuni Buddha, the founder of Buddhism. It is thus Senju's job to aid Miroku (Sachi) in achieving enlightenment, enabling her to achieve Buddha. | En 2003, le premier album drama est sorti, le chapitre de l'éveil (覚醒の章, kakusei no sho). Deux autres albums furent publiés dans le courant de l'année 2004, le chapitre d'épreuve (試練の章, shiren no sho) et le chapitre d'éternité (悠久の章, yukyu no Sho). Les personnages de Butsu Zone font aussi une courte apparition dans un épisode spécial qu'on retrouve sur le DVD du deuxième S.F.O.V (Shaman Fight Of Vocal). | [
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Akira Toriyama | Akira Toriyama | He earned the 1981 Shogakukan Manga Award for best "shōnen" or "shōjo" manga with "Dr. Slump", and it went on to sell over 35 million copies in Japan. It was adapted into a successful anime series, with a second anime created in 1997, 13 years after the manga ended. His next series, "Dragon Ball", would become one of the most popular and successful manga in the world. Having sold 250–300 million copies worldwide, it is the second best-selling manga of all time and is considered to be one of the main reasons for the period when manga circulation was at its highest in the mid-1980s and mid-1990s. Overseas, "Dragon Ball"s anime adaptations have been more successful than the manga and are credited with boosting anime's popularity in the Western world. In 2019, Toriyama was decorated a "Chevalier" of the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres for his contributions to the arts. | Son œuvre la plus célèbre, "Dragon Ball", connait un très grand succès mondial. En 2007, les Japonais le classent troisième « meilleur manga de tous les temps » à l'occasion du dixième anniversaire du Japan Media Arts Festival, derrière "Slam Dunk" et "JoJo's Bizarre Adventure". | [
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Black Jack (manga) | Black Jack (manga) | "Black Jack" consists of hundreds of short, self-contained stories that are typically about 20 pages long. Black Jack has also been animated into an OVA, two television series (directed by Tezuka's son Makoto Tezuka) and two films. "Black Jack" is Tezuka's third most famous manga, after "Astro Boy" and "Kimba the White Lion". In 1977, it won the 1st Kodansha Manga Award for shōnen. About.com's Deb Aoki lists "Black Jack" as the best "re-issue of previously released material" of 2008. Osamu Dezaki's anime film adaptation, "Black Jack The Movie", won Best Animation Film at the 1996 Mainichi Film Awards. | Publié en français aux éditions Glénat, sa publication a été interrompue, puis reprise par les éditions Asuka dans une collection comptant dix-sept volumes. Kazé a entrepris l'édition intégrale du manga en version Deluxe. | [
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Maurice Pialat | Maurice Pialat | Maurice Pialat (; 31 August 1925 – 11 January 2003) was a French film director, screenwriter and actor noted for the rigorous and unsentimental style of his films. His work is often described as "realist", though many film critics acknowledge it does not fit the traditional definition of realism. | Maurice Pialat, né le à Cunlhat (Puy-de-Dôme) et mort le à Paris, est un réalisateur de cinéma et peintre français. | [
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Lanfeust of Troy | Lanfeust de Troy | Lanfeust of Troy is a long-running French language comic series written by Christophe Arleston, drawn by Didier Tarquin, and published by Soleil Productions. | Lanfeust de Troy est une série de bandes dessinées écrite par Christophe Arleston et dessinée par Didier Tarquin. Elle est publiée chez Soleil Productions entre 1994 et 2000. C'est l'un des plus gros succès français du genre heroic fantasy, et elle a grandement contribué à construire la notoriété de la maison d'édition Soleil créée par Mourad Boudjellal. | [
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Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water | Nadia, le secret de l'eau bleue | The series follows a young inventor named Jean and a former circus performer named Nadia, who wishes to return to her home in Africa. | Partant d'une idée de Hayao Miyazaki, l'histoire est une adaptation très libre du roman "Vingt Mille Lieues sous les mers" de Jules Verne, dont elle reprend de nombreux éléments et personnages. Toutefois, le projet de Miyazaki ne se concrétise pas et c'est sous l'impulsion de la NHK et de Tōhō que la série est commandée au studio Gainax. La réalisation est confiée au jeune Hideaki Anno. Toujours inspiré par "Vingt Mille Lieues sous les mers" et, dans une moindre mesure, d'autres œuvres de Jules Verne, il s'agit d'une série d'aventure et de science-fiction où la technologie et ses dérives sont dominantes. Le récit est centré à la manière d'un récit initiatique sur les personnages de Nadia, une adolescente en quête de son identité, et de Jean, un jeune surdoué passionné de science. | [
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Hunter × Hunter | Hunter × Hunter | In 1999, "Hunter × Hunter" was adapted into a 62-episode anime television series produced by Nippon Animation and directed by Kazuhiro Furuhashi. The show premiered on Japan's Fuji TV and ran until 2001. Three separate original video animations (OVAs) totaling 30 episodes were subsequently produced by Nippon Animation and released in Japan from 2002 to 2004. A second anime television series by Madhouse aired on Nippon Television from October 2011 to September 2014 totaling 148 episodes, with two animated theatrical films released in 2013. There are also numerous audio albums, video games, musicals, and other media based on "Hunter × Hunter". The manga has been translated into English and released in North America by Viz Media since April 2005. Both television series were also licensed by Viz, with the first series having aired on the Funimation Channel in 2009 and the second series premiering on Adult Swim's Toonami block on April 16, 2016. | La série a fait l'objet de deux adaptations en anime. La première a été réalisée entre 1999 et 2001, suivie de trois séries d'OAV en 2002, 2003 et 2004. Elle a été éditée en français par Dybex. La seconde, reprenant l'histoire depuis le début, a été diffusée entre et. La licence pour les principaux pays francophones a été acquise par Kana Home Video pour une sortie en DVD. | [
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Dragon Ball | Dragon Ball | Toriyama's manga was adapted and divided into two anime series produced by Toei Animation: "Dragon Ball" and "Dragon Ball Z", which together were broadcast in Japan from 1986 to 1996. Additionally, the studio has developed 20 animated feature films and three television specials, as well as two anime sequel series titled "Dragon Ball GT" (1996–1997) and "Dragon Ball Super" (2015–2018). From 2009 to 2015, a revised version of "Dragon Ball Z" aired in Japan under the title "Dragon Ball Kai", as a recut that follows the manga's story more faithfully by removing most of the material featured exclusively in the anime. Several companies have developed various types of merchandising based on the series leading to a large media franchise that includes films, both animated and live-action, collectible trading card games, numerous action figures, along with several collections of soundtracks and numerous video games. "Dragon Ball" is one of the top twenty highest-grossing media franchises of all time, having generated an estimated in total franchise revenue. | C'est chronologiquement la quatorzième histoire d'Akira Toriyama. L'action se déroule dans un univers imaginaire ayant des ressemblances avec la Terre, The World, dans lequel se situent d'autres œuvres du même "mangaka". Ainsi, l'auteur intègre parfois des personnages appartenant à une histoire différente, en signe de connivence avec le lecteur. "Dragon Ball" raconte le parcours de Son Goku, depuis l'enfance jusqu'à l'âge adulte. Accompagné de nombreux personnages, il cherche à plusieurs reprises les sept Dragon Balls. Il s'agit de boules de cristal magiques qui permettent, si elles sont réunies, de faire apparaître le dragon Shenron, capable d'exaucer le souhait que quiconque prononce face à lui, grâce à une formule spécifique. Tout au long de sa vie, Son Goku est amené à combattre des adversaires de plus en plus forts, dont certains deviennent des alliés. | [
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Shaman King | Shaman King | An anime television series was co-produced by TV Tokyo, NAS, and Xebec, and aired for 64 episodes on Japan's TV Tokyo network from July 2001 to September 2002. In June 2020, it was announced that a reboot anime television adaptation of "Shaman King" will premiere in April 2021. The manga has also been reprinted in a "kanzenban" edition, and has spawned video games, a trading card game, and many types of "Shaman King"-related merchandise. | En 2001, le manga a été adapté en série télévisée d'animation de soixante-quatre épisodes réalisé par Seiji Mizushima et diffusé sur la chaîne japonaise TV Tokyo. La version occidentale de l'anime a été modifiée par 4kids et comporte des censures (changements de dialogues, modification de la bande-son originale, retouches d'images, etc). Trois coffrets DVD de cette version sont édités par Déclic Images en France. | [
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Inuyasha | Inu-Yasha | , also known as, is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Rumiko Takahashi. The series begins with Kagome Higurashi, a 15-year-old schoolgirl from modern-day Tokyo who is transported to the Sengoku period of Japan after falling into a well in her family shrine, where she meets the half dog-demon, Inuyasha. When a monster from the era tries to take the magical Shikon Jewel embodied in Kagome, she inadvertently shatters the Jewel into many pieces and are scattered across Japan. Inuyasha and Kagome set on a quest to recover the jewel, before the half spider-demon lord Naraku binds it. | Entre et, un anime tiré du manga a été diffusé au Japon, il compte 167 épisodes de 25 minutes. En France, l’anime est diffusé depuis sur la chaîne NT1. Quatre films d’animation sont également sortis au Japon. Une suite de 26 épisodes, intitulée, a été diffusée au Japon entre et, sur la chaîne Yomiuri TV. Cette adaptation couvre le manga à partir du volume 36 jusqu'à sa fin. | [
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Tom Clancy | Tom Clancy | Thomas Leo Clancy Jr. (April 12, 1947 – October 1, 2013) was an American novelist best known for his technically detailed espionage and military-science storylines set during and after the Cold War. Seventeen of his novels were bestsellers, and more than 100 million copies of his books were sold. His name was also used on movie scripts written by ghostwriters, nonfiction books on military subjects occasionally with co-authors, and video games. He was a part-owner of his hometown Major League Baseball team, the Baltimore Orioles of the American League and vice-chairman of their community activities and public affairs committees. | Thomas Leo Clancy, dit Tom Clancy, né le à Baltimore (Maryland), où il meurt le, est un romancier américain. Ses romans d'espionnage, du genre "techno-thriller" ou "thriller politique", sont technologiquement très documentés et tournent autour du milieu du renseignement américain, plus précisément la CIA sur fond de guerre froide ou de terrorisme. Certains de ses romans connaissent des adaptations au cinéma, notamment "À la poursuite d'Octobre rouge" ou "La Somme de toutes les peurs". | [
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] | null | null | null | null | null | null |
Homosexuality and religion | Homosexualité dans les religions | The relationship between religion and homosexuality has varied greatly across time and place, within and between different religions and denominations, with regard to different forms of homosexuality and bisexuality. Generally speaking as well as by denomination, the present-day doctrines of the world's major religions vary vastly in their attitudes toward these sexual orientations. | Le regard des religions sur lhomosexualité varie en fonction de la dénomination religieuse et des époques. Historiquement, plusieurs religions portent un regard négatif sur l'homosexualité, voire la condamnent. C'est généralement le cas de l'islam, du christianisme et du judaïsme. Les personnes homosexuelles ont subi et subissent encore des discriminations voire des persécutions de la part d'autorités religieuses ou sous des motifs religieux. | [
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Secularism | Laïcité | Secularism may refer to any worldview or principle which defines the secular at a given context, and prioritizes, justifies or promotes it over the non-secular. | En droit, la laïcité est le « principe de séparation dans l'État de la société civile et de la société religieuse » et « d'impartialité ou de neutralité de l'État à l'égard des confessions religieuses ». Le mot désigne par extension le caractère des « institutions, publiques ou privées, qui sont indépendantes du clergé et des Églises ». | [
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Order of Agricultural Merit | Ordre du Mérite agricole | The Order of Agricultural Merit () is an order of merit bestowed by the French Republic for outstanding contributions to agriculture. When it was created in 1883, it was second in importance only to the Legion of Honour within the French order of precedence. | L’ordre du Mérite agricole est un ordre honorifique français institué le par le ministre de l'Agriculture, Jules Méline, pour récompenser les services rendus à l'agriculture. | [
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Georges Valois | Georges Valois | Georges Valois (real name "Alfred-Georges Gressent"; 7 October 1878 – February 1945) was a French journalist and politician, born in Paris. He was a member of the French resistance and died in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. | Georges Valois, de son vrai nom Alfred-Georges Gressent (1878-1945), était un homme politique français. Recherchant une nouvelle forme d'organisation économique et sociale ainsi que la synthèse du national et du social, il a oscillé entre les radicalités de gauche et de droite. | [
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Traboule | Traboule | Traboules (from Latin "transambulare" via vulgar Latin "trabulare" meaning "to cross") are a type of passageway primarily associated with the city of Lyon, France, but also located in the French cities of Villefranche-sur-Saône, Mâcon, Saint-Étienne, along with a few in Chambéry). In Lyon, they were originally used by silk manufacturers and other merchants to transport their products. | Les traboules sont des passages piétons à travers des cours d'immeuble qui permettent de se rendre d'une rue à une autre dans certaines villes françaises. Les plus connues sont à Lyon. Mais elles se trouvent aussi à Villefranche-sur-Saône, Mâcon, Chambéry, Saint-Étienne, Louhans, Chalon-sur-Saône, Grenoble, Schiltigheim, Vienne, Tournus ou encore Lavoûte-Chilhac. Celles de Lyon sont aussi surnommées « Les Rémoulades ». | [
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Sequence | Suite (mathématiques) | In mathematics, a sequence is an enumerated collection of objects in which repetitions are allowed and order does matter. Like a set, it contains members (also called "elements", or "terms"). The number of elements (possibly infinite) is called the "length" of the sequence. Unlike a set, the same elements can appear multiple times at different positions in a sequence, and order does matter. Formally, a sequence can be defined as a function whose domain is either the set of the natural numbers (for infinite sequences) or the set of the first "n" natural numbers (for a sequence of finite length "n"). | En mathématiques, une suite est une famille d'éléments — appelés ses « termes » — indexée par les entiers naturels. Une suite finie est une famille indexée par les entiers strictement positifs inférieurs ou égaux à un certain entier, ce dernier étant appelé « longueur » de la suite. | [
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Antisemitism | Antisémitisme | Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is hostility to, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism is generally considered to be a form of racism. | L’antisémitisme est le nom donné de nos jours à la discrimination et à l'hostilité manifestées à l'encontre des Juifs en tant que groupe ethnique, religieux ou supposément racial. Étymologiquement, ce terme pourrait s'appliquer aux peuples sémites parlant l’une des langues sémitiques (comme l'arabe ou l'amharique) mais il désigne, dès sa formulation vers la fin du, une forme de racisme à prétentions scientifiques et visant spécifiquement les Juifs. | [
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AD 1000 | 1000 | Year 1000 (M) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. In the proleptic Gregorian calendar, it was a non-leap century year starting on Wednesday (like 1800). It was also the last year of the 10th century as well as the last year of the 1st millennium of the Dionysian era ending on December 31st, but the first year of the 1000s decade. | Cette année est également appelée l’an mille, ou encore l"'an mil". C'est une année commençant par un lundi. Il s'agit de la dernière année du et du. | [
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Prestige oil spill | Naufrage du pétrolier Prestige | The Prestige oil spill occurred off the coast of Galicia, Spain, caused by the sinking of the 26 year old structurally deficient oil tanker in November 2002, carrying 77,000 tonnes of heavy fuel oil. During a storm, it burst a tank on November 13, and French, Spanish, and Portuguese governments refused to allow the ship to dock. The vessel subsequently sank on November 19, 2002, about from the coast of Galicia. It is estimated that it spilled (or a mass of 60,000 metric tonnes) of heavy fuel oil. The spill polluted thousands of kilometers of coastline and more than one thousand beaches on the Spanish, French and Portuguese coast, as well as causing great harm to the local fishing industry. The spill is the largest environmental disaster in the history of both Spain and Portugal. The amount of oil spilled was more than the "Exxon Valdez" incident and the toxicity considered higher, because of the higher water temperatures. | Le, le Prestige, un pétrolier, construit par Hitachi Shipbuilding & Engineering au Japon en 1976, immatriculé à Nassau (Bahamas), en transit entre la Lettonie et Gibraltar, au large du cap Finisterre et près des côtes de Galice au nord-ouest de l'Espagne, lance un appel de détresse. Durant la tempête s'ouvre une brèche de dans son flanc droit dont la cause reste inconnue ; les témoignages des marins font supposer la collision avec un conteneur, un objet flottant ou une vague déferlante. L'équipage est évacué le. Le, alors que plus de de fioul se sont déjà répandues (polluant ainsi le littoral sur plusieurs dizaines de kilomètres), le gouvernement espagnol fait remorquer le pétrolier loin au large. Après plusieurs tentatives de remorquage vers le nord-ouest (pour l'éloigner des côtes) puis vers le sud (peut-être pour l'envoyer vers le Portugal), le, le navire se brise en deux à des côtes de la Galice et coule par mètres de fond. Pendant les opérations de remorquage, il a perdu de 5 000 à de fioul lourd (sa cargaison est de de fioul lourd). Le navire ayant de nombreuses fissures, le fioul continue de s'échapper, les estimations parlant de par jour au bout de. | [
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Racialism | Racialisme | Racialism is the belief that the human species is naturally divided into races, which are ostensibly distinct biological categories. Many dictionaries define the term "racialism" as synonymous with racism. | Le racialisme est un courant de pensée distinct du racisme, apparu en Europe au milieu du, qui prétend expliquer les phénomènes sociaux par des facteurs héréditaires et raciaux. Ce courant, lié à la théorie des races qui émerge au, culminerait avec les travaux de Arthur de Gobineau, de Gustave Le Bon et Georges Vacher de Lapouge. | [
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Trésor de la langue française informatisé | Trésor de la langue française informatisé | The Trésor de la langue française informatisé or TLFi ("Digitized Treasury of the French Language") is a digital version of the "Trésor de la langue française" or TLF ("Treasury of the French Language"), a 16-volume dictionary of the French language of the 19th and 20th centuries, which was published between 1971 and 1994. It is freely available via a web interface. It was previously sold as a CD-ROM for Mac and Windows. | Le Trésor de la langue française informatisé, couramment abrégé sous le sigle TLFi, est la version informatisée du "Trésor de la langue française" (TLF), qui est un dictionnaire de la langue française des, imprimé en seize volumes, paru entre 1971 et 1994. Il est disponible en accès gratuit depuis 2002 sur le web et fut publié en CD-ROM en 2004. | [
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Round Table | Table ronde | The Round Table (,, ) is King Arthur's famed table in the Arthurian legend, around which he and his knights congregate. As its name suggests, it has no head, implying that everyone who sits there has equal status. The table was first described in 1155 by Wace, who relied on previous depictions of Arthur's fabulous retinue. The symbolism of the Round Table developed over time; by the close of the 12th century it had come to represent the chivalric order associated with Arthur's court, the Knights of the Round Table. | La Table ronde est, dans la légende arthurienne de la matière de Bretagne, la table légendaire autour de laquelle se réunissaient le roi Arthur et ses chevaliers, dits « chevaliers de la Table ronde ». | [
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Yvain, the Knight of the Lion | Yvain ou le Chevalier au lion | Yvain, the Knight of the Lion () is an Arthurian romance by French poet Chrétien de Troyes. It was written c. 1180 simultaneously with "Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart", and includes several references to the narrative of that poem. It is a story of knight-errantry, in which the protagonist Yvain is first rejected by his lady for breaking a very important promise, and subsequently performs a number of heroic deeds in order to regain her favor. The poem has been adapted into several other medieval works, including "Iwein" and "Owain, or the Lady of the Fountain". | Yvain, le Chevalier au lion est un roman de chevalerie de Chrétien de Troyes. « Le Chevalier au lion » est l'autre nom de messire Yvain dans les romans courtois, ayant trait aux chevaliers de la Table Ronde. | [
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ELIZA | ELIZA | ELIZA is an early natural language processing computer program created from 1964 to 1966 at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory by Joseph Weizenbaum. Created to demonstrate the superficiality of communication between humans and machines, Eliza simulated conversation by using a "pattern matching" and substitution methodology that gave users an illusion of understanding on the part of the program, but had no built in framework for contextualizing events. Directives on how to interact were provided by "scripts", written originally in MAD-Slip, which allowed ELIZA to process user inputs and engage in discourse following the rules and directions of the script. The most famous script, DOCTOR, simulated a Rogerian psychotherapist (in particular, Carl Rogers, who was well-known for simply parroting back at patients what they'd just said), and used rules, dictated in the script, to respond with non-directional questions to user inputs. As such, ELIZA was one of the first chatterbots and one of the first programs capable of attempting the Turing test. | En intelligence artificielle, ELIZA est un programme informatique écrit par Joseph Weizenbaum entre 1964 et 1966, qui simule un psychothérapeute rogérien en reformulant la plupart des affirmations du « patient » en questions, et en les lui posant. | [
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César Awards | César du cinéma | The César Awards is the national film award of France. It is delivered in the "" ceremony and was first awarded in 1976. The nominations are selected by the members of twelve categories of filmmaking professionals and supported by the French Ministry of Culture. The nationally televised award ceremony is held in Paris each year in February. The exact location has changed over the years (in the Théâtre du Châtelet from 2002 to 2016). It is an initiative from the Académie des Arts et Techniques du Cinéma which was founded in 1975. | Les César du cinéma sont des récompenses cinématographiques créées en 1976 et remises annuellement à Paris par l'Académie des arts et techniques du cinéma, à des professionnels du art dans diverses catégories pour saluer les meilleures productions françaises. | [
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Oil spill | Marée noire | An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land. Oil spills may be due to releases of crude oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products (such as gasoline, diesel) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil. | Une marée noire, expression inventée à l'occasion du naufrage du Torrey Canyon par un journaliste du "Télégramme de Brest", est une catastrophe industrielle et écologique se traduisant par l'écoulement en zone côtière d'une nappe d'hydrocarbures. Cette nappe, qui résulte du déversement volontaire ou accidentel d'une quantité importante de pétrole brut ou de produits pétroliers lourds à la mer, est ensuite ramenée vers la côte par l'effet des marées, des vents ou de courants. | [
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Médaille militaire | Médaille militaire | The Médaille militaire () is a military decoration of the French Republic for other ranks for meritorious service and acts of bravery in action against an enemy force. It is the third highest award of the French Republic, after the Légion d'honneur, a civil and military order, and the ordre de la Libération, a Second World War-only order. The "Médaille militaire" is therefore the most senior entirely military active French decoration. | La médaille militaire est une décoration militaire française, instituée le par Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte destinée aux soldats et aux sous-officiers. Elle est parfois appelée "Légion d’honneur du sous-officier", "Médaille des braves" ou "bijou de la nation". | [
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Enclosure | Enclosure | Enclosure (sometimes inclosure) was the legal process in England of consolidating (enclosing) small landholdings into larger farms since the 13th century. Once enclosed, use of the land became restricted and available only to the owner, and it ceased to be common land for communal use. In England and Wales the term is also used for the process that ended the ancient system of arable farming in open fields. Under enclosure, such land is fenced ("enclosed") and "deeded" or "entitled" to one or more owners. The process of enclosure began to be a widespread feature of the English agricultural landscape during the 16th century. By the 19th century, had become largely restricted to rough pasture in mountainous areas and to relatively small parts of the lowlands. | Ce terme fait souvent référence au mouvement des enclosures, qui s'est développé en Angleterre à partir du et qui s'est intensifié aux débuts de la révolution industrielle. | [
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Shareware | Shareware | Shareware is a type of proprietary software which is initially provided free of charge to users, who are allowed and encouraged to make and share copies of the program. Shareware is often offered as a download from a website or on a compact disc included with a magazine. Shareware differs from freeware, which is software distributed at no cost to the user but without source code being made available; and open-source software, in which the source code is freely available for anyone to inspect and alter. | Un, partagiciel ou contribuciel, est un logiciel qui peut être utilisé gratuitement généralement durant une certaine période. Après cette période d'essai, l'utilisateur doit rétribuer l'auteur s'il veut continuer à utiliser le logiciel. Lorsque les fonctionnalités du shareware sont limitées, on parle aussi de logiciel de démonstration. | [
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Carl Sassenrath | Carl Sassenrath | Carl Sassenrath (born 1957 in California) is an architect of operating systems and computer languages. He brought multitasking to personal computers in 1985 with the creation of the Amiga Computer operating system kernel, and he is the designer of the REBOL computer language, REBOL/IOS collaboration environment, the Safeworlds AltME private messaging system, and other products. Carl is currently a Principal Engineer at Roku, Inc. | Carl Sassenrath, né en 1957 en Californie, est un informaticien américain. Il est le créateur du langage de programmation REBOL en 1996, et fut aussi l'architecte du système d'exploitation AmigaOS. En 1997, il fonde Rebol Technologies. | [
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Volkstum | Ethnisme | The Volkstum (lit. "folkdom" or "folklore", though the meaning is wider than the common usage of folklore) is the entire utterances of a "Volk" or ethnic minority over its lifetime, expressing a ""Volkscharakter"" this unit had in common. It was the defining idea of the Völkisch movement. | La première apparition du mot ethnisme en français est relevée dans Ferdinand de Saussure dans son "Cours de linguistique générale" en 1916. C'est alors l'équivalent français du "Volkstum" (littéralement : « ethnité »), notion qui existe depuis le en Europe centrale et orientale : elle définit la nation comme une communauté linguistique et elle a été l'un des piliers idéologiques du nationalisme romantique et des mouvements unionistes allemand et italien. Dans les années 1950, François Fontan utilise ethnisme pour désigner une théorie politique alors adoptée par une fraction du mouvement occitaniste. | [
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J. R. R. Tolkien | J. R. R. Tolkien | John Ronald Reuel Tolkien (; 3 January 1892 – 2 September 1973) was an English writer, poet, philologist, and academic. He was the author of the high fantasy works "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings". | John Ronald Reuel Tolkien, plus connu sous la forme "', est un écrivain, poète, philologue, essayiste et professeur d’université britannique, né le à Bloemfontein (État libre d'Orange) et mort le 2 septembre 1973 à Bournemouth (Royaume-Uni). Il est principalement connu pour ses romans "Le Hobbit" et "Le Seigneur des anneaux". | [
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Dmitri Mendeleev | Dmitri Mendeleïev | Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (often romanized as Mendeleyev or Mendeleef) ( ;,, ; 8 February 18342 February 1907 ) was a Russian chemist and inventor. He is best remembered for formulating the Periodic Law and creating a farsighted version of the periodic table of elements. He used the Periodic Law not only to correct the then-accepted properties of some known elements, such as the valence and atomic weight of uranium, but also to predict the properties of eight elements that were yet to be discovered. | Dmitri Ivanovitch Mendeleïev (parfois écrit Dimitri, en russe d'époque ; en russe moderne, ), né le à Tobolsk et mort le à Saint-Pétersbourg, est un chimiste russe. | [
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Space Shuttle Columbia | Columbia (navette spatiale) | The Space Shuttle "Columbia" (Orbiter Vehicle Designation: OV-102) was the first space-rated orbiter in NASA's Space Shuttle fleet. It launched for the first time on mission STS-1 on April 12, 1981, the first flight of the Space Shuttle program. Serving for over 22 years, it completed 27 missions before disintegrating during re-entry near the end of its 28th mission, STS-107 on February 1, 2003, resulting in the deaths of all seven crew members. | Columbia ou OV-102 (Orbital Vehicle-102) est la première navette spatiale américaine à avoir été dans l'espace lors de son premier vol le. Elle s'est désintégrée lors de son retour sur Terre le. | [
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List of French monarchs | Liste des monarques de France | The monarchs of the Kingdom of France and its predecessors (and successor monarchies) ruled from the establishment of the Kingdom of the Franks in 486 until the fall of the Second French Empire in 1870, with several interruptions. | La liste des monarques de France réunit les rois et les empereurs qui ont régné sur la France, au travers des différentes constructions politiques, territoriales et dynastiques qui se succédèrent (Mérovingiens, Carolingiens, Capétiens, Valois, Bourbons, Orléans, Bonaparte). Parmi les différents moments de cette royauté française, on distingue l'époque des royaumes francs au haut Moyen Âge, le royaume de France en tant que tel jusqu'à la Révolution française, puis le Premier Empire, la Restauration, la monarchie de Juillet et enfin le Second Empire. Le dernier monarque ayant régné en France est l'empereur, déchu officiellement le, après la défaite de Sedan. Jusqu'alors, la France avait toujours été une monarchie ou un empire, hormis durant deux périodes : la Première République, du au, et la Deuxième République, du au (voir la liste des présidents de la République française). | [
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Louis III of France | Louis III (roi des Francs) | Louis III (863/65 – 5 August 882) was the king of West Francia from 879 until his death in 882. The eldest son of king Louis II and his first wife Ansgarde of Burgundy, he succeeded his father and ruled jointly with his younger brother Carloman II, who became sole ruler after Louis's death. Louis's short reign was marked by military success. | Louis (entre 863 et 865 – ) est roi des Francs de 879 à 882. Il règne sur la Francie occidentale aux côtés de son frère cadet, qui lui survit et règne seul après sa mort. | [
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François Rabelais | François Rabelais | François Rabelais (,, ; born between 1483 and 1494; died 1553) was a French Renaissance writer, physician, Renaissance humanist, monk and Greek scholar. He has historically been regarded as a writer of satire, the grotesque, bawdy jokes, and songs. | François Rabelais (également connu sous le pseudonyme de "Alcofribas Nasier", anagramme de François Rabelais, ou bien encore sous celui de "Séraphin Calobarsy") est un écrivain français humaniste de la Renaissance, né à la Devinière à Seuilly, près de Chinon (dans l’ancienne province de Touraine). | [
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Jean Racine | Jean Racine | Jean Racine (), baptismal name Jean-Baptiste Racine (22 December 163921 April 1699), was a French dramatist, one of the three great playwrights of 17th-century France, along with Molière and Corneille, and an important literary figure in the Western tradition. Racine was primarily a tragedian, producing such "examples of neoclassical perfection" as "Phèdre", "Andromaque", and "Athalie". He did write one comedy, "Les Plaideurs", and a muted tragedy, "Esther" for the young. | Jean Racine (La Ferté-Milon, – Paris, ) est un dramaturge et poète français. Issu d'une famille de petits notables de la Ferté-Milon et tôt orphelin, Racine reçoit auprès des « Solitaires » de Port-Royal une éducation littéraire et religieuse rare. Se détournant d'une carrière ecclésiastique, il entreprend, jeune, de faire une carrière des lettres, en privilégiant la poésie et le théâtre tragique. Le succès d’"Alexandre le Grand", en 1665, lui confère une solide réputation et lui apporte le soutien du jeune roi Louis XIV. "Andromaque", en 1667, ouvre une décennie de grandes créations qui voit, à côté d'une unique comédie ("Les Plaideurs", 1668), représentées les sept tragédies consacrées par l’historiographie comme ses plus remarquables : "Britannicus" (1669), "Bérénice" (1670), "Bajazet" (1672), "Mithridate" (1673), "Iphigénie" (1674) et "Phèdre" (1677). La « tristesse majestueuse » de ces pièces épurées rompant avec l’héroïsme baroque fait la renommée du dramaturge et divise profondément le public français, dont une partie défend la tragédie cornélienne. Le succès populaire, les querelles critiques, l'appui du roi et les faveurs à la cour de de Montespan entraînent une ascension sociale et économique fulgurante de l'auteur : élu à l'Académie française en 1672, anobli en 1674, Racine abandonne en 1677 le « métier de poésie » pour briguer le « glorieux emploi » d'historiographe du roi. Devenu l'un des courtisans proches du Roi-Soleil, il ne délaisse son travail d'historien que pour donner, à la demande de de Maintenon, deux tragédies bibliques aux jeunes filles de Saint-Cyr : "Esther" (1689) et "Athalie" (1691), et pour écrire en secret un "Abrégé de l'histoire de Port-Royal", retrouvé et publié après sa mort. Le vaste travail historique auquel il consacre la majeure partie de ses vingt dernières années, l'histoire de Louis XIV, disparaît entièrement dans l'incendie de la maison de son successeur, Valincour. | [
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ETA (separatist group) | Euskadi ta Askatasuna | ETA, an acronym for Euskadi Ta Askatasuna ("Basque Homeland and Liberty" or "Basque Country and Freedom"), was an armed leftist Basque nationalist and separatist organization in the Basque Country (in northern Spain and southwestern France). The group was founded in 1959 and later evolved from a group promoting traditional Basque culture to a paramilitary group engaged in a violent campaign of bombing, assassinations and kidnappings in the Southern Basque Country and throughout Spanish territory. Its goal was gaining independence for the Basque Country. ETA was the main group within the Basque National Liberation Movement and was the most important Basque participant in the Basque conflict. | , plus connu sous son acronyme ETA (pour en basque), est une organisation basque indépendantiste d'inspiration marxiste-léniniste active du au. Plusieurs organisations ont porté ce nom depuis la création de la première ETA en raison de plusieurs scissions. | [
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Louis the Pious | Louis le Pieux | Louis the Pious (778 – 20 June 840), also called the Fair, and the Debonaire, was the King of the Franks and co-emperor with his father, Charlemagne, from 813. He was also King of Aquitaine from 781. As the only surviving adult son of Charlemagne and Hildegard, he became the sole ruler of the Franks after his father's death in 814, a position which he held until his death, save for the period 833–34, during which he was deposed. | Louis dit « le Pieux » ou « le Débonnaire », né en 778 à "Cassinogilum" (localisation incertaine, soit Casseuil près de Bordeaux, Chasseneuil-du-Poitou dans la Vienne ou encore Casseneuil en Lot-et-Garonne) et mort le à Ingelheim, près de Mayence, est roi d'Aquitaine jusqu'en 814, puis empereur d'Occident de 814 à sa mort en 840. Il est le fils de Charlemagne et de Hildegarde de Vintzgau. | [
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] | null | null | null | null | null | null |
Ilan Ramon | Ilan Ramon | Ilan Ramon (,, born Ilan Wolferman; June 20, 1954 – February 1, 2003) was an Israeli fighter pilot and later the first and thus far only Israeli astronaut. | Ilan Ramon, né le à Ramat Gan en Israël et mort le, est un pilote de chasse, colonel dans l’armée de l’air israélienne et le premier astronaute israélien. | [
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Verb | Verbe | A verb, from the Latin "verbum" meaning "word", is a word (part of speech) that in syntax conveys an action ("bring", "read", "walk", "run", "learn"), an occurrence ("happen", "become"), or a state of being ("be", "exist", "stand"). In the usual description of English, the basic form, with or without the particle "to", is the infinitive. In many languages, verbs are inflected (modified in form) to encode tense, aspect, mood, and voice. A verb may also agree with the person, gender or number of some of its arguments, such as its subject, or object. Verbs have tenses: present, to indicate that an action is being carried out; past, to indicate that an action has been done; future, to indicate that an action will be done. | Le verbe (du latin "" : mot, verbe) constitue avec le nom la catégorie de mots ou partie du discours principale de toute langue. La tradition grammaticale présente le verbe en opposition au nom à cause de sa capacité de pouvoir exprimer un procès, en traduisant une action accomplie ( "Il regarde un film") ou subie par le sujet ( "Il a été déçu par ce film"), ou un état ( "Il est satisfait") ou des modifications du sujet ( "Il a changé d'avis"). À cet aspect sémantique la linguistique contemporaine, de tendance majoritairement distributionnaliste et structuraliste, oppose une approche morphosyntaxique, rejetant toute définition du verbe fondée sur son rapport avec un aspect de la réalité qui le distinguerait du nom (Fonction référentielle) pour privilégier sa fonction de mise en relation des autres composants de la phrase. | [
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Nationalism | Nationalisme | Nationalism is an ideology and movement that promotes the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people) especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining the nation's sovereignty (self-governance) over its homeland. Nationalism holds that each nation should govern itself, free from outside interference (self-determination), that a nation is a natural and ideal basis for a polity, and that the nation is the only rightful source of political power (popular sovereignty). It further aims to build and maintain a single national identity—based on shared social characteristics of culture, ethnicity, geographic location, language, politics (or the government), religion, traditions and belief in a shared singular history —and to promote national unity or solidarity. Nationalism, therefore, seeks to preserve and foster a nation's traditional cultures, and cultural revivals have been associated with nationalist movements. It also encourages pride in national achievements, and is closely linked to patriotism. Nationalism is often combined with other ideologies, such as conservatism (national conservatism) or socialism (socialist nationalism). | Le nationalisme est un principe politique qui est né à la fin du, tendant à légitimer l'existence d'un État-nation pour chaque peuple (initialement par opposition à la royauté, régime politique qui en France sera ensuite nommé "Ancien Régime"). Ce principe politique s'est progressivement imposé en Europe au cours du et au début du. Les historiens ne présentent pas ce nationalisme, en général, comme une idéologie, car il est peu et mal argumenté ou justifié par des intellectuels. Depuis son avènement il est en revanche facilement présenté comme une évidence dans la vie politique et sociale. | [
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Panama | Panama | Panama (, ; ), officially the Republic of Panama (), is a transcontinental country in Central America and South America, bordered by Costa Rica to the west, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north, and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The capital and largest city is Panama City, whose metropolitan area is home to nearly half the country's million people. | Le Panama, en forme longue la république du Panama (en et ), est un pays de situé à l’extrémité sud de l’Amérique centrale, sur l’isthme de Panama. Il est limitrophe du Costa Rica et de la Colombie, dont il faisait autrefois partie. Le pays est peuplé de en 2020. | [
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Louis VI of France | Louis VI le Gros | Louis VI (late 1081 – 1 August 1137), called the Fat () or the Fighter (), was King of France from 1108 to 1137. | Louis, dit « le Gros » ou « le Batailleur », né le à Paris, mort le au château royal de Béthisy-Saint-Pierre, est roi des Francs du au. Il est le cinquième roi de la dynastie dite des Capétiens directs. | [
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Louis IV of France | Louis IV d'Outremer | Louis IV (September 920 / September 921 – 10 September 954), called d'Outremer or Transmarinus (both meaning "from overseas"), reigned as king of West Francia from 936 to 954. A member of the Carolingian dynasty, he was the only son of king Charles the Simple and his second wife Eadgifu of Wessex, daughter of King Edward the Elder of Wessex. His reign is mostly known thanks to the Annals of Flodoard and the later "Historiae" of Richerus. | Louis, dit « d'Outremer » (né entre et –, Reims), fils de et d'Edwige de Wessex, est un roi des Francs (936-954) de la dynastie carolingienne. | [
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Christianity and homosexuality | Homosexualité dans le christianisme | Within Christianity, there are a variety of views on sexual orientation and homosexuality. Even within a denomination, individuals and groups may hold different views, and not all members of a denomination necessarily support their church's views on homosexuality. | Traditionnellement, les différentes Églises chrétiennes considèrent les actes homosexuels comme des pratiques contre nature, des péchés gravement contraires à la chasteté, à l'instar de la masturbation, de la fornication et de la pornographie. En empêchant la procréation, première des fins de l'union conjugale et donc sexuelle, les pratiques homosexuelles s'opposeraient ainsi directement à l'action créatrice de Dieu. D'autre part, le sujet de l'homosexualité est souvent débattu dans les Églises chrétiennes. | [
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Louis VII of France | Louis VII le Jeune | Louis VII (1120 – 18 September 1180), called the Younger or the Young (), was King of the Franks from 1137 to 1180. He was the son and successor of King Louis VI, hence his nickname, and married Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine, one of the wealthiest and most powerful women in western Europe. The marriage temporarily extended the Capetian lands to the Pyrenees, but was annulled in 1152 after no male heir was produced. | Louis, dit « le Jeune » puis « le Pieux », né en 1120 et mort en 1180 à Paris, est roi des Francs de 1137 à 1180. | [
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Namibia | Namibie | Namibia (, ), officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa. Its western border is the Atlantic Ocean; it shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and east. Although it does not border Zimbabwe, less than 200 metres (660 feet) of the Zambezi River separates the two countries. Namibia gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990, following the Namibian War of Independence. Its capital and largest city is Windhoek. Namibia is a member state of the United Nations (UN), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the African Union (AU) and the Commonwealth of Nations. | La Namibie, en forme longue la république de Namibie ( et, et, et ), est un pays situé en Afrique australe. | [
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Louis VIII of France | Louis VIII le Lion | Louis VIII (5 September 1187 – 8 November 1226), called the Lion (), was King of France from 1223 to 1226. From 1216 to 1217, he also claimed to be King of England (as Louis I). Louis was the only surviving son of King Philip II of France by his first wife, Isabelle of Hainaut, from whom he inherited the County of Artois. | Il est le fils du roi, dit « Philippe Auguste » (1165-1223) et d'Isabelle de Hainaut (1170-1190). Il est le premier roi de France qui descende à la fois d'Hugues Capet par son père et de son compétiteur malheureux, Charles de Basse-Lotharingie par sa mère. Le court règne de fut cependant marqué par deux brillantes campagnes : l'une contre les Anglais en Guyenne, l'autre contre. | [
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Saint Kitts and Nevis | Saint-Christophe-et-Niévès | Saint Kitts and Nevis (), officially known as the Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis, is an island country in the West Indies. Located in the Leeward Islands chain of the Lesser Antilles, it is the smallest sovereign state in the Western Hemisphere, in both area and population. The country is a Commonwealth realm, with Elizabeth II as Queen and head of state. | Saint-Christophe-et-Niévès, en forme longue la Fédération de Saint-Christophe-et-Niévès, Saint-Christophe-et-Nevis ou Saint-Kitts-et-Nevis, et (), est un État situé dans les petites Antilles, dans la région des Caraïbes, composé des îles Saint-Christophe et Niévès, associées sous forme de fédération. D'une superficie de, Saint-Christophe-et-Niévès est le plus petit pays d'Amérique du Nord. | [
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Czech Republic | Tchéquie | The Czech Republic (; ), also known by its short-form name, Czechia (; ), is a landlocked country in Central Europe bordered by Austria to the south, Germany to the west, Poland to the northeast and Slovakia to the southeast. The Czech Republic has hilly landscape that covers an area of with a mostly temperate continental climate and oceanic climate. It is a unitary parliamentary republic, with million inhabitants. Its capital and largest city is Prague, with 1.3 million residents; other major cities include Brno, Ostrava, Olomouc and Pilsen. | La Tchéquie, en forme longue la République tchèque (en et ), est un pays d'Europe centrale sans accès à la mer, entouré par la Pologne au nord-est, l’Allemagne au nord-ouest et à l’ouest, l’Autriche au sud et la Slovaquie à l'est-sud-est. | [
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Space Shuttle orbiter | Navette spatiale | The Space Shuttle orbiter is the spaceplane component of the Space Shuttle, a partially reusable orbital spacecraft system that was part of the Space Shuttle program. Operated by NASA, the U.S. space agency, this vehicle could carry astronauts and payloads into low Earth orbit, perform in-space operations, then re-enter the atmosphere and land as a glider, returning its crew and any on-board payload to the Earth. | Une navette spatiale, dans le domaine de l’astronautique, désigne conventionnellement un véhicule spatial pouvant revenir sur Terre en effectuant un atterrissage contrôlé à la manière d'un avion ou d'un planeur et pouvant être réutilisé pour une mission ultérieure. Ce concept s'oppose à celui des vaisseaux spatiaux, tels que Soyouz, Shenzhou ou Apollo effectuant une rentrée quasi balistique et atterrissant grâce à des parachutes et des rétro-fusées. À l'origine le concept est associé à l'abaissement des coûts de mise en orbite de satellites artificiels (commerciaux ou militaires), d'éléments de station spatiale et à la possibilité d'effectuer des interventions de maintenance en orbite basse. En pratique la navette spatiale américaine, la seule à avoir eu une vie opérationnelle significative, a joué un rôle important essentiellement pour placer en orbite les principaux composants de la station spatiale internationale. Dans ses autres missions, elle est remplacée avantageusement par des lanceurs classiques. Suite à l'arrêt des missions de sa navette spatiale en 2011, la NASA prévoit le retour à des vaisseaux spatiaux conventionnels (Orion, Crew Dragon, CST-100 Starliner). Du côté américain, sept navettes dont cinq destinées au vol orbital ont été construites. Les Soviétiques ont eux construits douze navettes, dont cinq destinées au vol orbital, bien qu'une seule d'entre elles ait volé, "Buran". | [
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2
] | null | null | null | null | null | null |
Subsets and Splits