Datasets:

---

StivenLancheros

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all_datasets_wikis

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Production with Lownes.", "Budget.", "Origins of phrase.", "Cast.", "Reception.", "British audiences.", "American audiences.", "DVD releases." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "\"And Now for Something Completely Different\" is the Pythons' first feature film, composed of some well-known sketches from the first two series of the Flying Circus, including the \"Dead Parrot\" sketch, \"The Lumberjack Song\", \"Upperclass Twits\", \"Hell's Grannies\", the \"Nudge Nudge\" sketch and others. The original sketches were recreated for the film with an extremely low budget, often slightly rewritten and edited. Financed by \"Playboy\"′s UK executive Victor Lownes, it was intended to help Monty Python break into the United States. Although the film was initially unsuccessful at achieving an American breakthrough, it did well financially in the United Kingdom, and later in the United States on the \"Midnight Movie\" circuit, after the Pythons achieved some success there, following their first exposure on US television and the release of \"Monty Python and the Holy Grail\". The group did not consider this film a success, but it enjoys a cult following among Python fans today.", "The film was the idea of entrepreneur Victor Lownes, head of Playboy UK, who convinced the group that a feature film would be the ideal way to introduce them to the US market. Lownes acted as executive producer. Production of the film did not go entirely smoothly. Lownes tried to exert considerably more control over the group than they had been used to at the BBC. In particular, he objected so strongly to one character—'Ken Shabby'—that his appearance was removed, although stills from both this and a further cut sketch, \"Flying Sheep\", were published in \"Monty Python's Big Red Book\". Terry Jones and Michael Palin later complained that the vast majority of the film was \"nothing more than jokes behind desks.\" Another argument with Lownes occurred when Terry Gilliam designed the opening credits for the film. Because the names of the Pythons were shown in blocks of stone, Lownes insisted that his own name be displayed in a similar manner. Initially, Gilliam refused but eventually he was forced to give in. Gilliam then created a different style of credit for the Pythons so that in the final version of the film, Lownes' credit is the only one that appears in that way.", "The film's budget was £80,000, 40% of which came from Lownes. This is self-referentially acknowledged in the film's Killer Cars animation; the voiceover narration (done by Eric Idle) mentions \"a scene of such spectacular proportions that it could never in your life be seen in a low-budget film like this... if you notice, my mouth isn't moving, either\". The film was shot on location in England and inside an abandoned dairy (rather than on a more costly soundstage) during the final months of 1970. The budget was so low that some effects seen on the television series could not be repeated in the film.", "The origin of the phrase is credited to Christopher Trace, founding presenter of the children's television programme \"Blue Peter\", who used it (in all seriousness) as a link between segments. Many of the early episodes of \"Monty Python's Flying Circus\" feature a sensible-looking announcer (played by John Cleese) dressed in a black suit and sitting behind a wooden desk, which in turn is in some ridiculous location such as behind the bars of a zoo cage or in mid-air being held aloft by small attached propellers. The announcer would turn to the audience and announce \"and now for something completely different\", launching the show's opening credits starting with the second series of the show. The phrase was also used as a transition within the show. Often it would be added to better explain the transition, for instance, \"And now for something completely different: a man with a tape recorder up his \"brother's\" nose\".", "Each playing various characters", "", "The film did not really offer anything extra for British fans, except the opportunity to see the sketches in better quality and in colour at a time when many UK viewers still had black and white sets, and indeed many were disappointed that the film seemed to belie its title. Despite this, the film proved sufficiently popular to make a profit on domestic box office takings alone.", "Reviews for American audiences were mixed (principally because British humour was unfamiliar to American viewers at that time) but mostly positive. When it was released on 22 August 1972, the film had little success at the box office and did not do well until a late 1974 re-release, which was after the PBS began showing the original television episodes in the US. It currently has a 90% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 21 reviews, with a weighted average of 6.93/10.", "The film originally was on DVD in Region 1 from Sony Pictures Home Entertainment; in 2005, it was repacked in a new collector's pack called \"And Now For Something Completely Hilarious!\" which also features the films \"Monty Python and the Holy Grail\" and \"The Adventures of Baron Munchausen\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definitions.", "History.", "Qualities of traffic.", "Applications.", "Mechanisms.", "Over-provisioning.", "IP and Ethernet efforts.", "Protocols.", "End-to-end quality of service.", "Circumvention.", "Doubts about quality of service over IP.", "Mobile (cellular) QoS.", "Standards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the field of telephony, quality of service was defined by the ITU in 1994. Quality of service comprises requirements on all the aspects of a connection, such as service response time, loss, signal-to-noise ratio, crosstalk, echo, interrupts, frequency response, loudness levels, and so on. A subset of telephony QoS is grade of service (GoS) requirements, which comprises aspects of a connection relating to capacity and coverage of a network, for example guaranteed maximum blocking probability and outage probability. In the field of computer networking and other packet-switched telecommunication networks, teletraffic engineering refers to traffic prioritization and resource reservation control mechanisms rather than the achieved service quality. Quality of service is the ability to provide different priorities to different applications, users, or data flows, or to guarantee a certain level of performance to a data flow. For example, a required bit rate, delay, delay variation, packet loss or bit error rates may be guaranteed. Quality of service is important for real-time streaming multimedia applications such as voice over IP, multiplayer online games and IPTV, since these often require fixed bit rate and are delay sensitive. Quality of service is especially important in networks where the capacity is a limited resource, for example in cellular data communication. A network or protocol that supports QoS may agree on a traffic contract with the application software and reserve capacity in the network nodes, for example during a session establishment phase. During the session it may monitor the achieved level of performance, for example the data rate and delay, and dynamically control scheduling priorities in the network nodes. It may release the reserved capacity during a tear down phase. A best-effort network or service does not support quality of service. An alternative to complex QoS control mechanisms is to provide high quality communication over a best-effort network by over-provisioning the capacity so that it is sufficient for the expected peak traffic load. The resulting absence of network congestion reduces or eliminates the need for QoS mechanisms. QoS is sometimes used as a quality measure, with many alternative definitions, rather than referring to the ability to reserve resources. Quality of service sometimes refers to the level of quality of service, i.e. the guaranteed service quality. High QoS is often confused with a high level of performance, for example high bit rate, low latency and low bit error rate. QoS is sometimes used in application layer services such as telephony and streaming video to describe a metric that reflects or predicts the subjectively experienced quality. In this context, QoS is the acceptable cumulative effect on subscriber satisfaction of all imperfections affecting the service. Other terms with similar meaning are the quality of experience (QoE), mean opinion score (MOS), perceptual speech quality measure (PSQM) and perceptual evaluation of video quality (PEVQ). See also Subjective video quality.", "A number of attempts for layer 2 technologies that add QoS tags to the data have gained popularity in the past. Examples are frame relay, asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) and multiprotocol label switching (MPLS) (a technique between layer 2 and 3). Despite these network technologies remaining in use today, this kind of network lost attention after the advent of Ethernet networks. Today Ethernet is, by far, the most popular layer 2 technology. Conventional Internet routers and LAN switches operate on a best effort basis. This equipment is less expensive, less complex and faster and thus more popular than earlier more complex technologies that provide QoS mechanisms. Ethernet optionally uses 802.1p to signal the priority of a frame. There were four \"type of service\" bits and three \"precedence\" bits originally provided in each IP packet header, but they were not generally respected. These bits were later re-defined as Differentiated services code points (DSCP). With the advent of IPTV and IP telephony, QoS mechanisms are increasingly available to the end user.", "In packet-switched networks, quality of service is affected by various factors, which can be divided into human and technical factors. Human factors include: stability of service quality, availability of service, waiting times and user information. Technical factors include: reliability, scalability, effectiveness, maintainability and network congestion. Many things can happen to packets as they travel from origin to destination, resulting in the following problems as seen from the point of view of the sender and receiver:", "A defined quality of service may be desired or required for certain types of network traffic, for example: These types of service are called \"inelastic\", meaning that they require a certain minimum bit rate and a certain maximum latency to function. By contrast, \"elastic\" applications can take advantage of however much or little bandwidth is available. Bulk file transfer applications that rely on TCP are generally elastic.", "Circuit switched networks, especially those intended for voice transmission, such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) or GSM, have QoS in the core protocol, resources are reserved at each step on the network for the call as it is set up, there is no need for additional procedures to achieve required performance. Shorter data units and built-in QoS were some of the unique selling points of ATM for applications such as video on demand. When the expense of mechanisms to provide QoS is justified, network customers and providers can enter into a contractual agreement termed a service-level agreement (SLA) which specifies guarantees for the ability of a connection to give guaranteed performance in terms of throughput or latency based on mutually agreed measures.", "An alternative to complex QoS control mechanisms is to provide high quality communication by generously over-provisioning a network so that capacity is based on peak traffic load estimates. This approach is simple for networks with predictable peak loads. This calculation may need to appreciate demanding applications that can compensate for variations in bandwidth and delay with large receive buffers, which is often possible for example in video streaming. Over-provisioning can be of limited use in the face of transport protocols (such as TCP) that over time increase the amount of data placed on the network until all available bandwidth is consumed and packets are dropped. Such greedy protocols tend to increase latency and packet loss for all users. The amount of over-provisioning in interior links required to replace QoS depends on the number of users and their traffic demands. This limits usability of over-provisioning. Newer more bandwidth intensive applications and the addition of more users results in the loss of over-provisioned networks. This then requires a physical update of the relevant network links which is an expensive process. Thus over-provisioning cannot be blindly assumed on the Internet. Commercial VoIP services are often competitive with traditional telephone service in terms of call quality even without QoS mechanisms in use on the user's connection to their ISP and the VoIP provider's connection to a different ISP. Under high load conditions, however, VoIP may degrade to cell-phone quality or worse. The mathematics of packet traffic indicate that network requires just 60% more raw capacity under conservative assumptions.", "Unlike single-owner networks, the Internet is a series of exchange points interconnecting private networks. Hence the Internet's core is owned and managed by a number of different network service providers, not a single entity. Its behavior is much more unpredictable. There are two principal approaches to QoS in modern packet-switched IP networks, a parameterized system based on an exchange of application requirements with the network, and a prioritized system where each packet identifies a desired service level to the network. Early work used the integrated services (IntServ) philosophy of reserving network resources. In this model, applications used RSVP to request and reserve resources through a network. While IntServ mechanisms do work, it was realized that in a broadband network typical of a larger service provider, Core routers would be required to accept, maintain, and tear down thousands or possibly tens of thousands of reservations. It was believed that this approach would not scale with the growth of the Internet, and in any event was antithetical to the end-to-end principle, the notion of designing networks so that core routers do little more than simply switch packets at the highest possible rates. Under DiffServ, packets are marked either by the traffic sources themselves or by the edge devices where the traffic enters the network. In response to these markings, routers and switches use various queuing strategies to tailor performance to requirements. At the IP layer, DSCP markings use the 6 bit DS field in the IP packet header. At the MAC layer, VLAN IEEE 802.1Q can be used to carry 3 bit of essentially the same information. Routers and switches supporting DiffServ configure their network scheduler to use multiple queues for packets awaiting transmission from bandwidth constrained (e.g., wide area) interfaces. Router vendors provide different capabilities for configuring this behavior, to include the number of queues supported, the relative priorities of queues, and bandwidth reserved for each queue. In practice, when a packet must be forwarded from an interface with queuing, packets requiring low jitter (e.g., VoIP or videoconferencing) are given priority over packets in other queues. Typically, some bandwidth is allocated by default to network control packets (such as Internet Control Message Protocol and routing protocols), while best-effort traffic might simply be given whatever bandwidth is left over. At the Media Access Control (MAC) layer, VLAN IEEE 802.1Q and IEEE 802.1p can be used to distinguish between Ethernet frames and classify them. Queueing theory models have been developed on performance analysis and QoS for MAC layer protocols. Cisco IOS NetFlow and the Cisco Class Based QoS (CBQoS) Management Information Base (MIB) are marketed by Cisco Systems. One compelling example of the need for QoS on the Internet relates to congestive collapse. The Internet relies on congestion avoidance protocols, primarily as built into Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), to reduce traffic under conditions that would otherwise lead to congestive collapse. QoS applications, such as VoIP and IPTV, require largely constant bitrates and low latency, therefore they cannot use TCP and cannot otherwise reduce their traffic rate to help prevent congestion. Service-level agreements limit traffic that can be offered to the Internet and thereby enforce traffic shaping that can prevent it from becoming overloaded, and are hence an indispensable part of the Internet's ability to handle a mix of real-time and non-real-time traffic without collapse.", "Several QoS mechanisms and schemes exist for IP networking. QoS capabilities are available in the following network technologies.", "End-to-end quality of service can require a method of coordinating resource allocation between one autonomous system and another. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) defined the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) for bandwidth reservation as a proposed standard in 1997. RSVP is an end-to-end bandwidth reservation and admission control protocol. RSVP was not widely adopted due to scalability limitations. The more scalable traffic engineering version, RSVP-TE, is used in many networks to establish traffic-engineered Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) label-switched paths. The IETF also defined Next Steps in Signaling (NSIS) with QoS signalling as a target. NSIS is a development and simplification of RSVP. Research consortia such as \"end-to-end quality of service support over heterogeneous networks\" (EuQoS, from 2004 through 2007) and fora such as the IPsphere Forum developed more mechanisms for handshaking QoS invocation from one domain to the next. IPsphere defined the Service Structuring Stratum (SSS) signaling bus in order to establish, invoke and (attempt to) assure network services. EuQoS conducted experiments to integrate Session Initiation Protocol, Next Steps in Signaling and IPsphere's SSS with an estimated cost of about 15.6 million Euro and published a book. A research project Multi Service Access Everywhere (MUSE) defined another QoS concept in a first phase from January 2004 through February 2006, and a second phase from January 2006 through 2007. Another research project named PlaNetS was proposed for European funding circa 2005. A broader European project called \"Architecture and design for the future Internet\" known as 4WARD had a budget estimated at 23.4 million Euro and was funded from January 2008 through June 2010. It included a \"Quality of Service Theme\" and published a book. Another European project, called WIDENS (Wireless Deployable Network System), proposed a bandwidth reservation approach for mobile wireless multirate adhoc networks.", "Strong cryptography network protocols such as Secure Sockets Layer, I2P, and virtual private networks obscure the data transferred using them. As all electronic commerce on the Internet requires the use of such strong cryptography protocols, unilaterally downgrading the performance of encrypted traffic creates an unacceptable hazard for customers. Yet, encrypted traffic is otherwise unable to undergo deep packet inspection for QoS. Protocols like ICA and RDP may encapsulate other traffic (e.g. printing, video streaming) with varying requirements that can make optimization difficult.", "The Internet2 project found, in 2001, that the QoS protocols were probably not deployable inside its Abilene Network with equipment available at that time. Equipment available at the time relied on software to implement QoS. The group also predicted that “logistical, financial, and organizational barriers will block the way toward any bandwidth guarantees” by protocol modifications aimed at QoS. They believed that the economics would encourage network providers to deliberately erode the quality of best effort traffic as a way to push customers to higher priced QoS services. Instead they proposed over-provisioning of capacity as more cost-effective at the time. The Abilene network study was the basis for the testimony of Gary Bachula to the US Senate Commerce Committee's hearing on Network Neutrality in early 2006. He expressed the opinion that adding more bandwidth was more effective than any of the various schemes for accomplishing QoS they examined. Bachula's testimony has been cited by proponents of a law banning quality of service as proof that no legitimate purpose is served by such an offering. This argument is dependent on the assumption that over-provisioning isn't a form of QoS and that it is always possible. Cost and other factors affect the ability of carriers to build and maintain permanently over-provisioned networks.", "Mobile cellular service providers may offer mobile QoS to customers just as the fixed line PSTN services providers and Internet Service Providers (ISP) may offer QoS. QoS mechanisms are always provided for circuit switched services, and are essential for non-elastic services, for example streaming multimedia. Mobility adds complication to the QoS mechanisms, for several reasons:", "Quality of service in the field of telephony was first defined in 1994 in the ITU-T Recommendation E.800. This definition is very broad, listing 6 primary components: Support, Operability, Accessibility, Retainability, Integrity and Security. A 1995 recommendation X.902 included a definition is the OSI reference model. In 1998 the ITU published a document discussing QoS in the field of data networking. X.641 offers a means of developing or enhancing standards related to QoS and provide concepts and terminology that will assist in maintaining the consistency of related standards. Some QoS-related IETF Request For Comments (RFC)s are, and ; both these are discussed above. The IETF has also published two RFCs giving background on QoS:, and. The IETF has also published as an informative or \"best practices\" document about the practical aspects of designing a QoS solution for a DiffServ network. They try to identify which types of applications are commonly run over an IP network to group them into traffic classes, study what treatment do each of these classes need from the network, and suggest which of the QoS mechanisms commonly available in routers can be used to implement those treatments." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Physics.", "History.", "Applications.", "Super-Chandrasekhar mass supernovae.", "Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Electron degeneracy pressure is a quantum-mechanical effect arising from the Pauli exclusion principle. Since electrons are fermions, no two electrons can be in the same state, so not all electrons can be in the minimum-energy level. Rather, electrons must occupy a band of energy levels. Compression of the electron gas increases the number of electrons in a given volume and raises the maximum energy level in the occupied band. Therefore, the energy of the electrons increases on compression, so pressure must be exerted on the electron gas to compress it, producing electron degeneracy pressure. With sufficient compression, electrons are forced into nuclei in the process of electron capture, relieving the pressure. In the nonrelativistic case, electron degeneracy pressure gives rise to an equation of state of the form, where is the pressure, is the mass density, and is a constant. Solving the hydrostatic equation leads to a model white dwarf that is a polytrope of index – and therefore has radius inversely proportional to the cube root of its mass, and volume inversely proportional to its mass. As the mass of a model white dwarf increases, the typical energies to which degeneracy pressure forces the electrons are no longer negligible relative to their rest masses. The velocities of the electrons approach the speed of light, and special relativity must be taken into account. In the strongly relativistic limit, the equation of state takes the form. This yields a polytrope of index 3, which has a total mass, say, depending only on. For a fully relativistic treatment, the equation of state used interpolates between the equations for small and for large. When this is done, the model radius still decreases with mass, but becomes zero at. This is the Chandrasekhar limit. The curves of radius against mass for the non-relativistic and relativistic models are shown in the graph. They are colored blue and green, respectively. has been set equal to 2. Radius is measured in standard solar radii or kilometers, and mass in standard solar masses. Calculated values for the limit vary depending on the nuclear composition of the mass. Chandrasekhar gives the following expression, based on the equation of state for an ideal Fermi gas: where: As is the Planck mass, the limit is of the order of A more accurate value of the limit than that given by this simple model requires adjusting for various factors, including electrostatic interactions between the electrons and nuclei and effects caused by nonzero temperature. Lieb and Yau have given a rigorous derivation of the limit from a relativistic many-particle Schrödinger equation.", "In 1926, the British physicist Ralph H. Fowler observed that the relationship between the density, energy, and temperature of white dwarfs could be explained by viewing them as a gas of nonrelativistic, non-interacting electrons and nuclei that obey Fermi–Dirac statistics. This Fermi gas model was then used by the British physicist Edmund Clifton Stoner in 1929 to calculate the relationship among the mass, radius, and density of white dwarfs, assuming they were homogeneous spheres. Wilhelm Anderson applied a relativistic correction to this model, giving rise to a maximum possible mass of approximately. In 1930, Stoner derived the internal energy–density equation of state for a Fermi gas, and was then able to treat the mass–radius relationship in a fully relativistic manner, giving a limiting mass of approximately (for ). Stoner went on to derive the pressure–density equation of state, which he published in 1932. These equations of state were also previously published by the Soviet physicist Yakov Frenkel in 1928, together with some other remarks on the physics of degenerate matter. Frenkel's work, however, was ignored by the astronomical and astrophysical community. A series of papers published between 1931 and 1935 had its beginning on a trip from India to England in 1930, where the Indian physicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar worked on the calculation of the statistics of a degenerate Fermi gas. In these papers, Chandrasekhar solved the hydrostatic equation together with the nonrelativistic Fermi gas equation of state, and also treated the case of a relativistic Fermi gas, giving rise to the value of the limit shown above. Chandrasekhar reviews this work in his Nobel Prize lecture. This value was also computed in 1932 by the Soviet physicist Lev Davidovich Landau, who, however, did not apply it to white dwarfs and concluded that quantum laws might be invalid for stars heavier than 1.5 solar mass. Chandrasekhar's work on the limit aroused controversy, owing to the opposition of the British astrophysicist Arthur Eddington. Eddington was aware that the existence of black holes was theoretically possible, and also realized that the existence of the limit made their formation possible. However, he was unwilling to accept that this could happen. After a talk by Chandrasekhar on the limit in 1935, he replied: Eddington's proposed solution to the perceived problem was to modify relativistic mechanics so as to make the law universally applicable, even for large. Although Niels Bohr, Fowler, Wolfgang Pauli, and other physicists agreed with Chandrasekhar's analysis, at the time, owing to Eddington's status, they were unwilling to publicly support Chandrasekhar. Through the rest of his life, Eddington held to his position in his writings, including his work on his fundamental theory. The drama associated with this disagreement is one of the main themes of \"Empire of the Stars\", Arthur I. Miller's biography of Chandrasekhar. In Miller's view:", "The core of a star is kept from collapsing by the heat generated by the fusion of nuclei of lighter elements into heavier ones. At various stages of stellar evolution, the nuclei required for this process are exhausted, and the core collapses, causing it to become denser and hotter. A critical situation arises when iron accumulates in the core, since iron nuclei are incapable of generating further energy through fusion. If the core becomes sufficiently dense, electron degeneracy pressure will play a significant part in stabilizing it against gravitational collapse. If a main-sequence star is not too massive (less than approximately 8 solar masses), it eventually sheds enough mass to form a white dwarf having mass below the Chandrasekhar limit, which consists of the former core of the star. For more-massive stars, electron degeneracy pressure does not keep the iron core from collapsing to very great density, leading to formation of a neutron star, black hole, or, speculatively, a quark star. (For very massive, low-metallicity stars, it is also possible that instabilities destroy the star completely.) During the collapse, neutrons are formed by the capture of electrons by protons in the process of electron capture, leading to the emission of neutrinos. The decrease in gravitational potential energy of the collapsing core releases a large amount of energy on the order of 10 joules (100 foes). Most of this energy is carried away by the emitted neutrinos and the kinetic energy of the expanding shell of gas; only about 1% is emitted as optical light. This process is believed responsible for supernovae of types Ib, Ic, and II. Type Ia supernovae derive their energy from runaway fusion of the nuclei in the interior of a white dwarf. This fate may befall carbon–oxygen white dwarfs that accrete matter from a companion giant star, leading to a steadily increasing mass. As the white dwarf's mass approaches the Chandrasekhar limit, its central density increases, and, as a result of compressional heating, its temperature also increases. This eventually ignites nuclear fusion reactions, leading to an immediate carbon detonation, which disrupts the star and causes the supernova. A strong indication of the reliability of Chandrasekhar's formula is that the absolute magnitudes of supernovae of Type Ia are all approximately the same; at maximum luminosity, is approximately −19.3, with a standard deviation of no more than 0.3. A 1-sigma interval therefore represents a factor of less than 2 in luminosity. This seems to indicate that all type Ia supernovae convert approximately the same amount of mass to energy.", "In April 2003, the Supernova Legacy Survey observed a type Ia supernova, designated SNLS-03D3bb, in a galaxy approximately 4 billion light years away. According to a group of astronomers at the University of Toronto and elsewhere, the observations of this supernova are best explained by assuming that it arose from a white dwarf that grew to twice the mass of the Sun before exploding. They believe that the star, dubbed the \"Champagne Supernova\" by University of Oklahoma astronomer David R. Branch, may have been spinning so fast that a centrifugal tendency allowed it to exceed the limit. Alternatively, the supernova may have resulted from the merger of two white dwarfs, so that the limit was only violated momentarily. Nevertheless, they point out that this observation poses a challenge to the use of type Ia supernovae as standard candles. Since the observation of the Champagne Supernova in 2003, more very bright type Ia supernovae have been observed that are thought to have originated from white dwarfs whose masses exceeded the Chandrasekhar limit. These include SN 2006gz, SN 2007if and SN 2009dc. The super-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarfs that gave rise to these supernovae are believed to have had masses up to 2.4–2.8 solar masses. One way to potentially explain the problem of the Champagne Supernova was considering it the result of an aspherical explosion of a white dwarf. However, spectropolarimetric observations of SN 2009dc showed it had a polarization smaller than 0.3, making the large asphericity theory unlikely.", "After a supernova explosion, a neutron star may be left behind. These objects are even more compact than white dwarfs and are also supported, in part, by degeneracy pressure. A neutron star, however, is so massive and compressed that electrons and protons have combined to form neutrons, and the star is thus supported by neutron degeneracy pressure (as well as short-range repulsive neutron-neutron interactions mediated by the strong force) instead of electron degeneracy pressure. The limiting value for neutron star mass, analogous to the Chandrasekhar limit, is known as the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The \"Institutes\" of Gaius.", "Quotation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The \"Institutes\" of Gaius, written about the year AD 161, was an introductory textbook of legal institutions divided into four books: the first treating of persons and the differences of the status they may occupy in the eye of the law; the second of things, and the modes in which rights over them may be acquired, including the law relating to wills; the third of intestate succession and of obligations; and the fourth of actions and their forms. Another circumstance which renders the work of Gaius more interesting to the historical student than that of Justinian, is that Gaius lived at a time when actions were tried by the system of \"formulae,\" or formal directions given by the \"praetor\" before whom the case first came, to the \"judex\" to whom he referred it. Without a knowledge of the terms of these \"formulae\" it is impossible to solve the most interesting question in the history of Roman law, and show how the rigid rules peculiar to the ancient law of Rome were modified by what has been called the equitable jurisdiction of the praetors, and made applicable to new conditions, and brought into harmony with the notions and the needs of a more developed society. It is clear from evidence of Gaius that this result was obtained, not by an independent set of courts administering, as in England previous to the Judicature Acts, a system different from that of the ordinary courts, but by the manipulation of the \"formulae\". In the time of Justinian the work was complete, and the formulary system had disappeared. The work was lost to modern scholars, until, in 1816, a palimpsest was discovered by B. G. Niebuhr in the chapter library of Verona, in which some of the works of St. Jerome were written over some earlier writings, which proved to be the lost work of Gaius. The greater part of the palimpsest has, however, been deciphered with the help of August von Bethmann-Hollweg, and the text is now fairly complete. More recently, two sets of papyrus fragments have been found. The discovery of Gaius' work has thrown a flood of light on portions of the history of Roman law which had previously been most obscure. Much of the historical information given by Gaius is wanting in the compilations of Justinian, and, in particular, the account of the ancient forms of procedure in actions. In these forms can be traced \"survivals\" from the most primitive times, which provide the science of comparative law with valuable illustrations, which may explain the strange forms of legal procedure found in other early systems. There are several editions of the \"Institutes\", beginning with the \"editio princeps\" of I. F. L. Göschen (Berlin, 1820). The author of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica recommends the English edition of Edward Poste published in 1885, which includes an English translation and copious commentary. More recent editions include E. Seckel and B. Kuebler (8th edition; Leipzig, 1939); Francis de Zulueta, containing his own Latin text with an English translation and commentary (1946); and W. M. Gordon and O. F. Robinson (London, 1988), with an English translation and the Latin text by Seckel and Kuebler. A comparison of the early forms of action mentioned by Gaius with those used by other primitive societies will be found in Sir Henry Maine's \"Early Institutions\", chapter 9. For further information see M. Glasson, \"Étude sur Gaius et sur le jus respondendi\".", "\"The law is what the people order and establish\", \"Institutiones, 1.2.3\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Cast.", "Production.", "\"The Crimson Permanent Assurance\".", "Release.", "Reception.", "Box office.", "Critical reception.", "Accolades.", "Home media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "A group of fish in a posh restaurant's tank swim together casually, until they look at the customers outside of the tank and see their friend Howard being eaten. This leads them to question the meaning of life. The question is explored in the first sketch, \"The Miracle of Birth\", which features a woman in labour being ignored by the doctors in favour of impressing the hospital's medically-clueless administrator. Meanwhile, in Yorkshire, described as \"the third world\", a Roman Catholic man loses his job and returns home to tell his numerous children that he will have to sell them off for scientific experiments due to the Catholic church's opposition to contraception; this leads to the musical number \"Every Sperm Is Sacred\". A Protestant man with his wife looks on disapprovingly, and proudly remarks that Protestants can use contraception and have sex for pleasure (though his wife points out that they never do). In \"Growth and Learning\", a class of boys are taught school etiquette before partaking in a sex education lesson, which involves watching their teacher have sex with his wife. One boy laughs, and is forced into a violent rugby match pitting pupils against the adult school masters as punishment. \"Fighting Each Other\" focuses on three scenes concerning the British military: first a World War I officer tries to rally his men during an attack, but they insist on presenting him with various going-away presents, including a card, a cake, and a clock; second, a modern army RSM attempts to drill his platoon, but his sarcastic remarks asking what they'd \"rather be doing\" ends with him actually dismissing them all to pursue leisure activities. Lastly, in 1879, during the Anglo-Zulu War, a soldier finds his leg has been bitten off. Suspecting a tiger (despite being non-native to Africa) the soldiers hunt for it and find two men suspiciously wearing two halves of a tiger costume. The prior sequences ends abruptly with a host introducing \"The Middle of the Film\", beginning with a surreal segment called \"Find the Fish\", wherein bizarre characters ask the audience to find a hidden fish over a strange musical number. \"Middle Age\" involves a middle-aged American couple visiting a Hawaiian restaurant themed around Medieval torture, where, to the interest of the fish, the waiter offers a conversation about philosophy and the meaning of life. The customers are unable to make sense of it and move on to a discussion of \"live organ transplants\". \"Live Organ Transplants\" involves two paramedics visiting Mr. Brown, a card-carrying organ donor, forcefully removing his liver while he is still alive. Mrs. Brown is initially reluctant to donate her own liver while alive, but she relents after a man steps out of a fridge and sings the \"Galaxy Song\", discussing man's insignificance in comparison to the enormousness of the universe. The Crimson Permanent Assurance pirates from the short pre-film feature appear to invade a corporate boardroom where executives are discussing the meaning of life, but a tumbling skyscraper ends their assault. \"The Autumn Years\" starts off with a musician in a French restaurant singing about the joys of having a penis. When the song is finished, the horrible and grotesquely obese Mr. Creosote visits the restaurant, much to the horror of the other guests and the fish tank. He vomits continuously and devours an enormous meal. When the maître d' persuades him to eat one last wafer-thin mint, Creosote's stomach begins to rapidly expand until it explodes, the maître d' then giving him the bill. Two staff members clean up Creosote's remains while discussing the meaning of life. A third waiter leads the audience to his house, spouts some weak philosophy, and then angrily dismisses them after his point trails off. \"Death\" features a condemned man choosing the manner of his own execution: being chased off the Cliffs of Dover by topless women in sports gear and falling into his own grave below. In a short animated sequence, several despondent leaves commit suicide by throwing themselves from the branches of their tree. The Grim Reaper thereupon enters an isolated country house, where the hosts and dinner guests are all clueless as to who he is until the Reaper reveals his identity and tells them they all died of food poisoning from eating spoiled salmon (although one guest points out she didn't even eat it). They accompany the Grim Reaper to Heaven, revealed to be the Hawaiian restaurant from earlier. They enter into a Las Vegas-style hotel where it's always Christmas, with all the characters from the previous sketches as guests, and where a Tony Bennett-style singer performs \"Christmas in Heaven\" to the cast. The song is cut off abruptly for \"The End of the Film.\" An epilogue features the host of \"The Middle of the Film\" being handed an envelope containing the meaning of life. Pronouncing it \"nothing very special,\" she blandly reads it out: \"Try and be nice to people, avoid eating fat, read a good book every now and then, get some walking in, and try and live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations\".", "The main company of Monty Python members, who appeared in multiple roles in nearly every section of the film, was supported by featured cast mates:", "According to Palin, \"the writing process was quite cumbersome. An awful lot of material didn't get used. \"Holy Grail\" had a structure, a loose one: the search for the grail. Same with \"Life of Brian\". With this, it wasn't so clear. In the end, we just said: 'Well, what the heck. We have got lots of good material, let's give it the loosest structure, which will be the meaning of life'\". After the film's title was chosen, Douglas Adams called Jones to tell him he had just finished a new book, to be called \"The Meaning of Liff\"; Jones was initially concerned about the similarity in titles, which led to the scene in the title sequence of a tombstone which, when hit by a flash of lightning, changes from \"The Meaning of Liff\" to \"The Meaning of Life\". Principal photography began on 12 July 1982 and was completed about two months later, on 11 September. A wide variety of locations were used, such as Porchester Hall in Queensway for the Mr Creosote sketch, where hundreds of pounds of fake vomit had to be cleaned up on the last day due to a wedding being scheduled hours later. The Malham Moors were chosen for the Grim Reaper segment; the countryside near Strathblane was used for the Zulu War; and \"Every Sperm Is Sacred\" was shot in Colne, Lancashire with interiors done at Elstree Studios. The film was produced on a budget of less than US$10 million, which was still bigger than that of the earlier films. This allowed for large-scale choreography and crowd sequences, a more lavishly produced soundtrack that included new original songs, and much more time able to be spent on each sketch, especially \"The Crimson Permanent Assurance\". Palin later said that the larger budget, and not making the film for the BBC (i.e., television), allowed the film to be more daring and dark. The idea for the hospital sketch came from Chapman, himself a doctor, who had noticed that hospitals were changing, with \"lots and lots of machinery\". According to Palin, the organ transplant scene harked back to Python's love of bureaucracy, and sketches with lots of people coming round from the council with different bits of paper. During the filming of the scene where Palin's character explains Catholicism to his children, his line was \"that rubber thing at the end of my \"sock\"\", which was later overdubbed with \"cock\".", "The short film \"The Crimson Permanent Assurance\" introduces the feature. It is about a group of elderly office clerks working in a small accounting firm. They rebel against yuppie corporate masters, transform their office building into a pirate ship, and raid a large financial district. One of the boardrooms raided reappears later in the film, from shortly before the attack begins until the narrator apologises and a skyscraper falls and crushes the marauders. The short was intended as an animated sequence in the feature, for placement at the end of Part V. Gilliam convinced the other members of Monty Python to allow him to produce and direct it as a live action piece instead.", "The original tagline read \"It took God six days to create the Heavens and the Earth, and Monty Python just 90 minutes to screw it up\" (the length of \"The Meaning of Life\" proper is 90 minutes, but becomes 107 minutes as released with the \"Short Subject Presentation\", \"The Crimson Permanent Assurance\"). In an April 2012 re-release held by the American Film Institute, the tagline is altered to read \"It took God six days to create the Heavens and the Earth, and Monty Python just 1 hour and 48 minutes to screw it up\". Ireland banned the film on its original release as it had previously done with \"Monty Python's Life of Brian\", but later rated it 15 when it was released on video. In the United Kingdom the film was rated 18 when released in the cinema and on its first release on video, but was re-rated 15 in 2000. In the United States the film is rated R.", "", "The film opened in North America on 31 March 1983. At 257 cinemas it ranked number six at the US box office, grossing US$1,987,853 ($7,734 per screen) in its opening weekend. It played at 554 cinemas at its widest point, and its total North American gross was $14,929,552.", "Roger Ebert of the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" gave the film two and a half stars out of four, calling it a \"a barbed, uncompromising attack on generally observed community standards\". In \"The New York Times\", Vincent Canby declared it \"the \"Ben Hur\" of sketch films, which is to say that it's a tiny bit out of proportion\", concluding it was amusing, but he wished it were consistently amusing. \"Variety\" staff assessed it as disgusting, ridiculous, tactless, but above all, amusing. Gene Siskel of the \"Chicago Tribune\" awarded 3 stars out of 4, calling it \"fresh and original and delightfully offensive. What more can you ask of a comedy?\" Sheila Benson of the \"Los Angeles Times\" wrote that the film was full of \"raunchy talk, blasphemy (well, sacrilege) and one example of what kids call a totally \"gnarly,\" gross-out scene. The problem for the reviewer (to be specific, this reviewer) is when you are laughing this much it makes logging all the fast-flying offenses almost impossible.\" Gary Arnold of \"The Washington Post\" was negative, writing that \"The strongest impressions left by this picture have less to do with its largely tedious attempts to burlesque human weakness and pomposity than with the group's failure to evolve a coherent satiric outlook.\" A review by Steve Jenkins in \"The Monthly Film Bulletin\" was also negative, writing that the return to a sketch format constituted a \"great leap backwards\" for the troupe and that the film's outrageous moments \"cannot disguise the overall air of \"déjà vu\" and playing it safe.\" In 2007, \"Empire\"s Ian Nathan rated it three of five stars, describing it as \"too piecemeal and unfocused, but it possesses some of their most iconic musings and inspired madness\". In 2014, \"The Daily Telegraph\" gave the film four stars out of five. In his \"2015 Movie Guide\", Leonard Maltin awarded it three stars, calling it \"A barrel of bellylaughs\", identifying the Mr. Creosote and \"Every Sperm Is Sacred\" sketches as the most memorable. \"Family Guy\" creator Seth MacFarlane states: “I view Monty Python as the great originator of that combination [provocative humour and high-quality original music]. \"The Meaning of Life\" in particular comes to mind, and my favorite example is \"Every Sperm Is Sacred.\" It's so beautifully written, it's musically and lyrically legit, the orchestrations are fantastic, the choreography and the presentation are very, very complex – it's treated seriously.\" The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 86%, based on 35 reviews, with an average rating of 7.3/10.", "\"The Meaning of Life\" was awarded the Grand Jury Prize at the 1983 Cannes Film Festival. While the Cannes jury, led by William Styron, were fiercely split on their opinions on several films in competition, \"The Meaning of Life\" had general support, securing it the second-highest honour after the Palme d'Or for \"The Ballad of Narayama\". At the 37th British Academy Film Awards, Andre Jacquemin, Dave Howman, Michael Palin and Terry Jones were also nominated for Original Song for \"Every Sperm is Sacred.\" The award went to \"Up Where We Belong\" in \"An Officer and a Gentleman\".", "A two-disc DVD release in 2003 features a documentary on production and a director's cut, which adds deleted scenes into the film, making it 116 minutes. The first is \"The Adventures of Martin Luther\", inserted after the scene with the Protestant couple talking about condoms. The second is a promotional video about the British army, which comes between the marching around the square scene and the Zulu army scene. The third and last is an extension of the American characters performed by Idle and Palin; they are shown their room and talk about tampons. In Region 1, it was released on Blu-ray to mark its 30th anniversary. In May 2020, it was released on Netflix in the United Kingdom." ] }

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{ "title": [ "General description.", "History.", "Protocol.", "802.11-1997 (802.11 legacy).", "802.11a (OFDM waveform).", "802.11b.", "802.11g.", "802.11-2007.", "802.11n.", "802.11-2012.", "802.11ac.", "802.11ad.", "802.11af.", "802.11-2016.", "802.11ah.", "802.11ai.", "802.11aj.", "802.11aq.", "802.11ax.", "802.11ay.", "802.11be.", "Common misunderstandings about achievable throughput.", "Channels and frequencies.", "Channel spacing within the 2.4 GHz band.", "Regulatory domains and legal compliance.", "Layer 2 – Datagrams.", "Management frames.", "Control frames.", "Data frames.", "Standards and amendments.", "In process.", "Standard vs. amendment.", "Nomenclature.", "Security.", "Non-standard 802.11 extensions and equipment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The 802.11 family consists of a series of half-duplex over-the-air modulation techniques that use the same basic protocol. The 802.11 protocol family employs carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance whereby equipment listens to a channel for other users (including non 802.11 users) before transmitting each packet. 802.11-1997 was the first wireless networking standard in the family, but 802.11b was the first widely accepted one, followed by 802.11a, 802.11g, 802.11n, and 802.11ac. Other standards in the family (c–f, h, j) are service amendments that are used to extend the current scope of the existing standard, which may also include corrections to a previous specification. 802.11b and 802.11g use the 2.4 GHz ISM band, operating in the United States under Part 15 of the U.S. Federal Communications Commission Rules and Regulations; 802.11n can also use that band. Because of this choice of frequency band, 802.11b/g/n equipment may occasionally suffer interference in the 2.4 GHz band from", "802.11 technology has its origins in a 1985 ruling by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission that released the ISM band for unlicensed use. In 1991 NCR Corporation/AT&T (now Nokia Labs and LSI Corporation) invented a precursor to 802.11 in Nieuwegein, the Netherlands. The inventors initially intended to use the technology for cashier systems. The first wireless products were brought to the market under the name WaveLAN with raw data rates of 1 Mbit/s", "", "The original version of the standard IEEE 802.11 was released in 1997 and clarified in 1999, but is now obsolete. It specified two net bit rates of 1 or 2 megabits per second (Mbit/s), plus forward error correction code. It specified three alternative physical layer technologies: diffuse infrared", "802.11a, published in 1999, uses the same data link layer protocol and frame format as the original standard, but an OFDM based air interface (physical layer). It operates in the 5 GHz band with a maximum net data rate of 54 Mbit/s, plus error correction code, which yields realistic net achievable throughput in the mid-20 Mbit/s. It has seen widespread worldwide implementation, particularly within the corporate workspace. Since the 2.4 GHz band is heavily used to the point", "The 802.11b standard has a maximum raw data rate of 11 Mbit/s (Megabits per second), and uses the same media access method defined in the original standard. 802.11b products appeared on the market in early 2000, since 802.11b is a direct extension of the modulation technique defined in the original standard. The dramatic increase in throughput of 802.11b (compared", "In June 2003, a third modulation standard was ratified: 802.11g. This works in the 2.4 GHz band (like 802.11b), but uses the same OFDM based transmission scheme as 802.11a. It operates at a maximum physical layer bit rate of 54 Mbit/s exclusive of forward error correction codes, or about 22 Mbit/s average throughput. 802.11g hardware is fully backward compatible with 802.11b hardware, and therefore is encumbered with legacy issues that reduce throughput by ~21% when compared", "In 2003, task group TGma was authorized to \"roll up\" many of the amendments to the 1999 version of the 802.11 standard. REVma or 802.11ma, as", "802.11n is an amendment that improves upon the previous 802.11 standards, that had the first draft of certification published in 2006. The 802.11n standard was retroactively labelled as Wi-Fi 4 by the Wi-Fi Alliance. The standard added support for multiple-input multiple-output antennas (MIMO). 802.11n operates on", "In May 2007, task group TGmb was authorized to \"roll up\" many of the amendments to the 2007 version of the 802.11 standard. REVmb or 802.11mb, as it was called, created a single", "IEEE 802.11ac-2013 is an amendment to IEEE 802.11, published in December 2013, that builds on 802.11n. The 802.11ac standard was retroactively labelled as Wi-Fi 5 by Wi-Fi Alliance. Changes compared to 802.11n include wider channels (80 or 160 MHz versus 40 MHz) in the 5 GHz band, more spatial streams (up to eight versus four), higher-order modulation (up to 256-QAM vs. 64-QAM), and the addition of Multi-user MIMO (MU-MIMO). The Wi-Fi", "IEEE 802.11ad is an amendment that defines a new physical layer for 802.11 networks to operate in the 60 GHz millimeter wave spectrum. This frequency band has significantly different propagation characteristics than the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands where Wi-Fi networks operate. Products implementing the 802.11ad standard are being brought to market under the WiGig brand name.", "IEEE 802.11af, also referred to as \"White-Fi\" and \"Super Wi-Fi\", is an amendment, approved in February 2014, that allows WLAN operation in TV white space spectrum in the VHF and UHF bands between 54 and 790 MHz. It uses cognitive radio technology to transmit on unused TV channels, with the standard taking measures to limit interference for primary users, such as analog TV, digital TV, and wireless microphones. Access points and stations determine their position using a satellite positioning system such as GPS, and use the Internet to query a geolocation database (GDB) provided by a regional regulatory agency to discover what frequency channels", "IEEE 802.11-2016 which was known as IEEE 802.11 REVmc, is a revision based on IEEE 802.11-2012, incorporating 5 amendments (11ae,", "IEEE 802.11ah, published in 2017, defines a WLAN system operating at sub-1 GHz license-exempt bands. Due to the favorable propagation characteristics of the low frequency spectra, 802.11ah can provide improved transmission range compared with the conventional 802.11", "IEEE 802.11ai is an amendment to the 802.11", "IEEE 802.11aj is a rebanding of 802.11ad for use in the 45 GHz", "IEEE 802.11aq is an amendment to the 802.11 standard that will enable pre-association discovery of services. This", "IEEE 802.11ax (marketed as Wi-Fi 6 by the Wi-Fi Alliance) is the successor to 802.11ac, and will increase the efficiency of WLAN networks. Currently in development, this project has the goal of providing 4x the throughput of 802.11ac at the user layer, having just 37% higher nominal data rates at the PHY layer. In the previous amendment of 802.11 (namely 802.11ac), Multi-User MIMO has been introduced, which is a spatial multiplexing technique. MU-MIMO allows the Access Point to form beams towards each Client, while transmitting information simultaneously. By doing so, the interference between Clients is reduced, and the overall throughput is increased, since multiple Clients can receive data at the same time. With 802.11ax, a similar", "IEEE 802.11ay is a standard that is being developed. It is an amendment that defines a new physical layer for 802.11 networks to operate in the 60 GHz millimeter wave spectrum. It will be", "IEEE 802.11be Extremely High Throughput (EHT) is the potential next amendment of the 802.11 IEEE standard. It will", "Across all variations of 802.11, maximum achievable throughputs are given either based on measurements under ideal conditions or in the layer-2 data rates. However, this does not apply to typical deployments in which data is being transferred between two endpoints, of which at least one is typically connected to a wired infrastructure and the other endpoint is connected to an infrastructure via a wireless link. This means that, typically, data frames pass an 802.11 (WLAN) medium, and are being converted to 802.3 (Ethernet) or vice versa. Due to the difference in the frame (header) lengths of these two media, the application's packet size determines the speed of", "802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11n-2.4 utilize the spectrum, one of the ISM bands. 802.11a, 802.11n and 802.11ac use the more heavily regulated band. These are commonly referred to as the \"2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands\" in most sales literature. Each spectrum is sub-divided into \"channels\" with a center frequency and bandwidth, analogous to the way radio and TV broadcast bands are sub-divided. The 2.4 GHz band is divided into 14 channels spaced 5 MHz apart, beginning with channel 1, which is centered on 2.412 GHz. The latter channels have additional restrictions or are unavailable for use in some regulatory domains. The channel numbering of the spectrum is less intuitive due to the differences in regulations between countries. These are discussed in greater detail on the list of WLAN channels.", "In addition to specifying the channel center frequency, 802.11 also specifies (in Clause 17) a spectral mask defining the permitted power distribution across each channel. The mask requires the signal be attenuated a minimum of 20 dB from its peak amplitude at ±11 MHz from the centre frequency, the point at which a channel is effectively 22 MHz wide. One consequence is that stations can use only every fourth or fifth channel without overlap. Availability of channels is regulated by country, constrained in part by how each country allocates radio spectrum to various services. At one extreme, Japan permits the use of all 14 channels for 802.11b, and for 802.11g/n-2.4. Other countries such as Spain initially allowed only channels 10 and 11, and France allowed only 10, 11, 12, and 13; however, Europe now allow channels 1 through 13. North America and some Central and South American countries allow only Since the spectral mask defines only power output restrictions up to ±11 MHz from the center frequency to be attenuated by −50 dBr, it is often assumed that the energy of the channel extends no further than these limits. It is more correct to say that, given", "IEEE uses the phrase \"regdomain\" to refer to a legal regulatory region. Different countries define different levels of allowable transmitter power, time that a channel can be occupied, and different available channels. Domain codes are specified for the United States, Canada, ETSI (Europe), Spain, France, Japan, and China.", "The datagrams are called \"frames\". Current 802.11 standards specify frame types for use in transmission of data as well as management and control of wireless links. Frames are divided into very specific and standardized sections. Each frame consists of a \"MAC header\", \"payload\", and \"frame check sequence\" (FCS). Some frames may not have a payload. The first two bytes of the MAC header form a frame control field specifying the form and function of the frame. This frame control field is subdivided into the following sub-fields: The next two bytes are reserved for the Duration ID field that indicates how long the field's transmission will take so other devices know when the channel will be available again. This field can take one of three forms: Duration, Contention-Free Period (CFP), and Association ID (AID). An 802.11 frame can have up to four address fields. Each field can carry a MAC address. Address 1 is the receiver, Address 2 is the transmitter, Address 3 is used for filtering purposes by the receiver. Address 4 is only present in data frames transmitted between access points in an Extended Service Set or between intermediate nodes in a mesh network. The remaining fields of the header are: The payload or frame body field is variable in size, from 0 to 2304 bytes plus any overhead from security encapsulation, and contains information from higher layers. The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) is the last four bytes in the standard 802.11 frame. Often referred to as the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC), it allows for integrity check of retrieved frames. As frames are about to be sent, the FCS is calculated and appended. When a station receives a frame, it can calculate the FCS of the frame and compare it to the one received. If they match, it is assumed that the frame was not distorted during transmission.", "Management frames are not always authenticated, and allow for the maintenance, or discontinuance, of communication. Some common 802.11 subtypes include:", "Control frames facilitate in the exchange of", "Data frames carry packets from web pages, files, etc. within the body. The body begins with an IEEE 802.2 header, with the Destination Service Access Point (DSAP) specifying the protocol, followed by a Subnetwork Access Protocol (SNAP) header if the DSAP is hex AA, with the organizationally unique identifier (OUI) and protocol ID (PID) fields specifying the protocol. If the OUI is all zeroes, the protocol ID field is an EtherType value. Almost all 802.11 data frames use 802.2", "Within the IEEE 802.11 Working Group, the following IEEE Standards Association Standard and Amendments exist:", "802.11F and 802.11T are recommended practices rather than standards, and are capitalized as", "Both the terms \"standard\" and \"amendment\" are used when referring to the different variants of IEEE standards. As far as the IEEE Standards Association is concerned, there is only one current standard; it is denoted by IEEE 802.11 followed by the date that it was published. IEEE 802.11-2016 is the only version currently in publication, superseding previous releases. The", "Various terms in 802.11 are used to specify aspects of wireless local-area networking operation, and may be unfamiliar to some readers. For example, Time Unit (usually abbreviated TU) is used to indicate a", "In 2001, a group from the University of California, Berkeley presented a paper describing weaknesses in the 802.11 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) security mechanism defined in the original standard; they were followed by Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir's paper titled \"Weaknesses in the Key Scheduling Algorithm of RC4\". Not long after, Adam Stubblefield and AT&T publicly announced the first verification of the attack. In the attack, they were able to intercept transmissions and gain unauthorized access to wireless networks. The IEEE set up a dedicated task group to create a replacement security solution, 802.11i (previously this work was handled as part of a broader 802.11e effort to enhance the MAC layer). The Wi-Fi Alliance announced an interim specification called Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) based on a subset of the then current IEEE 802.11i draft. These started to appear in products in mid-2003. IEEE 802.11i (also known", "Many companies implement wireless networking equipment with non-IEEE standard 802.11 extensions either by implementing proprietary or draft features. These changes may lead to incompatibilities between these extensions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Photophone.", "Electric wireless technology.", "Early wireless.", "Radio waves.", "Wireless revolution.", "Modes.", "Radio.", "Free-space optical.", "Sonic.", "Electromagnetic induction.", "Services.", "Electromagnetic spectrum.", "Applications.", "Mobile telephones.", "Data communications.", "Peripherals.", "Energy transfer.", "Medical technologies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The first wireless telephone conversation occurred in 1880, when Alexander Graham Bell and Charles Sumner Tainter invented the photophone, a telephone that sent audio over a beam of light. The photophone required sunlight to operate, and a clear line of sight between transmitter and receiver. These factors greatly decreased the viability of the photophone in any practical use. It would be several decades before the photophone's principles found their first practical applications in military communications and later in fiber-optic communications.", "", "A number of wireless electrical signaling schemes including sending electric currents through water and the ground using electrostatic and electromagnetic induction were investigated for telegraphy in the late 19th century before practical radio systems became available. These included a patented induction system by Thomas Edison allowing a telegraph on a running train to connect with telegraph wires running parallel to the tracks, a William Preece induction telegraph system for sending messages across bodies of water, and several operational and proposed telegraphy and voice earth conduction systems. The Edison system was used by stranded trains during the Great Blizzard of 1888 and earth conductive systems found limited use between trenches during World War I but these systems were never successful economically.", "In 1894, Guglielmo Marconi began developing a wireless telegraph system using radio waves, which had been known about since proof of their existence in 1888 by Heinrich Hertz, but discounted as a communication format since they seemed, at the time, to be a short range phenomenon. Marconi soon developed a system that was transmitting signals way beyond distances anyone could have predicted (due in part to the signals bouncing off the then unknown ionosphere). Marconi and Karl Ferdinand Braun were awarded the 1909 Nobel Prize for Physics for their contribution to this form of wireless telegraphy. Millimetre wave communication was first investigated by Jagadish Chandra Bose during 18941896, when he reached an extremely high frequency of up to 60GHz in his experiments. He also introduced the use of semiconductor junctions to detect radio waves, when he patented the radio crystal detector in 1901.", "The wireless revolution began in the 1990s, with the advent of digital wireless networks leading to a social revolution, and a paradigm shift from wired to wireless technology, including the proliferation of commercial wireless technologies such as cell phones, mobile telephony, pagers, wireless computer networks, cellular networks, the wireless Internet, and laptop and handheld computers with wireless connections. The wireless revolution has been driven by advances in radio frequency (RF) and microwave engineering, and the transition from analog to digital RF technology, which enabled a substantial increase in voice traffic along with the delivery of digital data such as text messaging, images and streaming media. The core component of this revolution is the MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor). Power MOSFETs such as LDMOS (lateral-diffused MOS) are used in RF power amplifiers to boost RF signals to a level that enables long-distance wireless network access for consumers, while RF CMOS (radio frequency CMOS) circuits are used in radio transceivers to transmit and receive wireless signals at low cost and with low power consumption. The MOSFET is the basic building block of modern wireless networks, including mobile networks such as 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G. Most of the essential elements in modern wireless networks are built from MOSFETs, including the base station modules, routers, RF circuits, radio transceivers, transmitters, and RF power amplifiers. MOSFET scaling is also the primary factor behind rapidly increasing wireless network bandwidth, which has been doubling every 18 months, as noted by Edholm's law. The MOSFET was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. Its very large-scale integration (VLSI) capability led to wide adoption for digital integrated circuit chips by the early 1970s, but it was initially not the most effective transistor for analog RF technology where the older bipolar junction transistor (BJT) remained dominant up until the 1980s. A gradual shift began with the emergence of power MOSFETs, which are discrete MOS power devices designed for power electronic applications, including the vertical power MOSFET by Hitachi in 1969, the VDMOS (vertical-diffused MOS) by John Moll's research team at HP Labs in 1977, and the LDMOS by Hitachi in 1977. MOSFETs began to be used for RF applications in the 1970s. RF CMOS, which are RF circuits that use mixed-signal (digital and analog) MOS integrated circuit technology and are fabricated using the CMOS process, was later developed by Asad Abidi at UCLA in the late 1980s. By the early 1990s, the MOSFET had replaced the BJT as the core component of RF technology, leading to a revolution in wireless technology. There was a rapid growth of the wireless telecommunications industry towards the end of the 20th century, primarily due to the introduction of digital signal processing in wireless communications, driven by the development of low-cost, very large-scale integration (VLSI) RF CMOS technology. Power MOSFET devices, particularly the LDMOS, also became the standard RF power amplifier technology, which led to the development and proliferation of digital wireless networks. RF CMOS integrated circuits enabled sophisticated, low-cost and portable end-user terminals, and gave rise to small, low-cost, low-power and portable units for a wide range of wireless communication systems. This enabled \"anytime, anywhere\" communication and helped bring about the wireless revolution, leading to the rapid growth of the wireless industry. RF CMOS is used in the radio transceivers of all modern wireless networking devices and mobile phones, and is widely used to transmit and receive wireless signals in a variety of applications, such as satellite technology (e.g. GPS), bluetooth, Wi-Fi, near-field communication (NFC), mobile networks (e.g. 3G and 4G), terrestrial broadcast, and automotive radar applications, among other uses. In recent years, an important contribution to the growth of wireless communication networks has been interference alignment, which was discovered by Syed Ali Jafar at the University of California, Irvine. According to Paul Horn, this has \"revolutionized our understanding of the capacity limits of wireless networks\" and \"demonstrated the astounding result that each user in a wireless network can access half of the spectrum without interference from other users, regardless of how many users are sharing the spectrum\".", "\"Wireless communications\" can be via:", "Radio and microwave communication carry information by modulating properties of electromagnetic waves transmitted through space.", "Free-space optical communication (FSO) is an optical communication technology that uses light propagating in free space to transmit wirelessly data for telecommunications or computer networking. \"Free space\" means the light beams travel through the open air or outer space. This contrasts with other communication technologies that use light beams traveling through transmission lines such as optical fiber or dielectric \"light pipes\". The technology is useful where physical connections are impractical due to high costs or other considerations. For example, free space optical links are used in cities between office buildings which are not wired for networking, where the cost of running cable through the building and under the street would be prohibitive. Another widely used example is consumer IR devices such as remote controls and IrDA (Infrared Data Association) networking, which is used as an alternative to WiFi networking to allow laptops, PDAs, printers, and digital cameras to exchange data.", "Sonic, especially ultrasonic short range communication involves the transmission and reception of sound.", "Electromagnetic induction only allows short-range communication and power transmission. It has been used in biomedical situations such as pacemakers, as well as for short-range RFID tags.", "Common examples of wireless equipment include:", "AM and FM radios and other electronic devices make use of the electromagnetic spectrum. The frequencies of the radio spectrum that are available for use for communication are treated as a public resource and are regulated by organizations such as the American Federal Communications Commission, Ofcom in the United Kingdom, the international ITU-R or the European ETSI. Their regulations determine which frequency ranges can be used for what purpose and by whom. In the absence of such control or alternative arrangements such as a privatized electromagnetic spectrum, chaos might result if, for example, airlines did not have specific frequencies to work under and an amateur radio operator was interfering with a pilot's ability to land an aircraft. Wireless communication spans the spectrum from 9 kHz to 300 GHz.", "", "One of the best-known examples of wireless technology is the mobile phone, also known as a cellular phone, with more than 6.6 billion mobile cellular subscriptions worldwide as of the end of 2010. These wireless phones use radio waves from signal-transmission towers to enable their users to make phone calls from many locations worldwide. They can be used within range of the mobile telephone site used to house the equipment required to transmit and receive the radio signals from these instruments.", "Wireless data communications allows wireless networking between desktop computers, laptops, tablet computers, cell phones and other related devices. The various available technologies differ in local availability, coverage range and performance, and in some circumstances users employ multiple connection types and switch between them using connection manager software or a mobile VPN to handle the multiple connections as a secure, single virtual network. Supporting technologies include: Wireless data communications are used to span a distance beyond the capabilities of typical cabling in point-to-point communication and point-to-multipoint communication, to provide a backup communications link in case of normal network failure, to link portable or temporary workstations, to overcome situations where normal cabling is difficult or financially impractical, or to remotely connect mobile users or networks.", "Peripheral devices in computing can also be connected wirelessly, as part of a Wi-Fi network or directly via an optical or radio-frequency (RF) peripheral interface. Originally these units used bulky, highly local transceivers to mediate between a computer and a keyboard and mouse; however, more recent generations have used smaller, higher-performance devices. Radio-frequency interfaces, such as Bluetooth or Wireless USB, provide greater ranges of efficient use, usually up to 10 feet, but distance, physical obstacles, competing signals, and even human bodies can all degrade the signal quality. Concerns about the security of wireless keyboards arose at the end of 2007, when it was revealed that Microsoft's implementation of encryption in some of its 27 MHz models was highly insecure.", "Wireless energy transfer is a process whereby electrical energy is transmitted from a power source to an electrical load that does not have a built-in power source, without the use of interconnecting wires. There are two different fundamental methods for wireless energy transfer. Energy can be transferred using either far-field methods that involve beaming power/lasers, radio or microwave transmissions or near-field using electromagnetic induction. Wireless energy transfer may be combined with wireless information transmission in what is known as Wireless Powered Communication.", "New wireless technologies, such as mobile body area networks (MBAN), have the capability to monitor blood pressure, heart rate, oxygen level and body temperature. The MBAN works by sending low powered wireless signals to receivers that feed into nursing stations or monitoring sites. This technology helps with the intentional and unintentional risk of infection or disconnection that arise from wired connections." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "In computer networking, broadcasting refers to transmitting a packet that will be received by every device on the network. In practice, the scope of the broadcast is limited to a broadcast domain. Broadcasting a message is in contrast to unicast addressing in which a host sends datagrams to another single host identified by a unique address. Broadcasting is the most general communication method, and is also the most intensive in the sense that many messages may be required and many network devices are involved. Broadcasting may be performed as \"all scatter\" in which each sender performs its own scatter in which the messages are distinct for each receiver, or \"all broadcast\" in which they are the same. The MPI message passing method which is the de facto standard on large computer clusters includes the MPI_Alltoall method. Not all network technologies support broadcast addressing; for example, neither X.25 nor frame relay have broadcast capability, nor is there any form of Internet-wide broadcast. Broadcasting is largely confined to local area network (LAN) technologies, most notably Ethernet and token ring, where the performance impact of broadcasting is not as large as it would be in a wide area network. The successor to Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4), IPv6 also does not implement the broadcast method, so as to prevent disturbing all nodes in a network when only a few may be interested in a particular service. Instead it relies on multicast addressing - a conceptually similar \"one-to-many\" routing methodology. However, multicasting limits the pool of receivers to those that join a specific multicast receiver group. Both Ethernet and IPv4 use an all-ones broadcast address to indicate a broadcast packet. Token Ring uses a special value in the IEEE 802.2 control field. Broadcasting may be abused to perform a type of DoS-attack known as a Smurf attack. The attacker sends fake ping requests with the source IP-address of the victim computer. The victim computer is flooded by the replies from all computers in the domain." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Effects on Australia's ecology.", "Control measures.", "Common control measures.", "Fences.", "Queensland.", "Western Australia.", "Biological measures.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Rabbits were first introduced to Australia by the First Fleet in 1788. They were bred as food animals, probably in cages. In the first decades, they do not appear to have been numerous, judging from their absence from archaeological collections of early colonial food remains. However, by 1827 in Tasmania, a newspaper article noted \"...the common rabbit is becoming so numerous throughout the colony, that they are running about on some large estates by thousands. We understand, that there are no rabbits whatever in the elder colony\" i.e., New South Wales (NSW). This clearly shows a localised rabbit population explosion was underway in Tasmania in the early 19th century. At the same time in NSW, Cunningham noted, \"... rabbits are bred around houses, but we have yet no wild ones in enclosures...\" He also noted the scrubby, sandy rubble between Sydney and Botany Bay would be ideal for farming rabbits. Enclosures appear to mean more extensive rabbit-farming warrens, rather than cages. The first of these, in Sydney at least, was one built by Alexander Macleay at Elizabeth Bay House, \"a preserve or rabbit-warren, surrounded by a substantial stone wall, and well stocked with that choice game.\" In the 1840s, rabbit-keeping became even more common, with examples of the theft of rabbits from ordinary peoples' houses appearing in court records and rabbits entering the diets of ordinary people. In 1857–1858, Alexander Buchanan, overseer for F. H. Dutton's Anlaby Estate in the Mid-North of South Australia, released a number of rabbits for hunting sport. Their population remained fairly stable until around 1866, presumed to have been kept in check by native carnivores and were protected by an Act of Parliament, but by 1867 was out of control. The population explosion was ascribed to the disappearance of native predators, but the emergence of a hardier breed by natural selection has subsequently been attributed to their spread. The current infestation appears to have originated with the release of 24 wild rabbits by Thomas Austin for hunting purposes in October 1859, on his property, Barwon Park, near Winchelsea, Victoria. While living in England, Austin had been an avid hunter, regularly dedicating his weekends to rabbit shooting. Upon arriving in Australia, which had no native rabbit population, Austin asked his nephew William Austin in England to send him 12 grey rabbits, five hares, 72 partridges, and some sparrows so he could continue his hobby in Australia by creating a local population of the species. At the time, he had stated, \"The introduction of a few rabbits could do little harm and might provide a touch of home, in addition to a spot of hunting\". William could not source enough grey rabbits to meet his uncle's order, so he topped it up by buying domestic rabbits. One theory as to why the Barwon Park rabbits adapted so well to Australia is that the hybrid rabbits that resulted from the interbreeding of the two distinct types were much more suited to Australian conditions. Many other farms released their rabbits into the wild after Austin. The rabbits were extremely prolific creatures and spread rapidly across the southern parts of the country. Australia had ideal conditions for a rabbit population explosion. With mild winters, rabbits were able to breed the entire year. With widespread farming, areas that might otherwise have been scrub or woodlands were, instead, turned into vast areas with low vegetation, creating ideal habitats for rabbits. In a classic example of unintended consequences, rabbits had become so prevalent within 10 years of their introduction in 1859 that two million could be shot or trapped annually without having any noticeable effect on the population. It was the fastest spread ever recorded of any mammal anywhere in the world. Today, rabbits are entrenched in the southern and central areas of the country, with scattered populations in the northern deserts. Although the rabbit is a notorious pest, it proved useful to many people during the depressions of the 1890s and 1930s and during wartime. Trapping rabbits helped farmers, stockmen, and stationhands by providing food and extra income, and in some cases helped pay off farming debts. Rabbits were fed to working dogs and boiled to be fed to poultry. Later, frozen rabbit carcasses were traded locally and exported. Pelts, too, were used in the fur trade and are still used in the felt-hat industry.", "Since their introduction from Europe in the 19th century, the effect of rabbits on the ecology of Australia has been devastating. They are suspected of being the most significant known factor in species loss in Australia. Rabbits are believed to have had an immense impact on the abundance of natural resource availability, primarily concerning overgrazing. The rabbits would first deplete the natural pasture vegetation, and would then resort to consuming woody vegetation, which included small shrubs, and the leaves and bark of trees. The extent of plant species' loss is unknown at this time, though rabbits are known to often kill young trees in orchards, forests, and on properties by ringbarking them. Rabbits are also responsible for serious erosion problems, as they eat native plants, leaving the topsoil exposed and vulnerable to sheet, gully, and wind erosion. The removal of this topsoil is devastating to the land, as it takes many hundreds of years to regenerate.", "By 1887, losses from rabbit damage compelled the New South Wales government to offer a £25,000 reward for \"any method of success not previously known in the Colony for the effectual extermination of rabbits\". The commission received 1456 suggestions, including several schemes involving biological controls (see below), but none was found to be both safe and effective. A Royal Commission was held to investigate the situation in 1901. Once the problem was understood, various control methods were tried to limit or reduce the population of rabbits in Australia. These methods had limited success until the introduction of biological control methods in the latter half of the 20th century.", "Shooting rabbits is one of the most common control methods and can successfully be used to keep already low populations in check whilst providing food for people or pets, though it is ineffective for large-scale eradication. Destroying warrens through ripping (a procedure wherein rabbits are dismembered or buried alive as a bulldozer dragging sharp tines is driven over their warrens/burrows), ploughing, blasting, and fumigating is widely used, especially on large farms (known as \"stations\"). The sandy soil in many parts of Australia makes ripping and ploughing a viable method of control, and both tractors and bulldozers are used for this operation. Poisoning is probably the most widely used of the conventional techniques, as it requires the least effort, and capable of destroying a local population, though reinfestation given the mobility of the animal is almost inevitable. Laying baits of pollard laced with a phosphorus-based poison, such as \"S.A.P.\" manufactured by Sayers, Allport & Potter, was an early method. The advantage of phosphorus is that in dry weather, assuming it has not been laid in clumps (obviated by use of a poison cart), it soon degrades to innocuous phosphoric acid and presents no further danger to livestock or pets. It does, however, present a real fire risk, and concentrated fumes can be toxic to operators. More modern poisons for rabbit control are sodium fluoroacetate (\"1080\") and pindone. Another technique is hunting using ferrets, wherein ferrets are deployed to chase the rabbits out to be shot or into nets set over the burrows. Since the number of rabbits ferrets can kill is limited, this is more a hunting activity than a serious control method. Although ferrets and other mustelid species are used as control measures, Australia has significantly fewer wild mustelids to prey on the invasive rabbits while in their warrens or burrows compared to Europe and the United States. Historically, trapping was also frequently used; steel-jawed leg-holding traps were banned in most states in the 1980s on animal-cruelty grounds, though trapping continues at a lower level using rubber-jawed traps. All of these techniques are limited to working only in settled areas and are quite labour-intensive.", "Ring-fencing can be highly effective way of providing a rabbit-free area. In the 1880s, James Moseley ringed Coondambo Station with wire netting and fenced off the watercourses; at the first heatwave, the rabbits perished of thirst. Shortly after 1900, he fenced off the deserted Yardea, Paney, Pondana, Yarloo, and Thurlga stations in the Gawler Ranges with of wire netting, turning them within a few years from degraded land overrun with rabbits into a profitable sheep run. Well-known modern examples, which also exclude foxes, dogs and cats are Warrawong and Yookamurra wildlife sanctuaries, pioneered by John Wamsley. Two well-known examples of much more extensive fences are:", "In 1893, a rabbit-proof fence was commenced in Queensland. It was progressively extended through the years. In 1997, a final segment was built connecting it to the Dingo Fence. It extends from Mount Gipps (near Rathdowney) to Goombi between Chinchilla and Miles.", "In 1907, the rabbit-proof fence was built in Western Australia between Cape Keraudren and Esperance to try to control the spread of the rabbit population from the east into Western Australian pastoral areas. Given that European rabbits can both jump very high and burrow underground, a perfectly intact fence stretching for hundreds of kilometres, and whose gates farmers or graziers did not leave open for livestock or machinery, was still unlikely to succeed. As such, the Number 1 Rabbit-Proof Fence, which was erected in 1901, failed to keep the rabbit population away from the protected area. Even after this large scale fence had failed, smaller scale fencing projects continued to make a successful appearance.", "Releasing rabbit-borne diseases has proven somewhat successful in controlling the population of rabbits in Australia, but such success as has been achieved did not occur as quickly as was hoped. An offer by the New South Wales government of a £25,000 reward for a biological control of rabbits attracted the attention of Louis Pasteur, who proposed using the chicken cholera bacillus (now known as \"Pasteurella multocida\"). Although that measure did not prove viable, the association with Pasteur accelerated the introduction of microbiology into Australia. On 16 April 1888, the New South Wales government appointed a royal commission \"to make a full and diligent inquiry as to whether or not the introduction of contagious diseases amongst rabbits by inoculation or otherwise, or the propagation of diseases natural to rabbits... will be accompanied or followed by danger to human health or life, or to animal life other than rabbits, or to interfere injuriously with the profitable carrying on of agricultural or pastoral pursuits...\" Under the aegis of the commission, tests were conducted at Rodd Island, and although rabbits who were given food adulterated with chicken cholera bacillus were killed, no evidence was found of the contagion spreading to healthy rabbits. In 1885, Professor Watson of Adelaide University suggested releasing rabbits inoculated with rabbit scab into an enclosed trial area. Limited trials suggested that the measure would be ineffective in the drier parts of the continent. In September 1887, Dr Herbert Butcher (1854–1893) of Wilcannia found a number of dead, emaciated rabbits at Tintinallogy Station. Dr H. Ellis of Sydney and he concluded that the animals had died of a novel disease, which they dubbed Tintinallogy virus. They felt it could be an effective control measure, but whatever the rabbits died from was never proved to be infectious or contagious. It may have been simple starvation caused by natural elements. In 1906 and 1907, Jean Danysz, of the Pasteur Institute of Paris, conducted trials on Broughton Island, New South Wales, of a strain of \"Pasteurella\" bacteria he had developed, which proved to be specific to rabbits, but it proved to be a less-than-satisfactory control measure. Dr Danysz felt that Broughton Island was a poor choice of test site, and that extensive experiments should be conducted on the mainland. Frank Tidswell, who was his chief Australian collaborator, continued Danysz's trials after he left in 1907, and also began trials of the Yalgogrin, Gundagai, and Picton microbes (named for the stations where infected rabbits were found), but financial support was lacking from the Federal government, or the collaboration of affected states, that would be necessary to prove that the measure safe and effective. The fact that these pathogens did not wipe out whole populations might have raised doubts as to their efficacy. In 1950, following research conducted by Frank Fenner, \"myxoma virus\" was deliberately released into the rabbit population, causing it to drop from an estimated 600 million to around 100 million. Growing genetic resistance in the remaining rabbits had allowed the population to recover to 200–300 million by 1991. To combat that trend, over three years from June 1991, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) comprehensively tested the potential ofa \" Calicivirus\", which causes rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD), for biological control of wild rabbits. The virus escaped from a quarantine compound on Wardang Island, South Australia, where the field tests were being carried out, and by late October 1995, it was recorded in rabbits at Yunta and Gum Creek, in north-eastern South Australia. By the winter of 1996, the virus was established in Victoria, New South Wales, the Northern Territory and Western Australia. The virus was discovered in these area by analyzing livers of dead rabbits. The success of the virus was found to be higher in dry areas, because of a benign calicivirus found in the colder, wetter areas of Australia, which was immunising rabbits against the more virulent form. A legal vaccine exists in Australia for RHD, but no cure is known for either myxomatosis or RHD, and many affected pets have to be euthanized. In Europe, where rabbits are farmed on a large scale, they are protected against myxomatosis and calicivirus with a genetically modified virus developed in Spain. A team headed by virologist Francisco Parra, working with the University of Oviedo, in Asturias, northern Spain, identified a new variant of the virus in 2012. The pathogen, a new strain of K5 (RHDV1), is both extremely lethal and highly contagious. In 2017, it was released by Australian authorities at around 600 points on the continent. Owners of domestic rabbits were advised to vaccinate their animals. In southern Europe, the scarcity of rabbits threatens the conservation of endangered predator species higher up the food chain, that depend on small game such as rabbits. These include the Iberian lynx and the Iberian imperial eagle. For this reason, biological warfare against rabbits in Australia is a serious concern for conservation activities in other parts of the world.", "Notes Further reading" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Ecology.", "Uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Pinus coulteri\" is a substantial coniferous evergreen tree in the genus \"Pinus\". The size ranges from tall, and a trunk diameter up to. The trunk is vertical and branches horizontal to upcurved. The leaves are needle-like, in bundles of three, glaucous gray-green, long and stout, thick. The outstanding characteristic of this tree is the large, spiny cones which are long, and weigh when fresh. Coulter pines produce the largest cones of any pine tree species (people are actually advised to wear hardhats when working in Coulter pine groves), although the slender cones of the sugar pine are longer. The large size of the cones has earned them the nickname \"widowmakers\" among locals.", "The Coulter pine is closely related to the foothill pine, \"Pinus sabiniana\". It is more distantly related to Jeffrey pine with which it shares habitats, and the ponderosa pine. Coulter pines tend to grow in drier environments than ponderosa and Jeffery pines. This erect, medium-sized pine prefers south-facing slopes between elevation, and tolerates dry rocky soil. \"Pinus coulteri\" most often appears in mixed forests. The Coulter pine occurs in a number of forest plant associations; for example, At higher elevations forestation of the San Jacinto Mountains Coulter Pine is co-dominant with the California black oak. Woodpeckers often forage on the species, and peel the bark to access insects underneath.", "Wildlife, especially squirrels, gather the large seeds. They were also once eaten by Native Americans. The wood is weak and soft, so that the species is little used other than for firewood. \"Pinus coulteri\" is cultivated as an ornamental tree, planted in parks and large gardens, and drought tolerant landscaping. The Coulter pine has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Development.", "Filming.", "Soundtrack.", "Release.", "Home media.", "Reception.", "Legacy.", "\"Spamalot\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "In AD 932, King Arthur and his squire, Patsy, travel throughout Britain searching for men to join the Knights of the Round Table. Along the way, Arthur debates whether swallows could carry coconuts, recounts receiving Excalibur from the Lady of the Lake, defeats the Black Knight and observes an impromptu witch trial. He recruits Sir Bedevere the Wise, Sir Lancelot the Brave, Sir Galahad the Pure and Sir Robin the Not-Quite-So-Brave-as-Sir-Lancelot, along with their squires and Robin's minstrels. Arthur leads the knights to Camelot, but upon further consideration (thanks to a musical number) he decides not to go there because it is \"a silly place\". As they turn away, God (an image of W. G. Grace) appears and orders Arthur to find the Holy Grail. Searching for the Grail, Arthur and his knights arrive at a castle occupied by French soldiers who claim to have the Grail and taunt the Englishmen, before driving them back with a barrage of barnyard animals. Bedevere concocts a plan to sneak in using a Trojan Rabbit, but no one hides inside it, and the Englishmen are forced to flee when the rabbit is flung back at them. Arthur decides the knights should go their separate ways to search for the Grail. A modern-day historian filming a documentary on the Arthurian legends is abruptly killed by an unknown knight on horseback, triggering a police investigation. On the knights' travels, Arthur and Bedevere are given directions by an old man in Scene 24 and then attempt to satisfy the strange requests of the dreaded Knights Who Say \"Ni!\". Sir Robin avoids a fight with a Three-Headed Knight by running away while the heads are arguing. Sir Galahad is led by a grail-shaped beacon to Castle Anthrax, populated by 150 young women, but is unwillingly \"rescued\" by Lancelot. Next, Lancelot receives an arrow-shot note from Swamp Castle and believes it to be from a lady being forced to marry against her will. He storms the castle and slaughters several members of the wedding party, only to discover the note was from an effeminate prince being coerced into marriage by his ambitious father. Arthur and his knights regroup and are joined by three new knights as well as Brother Maynard and his monk brethren. They meet Tim the Enchanter, who directs them to a cave where the location of the Grail is said to be written. The entrance to the cave is guarded by the Rabbit of Caerbannog. Fatally underestimating its lethal prowess, the knights attack the Rabbit, which easily kills Sirs Bors, Gawain and Ector. Arthur uses the \"Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch\", provided by Brother Maynard, to destroy the creature. Inside the cave, they find an inscription from Joseph of Arimathea, directing them to Castle Aarrgh. A giant animated cave monster devours Brother Maynard, but Arthur and the knights escape after the animator suffers a fatal heart attack, ending the beast's existence. The protagonists approach the Bridge of Death, whereupon the old man from Scene 24, who is the bridge-keeper, challenges them to correctly answer three questions to pass or they will be cast into the Gorge of Eternal Peril. Lancelot goes first, easily answers the elementary questions and crosses. Robin is done in by an unexpectedly difficult third question, and Galahad misses the answer to an easy one; both are flung into the gorge. The bridge keeper's final question is \"What is the air-speed velocity of an unladen swallow?\" Arthur responds with a question of his own, which the bridge keeper cannot answer, and is thrown in as well. Upon crossing the bridge, Arthur and Bedevere cannot find Lancelot, unaware he has been arrested by police investigating the historian's death. Arthur and Bedevere reach Castle Aarrgh, only to find it occupied by the same French soldiers who taunted them previously. After being repelled by showers of manure, they summon an army of knights and prepare to assault the castle. Just as the army charges, police arrive and arrest Arthur and Bedevere for the historian's death. The film ends with an officer breaking the camera.", "", "Fifteen months before the BBC visited the set in May 1974, the Monty Python troupe assembled the first version of the screenplay. When half of the resulting material was set in the Middle Ages, and half was set in the present day, the group opted to focus on the Middle Ages, revolving on the legend of the Holy Grail. By the fourth or fifth version of their screenplay, the story was complete, and the cast joked the fact that the Grail was never retrieved would be \"a big let-down... a great anti-climax\". Graham Chapman said a challenge was incorporating scenes that did not fit the Holy Grail motif. Neither Terry Gilliam nor Terry Jones had directed a film before, and described it as a learning experience in which they would learn to make a film by making an entire full-length film. The cast humorously described the novice directing style as employing the level of mutual disrespect always found in Monty Python's work. The film's initial budget of approximately £200,000 was raised by convincing 10 separate investors to contribute £20,000 apiece. Three of those investors were the rock bands Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin and Genesis, who were persuaded to help fund the film by Tony Stratton-Smith, head of Charisma Records (the record label that released Python's early comedy albums). According to Terry Gilliam, the Pythons turned to rock stars like Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin and Elton John for finance as the studios refused to fund the film and rock stars saw it as \"a good tax write-off\" due to UK income tax being \"as high as 90%\" at the time.", "\"Monty Python and the Holy Grail\" was mostly shot on location in Scotland, particularly around Doune Castle, Glen Coe, and the privately owned Castle Stalker. The many castles seen throughout the film were mainly either Doune Castle shot from different angles or hanging miniatures. There are several exceptions to this: the very first exterior shot of a castle at the beginning of the film is Kidwelly Castle in South Wales, and the single exterior shot of the Swamp Castle during \"Tale of Sir Lancelot\" is Bodiam Castle in East Sussex; all subsequent shots of the exterior and interior of those scenes were filmed at Doune Castle. Production designer Julian Doyle recounted that his crew constructed walls in the forest near Doune. Terry Jones later recalled the crew had selected more castles around Scotland for locations, but during the two weeks prior to principal photography, the Scottish Department of the Environment declined permission for use of the castles in its jurisdiction, for fear of damage. At the start of \"The Tale of Sir Robin\", there is a slow camera zoom in on rocky scenery (that in the voice-over is described as \"the dark forest of Ewing\"). This is actually a still photograph of the gorge at Mount Buffalo National Park in Victoria, Australia. Doyle stated in 2000 during an interview with \"Hotdog\" magazine that it was a still image filmed with candles underneath the frame (to give a heat haze). This was a low-cost method of achieving a convincing location effect. On the DVD audio commentary, Cleese described challenges shooting and editing Castle Anthrax in \"The Tale of Sir Galahad\", with what he felt the most comedic take being unused because an anachronistic coat was visible in it. Castle Anthrax was also shot in one part of Doune, where costume designer Hazel Pethig advised against nudity, dressing the girls in shifts. In the scene where the knights were combatting the Rabbit of Caerbannog, a real white rabbit was used, switched with puppets for its killings. It was covered with red liquid to simulate blood, though the rabbit's owner did not want the animal dirty and was kept unaware. The liquid was difficult to remove from the fur. He also stated that he thought that, had they been more experienced in filmmaking, the crew would have just purchased a rabbit instead. Otherwise, the rabbit himself was unharmed. Also, the rabbit-bite effects were done by special puppetry by both Gilliam and SFX technician John Horton. As chronicled in \"The Life of Python\", \"The First 20 Years of Monty Python\", and \"The Pythons' Autobiography\", Chapman suffered from acrophobia, trembling and bouts of forgetfulness during filming due to his alcoholism, prompting him to refrain from drinking while the production continued in order to remain \"on an even keel\". Nearly three years later, in December 1977, Chapman achieved sobriety. Originally the knight characters were going to ride real horses, but after it became clear that the film's small budget precluded real horses (except for a lone horse appearing in a couple of scenes), the Pythons decided their characters would mime horse-riding while their porters trotted behind them banging coconut shells together. The joke was derived from the old-fashioned sound effect used by radio shows to convey the sound of hooves clattering. This was later referred to in the German release of the film, which translated the title as \"Die Ritter der Kokosnuß\" (\"The Knights of the Coconut\"). The opening credits of the film feature pseudo-Swedish subtitles, which soon turn into an appeal to visit Sweden and see the country's moose. The subtitles are soon stopped, but moose references continue throughout the actual credits until the credits are stopped again and restarted in a different visual style and with references to llamas, animals often mentioned in \"Flying Circus\". The subtitles were written by Michael Palin as a way to \"entertain the 'captive' audience\" at the beginning of the film.", "In addition to several songs written by Python regular Neil Innes, several pieces of music were licensed from De Wolfe Music Library. These include:", "\"Monty Python and the Holy Grail\" had its theatrical debut in the United Kingdom in 3 April 1975, followed by a United States release on 27 April 1975. It was re-released on 14 October 2015 in the United Kingdom. The film had its television premiere 25 February 1977 on the \"CBS Late Movie\". Reportedly, the Pythons were displeased to discover a number of edits were done by the network to reduce use of profanity and the showing of blood. The troupe pulled back the rights and thereafter had it broadcast in the United States only on PBS and later other channels such as Comedy Central and IFC, where it runs uncut.", "In Region 1, The Criterion Collection released a LaserDisc version of the film featuring audio commentary from directors Jones and Gilliam. In 2001, Columbia Tristar published a two-disc, special-edition DVD. Disc one included two commentary tracks featuring Idle, Palin and Cleese in the first, and Jones and Gilliam in the second, and \"Subtitles for People Who Don't Like the Film\", consisting of lines taken from William Shakespeare's \"Henry IV, Part 2\". Disc two includes \"Monty Python and the Holy Grail in Lego\" (also known as \"Lego Knights\" or \"It's Only a Model\"), a \"brickfilm\" version of the \"Camelot Song\" as sung by Lego minifigures. It was created by Spite Your Face Productions on commission from the Lego Group and Python Pictures. The project was conceived by the original film's respective producer and co-director, John Goldstone and Terry Gilliam. Disc two also includes two scenes from the film's Japanese dub, literally translated back into English through subtitles. \"The Quest for the Holy Grail Locations\", hosted by Palin and Jones, shows places in Scotland used for the setting titled as \"England 932 A.D.\" (as well as the two Pythons purchasing a copy of their own script as a guide). Also included is a who's who page, advertising galleries and sing-alongs. A limited-edition DVD release additionally included a copy of the screenplay, a limited-edition film cell/senitype, and limited-edition art cards; however, a few of the bonus features from the 'Extraordinarily Deluxe Edition' were omitted. A 35th-anniversary edition on Blu-ray was released in the US on 6 March 2012. Special features include \"The Holy Book of Days,\" a second-screen experience that can be downloaded as an app on an iOS device and played with the Blu-ray to enhance its viewing, lost animation sequences with a new intro from animator Terry Gilliam, outtakes and extended scenes with Python member and the movie's co-director Terry Jones.", "Contemporary reviews were mixed. Vincent Canby of \"The New York Times\" wrote in a favourable review that the film had \"some low spots,\" but had gags which were \"nonstop, occasionally inspired and should not be divulged, though it's not giving away too much to say that I particularly liked a sequence in which the knights, to gain access to an enemy castle, come up with the idea of building a Trojan rabbit.\" Charles Champlin of the \"Los Angeles Times\" was also positive, writing that the film, \"like \"Mad\" comics, is not certain to please every taste. But its youthful exuberance and its rousing zaniness are hard not to like. As a matter of fact, the sense of fun is dangerously contagious.\" Penelope Gilliatt of \"The New Yorker\" called the film \"often recklessly funny and sometimes a matter of comic genius.\" Other reviews were less enthusiastic. \"Variety\" wrote that the storyline was \"basically an excuse for set pieces, some amusing, others overdone.\" Gene Siskel of the \"Chicago Tribune\" gave the film two-and-a-half stars, writing that he felt \"it contained about 10 very funny moments and 70 minutes of silence. Too many of the jokes took too long to set up, a trait shared by both \"Blazing Saddles\" and \"Young Frankenstein\". I guess I prefer Monty Python in chunks, in its original, television revue format.\" Gary Arnold of \"The Washington Post\" called the film \"a fitfully amusing spoof of the Arthurian legends\" but \"rather poky\" in tempo, citing the running gag of Swedish subtitles in the opening credits as an example of how the Pythons \"don't know when to let go of any \"shtik\"\". Geoff Brown of \"The Monthly Film Bulletin\" wrote in a mixed review that \"the team's visual buffooneries and verbal rigamaroles (some good, some bad, but mostly indifferent) are piled on top of each other with no attention to judicious timing or structure, and a form which began as a jaunty assault on the well-made revue sketch and an ingenious misuse of television's fragmented style of presentation, threatens to become as unyielding and unfruitful as the conventions it originally attacked.\"", "The film's reputation grew over time. In 2000, readers of \"Total Film\" magazine voted \"Holy Grail\" the fifth-greatest comedy film of all time. The next Python film, \"Life of Brian\", was ranked first. A 2006 poll of Channel 4 viewers on the 50 Greatest Comedy Films saw \"Holy Grail\" placed in sixth place (with \"Life of Brian\" again topping the list). In 2011, an ABC prime-time special, \"\", counted down the best films chosen by fans based on results of a poll conducted by ABC and \"People\". \"Holy Grail\" was selected as the second best comedy after \"Airplane!\". In 2016, \"Empire\" magazine ranked \"Holy Grail\" 18th in their list of the 100 best British films (\"Life of Brian\" was ranked 2nd), with their entry stating, \"Elvis ordered a print of this comedy classic and watched it five times. If it's good enough for the King, it's good enough for you.\" In a 2017 interview at Indiana University in Bloomington, John Cleese expressed disappointment with the film's conclusion. \"'The ending annoys me the most'\", he said after a screening of the film on the Indiana campus, adding that \"'It ends the way it does because we couldn't think of any other way'\". However, scripts for the film and notebooks that are among Michael Palin's private archive, which he donated to the British Library in 2017, do document at least one alternate ending that the troupe considered: \"a battle between the knights of Camelot, the French, and the Killer Rabbit of Caerbannog\". Due to the film's small production budget, that idea or a \"much pricier option\" was discarded by the Pythons in favour of the ending with \"King Arthur getting arrested\", which Palin deemed \"'cheaper'\" and \"'funnier'\". During Fox News's coverage of the 2020 George Floyd protests, and more specifically their reports on Seattle's Capitol Hill Autonomous Zone, news anchor Martha MacCallum mistook a satirical quote from \"Monty Python and the Holy Grail\" that had been posted on Reddit as being a genuine view held by a protester. Monty Python co-founder John Cleese expressed amusement at the error in a Twitter post.", "In 2005, the film was adapted as a Tony Award-winning Broadway musical, \"Spamalot\". Written primarily by Idle, the show has more of an overarching plot and leaves out certain portions of the movie due to difficulties in rendering certain effects on stage. Nonetheless, many of the jokes from the film are present in the show. In 2013, the Pythons lost a legal case to Mark Forstater, the film's producer, over royalties for the derivative work, \"Spamalot\". They owed a combined £800,000 in legal fees and back royalties to Forstater. To help cover the cost of these royalties and fees, the group arranged and performed in a stage show, \"Monty Python Live (Mostly)\", held at the O Arena in London in July 2014." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Location.", "History.", "First airport.", "Second airport.", "World War II.", "Berlin Airlift.", "Growth of the airport.", "The new main terminal.", "The third runway.", "Terminal 2 and the second railway station.", "Closure of the Rhein-Main Air Base.", "The Airbus A380 and \"The Squaire\".", "The fourth runway.", "Developments since 2011.", "Facilities.", "Terminals.", "Terminal 1.", "Terminal 2.", "Lufthansa First Class Terminal.", "SkyLine.", "Runways.", "Future expansions.", "Terminal 3 (under construction).", "Passenger Transport System.", "Passenger airlines and destinations.", "Cargo airlines and destinations.", "CargoCity.", "Other facilities.", "Airport City.", "Frankfurt Airport Centres.", "Airport City Mall.", "The Squaire.", "Main Airport Centre.", "Sheraton Hotel & Conference Centre.", "Gateway Gardens.", "Ground transport.", "Rail.", "Regional station.", "Long-distance station.", "Car.", "Bus and coaches.", "Ground transport statistics.", "In media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Frankfurt Airport lies southwest of central Frankfurt, near the Autobahn intersection Frankfurter Kreuz, where two of the most heavily used motorways in Europe (A3 and A5) meet. The airport grounds, which form a city district of Frankfurt named Frankfurt-Flughafen, are surrounded by the Frankfurt City Forest. The southern portion of the airport grounds extend partially into the cities of Rüsselsheim am Main and Mörfelden-Walldorf, and a western portion of the grounds lie within the city of Kelsterbach. The airport is centrally located in the Frankfurt/Rhine-Main region, Germany's third-largest metropolitan region, which itself has a central location in the densely populated region of the west-central European megalopolis. Thereby, along with a strong rail and motorway connection, the airport serves as a major transport node for the greater region, less than two hours by ground to Cologne, the Ruhr Area, and Stuttgart.", "The base opened as a German commercial airport in 1936, with the northern part of the base used as a field for fixed-wing aircraft and the extreme southern part near Zeppelinheim serving as a base for rigid airships. That section of Rhein-Main later became the base for the Graf Zeppelin, its sister ship LZ-130, and, until 6 May 1937, for the ill-fated Hindenburg. The airships were dismantled and their huge hangars demolished on 6 May 1940 during conversion of the base to military use. Luftwaffe engineers subsequently extended the single runway and erected hangars and other facilities for German military aircraft. During World War II the Luftwaffe used the field sporadically as a fighter base and as an experimental station for jet aircraft.", "On 16 November 1909, the world's first airline was founded in Frankfurt am Main: The \"Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft\" (DELAG). DELAG then built the first airport in Frankfurt, called \"Airship Base at Rebstock\", which was located in Bockenheim in the western part of the city and was primarily used for airships in the beginning. It opened in 1912 and was extended after World War I, but in 1924 an expert's report already questioned the possibility of further expansions at this location. With the foundation of Deutsche Luft Hansa in 1926 a rapid boom of civilian air travel started and soon the airship base became too small to handle the demand. Plans for a new and larger airport located in the Frankfurt City Forest south-west of Schwanheim were approved in 1930, but were not realised due to the Great Depression. After the \"Machtergreifung\" in 1933 the government revived the plans and started the construction of the new airport.", "On the northern part of the airport originated in 1935 a two-storey station building with a six-storey tower, and other operating and outbuildings for maintenance and storage of aircraft. The approximately 100 hectares runway received a grass cover. The official opening of the new \" Flug- und Luftschiffhafen Rhein-Main \" took place on 8 July 1936. The first plane that landed was a Ju 52/3m, Six days later, on 14 July 1936 LZ 127 \" Graf Zeppelin \" landed at the airport. 1936 800 tons of cargo and 58,000 passengers were transported, in 1937 70,000 passengers and 966 tons of cargo. In the coming years, the new airport was home base of the two largest German airships LZ 127 \" Graf Zeppelin \" and LZ 129 \" Hindenburg \". In 1938 Frankfurt was a central distribution point for the transport of airmail to North America. On 6 May 1937, the \" Hindenburg, \" flying from Frankfurt to New York, exploded shortly before it was scheduled to dock at Lakehurst. 36 people died. The accident marked the end of scheduled airship traffic and the end of the airship era.", "After the beginning of World War II in 1939 all foreign airlines left the airport and control of air traffic was transferred to the Luftwaffe. On 9 May 1940, the first bombers took off to attack France. From August to November 1944 a concentration camp was established in Walldorf, close to the airport site, where Jewish female prisoners were forced to work for the airport. The Allies of World War II destroyed the runway system with airstrikes in 1944 and the Wehrmacht blew up buildings and fuel depots in 1945, shortly before the US Army took control of the airport on 25 March 1945. After the German Instrument of Surrender the war in Europe ended and the US Army started to build a new temporary runway at Frankfurt Airport. The southern part of the airport ground was occupied to build the Rhein-Main Air Base as an Air Force Base for the United States Air Forces in Europe.", "In 1948, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' rail and road access to the sectors of West Berlin under Allied control. Their aim was to force the western powers to allow the Soviet zone to start supplying Berlin with food and fuel, thereby giving the Soviets practical control over the entire city. In response, the Western Allies organised the Berlin Airlift to carry supplies via air to the people in West Berlin. The airports in Frankfurt, Hamburg and Hannover were the primary bases for Allied aircraft. The heavy use of these so-called \"Raisin Bombers\" caused damage to the runway in Frankfurt and forced the US Army to build a second parallel runway. The airlift ended in September 1949 after the Soviet Union ended their blockade.", "In 1951, restrictions for German air travellers were lifted and civil air traffic started to grow again. In 1952, Frankfurt Airport handled more than 400,000 passengers; a year later it was more than half a million. About 100 to 120 aeroplanes took off from and landed in Frankfurt daily. In 1955, Lufthansa resumed flights to and from Frankfurt and in the same year the Federal Republic of Germany gained its air sovereignty back from the Allies. In 1957, the northern runway was extended, first to and then to, to make it compatible with jet aircraft. The airport did not emerge as a major international airline hub until 1958 when a new passenger terminal called \"Empfangsanlage Ost\" (Terminal East, literally \"Arrival Facility East\") opened in the north-east corner of the airport site. Only four years later it was clear that the terminal was already too small for the demand. In 1961, Frankfurt already had 2.2 million passengers and 81,000 take-offs and landings, making it the second busiest airport in Europe behind Heathrow Airport, London. In 1962, it was decided to build an even larger terminal with a capacity of 30 million passengers per year. Work on this terminal began in 1965. The southern runway was extended to in 1964. In 1970, a new hangar was inaugurated; this accommodated six jet aircraft and was the world's largest hangar at the time.", "The new terminal, called \"Terminal Mitte\" (Central Terminal, today known as Terminal 1) is divided into three concourses (A, B and C) with 56 gates and an electric baggage handling system. Everything opened to the public on 14 March 1972. It was assumed that the terminal capacity would be sufficient for the next 30 years. Along with the new terminal a railway station (Frankfurt Airport station) was opened, the first airport railway station in the Federal Republic of Germany. A few days later the old \"Empfangsanlage Ost\" was closed.", "Planning for a third runway (called \"Startbahn 18 West\") began in 1973. This project spawned massive protests by residents and environmentalists. The main points of conflict were increasing noise and pollution and the cutting down of protected trees in the Frankfurt City Forest. While the protests and related lawsuits were unsuccessful in preventing construction, the \"Startbahn West\" protests were one of the major crystallisation points for the German environmental movement of the 1980s. The protests even continued after the runway had been opened in 1984 and in 1987 two police officers were killed by a gunman. This incident ended the \"Startbahn West\" protests for good. Because of its orientation in the north–south direction, in contrast to the other east–west runways, the use of the third runway is limited. The Startbahn West can only be used for takeoffs to the south to avoid interference with air traffic on the other runways. Owing to this restriction the runway must be partially or fully closed when northward winds are too strong.", "In 1990, work on a new terminal (\"Terminal 2\") began because it was anticipated that \"Terminal Mitte\" would reach its capacity limit sooner than expected. The new terminal, divided into concourses D and E, was built to the east of the existing terminal where once the \"Empfangsanlage Ost\" had been. With its opening in 1994, Frankfurt Airport increased its terminal capacity to 54 million passengers per year. Along with the terminal opening, a people mover system called \"Sky Line\" was established to provide a fast connection between \"Terminal 2\" and \"Terminal Mitte\" (now renamed \"Terminal 1\"). In 1999 a second railway station, primarily for InterCityExpress long-distance trains (called Frankfurt Airport long-distance station), opened near Terminal 1 as part of the new Cologne–Frankfurt high-speed rail line. At the same time local and regional rail services were based at the existing underground station, now renamed Frankfurt Airport regional station.", "On 30 December 2005, the Rhein-Main Air Base in the southern part of the airport ground was closed and the US Air Force moved to Ramstein Air Base. The property was handed back to Fraport which allows the airport to use it to build a new passenger terminal. The property of the housing area for the soldiers, called \"Gateway Gardens\", which was located north-east of the airport site, was given back to the city of Frankfurt in the same year and will be developed as a business district in the following years.", "From 2005 to 2007, a large Airbus A380 maintenance facility was built at Frankfurt Airport because Lufthansa wanted to station their future A380 aircraft fleet there. Due to economic constraints only half of the facility has been built so far. Both terminals also underwent major renovations in order to handle the A380, including the installation of a third boarding bridge at several gates. Lufthansa's first Airbus A380 went into operation in June 2010 and was named \"Frankfurt am Main\". In 2011, a large office building called \"The Squaire\" (a portmanteau of \"square\" and \"air\") opened at Frankfurt Airport. It was built on top of the Airport long-distance station and is considered the largest office building in Germany with floor area. Main tenants are KPMG and two Hilton Hotels. Since 2012, the people mover \"The Squaire Metro\" connects the Squaire with the nine-storey parking structure. On a length of about 300 metres the so-called MiniMetro system with its two cabins can carry up to 1,300 passengers per hour. The constructor of the system was the Italian manufacturer Leitner.", "Plans to build a fourth runway at Frankfurt Airport were underway in 1997, but owing to violent conflicts with the concept Fraport let residents' groups and environmentalists participate in the process to find a mutually acceptable solution. In 2000, a task force presented their conclusion which generally approved a new runway, but of shorter length (only 2.8 kilometres compared to the other three 4-kilometre-long runways), which would serve as a landing-only runway for smaller aircraft. Additional requirements included improved noise protection arrangements and a strict ban on night flights between 11 pm and 5 am across the whole airport. In 2001, Fraport applied for approval to build the new runway, with three possible options. The conclusion was that a runway north-west of the airport site would have the least impact on local residents and the surrounding environment. The plans were approved by the Hessian government in December 2007, but the requested ban on night flights was lifted because it was argued that an international airport like Frankfurt would need night flights, especially for worldwide freight transport. Construction of the new long \"Runway Northwest\" in the Kelsterbach Forest began in early 2009. In 2012, the website \"Airport Watch\" reports weekly protests have been occurring at the airport since the opening of a fourth runway a year previously.", "The new runway officially went into operation on 20 October 2011, with an aircraft carrying Chancellor Angela Merkel, performing the first landing on 21 October. The centre line separation from the existing north runway is about. This allows simultaneous instrument landing system (ILS) operations on these two runways, which has not been possible on the other parallel runways, which do not meet the minimum separation for ILS operations. This allowed the airport to increase its capacity from 83 to 126 aircraft movements per hour. On 11 October 2011, the Hessian Administration Court ruled that night flights between 11pm and 5am (the so-called \"Mediationsnacht\") are no longer allowed at Frankfurt Airport after the inauguration of the new runway, and therefore overrode the approval from the Hessian government from 2007 which allowed 17 scheduled flights per night. On 4 April 2012, the German Administrative Court confirmed the decision of the Hessian Administration Court, banning night flights between 11pm and 5am. To handle the predicted passenger amount of about 90 million in 2020, a new terminal section adjacent to Terminal 1 for an additional six million passengers opened on 10 October 2012. It is called \"Flugsteig A-Plus\" and exclusively used by Lufthansa mainly for their long-haul flights. Flugsteig A-Plus features eight parking positions that are able to handle four Airbus A380s or seven Boeing 747-8/747-400 at once. In November 2016, Ryanair announced the opening of a new base at Frankfurt Airport with four routes to Spain and Portugal. This move by Ryanair was heavily blasted, especially by Lufthansa, as Ryanair was granted high discounts and incentives regarding the airport's fees. On 28 February 2017, Ryanair announced its winter programme for Frankfurt which will see a further 20 new routes being added.", "", "Frankfurt Airport has two large main passenger terminals (1 and 2) and a much smaller dedicated First Class Terminal which is operated and exclusively used by Lufthansa. As is the case at London Heathrow Airport, Toronto Pearson Airport, Los Angeles International Airport (bar the Tom Bradley International Terminal) and O'Hare Airport's's future Global Terminal, terminal operations are grouped for airlines and airline alliances rather than into domestic and international routes.", "Terminal 1 is the older and larger one of the two passenger terminals. The landside is 420 metres long. It has been enlarged several times and is divided into concourses \"A\", \"B\", \"C\" and \"Z\" and has a capacity of approximately 50 million passengers per year. Terminal 1 is functionally divided into three levels, the departures level on the upper floor with check-in counters, the arrivals level with baggage claim areas on the ground floor and, underneath, a distribution floor with access to the regional station and underground and multilevel parking. Departures and arrivals levels each have separate street approaches. A bus station is located at arrivals level. Terminal 1 has a total of 103 gates, which include 54 gates equipped with jetways (25 in Concourse A, 18 in Concourse B, 11 in Concourse C). Concourse \"Z\" sits on top of Concourse \"A\" sharing the same jet bridges between both concourses. Flights to non-Schengen destinations depart from the \"Z\" gates and Schengen flights depart from the \"A\" gates. Pier A was extended by 500 metres in 2000, and a link between Terminal 1 and Terminal 2, as well as the Hall C extension opened in 2008. On 10 October 2012, an 800-metre-long westward expansion of Terminal 1 called \"Pier A-Plus\" went into operation. It provides more stands for wide-body aircraft like the Airbus A380. Terminal 1 is primarily used by Lufthansa, its associated companies (Brussels Airlines, Eurowings, Swiss International Air Lines and Austrian Airlines) and its Star Alliance partners (e.g. Aegean Airlines, Air Canada, Air China, Air India, All Nippon Airways, Asiana Airlines, Croatia Airlines, LOT Polish Airlines, Scandinavian Airlines, Singapore Airlines, South African Airways, TAP Air Portugal, Thai Airways, Turkish Airlines and United Airlines). Some airlines that are not part of the Lufthansa Group or Star Alliance also use Terminal 1. They include Air Malta, Bulgaria Air, Iran Air, Oman Air and Tunisair among others. SkyTeam member airlines Alitalia and Middle East Airlines also use Terminal 1 (Concourses B and C).", "Terminal 2, which has a capacity of 15 million passengers a year, was opened in 1994 and is divided into concourses \"D\" and \"E\". A continuous concourse between Terminal 1C and 2D provides direct, but non-public access between the two terminals. It has eight gates with jetways and 34 apron stands, a total of 42 gates and is able to handle wide-body aircraft such as the Airbus A380. Terminal 2 is primarily used by airlines of the oneworld (e.g. American Airlines, British Airways, Cathay Pacific, Finnair, Iberia, Japan Airlines, LATAM Airlines, Malaysia Airlines, Royal Jordanian and S7 Airlines) and SkyTeam alliances (e.g. Aeroflot, Air France, China Airlines, China Eastern Airlines, Czech Airlines, Delta Air Lines, KLM, Korean Air, Saudia, TAROM and Vietnam Airlines; note that SkyTeam members Alitalia and Middle East Airlines operate out of Terminal 1, in concourses B and C). Terminal 2 is also used by airlines that do not belong to any of the three major airline alliances, including Air Moldova, Air Serbia, China Southern Airlines, Emirates, Kuwait Airways, Royal Air Maroc and Somon Air, among others.", "Lufthansa operates a small terminal near Terminal 1 for Lufthansa first class passengers and HON Circle frequent flyer members only. Other first class passengers must use the first class lounges within the main terminals. The facility has 200 staff and is used by about 300 passengers daily. It provides \"individualised\" security screening and customs facilities. Amenities include valet parking, a white-linen restaurant, lounge and office areas, a cigar room and bubble baths. Passengers are transported directly from the terminal to the plane by luxury car.", "Passengers and visitors can change terminals with the people mover system SkyLine which has the following stops: The travel time between the terminals is 2 minutes with trains arriving every 2–3 minutes during the day. Additionally there is regular bus service between the terminals.", "Frankfurt Airport has four runways of which three are arranged parallel in east–west direction and one in north–south direction. In 2010 three runways (Runways North, South and West) handled 464,432 aircraft movements, which equated to 83 movements per hour. With the start of operation of the Northwest Runway in October 2011 the airport was predicted to be able to handle 126 movements per hour. It is predicted that aircraft movements will increase up to 700,000 in the year 2020. By using the fourth runway, Frankfurt Airport is able for the first time to handle simultaneous parallel landings, because the distance between the north and the north-west runways is. Simultaneous parallel landings were not possible with the north and south runway pairing, because the separation distance did not meet the safety standards. During normal operation the two outer parallel runways (07L/25R and 07R/25L) are used for landings and the central parallel runway (07C/25C) and the Runway West (18) for take-offs. The three parallel runways have two markings because they can be operated in two directions while the Runway West can only be used in one direction.", "", "In 2009, the German government decided to create third terminals for both Frankfurt Airport and Munich Airport in order to handle expected passenger flows of 90 million in Frankfurt by 2020 and 50 million in Munich by 2017. The new terminal is scheduled to be built by Fraport, south of the existing terminals on the grounds of the former Rhein-Main Air Base. The new \"Terminal 3\" is to accommodate up to 25 million passengers and will feature 75 new aircraft positions when completely constructed. An extension of the \"SkyLine\" people mover system is planned to connect the new terminal to Terminals 1 and 2 and the airport train stations. In August 2014, the city of Frankfurt granted building permission for the first phase of Terminal 3. The groundbreaking for the new terminal took place on 5 October 2015. Its first phase, consisting of the main building and two of the planned four piers (concourses 3H and 3J), is planned to open by 2023 and will be able to handle 15 million additional passengers per year. Total costs are estimated at 3 billion euros. In 2017, Frankfurt Airport indicated that the second-phase construction of the easternmost pier (concourse 3G) could be moved forward so that low-cost carriers can use this pier from 2021. After approval by municipal authorities in 2018, the piers will be constructed and used according to the following timetable: Concourse 3G (easternmost pier): Check-in area, concourses 3H and 3J (central piers): Construction by 2023 including transport systems for visitors, passengers and luggage to the other terminals Concourse 3K (westernmost pier): Possible third-phase expansion depending on development of passenger numbers", "A new passenger transport system is planned for the connection of the new terminal 3 and the existing terminals 1 and 2. It will use a track which is separate from the existing SkyLine people mover but will allow for interchanges between them. It is scheduled to have four stops in the final stage:", "Lufthansa and their Star Alliance partners account for 77% of all passengers at Frankfurt Airport. 65% of all intercontinental flights in Germany are operated at Frankfurt Airport, followed by Munich Airport with 17%. The following airlines offer year-round and seasonal scheduled and charter flights at Frankfurt Airport:", "Frankfurt Airport is the second-largest multimodal transport airport in Europe and has several logistics facilities. These facilities are grouped at two areas at the airport ground: In the north (CargoCity Nord) and in the south (CargoCity Süd). In 2010 it was the second-busiest airport by cargo traffic in Europe after Paris–Charles de Gaulle Airport, handling 2,231,348 metric tonnes of loaded and unloaded freight. The following airlines operate regular scheduled cargo operations at Frankfurt Airport:", "CargoCity is the name of the two large main areas featuring most of the airport's freight handling facilities:", "", "The airport ground and the surrounding area of Frankfurt Airport offer a large variety of on-airport businesses as well as airport-related businesses, including office space, hotels, shopping areas, conference rooms and car parks. The development of an airport city has significantly accelerated in recent years.", "The Frankfurt Airport Centre 1 (FAC 1) near Terminal 1 offers office and conference facilities, the newer FAC 2 is located within Terminal 2 and offers office space for airlines.", "The Airport City Mall is located on the landside of Terminal 1, departure hall B. It offers national and international retailers and label stores, a supermarket and several restaurants.", "The Squaire is an office building with a total floor area of. It is directly connected to Terminal 1 through a connecting corridor for pedestrians. The accounting firm KPMG, Lufthansa and two Hilton Hotels (\"Hilton Garden Inn Frankfurt Airport\" with 334 rooms and Hilton Frankfurt Airport with 249 rooms) occupy space in The Squaire.", "The Main Airport Centre, named after the Main river, is an office building with ten floors and about of office space. It is located at the edge of the Frankfurt City Forest near Terminal 2.", "Sheraton Hotels and Resorts offers 1,008 guest rooms adjacent to Terminal 1 and a conference centre for up to 200 delegates.", "Gateway Gardens is a former housing area for the US Air Force personnel based at the Rhein-Main Air Base, close to Terminal 2. Like the air base, the housing area was closed in 2005. Since then the area is being developed into a business location for airport-related companies. Lufthansa moved its airline catering subsidiary LSG Sky Chefs to Gateway Gardens, Condor and SunExpress are headquartered here. DB Schenker, the logistics company of Deutsche Bahn, have built a high-rise building. In December 2019, local trains were re-routed to run via Gateway Gardens station. The new stop for S-Bahn trains is located between Frankfurt Airport Regional Station and Frankfurt-Stadion station. The journey time will increase by 4 minutes but Deutsche Bahn have stated that they will use new trains (ET423) which will be faster and have more capacity.", "Frankfurt Airport can easily be accessed by car, taxi, train or bus as it features an extensive transport network. There are two railway stations at the airport: one for suburban/regional trains and one for long-distance trains.", "", "Frankfurt Airport regional station (\"Frankfurt Flughafen Regionalbahnhof\") at Terminal 1, concourse B, provides access to the S-Bahn commuter rail lines \"S8\" and \"S9\". Each of these lines have trains departing every 15 minutes during daytime to Hanau Central Station eastwards via Frankfurt Central Station and Offenbach East Station or Wiesbaden Central Station westwards via Rüsselsheim or Mainz Central Station (line S8) or Mainz-Kastel Station (line S9). The journey time to Frankfurt Central Station is 10–12 minutes. Regional Express (RE) trains to Saarbrücken, Koblenz or Würzburg call at this station. These trains provide less frequent but additional connections between Frankfurt Airport and the Central Station.", "Frankfurt Airport long-distance station (\"Frankfurt Flughafen Fernbahnhof\") was opened in 1999. The station is squeezed in between the motorway A 3 and the four-lane \"Bundesstraße\" B43, linked to Terminal 1 by a connecting corridor for pedestrians that bridges the Autobahn. It is the end point of the newly built Cologne–Frankfurt high-speed rail line, which links southern Germany to the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan area, the Netherlands and Belgium via Cologne at speeds up to. About 10 trains per hour depart in all directions. Deutsche Bahn operates the AIRail Service in conjunction with Lufthansa, American Airlines and Emirates. The service operates to the central stations of Bonn, Cologne, Düsseldorf, Freiburg, Karlsruhe, Leipzig, Hamburg, Hannover, Mannheim, Munich, Nuremberg, Stuttgart and to Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe.", "Frankfurt Airport is located in the Frankfurt City Forest and directly connected to an Autobahn intersection called Frankfurter Kreuz where the A3 and A5 meet. It takes a 10–15 minutes by car or taxi to get to Frankfurt Central Station or the centre of the city. Passengers driving their own cars can park in multilevel parking garages (mostly underground) along the terminals. A long term holiday parking lot is located south of the runways and connected by shuttle bus to the terminals.", "Various transport companies provide bus services to the airport from the surrounding areas as well as by coach to long-distance destinations. Previously All Nippon Airways operated a bus service to Düsseldorf exclusively for ANA customers; that way Düsseldorf passengers would be transported to Frankfurt Airport to board their ANA flights. In 2014 ANA established a separate flight from Tokyo to Düsseldorf, causing the bus services to end.", "In 2006, 29.5% of the 12,299,192 passengers whose air travel originated in Frankfurt came by private car, 27.9% came by rail, 20.4% by taxi, 11.1% parked their car at the airport for the duration of their trip, 5.3% came by bus, and 4.6% arrived with a rental car.", "Frankfurt Airport is featured in the Discovery Channel series \"X-Ray Mega Airport\" (also known as \"Inside Frankfurt Airport\"). Jinder Mahal Pinned R-Truth at the Frankfurt Airport for the 24/7 Championship. This title change was shown on WWE.com and WWE's official social media accounts." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Standards development.", "Uses.", "Terminology.", "Power sourcing equipment.", "Powered device.", "Power management features and integration.", "Integrating EEE and PoE.", "Standard implementation.", "Powering devices.", "Configuration via Ethernet layer 2 LLDP.", "Non-standard implementations.", "Cisco.", "Linear Technology.", "Microsemi.", "Passive.", "Power capacity limits." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The original IEEE 802.3af-2003 PoE standard provides up to of DC power (minimum and ) on each port. Only is assured to be available at the powered device as some power dissipates in the cable. The updated IEEE 802.3at-2009 PoE standard also known as PoE+ or PoE plus, provides up to of power for Type 2 devices. The 2009 standard prohibits a powered device from using all four pairs for power. Both of these standards have since been incorporated into the IEEE 802.3-2012 publication. The IEEE 802.3bu-2016 amendment introduced \"single-pair\" Power over Data Lines () for the single-pair Ethernet standards 100BASE-T1 and 1000BASE-T1 intended for automotive and industrial applications. On the two-pair or four-pair standards power is transmitted only \"between pairs\", so that within each pair there is no voltage present other than that representing the transmitted data. With single-pair Ethernet, power is transmitted in parallel to the data. PoDL defines 10 power classes, ranging from.5 to 50 W (at PD). Looking at ways of increasing the amount of power transmitted, IEEE has defined IEEE 802.3bt \"4PPoE\" in September 2018. The standard introduces two additional power types: up to 55 W (Type 3) and up to 90-100 W (Type 4). Each pair of twisted pairs needs to handle a current of up to 600 mA (Type 3) or 960 mA (Type 4). Additionally, support for 2.5GBASE-T, 5GBASE-T and 10GBASE-T is included. This development opens the door to new applications and expands the use of applications such as high-performance wireless access points and surveillance cameras.", "Examples of devices powered by PoE include:", "", "\"Power sourcing equipment\" (PSE) are devices that provide (\"source\") power on the Ethernet cable. This device may be a network switch, commonly called an \"endspan\" (IEEE 802.3af refers to it as \"endpoint\"), or an intermediary device between a non-PoE-capable switch and a PoE device, an external PoE \"injector\", called a \"midspan\" device.", "A \"powered device\" (PD) is any device powered by PoE, thus consuming energy. Examples include wireless access points, VoIP phones, and IP cameras. Many powered devices have an auxiliary power connector for an optional external power supply. Depending on the design, some, none, or all of the device's power can be supplied from the auxiliary port, with the auxiliary port also sometimes acting as backup power in case PoE-supplied power fails.", "Advocates of PoE expect PoE to become a global long term DC power cabling standard and replace a multiplicity of individual AC adapters, which cannot be easily centrally managed. Critics of this approach argue that PoE is inherently less efficient than AC power due to the lower voltage, and this is made worse by the thin conductors of Ethernet. Advocates of PoE, like the Ethernet Alliance, point out that quoted losses are for worst case scenarios in terms of cable quality, length and power consumption by powered devices. In any case, where the central PoE supply replaces several dedicated AC circuits, transformers and inverters, the power loss in cabling can be justifiable.", "The integration of PoE with the IEEE 802.3az Energy-Efficient Ethernet (EEE) standard potentially produces additional energy savings. Pre-standard integrations of EEE and PoE (such as Marvell's EEPoE outlined in a May 2011 white paper) claim to achieve a savings upwards of 3 W per link. This saving is especially significant as higher power devices come online. Marvell claims that:", "Standards-based Power over Ethernet is implemented following the specifications in IEEE 802.3af-2003 (which was later incorporated as clause 33 into IEEE 802.3-2005) or the 2009 update, IEEE 802.3at. The standards require category 5 cable or better for high power levels but allow using category 3 cable if less power is required. Power is supplied as a common-mode signal over two or more of the differential pairs of wires found in the Ethernet cables and comes from a power supply within a PoE-enabled networking device such as an Ethernet switch or can be injected into a cable run with a \"midspan\" power supply. A midspan power supply, also known as a \"PoE power injector\", is an additional PoE power source that can be used in combination with a non-PoE switch. A phantom power technique is used to allow the powered pairs to also carry data. This permits its use not only with 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX, which use only two of the four pairs in the cable, but also with 1000BASE-T (gigabit Ethernet), 2.5GBASE-T, 5GBASE-T, and 10GBASE-T which use all four pairs for data transmission. This is possible because all versions of Ethernet over twisted pair cable specify differential data transmission over each pair with transformer coupling; the DC supply and load connections can be made to the transformer center-taps at each end. Each pair thus operates in common mode as one side of the DC supply, so two pairs are required to complete the circuit. The polarity of the DC supply may be inverted by crossover cables; the powered device must operate with either pair: spare pairs 4–5 and 7–8 or data pairs 1–2 and 3–6. Polarity is defined by the standards on data pairs, and ambiguously implemented for spare pairs, with the use of a diode bridge. Notes:", "Three modes, A, B, and 4-pair are available. Mode A delivers power on the data pairs of 100BASE-TX or 10BASE-T. Mode B delivers power on the spare pairs. 4-pair delivers power on all four pairs. PoE can also be used on 1000BASE-T, 2.5GBASE-T, 5GBASE-T and 10GBASE-T Ethernet, in which case there are no spare pairs and all power is delivered using the phantom technique. Mode A has two alternate configurations (MDI and MDI-X), using the same pairs but with different polarities. In mode A, pins 1 and 2 (pair #2 in T568B wiring) form one side of the 48 V DC, and pins 3 and 6 (pair #3 in T568B) form the other side. These are the same two pairs used for data transmission in 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX, allowing the provision of both power and data over only two pairs in such networks. The free polarity allows PoE to accommodate for crossover cables, patch cables and Auto MDI-X. In mode B, pins 4–5 (pair #1 in both T568A and T568B) form one side of the DC supply and pins 7–8 (pair #4 in both T568A and T568B) provide the return; these are the \"spare\" pairs in 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX. Mode B, therefore, requires a 4-pair cable. The PSE, not the PD, decides whether power mode A or B shall be used. PDs that implement only mode A or mode B are disallowed by the standard. The PSE can implement mode A or B or both. A PD indicates that it is standards-compliant by placing a 25 kΩ resistor between the powered pairs. If the PSE detects a resistance that is too high or too low (including a short circuit), no power is applied. This protects devices that do not support PoE. An optional \"power class\" feature allows the PD to indicate its power requirements by changing the sense resistance at higher voltages. To retain power, the PD must use at least 5–10 mA for at least 60 ms at a time. If the PD goes more than 400 ms without meeting this requirement, the PSE will consider the device disconnected and, for safety reasons, remove power. There are two types of PSEs: endspans and midspans. Endspans (commonly called PoE switches) are Ethernet switches that include the power over Ethernet transmission circuitry. Midspans are power injectors that stand between a regular Ethernet switch and the powered device, injecting power without affecting the data. Endspans are normally used on new installations or when the switch has to be replaced for other reasons (such as moving from 10/100 Mbit/s to 1 Gbit/s), which makes it convenient to add the PoE capability. Midspans are used when there is no desire to replace and configure a new Ethernet switch, and only PoE needs to be added to the network. IEEE 802.3at capable devices are also referred to as \"Type 2\". An 802.3at PSE may also use LLDP communication to signal 802.3at capability. Class 4 can only be used by IEEE 802.3at (Type 2) devices, requiring valid Class 2 and Mark 2 currents for the power up stages. An 802.3af device presenting a class 4 current is considered non-compliant and, instead, will be treated as a Class 0 device.", "Link Layer Discovery Protocol (LLDP) is a layer-2 Ethernet protocol for managing devices. LLDP allows an exchange of information between a PSE and a PD. This information is formatted in Type-length-value (TLV) format. PoE standards define TLV structures used by PSEs and PDs to signal and negotiate available power. The setup phases are as follows: The rules for this power negotiation are:", "", "Some Cisco WLAN access points and VoIP phones supported a proprietary form of PoE many years before there was an IEEE standard for delivering PoE. Cisco's original PoE implementation is not software upgradeable to the IEEE 802.3af standard. Cisco's original PoE equipment is capable of delivering up to per port. The amount of power to be delivered is negotiated between the endpoint and the Cisco switch based on a power value that was added to the Cisco proprietary Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP). CDP is also responsible for dynamically communicating the Voice VLAN value from the Cisco switch to the Cisco VoIP Phone. Under Cisco's pre-standard scheme, the PSE (switch) will send a fast link pulse (FLP) on the transmit pair. The PD (device) connects the transmit line to the receive line via a low-pass filter. And thus the PSE gets the FLP in return. And a common mode current between pair 1 and 2 will be provided resulting in and default of allocated power. The PD has then to provide Ethernet link within to the auto-negotiation mode switch port. A later CDP message with a type-length-value tells the PSE its final power requirement. A discontinuation of link pulses shuts down power. In 2014, Cisco created another non-standard PoE implementation called Universal Power over Ethernet (UPOE). UPOE can use all 4 pairs, after negotiation, to supply up to 60 W.", "A proprietary high-power development called LTPoE++, using a single CAT-5e Ethernet cable, is capable of supplying varying levels at 38.7, 52.7, 70, and 90 W.", "PowerDsine, acquired by Microsemi in 2007, has been selling midspan power injectors since 1999 with its proprietary \"Power over LAN\" solution. Several companies such as Polycom, 3Com, Lucent and Nortel utilize PowerDsine's Power over LAN.", "In a passive PoE system, the injector does not communicate with the powered device to negotiate its voltage or wattage requirements, but merely supplies power at all times. The common 100 Mbit/s passive applications use the pinout of 802.3af mode B (see )with DC plus on pins 4 and 5 and DC minus on 7 and 8 and data on 1-2 and 3-6. Gigabit passive injectors use a transformer on the data pins to allow power and data to share the cable and is typically compatible with 802.3af Mode A. Passive midspan injectors with up to 12 ports are available. Devices needing 5 Volts cannot typically use PoE at 5 V on Ethernet cable beyond short distances (about ) as the voltage drop of the cable becomes too significant, so a 24 V or 48 V to 5 V DC-DC converter is required at the remote end. Passive PoE power sources are commonly used with a variety of indoor and outdoor wireless radio equipment, most commonly from Motorola (now Cambium), Ubiquiti Networks, MikroTik and others. Earlier versions of passive PoE 24VDC power sources shipped with 802.11a, 802.11g and 802.11n based radios are commonly 100 Mbit/s only. Passive DC-to-DC injectors also exist which convert a 9 V to 36 V DC, or 36 V to 72 V DC power source to a stabilized 24 V 1 A, 48 V 0.5 A, or up to 48V 2.0A PoE feed with '+' on pins 4 & 5 and '−' on pins 7 & 8. These DC-to-DC PoE injectors are used in various telecom applications.", "The ISO/IEC TR 29125 and Cenelec EN 50174-99-1 draft standards outline the cable bundle temperature rise that can be expected from the use of 4PPoE. A distinction is made between two scenarios: The second scenario largely depends on the environment and installation, whereas the first is solely influenced by the cable construction. In a standard unshielded cable, the PoE-related temperature rise increases by a factor of 5. In a shielded cable, this value drops to between 2.5 and 3, depending on the design." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Motives for Loyalism.", "Loyalism and military operations.", "Numbers of Loyalists.", "Slavery and Black Loyalists.", "Loyalist women.", "Loyalism in Canada and Nova Scotia.", "Military service.", "Emigration from the United States.", "Return of some expatriates.", "Impact of the departure of Loyalist leaders." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Families were often divided during the American Revolution, and many felt themselves to be both American and British, still owing a loyalty to the mother country. Maryland lawyer Daniel Dulaney the Younger opposed taxation without representation but would not break his oath to the King or take up arms against him. He wrote: \"There may be a time when redress may not be obtained. Till then, I shall recommend a legal, orderly, and prudent resentment\". Most Americans hoped for a peaceful reconciliation but were forced to choose sides by the Patriots who took control nearly everywhere in the Thirteen Colonies in 1775–76.", "Yale historian Leonard Woods Larabee has identified eight characteristics of the Loyalists that made them essentially conservative and loyal to the king and Britain: Other motives of the Loyalists included:", "In the opening months of the Revolutionary War, the Patriots laid siege to Boston, where most of the British forces were stationed. Elsewhere there were few British troops and the Patriots seized control of all levels of government, as well as supplies of arms and gunpowder. Vocal Loyalists recruited people to their side, often with the encouragement and assistance of royal governors. In the South Carolina back country, Loyalist recruitment oustripped that of Patriots. A brief siege at Ninety Six, South Carolina in the fall of 1775 was followed by a rapid rise in Patriot recruiting, and a Snow Campaign involving thousands of partisan militia resulted in the arrest or flight of most of the back country Loyalist leadership. North Carolina back country Scots and former Regulators joined forces in early 1776, but they were broken as a force at the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge. By July 4, 1776, the Patriots had gained control of virtually all territory in the Thirteen Colonies and expelled all royal officials. No one who openly proclaimed their loyalty to the Crown was allowed to remain, so Loyalists fled or kept quiet. Some of those who remained later gave aid to invading British armies or joined uniformed Loyalist regiments. The British were forced out of Boston by March 17, 1776. They regrouped at Halifax and attacked New York in August, defeating George Washington's army at Long Island and capturing New York City and its vicinity, and they occupied the mouth of the Hudson River until 1783. British forces seized control of other cities, including Philadelphia (1777), Savannah, Georgia (1778–83), and Charleston, South Carolina (1780–82). But 90% of the colonial population lived outside the cities, with the effective result that Congress represented 80 to 90 percent of the population. The British removed their governors from colonies where the Patriots were in control, but Loyalist civilian government was re-established in coastal Georgia from 1779 to 1782, despite presence of Patriot forces in the northern part of Georgia. Essentially, the British were only able to maintain power in areas where they had a strong military presence.", "Historian Robert Calhoon wrote in 2000, concerning the proportion of Loyalists to Patriots in the Thirteen Colonies: Before Calhoon's work, estimates of the Loyalist share of the population were somewhat higher, at about one-third, but these estimates are now rejected as too high by most scholars. In 1968 historian Paul H. Smith estimated there were about 400,000 Loyalists, or 16% of the white population of 2.25 million in 1780. Historian Robert Middlekauff summarized scholarly research on the nature of Loyalist support as follows: The largest number of loyalists were found in the middle colonies: many tenant farmers of New York supported the king, for example, as did many of the Dutch in the colony and in New Jersey. The Germans in Pennsylvania tried to stay out of the Revolution, just as many Quakers did, and when that failed, clung to the familiar connection rather than embrace the new. Highland Scots in the Carolinas, a fair number of Anglican clergy and their parishioners in Connecticut and New York, a few Presbyterians in the southern colonies, and a large number of the Iroquois stayed loyal to the king. New York City and Long Island were the British military and political base of operations in North America from 1776 to 1783 and had a large concentration of Loyalists, many of whom were refugees from other states. According to Calhoon, Loyalists tended to be older and wealthier, but there were also many Loyalists of humble means. Many active Church of England members became Loyalists. Some recent arrivals from Britain, especially those from Scotland, had a high Loyalist proportion. Loyalists in the southern colonies were suppressed by the local Patriots, who controlled local and state government. Many people—including former Regulators in North Carolina — refused to join the rebellion, as they had earlier protested against corruption by local authorities who later became Revolutionary leaders. The oppression by the local Whigs during the Regulation led to many of the residents of backcountry North Carolina sitting out the Revolution or siding with the Loyalists. In areas under Patriot control, Loyalists were subject to confiscation of property, and outspoken supporters of the king were threatened with public humiliation such as tarring and feathering, or physical attack. It is not known how many Loyalist civilians were harassed by the Patriots, but the treatment was a warning to other Loyalists not to take up arms. In September 1775, William Drayton and Loyalist leader Colonel Thomas Fletchall signed a treaty of neutrality in the interior community of Ninety Six, South Carolina. For actively aiding the British army when it occupied Philadelphia, two residents of the city were tried for treason, convicted, and executed by returning Patriot forces.", "As a result of the looming crisis in 1775, the Royal Governor of Virginia, Lord Dunmore, issued a proclamation that promised freedom to servants and slaves who were able to bear arms and join his Loyalist Ethiopian Regiment. Many of the slaves in the South joined the Loyalists with intentions of gaining freedom and escaping the South. About 800 did so; some helped rout the Virginia militia at the Battle of Kemp's Landing and fought in the Battle of Great Bridge on the Elizabeth River, wearing the motto \"Liberty to Slaves\", but this time they were defeated. The remains of their regiment were then involved in the evacuation of Norfolk, after which they served in the Chesapeake area. Eventually the camp that they had set up there suffered an outbreak of smallpox and other diseases. This took a heavy toll, putting many of them out of action for some time. The survivors joined other British units and continued to serve throughout the war. Black colonials were often the first to come forward to volunteer and a total of 12,000 African Americans served with the British from 1775 to 1783. This forced the rebels to also offer freedom to those who would serve in the Continental Army; however, such promises were often reneged upon by both sides. Americans who gained their freedom by fighting for the British became known as Black Loyalists. The British honored the pledge of freedom in New York City through the efforts of General Guy Carleton, who recorded the names of African Americans who had supported the British in a document called the Book of Negroes, which granted freedom to slaves who had escaped and assisted the British. About 4,000 Black Loyalists went to the British colonies of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, where the British promised them land. They founded communities across the two provinces, many of which still exist today. Over 2,500 settled in Birchtown, Nova Scotia, instantly making it the largest free black community in North America. However, the inferior grants of land they were given and the prejudices of white Loyalists in nearby Shelburne who regularly harassed the settlement in events such as the Shelburne Riots in 1784, made life very difficult for the community. In 1791 Britain's Sierra Leone Company offered to transport dissatisfied black Loyalists to the British colony of Sierra Leone in West Africa, with the promise of better land and more equality. About 1,200 left Nova Scotia for Sierra Leone, where they named the capital Freetown. After 1787 they became Sierra Leone's ruling elite. About 400 to 1,000 free blacks who joined the British side in the Revolution went to London and joined the free black community of about 10,000 there.", "While men were out fighting for the crown, women served at home protecting their land and property. At the end of the war, many loyalist men left America for the shelter of England, leaving their wives and daughters to protect their land The main punishment for Loyalist families was the expropriation of property, but married women were protected under \"feme covert\", which meant that they had no political identity and their legal rights were absorbed by their husbands. This created an awkward dilemma for the confiscation committees: confiscating the land of such a woman would punish her for her husband's actions. In fact, many women were punished in this way. Grace Growden Galloway recorded the experience in her diary. Galloway's property was seized by the Rebels and she spent the rest of her life fighting to regain it. It was returned to her heirs in 1783, after she and her husband had died.", "Rebel agents were active in Quebec (which was then frequently called \"Canada\", the name of the earlier French province) in the months leading to the outbreak of active hostilities. John Brown, an agent of the Boston Committee of Correspondence, worked with Canadian merchant Thomas Walker and other rebel sympathisers during the winter of 1774–1775 to convince inhabitants to support the actions of the First Continental Congress. However, many of Quebec's inhabitants remained neutral, resisting service to either the British or the Americans. Although some Canadians took up arms in support of the rebellion, the majority remained loyal to the King. French Canadians had been satisfied by the British government's Quebec Act of 1774, which offered religious and linguistic toleration; in general, they did not sympathize with a rebellion that they saw as being led by Protestants from New England, who were their commercial rivals and hereditary enemies. Most of the English-speaking settlers had arrived following the British conquest of Canada in 1759–1760, and were unlikely to support separation from Britain. The older British colonies, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia (including what is now New Brunswick) also remained loyal and contributed military forces in support of the Crown. In late 1775 the Continental Army sent a force into Quebec, led by General Richard Montgomery and Colonel Benedict Arnold, with the goal of convincing the residents of Quebec to join the Revolution. Although only a minority of Canadians openly expressed loyalty to King George, about 1,500 militia fought for the King in the Siege of Fort St. Jean. In the region south of Montreal that was occupied by the Continentals, some inhabitants supported the rebellion and raised two regiments to join the Patriot forces. In Nova Scotia, there were many Yankee settlers originally from New England, and they generally supported the principles of the revolution. The allegiance toward the rebellion waned as American Privateers raided Nova Scotia communities throughout the war. As well, the Nova Scotia government used the law to convict people for sedition and treason for supporting the rebel cause. There was also the influence of an influx of recent immigration from the British isles, and they remained neutral during the war, and the influx was greatest in Halifax. Britain in any case built up powerful forces at the naval base of Halifax after the failure of Jonathan Eddy to capture Fort Cumberland in 1776. Although the Continentals captured Montreal in November 1775, they were turned back a month later at Quebec City by a combination of the British military under Governor Guy Carleton, the difficult terrain and weather, and an indifferent local response. The Continental forces would be driven from Quebec in 1776, after the breakup of ice on the St. Lawrence River and the arrival of British transports in May and June. There would be no further serious attempt to challenge British control of present-day Canada until the War of 1812. In 1777, 1,500 Loyalist militia took part in the Saratoga campaign in New York, and surrendered with General Burgoyne after the Battles of Saratoga in October. For the rest of the war, Quebec acted as a base for raiding expeditions, conducted primarily by Loyalists and Indians, against frontier communities.", "The Loyalists rarely attempted any political organization. They were often passive unless regular British army units were in the area. The British, however, assumed a highly activist Loyalist community was ready to mobilize and planned much of their strategy around raising Loyalist regiments. The British provincial line, consisting of Americans enlisted on a regular army status, enrolled 19,000 Loyalists (50 units and 312 companies). The maximum strength of the Loyalist provincial line was 9,700 in December 1780. In all about 19,000 at one time or another were soldiers or militia in British forces. Loyalists from South Carolina fought for the British in the Battle of Camden. The British forces at the Battle of Monck's Corner and the Battle of Lenud's Ferry consisted entirely of Loyalists with the exception of the commanding officer (Banastre Tarleton). Both white and black Loyalists fought for the British at the Battle of Kemp's Landing in Virginia.", "Historian Maya Jasanoff estimated how many Loyalists departed the U.S. for British North America. She calculates 60,000 in total, including about 50,000 whites (Wallace Brown cites about 80,000 Loyalists in total permanently left the United States.). The majority of them — 36,000 - to New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, while about 6,600 went to Quebec and 2,000 to Prince Edward Island. 5,090 white Loyalists went to Florida, bringing along their slaves who numbered about 8,285 (421 whites and 2561 blacks returned to the States from Florida ). When Florida was returned to Spain, however, very few Loyalists remained there. 6,000 whites went to Jamaica and other Caribbean islands notably the Bahamas. About 13,000 went to Britain (including 5,000 free blacks). The total is 60–62,000 whites. A precise figure cannot be known because the records were incomplete and not accurate, and small numbers continued to leave after 1783. The 50,000 or-so white departures represented about 10% of the Loyalists (at 20-25% of the white population). Loyalists (especially soldiers and former officials) could choose evacuation. Loyalists whose roots were not yet deeply embedded in the United States were more likely to leave; older people who had familial bonds and had acquired friends, property, and a degree of social respectability were more likely to remain in the US. The vast majority of the half-million white Loyalists, about 20-25% of the total number of whites, remained in the U.S. Starting in the mid–1780s a small percentage of those who had left returned to the United States. The exiles amounted to about 2% of the total US population of 3 million at the end of the war in 1783. After 1783 some former Loyalists, especially Germans from Pennsylvania, emigrated to Canada to take advantage of the British government's offer of free land. Many departed the fledgling U.S. because they faced continuing hostility. In another migration-motivated mainly by economic rather than political reasons- more than 20,000 and perhaps as many as 30,000 \"Late Loyalists\" arrived in Ontario in the 1790s attracted by Lieutenant-Governor Simcoe's policy of land and low taxes, one-fifth those in the US and swearing an oath of allegiance to the King. The 36,000 or so who went to Nova Scotia were not well-received by the 17,000 Nova Scotians, who were mostly descendants of New Englanders settled there before the Revolution. \"They [the Loyalists]\", Colonel Thomas Dundas wrote in 1786, \"have experienced every possible injury from the old inhabitants of Nova Scotia, who are even more disaffected towards the British Government than any of the new States ever were. This makes me much doubt their remaining long dependent.\" In response, the colony of New Brunswick, until 1784 part of Nova Scotia, was created for the 14,000 who had settled in those parts. Of the 46,000 who went to Canada, 10,000 went to Quebec, especially what is now modern-day Ontario, the rest to Nova Scotia and PEI. Realizing the importance of some type of consideration, on November 9, 1789, Lord Dorchester, the governor of Quebec, declared that it was his wish to \"put the mark of Honour upon the Families who had adhered to the Unity of the Empire.\" As a result of Dorchester's statement, the printed militia rolls carried the notation: Those Loyalists who have adhered to the Unity of the Empire, and joined the Royal Standard before the Treaty of Separation in the year 1783, and all their Children and their Descendants by either sex, are to be distinguished by the following Capitals, affixed to their names: U.E. Alluding to their great principle The Unity of the Empire. The postnominals \"U.E.\" are rarely seen today, but the influence of the Loyalists on the evolution of Canada remains. Their ties to Britain and/or their antipathy to the United States provided the strength needed to keep Canada independent and distinct in North America. The Loyalists' basic distrust of republicanism and \"mob rule\" influenced Canada's gradual path to independence. The new British North American provinces of Upper Canada (the forerunner of Ontario) and New Brunswick were founded as places of refuge for the United Empire Loyalists. In an interesting historical twist Peter Matthews, a son of Loyalists, participated in the Upper Canada Rebellion which sought relief from oligarchic British colonial government and pursued American-style Republicanism. He was arrested, tried and executed in Toronto, and later became heralded as a patriot to the movement which led to Canadian self governance. The wealthiest and most prominent Loyalist exiles went to Great Britain to rebuild their careers; many received pensions. Many Southern Loyalists, taking along their slaves, went to the West Indies, particularly to the Abaco Islands in the Bahamas. Certain Loyalists who fled the United States brought their slaves with them to Canada (mostly to areas that later became Ontario and New Brunswick) where slavery was legal. An imperial law in 1790 assured prospective immigrants to Canada that their slaves would remain their property. However, a law enacted by eminent British lieutenant general and founder of modern Toronto John Graves Simcoe in 1793 entitled the Act Against Slavery tried to suppress slavery in Upper Canada by halting the sale of slaves to the United States, and by freeing slaves upon their escape from the latter into Canada. Simcoe desired to demonstrate the merits of loyalism and abolitionism in Upper Canada in contrast to the nascent republicanism and prominence of slavery in the United States, and, according to historian Stanley R. Mealing: However the actual law was a compromise. According to historian Afua Cooper, Simcoe's law required children in slavery to be freed when they reached age 25 and: Thousands of Iroquois and other Native Americans were expelled from New York and other states and resettled in Canada. The descendants of one such group of Iroquois, led by Joseph Brant (Thayendenegea), settled at Six Nations of the Grand River, the largest First Nations reserve in Canada. (The remainder, under the leadership of Cornplanter (John Abeel) and members of his family, stayed in New York.) A group of African-American Loyalists settled in Nova Scotia but emigrated again for Sierra Leone after facing discrimination there. Many of the Loyalists were forced to abandon substantial properties to America restoration of or compensation for these lost properties was a major issue during the negotiation of the Jay Treaty in 1794. The British Government eventually settled several thousand claims for more than 3.5 million Pounds Sterling, an enormous sum of money worth at that time.", "The great majority of Loyalists never left the United States; they stayed on and were allowed to be citizens of the new country. Some became nationally prominent leaders, including Samuel Seabury, who was the first Bishop of the Episcopal Church, and Tench Coxe. There was a small, but significant trickle of returnees who found life in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick too difficult. Perhaps 10% of the refugees to New Brunswick returned to the States as did an unknown number from Nova Scotia. Some Massachusetts Tories settled in the Maine District. Nevertheless, the vast majority never returned. Captain Benjamin Hallowell, who as Mandamus Councilor in Massachusetts served as the direct representative of the Crown, was considered by the insurgents as one of the most hated men in the Colony, but as a token of compensation when he returned from England in 1796, his son was allowed to regain the family house. Alexander Hamilton enlisted the help of the Tories (ex-Loyalists) in New York in 1782–85 to forge an alliance with moderate Whigs to wrest the State from the power of the Clinton faction. Moderate Whigs in other States who had not been in favor of separation from Britain but preferred a negotiated settlement which would have maintained ties to the Mother Country mobilized to block radicals. Most States had rescinded anti-Tory laws by 1787, although the accusation of being a Tory was heard for another generation. Several hundred who had left for Florida returned to Georgia in 1783–84. South Carolina which had seen a bitter bloody internal civil war in 1780-82 adopted a policy of reconciliation that proved more moderate than any other state. About 4500 white Loyalists left when the war ended, but the majority remained behind. The state government successfully and quickly reincorporated the vast majority. During the war, pardons were offered to Loyalists who switched sides and joined the Patriot forces. Others were required to pay a 10% fine of the value of the property. The legislature named 232 Loyalists liable for confiscation of their property, but most appealed and were forgiven. In Connecticut much to the disgust of the Radical Whigs the moderate Whigs were advertising in New York newspapers in 1782-83 that Tories who would make no trouble would be welcome on the grounds that their skills and money would help the State's economy. The Moderates prevailed. All anti-Tory laws were repealed in early 1783 except for the law relating to confiscated Tory estates: \"... the problem of the loyalists after 1783 was resolved in their favor after the War of Independence ended.\" In 1787 the last of any discriminatory laws were rescinded.", "The departure of so many royal officials, rich merchants and landed gentry destroyed the hierarchical networks that had dominated most of the colonies. A major result was that a Patriot/Whig elite supplanted royal officials and affluent Tories. In New York, the departure of key members of the De Lancey, De Peyster, Walton and Cruger families undercut the interlocking families that largely owned and controlled the Hudson Valley. Likewise in Pennsylvania, the departure of powerful families—Penn, Allen, Chew, Shippen—destroyed the cohesion of the old upper class there. Massachusetts passed an act banishing forty-six Boston merchants in 1778, including members of some of Boston's wealthiest families. The departure of families such as the Ervings, Winslows, Clarks, and Lloyds deprived Massachusetts of men who had hitherto been leaders of networks of family and clients. The bases of the men who replaced them were much different. One rich Patriot in Boston noted in 1779 that \"fellows who would have cleaned my shoes five years ago, have amassed fortunes and are riding in chariots.\" New men became rich merchants but they shared a spirit of republican equality that replaced the former elitism. The Patriot reliance on Catholic France for military, financial and diplomatic aid led to a sharp drop in anti-Catholic rhetoric. Indeed, the king replaced the pope as the demon Patriots had to fight against. Anti-Catholicism remained strong among Loyalists, some of whom went to Canada after the war most remained in the new nation. By the 1780s, Catholics were extended legal toleration in all of the New England states that previously had been so hostile. \"In the midst of war and crisis, New Englanders gave up not only their allegiance to Britain but one of their most dearly held prejudices.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Marriage.", "Life in Bohemia.", "Later Years." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "On 28 September 1330, Queen Elisabeth of Bohemia, wife of King John of Bohemia, died: Despite the fact that John and Elisabeth became estranged during the last years of their marriage, the king remained a widower for the next four years. The French King Philip VI wanted to tie John more closely with France, and he suggested to the Bohemian king a second marriage. The proposed bride was Beatrice, youngest daughter of the Duke of Bourbon and member of a cadet branch of the House of Capet. Beatrice was already betrothed, however, to Philip, the second son of Philip I, Prince of Taranto, as of 29 May 1321. The engagement was broken soon after the marriage negotiations with Bohemia started. The marriage of King John of Bohemia and Beatrice of Bourbon was solemnized in the Château de Vincennes in December 1334, at which time she was fourteen years old. But because the two were related in a prohibited degree (they were second cousins through their common descent from Henry V, Count of Luxembourg, and his wife Margaret of Bar), Pope Benedict XII had to give dispensation for the marriage, which was granted in Avignon on 9 January 1335 at the request of Philip VI. The marriage contract stipulated that if a son was born from the marriage, the County of Luxembourg (King John's paternal heritage), as well as lands belonging to it, would go to him. King John's sons from his first marriage, Charles and John Henry, were not informed of the contents of the marriage contract, but both princes were compelled to accept it along with the knights and citizens of Luxembourg in August 1335.", "Beatrice arrived in Bohemia on 2 January 1336: In the Bohemian court, Beatrice took care of the wife of her oldest stepson Charles, Blanche of Valois. Both women could easily communicate in French. The Queen soon felt ill-at-ease in Prague, where she was always compared unfavorably with the Margravine of Moravia (Blanche's title as wife of the Bohemian heir). Also, the Czech people were offended by her coldness, insolence and aversion to learning their language. The new Queen of Bohemia and Countess of Luxembourg brought with her an annual income of 4,000 livres extracted from her father's County of Clermont. On 25 February 1337, Beatrice gave birth in Prague to her only child, a son named Wenceslaus after the holy patron of the Přemyslid dynasty; probably calling her son with this name either the queen or her husband tried to gain the favor of the Bohemians. However, the relationship between Beatrice and her new subjects remained estranged: her coronation as Queen of Bohemia in St. Vitus Cathedral three months later, on 18 May, was an event of spectacular indifference from the citizens of Prague. Shortly after her coronation, in June 1337, Beatrice left Bohemia leaving her son behind, and went to live in Luxembourg. After this, she rarely visited the Bohemian Kingdom.", "On 26 August 1346 King John was killed in the Battle of Crécy and Beatrice ceased to be queen consort. Her stepson, now King Charles of Bohemia, confirmed the provisions of her marriage contract. Beatrice, now Dowager Queen of Bohemia, received in perpetuity lands in the County of Hainaut, the rent of 4,000 livres and the towns of Arlon, Marville and Damvillers (where she settled her residence) as her widow's estate. These revenues were used not only for their own needs, but also for the education of her son. King Charles also left her all the movable property and income from the mines in Kutná Hora. In addition, when her father Duke Louis I of Bourbon died in 1342, she received the sum of 1,000 livres, which was secured from the town of Creil. Around 1347, Beatrice married for a second time to Eudes II, Lord of Grancey, (then a widower) at her state of Damvillers. Despite her new marriage, she retained the title of Queen of Bohemia. The couple had no children. Soon after her second marriage, she arranged the betrothal of her son Wenceslaus with the widowed Joanna, Duchess of Brabant, daughter and heiress of John III, Duke of Brabant, who was fifteen years older than he was. The marriage took place in Damvillers four years later, on 17 May 1351. Despite all the grants of land and money given to Beatrice, the Bohemian king delayed the investiture of his young half-brother Wenceslaus as Count of Luxembourg. In fact, he held on to the title until 1353, when Wenceslaus finally obtained sovereignty over the County. One year later (13 March 1354) the County was elevated to the rank of a Duchy. Beatrice died on 27 December 1383, having outlived her son (for only sixteen days) and all her stepchildren. She was buried in the now-demolished church of the Couvent des Jacobins in Paris - her effigy is now in the Basilica of St Denis. Her second husband survived her by six years." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Collège de Sorbonne.", "Paris Faculty of Theology.", "May 1968.", "Current state of affairs.", "Sorbonne name dispute.", "The name and brand Sorbonne." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The name is derived from the Collège de Sorbonne, founded in 1257 by the eponymous Robert de Sorbon as one of the first significant colleges of the medieval University of Paris. The library was among the first to arrange items alphabetically according to title. The university predates the college by about a century, and minor colleges had been founded already during the late 12th century. During the 16th century, the Sorbonne became involved with the intellectual struggle between Catholics and Protestants. The University served as a major stronghold of Catholic conservative attitudes and, as such, conducted a struggle against King Francis I's policy of relative tolerance towards the French Protestants, except for a brief period during 1533 when the University was placed under Protestant control. The Sorbonne, acting in conjunction with the Catholic Church, condemned 500 printed works as heretical between 1544 and 1556. The Collège de Sorbonne was suppressed during the French Revolution, reopened by Napoleon in 1808 and finally closed in 1882. This was only one of the many colleges of the University of Paris that existed until the French revolution. Hastings Rashdall, in \"The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages\" (1895), which is still a standard reference on the topic, lists some 70 colleges of the university from the Middle Ages alone; some of these were short-lived and disappeared already before the end of the medieval period, but others were founded during the early modern period, like the Collège des Quatre-Nations.", "With time, the college came to be the main French institution for theological studies and \"Sorbonne\" was frequently used as a synonym for the Paris Faculty of Theology despite being only one of many colleges of the university.", "After months of conflicts between students and authorities at the University of Paris at Nanterre, the administration closed that university on 2 May 1968. Students at the Sorbonne campus in Paris met on 3 May to protest against the closure and the threatened expulsion of several students at Nanterre. On 6 May, the national student union, the Union Nationale des Étudiants de France (UNEF) — still the largest student union in France today — and the union of university teachers called a march to protest against the police invasion of Sorbonne. More than 20,000 students, teachers and other supporters marched towards the Sorbonne, still sealed off by the police, who charged, wielding their batons, as soon as the marchers approached. While the crowd dispersed, some began to make barricades out of whatever was at hand, while others threw paving stones, forcing the police to retreat for a time. The police then responded with tear gas and charged the crowd again. Hundreds of students were arrested. 10 May marked the \"Night of Barricades\", where students used cars, wood, and cobblestones to barricade the streets of the Latin Quarter. Brutal street fighting ensued between students and riot police, most notably on Rue Gay-Lussac. Early the next morning, as the fighting disbanded, Daniel Cohn-Bendit sent out a radio broadcast calling for a general strike. On Monday, 13 May, more than one million workers went on strike and the students declared that the Sorbonne was \"open to the public\". Negotiations ended, and students returned to their campuses after a false report that the government had agreed to reopen them, only to discover police still occupying the schools. When the Sorbonne reopened, students occupied it and declared it an autonomous \"People's University\". During the weeks that followed, approximately 401 popular action committees were established in Paris and elsewhere to document grievances against the government and French society, including the Occupation Committee of the Sorbonne.", "In 1970, the University of Paris was, managed by a common rectorate, the Chancellerie des Universités de Paris, with offices in the Sorbonne. Three of those universities maintain facilities in the historical building of the Sorbonne, and thus have the word in their name: Sorbonne University, Panthéon-Sorbonne University, and. Paris Descartes University uses also the Sorbonne building. The building also houses the École Nationale des Chartes, the École pratique des hautes études, the Cours de Civilisation Française de la Sorbonne and the Bibliothèque de la Sorbonne. The Sorbonne Chapel was classified as a French historic monument in 1887. The amphitheatre (\"Le Grand Amphithéâtre\") and the entire building complex (façades and roofs) became monuments in 1975.", "Despite being a highly valued brand, the Sorbonne universities did not register their names as trademarks until the 1990s. Over the following years, they established partnerships, merging projects and associated institutions with the name Sorbonne, sometimes triggering conflicts over the usage and ownership of the name. Following the May 1968 events, French higher education was reorganized in the Faure law of 12 November 1968. Some of the 13 autonomous universities created after the breakup of the University of Paris maintained operations in the Sorbonne building and decided to keep the word Sorbonne in their names: The University of Paris 1 (Panthéon-Sorbonne), the University of Paris 3 (Sorbonne-Nouvelle) and the University of Paris 4 (Paris-Sorbonne). Another university maintained operations in the building but opted to abandon the name: the University of Paris [Merger of the University of Paris 5 (Paris Descartes) and the University of Paris 7 (Paris Diderot)]. Two additional higher education institutions also remained active in the historical Sorbonne building: the Ecole des chartes and the Ecole pratique de hautes études. Furthermore, the University of Paris 2 (Panthéon-Assas), while not based in the Sorbonne building, does operate from the Panthéon site across the Cujas street. The common heritage and estate of the University of Paris (including the Sorbonne building) was not divided and instead placed under the authority of a common administration: the Chancellerie des Universités de Paris, whose headquarters are also located in the Sorbonne building. The building as a whole is then a common asset of the 13 successor universities of the University of Paris, and particularly the monumental sections are not attributed to any single university (but shared by all of them): the Sorbonne Chapel, the Cour d'honneur, the Péristyle and the Grand amphithéâtre. Some of the dependencies are administered by one of the successor universities (while remaining a common asset). The library of the Sorbonne (Bibliothèque Interuniversitaire de la Sorbonne) is a common library of the universities Panthéon-Sorbonne, Sorbonne-Nouvelle, Sorbonne-Université, Paris Descartes and Paris Diderot, administered by Panthéon-Sorbonne. The classrooms, libraries and administrative offices are attributed to the Universities maintaining operations in the building: Panthéon-Sorbonne, Sorbonne-Nouvelle, Sorbonne-Université (which also has its headquarters), Paris Descartes and Paris Diderot. All of them also operate in other campuses established across Paris.", "Despite being a highly valued brand, the Sorbonne universities did not register their names as trademarks until the 1990s. Over the following years, they established partnerships, merging projects and associated institutions with the name Sorbonne, sometimes triggering conflicts over the usage and ownership of the name. However, almost 30 years went by without any of them registering their names as a trademark. The first one to do it was the University of Paris 4 Paris-Sorbonne, who trademarked the name Université de Paris-Sorbonne in 1996, followed by the registration of the updated logos over the next decade. It was followed by Sorbonne-Nouvelle and Panthéon-Sorbonne in 1999. In 2007 Paris 4 trademarked also the brand \"La Sorbonne\". In 2006 it had granted permission to the authorities of Abu Dhabi to use the brand Sorbonne in the entire Middle east region; the \"Sorbonne Abu Dhabi\" logo was trademarked in 2007, blocking other Sorbonne universities from doing the same. This last initiative triggered a crisis with the other Sorbonne universities, forcing the French authorities to intervene. The local governments of Paris and the Île de France region threatened to block the merger of Paris 2, Paris 4 and Paris 6, who had trademarked the brand \"Université de la Sorbonne\", if they persisted in taking over the name Sorbonne for themselves at the expense of the other Sorbonne universities. Later the merging project advanced only between the Universities of Paris 4 and Paris 6 but was forced to reconsider the name Sorbonne Université. The compromise in 2010 consisted of adding a \"s\" at the end of the name of the project (the future merged University would be named later), making it Sorbonne Universités. In 2018 the project effectively merged the former universities of Paris 4 and 6, taking the name \"Sorbonne-Université\" with or without the hyphen. In line with the naming convention and with the former crisis of 2006 in the background, the number in the name disappears and the accompanying name becomes \"Sorbonne Université\", replacing \"Paris-Sorbonne\" and \"Pierre et Marie Curie\". The new naming is then \"Université Sorbonne Université\" or \"Université Sorbonne-Université\" though colloquially and in most communications, and in registered trademarks is simply \"Sorbonne Université\". The first \"University\" in the name refers to the fact that it is a University – only public higher education institutions are allowed to use that term in France– and the second \"University\" comes from the naming convention of adding a name after the City-number designation. Currently Sorbonne-Université is the only Sorbonne university not using a number in its name. The University of Paris 2 (Panthéon-Assas) trademarked the brand \"Université Sorbonne-Assas\" in 2007 and \"Sorbonne-Assas\" in 2013. It offers an international degree in its Sorbonne-Assas International Law School." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin.", "1651–1748: Early seeds.", "1764–1766: Taxes imposed and withdrawn.", "1767–1773: Townshend Acts and the Tea Act.", "1774–1775: Intolerable Acts and the Quebec Act.", "Military hostilities begin.", "Creating new state constitutions.", "Independence and Union.", "Defending the Revolution.", "British return: 1776–1777.", "Prisoners.", "American alliances after 1778.", "The British move South, 1778–1783.", "Surrender at Yorktown (1781).", "The end of the war.", "Paris peace treaty.", "Finance.", "Concluding the Revolution.", "Creating a \"more perfect union\" and guaranteeing rights.", "National debt.", "Ideology and factions.", "Ideology behind the Revolution.", "Liberalism.", "Republicanism.", "Protestant Dissenters and the Great Awakening.", "Class and psychology of the factions.", "King George III.", "Patriots.", "Loyalists.", "Neutrals.", "Role of women.", "Other participants.", "France and Spain.", "American Indians.", "Black Americans.", "Effects of the Revolution.", "Loyalist expatriation.", "Interpretations.", "Inspiring all colonies.", "Status of American women.", "Status of African Americans.", "Commemorations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "As early as 1651, the English government had sought to regulate trade in the American colonies, and Parliament passed the Navigation Acts on October 9 to provide the plantation colonies of the south with a profitable export market. The Acts prohibited British producers from growing tobacco and also encouraged shipbuilding, particularly in the New England colonies. Some argue that the economic impact was minimal on the colonists, but the political friction which the acts triggered was more serious, as the merchants most directly affected were also the most politically active.", "Prime Minister George Grenville asserted in 1762 that the whole revenue of the custom houses in America amounted to one or two thousand pounds a year, and that the English exchequer was paying between seven and eight thousand pounds a year to collect. Adam Smith wrote in \"The Wealth of Nations\" that Parliament \"has never hitherto demanded of [the American colonies] anything which even approached to a just proportion to what was paid by their fellow subjects at home.\" As early as 1651, the English government had sought to regulate trade in the American colonies. On October 9, 1651, they passed the Navigation Acts to pursue a mercantilist policy intended to ensure that trade", "In 1767, the Parliament passed the Townshend Acts which placed duties on a number of staple goods, including paper, glass, and tea, and established a Board of Customs in Boston to more rigorously execute trade regulations. The new taxes were enacted on the belief that Americans only objected to internal taxes and not to external taxes such as custom duties. The Americans, however, argued against the constitutionality of the act because its purpose was to raise revenue and not regulate trade. Colonists responded by organizing new boycotts of British goods. These boycotts were less effective, however, as the Townshend goods were widely used. In February 1768, the Assembly of Massachusetts Bay issued a circular letter to the other colonies urging them to coordinate resistance. The governor dissolved the assembly when it refused to rescind the letter. Meanwhile, a riot broke out in Boston in June 1768 over", "The British government responded by passing several Acts which came to be known as the Intolerable Acts, which further darkened colonial opinion towards the British. They consisted of four laws enacted by the British parliament. The first was the Massachusetts Government Act which altered the Massachusetts charter and restricted town meetings. The second act was the Administration of Justice Act which ordered that all British soldiers to be tried were to be arraigned in Britain, not in the colonies. The third Act was the Boston Port Act, which closed the port of Boston until the British had been compensated for the tea lost in the Boston Tea", "Massachusetts was declared in a state of rebellion in February 1775 and the British garrison received orders to disarm the rebels and arrest their leaders, leading to the Battles of Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775. The Patriots laid siege to Boston, expelled royal officials from all the colonies, and took control through the establishment of Provincial Congresses. The Battle of Bunker Hill followed on June 17, 1775. It was a British victory—but at a great cost: about 1,000 British casualties from a garrison of about 6,000, as compared to 500 American casualties from a much larger force. The Second Continental Congress was divided on the best course of action, but eventually produced the Olive Branch Petition, in which they attempted to come to an accord with King George. The", "Following the Battle of Bunker Hill in June 1775, the Patriots had control of Massachusetts outside the Boston city limits, and the Loyalists suddenly found themselves on the defensive with no protection from the British army. In all 13 colonies, Patriots had overthrown their existing governments, closing courts and driving away British officials. They had elected conventions and \"legislatures\" that existed outside any legal framework; new constitutions were drawn up in each state to supersede royal charters. They declared that they were states, not colonies. On January 5, 1776, New Hampshire ratified the first state constitution. In May 1776, Congress voted to suppress all forms of crown authority, to be replaced by locally created authority.", "In April 1776, the North Carolina Provincial Congress issued the Halifax Resolves explicitly authorizing its delegates to vote for independence. By June, nine Provincial Congresses were ready for independence; one by one, the last four fell into line: Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and New York. Richard Henry Lee was instructed by the Virginia legislature to propose independence, and he did so on June 7, 1776. On June 11, a committee was created to draft a document explaining the justifications for separation from Britain. After securing enough votes for passage, independence was voted for on July", "", "According to British historian Jeremy Black, the British had significant advantages, including a highly trained army, the world's largest navy, and an efficient system of public finance that could easily fund the war. However, they seriously misunderstood the depth of support for the American Patriot position and ignored the advice of General Gage, misinterpreting the situation as merely a large-scale riot. The British government believed that they could overawe the Americans by sending a large military and naval force, forcing them to be loyal again: Washington forced the British out of Boston in the spring of 1776, and neither the British nor the Loyalists controlled any significant areas. The British, however, were massing forces at their naval base at Halifax, Nova Scotia. They returned in force in July 1776, landing in New York and defeating Washington's Continental Army in August at the Battle of Brooklyn. Following that victory, they requested a meeting with representatives from Congress to negotiate an end to hostilities. A delegation including John Adams and Benjamin Franklin met British admiral Richard Howe on Staten Island in New York Harbor on", "In August 1775, George III declared Americans to be traitors to the Crown if they took up arms against royal authority. There were thousands of British and Hessian soldiers in American hands following their surrender at the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777. Lord Germain took a hard line, but the British generals", "The capture of a British army at Saratoga encouraged the French to formally enter the war in support of Congress, and Benjamin Franklin negotiated a permanent military alliance in early 1778; France thus became the first foreign nation to officially recognize the Declaration of Independence. On February 6, 1778, the United States and France signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce and the Treaty of Alliance. William Pitt spoke out in Parliament urging Britain to make peace in America and to unite with America against France, while British politicians who had sympathized with colonial grievances now turned against", "The British strategy in America now concentrated on a campaign in the southern states. With fewer regular troops at their disposal, the British commanders saw the \"southern strategy\" as a more viable plan, as they perceived the south as strongly Loyalist with a large population of recent immigrants and large numbers of slaves who might be captured or run away to join the British. Beginning in late December 1778, they captured Savannah and controlled the Georgia coastline. In 1780, they launched a fresh invasion and took Charleston, as well. A significant victory at the Battle of Camden meant that royal forces soon controlled most of Georgia and South Carolina. The British set up a network of forts inland, hoping that the Loyalists would rally to the flag. Not enough Loyalists turned out, however, and the British had to fight their way north into North Carolina and Virginia with a severely weakened army. Behind them, much of the territory that they had already captured dissolved into a chaotic guerrilla war, fought predominantly between bands of Loyalists and American militia, which negated many of the gains that the British had previously made.", "The British army under Cornwallis marched to Yorktown, Virginia, where they expected to be rescued by a British fleet. The fleet did arrive, but so did a larger French fleet. The French were victorious in the Battle of the Chesapeake, and the British fleet returned to New York for reinforcements, leaving Cornwallis trapped. In October 1781, the British surrendered their second invading army of the war under a siege by the combined French and Continental armies commanded by Washington.", "Historians continue to debate whether the odds were long or short for American victory. John E. Ferling says that the odds were so long that the American victory was \"almost a miracle\". On the other hand, Joseph Ellis says that the odds favored the Americans, and asks whether there ever was any realistic chance for the British to win. He argues that this opportunity came only once, in the summer of 1776, and the British failed that test. Admiral Howe and his brother General Howe \"missed several opportunities to destroy the Continental Army... Chance, luck, and even the vagaries of the weather played crucial roles.\" Ellis's point is that the strategic and tactical decisions of the Howes were fatally flawed because they underestimated the challenges", "During negotiations in Paris, the American delegation discovered that France supported American independence but no territorial gains, hoping to confine the new nation to the area east of the Appalachian Mountains. The Americans opened direct secret negotiations with London, cutting out the French. British Prime Minister Lord Shelburne was in full charge of the British negotiations, and he saw a chance to make the United States a valuable economic partner. The US obtained all the land east of the Mississippi River, south of Canada, and north of Florida. It gained fishing rights off Canadian coasts, and agreed to allow British merchants and Loyalists to recover their property. Prime Minister Shelburne foresaw highly profitable two-way trade between Britain and the rapidly growing United States, which did come to pass. The blockade was lifted and all British interference had been driven out, and American merchants were free to trade with any nation anywhere in the world. The British largely abandoned their American Indian allies, who were", "Britain's war against the Americans, the French, and the Spanish cost about £100 million, and the Treasury borrowed 40-percent of the money that it needed. Heavy spending brought France to the verge of bankruptcy and revolution, while the British had relatively little difficulty financing their war, keeping their suppliers and soldiers paid, and hiring tens of thousands of German soldiers. Britain had a sophisticated financial system based on the wealth of thousands of landowners who supported the government, together with banks and financiers in London. The British tax system collected about 12 percent of the GDP in taxes during the 1770s. In sharp contrast, Congress and the American states had no end of difficulty financing the war. In 1775, there was at most 12 million dollars in gold in the colonies, not nearly enough to cover current transactions, let alone finance a major war. The British made the situation much worse by imposing a tight blockade on every American port, which cut off almost all imports and exports. One partial solution was to rely on volunteer support from militiamen and donations from patriotic citizens. Another was to delay actual payments, pay soldiers and suppliers in depreciated currency, and promise that it would be made good after the war. Indeed, the soldiers and officers were given land grants in 1783 to cover the wages that they had earned but had not been paid during the war. The national government did not have a strong leader in financial matters until 1781, when Robert Morris was named Superintendent of Finance of the United States. Morris used a French loan in 1782 to set up the", "", "The war ended in 1783 and was followed by a period of prosperity. The national government was still operating under the Articles of Confederation and was able to settle the issue of the western territories, which the states ceded to Congress. American settlers moved rapidly into those areas, with Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee becoming states in the 1790s. However, the national government had no money either to pay the war debts owed to European nations and the private banks, or to pay Americans who had been given millions of dollars of promissory notes for supplies during the war. Nationalists led by Washington,", "The national debt fell into three categories after the American Revolution. The first was the $12 million owed to foreigners, mostly money borrowed from France. There was general agreement to pay the foreign debts at full value. The national government owed $40 million and state governments owed $25 million to Americans who had sold food, horses, and supplies to the Patriot forces. There were also other debts which consisted of", "The population of the Thirteen States was not homogeneous in political views and attitudes. Loyalties and allegiances varied widely within regions and communities and even within families, and sometimes shifted during the course of the Revolution.", "The American Enlightenment was a critical precursor of the American Revolution. Chief among the ideas of the American Enlightenment were the concepts of natural law, natural rights, consent of the governed, individualism, property rights, self-ownership, self-determination, liberalism, republicanism, and defense against corruption. A growing number of American colonists embraced these views and fostered an intellectual environment which led to a new sense of political and social identity.", "John Locke's (1632–1704) ideas on liberty influenced the political thinking behind the revolution, especially through his indirect influence on English writers such as John Trenchard, Thomas Gordon, and Benjamin Hoadly, whose political ideas in turn had a strong influence on the American Patriots. Locke is often referred to as \"the philosopher of the American Revolution\" due to his work in the Social Contract and Natural Rights theories that underpinned the Revolution's political ideology.", "The American ideology called \"republicanism\" was inspired by the Whig party in Great Britain which openly criticized the corruption within the British government. Americans were increasingly embracing republican values, seeing Britain as corrupt and hostile to American interests. The colonists associated political corruption with luxury and inherited aristocracy, which they condemned. The Founding Fathers were strong advocates of republican values, particularly Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, George Washington, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton, which required men to put civic duty ahead of their personal desires. Men had a civic duty to", "Protestant churches that had separated from the Church of England (called \"dissenters\") were the \"school of democracy\", in the words of historian Patricia Bonomi. Before the Revolution, the Southern Colonies and three of the New England Colonies had officially established churches: Congregational in Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Hampshire, and Anglican in Maryland, Virginia, North-Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations had no officially established churches. Church membership statistics from the period are unreliable and scarce, but what little data exists indicates that Anglicans were not in the majority, not even in the colonies where the Church of England was the established church, and they probably did not comprise even 30 percent of the population (with the possible exception of Virginia). President John Witherspoon of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) wrote widely circulated sermons linking the American Revolution to the teachings of the Bible. Throughout the colonies, dissenting Protestant ministers (Congregational, Baptist, and Presbyterian) preached Revolutionary themes in their sermons, while most Church of England clergymen preached loyalty to", "John Adams concluded in 1818: In the mid-20th century, historian Leonard Woods Labaree identified eight characteristics of the Loyalists that made them essentially conservative, opposite to the characteristics of the Patriots. Loyalists tended to feel that resistance to the Crown was morally wrong, while the Patriots thought that morality was on their side. Loyalists were alienated when the Patriots resorted to violence, such as burning houses and tarring and feathering. Loyalists wanted to take a centrist position and resisted the Patriots' demand to declare their opposition to the Crown. Many Loyalists had maintained strong and long-standing relations with Britain, especially merchants in port cities such as New York and Boston. Many Loyalists felt that independence was", "The war became a personal issue for the king, fueled by his growing belief that British leniency would", "Those who fought for independence were called \"Patriots\", \"Whigs\", \"Congress-men\", or \"Americans\" during and after the war. They included a full range of social and economic classes but were unanimous regarding the need to defend the rights of Americans and uphold the principles of republicanism in terms of rejecting monarchy and aristocracy, while emphasizing civic virtue on the part of the citizens. Newspapers were strongholds of patriotism (although there were a few Loyalist papers) and printed many pamphlets, announcements, patriotic letters, and pronouncements. According to historian Robert Calhoon, 40– to 45-percent of the white population", "The consensus of scholars is that about 15– to 20-percent of the white population remained loyal to the British Crown. Those who actively supported the king were known at the time as \"Loyalists\", \"Tories\", or \"King's men\". The Loyalists never controlled territory unless the British Army occupied it. They were typically older, less willing to break with old loyalties, and often connected to the Church of England; they included many established merchants with strong business connections throughout the Empire, as well as royal officials such as Thomas Hutchinson of Boston. There were 500 to 1,000 black loyalists, slaves who escaped to British lines and joined the British army. Most died of disease, but Britain", "A minority of uncertain size tried to stay neutral in the war. Most kept a low profile, but the Quakers were the most important group to speak out for neutrality, especially in Pennsylvania. The", "Women contributed to the American Revolution in many ways and were involved on both sides. Formal politics did not include women, but ordinary domestic behaviors became charged with political significance as Patriot women confronted a war which permeated all aspects of political, civil, and domestic life. They participated by boycotting British goods, spying on the British, following armies as they marched, washing, cooking, and mending for soldiers, delivering secret messages, and even fighting disguised as men in a few cases, such as Deborah Samson. Mercy Otis Warren held meetings in her house and cleverly attacked Loyalists with her creative plays and histories. Many women also acted as nurses and helpers, tending to the soldiers' wounds and buying and", "", "In early 1776, France set up a major program of aid to the Americans, and the Spanish secretly added funds. Each country spent one million \"livres tournaises\" to buy munitions. A dummy corporation run by Pierre Beaumarchais concealed their activities. American Patriots obtained some munitions through the Dutch Republic, as well as French", "Most American Indians rejected pleas that they remain neutral and instead supported the British Crown. The great majority of the 200,000 Indians east of the Mississippi distrusted the Colonists and supported the British cause, hoping to forestall continued colonial expansion into their territories. Those tribes that were more closely involved in trade tended to side with the Patriots, although political factors were important, as well. Most Indians did not participate directly in the war, except for warriors and bands associated with four of the Iroquois tribes in New York", "Free blacks in the North and South fought on both sides of the Revolution, but most fought for the Patriots. Gary Nash reports that there were about 9,000 black Patriots, counting the Continental Army and Navy, state militia units, privateers, wagoneers in the Army, servants to officers, and spies. Ray Raphael notes that thousands did join the Loyalist cause, but \"a far larger number, free as well as slave, tried to further their interests by siding with the patriots.\" Crispus Attucks was shot dead by British soldiers in the Boston Massacre in", "", "Tens of thousands of Loyalists left the United States following the war, and Maya Jasanoff estimates as many as 70,000. Some migrated to Britain, but the great majority received land and subsidies for resettlement in British colonies in North America, especially Quebec (concentrating in the Eastern Townships), Prince", "Interpretations vary concerning the effect of the Revolution. Historians such as Bernard Bailyn, Gordon Wood, and Edmund Morgan view it as a unique and radical event which produced deep changes and had a profound effect on world affairs, such as an increasing belief in the principles of the Enlightenment. These were demonstrated by a leadership and government that espoused", "After the Revolution, genuinely democratic politics became possible in the former colonies. The rights of the people were incorporated into state constitutions. Concepts of liberty, individual rights, equality among men and hostility toward corruption became incorporated as core values of liberal republicanism. The greatest challenge to the old order in Europe was the challenge to inherited political power and the democratic idea that government rests on the consent of the governed. The example of the first successful revolution against a European empire, and the first successful establishment of a republican form of democratically elected government, provided a model for many other colonial peoples who realized that they too could break away and become self-governing nations with directly elected representative government. The Dutch Republic, also at war with Britain, was the next country to sign a treaty with the United States, on October 8, 1782. On April 3, 1783, Ambassador Extraordinary Gustaf Philip Creutz, representing King Gustav III of Sweden, and Benjamin Franklin, signed a Treaty of Amity and Commerce with the U.S. The American Revolution was the first wave of the Atlantic Revolutions:", "The democratic ideals of the Revolution inspired changes in the roles of women. The concept of republican motherhood was inspired by this period and reflects the importance of Republicanism as the dominant American ideology. It assumed that a successful republic rested upon the virtue of its citizens. Women were considered to have the essential role of instilling their children with values conducive to a healthy republic. During this period, the wife's relationship with her husband also became more liberal, as love and affection instead of obedience and subservience began to characterize the ideal marital relationship. In addition, many women contributed to the war effort through fundraising and running family businesses in the absence of husbands. The traditional constraints gave way to more liberal conditions for women. Patriarchy faded as an ideal; young people had more freedom to choose their spouses and more often used birth control to regulate the size of their families. Society emphasized the role of mothers in child rearing, especially the", "In the first two decades after the American Revolution, state legislatures and individuals took actions to free numerous slaves, in part based on revolutionary ideals. Northern states passed new constitutions that contained language about equal rights or specifically abolished slavery; some states, such as New York and New Jersey, where slavery was more widespread, passed laws by the end of the", "The American Revolution has a central place in the American memory as the story of the nation's founding. It is covered in the schools, memorialized by a national holiday, and commemorated in innumerable monuments. George Washington's estate at Mount Vernon was one of the first national pilgrimages for tourists and attracted 10,000 visitors a year by the 1850s. The Revolution became a matter of contention in the 1850s in the debates leading" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Variation.", "Cultivars.", "Uses.", "Weed potential." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "It is a medium-sized deciduous tree growing to 20–30 m tall with a trunk up to 1.5 m diameter. The bark is smooth and pale grey on young trees, becoming square-cracked and knobbly on old trees. The buds are pale brown, which readily distinguishes it from the related \"Fraxinus excelsior\" (black buds) even in winter. The leaves are in opposite pairs or whorls of three, pinnate, 15–25 cm long, with 3–13 leaflets; the leaflets being distinctively slender, 3–8 cm long and 1–1.5 cm broad. The flowers are produced in inflorescences which can be male, hermaphrodite or mixed male and hermaphrodite. The male and hermaphrodite flowers occur on all individuals, i.e. all trees are functionally hermaphrodite. Flowering occurs in early spring. The fruit when fully formed is a samara 3–4 cm long, the seed 1.5–2 cm long with a pale brown wing 1.5–2 cm long.", "There are four subspecies, treated as distinct species by some authors:", "of Fraxinus angustifolia\" subsp. \"angustifolia of Fraxinus angustifolia\" subsp. \"oxycarpa", "In Sicily, it is cultivated as a source of a plant sap product called manna (see \"Fraxinus ornus\").", "Fraxinus angustifolia\" subsp. \"angustifolia has become a weed in many parts of Australia, where it is known as \"Desert Ash\". It has been widely planted as a street and park tree, and has spread to native bushland and grasslands, as well as stream banks and drainage lines, out-competing native plants for moisture, light and nutrients." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Example.", "Implementations.", "Complexity.", "Comparison to other sorting algorithms.", "Variants." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Here is an example of this sort algorithm sorting five elements: Selection sort can also be used on list structures that make add and remove efficient, such as a linked list. In this case it is more common to \"remove\" the minimum element from the remainder of the list, and then \"insert\" it at the end of the values sorted so far. For example:", "Below is an implementation in C. More implementations can be found on. /* a[0] to a[aLength-1] is the array to sort */ int i,j; int aLength; // initialise to a's length /* advance the position through the entire array */ /* (could do i < aLength-1 because single element is also min element) */ for (i = 0; i < aLength-1; i++)", "Selection sort is not difficult to analyze compared to other sorting algorithms since none of the loops depends on the data in the array. Selecting the minimum requires scanning formula_1 elements (taking formula_2 comparisons) and then swapping it into the first position. Finding the next lowest element requires scanning the remaining formula_2 elements and so on. Therefore, the total number of comparisons is formula_4 By arithmetic progression, formula_5 which is of complexity formula_6 in terms of number of comparisons. Each of these scans requires one swap for formula_2 elements (the final element is already in place).", "Among quadratic sorting algorithms (sorting algorithms with a simple average-case of Θ(\"n\")), selection sort almost always outperforms bubble sort and gnome sort. Insertion sort is very similar in that after the \"k\"th iteration, the first \"k\" elements in the array are in sorted order. Insertion sort's advantage is that it only scans as many elements as it needs in order to place the \"k\" + 1st element, while selection sort must scan all remaining elements to find the \"k\" + 1st element. Simple calculation shows that insertion sort will therefore usually perform about half as many comparisons as selection sort, although it can perform just as many or far fewer depending on the order the array was in prior to sorting. It can be seen as an advantage for some real-time applications that selection sort will perform identically regardless of the order of the array, while insertion sort's running time can vary considerably. However, this is more often an advantage for insertion sort in that it runs much more efficiently if the array is already sorted or \"close to sorted.\" While selection sort is preferable to insertion sort in terms of number of writes (Θ(\"n\") swaps versus Ο(\"n\") swaps), it almost always far exceeds (and never beats) the number of writes that cycle sort makes, as cycle sort is theoretically optimal in the number of writes. This can be important if writes are significantly more expensive than reads, such as with EEPROM or Flash memory, where every write lessens the lifespan of the memory. Finally, selection sort is greatly outperformed on larger arrays by Θ(\"n\" log \"n\") divide-and-conquer algorithms such as mergesort. However, insertion sort or selection sort are both typically faster for small arrays (i.e. fewer than 10–20 elements). A useful optimization in practice for the recursive algorithms is to switch to insertion sort or selection sort for \"small enough\" sublists.", "Heapsort greatly improves the basic algorithm by using an implicit heap data structure to speed up finding and removing the lowest datum. If implemented correctly, the heap will allow finding the next lowest element in Θ(log \"n\") time instead of Θ(\"n\") for the inner loop in normal selection sort, reducing the total running time to Θ(\"n\" log \"n\"). A bidirectional variant of selection sort (sometimes called cocktail sort due to its similarity to the bubble-sort variant cocktail shaker sort) is an algorithm which finds both the minimum and maximum values in the list in every pass. This reduces the number of scans of the input by a factor of two. Each scan performs three comparisons per two elements (a pair of elements is compared, then the greater is compared to the maximum and the lesser is compared to the minimum), a 25% savings over regular selection sort, which does one comparison per element. Sometimes this is double selection sort. Selection sort can be implemented as a stable sort. If, rather than swapping in step 2, the minimum value is inserted into the first position (that is, all intervening items moved down), the algorithm is stable. However, this modification either requires a data structure that supports efficient insertions or deletions, such as a linked list, or it leads to performing Θ(\"n\") writes. In the bingo sort variant, items are ordered by repeatedly looking through the remaining items to find the greatest value and moving all items with that value to their final location. Like counting sort, this is an efficient variant if there are many duplicate values. Indeed, selection sort does one pass through the remaining items for each item moved. Bingo sort does one pass for each value (not item): after an initial pass to find the biggest value, the next passes can move every item with that value to its final location while finding the next value as in the following pseudocode (arrays are zero-based and the for-loop includes both the top and bottom limits, as in Pascal): bingo(array A) begin end; Thus, if on average there are more than two items with the same value, bingo sort can be expected to be faster because it executes the inner loop fewer times than selection sort." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Queen of England.", "Estimation.", "Legacy.", "In popular culture.", "Theatre." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Anne had four brothers, including Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, and one younger sister, Margaret of Bohemia, Burgravine of Nuremberg. She also had five half-siblings from her father's previous marriages, including Margaret of Bohemia, Queen of Hungary. She was brought up mainly at the Hradshin Palace, and spent much of her early life in the care of her brother, King Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia. On her journey through Flanders on the way to her new life in England, she came under the protection of her uncle, Wenceslaus I, Duke of Luxembourg.", "Richard II married Anne of Bohemia as a result of the Western Schism in the Papacy that had resulted in two rival popes. According to Eduard Perroy, Pope Urban VI sanctioned the marriage between Richard and Anne, in an attempt to create an alliance on his behalf, particularly so that he might be stronger against the French and their preferred pope, Clement. Anne's father was the most powerful monarch in Europe at the time, ruling over about half of Europe's population and territory. The marriage was against the wishes of many members of his nobility and members of parliament, and occurred primarily at the instigation of Richard's intimate, Michael de la Pole. Although Richard had been offered Caterina Visconti, one of the daughters of Bernabò Visconti of Milan, who would have brought a great deal of money with her as dowry, Anne was chosen – bringing no direct financial benefits to England. She brought with her no dowry, and in return for her hand in marriage, Richard gave 20,000 florins (around £4,000,000 in today's value) in payment to her brother King Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia, who had written to Richard to stress their joint duty to reunite Christendom. There were few diplomatic benefits – although English merchants were now allowed to trade freely within both Bohemian lands, and lands of the Holy Roman Empire, this was not much when compared to the usual diplomatic benefits from marriages made as a result of the war with France. Negotiations could not be completed until 1380 because Richard's negotiating team were held to ransom while returning from Prague. The marriage treaty was signed in May 1381. On her arrival in England in December 1381, having been delayed by storms, Anne was severely criticised by contemporary chroniclers, probably as a result of the financial arrangements of the marriage, although it was quite typical for queens to be viewed in critical terms. The Westminster Chronicler called her \"a tiny scrap of humanity\", and Thomas Walsingham related a disastrous omen upon her arrival, where her ships smashed to pieces as soon as she had disembarked. Nevertheless, Anne and King Richard II were married in Westminster Abbey on 20 January 1382, but the reception from Londoners was hostile at times.. Tournaments were held for several days after the ceremony, in celebration. They then made a tour of the realm, staying at many major abbeys along the way. In 1383 Anne of Bohemia visited the city of Norwich, where at the Great Hospital a ceiling comprising 252 black eagles was made in her honour. Anne and Richard were only 15 years old when they first met and married. Yet these \"two wispy teenagers\" soon fell into a loving relationship and \"over the years the king proved truly devoted to his new wife\". Anne's wedding to Richard II was the fifth royal wedding in Westminster Abbey and was not followed by any other royal wedding in Westminster Abbey for another 537 years. The court of Charles IV, Anne's father, based in Prague, was a centre of the International Gothic style, then at its height, and her arrival seems to have coincided with, and probably caused, new influences on English art. The Crown of Princess Blanche, now in Munich, may have been made for Anne, either in Prague or Paris. They were married for 12 years, but had no children. Anne's death from plague in 1394 at Sheen Manor was a devastating blow to Richard. He was so grief-stricken that he demolished Sheen Manor, where she had died. Historians have speculated that her counsel had a moderating effect on Richard during her lifetime. This is supported by his unwise conduct in the years after Anne's death that lost him his throne. Richard married his second wife, the six-year-old Isabella of Valois, on 31 October 1396.", "Although Anne was originally disliked by the chroniclers, there is some evidence that she became more popular in time. She was a very kind person and popular with the people of England; for example, she was well known for her tireless attempts to \"intercede\" on behalf of the people, procuring pardons for participants in the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, and numerous other pardons for wrongdoers. In 1389, for example, she sought a pardon for a man who had been indicted for the murder of William de Cantilupe 14 years previously. She also made several high-profile intercessions in front of the king. Anne saved the life of John Northampton, a former mayor of London, in 1384; her humble begging convinced Richard II to merely commit the offender to lifelong imprisonment. Anne's most famous act of intercession was on behalf of the citizens of London in the ceremonial reconciliation of Richard and London in 1392. The queen's role has been memorialized in Richard Maidstone's \"Reconciliation of Richard II with the City of London\". Anne also interceded on behalf of Simon de Burley, Richard II's former tutor during his minority, in the 1388 Merciless Parliament. Despite her pleas to the Lords Appellant, Burley was executed. On the other hand, she never fulfilled many traditional duties of queens. In particular, she did not bear children, despite twelve years of marriage, and this is perhaps emphasised in her epitaph, whereby she is mentioned as having been kind to \"pregnant women\". The Evesham chronicler said, \"this queen, although she did not bear children, was still held to have contributed to the glory and wealth of the realm, as far as she was able. Noble and common people suffered greatly at her death\". Nevertheless, her popular legacy as \"Good Queen Anne\" suggests that this lack of children was unimportant to many contemporaries.", "Anne is buried in Westminster Abbey beside her husband. In 1395 Richard sealed contracts for a monument for himself and for Anne. This was an innovation, the first time a double tomb was ordered for an English royal burial. Contracts for the base of Purbeck marble were sealed with two London masons, Henry Yevele and Stephen Lote, and for the two life size effigies with Nicholas Broker and Godfrey Prest, both coppersmiths of London. Designs, now lost, were supplied to both sets of craftsmen. The coppersmiths' contract stipulated that the effigies were to be made of gilded copper and latten and to lie under canopies. They were to be crowned, their right hands were to be joined, and they were to hold sceptres in their left hands. Their joint tomb is now damaged, and the hands of the effigies are chipped off. The inscription on her tomb describes her as \"beauteous in body and her face was gentle and pretty.\" When her tomb was opened in 1871, it was discovered that many of her bones had been stolen via a hole in the side of the casket. Anne of Bohemia is known to have made the sidesaddle more popular to ladies of the Middle Ages. She also influenced the design of carts in England when she arrived in a carriage, presumably from Kocs, Hungary, to meet her future husband Richard (the name of Kocs is considered to have given rise to the English word \"coach\"). She also made the horned, Bohemian-style headdress the fashion for Englishwomen in the late 14th century.", "", "She is one of the main characters in the play \"Richard of Bordeaux\" (1932) written by Gordon Daviot. The play tells the story of Richard II of England in a romantic fashion, emphasizing the relationship between Richard and Anne of Bohemia. The play was a major hit in 1933, ran for over a year in the West End, playing a significant role in turning its director and leading man John Gielgud into a major star. Anne also appears in \"Two Planks and a Passion\" (1983) by Anthony Minghella, in which she accompanies her husband and their close friend Robert de Vere in attending the York Corpus Christi mystery plays." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Marriage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Anne was born in 1290 in the Kingdom of Bohemia. Her mother, Judith, died in 1297 when Anne was seven years old. Of her mother's ten children, only four of them lived to adulthood: Wenceslaus, Anne, Elizabeth and Margaret. In 1300 Anne's widowed father, Wenceslaus, remarried a Polish princess called Elizabeth Richenza from the genus Piast dynasty. Anne's father then gained the Crown of Poland for the next five years (he died in 1305). They had a daughter, Agnes of Bohemia. Her father also had numerous illegitimate children, including Jan Volek (?? – 27 September 1351), bishop of Olomouc", "In 1306 Anne married Henry of Carinthia, a son of Meinhard, Duke of Carinthia and Elisabeth of Bavaria. After the murder of Anne's brother, Wenceslaus, in 1306, Anne's husband was elected King of Bohemia and titular King of Poland. However, all power was soon taken over by Rudolf of Habsburg. Anne and Henry then fled to Carinthia out of reach from Rudolph. Rudolph only reigned for one year and on his death Henry assumed the throne of Bohemia again. The royal couple turned their attention to Anne's younger unmarried sister Elisabeth. They wished to have her married but Elisabeth refused every suitor that came forward. In 1310 Elisabeth married John of Luxembourg. This union caused Anne and Elisabeth to fall out. It was said that Elisabeth was more beautiful than Anne and that Anne was jealous of her. By 1310 John and Elisabeth occupied Prague; Anne and Henry were sent back to live in Carinthia in exile. It was there in 1313 that she died aged only twenty two and childless. Her husband married twice more." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Landmarks and culture.", "Twin towns — sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "According to historians, the beginnings of Jablunkov are to be found in the place where the present-day village of Hrádek is located. It was first mentioned in a written document in 1435. This settlement was primordially named Jablonka and as such it was mentioned as a seat of a Catholic parish in the register of Peter's Pence payment from 1447 among 50 parishes of Teschen deanery. In the same year Magyars completely destroyed the settlement. Politically it belonged to the Duchy of Teschen, a fee of the Kingdom of Bohemia which was since 1526 a part of the Habsburg Monarchy. In 1560 Wacław III, Duke of Cieszyn, granted town rights to the town. It continuously developed and by the end of the 16th century it had a mayor and a city council. The town profited from its location in the Jablunkov Pass. It was located on an ancient trade route going from the Mediterranean Sea to the Baltic Sea. The route was used by merchants of ancient Rome; frequent discoveries of Roman coins confirm that. Important trading routes to Kraków (north) and to Upper Hungary (east) also run through the town. It became more and more important and also rich, as many citizens lived by trading. In the middle of the 17th century, it had, together with a suburb and a village of Pioseczna, 750 inhabitants. In the 18th century most of citizens worked in trade, craftsmanship and farming. At the end of the 19th century, many new buildings were built. A new Art Nouveau town hall was built in 1905. After Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire a modern municipal division was introduced in the re-established Austrian Silesia. The town became a seat of a legal district in the political district of Cieszyn. According to the censuses conducted in 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910 the population of the municipality grew from 2,941 in 1880 to 3,289 in 1910 with the majority being native Polish-speakers (dropping from 89.4% in 1880 to 84.4% in 1910) accompanied by German-speaking minority (growing from 9.2% in 1880 to 14.1% in 1910) and Czech-speaking people (at most 57 or 1.5% in 1910). In terms of religion in 1910 the majority were Roman Catholics (88.5%), followed by Protestants (9.2%), Jews (90 or 2.3%) and 2 people adhering to another faiths. The town was also traditionally inhabited by a specific ethnographic group called \"Jacki\", speaking Jablunkov dialect. After World War I, fall of Austria-Hungary, Polish–Czechoslovak War and the division of Cieszyn Silesia in 1920, it became a part of Czechoslovakia. Following the Munich Agreement, in October 1938 together with the Zaolzie region it was annexed by Poland, administratively adjoined to Cieszyn County of Silesian Voivodeship. It was then annexed by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II. After the war it was restored to Czechoslovakia.", "The most important landmarks are the historic town square with a fountain and statue of the Virgin Mary from 1655, the Roman Catholic church built in 1620, and the Elizabethan Monastery. The latter was established by the priest Wawrzyniec Piontek, who wanted to improve medical treatment in the town: the nearest hospital was located in Ostrava. The Elizabethan hospital was built in 1856. It was located near the Olza River and was frequently flooded. A decision was taken to build a new one, which began operating in 1932. In 1948 the monastery and its properties were seized by the Communists, who forbade the further induction of new sisters. Former Elizabethan sisters were ordered to work in a state farm (JZD) with cattle. In 1989, after the fall of communism, it was returned to the Elizabethan sisters. The monastery in Jablunkov is one of only three Elizabethan monasteries in the Czech Republic, the other two being in Prague and Brno. There is also a sanatorium in Jablunkov. It was built in 1933-1935 and is a valuable landmark of modern architecture. It is surrounded by a park planted in 1936–1938. There are more than 500 species of trees and shrubs in the park. Several sculptures are also located in the park. The most popular cultural event is the annual Gorolski Święto, or \"Highlander's Festival\" in English, organized every year in August since 1948 by the Polish Cultural and Educational Union (PZKO). It is a showcase of local Polish folklore and traditions that attracts visitors from all of Zaolzie and also from foreign countries.", "Jablunkov is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Death.", "Works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Little is known about Papinian. He was of Syrian birth and a native of Emesa, for he is said to have been a kinsman of Septimius Severus' second wife, Julia Domna, who was a member of the Arab royal family of Emesa. One source shows him as a follower of the casuistry of Quintus Cervidius Scaevola, another shows him to have been his pupil. A concurring (but dubious) passage in the \"Augustan History\" claims that he studied law with Severus under Scaevola. Papinian was an intimate friend of Emperor Severus and accompanied him to Britain during 207 CE, where he served in \"the forum of York\" in response to an uprising by Scottish Highlanders. He was at some time made an attorney general (\"advocatus fisci\"), master of petitions (requests), \"magister libellorum\", by Severus. He also served as Treasurer and Captain of the Guard for the Emperor. Before the emperor's death, he commended his two sons Caracalla and Geta into the lawyer's charge.", "Sharing in the governorship of the Roman Empire with Geta proved unsatisfactory for Caracalla, who decided at some time to usurp his brother. Papinian, trying to keep peace between the brothers, only proved to encourage the hatred of Caracalla, consequently passing an order to have the lawyer beheaded (Spartianus, \"Caracalla\"), and his body dragged through the streets of Rome. His death followed the 212 CE fratricide of Geta, amongst the general slaughter of his friends and those perceived associated with him, according to one source estimated as 20,000 persons. The author of the 1911 \"Encyclopædia Britannica\" article states that the details of Papinian's death \"are variously related, and have undergone legendary embellishment.\" Papinian's death was the subject of a play by Andreas Gryphius (1659).", "Much of his output has been lost, as what we have is small compared to other jurists such as Ulpian or Paul. The principal works of Papinian include: \"Quaestiones\" in 37 books (written before 198 CE); nineteen books of \"Responsa\" (written sometime between 204 CE and his death); two books, the \"Definitiones\" and \"De adulteriis\", and other works, the shortest of these being Αστυνόμικος (City-Administration) which was a manual on the duties for commissioners of streets and bridges." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Taxation and legislation.", "Colonial response.", "Course of the war.", "War breaks out (1775–1776).", "Political reactions.", "British counter-offensive (1776–1777).", "British northern strategy fails (1777–1778).", "Foreign intervention.", "Stalemate in the North (1778–1780).", "War in the South (1778–1781).", "International war breaks out (1778–1783).", "British defeat in America (1781).", "North Ministry collapses.", "Analysis of combatants.", "United States.", "Great Britain.", "Armed forces.", "Strategic deficiencies.", "Campaign issues.", "France.", "African Americans.", "American Indians.", "Women.", "Aftermath.", "Preliminary negotiations.", "Treaty of Paris.", "Casualties and losses.", "Financial debts.", "Further reading." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Following Cromwell's Interregnum in England after 1649, and then during the Stuart Kings after 1660, early British North American imperial policy was one of benign neglect. And unlike the Spanish colonial government of the same period, the British allowed native-born gentry to become Royal Council members in each colonial legislature. Following the accession of George III to the throne of Great Britain at the end of the Seven Years’ War, Parliament increased revenues through the Navigation Acts to fund the war debt. They also were used to pay for greater administrative costs in the expanded British Empire brought", "The elected members in the Royal colonial legislatures, those who represented the smaller landowners in the lower-house assemblies, responded by establishing ad hoc provincial legislatures, variously called Congresses, Conventions and Conferences. They effectively removed Crown control within their respective colonies. Twelve sent representatives to the First Continental Congress to develop a joint American response to the crisis.", "", "Parliament refused to yield to Congressional proposals. In 1775, it declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and enforced a blockade of the colony. It then passed the Restraining Acts of 1775 aimed at limiting colonial trade to the British West Indies and the British Isles. New England ships were barred from the Newfoundland cod fisheries. These increasing tensions led to a mutual scramble for ordnance between royal governors and the elected assemblies. British raids on colonial powder magazines pushed the assemblies towards open war. Each assembly was required by law to defend them for the purpose of providing arms and ammunition for frontier defense. Thomas Gage was appointed the British Commander-in-Chief for North America. As military governor of Massachusetts he was ordered to disarm the local militias on April 14, 1775. Gage planned to destroy stores of militia ordnance at Concord by way of Lexington to capture John Hancock and Samuel Adams,", "After fighting began, Congress launched an Olive Branch Petition in another attempt to avert war. George III rejected the offer as insincere because Congress also made contingency plans for muskets and gunpowder. The King answered militia resistance at Bunker Hill with a Proclamation of Rebellion, which further provoked the Patriot faction in Congress. Parliament rejected coercive measures on the colonies by 170 votes. The tentative Whig majority there feared an aggressive policy would drive the Americans towards independence. Tories stiffened their resistance to compromise, and the King himself began micromanaging the war effort. The Irish Parliament pledged to send troops to America, and Irish Catholics were allowed to enlist in the army for the first time. The initial hostilities in Boston caused a pause in British activity, they remained in New York City awaiting more troops. That inactive response gave the Patriots a political advantage in the colonial assemblies, and the British lost control over every former colony. The army in the British Isles had been deliberately kept small since 1688 to prevent abuses of power by the King. To prepare for war overseas, Parliament signed treaties of subsidy with small German states for additional troops. Within", "After regrouping at Halifax, William Howe determined to take the fight to the Americans. He set sail in June 1776 and began landing troops on Staten Island near the entrance to New York Harbor on July 2. The Americans rejected Howe's informal attempt to negotiate peace. When Washington split his army to positions on Manhattan Island and across the East River in western Long Island, on August 27 at the Battle of Long Island Howe outflanked Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights, but he did not attempt to encircle Washington's forces. Through the night of August 28, General", "In December 1776, John Burgoyne returned to London to set strategy with Lord George Germain. Burgoyne's plan was to isolate New England by establishing control of the Great Lakes from New York to Quebec. Efforts could then concentrate on the southern colonies, where it was believed that Loyalist support was widespread and substantial. Burgoyne's plan was to maneuver two armies by different routes and rendezvous at Albany, New York. Burgoyne set out along Lake Champlain on June 14, 1777, quickly capturing Ticonderoga on July 5. From there the pace slowed. The Americans blocked roads, destroyed bridges, dammed streams, and stripped the area of food. Meanwhile, Barry St.", "The defeat at Saratoga caused considerable anxiety in Britain over foreign intervention. The North ministry sought reconciliation with the colonies by consenting to their original demands, although Lord North refused to grant independence, while the Americans, bolstered by their French alliance, settled for no terms short of complete independence from Britain. French foreign minister the Comte de Vergennes was strongly anti-British, and he sought a pretext for going to war with Britain following the conquest of Canada in 1763. With the loses incurred during the defeat in Canada, and with the treaties made between Britain and the Germans, it became clear to Congress that help from France was imperative. France, however, would not be compelled to intervene if the colonies were still considering reconciliation with Britain, as France would have nothing to gain in that event. To assure assistance from France, independence would have to be declared, which was effected", "Clinton withdrew from Philadelphia, consolidating his forces in New York following the British defeat at Saratoga and the entry of France into the war. French admiral the Comte d'Estaing had been dispatched to America in April 1778 to assist Washington, and he arrived shortly after Clinton withdrew into New York. The Franco-American forces felt that New York's defenses were too formidable for the French fleet, and they opted to attack Newport at the Battle of Rhode Island, launched on August 29 under the command of General John Sullivan. The effort, however, failed when the French opted to withdraw, and this displeased the Americans. The war then", "The British turned their attention to conquering the South in 1778 after Loyalists in London assured them of a strong Loyalist base there. A southern campaign also had the advantage of keeping the Royal Navy closer to the Caribbean, where it would be needed to defend lucrative colonies against the Franco-Spanish fleets. On December 29, 1778, an expeditionary corps from New York captured Savannah, and British troops then moved inland to recruit Loyalist support. There was a promising initial turnout in early 1779, but then a large Loyalist militia was defeated at Kettle Creek on February 14 and they had to recognize their dependence upon the British. The British, however, defeated Patriot militia at Brier Creek on March 3, and then launched an abortive assault on Charleston, South Carolina. The operation became notorious for its high degree of looting by British troops, enraging both Loyalists and Patriots. In October,", "In the late 1700s, the English colonial insurgents in North America became the “centerpiece of an international coalition” to check and then compromise British preeminence in the North Atlantic. Throughout the last half of the 1770s, the insurgency against the British Crown among its North American colonies suffered repeated reverses. The cause of American independence flickered as its major port cities were either occupied or blockaded, its naval forces proved ineffectual, and its armies suffered repeated defeats in pitched battles at the hands of British regulars and allied auxiliaries from German principalities. Initially the Continental Congress persevered with financial contributions from the personal fortunes of the richest colonials to compensate for smaller states refusing to pay their full requisitions, and it kept an army in the field by the leadership of George", "Cornwallis believed that a successful campaign in Virginia would cut supplies to Greene's army in the Carolinas and precipitate a collapse of American resistance in the South. He had written to both Lord Germain and Clinton detailing his intentions to invade. Clinton strongly opposed the plan, favoring a campaign farther north in the Chesapeake Bay region. Germain wrote to Cornwallis to approve his plan but neglected to include Clinton in the decision-making, even though Clinton was Cornwallis's superior officer, and Cornwallis then decided to move into Virginia without informing Clinton, all the while he was being pursued by Lafayette and", "Lord North had been the King's Prime Minister in Parliament since 1770, five years before the King declared colonists outlaws or the Battle of Lexington. By the end of 1777, and the loss of a first army in North America at the Battles of Saratoga, King George III had determined that in the event of a separate war with France, “the only means of making it successful” would be to remove most of the British and German troops deployed in America to threaten French and Spanish Caribbean settlements. In the King's judgment, Britain could not possibly fight all three without becoming weak on all fronts. News of the French-US treaties for trade and defense arrived at London. Before British", "", "The Americans began the war with significant disadvantages compared to the British. They had no national government, no national army or navy, no financial system, no banks, no established credit, and no functioning government departments. The Congress tried to handle administrative affairs through legislative committees, which proved largely inefficient. The state governments were themselves brand new and officials had little to no administrative experience. In peacetime, the colonies relied heavily on ocean travel and shipping, but that was now shut down by the British blockade, and the Americans had to rely on slow overland travel. However, the Americans had multiple advantages that outweighed the initial disadvantages which they faced. They had a large prosperous population that depended on local production of food and most supplies rather than on imports, while British supplies were mostly shipped from across the ocean. The British faced a vast territory far larger than Britain or France, located at a far distance from home ports. Most of the Americans lived on farms distant from the seaports; the British could capture any port, but that did not give them control over the inland areas. The patriots were on their home ground, had their own newspapers and printers, and internal lines of communication. They had a long-established system of local militia, previously used to combat the French and Indians, with companies and an officer corps that could form the basis of local militias and provide a training ground for the national army. Motivation was also a major asset. The Patriots had much more popular support than the Loyalists, and more than 200,000 Americans fought in the war; 25,000 died. The British expected the Loyalists to do much of the fighting, but they did much less than expected. The British also hired German auxiliaries to do much of their fighting. At the onset of the war, the Americans had no major international allies. Battles such as the Battle of Bennington, the Battles of Saratoga, and even defeats such as the Battle of Germantown proved decisive in gaining the attention and support of powerful European nations such as France and Spain, who moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies to overtly supporting them. On June 13, 1778, war between France and", "The population of Great Britain and Ireland in 1780 was approximately 12.6 million, while the Thirteen Colonies held a population of some 2.8 million, including some 500,000 slaves. Theoretically, Britain had the advantage; however, many factors inhibited the procurement of a large army.", "", "The British leadership soon discovered it had overestimated the capabilities of its own troops, while underestimating those of the colonists, causing a sudden re-think in British planning. The ineffective initial response of British military and civil officials to the onset of the rebellion had allowed the advantage to shift to the colonists, as British authorities rapidly lost control over every colony. A microcosm of these shortcomings were evident at the Battle of Bunker Hill. It took ten hours for the British leadership to respond following the sighting of the Americans on the Charlestown Peninsula, giving the colonists ample time to reinforce their defenses. Rather than opt for a simple flanking attack that would have rapidly succeeded with minimal loss, the British decided on repeated", "Suppressing a rebellion in America presented the British with major problems. The key issue was distance; it could take up to three months to cross the Atlantic, and orders from London were often outdated by the time that they arrived. The colonies had never been formally united prior to the conflict and there was no centralized area of ultimate strategic importance. Traditionally, the fall of a capital city often signaled the end of a conflict, yet the war continued unabated even after the fall of major settlements such as New York, Philadelphia (which was the Patriot capital), and Charleston. Britain's ability to project its power overseas lay chiefly in the power of the Royal Navy, allowing her to control major coastal settlements with relative ease and to enforce a strong blockade of colonial ports. However, the overwhelming majority of the American population was agrarian, not urban, and the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade's effects. The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the British from using the harsh methods of suppressing revolts that they had used in Scotland and Ireland. For example, British troops looted and pillaged the locals during an aborted attack on Charleston in 1779, enraging both Patriots and Loyalists. Neutral colonists were often driven into the ranks of the Patriots when brutal combat broke out between Tories and Whigs in the Carolinas in the later stages of the war. Conversely, Loyalists were often emboldened when Patriots resorted to intimidating suspected Tories, such as destroying property or tarring and feathering.", "The decisive American victory at Saratoga spurred France to offer a defensive treaty of alliance with the United States to guarantee its independence from Britain. It was conditioned on Britain initiating a war on France to stop it from trading with the US. Spain and the Netherlands were invited", "African Americans—slave and free—served on both sides during the war. The British recruited slaves belonging to Patriot masters and promised freedom to those who served by act of Lord Dunmore's Proclamation. Because of manpower shortages, George Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. Small all-black units were formed in Rhode Island and Massachusetts; many slaves were promised freedom for serving. Some of the men promised freedom were sent back to their masters, after the war was over, out of political convenience. Another all-black unit came from Saint-Domingue with", "Most American Indians east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war, and many tribes were divided over the question of how to respond to the conflict. A few tribes were on friendly terms with the other Americans, but most Indians opposed the union of the Colonies as a potential threat to their territory. Approximately 13,000 Indians fought on the British side, with the largest group coming from the Iroquois tribes, who fielded around 1,500 men. The powerful Iroquois Confederacy was shattered as a result of the conflict, whatever side they took; the Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga tribes sided with the British. Members of the Mohawks fought on both sides. Many Tuscarora and Oneida sided with the Americans. The Continental Army sent the Sullivan Expedition on raids throughout New York to cripple the Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British. Mohawk leaders Joseph Louis Cook and Joseph Brant sided with the Americans and the British respectively, and", "In some cases women served in the American Army in the war, some of them disguised as men. Deborah Sampson fought until her sex was discovered and she was discharged, and Sally St. Clare died in the war. Anna Maria Lane joined her husband in the Army, and she was wearing men's clothes by the time of the Battle of Germantown. According to the Virginia General Assembly, Lane \"performed extraordinary military services, and received a severe wound at the battle of Germantown\", fighting dressed as a man and", "After the surrender at Yorktown Washington expressed astonishment that the Americans had won a war against a leading world power, referring to the American victory as \"little short of a standing miracle\". On April 9, 1783, Washington issued orders that he had long waited to give, that \"all acts of hostility\" were to cease immediately. That same day, by arrangement with Washington, General Carleton issued a similar order to British troops. British troops, however, were not to disband until a prisoner of war exchange occurred, an effort that involved much negotiation and would take some seven months to effect.", "Many diplomats directly involved with international peace negotiations were in and around Paris from 1782 to 1784. They deliberated over three wars among four principle belligerents: (a) the American Revolutionary War among Britain, the US and their French allies; (b) the Anglo-French War (1778) among Britain, the French and their Spanish allies; and (c) the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War (1780) between Britain and the Netherlands. In addition, the diplomats of Great Power nations among the First League of Armed Neutrality consulted one another and exchanged various proposals from their respective governments, especially those of Russia and Austria that Britain had invited to be mediators. The agreement between the United States and France at the Treaty of Alliance (1778) promised that those two would consult before concluding peace with Britain, and the Treaty of Aranjuez (1779) between France and Spain promised that those two would consult before concluding their peace with Britain. Among the European Great Powers, British Prime Minister Shelburne sought to strengthen the United States so that it would not depend on France, including providing for future British trade. On the other hand, French Foreign", "On September 3, 1783, the final, \"definitive\" British-US Treaty of Paris was signed, just before the out-maneuvered French and Spanish ended the Anglo-French War of 1778 in their respective treaties with Great Britain at Versailles Palace. The US ministers were John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, David Hartley of Parliament and Richard Oswald, Britain's Peace Commissioner. Adams, who was a leading participant in the drafting of the treaty, maintained that its negotiations represented \"one of the most important political events that ever happened on the globe\". Following the British army defeat at Yorktown in October 1781, English", "The total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown. As was typical in wars of the era, diseases such as smallpox claimed more lives than battle. Between 1775 and 1782, a smallpox epidemic broke out throughout North America, killing 40 people in Boston alone. Historian Joseph Ellis suggests that Washington's decision to have his troops inoculated against the disease was one of his most important decisions. Between 25,000 and 70,000 American Patriots died during active military service. Of these, approximately 6,800 were killed in battle, while at least 17,000 died from disease. The majority of the latter died while prisoners of war of the British, mostly in the prison ships in New York Harbor. If the upper limit of 70,000 is accepted as the total net loss for the Patriots, it would make the conflict proportionally deadlier than the American Civil War. Uncertainty arises from the difficulties in accurately calculating the number of those who succumbed to disease, as it is estimated at least 10,000 died in 1776 alone. The number of Patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000. The French", "Congress had immense difficulties financing its war effort. As the circulation of hard currency declined, the Americans had to rely on loans from France, Spain, and the Netherlands, saddling the young nation with crippling debts. Congress attempted to remedy this by printing vast amounts of paper money and bills of credit to raise revenue, but the effect was disastrous: inflation skyrocketed and the paper money became virtually worthless. The inflation spawned a popular phrase that anything of little value was \"not worth a continental\". At the start of the war, the economy was flourishing in the colonies in spite of the British blockade. By 1779, however, the economy had almost collapsed. By 1791, the United States had accumulated a national debt of approximately $75.5 million. The", "These are some of the standard works about the war in general that are not listed above; books about specific campaigns, battles, units, and individuals can be found in those articles." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Algorithm.", "Top-down implementation.", "Bottom-up implementation.", "Top-down implementation using lists.", "Bottom-up implementation using lists.", "Natural merge sort.", "Analysis.", "Variants.", "Use with tape drives.", "Optimizing merge sort.", "Parallel merge sort.", "Merge sort with parallel recursion.", "Merge sort with parallel merging.", "Parallel multiway merge sort.", "Basic Idea.", "Multisequence selection.", "Pseudocode.", "Analysis.", "Practical adaption and application.", "Further Variants.", "Comparison with other sort algorithms." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Conceptually, a merge sort works as follows:", "Example C-like code using indices for top-down merge sort algorithm that recursively splits the list (called \"runs\" in this example) into sublists until sublist size is 1, then merges those sublists to produce a sorted list. The copy back step is avoided with alternating the direction of the merge with each level of recursion (except for an initial one time copy). To help understand this, consider an array with 2 elements. the elements are copied to B[], then merged back to A[]. If there are 4 elements, when the bottom of recursion level is reached, single element runs from A[] are merged to B[], and then at the next higher level of recursion, those 2 element runs are merged to A[]. This pattern continues with each level of recursion. // Array A[] has the items to sort; array B[] is a work array. void TopDownMergeSort(A[], B[], n) // Sort the given run of array A[] using array B[] as a source. // iBegin is inclusive; iEnd is exclusive (A[iEnd] is not in the set). void TopDownSplitMerge(B[], iBegin, iEnd, A[]) // Left source half is A[ iBegin:iMiddle-1]. // Right source half is A[iMiddle:iEnd-1 ]. // Result is B[ iBegin:iEnd-1 ]. void TopDownMerge(A[], iBegin, iMiddle, iEnd, B[]) void CopyArray(A[], iBegin, iEnd, B[])", "Example C-like code using indices for bottom-up merge sort algorithm which treats the list as an array of \"n\" sublists (called \"runs\" in this example) of size 1, and iteratively merges sub-lists back and forth between two buffers: // array A[] has the items to sort; array B[] is a work array void BottomUpMergeSort(A[], B[], n) // Left run is A[iLeft :iRight-1]. // Right run is A[iRight:iEnd-1 ]. void BottomUpMerge(A[], iLeft, iRight, iEnd, B[]) void CopyArray(B[], A[], n)", "Pseudocode for top-down merge sort algorithm which recursively divides the input list into smaller sublists until the sublists are trivially sorted, and then merges the sublists while returning up the call chain. In this example, the function merges the left and right sublists.", "Pseudocode for bottom-up merge sort algorithm which uses a small fixed size array of references to nodes, where array[i] is either a reference to a list of size 2 or \"nil\". \"node\" is a reference or pointer to a node. The merge() function would be similar to the one shown in the top-down merge lists example, it merges two already sorted lists, and handles empty lists. In this case, merge() would use \"node\" for its input parameters and return value.", "A natural merge sort is similar to a bottom-up merge sort except that any naturally occurring runs (sorted sequences) in the input are exploited. Both monotonic and bitonic (alternating up/down) runs may be exploited, with lists (or equivalently tapes or files) being convenient data structures (used as FIFO queues or LIFO stacks). In the bottom-up merge sort, the starting point assumes each run is one item long. In practice, random input data will have many short runs that just happen to be sorted. In the typical case, the natural merge sort may not need as many passes because there are fewer runs to merge. In the best case, the input is already sorted (i.e., is one run), so the natural merge sort need only make one pass through the data. In many practical cases, long natural runs are present, and for that reason natural merge sort is exploited as the key component of Timsort. Example: Tournament replacement selection sorts are used to gather the initial runs for external sorting algorithms.", "In sorting \"n\" objects, merge sort has an average and worst-case performance of O(\"n\" log \"n\"). If the running time of merge sort for a list of length \"n\" is \"T\"(\"n\"), then the recurrence \"T\"(\"n\") = 2\"T\"(\"n\"/2) + \"n\" follows from the definition of the algorithm (apply the algorithm to two lists of half the size of the original list, and add the \"n\" steps taken to merge the resulting two lists). The closed form follows from the master theorem for divide-and-conquer recurrences. In the worst case, the number of comparisons merge sort makes is given by the sorting numbers. These numbers are equal to or slightly smaller than (\"n\" ⌈lg \"n\"⌉ − 2 + 1), which is between (\"n\" lg \"n\" − \"n\" + 1) and (\"n\" lg \"n\" + \"n\" + O(lg \"n\")). For large \"n\" and a randomly ordered input list, merge sort's expected (average) number of comparisons approaches \"α\"·\"n\" fewer than the worst case where formula_1 In the \"worst\" case, merge sort does about 39% fewer comparisons than quicksort does in the \"average\" case. In terms of moves, merge sort's worst case complexity is O(\"n\" log \"n\")—the same complexity as quicksort's best case, and merge sort's best case takes about half as many iterations as the worst case. Merge sort is more efficient than quicksort for some types of lists if the data to be sorted can only be efficiently accessed sequentially, and is thus popular in languages such as Lisp, where sequentially accessed data structures are very common. Unlike some (efficient) implementations of quicksort, merge sort is a stable sort. Merge sort's most common implementation does not sort in place; therefore, the memory size of the input must be allocated for the sorted output to be stored in (see below for versions that need only \"n\"/2 extra spaces).", "Variants of merge sort are primarily concerned with reducing the space complexity and the cost of copying. A simple alternative for reducing the space overhead to \"n\"/2 is to maintain \"left\" and \"right\" as a combined structure, copy only the \"left\" part of \"m\" into temporary space, and to direct the \"merge\" routine to place the merged output into \"m\". With this version it is better to allocate the temporary space outside the \"merge\" routine, so that only one allocation is needed. The excessive copying mentioned previously is also mitigated, since the last pair of lines before the \"return result\" statement (function \" merge \"in the pseudo code above) become superfluous. One drawback of merge sort, when implemented on arrays, is its working memory requirement. Several in-place variants have been suggested: An alternative to reduce the copying into multiple lists is to associate a new field of information with each key (the elements in \"m\" are called keys). This field will be used to link the keys and any associated information together in a sorted list (a key and its related information is called a record). Then the merging of the sorted lists proceeds by changing the link values; no records need to be moved at all. A field which contains only a link will generally be smaller than an entire record so less space will also be used. This is a standard sorting technique, not restricted to merge sort.", "An external merge sort is practical to run using disk or tape drives when the data to be sorted is too large to fit into memory. External sorting explains how merge sort is implemented with disk drives. A typical tape drive sort uses four tape drives. All I/O is sequential (except for rewinds at the end of each pass). A minimal implementation can get by with just two record buffers and a few program variables. Naming the four tape drives as A, B, C, D, with the original data on A, and using only 2 record buffers, the algorithm is similar to Bottom-up implementation, using pairs of tape drives instead of arrays in memory. The basic algorithm can be described as follows: Instead of starting with very short runs, usually a hybrid algorithm is used, where the initial pass will read many records into memory, do an internal sort to create a long run, and then distribute those long runs onto the output set. The step avoids many early passes. For example, an internal sort of 1024 records will save nine passes. The internal sort is often large because it has such a benefit. In fact, there are techniques that can make the initial runs longer than the available internal memory. With some overhead, the above algorithm can be modified to use three tapes. \"O\"(\"n\" log \"n\") running time can also be achieved using two queues, or a stack and a queue, or three stacks. In the other direction, using \"k\" > two tapes (and \"O\"(\"k\") items in memory), we can reduce the number of tape operations in \"O\"(log \"k\") times by using a k/2-way merge. A more sophisticated merge sort that optimizes tape (and disk) drive usage is the polyphase merge sort.", "On modern computers, locality of reference can be of paramount importance in software optimization, because multilevel memory hierarchies are used. Cache-aware versions of the merge sort algorithm, whose operations have been specifically chosen to minimize the movement of pages in and out of a machine's memory cache, have been proposed. For example, the algorithm stops partitioning subarrays when subarrays of size S are reached, where S is the number of data items fitting into a CPU's cache. Each of these subarrays is sorted with an in-place sorting algorithm such as insertion sort, to discourage memory swaps, and normal merge sort is then completed in the standard recursive fashion. This algorithm has demonstrated better performance on machines that benefit from cache optimization. Also, many applications of external sorting use a form of merge sorting where the input get split up to a higher number of sublists, ideally to a number for which merging them still makes the currently processed set of pages fit into main memory.", "Merge sort parallelizes well due to the use of the divide-and-conquer method. Several different parallel variants of the algorithm have been developed over the years. Some parallel merge sort algorithms are strongly related to the sequential top-down merge algorithm while others have a different general structure and use the K-way merge method.", "The sequential merge sort procedure can be described in two phases, the divide phase and the merge phase. The first consists of many recursive calls that repeatedly perform the same division process until the subsequences are trivially sorted (containing one or no element). An intuitive approach is the parallelization of those recursive calls. Following pseudocode describes the merge sort with parallel recursion using the fork and join keywords: This algorithm is the trivial modification of the sequential version and does not parallelize well. Therefore, its speedup is not very impressive. It has a span of formula_2, which is only an improvement of formula_3 compared to the sequential version (see Introduction to Algorithms). This is mainly due to the sequential merge method, as it is the bottleneck of the parallel executions.", "Better parallelism can be achieved by using a parallel merge algorithm. Cormen et al. present a binary variant that merges two sorted sub-sequences into one sorted output sequence. In one of the sequences (the longer one if unequal length), the element of the middle index is selected. Its position in the other sequence is determined in such a way that this sequence would remain sorted if this element were inserted at this position. Thus, one knows how many other elements from both sequences are smaller and the position of the selected element in the output sequence can be calculated. For the partial sequences of the smaller and larger elements created in this way, the merge algorithm is again executed in parallel until the base case of the recursion is reached. The following pseudocode shows the modified parallel merge sort method using the parallel merge algorithm (adopted from Cormen et al.). In order to analyze a Recurrence relation for the worst case span, the recursive calls of parallelMergesort have to be incorporated only once due to their parallel execution, obtaining formula_4. For detailed information about the complexity of the parallel merge procedure, see Merge algorithm. The solution of this recurrence is given by formula_5. This parallel merge algorithm reaches a parallelism of formula_6, which is much higher than the parallelism of the previous algorithm. Such a sort can perform well in practice when combined with a fast stable sequential sort, such as insertion sort, and a fast sequential merge as a base case for merging small arrays.", "It seems arbitrary to restrict the merge sort algorithms to a binary merge method, since there are usually p > 2 processors available. A better approach may be to use a K-way merge method, a generalization of binary merge, in which formula_7 sorted sequences are merged together. This merge variant is well suited to describe a sorting algorithm on a PRAM.", "Given an unsorted sequence of formula_8 elements, the goal is to sort the sequence with formula_9 available processors. These elements are distributed equally among all processors and sorted locally using a sequential Sorting algorithm. Hence, the sequence consists of sorted sequences formula_10 of length formula_11. For simplification let formula_8 be a multiple of formula_9, so that formula_14 for formula_15. These sequences will be used to perform a multisequence selection/splitter selection. For formula_16, the algorithm determines splitter elements formula_17 with global rank formula_18. Then the corresponding positions of formula_19 in each sequence formula_20 are determined with binary search and thus the formula_20 are further partitioned into formula_9 subsequences formula_23 with formula_24. Furthermore, the elements of formula_25 are assigned to processor formula_26, means all elements between rank formula_27 and rank formula_28, which are distributed over all formula_20. Thus, each processor receives a sequence of sorted sequences. The fact that the rank formula_7 of the splitter elements formula_31 was chosen globally, provides two important properties: On the one hand, formula_7 was chosen so that each processor can still operate on formula_33 elements after assignment. The algorithm is perfectly load-balanced. On the other hand, all elements on processor formula_26 are less than or equal to all elements on processor formula_35. Hence, each processor performs the \"p\"-way merge locally and thus obtains a sorted sequence from its sub-sequences. Because of the second property, no further \"p\"-way-merge has to be performed, the results only have to be put together in the order of the processor number.", "In its simplest form, given formula_9 sorted sequences formula_10 distributed evenly on formula_9 processors and a rank formula_7, the task is to find an element formula_40 with a global rank formula_7 in the union of the sequences. Hence, this can be used to divide each formula_20 in two parts at a splitter index formula_43, where the lower part contains only elements which are smaller than formula_40, while the elements bigger than formula_40 are located in the upper part. The presented sequential algorithm returns the indices of the splits in each sequence, e.g. the indices formula_43 in sequences formula_20 such that formula_48 has a global rank less than formula_7 and formula_50. For the complexity analysis the PRAM model is chosen. If the data is evenly distributed over all formula_9, the p-fold execution of the \"binarySearch\" method has a running time of formula_52. The expected recursion depth is formula_53 as in the ordinary Quickselect. Thus the overall expected running time is formula_54. Applied on the parallel multiway merge sort, this algorithm has to be invoked in parallel such that all splitter elements of rank formula_55 for formula_56 are found simultaneously. These splitter elements can then be used to partition each sequence in formula_9 parts, with the same total running time of formula_58.", "Below, the complete pseudocode of the parallel multiway merge sort algorithm is given. We assume that there is a barrier synchronization before and after the multisequence selection such that every processor can determine the splitting elements and the sequence partition properly.", "Firstly, each processor sorts the assigned formula_59 elements locally using a sorting algorithm with complexity formula_60. After that, the splitter elements have to be calculated in time formula_61. Finally, each group of formula_9 splits have to be merged in parallel by each processor with a running time of formula_63 using a sequential p-way merge algorithm. Thus, the overall running time is given by formula_64.", "The multiway merge sort algorithm is very scalable through its high parallelization capability, which allows the use of many processors. This makes the algorithm a viable candidate for sorting large amounts of data, such as those processed in computer clusters. Also, since in such systems memory is usually not a limiting resource, the disadvantage of space complexity of merge sort is negligible. However, other factors become important in such systems, which are not taken into account when modelling on a PRAM. Here, the following aspects need to be considered: Memory hierarchy, when the data does not fit into the processors cache, or the communication overhead of exchanging data between processors, which could become a bottleneck when the data can no longer be accessed via the shared memory. Sanders et al. have presented in their paper a bulk synchronous parallel algorithm for multilevel multiway mergesort, which divides formula_9 processors into formula_66 groups of size formula_67. All processors sort locally first. Unlike single level multiway mergesort, these sequences are then partitioned into formula_66 parts and assigned to the appropriate processor groups. These steps are repeated recursively in those groups. This reduces communication and especially avoids problems with many small messages. The hierarchial structure of the underlying real network can be used to define the processor groups (e.g. racks, clusters...).", "Merge sort was one of the first sorting algorithms where optimal speed up was achieved, with Richard Cole using a clever subsampling algorithm to ensure \"O\"(1) merge. Other sophisticated parallel sorting algorithms can achieve the same or better time bounds with a lower constant. For example, in 1991 David Powers described a parallelized quicksort (and a related radix sort) that can operate in \"O\"(log \"n\") time on a CRCW parallel random-access machine (PRAM) with \"n\" processors by performing partitioning implicitly. Powers further shows that a pipelined version of Batcher's Bitonic Mergesort at \"O\"((log \"n\")) time on a butterfly sorting network is in practice actually faster than his \"O\"(log \"n\") sorts on a PRAM, and he provides detailed discussion of the hidden overheads in comparison, radix and parallel sorting.", "Although heapsort has the same time bounds as merge sort, it requires only Θ(1) auxiliary space instead of merge sort's Θ(\"n\"). On typical modern architectures, efficient quicksort implementations generally outperform mergesort for sorting RAM-based arrays. On the other hand, merge sort is a stable sort and is more efficient at handling slow-to-access sequential media. Merge sort is often the best choice for sorting a linked list: in this situation it is relatively easy to implement a merge sort in such a way that it requires only Θ(1) extra space, and the slow random-access performance of a linked list makes some other algorithms (such as quicksort) perform poorly, and others (such as heapsort) completely impossible. As of Perl 5.8, merge sort is its default sorting algorithm (it was quicksort in previous versions of Perl). In Java, the Arrays.sort() methods use merge sort or a tuned quicksort depending on the datatypes and for implementation efficiency switch to insertion sort when fewer than seven array elements are being sorted. The Linux kernel uses merge sort for its linked lists. Python uses Timsort, another tuned hybrid of merge sort and insertion sort, that has become the standard sort algorithm in Java SE 7 (for arrays of non-primitive types), on the Android platform, and in GNU Octave." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Modern use.", "Operation.", "Similar brakes.", "Germany.", "Great Britain.", "United States." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The \"Heberlein\" brake is still permitted as an operating brake on German railways due to it being both continuous and automatic, and at the low speeds on narrow gauge lines this means it is perfectly safe. On several narrow gauge railways in Saxony, numerous vehicles with \"Heberlein\" systems can still be seen. These include the \"Lößnitzgrundbahn\", \"Weißeritztalbahn\" and Rittersgrün narrow gauge museum railway. On the \"Preßnitztalbahn\" trains using \"Heberlein\" brakes run regularly, several times a year.", "Because of the way they operate, there is a longer delay with \"Heberlein\" brakes before the brakes take effect when compared with compressed-air or vacuum brakes. As a result, locomotive and train crews have to be given appropriate training and experience when using this type of brake in practice.", "", "The Görlitz counterweight brake (\"Görlitzer Gewichtsbremse\"), a form of cable brake, operates in a similar way to the \"Heberlein\" brake, but differs markedly in its design details, as does the \"Schmid\" continuous spiral-toothed gear brake.", "The chain brake, an early British railway brake, was similar to the Heberlein brake but used a chain, instead of a cable. An example was the Clark and Webb Chain Brake, developed by John Clark in the 1840s and improved upon by Francis William Webb in 1875. It was used by the London and North Western Railway from 1877, with some remaining in service into the 1890s. Early versions were non-automatic and would not stop the train if a coupling broke, thus not fulfilling their promise of eliminating the need for a brake van and guard.", "The American chain brake, formally known as the \"graduating car brake\", was independently invented by Lucious Stebbins of Hartford, Connecticut in 1848, and by William Loughridge of Weverton, Maryland in 1855. Loughridge's design (sometimes known as the \"Loughridge brake\") would be in use by 1857 by the lines of Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton Railway (1846–1917) and Mad River and Lake Erie Railroad, while there are no records of adoption of Stebbins' design. In 1859, the Pennsylvania Railroad's (PRR's) adoption of Loughridge's brake would be publicized as making it the safest route possible, boosting sales for both Loughridge and the PRR. The PRR would continue using the brake into the 1870s, despite more uniform brakes being developed." ] }

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{ "title": [ "General.", "Telecommunications.", "Pipelines.", "Legal implications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Although common carriers generally transport people or goods, in the United States the term may also refer to telecommunications service providers and public utilities. In certain U.S. states, amusement parks that operate roller coasters and comparable rides have been found to be common carriers; a famous example is Disneyland. Regulatory bodies may also grant carriers the authority to operate under contract with their customers instead of under common carrier authority, rates, schedules and rules. These regulated carriers, known as contract carriers, must demonstrate that they are \"fit, willing and able\" to provide service, according to standards enforced by the regulator. However, contract carriers are specifically not required to demonstrate that they will operate for the \"public convenience and necessity.\" A contract carrier may be authorized to provide service over either fixed routes and schedules, i.e., as regular route carrier or on an \"ad hoc\" basis as an irregular route carrier. It should be mentioned that the carrier refers only to the person (legal or physical) that enters into a contract of carriage with the shipper. The carrier does not necessarily have to own or even be in the possession of a means of transport. Unless otherwise agreed upon in the contract, the carrier may use whatever means of transport approved in its operating authority, as long as it is the most favorable from the cargo interests' point of view. The carriers' duty is to get the goods to the agreed destination within the agreed time or within reasonable time. The person that is physically transporting the goods on a means of transport is referred to as the \"actual carrier.\" When a carrier subcontracts with another provider, such as an independent contractor or a third-party carrier, the common carrier is said to be providing \"substituted service.\" The same person may hold both common carrier and contract carrier authority. In the case of a rail line in the US, the owner of the property is said to retain a \"residual common carrier obligation,\" unless otherwise transferred (such as in the case of a commuter rail system, where the authority operating passenger trains may acquire the property but not this obligation from the former owner), and must operate the line if service is terminated. In contrast, private carriers are not licensed to offer a service to the public. Private carriers generally provide transport on an irregular or \"ad hoc\" basis for their owners. Carriers were very common in rural areas prior to motorised transport. Regular services by horse-drawn vehicles would ply to local towns, taking goods to market or bringing back purchases for the village. If space permitted, passengers could also travel.", "In the United States, telecommunications carriers are regulated by the Federal Communications Commission under title II of the Communications Act of 1934. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 made extensive revisions to the \"Title II\" provisions regarding common carriers and repealed the judicial 1982 AT&T consent decree (often referred to as the \"modification of final judgment\" or \"MFJ\") that effectuated the breakup of AT&T's Bell System. Further, the Act gives telephone companies the option of providing video programming on a common carrier basis or as a conventional cable television operator. If it chooses the former, the telephone company will face less regulation but will also have to comply with FCC regulations requiring what the Act refers to as \"open video systems\". The Act generally bars, with certain exceptions including most rural areas, acquisitions by telephone companies of more than a 10 percent interest in cable operators (and vice versa) and joint ventures between telephone companies and cable systems serving the same areas. Using provisions of the Communications Act of 1934, the FCC classified Internet service providers as common carriers, effective June 12, 2015, for the purpose of enforcing net neutrality. Before that time, the Good Samaritan provision of the Communications Decency Act established immunity from liability for third party content on grounds of libel or slander, and the DMCA established that ISPs that comply with the DMCA would not be liable for the copyright violations of third parties on their network. On December 14, 2017, under a new presidential administration, the FCC reversed its own rules on net neutrality, essentially revoking common carrier status as a requirement for internet service providers. The U.S. Senate narrowly passed a non-binding resolution aiming to reverse the FCC's decision and restore FCC's net neutrality rules.", "In the United States, many oil, gas and CO pipelines are common carriers. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) regulates rates charged and other tariff terms imposed by interstate common carrier pipelines. Intrastate common carrier pipeline tariffs are often regulated by state agencies. The US and many states have delegated the power of eminent domain to common carrier gas pipelines.", "Common carriers are subject to special laws and regulations that differ depending on the means of transport used, e.g. sea carriers are often governed by quite different rules from road carriers or railway carriers. In common law jurisdictions as well as under international law, a common carrier is absolutely liable for goods carried by it, with four exceptions: A sea carrier may also, according to the Hague-Visby Rules, escape liability on other grounds than the above-mentioned, e.g. a sea carrier is not liable for damages to the goods if the damage is the result of a fire on board the ship or the result of a navigational error committed by the ship's master or other crewmember. Carriers typically incorporate further exceptions into a contract of carriage, often specifically claiming not to be a common carrier. An important legal requirement for common carrier as public provider is that it cannot \"discriminate,\" that is refuse the service unless there is some compelling reason. As of 2007, the status of Internet service providers as common carriers and their rights and responsibilities is widely debated (network neutrality). The term common carrier does not exist in continental Europe but is distinctive to common law systems, particularly law systems in the US. In \"Ludditt v Ginger Coote Airways\" the Privy Council (Lord Macmillan, Lord Wright, Lord Porter and Lord Simonds) held the liability of a public or common carrier of passengers is only to carry with due care. This is more limited than that of a common carrier of goods. The complete freedom of a carrier of passengers at common law to make such contracts as he thinks fit was not curtailed by the Railway and Canal Traffic Act 1854, and a specific contract that enlarges, diminishes or excludes his duty to take care (e.g., by a condition that the passenger travels \"at his own risk against all casualties\") cannot be pronounced to be unreasonable if the law authorises it. There was nothing in the provisions of the Canadian Transport Act 1938 section 25 that would invalidate a provision excluding liability. \"Grand Trunk Railway Co of Canada v Robinson\" [1915] A.C. 740 was followed and \"Peek v North Staffordshire Railway\" 11 E.R. 1109 was distinguished." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Recording.", "Music and lyrics.", "Singles.", "Promotion.", "Critical reception.", "Accolades.", "Awards.", "Legacy.", "Commercial performance.", "Personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Following the conclusion of their Celebrity Tour in 2002, boy band NSYNC went on a hiatus, during which lead singer Justin Timberlake started working on his debut solo album. With the album, he wanted to portray a more mature image as an R&B performer, rather than a boy band pop artist. He revealed minimal information regarding the producers and artists involved with \"Justified\" during its early recording stage, with his management and record label also reluctant to share any information. However, MTV News reported that production duo The Neptunes were working on multiple tracks, while rapper P. Diddy and singer Mario Winans contributed to one track. Other known producers involved included Mike City, Raphael Saadiq and Rodney Jerkins, though between June and July, none of the aforementioned producers had attended any studio sessions. Explaining his involvement with the project, Jerkins said at the 2002 BET Awards that he \"just got a call about working on the project\" and that whenever Timberlake wanted his assistance, it would \"be done\". Brian McKnight's manager stated that his client had already recorded tracks with the singer, while rapper Nelly explained to the reporters that both him and Timberlake had discussed a collaboration effort. Early in 2002, Angie Stone revealed that Timberlake \"loves the \"Mahogany Soul\" album\" with him further saying to her \"your CD's in my car right now, you have to work on my solo project\". These assertions were later partially denied by a Jive spokesperson who announced that the material produced from the collaboration would not appear on the finalized record.", "\"Justified\" was written and recorded in a six-week period. According to Timberlake, the \"creative spurt\" was reminiscent of \"that period of time back in the 1960s and '70s when musicians got together and just jammed and worked out of inspiration. There was no heavy calculation or belaboring songs and mixes. Everything flowed pretty easily and naturally.\" Recording sessions took place at various studios in the United States, including the Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles, Manhattan Center Studios in New York City and Master Sound Recording Studios and Windmark Recording in Virginia Beach. The Neptunes told MTV News that the duo and Timberlake drove in a car listening to Earth, Wind & Fire albums for inspiration, with the background of the band's music being what the production duo wanted to implement into \"Justified\" musical content. The production duo commented that despite not being content with sampling music, for inspiration, they also listened to both \"Off the Wall\" (1979) and \"Thriller\" (1982), albums by Michael Jackson. Their intentions were to create music that was similar to Jackson's work without \"recycling them\". One of the two members of The Neptunes, Chad Hugo, commented that they just wanted to re-create \"that sense of those timeless, classic songs, without any of the 'bling, bling, hit me on my two-way' style of the new R&B. It has elements of the old and the new.\" The producer further went on to say that people wanted Timberlake to be conformed to being part of boy band NSYNC, with the former insisting that the singer is an immaculate vocalist. Hugo acknowledged Timberlake's break-up with singer Britney Spears, saying that some of the album's music could be directed towards it.", "The opening track on \"Justified\", \"Señorita\" is a Spanish oriented song that features R&B influences; in it Timberlake sings about a girl with brown eyes. \"Like I Love You\" is a funk influenced song consisted of live drums, tiny guitar strum accompanied with the singer's breathy tenor. According to Ben Ratliff of \"Rolling Stone\", \"it's minimalism influenced by Michael Jackson\". The third track on the album, \"(Oh No) What You Got\" was described by Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine as a bit racy for the audience who expected a more boy-band-oriented record. Regarding the fourth song, Russell Bailie of \"The New Zealand Herald\" wrote that although the album \"manages to skirt teen-pop sugariness for the most part, though it does offer quality mush on numbers such as 'Take It From Here'.\" \"Cry Me a River\" is a funk and R&B song with an instrumentation that features beatboxing, synthesizers, Arabian-inspired riffs and Gregorian chants. Lyrically, the song is about a brokenhearted man who moves on from his past. The sixth track, \"Rock Your Body\", incorporates tinny, \"keyboard-set-to-emulate-clavichord\" synthesizers of The Neptunes' late 90s productions, overlaid with \"keys and a propulsive drum vamp\". The seventh track of the album is \"Nothin' Else\"; which according to David Merryweather of Drowned in Sound is a \"slinky\" and \"smooth\" song that is similar to the works of American musician Stevie Wonder. Influenced by Jackson's musical style and Van McCoy's 1975 single \"The Hustle\", \"Last Night\" is played with a xylophone. \"Still On My Brain\", the ninth track on the album, is a slow jam, similar to the songs performed by Timberlake's former band 'NSYNC. \"(And She Said) Take Me Now\" which features singer Janet Jackson, is a disco, '80s funk and dub song that contains racy lyrics. Similar to the previous song, the eleventh track of the album has racy lyrics; on it Timberlake \"cockily\" sings the line, \"I could think of a couple positions for you\". \"Let's Take a Ride\" is the twelfth song on the album, on which, according to \"Uncut\" magazine, Timberlake \"offers to deliver you from your humdrum existence\". The record concludes with \"Never Again\", a ballad, on which Timberlake becomes \"downright maudlin and snippy\".", "\"Like I Love You\" featuring Clipse was released as the album's lead single. It was released as a CD single in August 2002 in Germany and the US. The song was written by Justin Timberlake and The Neptunes, who also produced the track. It received positive reviews from critics, who praised its production and use of instrumentals. \"Like I Love You\" charted at number eleven on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100, and in the top five in the UK, Denmark, Netherlands and Ireland. The song was nominated for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration at the 45th Grammy Awards. \"Justified\" second single is \"Cry Me a River\", and was released through contemporary and rhythmic radio on November 24, 2002, and as a 12\" vinyl on December 23 in the US. The song was written by Timberlake, Scott Storch and Timbaland and produced by the latter. \"Cry Me a River\" debuted at number 44 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 on the issue dated December 21, 2002, and eventually peaked at number three. In other countries, the song achieved similar success, reaching number two in Australia and the UK, and the top five in several other territories. \"Cry Me a River\" has been certified gold in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipments of 70,000 units, and certified silver in France. It won a Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 2004 ceremony, while the accompanying music video won two MTV Video Music Awards: Best Male Video and Best Pop Video. The song is listed on \"Rolling Stone\"'s The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. \"Rock Your Body\" was released as the album's third single, and was released on May 6, 2003 as a CD single in the US. It was written by Timberlake and The Neptunes, and produced by the latter. The song topped the charts in Australia for one week, became Timberlake's third single to reach number two in the UK, and reached the top five in Denmark, Ireland, New Zealand and the US. \"Rock Your Body\" was certified platinum in Australia by the ARIA. It received a gold certification in the US by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of 500,000 units. \"Señorita\" is \"Justified\" fourth single, released through rhythmic radio on July 8, 2003. It was written by Timberlake and The Neptunes, while being produced by the latter. It reached number 27 on the Hot 100, and achieved its highest peak in Australia and New Zealand, where it reached number six and four, respectively.", "Timberlake performed “Like I Love You” at the 2002 MTV Video Music Awards prior to the album’s release. Timberlake performed \"Cry Me a River\" for the first time at the 13th annual \"Billboard\" Music Awards, held on December 9, 2002, at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas. He was accompanied by a string section and a 20-member choir. He performed \"Cry Me a River\" on a promotional concert held at House of Blues in West Hollywood, California on June 17, 2003. On February 1, 2004, the singer performed \"Rock Your Body\" at the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show with R&B singer Janet Jackson. At the moment Timberlake sang the lyric \"Bet I'll have you naked by the end of this song,\" he ripped off part of Jackson's costume, momentarily exposing her right breast on live television. Timberlake distanced himself from the controversy while Jackson faced much criticism. He later commented that \"America's harsher on women...[and] unfairly harsh on ethnic people.\" He performed \"Señorita\" live on the sketch comedy show \"Saturday Night Live\" in October 2003, where he served as host and musical guest. Timberlake did a joint tour in North America with Christina Aguilera entitled the Justified and Stripped Tour, to support both \"Justified\" and Aguilera's 2002 album, \"Stripped\". Timberlake's and Aguilera's managers suggested to both singers to go on a conjoint tour. Timberlake agreed with the suggestion, saying that \"It would be fun to be on tour with somebody who's that talented\". Timberlake's further reasoning for touring with Aguilera was due to both singers wanting to \"break the mold of what people look at as teen pop and move into a different direction\". For the tour, Timberlake wanted to transform arenas into clubs, stating that he wants people \"to feel like they're a part of the show and it's a party\", remarking that anybody caught sitting down would get booted. For the tour, Timberlake performed with eight dancers, a 14-piece band which included four backup singers, three horn players and a DJ. The tour commenced on June 4, 2003 in Phoenix, Arizona and concluded on September 2, 2003 in Saint Paul, Minnesota. The tour grossed approximately $45 million. On September 2003, McDonald's announced Timberlake as a new spokesmen for their \"I'm Lovin' It\" campaign. Timberlake recorded \"I'm Lovin' It\", to be featured in adverts for the franchise, later expanded and released as a single in December 2003. McDonald's later announced they will sponsor a tour for Timberlake, following his successful North American tour with Christina Aguilera, entitled the Justified World Tour. Timberlake stated \"I love what McDonald's is doing with the new 'i'm lovin' it' campaign and it's cool to be part of it [...] We share the same crowd -- people who like to have fun -- and that's what this new partnership and my European concert tour is all about.\" The tour began with Timberlake playing intimate gigs at clubs and theatres in the United States and Australia before expanding to arenas in Europe. The tour commenced on May 7, 2003 in Sheffield, England and concluded on June 19, 2004 in Brisbane, Australia.", "\"Justified\" received generally positive reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album has received an average score of 68, based on 14 reviews. Ben Ratliff of \"Rolling Stone\" was receptive to The Neptunes's production, and noted both \"Like I Love You\" and \"Cry Me a River\" as standout tracks. Ratliff also commented that Justin Timberlake has successfully \"vaulted over the canyon\" to adulthood. \"Slant Magazine\" critic Sal Cinquemani believed that Timberlake meshes with The Neptunes \"so well he virtually relinquishes his personality to the super-duo—he could very well be the third member of N.E.R.D.\" Cinquemani noted the similarities between \"Justified\" tracks to the work of musician Michael Jackson, saying that the album should have been Jackson's tenth and final studio album, \"Invincible\" (2001). BBC Music's Denise Boyd praised \"Like I Love You\", while also commending \"Cry Me a River\" for its lyrical content and \"Rock Your Body\", which he notes contains Michael Jackson and Stevie Wonder influences. In \"Entertainment Weekly\", David Browne wrote how the album should have been the outcome of Jackson's tenth studio album, as \"the ultramodern R&B-pop hybrid\". Browne described \"Justified\" as \"cohesive\", favoring the album to NSYNC's previous two efforts: \"Celebrity\" (2001) and \"No Strings Attached\" (2000). Robert Christgau wrote of Timberlake in \"The Village Voice\", \"though his talent and character were there for all to see, who knew he'd turn out this heady or beatwise?\" The newspaper's Christopher O'Connor commended The Neptunes' production, while praising \"Like I Love You\" and the Janet Jackson collaboration \"(And She Said) Take Me Now\", saying how the songs show that Timberlake \"has the balls to pursue the A-plus list.\" O'Connor showed ambivalence towards \"Right for Me\" and \"Cry Me a River\", noting the former as \"awkward\" and the latter as \"a lousy Aaliyah impression.\" Tyler Martin from \"Stylus Magazine\" deemed \"Señorita\" and \"Like I Love You\" as the record's highlights, while writing that the album does not maintain Timberlake's masculine persona, but still \"paints a picture of a complicated young man, growing into adulthood\". \"NME\" Alex Needham was less enthusiastic, writing that Timberlake's lyrics are \"soppy platitudes that may or may not be about Britney\". Caroline Sullivan of \"The Guardian\" believed the only noticeable tracks are \"Cry Me a River\" and \"Rock Your Body\", noting the latter as \"predictable\", while criticising the album's lyrics as being \"suggestive mumbling\". AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine commented that Timberlake \"shamelessly borrows from Jacko, from the \"Thriller\"-era\", going on to criticize his vocals as to lack substance, with his falsetto lacking character, though calling him a \"technically skilled vocalist.\"", "\"Justified\" was ranked second on \"The Face\"s \"Recordings of the Year\", and 46 on \"Village Voice\"s \"Pazz + Jop 2003\". \"Justified\" was listed at number 37 on \"The A.V. Club\" Best music of the decade list. The album was also included in the book \"1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die\". It was also included on \"The Guardian\"s list of \"1000 albums to hear before you die,\" calling the artist \"the quintessential modern crossover act.\" In 2009 MTV Base included the album among the 100 \"Greatest Albums Ever\", which ranked 15 after the public poll. In 2014, writers from \"Paste\" considered it the 7th best solo debut, and in 2017 from Cleveland.com, the best boy band solo debut. \"Justified\" ranked 5 on \"NME\"s greatest debut albums turning 15 in 2017, with the author saying \"perhaps a few more listens would have changed NME's mind at the time.\" In 2019, \"The Guardian\" ranked it number 87 in their list of \"The 100 best albums of the 21st century,\" saying: \"Timberlake's Neptunes/Timbaland-helmed debut was slick, sexy and most importantly, convincing.\"", "\"Justified\" earned Timberlake three American Music Award nominations, including Favorite Pop/Rock Album, Favorite Pop/Rock Male Artist and Fan Choice Award. Timberlake won the award for Favorite Pop/Rock Album. At the 45th Grammy Awards, Timberlake had one nomination for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration for \"Like I Love You\". The following year, \"Justified\" earned Timberlake nominations for Album of the Year and Best Pop Vocal Album, while \"Cry Me a River\" was nominated for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance. Timberlake won the latter two awards. For \"Justified\", Timberlake won Best Male, Best Pop and Best Album at the 2003 MTV Europe Music Awards. \"Justified\" won the International Album award at the 2004 Brit Awards. At the 2003 BET Awards, he received two nominations for Best R&B Male Artist and Best New Artist. Among others, it was nominated Best Album at the MOBO Award, International Album of the Year at the NRJ Music Awards, and Foreign Album of the Year at the Danish Music Awards.", "For a 2018 \"Billboard\" article, writers Taylor Weatherby and Nina Braca said the album \"may possibly be the most iconic debut album from a former band member in pop music history\", describing it as \"[a] bona-fide success that foreshadowed Timberlake's superstardom to come\" and \"at the same time, a declaration of independence from his poppier beginnings.\" From the same magazine, Dan Weiss deemed \"Justified\" as Timberlake's \"classic album.\" Writers from \"Consequence of Sound\" deemed it \"the standard for former teen pop stars' bids to be taken seriously\" when comparing it to other debut solo albums released later, and \"Herald Sun\" considered it a \"boy band to men blueprint.\" British singer-songwriter Ed Sheeran cited the album as an inspiration for his 2014 single \"Sing\", and Shawn Mendes for his 2018 song \"Lost in Japan\". One Direction's Liam Payne, talking about his debut solo album, stated he was focusing on making a record like \"Justified\". In 2009, Filipina singer Nina covered \"Never Again\" for her acoustic radio show and album, \"Renditions of the Soul.\"", "\"Justified\" debuted at number two on the \"Billboard\" 200, selling 439,000 copies in its opening week. The album was expected to top the chart, replacing the \"8 Mile\" soundtrack (2002). Instead the soundtrack sold 507,000 copies, due to being propelled by Eminem's \"Lose Yourself\". The following week, \"Justified\" sold 188,770 copies and fell two positions to number four. In its third week, the album sold 110,000 copies and remained within the top ten on the chart. The album appeared on the \"Billboard\" 200 chart for seventy-two weeks, and eventually went on to sell 3.5 million copies in the US. It has been certified four times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), for shipments of four million copies. As of 2018, the album has accumuladed 4.6 million album-equivalent units in the US, combining sales and equivalent streams. \"Justified\" debuted and peaked at number two on the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. The album charted on the \"Billboard\" 200 and Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums 2003 year-end charts, reaching number eleven and twenty-six, respectively. Internationally, \"Justified\" received a similar response. In the United Kingdom, \"Justified\" debuted at number six, and eventually peaked at number one on the week of November 16, 2002, remaining atop for seven non-consecutive weeks. The album has appeared on the chart for eighty-four weeks; it has been certified five times platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipments of 1.5 million copies. As of March 2015, \"Justified\" is the 41st best-selling album of the millennium in the United Kingdom. In Canada, the album peaked at number three and has been certified two times platinum by Music Canada. \"Justified\" debuted and peaked at number four in Denmark and the Netherlands, remaining on the charts for forty and seventy-two weeks, respectively. The album peaked at number five in New Zealand for one week, appearing on the chart for thirty-six weeks, and receiving a two times platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ) for shipping 15,000 units. \"Justified\" peaked in the top ten in Belgium, Australia and Norway. The album charted within the top thirty and forty in several other countries. As of June 2012, the album has sold over 10 million copies worldwide. In 2003, \"Justified\" was ranked as the 11th most popular album of the year on the \"Billboard\" 200.", "Credits for \"Justified\" adapted from AllMusic and album’s liner notes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Ecology.", "Uses.", "Urban ornamental trees.", "Usefulness to wildlife.", "Other uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "\"Fraxinus pennsylvanica\" is a medium-sized deciduous tree reaching (rarely to ) tall with a trunk up to in diameter. The bark is smooth and gray on young trees, becoming thick and fissured with age. The winter buds are reddish-brown, with a velvety texture. The leaves are long, pinnately compound with seven to nine (occasionally five or eleven) leaflets, these (rarely ) long and broad, with serrated margins and short but distinct, downy petiolules a few millimeters long. They are green both above and below. The autumn color is golden-yellow and depending on the climate, Green Ash's leaves may begin changing color the first week of September. The flowers are produced in spring at the same time as the new leaves, in compact panicles; they are inconspicuous with no petals, and are wind-pollinated. The fruit is a samara long comprising a single seed long with an elongated apical wing long and broad. It is sometimes divided into two varieties, \"Fraxinus pennsylvanica\" var. \"pennsylvanica\" (red ash) and \"Fraxinus pennsylvanica\" var. \"lanceolata\" (Borkh.) Sarg. (syn. var. \"subintegerrima\" (Vahl) Fern.; green ash) on the basis of the hairless leaves with narrower leaflets of the latter, but the two intergrade completely, and the distinction is no longer upheld by most botanists.", "It is the most widely distributed of all the American ashes, although its range centers on the midwestern U.S. and Great Plains. The natural habitat of green ash is almost exclusively stream sides and bottomlands. The large seed crops provide food to many kinds of wildlife. Green ash is threatened by the emerald ash borer, a beetle introduced accidentally from Asia. Asian ashes have a high tannin content in their leaves which makes them unpalatable to the beetle, while most American species (with the notable exception of blue ash) do not. A common garden experiment showed that green ash is killed readily when exposed to emerald ash borer, while the Asian species \"F. mandschurica\" shows resistance against emerald ash borer. The United States Forest Service has discovered small numbers of green ash in the wild that have remained healthy after emerald ash borer swept through the population. The possibility of these trees possessing genetic resistance to the beetle is currently being investigated with the hope that green ash could be restored using the surviving trees. The spread of emerald ash borer was facilitated by the extensive use of green ash as an ornamental tree in the central U.S. following the loss of American elms in the 1950s–60s due to Dutch elm disease. That epidemic was the result of a similar overuse of elms in urban environments, leading to a monoculture that lacked any disease or pest resistance. Scientifically for green ash this is because modern cultivars utilized regionally were parented from sometimes only four individual trees selected for unique traits and male seedless flowering. Proclaiming a harsh lesson learned, cities like Chicago did not replace dead elms with a 1:1 ash:elm ratio. Instead, Norway, silver, red and sugar maples, honey locust, linden/basswood, redbud, crabapples, and hackberry, among others, were also utilized during this recovery period and in new urban and suburban areas. Fortunately, with these additional species, many cities were able to reduce the percent of ash and other species to much lower levels (20% average) than during the Dutch elm disease era where from 56% to 100% of the trees were elm. Injections and spraying of ashes with pesticides has been used in city parks to protect valued trees from emerald ash borer. Record cold temperatures during the winter of 2018–19 are estimated to have killed as much as 80% of ash borer larva in the Upper Midwest. Both American elm and green ash were extremely popular due to rapid growth and tolerance of urban pollution and road salt, so many housing developments in Michigan were lined from end to end with ashes, a result of which the beetles had an enormous food supply to boost their population well above Infestation thresholds. The tree was also extensively propagated and sold by local nurseries. According to the American Nursery Industry, \"Back in the late 1980s, Dr. Frank Santamour Jr., then a research geneticist with the U.S. National Arboretum, proposed the 10-20-30 formula for diversity in the urban forest, limiting the plantings in a community to no more than 10 percent within a single species, 20 percent within a genus and 30 percent within a family.\" Many communities are using a more strict 5-10-20 rule today, because of the threat posed by emerald ash borer. The emerald ash borer proved to be a far worse and potentially more serious threat than epidemics of the past such as chestnut blight and Dutch elm disease because those diseases spread at a slower rate, only affected one species, and did not kill the trees before they could attain reproductive maturity. Many areas have banned the sale of ash seedlings in nurseries, although seeds may be sold as they are not a vector for the insect. Green ash is also vulnerable to many other diseases including ash yellows and dieback that can cause gradual loss of vigor and exhibit similar symptoms to emerald ash borer infestation such as crown dieback, bark cracking, and epicormal sprouts. These conditions are most common on stressed trees in areas of poor soil, urban pollution, and lack of moisture. A wave of ash dieback struck the northeastern United States in the 1950s–60s that killed an estimated 70% of ashes in the region.", "", "Green ash is one of the most widely planted ornamental trees throughout the United States and much of Canada but mostly Alberta, including in western areas where it is not native. It is also widely planted in Argentina. It is very popular due to its good form and resistance to disease. About 40% of boulevard trees in Edmonton, Alberta are green ash. For the last two centuries American elm and ash, which both belong to the ancient Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Bottomland ecosystem, achieved distinction as North America's two most popularly planted urban species, used primarily for their superior survival traits and slowly maturing 180–300 year majestic natural beauty. Today used as living national monuments, the National Park Service is protecting Thomas Jefferson's 200-year-old planted example, and George Washington's 250-year-old white ash which has a 600-year possible lifespan. Green ash had been widely used as a primary ornamental and long lived monument tree until the elm fad of the 1880s, and regained top position once again after Dutch elm disease arrived. Other continents learned of American ash species' urban survivability and unique beauty through the worldwide popularity of Midwestern Prairie style ecology and architectural movement. Modernizing cities in Russia and China then began using imported green ash a century ago to line streets and landscape new public parks.Advantages of green ash include its tolerance of harsh urban environmental conditions, ease of propagation, and (in eastern North America) its value for wildlife as a native keystone species.", "North American native ash tree species are used by North American frogs as a critical food source, as the leaves that fall from the trees are particularly suitable for tadpoles to feed upon in ponds (both temporary and permanent), large puddles, and other water sources. Species such as red maple, which are taking the place of ash due to the ash borer, are much less suitable for the frogs as a food source — resulting in poor frog survival rates and small frog sizes. It is the lack of tannins in the American ash varieties that makes them good for the frogs as a food source and also not resistant to the ash borer. Varieties of ash from outside North America typically have much higher tannin levels and resist the borer. Maples and various non-native invasive trees, trees that are taking the place of American ash species in the North American ecosystem, typically have much higher leaf tannin levels. Ash species native to North America also provide important habit and food for various other creatures that are native to North America.", "Green ash wood is similar in properties to white ash wood, and is marketed together as \"white ash\". The commercial supply is mostly in the South. It is very popular, used in making electric guitars because it can be somewhat lighter than white ash without sacrificing too much in tone. It has a bright sound with long sustain, plus the wood grain is aesthetically desirable to many guitar players. Gibson, Fender, Ibanez, Warwick, and many other luthiers use ash in the construction of their guitars." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Regiment formed.", "Campaigns.", "Organization.", "Uniforms.", "Weapons.", "Regiment disbanded and resettled in British Canada." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Similar to other Loyalist regiments that fought for the British Crown during the American Revolution, for example the King's Royal Regiment of New York, or Jessup's Loyal Rangers, Butler's Rangers were made up of American Loyalist refugees who had fled to Canada, following the outbreak of the American Revolution. John Butler was a French and Indian War veteran-turned landowner with a 26,000 acre estate near Caughnawaga in the Mohawk Valley. However, on the outbreak of American Revolutionary War, Butler abandoned these landholdings and fled to Canada in the company of other Loyalist leaders, such as the Iroquois chief, Joseph Brant. John Butler served as a deputy to Guy Johnson, himself a loyalist from the Mohawk Valley who led mixed anti-Republican First Nations and loyalist militias.", "During the Saratoga Campaign Major Butler distinguished himself at the Battle of Oriskany on August 6, 1777. As a result, he was commissioned a lieutenant colonel and allowed to raise his own British provincial regiment. This military group would come to be known as Butler's Rangers.", "The regimental company commanders of Butler's Rangers, 1777–1784, were:", "There is an historical debate as to what the Butler's Ranger uniform actually looked like.", "They primarily used both the Long-Land and Short-Land forms of the Brown Bess musket. A mix of other firearms may have been used but would have created a supply issue due to calibre variations.", "Butler's Rangers were disbanded in June 1784, and its veterans were given land grants in the Nassau District, now the Niagara region of Ontario, as a reward for their services to the British Crown. In 1788 the Nassau Militia was formed with John Butler as its Commander, filling its ranks with the demobilized officers and men of Butler's Rangers. In 1792 the Nassau District was changed to the county of Lincoln and the name of the militia changed to Lincoln Militia by 1793. It was the Lincoln Militia who fought in the War of 1812 (1812–1815). This regiment exists today, following a splitting of Lincoln county into the counties of Lincoln and Welland in 1845, as The Lincoln and Welland Regiment, a primary reserve regiment of the Canadian Forces, based out of St. Catharines, Ontario." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Table of common time complexities.", "Constant time.", "Logarithmic time.", "Polylogarithmic time.", "Sub-linear time.", "Linear time.", "Quasilinear time.", "Sub-quadratic time.", "Polynomial time.", "Strongly and weakly polynomial time.", "Complexity classes.", "Superpolynomial time.", "Quasi-polynomial time.", "Relation to NP-complete problems.", "Sub-exponential time.", "First definition.", "Second definition.", "Exponential time hypothesis.", "Exponential time.", "Factorial time.", "Double exponential time." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The following table summarizes some classes of commonly encountered time complexities. In the table, poly(\"x\") = \"x\", i.e., polynomial in \"x\".", "An algorithm is said to be constant time (also written as O(1) time) if the value of \"T\"(\"n\") is bounded by a value that does not depend on the size of the input. For example, accessing any single element in an array takes constant time as only one operation has to be performed to locate it. In a similar manner, finding the minimal value in an array sorted in ascending order; it is the first element. However, finding the minimal value in an unordered array is not a constant time operation as scanning over each element in the array is needed in order to determine the minimal value. Hence it is a linear time operation, taking O(n) time. If the number of elements is known in advance and does not change, however, such an algorithm can still be said to run in constant time. Despite the name \"constant time\", the running time does not have to be independent of the problem size, but an upper bound for the running time has to be bounded independently of the problem size. For example, the task \"exchange the values of \"a\" and \"b\" if necessary so that \"a\"≤\"b\"\" is called constant time even though the time may depend on whether or not it is already true that \"a\" ≤ \"b\". However, there is some constant \"t\" such that the time required is always \"at most\" \"t\". Here are some examples of code fragments that run in constant time : If \"T\"(\"n\") is O(\"any constant value\"), this is equivalent to and stated in standard notation as \"T\"(\"n\") being O(1).", "An algorithm is said to take logarithmic time when \"T\"(\"n\") = O(log \"n\"). Since log \"n\" and log \"n\" are related by a constant multiplier, and such a multiplier is irrelevant to big-O classification, the standard usage for logarithmic-time algorithms is O(log \"n\") regardless of the base of the logarithm appearing in the expression of \"T\". Algorithms taking logarithmic time are commonly found in operations on binary trees or when using binary search. An O(log n) algorithm is considered highly efficient, as the ratio of the number of operations to the size of the input decreases and tends to zero when \"n\" increases. An algorithm that must access all elements of its input cannot take logarithmic time, as the time taken for reading an input of size \"n\" is of the order of \"n\". An example of logarithmic time is given by dictionary search. Consider a dictionary which contains \"n\" entries, sorted by alphabetical order. We suppose that, for, one may access to the th entry of the dictionary in a constant time. Let denote this -th entry. Under these hypotheses, the test if a word is in the dictionary may be done in logarithmic time: consider formula_8 where formula_9 denotes the floor function. If formula_10 then we are done. Else, if formula_11 continue the search in the same way in the left half of the dictionary, otherwise continue similarly with the right half of the dictionary. This algorithm is similar to the method often used to find an entry in a paper dictionary.", "An algorithm is said to run in polylogarithmic time if \"T\"(\"n\") = O((log \"n\")), for some constant \"k\". For example, matrix chain ordering can be solved in polylogarithmic time on a parallel random-access machine.", "An algorithm is said to run in sub-linear time (often spelled sublinear time) if \"T\"(\"n\") = o(\"n\"). In particular this includes algorithms with the time complexities defined above. Typical algorithms that are exact and yet run in sub-linear time use parallel processing (as the NC matrix determinant calculation does), or alternatively have guaranteed assumptions on the input structure (as the logarithmic time binary search and many tree maintenance algorithms do). However, formal languages such as the set of all strings that have a 1-bit in the position indicated by the first log(n) bits of the string may depend on every bit of the input and yet be computable in sub-linear time. The specific term \"sublinear time algorithm\" is usually reserved to algorithms that are unlike the above in that they are run over classical serial machine models and are not allowed prior assumptions on the input. They are however allowed to be randomized, and indeed must be randomized for all but the most trivial of tasks. As such an algorithm must provide an answer without reading the entire input, its particulars heavily depend on the access allowed to the input. Usually for an input that is represented as a binary string \"b\"...,\"b\" it is assumed that the algorithm can in time O(1) request and obtain the value of \"b\" for any \"i\". Sub-linear time algorithms are typically randomized, and provide only approximate solutions. In fact, the property of a binary string having only zeros (and no ones) can be easily proved not to be decidable by a (non-approximate) sub-linear time algorithm. Sub-linear time algorithms arise naturally in the investigation of property testing.", "An algorithm is said to take linear time, or time, if its time complexity is. Informally, this means that the running time increases at most linearly with the size of the input. More precisely, this means that there is a constant such that the running time is at most for every input of size. For example, a procedure that adds up all elements of a list requires time proportional to the length of the list, if the adding time is constant, or, at least, bounded by a constant. Linear time is the best possible time complexity in situations where the algorithm has to sequentially read its entire input. Therefore, much research has been invested into discovering algorithms exhibiting linear time or, at least, nearly linear time. This research includes both software and hardware methods. There are several hardware technologies which exploit parallelism to provide this. An example is content-addressable memory. This concept of linear time is used in string matching algorithms such as the Boyer–Moore algorithm and Ukkonen's algorithm.", "An algorithm is said to run in quasilinear time (also referred to as log-linear time) if \"T\"(\"n\") = O(\"n\" log \"n\") for some positive constant \"k\"; linearithmic time is the case \"k\" = 1. Using soft O notation these algorithms are Õ(\"n\"). Quasilinear time algorithms are also O(\"n\") for every constant ε > 0, and thus run faster than any polynomial time algorithm whose time bound includes a term \"n\" for any \"c\" > 1. Algorithms which run in quasilinear time include: In many cases, the \"n\" · log \"n\" running time is simply the result of performing a Θ(log \"n\") operation \"n\" times (for the notation, see ). For example, binary tree sort creates a binary tree by inserting each element of the \"n\"-sized array one by one. Since the insert operation on a self-balancing binary search tree takes \"O\"(log \"n\") time, the entire algorithm takes \"O\"(\"n\" log \"n\") time. Comparison sorts require at least \"Ω\"(\"n\" log \"n\") comparisons in the worst case because log(\"n\"!) = Θ(\"n\" log \"n\"), by Stirling's approximation. They also frequently arise from the recurrence relation \"T\"(\"n\") = 2\"T\"(\"n\"/2) + \"O\"(\"n\").", "An algorithm is said to be subquadratic time if \"T\"(\"n\") = o(\"n\"). For example, simple, comparison-based sorting algorithms are quadratic (e.g. insertion sort), but more advanced algorithms can be found that are subquadratic (e.g. shell sort). No general-purpose sorts run in linear time, but the change from quadratic to sub-quadratic is of great practical importance.", "An algorithm is said to be of polynomial time if its running time is upper bounded by a polynomial expression in the size of the input for the algorithm, i.e., \"T\"(\"n\") = O(\"n\") for some positive constant \"k\". Problems for which a deterministic polynomial time algorithm exists belong to the complexity class P, which is central in the field of computational complexity theory. Cobham's thesis states that polynomial time is a synonym for \"tractable\", \"feasible\", \"efficient\", or \"fast\". Some examples of polynomial time algorithms:", "In some contexts, especially in optimization, one differentiates between strongly polynomial time and weakly polynomial time algorithms. These two concepts are only relevant if the inputs to the algorithms consist of integers. Strongly polynomial time is defined in the arithmetic model of computation. In this model of computation the basic arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and comparison) take a unit time step to perform, regardless of the sizes of the operands. The algorithm runs in strongly polynomial time if Any algorithm with these two properties can be converted to a polynomial time algorithm by replacing the arithmetic operations by suitable algorithms for performing the arithmetic operations on a Turing machine. If the second of the above requirements is not met, then this is not true anymore. Given the integer formula_14 (which takes up space proportional to \"n\" in the Turing machine model), it is possible to compute formula_15 with \"n\" multiplications using repeated squaring. However, the space used to represent formula_15 is proportional to formula_14, and thus exponential rather than polynomial in the space used to represent the input. Hence, it is not possible to carry out this computation in polynomial time on a Turing machine, but it is possible to compute it by polynomially many arithmetic operations. Conversely, there are algorithms that run in a number of Turing machine steps bounded by a polynomial in the length of binary-encoded input, but do not take a number of arithmetic operations bounded by a polynomial in the number of input numbers. The Euclidean algorithm for computing the greatest common divisor of two integers is one example. Given two integers formula_18 and formula_19, the algorithm performs formula_20 arithmetic operations on numbers with at most formula_20 bits. At the same time, the number of arithmetic operations cannot be bounded by the number of integers in the input (which is constant in this case, there are always only two integers in the input). Due to the latter observation, the algorithm does not run in strongly polynomial time. Its real running time depends on the magnitudes of formula_18 and formula_19 and not only on the number of integers in the input. An algorithm that runs in polynomial time but that is not strongly polynomial is said to run in weakly polynomial time. A well-known example of a problem for which a weakly polynomial-time algorithm is known, but is not known to admit a strongly polynomial-time algorithm, is linear programming. Weakly polynomial-time should not be confused with pseudo-polynomial time.", "The concept of polynomial time leads to several complexity classes in computational complexity theory. Some important classes defined using polynomial time are the following. P is the smallest time-complexity class on a deterministic machine which is robust in terms of machine model changes. (For example, a change from a single-tape Turing machine to a multi-tape machine can lead to a quadratic speedup, but any algorithm that runs in polynomial time under one model also does so on the other.) Any given abstract machine will have a complexity class corresponding to the problems which can be solved in polynomial time on that machine.", "An algorithm is said to take superpolynomial time if \"T\"(\"n\") is not bounded above by any polynomial. Using little omega notation, it is ω(\"n\") time for all constants \"c\", where \"n\" is the input parameter, typically the number of bits in the input. For example, an algorithm that runs for 2 steps on an input of size \"n\" requires superpolynomial time (more specifically, exponential time). An algorithm that uses exponential resources is clearly superpolynomial, but some algorithms are only very weakly superpolynomial. For example, the Adleman–Pomerance–Rumely primality test runs for \"n\" time on \"n\"-bit inputs; this grows faster than any polynomial for large enough \"n\", but the input size must become impractically large before it cannot be dominated by a polynomial with small degree. An algorithm that requires superpolynomial time lies outside the complexity class P. Cobham's thesis posits that these algorithms are impractical, and in many cases they are. Since the P versus NP problem is unresolved, no algorithm for an NP-complete problem is currently known to run in polynomial time.", "Quasi-polynomial time algorithms are algorithms that run slower than polynomial time, yet not so slow as to be exponential time. The worst case running time of a quasi-polynomial time algorithm is formula_24 for some fixed formula_25. For formula_26 we get a polynomial time algorithm, for formula_27 we get a sub-linear time algorithm. Quasi-polynomial time algorithms typically arise in reductions from an NP-hard problem to another problem. For example, one can take an instance of an NP hard problem, say 3SAT, and convert it to an instance of another problem B, but the size of the instance becomes formula_24. In that case, this reduction does not prove that problem B is NP-hard; this reduction only shows that there is no polynomial time algorithm for B unless there is a quasi-polynomial time algorithm for 3SAT (and thus all of NP). Similarly, there are some problems for which we know quasi-polynomial time algorithms, but no polynomial time algorithm is known. Such problems arise in approximation algorithms; a famous example is the directed Steiner tree problem, for which there is a quasi-polynomial time approximation algorithm achieving an approximation factor of formula_29 (n being the number of vertices), but showing the existence of such a polynomial time algorithm is an open problem. Other computational problems with quasi-polynomial time solutions but no known polynomial time solution include the planted clique problem in which the goal is to find a large clique in the union of a clique and a random graph. Although quasi-polynomially solvable, it has been conjectured that the planted clique problem has no polynomial time solution; this planted clique conjecture has been used as a computational hardness assumption to prove the difficulty of several other problems in computational game theory, property testing, and machine learning. The complexity class QP consists of all problems that have quasi-polynomial time algorithms. It can be defined in terms of DTIME as follows.", "In complexity theory, the unsolved P versus NP problem asks if all problems in NP have polynomial-time algorithms. All the best-known algorithms for NP-complete problems like 3SAT etc. take exponential time. Indeed, it is conjectured for many natural NP-complete problems that they do not have sub-exponential time algorithms. Here \"sub-exponential time\" is taken to mean the second definition presented below. (On the other hand, many graph problems represented in the natural way by adjacency matrices are solvable in subexponential time simply because the size of the input is square of the number of vertices.) This conjecture (for the k-SAT problem) is known as the exponential time hypothesis. Since it is conjectured that NP-complete problems do not have quasi-polynomial time algorithms, some inapproximability results in the field of approximation algorithms make the assumption that NP-complete problems do not have quasi-polynomial time algorithms. For example, see the known inapproximability results for the set cover problem.", "The term sub-exponential time is used to express that the running time of some algorithm may grow faster than any polynomial but is still significantly smaller than an exponential. In this sense, problems that have sub-exponential time algorithms are somewhat more tractable than those that only have exponential algorithms. The precise definition of \"sub-exponential\" is not generally agreed upon, and we list the two most widely used ones below.", "A problem is said to be sub-exponential time solvable if it can be solved in running times whose logarithms grow smaller than any given polynomial. More precisely, a problem is in sub-exponential time if for every ε > 0 there exists an algorithm which solves the problem in time O(2). The set of all such problems is the complexity class SUBEXP which can be defined in terms of DTIME as follows. This notion of sub-exponential is non-uniform in terms of ε in the sense that ε is not part of the input and each ε may have its own algorithm for the problem.", "Some authors define sub-exponential time as running times in 2. This definition allows larger running times than the first definition of sub-exponential time. An example of such a sub-exponential time algorithm is the best-known classical algorithm for integer factorization, the general number field sieve, which runs in time about formula_32, where the length of the input is \"n\". Another example is the graph isomorphism problem, where Luks's algorithm runs in time formula_33. (In 2015–2017, Babai reduced the complexity of this problem to quasi-polynomial time.) It makes a difference whether the algorithm is allowed to be sub-exponential in the size of the instance, the number of vertices, or the number of edges. In parameterized complexity, this difference is made explicit by considering pairs formula_34 of decision problems and parameters \"k\". SUBEPT is the class of all parameterized problems that run in time sub-exponential in \"k\" and polynomial in the input size \"n\": More precisely, SUBEPT is the class of all parameterized problems formula_34 for which there is a computable function formula_37 with formula_38 and an algorithm that decides \"L\" in time formula_39.", "The exponential time hypothesis (ETH) is that 3SAT, the satisfiability problem of Boolean formulas in conjunctive normal form with, at most, three literals per clause and with \"n\" variables, cannot be solved in time 2. More precisely, the hypothesis is that there is some absolute constant such that 3SAT cannot be decided in time 2 by any deterministic Turing machine. With \"m\" denoting the number of clauses, ETH is equivalent to the hypothesis that \"k\"SAT cannot be solved in time 2 for any integer. The exponential time hypothesis implies P ≠ NP.", "An algorithm is said to be exponential time, if \"T\"(\"n\") is upper bounded by 2, where poly(\"n\") is some polynomial in \"n\". More formally, an algorithm is exponential time if \"T\"(\"n\") is bounded by O(2) for some constant \"k\". Problems which admit exponential time algorithms on a deterministic Turing machine form the complexity class known as EXP. Sometimes, exponential time is used to refer to algorithms that have \"T\"(\"n\") = 2, where the exponent is at most a linear function of \"n\". This gives rise to the complexity class E.", "An example of an algorithm that runs in factorial time is bogosort, a notoriously inefficient sorting algorithm based on trial and error. Bogosort sorts a list of \"n\" items by repeatedly shuffling the list until it is found to be sorted. In the average case, each pass through the bogosort algorithm will examine one of the \"n\"! orderings of the \"n\" items. If the items are distinct, only one such ordering is sorted. Bogosort shares patrimony with the infinite monkey theorem.", "An algorithm is said to be double exponential time if \"T\"(\"n\") is upper bounded by 2, where poly(\"n\") is some polynomial in \"n\". Such algorithms belong to the complexity class 2-EXPTIME. Well-known double exponential time algorithms include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Approaches and subfields of combinatorics.", "Enumerative combinatorics.", "Analytic combinatorics.", "Partition theory.", "Graph theory.", "Design theory.", "Finite geometry.", "Order theory.", "Matroid theory.", "Extremal combinatorics.", "Probabilistic combinatorics.", "Algebraic combinatorics.", "Combinatorics on words.", "Geometric combinatorics.", "Topological combinatorics.", "Arithmetic combinatorics.", "Infinitary combinatorics.", "Related fields.", "Combinatorial optimization.", "Coding theory.", "Discrete and computational geometry.", "Combinatorics and dynamical systems.", "Combinatorics and physics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Basic combinatorial concepts and enumerative results appeared throughout the ancient world. In the 6th century BCE, ancient Indian physician Sushruta asserts in Sushruta Samhita that 63 combinations can be made out of 6 different tastes, taken one at a time, two at a time, etc., thus computing all 2 − 1 possibilities. Greek historian Plutarch discusses an argument between Chrysippus (3rd century BCE) and Hipparchus (2nd century BCE) of a rather delicate enumerative problem, which was later shown to be related to Schröder–Hipparchus numbers. In the \"Ostomachion\", Archimedes (3rd century BCE) considers a tiling puzzle. In the Middle Ages, combinatorics continued to be studied, largely outside of the European civilization. The Indian mathematician Mahāvīra (c. 850) provided formulae for the number of permutations and combinations, and these formulas may have been familiar to Indian mathematicians as early as the 6th century CE. The philosopher and astronomer Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra (c. 1140) established the symmetry of binomial coefficients, while a closed formula was obtained later by the talmudist and mathematician Levi ben Gerson (better known as Gersonides), in 1321. The arithmetical triangle—a graphical diagram showing relationships among the binomial coefficients—was presented by mathematicians in treatises dating as far back as the 10th century, and would eventually become known as Pascal's triangle. Later, in Medieval England, campanology provided examples of what is now known as Hamiltonian cycles in certain Cayley graphs on permutations. During the Renaissance, together with the rest of mathematics and the sciences, combinatorics enjoyed a rebirth. Works of Pascal, Newton, Jacob Bernoulli and Euler became foundational in the emerging field. In modern times, the works of J.J. Sylvester (late 19th century) and Percy MacMahon (early 20th century) helped lay the foundation for enumerative and algebraic combinatorics. Graph theory also enjoyed an explosion of interest at the same time, especially in connection with the four color problem. In the second half of the 20th century, combinatorics enjoyed a rapid growth, which led to establishment of dozens of new journals and conferences in the subject. In part, the growth was spurred by new connections and applications to other fields, ranging from algebra to probability, from functional analysis to number theory, etc. These connections shed the boundaries between combinatorics and parts of mathematics and theoretical computer science, but at the same time led to a partial fragmentation of the field.", "", "Enumerative combinatorics is the most classical area of combinatorics and concentrates on counting the number of certain combinatorial objects. Although counting the number of elements in a set is a rather broad mathematical problem, many of the problems that arise in applications have a relatively simple combinatorial description. Fibonacci numbers is the basic example of a problem in enumerative combinatorics. The twelvefold way provides a unified framework for counting permutations, combinations and partitions.", "Analytic combinatorics concerns the enumeration of combinatorial structures using tools from complex analysis and probability theory. In contrast with enumerative combinatorics, which uses explicit combinatorial formulae and generating functions to describe the results, analytic combinatorics aims at obtaining asymptotic formulae.", "Partition theory studies various enumeration and asymptotic problems related to integer partitions, and is closely related to q-series, special functions and orthogonal polynomials. Originally a part of number theory and analysis, it is now considered a part of combinatorics or an independent field. It incorporates the bijective approach and various tools in analysis and analytic number theory and has connections with statistical mechanics.", "Graphs are fundamental objects in combinatorics. Considerations of graph theory range from enumeration (e.g., the number of graphs on \"n\" vertices with \"k\" edges) to existing structures (e.g., Hamiltonian cycles) to algebraic representations (e.g., given a graph \"G\" and two numbers \"x\" and \"y\", does the Tutte polynomial \"T\"(\"x\",\"y\") have a combinatorial interpretation?). Although there are very strong connections between graph theory and combinatorics, they are sometimes thought of as separate subjects. While combinatorial methods apply to many graph theory problems, the two disciplines are generally used to seek solutions to different types of problems.", "Design theory is a study of combinatorial designs, which are collections of subsets with certain intersection properties. Block designs are combinatorial designs of a special type. This area is one of the oldest parts of combinatorics, such as in Kirkman's schoolgirl problem proposed in 1850. The solution of the problem is a special case of a Steiner system, which systems play an important role in the classification of finite simple groups. The area has further connections to coding theory and geometric combinatorics.", "Finite geometry is the study of geometric systems having only a finite number of points. Structures analogous to those found in continuous geometries (Euclidean plane, real projective space, etc.) but defined combinatorially are the main items studied. This area provides a rich source of examples for design theory. It should not be confused with discrete geometry (combinatorial geometry).", "Order theory is the study of partially ordered sets, both finite and infinite. Various examples of partial orders appear in algebra, geometry, number theory and throughout combinatorics and graph theory. Notable classes and examples of partial orders include lattices and Boolean algebras.", "Matroid theory abstracts part of geometry. It studies the properties of sets (usually, finite sets) of vectors in a vector space that do not depend on the particular coefficients in a linear dependence relation. Not only the structure but also enumerative properties belong to matroid theory. Matroid theory was introduced by Hassler Whitney and studied as a part of order theory. It is now an independent field of study with a number of connections with other parts of combinatorics.", "Extremal combinatorics studies extremal questions on set systems. The types of questions addressed in this case are about the largest possible graph which satisfies certain properties. For example, the largest triangle-free graph on \"2n\" vertices is a complete bipartite graph \"K\". Often it is too hard even to find the extremal answer \"f\"(\"n\") exactly and one can only give an asymptotic estimate. Ramsey theory is another part of extremal combinatorics. It states that any sufficiently large configuration will contain some sort of order. It is an advanced generalization of the pigeonhole principle.", "In probabilistic combinatorics, the questions are of the following type: what is the probability of a certain property for a random discrete object, such as a random graph? For instance, what is the average number of triangles in a random graph? Probabilistic methods are also used to determine the existence of combinatorial objects with certain prescribed properties (for which explicit examples might be difficult to find), simply by observing that the probability of randomly selecting an object with those properties is greater than 0. This approach (often referred to as \"the\" probabilistic method) proved highly effective in applications to extremal combinatorics and graph theory. A closely related area is the study of finite Markov chains, especially on combinatorial objects. Here again probabilistic tools are used to estimate the mixing time. Often associated with Paul Erdős, who did the pioneering work on the subject, probabilistic combinatorics was traditionally viewed as a set of tools to study problems in other parts of combinatorics. However, with the growth of applications to analyze algorithms in computer science, as well as classical probability, additive number theory, and probabilistic number theory, the area recently grew to become an independent field of combinatorics.", "Algebraic combinatorics is an area of mathematics that employs methods of abstract algebra, notably group theory and representation theory, in various combinatorial contexts and, conversely, applies combinatorial techniques to problems in algebra. Algebraic combinatorics is continuously expanding its scope, in both topics and techniques, and can be seen as the area of mathematics where the interaction of combinatorial and algebraic methods is particularly strong and significant.", "Combinatorics on words deals with formal languages. It arose independently within several branches of mathematics, including number theory, group theory and probability. It has applications to enumerative combinatorics, fractal analysis, theoretical computer science, automata theory, and linguistics. While many applications are new, the classical Chomsky–Schützenberger hierarchy of classes of formal grammars is perhaps the best-known result in the field.", "Geometric combinatorics is related to convex and discrete geometry, in particular polyhedral combinatorics. It asks, for example, how many faces of each dimension a convex polytope can have. Metric properties of polytopes play an important role as well, e.g. the Cauchy theorem on the rigidity of convex polytopes. Special polytopes are also considered, such as permutohedra, associahedra and Birkhoff polytopes. Combinatorial geometry is an old fashioned name for discrete geometry.", "Combinatorial analogs of concepts and methods in topology are used to study graph coloring, fair division, partitions, partially ordered sets, decision trees, necklace problems and discrete Morse theory. It should not be confused with combinatorial topology which is an older name for algebraic topology.", "Arithmetic combinatorics arose out of the interplay between number theory, combinatorics, ergodic theory, and harmonic analysis. It is about combinatorial estimates associated with arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division). Additive number theory (sometimes also called additive combinatorics) refers to the special case when only the operations of addition and subtraction are involved. One important technique in arithmetic combinatorics is the ergodic theory of dynamical systems.", "Infinitary combinatorics, or combinatorial set theory, is an extension of ideas in combinatorics to infinite sets. It is a part of set theory, an area of mathematical logic, but uses tools and ideas from both set theory and extremal combinatorics. Gian-Carlo Rota used the name \"continuous combinatorics\" to describe geometric probability, since there are many analogies between \"counting\" and \"measure\".", "", "Combinatorial optimization is the study of optimization on discrete and combinatorial objects. It started as a part of combinatorics and graph theory, but is now viewed as a branch of applied mathematics and computer science, related to operations research, algorithm theory and computational complexity theory.", "Coding theory started as a part of design theory with early combinatorial constructions of error-correcting codes. The main idea of the subject is to design efficient and reliable methods of data transmission. It is now a large field of study, part of information theory.", "Discrete geometry (also called combinatorial geometry) also began as a part of combinatorics, with early results on convex polytopes and kissing numbers. With the emergence of applications of discrete geometry to computational geometry, these two fields partially merged and became a separate field of study. There remain many connections with geometric and topological combinatorics, which themselves can be viewed as outgrowths of the early discrete geometry.", "Combinatorial aspects of dynamical systems is another emerging field. Here dynamical systems can be defined on combinatorial objects. See for example graph dynamical system.", "There are increasing interactions between combinatorics and physics, particularly statistical physics. Examples include an exact solution of the Ising model, and a connection between the Potts model on one hand, and the chromatic and Tutte polynomials on the other hand." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Description.", "History.", "Uses.", "Wood.", "Bark.", "Herbalism.", "Other uses.", "Classification." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The genus is generally called \"lime\" or \"linden\" in Britain and \"linden\", \"lime\", or \"basswood\" in North America. \"Lime\" is an altered form of Middle English \"lind\", in the 16th century also \"line\", from Old English feminine \"lind\" or \"linde\", Proto-Germanic \"*lindō\", cognate to Latin \"lentus\" \"flexible\" and Sanskrit \"latā\" \"liana\". Within Germanic languages, English \"lithe\", German \"lind\" \"lenient, yielding\" are from the same root. \"Linden\" was originally the adjective, \"made from linwood or lime-wood\" (equivalent to \"wooden\"); from the late 16th century, \"linden\" was also used as a noun, probably influenced by translations of German romance, as an adoption of \"Linden\", the plural of German \"Linde\". Neither the name nor the tree is related to the citrus fruit called \"lime\" (\"Citrus aurantifolia\", family Rutaceae). Another common name used in North America is basswood, derived from \"bast\", the name for the inner bark (see Uses, below). Teil is an old name for the lime tree. Latin \"tilia\" is cognate to Greek πτελέᾱ, \"ptelea\", \"elm tree\", τιλίαι, \"tiliai\", \"black poplar\" (Hes.), ultimately from a Proto-Indo-European word \"*ptel-ei̯ā\" with a meaning of \"broad\" (feminine); perhaps \"broad-leaved\" or similar.", "The \"Tilia\" sturdy trunk stands like a pillar and the branches divide and subdivide into numerous ramifications on which the twigs are fine and thick. In summer, these are profusely clothed with large leaves and the result is a dense head of abundant foliage. The leaves of all the \"Tilia\" species are heart-shaped, and most are asymmetrical. The tiny, pea-like fruit hangs attached to a ribbon-like, greenish-yellow bract whose apparent purpose is to launch the ripened seed clusters just a little beyond the parent tree. The flowers of the European and American \"Tilia\" species are similar, except the American ones bear a petal-like scale among their stamens and the European varieties are devoid of these appendages. All of the \"Tilia\" species may be propagated by cuttings and grafting, as well as by seed. They grow rapidly in rich soil, but are subject to the attack of many insects. \"Tilia\" is notoriously difficult to propagate from seed unless collected fresh in fall. If allowed to dry, the seeds go into a deep dormancy and take 18 months to germinate. In particular, aphids are attracted by the rich supply of sap, and are in turn often \"farmed\" by ants for the production of the sap, which the ants collect for their own use, and the result can often be a dripping of excess sap onto the lower branches and leaves, and anything else below. Cars left under the trees can quickly become coated with a film of the syrup (\"honeydew\") thus dropped from higher up. The ant/aphid \"farming\" process does not appear to cause any serious damage to the trees.", "In Europe, some linden trees reached considerable ages. A coppice of \"T. cordata\" in Westonbirt Arboretum in Gloucestershire is estimated to be 2,000 years old. In the courtyard of the Imperial Castle at Nuremberg is a \"Tilia\", which by tradition recounted in 1900, was planted by the Empress Cunigunde, the wife of Henry II of Germany \"circa\" 1000. The \"Tilia\" of Neuenstadt am Kocher in Baden-Württemberg, Germany, was estimated at 1000 years old when it fell. The Alte Linde tree of Naters, Switzerland, is mentioned in a document in 1357 and described by the writer at that time as already \"magnam\" (large). A plaque at its foot mentions that in 1155, a linden tree was already on this spot. The Najevnik linden tree (), a 700-year-old \"T. cordata\", is the thickest tree in Slovenia.", "The linden is recommended as an ornamental tree when a mass of foliage or a deep shade is desired. The tree produces fragrant and nectar-producing flowers, and the medicinal herb lime blossom. They are very important honey plants for beekeepers, producing a very pale, but richly flavoured monofloral honey. The flowers are also used for herbal teas and tinctures; this kind of use is particularly popular in Europe and also used in North American herbal medicine practices.", "Linden trees produce soft and easily worked timber, which has very little grain and a density of 560 kg/m. It was often used by Germanic tribes for constructing shields. It is a popular wood for model building and for intricate carving. Especially in Germany, it was the classic wood for sculpture from the Middle Ages onwards and is the material for the elaborate altarpieces of Veit Stoss, Tilman Riemenschneider, and many others. In England, it was the favoured medium of the sculptor Grinling Gibbons (1648–1721). The wood is used in marionette- and puppet-making and -carving. Having a fine, light grain and being comparatively light in weight, it has been used for centuries for this purpose; despite the availability of modern alternatives, it remains one of the main materials used. Ease of working and good acoustic properties also make limewood popular for electric and bass guitar bodies and for wind instruments such as recorders. Percussion manufacturers sometimes use \"Tilia\" as a material for drum shells, both to enhance their sound and for their aesthetics. Some companies such as Lee's aquarium products in budget applications use limewood as an air diffuser inside air driven protein skimmers. Air pumped through the grain of the wood is diffused into very fine bubbles (0.5–1.0 mm), difficult to achieve with other natural or man-made medium using conventional aquarium air pumps. The wood decomposes or becomes infused with minerals present in salt water and so must be replaced periodically to maintain efficiency. This is generally considered obsolete in comparison to venturi valve type skimmers and would not be used in higher end aquarium setups. Limewood is also the material of choice for window blinds and shutters. Real-wood blinds are often made from this lightweight but strong and stable wood, which is well suited to natural and stained finishes.", "Known in the trade as basswood, particularly in North America, its name originates from the inner fibrous bark of the tree, known as bast. A strong fibre is obtained from the tree by peeling off the bark and soaking it in water for a month, after which the inner fibres can be easily separated. Bast obtained from the inside of the bark of the \"Tilia japonica\" tree has been used by the Ainu people of Japan to weave their traditional clothing, the \"attus\". Recent excavations in Britain have shown that \"lime tree fibre\" was preferred for clothing there during the Bronze Age. Similar fibres obtained from other plants are also called bast: see Bast fibre.", "The dried flowers are mildly sweet and sticky, and the fruit is somewhat sweet and mucilaginous. Limeflower tea has a pleasing taste, due to the aromatic volatile oil found in the flowers. The flowers, leaves, wood, and charcoal (obtained from the wood) are used for medicinal purposes. Active ingredients in the \"Tilia\" flowers include flavonoids (which act as antioxidants) and volatile oils. The plant also contains tannins that can act as an astringent. Linden flowers are used in herbalism for colds, cough, fever, infections, inflammation, high blood pressure, and headache (particularly migraine), and as a diuretic (increases urine production), antispasmodic (reduces smooth muscle spasm along the digestive tract), and sedative. In the traditional Austrian medicine, \"Tilia \"spp. flowers have been used internally as tea for treatment of disorders of the respiratory tract, fever, and flu. New evidence shows that the flowers may be hepatoprotective. The wood is used for liver and gallbladder disorders and cellulitis (inflammation of the skin and surrounding soft tissue). That wood burned to charcoal is ingested to treat intestinal disorders and used topically to treat edema or infection such as cellulitis or ulcers of the lower leg.", "Usually, the double-flowered species are used to make perfumes. The leaf buds and young leaves are also edible raw. \"Tilia\" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera; see List of Lepidoptera that feed on \"Tilia\".", "This list comprises the most widely accepted species, hybrids, and cultivars\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Reign and downfall." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Michael V was the son of Stephen by Maria, a sister of Emperor Michael IV. His father had been a caulker before becoming an admiral under Michael IV and botching an expedition to Sicily. Although the emperor preferred another of his nephews, the future Michael V was advanced as heir to the throne by his other uncle John the Orphanotrophos and the Empress Zoe. Shortly before his death, Michael IV granted Michael V the title of \"Kaisar\" (Caesar), and, together with Zoe, adopted his nephew as a son. On 10 December 1041, Michael V succeeded to the throne.", "Determined to rule on his own, Michael V came into conflict with his uncle John the Orphanotrophos, whom he almost immediately banished to a monastery. Michael now reversed his uncle's decisions, recalling the nobles and courtiers who had been exiled during the previous reign, including the future patriarch Michael Keroularios and the general George Maniakes. Maniakes was promptly sent back to Southern Italy in order to contain the advance of the Normans. On the night of 18 April to 19 April 1042, Michael V banished his adoptive mother and co-ruler Zoe, for plotting to poison him, to the island of Principo, thus becoming sole Emperor. His announcement of the event in the morning led to a popular revolt; the palace was surrounded by a mob demanding Zoe's immediate restoration. The demand was met, and Zoe was brought back, though in a nun's habit. On 20 April 1042 Zoe's sister Theodora, who had been removed from her nunnery against her will, was declared Empress. In response, Michael fled to seek safety in the monastery of the Stoudion together with his remaining uncle. Although he had taken monastic vows, Michael was arrested, blinded (according to legend by future Norwegian king Harald Hardrada), and castrated. He died as a monk on 24 August 1042. [aged 27]" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Co-empress with Zoë.", "Return to power." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Theodora was the third and youngest daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VIII and Helena, daughter of Alypius. She was \"Porphyrogenita\", \"born into the purple\"; this was the appellation for a child born in the capital to a reigning emperor. Her father became co-emperor in 962 and sole emperor upon the death of his brother Basil II in 1025. His reign as sole emperor lasted less than three years, from 15 December 1025 to 15 November 1028. As an eligible imperial princess, Theodora was considered as a possible bride for the Holy Roman Emperor in the west, Otto III in 996. However, she was overlooked in favour of her sister Zoë. Otto III died before any marriage could occur. Basil II prevented his nieces from marrying any of the Byzantine nobility, calculating that such a marriage would have given their husbands a claim on the imperial throne. As women, Theodora and Zoë were unable to exercise any state authority; their only say in this was in choosing, or more likely accepting or not, a husband who would acquire their authority upon marriage. Consequently, Theodora lived a life of virtual obscurity in the imperial \"gynaeceum\" (women's quarters). Intelligent and possessing a strong and austere character, Theodora defied by then sole emperor Constantine by refusing to marry the man her father had chosen to succeed him, Romanos Argyros, stating that Romanos was already married – his wife having become a nun to allow Romanos to marry into the imperial family. Theodora further claimed that since Romanos and she were third cousins, it was too close a blood relationship for marriage to occur. Consequently, Constantine VIII chose Theodora's sister. Zoë married Romanos three days before her father died. With the accession of Romanos, Theodora prudently retreated back into the \"gynaeceum\", with its daily religious routines. Still, Zoë persuaded her husband to appoint one of his own men as the chief of Theodora's household, with orders to spy on her. Shortly afterwards, Theodora was accused of plotting to marry the Bulgarian prince Presian and usurp the throne with him. Presian was blinded and sent to a monastery; Theodora was not punished. In 1031 she was implicated in a similar conspiracy, this time with Constantine Diogenes, the Archon of Sirmium. Theodora was forcibly confined in the monastery of Petrion. During a visit, Zoë compelled her sister to take Holy Orders. Theodora remained there for the next eleven years, as Zoë managed the empire with her husbands Romanos III and, after his death, Michael IV.", "With Michael IV's death in December 1041, Zoë adopted Michael's nephew, who was crowned as Michael V. Although he promised to respect Zoë, he promptly banished her to a monastery on the Princes' Islands on charges of attempted regicide. This treatment of the legitimate heir to the Macedonian dynasty caused a popular uprising in Constantinople, and on 19 April 1042, the people dethroned Michael V in support of not only Zoë, but Theodora as well. Michael V, desperate to keep his throne, initially brought Zoë back from Princes' Island and displayed her to the people, but the population rejected his proposal that he continue to rule alongside Zoë. Key members of the court decided that flighty Zoë needed a co-ruler, and backed the people's demand that it should be Theodora. A delegation, headed by the patrician Constantine Cabasilas, went to the monastery at Petrion to convince Theodora to become co-empress. Theodora, accustomed to a life of religious contemplation, rejected their pleas out of hand, and fled to the convent chapel to seek sanctuary. Constantine and his retinue pursued her, forcibly dragged her out and exchanged her monastic clothes for imperial ones. At an assembly at Hagia Sophia, the people escorted the now furious Theodora and proclaimed her empress with Zoë. After crowning Theodora, the mob stormed the palace, forcing Michael V to escape to a monastery. Zoë immediately assumed power and tried to force Theodora back to her monastery, but the Senate and the people demanded that the two sisters should jointly reign. As her first act Theodora was called upon to deal with Michael V. Zoë, weak and easily manipulated, wanted to pardon and free Michael, but Theodora was far more strict. She initially guaranteed Michael's safety before ordering that he be blinded and spend the rest of his life as a monk. With Michael V dealt with, Theodora refused to leave Hagia Sophia until she had received a formal invitation from Zoë, some 24 hours after they had been crowned. Officially Theodora was the junior empress, and her throne was situated slightly behind Zoë's on all public occasions. In practice she was the driving force behind the joint administration. The sisters administered the empire, focusing on curbing the sale of public offices and on the administration of justice. Although contemporary historian Michael Psellus claimed the joint reign was a complete failure, John Scylitzes stated that they conscientiously rectified the abuses of the previous reigns. Although Theodora and Zoë appeared together at meetings of the Senate or when they gave public audiences, it was soon apparent that their joint reign was under considerable strain. Still jealous of Theodora, Zoë had no desire to administer the empire, but she would not allow Theodora to conduct public business alone. Court factions formed behind each empress. After two months of increasing acrimony between them, Zoë decided to search for a new husband, thereby denying Theodora the opportunity to increase her influence through her obvious talents for governing. She eventually married Constantine IX, on 11 June 1042, and the management of the empire reverted to him. Although Theodora and Zoë continued to be recognised as empresses, and although Theodora continued to appear at all official functions, power devolved onto her brother-in-law. Nevertheless, Theodora exerted influence at court, as demonstrated by her ordering the arrest and blinding of John the Eunuch, the powerful administrator who had been the chief minister of Romanos III, the brother of Michael IV, and the uncle of Michael V; he had lived in exile after the fall of Michael V. Constantine IX's preferential treatment of his mistress in the early part of his reign caused rumours that he was planning to murder Theodora and Zoë. This led to a popular uprising by the citizens of Constantinople in 1044, which came dangerously close to actually harming Constantine who was participating in a religious procession along the streets of Constantinople. The mob was only quieted by the appearance on a balcony of Zoë and Theodora, who reassured the mob they were in no danger of assassination.", "After Zoë's death in 1050, Theodora seems to have retired to a convent, leaving Constantine IX to rule alone until his own death on 11 January 1055. As Constantine lay dying, he was persuaded by his councilors, chiefly the \"logothetes tou dromou\" John, to ignore the rights of Theodora and to pass the throne to the \"doux\" (Duke) of the Byzantine Theme of Bulgaria, Nikephoros Proteuon. However, Theodora preempted their plans when, despite her advanced age, she vigorously asserted her right to rule. She came out of retirement and convened the Senate, and the imperial guard proclaimed her \"emperor\" shortly before Constantine's death. A purge of senior officials and the leadership of the European military units followed. Nikephoros Bryennios, whom the western \"tagmata\" apparently wanted to proclaim emperor instead, was dismissed and exiled on Theodora's orders, after which she confiscated his estates and banished his supporters from court. Theodora controlled the nobles and checked numerous abuses. She damaged her reputation, however, with excessive severity toward private enemies and undue employment of such menials as Leo Paraspondylos as her advisors. Military and court offices were filled by her household eunuchs, and such able commanders as Isaac Komnenos were replaced with minor functionaries. Determined to centralize as much power in her hands as possible, she presided in person in the Senate and heard appeals as supreme judge in civil cases. Her appointment of clerics offended the Patriarch Michael Keroularios, who considered this the duty of men, not women. When Theodora was seventy-six, the patriarch Michael Keroularios advocated that Theodora advance a subject to the throne through marriage to her, in order to assure a succession. She refused to consider marriage, no matter how token. She also refused to name an heir to the throne. Theodora became gravely ill with an intestinal disorder in late August 1056. On 31 August her advisors, chaired by Leo Paraspondylos, met to decide whom to recommend to her as a successor. According to Psellus, they selected Michael Bringas, an aged civil servant and former military finance minister whose main attraction was that \"he was less qualified to rule than he was to be ruled and directed by others\". Theodora was unable to speak, but Paraspondylos decided that she had nodded at an appropriate moment. Hearing of this the Patriarch refused to believe it. Eventually he was persuaded and Bringas was crowned as Michael VI. Theodora died a few hours later and with her death, the Macedonian dynasty's 189 year rule ended." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life: 978 – 1028.", "From Romanos III to Michael V: 1028–1042.", "Ruling with Theodora and Constantine IX: 1042–1050." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Zoë was \"Porphyrogenita\", \"born into the purple\"; this was the appellation for a child born in the capital to a reigning emperor. She was the second daughter of Constantine VIII and his wife Helena. Her father became co-emperor, at the age of two, in 962. His brother Basil II, the senior co-ruler, prevented his nieces from marrying any of the Byzantine nobility, as this would have given their husbands a claim on the imperial throne. As women they were unable to exercise any state authority; their only say in this was in choosing, or more likely accepting or not, a husband who would acquire their authority upon marriage. Consequently, Zoë lived a life of virtual obscurity in the imperial \"gynaeceum\" (women's quarters) for many years. As an eligible imperial princess Zoë was considered a possible bride for the Holy Roman Emperor, Otto III, in 996. A second embassy sent in 1001, headed by Arnulf II, Archbishop of Milan, was tasked with selecting Otto’s bride from among Constantine’s three daughters. The eldest, Eudocia, was disfigured by smallpox, while the youngest, Theodora, was a very plain girl. Arnulf therefore selected the attractive 23-year-old Zoë, to which Basil II agreed. In January 1002 she accompanied Arnulf back to Italy, only to discover when the ship reached Bari that Otto had died, forcing her to return home. When Basil II died, Constantine VIII took the throne. His reign as sole emperor lasted less than three years, from 15 December 1025 to 11 November 1028. Another opportunity for Zoë to marry arose in 1028, when an embassy from the Holy Roman Empire arrived in Constantinople with a proposal for an imperial marriage. Constantine and Zoë rejected the idea out of hand when it was revealed that the intended groom, Henry, the son of Conrad II, was only ten years old. Constantine determined that the ruling house would be continued by one of his daughters being married to an appropriate aristocrat. The first potential match was the distinguished noble Constantine Dalassenos, the former \"dux\" of Antioch. The emperor's advisors preferred a weak ruler whom they could control and they persuaded him to reject Dalassenos after he had already been summoned to the capital. Romanos Argyros, the urban prefect of Constantinople, was the next to be considered as a match. Theodora defied her father by refusing to marry Romanos, arguing that he was already marriedhis wife having been forced to become a nun to allow Romanos to marry into the imperial familyand that as third cousins they had too close a blood relationship for marriage to occur. Consequently, Constantine VIII chose Zoë to be Romanos's wife. Zoe and Romanos married on 10November 1028 in the imperial chapel of the palace. The next day Constantine died and the newly-weds were seated on the imperial throne.", "Spending years in the same restrictive quarters with her sister, Zoë had come to loathe Theodora. Zoë convinced Romanos to appoint one of his own men as the chief of Theodora’s household, with orders to spy on her. Shortly afterwards, Theodora was accused of plotting to usurp the throne, first with Presian in 1030, followed by Constantine Diogenes, the governor of Sirmium, in 1031. Zoë accused her of being part of the conspiracy, and Theodora was forcibly confined in the monastery of Petrion. Zoë later visited her sister and forced her to take religious vows. Zoë was obsessed with continuing the Macedonian dynasty. Almost immediately upon marrying Romanos the fifty-year-old Zoë tried desperately to become pregnant. She used magic charms, amulets, and potions, all without effect. This failure to conceive helped alienate the couple, and soon Romanos refused to share the marriage bed with her. Romanos limited his wife's spending and paid her little attention. Zoë, furious and frustrated, engaged in a number of affairs. Romanos tolerated these and took a mistress himself. In 1033 Zoë became enamoured of a low-born servant called Michael. She flaunted her lover openly and spoke about making him emperor. Hearing the rumours, Romanos was concerned and confronted Michael, but he denied the accusations. In early 1034 Romanos became ill and it was widely believed that Zoë and Michael were conspiring to have him poisoned. On 11 April Romanos was found dying in his bath. According to court official and later chronicler Michael Psellus some of his retinue had \"held his head for a long time beneath the water, attempting at the same time to strangle him\". John Scylitzes writes as a simple fact that Romanos was drowned on Michael's orders. Matthew of Edessa's account has Zoë poisoning Romanos. Zoë and Michael were married on the same day that Romanos III died. The next day they summoned the Patriarch Alexios I to officiate at the coronation of the new emperor. Although he initially refused to co-operate, the payment of 50 pounds of gold helped change his mind. He proceeded to crown Michael as the new emperor of the Romans, to reign as Michael IV until his death in 1041. Although Zoë believed Michael would prove to be a more devoted husband than Romanos, she was mistaken. Michael IV was concerned about Zoë turning on him the way she had turned on Romanos, so he excluded Zoë from politics by placing all power in the hands of his brother, the eunuch John the Orphanotrophos. Zoë was confined again to the palace \"gynaeceum\", and kept under strict surveillance. The disgruntled empress conspired against John but in vain. By 1041 it was obvious that Michael IV was dying. Eager to ensure that power remained in his hands, John the Eunuch forced Zoë to adopt Michael, the son of his and Michael IV's sister. On 10 December 1041, Michael IV died, refusing to the last to see his wife who begged that she be allowed to visit him one more time, and his nephew Michael V was crowned emperor. Although he had pledged to respect Zoë, Michael V promptly banished her to a monastery on Principus, an island in the Sea of Marmara, on charges of attempted regicide. She was forcibly tonsured and sworn into a religious order. This treatment of the legitimate heir to the Macedonian Dynasty caused a popular uprising in Constantinople. Michael V, desperate to keep his throne, brought Zoë back from Principus and displayed her to the people, but his insistence that he continue to rule alongside her was in vain. On 19 April 1042 the mob dethroned Michael V in support of not only Zoë, but also Theodora. A delegation headed by Patrician Constantine Cabasilas went to the monastery at Petrion to convince Theodora to become co-empress alongside her sister. Accustomed to a life of religious contemplation Theodora rejected them and sought sanctuary in the convent chapel. In the event she was carried forcibly back to the capital. At an assembly in Hagia Sophia the people escorted a furious Theodora and proclaimed her empress along with Zoë. After crowning the two empresses the mob stormed the palace, forcing Michael V to escape to a monastery.", "Zoë immediately assumed power and tried to force Theodora back to her monastery, but the Senate and the people demanded that the sisters should jointly reign. As her first act Theodora was called upon to deal with Michael V. Zoë wanted to pardon and free Michael, but Theodora was clear and adamant. She initially guaranteed Michael’s safety, but then ordered him to be blinded and to spend the rest of his life as a monk. Officially Zoë was the senior empress, and her throne was situated slightly in front of Theodora's on all public occasions. In practice Theodora was the driving force behind the joint administration. The sisters proceeded to administer the empire, focusing on curbing the sale of public offices and on the administration of justice. Although contemporary historian Michael Psellus claimed the joint reign was a complete failure, John Scylitzes stated that they were very conscientious in rectifying the abuses of the previous reigns. Theodora and Zoë appeared together at meetings of the Senate and gave public audiences, but it was soon apparent that their joint reign was under strain. Zoë was still jealous of Theodora and had no desire to administer the empire; but she would not allow Theodora to conduct public business alone. The court began to split, with factions forming behind each empress. After two months of increasing acrimony, Zoë decided to search for a new husbandthereby denying Theodora the opportunity to increase her influence. By the rules of the Orthodox Church her next marriage, her third, was the last she was permitted. Her preference was for Constantine Dalassenos, who had been her father's first choice as her husband back in 1028. He was brought for an audience before the Empress, but during their conversation his independent and forceful manner displeased Zoe, and he was dismissed from her presence. Her next choice was the married Constantine Atroklines, a court official with whom it was rumoured that she had had an affair during the reign of Romanos III. He died under mysterious circumstances a few days before the wedding was to take place, possibly poisoned by his own soon to be ex-wife. Zoë then remembered the handsome and urbane Constantine Monomachos, another former lover. The pair were married on 11 June 1042, without the participation of Patriarch Alexios, who refused to officiate over a third marriage (for both spouses). On the following day Constantine was formally proclaimed emperor together with Zoë and Theodora. Zoë got more than she bargained for when Constantine decided to bring with him to his new station his long-standing mistress Maria Skleraina. Not content with bringing her to court, he insisted that he be allowed to publicly share his life with her, and that she obtain some official recognition. The 64-year-old Zoë did not object to sharing her bed and her throne with Skleraina. Skleraina was given the title of \"sebaste\", ranking behind Zoë and Theodora, and was addressed as mistress or empress, like them. At official events Skleraina took position immediately behind the sisters. In the eyes of the public however, Constantine IX’s preferential treatment of Skleraina was a scandal, and eventually rumours began to spread that Skleraina was planning to murder Zoë, and possibly Theodora. This led to a popular uprising by the citizens of Constantinople in 1044, which came dangerously close to actually harming Constantine who was participating in a religious procession along the streets of Constantinople. The mob was only quieted by the appearance on a balcony of Zoë and Theodora, who reassured the people that they were not in any danger of assassination. It is said that Zoë was stunningly beautiful, and Michael Psellos in his \"Chronographia\" commented that \"every part of her was firm and in good condition\". Zoë recognised her own beauty and its use as a tool of statecraft. Attempting to maximise and prolong its effect she had a variety of creams and treatments prepared in the \"gynaeceum\", and was said to have carried out experiments attempting to improve their efficacy. She operated a cosmetics laboratory in her rooms in the palace, where perfumes and unguents were constantly being prepared. Psellus reports that her face looked youthful into her sixties. Zoë died on 11 June 1050 aged 72." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy.", "Phylogeny." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2" ], "content": [ "\"Prionailurus\" was first proposed by the Russian explorer and naturalist Nikolai Severtzov in 1858 as a generic name for a single felid occurring in tropical Asia, namely \"Felis pardachrous\" described by Brian Houghton Hodgson — the leopard cat. As varieties, Severtzov lists \"Felis nipalensis\" described by Thomas Horsfield and Nicholas Aylward Vigors, \"Leopardus Elliotti\", \"Leopardus Horsfieldi\" and \"Leopardus chinensis\" described by John Edward Gray, and \"Felis bengalensis\" described by Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest. The British zoologist Reginald Innes Pocock recognized the taxonomic classification of \"Prionailurus\" in 1917. In 1939, he described the genus on the basis of skins and skulls, and compared these to body parts of \"Felis\". \"Prionailurus\" species are marked with spots, which are frequently lanceolate, sometimes rosette-like, and occasionally tend to run into longitudinal chains, but never fuse to form vertical stripes as in \"Felis\". Skulls of \"Prionailurus\" are lower and less vaulted than of \"Felis\". The facial part is shorter than the cranial, and the bottom of the orbit longer. The nasal bones are not everted above the anterior nares, and the outer chamber of the bulla is much smaller than the inner. Pocock classified the leopard cat, rusty-spotted cat and fishing cat as belonging to the genus \"Prionailurus\". Pocock's classification of \"Prionailurus\" has been widely accepted, with five species now recognised: Molecular analysis of leopard cat populations indicates a clear distinction between northern populations from Tsushima, Korea, Siberia, China and Taiwan and Southeast Asian populations. If these genetic differences indicate a specific distinction, \"P. b. euptilurus\" may yet be a valid species. The Iriomote cat (\"P. bengalensis iriomotensis\") has been proposed as a distinct species based on morphology, but is considered a subspecies of \"P. bengalensis\" based on genetic analysis.", "Phylogenetic analysis of the nuclear DNA in tissue samples from all Felidae species revealed that the evolutionary radiation of the Felidae began in Asia in the Miocene around. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA of all Felidae species indicates a radiation at around. Both models agree in the rusty-spotted cat having been the first cat of the \"Prionailurus\" lineage that genetically diverged, followed by the flat-headed cat and then the fishing cat. It is estimated to have diverged together with the leopard cat between and. The following cladogram shows their phylogenetic relationship as derived through analysis of nuclear DNA:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "Rebellion.", "Background and motives.", "Outbreak and spread of the revolt in Asia Minor.", "Siege of Constantinople.", "Defeat and death of Thomas, end of the revolt.", "Aftermath and effects." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The 11th-century \"Theophanes Continuatus\" states that Thomas was descended from South Slavs resettled in Asia Minor by successive Byzantine emperors, while the 10th-century chronicler Genesios calls him \"Thomas from Lake Gouzourou, of Armenian race\". Most modern scholars support his Slavic descent and believe his birthplace to have been near Gaziura in the Pontus. Hence his epithet of \"the Slav\", which has been applied to him only in modern times. Nothing is known about his family and early life, except that his parents were poor and that Thomas himself had received no education. Given that he was between 50 and 60 years old at the time of the rebellion, he was probably born around 760. Two different accounts of Thomas's life are recounted in both Genesios and \"Theophanes Continuatus\". According to the first account, Thomas first appeared in 803 accompanying general Bardanes Tourkos, and pursued a military career until launching his revolt in late 820. In the second version, he came to Constantinople as a poor youth and entered the service of a man with the high court rank of \"patrikios\". Then, discovered trying to commit adultery with his master's wife, Thomas fled to the Arabs in Syria, where he remained for 25 years. Pretending to be the murdered emperor Constantine VI (r. 780–797), he then led an Arab-sponsored invasion of Asia Minor, but was defeated and punished. Classical and Byzantine scholar J.B. Bury tried to reconcile the two narratives, placing Thomas's flight to the Abbasid Caliphate at around 788 and then having him return to Byzantine service before 803, while the Russian scholar Alexander Vasiliev interpreted the sources as implying that Thomas fled to the Caliphate at Constantine VI's deposition in 797, and that his participation in Bardanes's revolt must be discounted entirely. The second version of Thomas's story is explicitly preferred by Genesios and \"Theophanes Continuatus\", and is the only one recorded in 9th-century sources, namely the chronicle of George the Monk and the \"Life of Saints David, Symeon, and George of Lesbos\". Nevertheless, the French Byzantinist Paul Lemerle came to consider it an unreliable later tradition created by his rival Michael II to discredit Thomas, and rejected it altogether, preferring to rely on the first account alone. Most modern scholars follow him in this interpretation. The first tradition relates that Thomas served as a \"spatharios\" (staff officer) to Bardanes Tourkos, the \"monostrategos\" (\"single-general\", i.e. commander-in-chief) of the eastern themes, who in 803 rose in rebellion against Emperor Nikephoros I (r. 802–811). Alongside Thomas were two other young \"spatharioi\" in Bardanes's retinue, who formed a fraternal association: Leo the Armenian, the future Leo V, and Michael the Amorian, the future Michael II. According to a later hagiographic tradition, before launching his revolt, Bardanes, in the company of his three young protégés, is said to have visited a monk near Philomelion who was reputed to foresee the future. The monk predicted what would indeed happen: that Bardanes's revolt would fail, that Leo and Michael would both become emperors, and that Thomas would be acclaimed emperor and killed. When Bardanes did in fact rise up, he failed to win any widespread support. Leo and Michael soon abandoned him and defected to the imperial camp and were rewarded with senior military posts. Thomas alone remained loyal to Bardanes until his surrender. In the aftermath of Bardanes's failure, Thomas disappears from the sources for ten years. Bury suggests that he fled (for a second time according to his interpretation) to the Arabs, a view accepted by a number of other scholars, such as Romilly James Heald Jenkins. The historian Warren Treadgold, however, argues that Thomas stayed in the empire and that may have even remained in active military service, and explains his obscurity by Thomas's association with Bardanes, which hampered his career. In July 813, Leo the Armenian became emperor and quickly rewarded his old companions, giving them command over elite military forces. Michael received the \"tagma\" of the Excubitors (one of the professional guard cavalry regiments stationed around Constantinople), and Thomas the \"tourma\" (division) of the \"Foederati\", stationed in the Anatolic Theme.", "", "On Christmas Day 820, Leo was murdered in the palace chapel by officials under the direction of Michael the Amorian, who was quickly crowned emperor. At about the same time, Thomas launched a rebellion in the Anatolic Theme. Sources are divided on the exact chronology and motives of the revolt. George the Monk, the hagiographic sources, and a letter from Michael II to the western emperor Louis the Pious claim that Thomas had risen up against Leo before Michael's usurpation. This chronology is followed by almost all later Byzantine chroniclers like Genesios, \"Theophanes Continuatus\", and Skylitzes, as well as a number of modern scholars like John B. Bury and Alexander Kazhdan. In his study of Thomas and the revolt, Paul Lemerle dismisses this timeline as a later attempt by Michael to justify his revolt as a response to Leo's failure to suppress the rebellion, and to exculpate himself of the early defeats suffered by the imperial forces. Some recent studies follow Lemerle and prefer the account of Symeon Logothetes—generally considered the most accurate of the 10th-century sources—according to which Thomas rebelled a few days after the murder of Leo and in reaction to it. Consequently, the empire became divided in a struggle that was less a rebellion against the established government and more a contest for the throne between equal contenders. Michael held Constantinople and the European provinces, controlled the imperial bureaucracy, and had been properly crowned by the Patriarch, but he had come to the throne through murder, while Thomas gained support and legitimacy through his claim to avenge the fallen Leo, and he won the backing of themes both in Asia and later in Europe. Thomas was a well-known, popular, and respected figure in Asia Minor, where Leo V had enjoyed considerable support. Michael, on the other hand, was virtually unknown outside the capital; his military record was unremarkable, he was uneducated and coarse of manner, his stutter earned him ridicule, and he was reputed to sympathize with the heretical religious sect of the Athinganoi, to which his family had belonged. Byzantine accounts of Thomas's rebellion state that he did not in fact claim the throne under his own name but assumed the identity of Emperor Constantine VI, who had been deposed and murdered by his mother, Irene of Athens, in 797. Most modern scholars follow Lemerle, who dismisses this as yet another later fabrication. If it contains any truth, it is possible that this story may originate from Thomas choosing to be crowned under the regnal name of \"Constantine\", but there is no evidence for such an act. The possible appropriation of Constantine VI's identity is linked in some Byzantine sources with the statement that Thomas was a rumoured supporter of iconolatry, as opposed to Michael's support for iconoclasm: it was under Constantine VI that veneration of the icons was restored. Nevertheless, the ambiguous phrasing of the sources, the iconoclast leanings of many themes in Asia Minor, and Thomas's alliance with the Arabs seem to speak against any open commitment to icon worship on his part. Indeed, given Michael II's conciliatory approach during his early reign, the icon worship controversy does not seem to have been a major issue at the time, and in the view of modern scholars most probably did not play a major role in Thomas's revolt. The image of Thomas as an iconophile champion opposed to the iconoclast Michael II in later, Macedonian-era sources was probably the result of their own anti-iconoclast bias. Warren Treadgold furthermore suggests that if true, Thomas's claim to be Constantine VI may have been little more than a tale circulated to win support, and that Thomas pursued a \"studied ambiguity\" towards icons, designed to attract support from iconophiles. In Treadgold's words, \"Thomas could be all things to all men until he had conquered the whole empire, and then he would have time enough to disappoint some of his followers\". The account of \"Theophanes Continuatus\" on Thomas's revolt states that in this time, \"the servant raised his hand against his master, the soldier against his officer, the captain against his general\". This has led some scholars, chiefly Alexander Vasiliev and George Ostrogorsky, to regard Thomas's revolt as an expression of widespread discontent among the rural population, which suffered under heavy taxation. Other Byzantinists, notably Lemerle, dismiss rural discontent as a primary factor during the revolt. Genesios and other chroniclers further state that Thomas won the support of \"Hagarenes, Indians, Egyptians, Assyrians, Medians, Abasgians, Zichs, Iberians, Kabirs, Slavs, Huns, Vandals, Getae, the sectarians of Manes, Laz, Alanians, Chaldians, Armenians and every kind of other peoples\". This has led to modern claims that Thomas's rebellion represented an uprising of the empire's non-Greek ethnic groups, but according to Lemerle, this exaggerated account is yet another piece of hostile disinformation. It is almost certain, however, that Thomas could count on support among the empire's Caucasian neighbours, for the presence of Abasgians, Armenians, and Iberians in his army is mentioned in the near-contemporary letter of Michael II to Louis the Pious. The reasons for this support are unclear; Thomas may have made unspecified promises to their rulers, but Lemerle suggests that the Armenians might have in part been motivated by revenge for Leo, their murdered kinsman.", "As commander of the \"Foederati\", Thomas was based at Amorion, the capital of the Anatolic Theme. Although junior to the theme's \"strategos\" (military governor), his proclamation received widespread support throughout Asia Minor. Within a short time, all the Asian themes supported Thomas, except for the Opsician Theme under the patrician Katakylas, a nephew of Michael II, and the Armeniac Theme, under its \"strategos\", Olbianos. The Thracesian Theme wavered between the two rivals, but finally threw its support behind Thomas. More than two-thirds of the empire's Asian army eventually aligned with Thomas, while the defection of the provincial tax officials provided him with much-needed revenue. Michael's first response was to order the Armeniac army to attack Thomas. The Armeniacs were easily defeated in battle and Thomas proceeded through the eastern parts of the Armeniac Theme to occupy the frontier region of Chaldia. His conquest of the Armeniac province was left incomplete because the Abbasids, taking advantage of the Byzantine civil war, launched raids by land and sea against southern Asia Minor, where Thomas had left few troops. Instead of returning to face these raids, Thomas launched a large-scale invasion of his own against Abbasid territory in spring 821, either in Syria (according to Bury and others) or in Arab-held Armenia (according to Treadgold). Thomas then sent an emissary to the Caliph al-Ma'mun, who was sufficiently impressed by Thomas's show of force to receive his proposals, especially in view of the Caliphate's own problems with the rebellion of the Khurramites under Babak Khorramdin. Thomas and Ma'mun concluded a treaty of peace and mutual alliance. The Caliph allowed Thomas to recruit men from Arab-ruled territories, and gave leave for him to cross the border and travel to Arab-held Antioch, where he was crowned emperor by the iconophile Patriarch of Antioch, Job. In exchange, Thomas is said to have promised to cede unspecified territories and become a tributary vassal of the Caliph, though the agreement's exact terms are left unclear in the sources. At about the same time, Thomas adopted a young man of obscure origin, whom he named Constantius and made his co-emperor. Meanwhile, Michael II tried to win support among the iconophiles by appointing a relative of his as Archbishop of Ephesus, but his plan failed when the latter refused to be consecrated by the avowedly iconoclast Patriarch Antony I Kassimates. In an effort to consolidate his hold on the provinces, and especially the two Asian themes still loyal to him, Michael proclaimed a 25 percent reduction in taxes for 821–822. By summer 821, Thomas had consolidated his position in the East, though the Opsician and Armeniac themes still eluded his control. He set his sights on the ultimate prize, Constantinople, the possession of which alone conferred full legitimacy to an emperor. Thomas assembled troops, gathered supplies, and built siege machines. To counter the powerful Imperial Fleet stationed in the capital, he built new ships to augment his existing fleet, which came from the Cibyrrhaeot and Aegean Sea naval themes, and possibly included task forces from the theme of Hellas. Thomas recalled Gregory Pterotos, a general and nephew of Leo V whom Michael had exiled to the island of Skyros, and gave him command of the fleet. By October, the thematic fleets loyal to Thomas had finished assembling at Lesbos, and Thomas's army began marching from the Thracesian Theme towards Abydos, where he intended to cross over into Europe. At this point, Thomas suffered his first reversal of fortune: before his departure for Abydos, he had sent an army under his adoptive son Constantius against the Armeniacs. Constantius was ambushed by \"strategos\" Olbianos and killed, although the army was able to withdraw with relatively few casualties. Constantius's severed head was sent to Michael, who dispatched it to Thomas at Abydos. Thomas was undaunted by this relatively minor setback, and crossed over into Europe some time in late October or early November. There, Constantius was soon replaced as co-emperor by another obscure individual, a former monk whom Thomas also adopted and named Anastasius.", "Anticipating Thomas's move, Michael had gone out at the head of an army to the themes of Thrace and Macedonia in Constantinople's European hinterland and strengthened the garrisons of several fortresses there to secure the loyalty of their populace. When Thomas landed, the people of the European themes welcomed him with enthusiasm, and Michael was forced to withdraw to Constantinople. Volunteers, including many Slavs, flocked to Thomas's banner. As he set out towards Constantinople, chroniclers recount that his army swelled to some 80,000 men. The capital was defended by the imperial \"tagmata\", augmented by reinforcements from the Opsician and Armeniac themes. Michael had ordered the city walls to be repaired, and chained off the entrance to the Golden Horn, while the Imperial Fleet further guarded the capital from the sea. Nevertheless, judging from Michael's passive stance, his forces were inferior to Thomas's; Warren Treadgold estimates Michael's army to have numbered approximately 35,000 men. Thomas's fleet arrived at the capital first. Facing no opposition from the Imperial Fleet, the rebels broke or unfastened the chain and entered the Golden Horn, taking station near the mouths of the Barbysos river, where they awaited the arrival of Thomas and his army. Thomas arrived in early December. The sight of his huge force did not cow the capital's inhabitants: unlike the provinces, the capital's citizens and garrison stood firmly behind Michael. To further encourage his troops, Michael had his young son Theophilos lead a procession along the walls, carrying a piece of the True Cross and the mantle of the Virgin Mary, while a large standard was hoisted on top of the Church of St. Mary at Blachernae, in full view of both armies. After subduing the cities around the capital, Thomas resolved to attack Constantinople from three sides, perhaps hoping his assault would impress its inhabitants or lead to defections. His deputies Anastasius and Gregory Pterotos would attack the Theodosian land and sea walls, respectively, while he would lead the main attack against the less formidable defenses protecting Blachernae. All of Thomas's forces were amply supplied with siege engines and catapults, and his fleet fielded quantities of Greek fire in addition to large shipborne catapults. Each of Thomas's attacks failed: the defenders' artillery proved superior and kept Thomas's engines away from the land walls, while adverse winds hindered the fleet from taking any meaningful action. Deciding that operations in the midst of winter were hazardous and unlikely to succeed, Thomas suspended all further attacks until spring and withdrew his army to winter quarters. Michael used the respite to ferry in additional reinforcements from Asia Minor and repair the walls of Blachernae. When Thomas returned in spring, he decided to focus his attack on the Blachernae sector. Before the offensive, Michael himself ascended the walls and addressed Thomas's troops, exhorting them to abandon their commander and promising amnesty if they would defect. Thomas's army viewed the plea as a sign of weakness, and advanced confidently to begin the assault, but as they neared the wall, the defenders opened the gates and attacked. The sudden onslaught drove back Thomas's army; at the same time, the Imperial Fleet defeated Thomas's ships, whose crews broke and fled to the shore in panic. This defeat diminished Thomas's naval strength, and although he continued blockading the capital by land, the loss demoralized his supporters, who began defecting. Gregory Pterotos, whose family was in Michael's hands, resolved to desert Thomas, followed by a small band of men loyal to him. He departed the rebel camp, headed west, and sent a monk to inform Michael of his defection, but the monk failed to circumvent the blockade and reach the capital. Upon learning of this defection, Thomas reacted quickly: with a select detachment, he followed Gregory, defeated his troops and killed the deserter. Thomas exploited this small victory for all it was worth, widely proclaiming that he had defeated Michael's troops \"by land and sea\". He sent messages to the themes of Greece, whose support had been lukewarm until that point, demanding additional ships. The themes responded forcefully, sending their squadrons, allegedly numbering 350 vessels, to join him. Thus reinforced, Thomas decided to launch a two-pronged assault against Constantinople's sea walls, with his original fleet attacking the wall of the Golden Horn, and the new fleet attacking the south coast, looking towards the Sea of Marmara. Michael, however, did not remain idle: his own fleet attacked the thematic force soon after it arrived at its anchorage in Byrida. Using Greek fire, the Imperial Fleet destroyed many of the rebel vessels and captured most of the remaining ships. Only a few managed to escape and rejoin Thomas's forces. Through this victory, Michael secured control of the sea, but Thomas's army remained superior on land and continued its blockade of Constantinople. Minor skirmishes ensued for the remainder of the year, with Michael's forces sallying forth from the city to attack Thomas's forces. Although both sides claimed minor successes in these clashes, neither was able to gain a decisive advantage. Michael turned to the empire's northern neighbour, Bulgaria, for help. The two states were bound by a 30-year treaty signed under Leo V, and the Bulgarian ruler, khan Omurtag (r. 814–831), was happy to respond to Michael's request for assistance. A later tradition, reported by Genesios and Theophanes Continuatus, holds that Omurtag acted of his own accord and against Michael's will, but this is almost universally rejected as a version started or at least encouraged by Michael, who did not wish to be seen encouraging \"barbarians\" to invade the empire. The Bulgarian army invaded Thrace, probably in November 822 (Bury believes that the Bulgarian attack occurred in spring 823), and advanced towards Constantinople. Thomas raised the siege, and marched to meet them with his army. The two armies met at the plain of Kedouktos near Heraclea (hence known as the Battle of Kedouktos in the Byzantine sources). The accounts of the subsequent battle differ: the later sources state that Thomas lost the battle, but the near-contemporary George the Monk states that Thomas \"killed many Bulgarians\". Given the lack of Bulgarian activity after the battle, most modern scholars (with the notable exception of Bury) believe that Thomas won the battle.", "Thomas was unable to resume the siege: aside from the heavy casualties his army likely suffered, his fleet, which he had left behind in the Golden Horn, surrendered to Michael during his absence. Thomas set up camp at the plain of Diabasis some west of Constantinople, spending winter and early spring there. While a few of his men deserted, the bulk remained loyal. Finally, in late April or early May 823, Michael marched with his troops against Thomas, accompanied by the generals Olbianos and Katakylas with new troops from Asia Minor. Thomas marched to meet them and planned to use a stratagem to outwit his opponents: his men, ostensibly demoralized, would pretend to flee, and when the imperial army broke ranks to pursue them, they would turn back and attack. However, Thomas's troops were by now weary of the prolonged conflict, and their submission was unfeigned. Many surrendered to Michael, while others fled to nearby fortified cities. Thomas sought refuge in Arcadiopolis with a large group; his adopted son Anastasius went with some of Thomas's men to Bizye, and others fled to Panion and Heraclea. Michael blockaded Thomas's cities of refuge but organized no assaults, instead aiming to capture them peacefully by wearing out their defenders. His strategy was motivated by the political and propaganda expedient of appearing merciful—\"in order to spare Christian blood\", as Michael himself put it in his letter to Louis the Pious—but also, according to the chroniclers, by fear of demonstrating to the Bulgarians that the Byzantine cities' fortifications could fall to attack. In Asia Minor, Thomas's partisans hoped to lure Michael away by allowing the Arabs free passage to raid the provinces of Opsikion and Optimaton, which were loyal to the emperor. Michael was unmoved and continued the blockade. His troops barred access to Arcadiopolis with a ditch. To conserve supplies, the blockaded troops sent away women and children, followed by those too old, wounded, or otherwise incapable of bearing arms. After five months of blockade, Thomas's loyalists were eventually forced to eat starved horses and their hides. Some began deserting by lowering themselves with ropes over the city walls or jumping from them. Thomas sent messengers to Bizye, where the blockade was less close, to arrange a relief attempt by Anastasius. Before anything could be done, however, the exhausted troops at Arcadiopolis surrendered their leader in exchange for an imperial pardon. Thomas was delivered to Michael seated on a donkey and bound in chains. He was prostrated before the emperor, who placed his foot on his defeated rival's neck and ordered his hands and feet cut off and his corpse impaled. Thomas pleaded for clemency with the words \"Have mercy on me, oh True Emperor!\" Michael only asked his captive to reveal whether any of his own senior officials had had dealings with Thomas. Before Thomas could respond, the Logothete of the Course, John Hexaboulios, advised against hearing whatever claims a defeated rebel might make. Michael agreed, and Thomas's sentence was carried out immediately. When the inhabitants of Bizye heard of Thomas's fate, they surrendered Anastasius, who suffered the same fate as Thomas. In Panion and Heraclea, Thomas's men held out until an earthquake struck in February 824. The tremor severely damaged the wall of Panion, and the city surrendered. The damage at Heraclea was less severe, but after Michael landed troops at its seaward side, it too was forced to surrender. In Asia Minor, Thomas's loyalists mostly submitted peacefully, but in the Cibyrrhaeot Theme, resistance lingered until suppressed by \"strategos\" John Echimos. In the Thracesian theme, Thomas's soldiers turned to brigandage. The most serious opposition was offered in central Asia Minor by two officers, who had possibly served Thomas as \"strategoi\": Choireus, with his base at Kaballa northwest of Iconium, and Gazarenos Koloneiates, based at Saniana, southeast of Ancyra. From their strongholds, they spurned Michael's offer of a pardon and the high title of \"magistros\" and raided the provinces that had gone over to him. Soon, however, Michael's agents persuaded the inhabitants of the two forts to shut their gates against the officers. Choireus and Koloneiates then tried to seek refuge in Arab territory but were attacked en route by loyalist troops, captured, and crucified.", "The end of Thomas the Slav's great rebellion was marked by Michael II's triumph, held in May 824 in Constantinople. While he executed Thomas's volunteers from the Caliphate and perhaps also the Slavs, the sheer number of individuals involved, the necessity of appearing clement and sparing with Christian lives, and the need to restore internal tranquillity to his realm compelled Michael to treat Thomas's defeated partisans with leniency: most were released after being paraded in the Hippodrome during his celebration, and only the most dangerous were exiled to remote corners of the empire. In an effort to discredit his opponent, Michael authorized an \"official\" and heavily distorted version of Thomas's life and revolt. The document was written by the deacon Ignatios and published in 824 as \"Against Thomas\". This report quickly became the commonly accepted version of events. Thomas failed in spite of his qualities and the widespread support he had gained, which brought him control of most of the empire. Lemerle holds that several factors played a role in his defeat: the Asian themes he did not subdue supplied reinforcements to Michael; Thomas's fleet performed badly; and the Bulgarian offensive diverted him away from the capital and weakened his army. But the most decisive obstacles were the impregnable walls of Constantinople, which ensured that an emperor who controlled Constantinople could only be overthrown from within the city. Thomas's rebellion was the \"central domestic event\" of Michael II's reign, but it was not very destructive in material terms: except for Thrace, which had suffered from the prolonged presence of the rival armies and the battles fought there, the larger part of the empire was spared the ravages of war. The Byzantine navy suffered great losses, with the thematic fleets in particular being devastated, while the land forces suffered comparatively few casualties. This is traditionally held to have resulted in a military weakness and internal disorder which was swiftly exploited by the Muslims: in the years after Thomas's rebellion, Andalusian exiles captured Crete and the Tunisian Aghlabids began their conquest of Sicily, while in the East, the Byzantines were forced to maintain a generally defensive stance towards the Caliphate. More recent scholarship has disputed the degree to which the civil war was responsible for Byzantine military failures during these years, citing other reasons to explain them: Warren Treadgold opines that the empire's military forces recovered fairly quickly, and that incompetent military leadership coupled with \"the remoteness of Sicily, the absence of regular troops on Crete, the simultaneity of the attacks on both islands, and the government's long-standing lack of interest in sea-power\" were far more responsible for the loss of the islands." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Characteristics.", "Size.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Behavior and ecology.", "Hunting and diet.", "Reproduction.", "Conservation status." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Orinoco crocodile can be recognised by its relatively long snout, which is narrower than that of the somewhat similar-looking American crocodile. This species generally has a pale tan hide, though at least three coloration variations are known, with some almost completely yellowish and some a dark brownish-gray. The skin can change colour over long periods of time; this phenomenon has been recorded in other species that can gradually change the amount of melanin in their skin. These crocodiles have dark-brown markings, which present as more pronounced bands in younger specimens and as scattered markings on mature ones.", "The Orinoco crocodile ranks among the largest living reptiles, as well as the largest predator in the Americas. It is arguably the largest crocodilian in the Americas, while American crocodiles and black caimans may approach similar dimensions, on average the Orinoco crocodile may be (or had been, when in healthy numbers) slightly longer. Given its possible maximum sizes, the Orinoco crocodile may rank as the third largest extant true crocodile after the saltwater crocodile and Nile crocodile (which is closely related to the Orinoco despite its substantially different range) and rank 4th amongst all extant crocodilians behind additionally the gharial, though there is little to suggest that Orinoco specimens in modern times can rival these largest species. Sexual maturity for Orinoco crocodiles is obtained for females at around while that of males seems to be obtained around length, with most adult crocodiles of the species exceeding. Average length of wild adult females from 1985 to 1992 was found to be while that of males is not known to have been surveyed at that time. If not culled by humans, mature males easily exceed and attain a length of as much as in length as they grow throughout life, perhaps weighing up to in big specimens, while females may grow over the expected size of in length and may sometimes exceed. According to Guinness Records, the average length of adults that they were able to examine was only and the largest specimen found firsthand was. The largest specimen historically reported was shot in 1800, and allegedly measured at, although the source is considered reliable, unfortunately, no voucher specimen is known from this. Because of extensive hunting for their skins in the 20th century, such giants do not exist today, and modern Orinoco crocodiles have not been reported to exceed in length. Merchán listed the maximum total length attainable for a male as and the maximum length of a female as.", "This species is restricted to the Orinoco river basin in Colombia and Venezuela. They have been occasionally reported on the island of Trinidad, but this has not been confirmed and witnesses may have mistaken an American crocodile for the rarer species. This crocodile was once thought to have inhabited a wide range of riparian habitats, from tropical forests to the streams of the Andes foothills. Today, this species is restricted to the Llanos savannah and associated seasonal freshwater rivers.", "", "Little study has gone into the dietary biology of Orinoco crocodiles but from eye-witness accounts and partial studies from captivity and crocodile farms, the majority of the Orinoco crocodile's diet appears to consists of large fish. The species' relatively narrow snout is ideally suited to minimize water resistance in capturing such aquatic prey. However, as an opportunistic apex predator, virtually any animal living within its range could be considered a potential meal, such as reptiles, birds, and mammals. Despite having a rather elongated skull, its base snout is wide, hinting to a generalist diet. It stalks both aquatic and terrestrial prey. As a large adult, terrestrial prey may include monkeys, deer, birds, other reptiles, domestic animals, and even occasionally other large predators if the opportunity arises. Similar to many of the larger crocodile species, the Orinoco crocodile has also been observed catching and eating smaller species of crocodilians, such as adult common caimans and sometimes cannibalizing smaller individuals of its own kind. Attacks on humans have been reported, but this is highly unlikely to be a common behavior today, given the very small population of the species and its relative isolation from large human settlements. Historically attacks were not unusual and on his trip to the region in 1800, natives told Alexander von Humboldt that two or three adults were killed per year by Orinoco crocodiles. A small number of better documented fatal attacks were reported in the 1900s–1930s when the species was still relatively common. The only well-documented recent attack, on a fisherman in 2009, was serious but not fatal. A second survivor was reported in 2011 to live in La Palmita at the Cojedes River, but any details of this attack (including when exactly it happened) are lacking.", "When water recedes in the dry season, Orinoco crocodiles retreat to burrows they excavate into the riverbanks. The adult pair mates during the drier period of the year. Adult males attract the females by roaring, the females often outnumbered the males two to one and so appear to select the males with the deepest roars. In a reintroduced population, it was found that only 6 of 14 potential adult males parented over 90% of eggs laid. Usually 14 weeks after mating, the female crocodile will dig a nest and lay about 40 eggs. It is a hole-nester as are all crocodilians and usually makes the nest on a sand bank. The eggs incubate under a mixture of soil and rotting vegetation for around three months. The most common predator of buried eggs are tegu lizards although the tegus are sometimes caught and killed by the mother crocodile. During the night, they hatch and call to their mother which digs them out of the nest and carries them to the water, which is considerably higher at this point. Young Orinoco crocodiles are often at risk from predation by American black vultures, tegu lizards, anacondas, caimans, coatis, jaguars, and other carnivores, though these species are sometimes too caught and killed by the defending mother crocodile. Adults have no predators except for humans. Females have defended pods of juveniles for over three years, though closer to one year to independence is generally most common. A study of captive Orinoco crocodiles noted the aggressive behavior of adults while nesting and noted that the normally relatively docile crocodilians could not be approached while they were actively brooding. Without persecution, it is possible that Orinoco crocodiles may reach a lifespan of 70–80 years.", "The Orinoco crocodile is highly endangered due to excessive hunting for its hide. During the 1940s to the 1960s, thousands of these animals were slaughtered in the Orinoco River and the Llanos wetlands, and the species came very close to extinction. The Orinoco crocodile was given protected status in the 1970s, but has yet to recover. Today, it is protected both in Colombia and Venezuela, and also included on Appendix I by CITES. In addition to hunting for its hide, more recent threats include the collection of juveniles for sale in the live animal trade, pollution, and the proposal of a dam in the upper Orinoco River region. Another problem is the increased population of spectacled caimans, a smaller crocodilian that can outcompete the Orinoco crocodile for fish due to its much larger population and much more accelerated breeding rates. It's unclear how many individuals remain in the wild, but estimates range between 250 and 1500. The largest subpopulation in Venezuela is in Cojedes and Sarare, with fewer than 500 adults remaining. A number of other smaller subpopulations exist. In November 2007, 50 individuals were held in zoos registered by Species360, of which the largest population, 35 individuals, were kept in the Dallas World Aquarium. Additionally, a large number of individuals are held at captive-breeding facilities in Venezuela. Since the early 1990s, a large number of hatchlings have been released both into private ranchlands (especially in the Llanos where nature-oriented tourism is important for the local economy) and in national parks in Venezuela. While six Venezuelan captive-breeding programs continue today, many are plagued by lack of funds or staff, as well as conflicts between private and state-owned facilities. The Orinoco crocodile became part of \"Proyecto Vida Silvestre\", a program launched in 2014 to protect 10 wildlife species of Colombia's Llanos. Thanks to that program, between May 2015 and February 2016, 41 orinoco crocodiles were reintroduced at El Tuparro National Natural Park in eastern Colombia." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Number of \"k\"-combinations.", "Example of counting combinations.", "Enumerating \"k\"-combinations.", "Number of combinations with repetition.", "Example of counting multisubsets.", "Number of \"k\"-combinations for all \"k\".", "Probability: sampling a random combination." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The number of \"k\"-combinations from a given set \"S\" of \"n\" elements is often denoted in elementary combinatorics texts by formula_6, or by a variation such as formula_7, formula_8, formula_9, formula_10 or even formula_11 (the latter form was standard in French, Romanian, Russian, Chinese and Polish texts). The same number however occurs in many other mathematical contexts, where it is denoted by formula_12 (often read as \"\"n\" choose \"k\"\"); notably it occurs as a coefficient in the binomial formula, hence its name binomial coefficient. One can define formula_12 for all natural numbers \"k\" at once by the relation from which it is clear that and further, To see that these coefficients count \"k\"-combinations from \"S\", one can first consider a collection of \"n\" distinct variables \"X\" labeled by the elements \"s\" of \"S\", and expand the product over all elements of \"S\": it has 2 distinct terms corresponding to all the subsets of \"S\", each subset giving the product of the corresponding variables \"X\". Now setting all of the \"X\" equal to the unlabeled variable \"X\", so that the product becomes, the term for each \"k\"-combination from \"S\" becomes \"X\", so that the coefficient of that power in the result equals the number of such \"k\"-combinations. Binomial coefficients can be computed explicitly in various ways. To get all of them for the expansions up to, one can use (in addition to the basic cases already given) the recursion relation for 0 < \"k\" < \"n\", which follows from =; this leads to the construction of Pascal's triangle. For determining an individual binomial coefficient, it is more practical to use the formula The numerator gives the number of \"k\"-permutations of \"n\", i.e., of sequences of \"k\" distinct elements of \"S\", while the denominator gives the number of such \"k\"-permutations that give the same \"k\"-combination when the order is ignored. When \"k\" exceeds \"n\"/2, the above formula contains factors common to the numerator and the denominator, and canceling them out gives the relation for 0 ≤ \"k\" ≤ \"n\". This expresses a symmetry that is evident from the binomial formula, and can also be understood in terms of \"k\"-combinations by taking the complement of such a combination, which is an -combination. Finally there is a formula which exhibits this symmetry directly, and has the merit of being easy to remember: where \"n\"<nowiki>!</nowiki> denotes the factorial of \"n\". It is obtained from the previous formula by multiplying denominator and numerator by!, so it is certainly inferior as a method of computation to that formula. The last formula can be understood directly, by considering the \"n\"<nowiki>!</nowiki> permutations of all the elements of \"S\". Each such permutation gives a \"k\"-combination by selecting its first \"k\" elements. There are many duplicate selections: any combined permutation of the first \"k\" elements among each other, and of the final (\"n\" − \"k\") elements among each other produces the same combination; this explains the division in the formula. From the above formulas follow relations between adjacent numbers in Pascal's triangle in all three directions: Together with the basic cases formula_23, these allow successive computation of respectively all numbers of combinations from the same set (a row in Pascal's triangle), of \"k\"-combinations of sets of growing sizes, and of combinations with a complement of fixed size.", "As a specific example, one can compute the number of five-card hands possible from a standard fifty-two card deck as: Alternatively one may use the formula in terms of factorials and cancel the factors in the numerator against parts of the factors in the denominator, after which only multiplication of the remaining factors is required: Another alternative computation, equivalent to the first, is based on writing which gives When evaluated in the following order,, this can be computed using only integer arithmetic. The reason is that when each division occurs, the intermediate result that is produced is itself a binomial coefficient, so no remainders ever occur. Using the symmetric formula in terms of factorials without performing simplifications gives a rather extensive calculation:", "One can enumerate all \"k\"-combinations of a given set \"S\" of \"n\" elements in some fixed order, which establishes a bijection from an interval of formula_12 integers with the set of those \"k\"-combinations. Assuming \"S\" is itself ordered, for instance \"S\" = { 1, 2,..., \"n\" }, there are two natural possibilities for ordering its \"k\"-combinations: by comparing their smallest elements first (as in the illustrations above) or by comparing their largest elements first. The latter option has the advantage that adding a new largest element to \"S\" will not change the initial part of the enumeration, but just add the new \"k\"-combinations of the larger set after the previous ones. Repeating this process, the enumeration can be extended indefinitely with \"k\"-combinations of ever larger sets. If moreover the intervals of the integers are taken to start at 0, then the \"k\"-combination at a given place \"i\" in the enumeration can be computed easily from \"i\", and the bijection so obtained is known as the combinatorial number system. It is also known as \"rank\"/\"ranking\" and \"unranking\" in computational mathematics. There are many ways to enumerate \"k\" combinations. One way is to visit all the binary numbers less than 2. Choose those numbers having \"k\" nonzero bits, although this is very inefficient even for small \"n\" (e.g. \"n\" = 20 would require visiting about one million numbers while the maximum number of allowed \"k\" combinations is about 186 thousand for \"k\" = 10). The positions of these 1 bits in such a number is a specific \"k\"-combination of the set { 1,..., \"n\" }. Another simple, faster way is to track \"k\" index numbers of the elements selected, starting with {0.. \"k\"−1} (zero-based) or {1.. \"k\"} (one-based) as the first allowed \"k\"-combination and then repeatedly moving to the next allowed \"k\"-combination by incrementing the last index number if it is lower than \"n\"-1 (zero-based) or \"n\" (one-based) or the last index number \"x\" that is less than the index number following it minus one if such an index exists and resetting the index numbers after \"x\" to {\"x\"+1, \"x\"+2,...}.", "A \"k\"-combination with repetitions, or \"k\"-multicombination, or multisubset of size \"k\" from a set \"S\" is given by a sequence of \"k\" not necessarily distinct elements of \"S\", where order is not taken into account: two sequences define the same multiset if one can be obtained from the other by permuting the terms. In other words, the number of ways to sample \"k\" elements from a set of \"n\" elements allowing for duplicates (i.e., with replacement) but disregarding different orderings (e.g. {2,1,2} = {1,2,2}). Associate an index to each element of \"S\" and think of the elements of \"S\" as \"types\" of objects, then we can let formula_30 denote the number of elements of type \"i\" in a multisubset. The number of multisubsets of size \"k\" is then the number of nonnegative integer solutions of the Diophantine equation: If \"S\" has \"n\" elements, the number of such \"k\"-multisubsets is denoted by, a notation that is analogous to the binomial coefficient which counts \"k\"-subsets. This expression, \"n\" multichoose \"k\", can also be given in terms of binomial coefficients: This relationship can be easily proved using a representation known as stars and bars. A solution of the above Diophantine equation can be represented by formula_34 \"stars\", a separator (a \"bar\"), then formula_35 more stars, another separator, and so on. The total number of stars in this representation is \"k\" and the number of bars is \"n\" - 1 (since no separator is needed at the very end). Thus, a string of \"k\" + \"n\" - 1 symbols (stars and bars) corresponds to a solution if there are \"k\" stars in the string. Any solution can be represented by choosing \"k\" out of positions to place stars and filling the remaining positions with bars. For example, the solution formula_36 of the equation formula_37 can be represented by formula_38. The number of such strings is the number of ways to place 10 stars in 13 positions, formula_39 which is the number of 10-multisubsets of a set with 4 elements. As with binomial coefficients, there are several relationships between these multichoose expressions. For example, for formula_40, This identity follows from interchanging the stars and bars in the above representation.", "For example, if you have four types of donuts (\"n\" = 4) on a menu to choose from and you want three donuts (\"k\" = 3), the number of ways to choose the donuts with repetition can be calculated as This result can be verified by listing all the 3-multisubsets of the set \"S\" = {1,2,3,4}. This is displayed in the following table. The second column shows the nonnegative integer solutions formula_43 of the equation formula_44 and the last column gives the stars and bars representation of the solutions.", "The number of \"k\"-combinations for all \"k\" is the number of subsets of a set of \"n\" elements. There are several ways to see that this number is 2. In terms of combinations, formula_45, which is the sum of the \"n\"th row (counting from 0) of the binomial coefficients in Pascal's triangle. These combinations (subsets) are enumerated by the 1 digits of the set of base 2 numbers counting from 0 to 2 − 1, where each digit position is an item from the set of \"n\". Given 3 cards numbered 1 to 3, there are 8 distinct combinations (subsets), including the empty set: Representing these subsets (in the same order) as base 2 numerals:", "There are various algorithms to pick out a random combination from a given set or list. Rejection sampling is extremely slow for large sample sizes. One way to select a \"k\"-combination efficiently from a population of size \"n\" is to iterate across each element of the population, and at each step pick that element with a dynamically changing probability of formula_47. (see reservoir sampling)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Service under Nobunaga.", "Battle of Okehazama.", "Siege of Inabayama Castle.", "Battle of Anegawa.", "Rise to power.", "Battle of Yamazaki and conflict with Katsuie.", "Construction of Osaka Castle.", "Battle of Komaki and Nagakute.", "Pinnacle of power.", "Unified Japan.", "Siege of Odawara.", "Death of Sen no Rikyū.", "Decline of power.", "First campaign against Korea.", "Succession dispute.", "Twenty-six martyrs of Japan.", "Second campaign against Korea.", "Death.", "Cultural legacy.", "Names.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Very little is known for certain about Toyotomi Hideyoshi before 1570, when he begins to appear in surviving documents and letters. His autobiography starts in 1577, but in it, Hideyoshi spoke very little about his past. According to tradition, Hideyoshi was born on 17 March 1537 in Nakamura, Owari Province (present-day Nakamura Ward, Nagoya), in the middle of the chaotic Sengoku period under the collapsed Ashikaga Shogunate. Hideyoshi had no traceable \"samurai\" lineage, and his father Yaemon was an \"ashigaru\" – a peasant employed by the \"samurai\" as a foot soldier. Hideyoshi had no surname, and his childhood given name was (\"Bounty of the Sun\") although variations exist. Yaemon died in 1543 when Hideyoshi was 7-years-old, the younger of two children, his sibling being an older sister. Many legends describe Hideyoshi being sent to study at a temple as a young man, but he rejected temple life and went in search of adventure. Under the name, he first joined the Imagawa clan as a servant to a local ruler named. Hideyoshi traveled all the way to the lands of Imagawa Yoshimoto, the \"daimyō\" (feudal lord) based in Suruga Province, and served there for a time, only to abscond with a sum of money entrusted to him by Matsushita Yukitsuna.", "", "In 1558, Hideyoshi became an \"ashigaru\" for the powerful Oda clan, the rulers of his home province of Owari, now headed by the ambitious Oda Nobunaga. Hideyoshi soon became one of Nobunaga's sandal-bearers, a position of relatively high status, and was present at the Battle of Okehazama in 1560 when Nobunaga defeated Imagawa Yoshimoto to become one of the most powerful warlords in the Sengoku period. According to his biographers, Hideyoshi supervised the repair of Kiyosu Castle, a claim described as \"apocryphal\", and managed the kitchen. In 1561, Hideyoshi married One, the adopted daughter of Asano Nagakatsu. Hideyoshi carried out repairs on Sunomata Castle with his younger brother Toyotomi Hidenaga, Hachisuka Masakatsu, and Maeno Nagayasu. Hideyoshi's efforts were well-received because Sunomata was in enemy territory, and according to legend constructed a fort in Sunomata overnight and discovered a secret route into Mount Inaba, after which much of the local garrison surrendered.", "Hideyoshi was very successful as a negotiator. In 1564, he managed to convince, mostly with liberal bribes, a number of Mino warlords to desert the Saitō clan. Hideyoshi approached many Saitō clan samurai and convinced them to submit to Nobunaga, including the Saitō clan's strategist, Takenaka Shigeharu. Nobunaga's easy victory at the Siege of Inabayama Castle in 1567 was largely due to Hideyoshi's efforts, and despite his peasant origins, Hideyoshi became one of Nobunaga's most distinguished generals, eventually taking the name. The new surname included two characters, one each from Oda's two other right-hand men, and.", "Hideyoshi led troops in the Battle of Anegawa in 1570 in which Oda Nobunaga allied with Tokugawa Ieyasu to lay siege to two fortresses of the Azai and Asakura clans. Hideyoshi participated in the 1573 Siege of Nagashima. In 1573, after victorious campaigns against the Azai and Asakura, Nobunaga appointed Hideyoshi \"daimyō\" of three districts in the northern part of Ōmi Province. Initially, Hideyoshi based at the former Azai headquarters at Odani Castle but moved to Kunitomo and renamed the city \"Nagahama\" in tribute to Nobunaga. Hideyoshi later moved to the port at Imahama on Lake Biwa, where he began work on Imahama Castle and took control of the nearby Kunitomo firearms factory that had been established some years previously by the Azai and Asakura. Under Hideyoshi's administration, the factory's output of firearms increased dramatically. Hideyoshi fought in the Battle of Nagashino. Nobunaga sent Hideyoshi to Himeji Castle to conquer the Chūgoku region from the Mori clan in 1576. Hideyoshi then fought in the 1577 Battle of Tedorigawa, the Siege of Miki, the Siege of Itami (1579), and the 1582 Siege of Takamatsu.", "", "After the assassinations at Honnō-ji of Oda Nobunaga and his eldest son Nobutada in 1582 at the hands of Akechi Mitsuhide, Hideyoshi, seeking vengeance for the death of his beloved lord, made peace with the Mōri clan and defeated Akechi at the Battle of Yamazaki. Subsequently, Hideyoshi was in a very strong position. He summoned the powerful daimyo to Kiyosu so that they could determine Nobunaga's heir. Oda Nobukatsu and Oda Nobutaka quarreled, causing Hideyoshi to instead choose Samboshi, Nobu's grandson. Having won the support of the other two Oda elders, Niwa Nagahide and Ikeda Tsuneoki, Hideyoshi established Hidenobu's position, as well as his own influence in the Oda clan. He distributed Nobunaga's provinces among the generals and formed a council of four generals to help govern. Tension quickly escalated between Hideyoshi and Katsuie, and at the Battle of Shizugatake in the following year, Hideyoshi destroyed Katsuie's forces. Hideyoshi had thus consolidated his own power, dealt with most of the Oda clan, and controlled 30 provinces. The famous kirishitan daimyō and samurai Dom Justo Takayama fought on his side at this epic battle.", "In 1582, Hideyoshi began construction of Osaka Castle. Built on the site of the temple Ishiyama Hongan-ji destroyed by Nobunaga, the castle would become the last stronghold of the Toyotomi clan after Hideyoshi's death.", "Nobunaga's other son, Oda Nobukatsu, remained hostile to Hideyoshi. He allied himself with Tokugawa Ieyasu, and the two sides fought at the inconclusive Battle of Komaki and Nagakute. It ultimately resulted in a stalemate, although Hideyoshi's forces were delivered a heavy blow. Finally, Hideyoshi made peace with Nobukatsu, ending the pretext for war between the Tokugawa and Hashiba clans. Hideyoshi sent Tokugawa Ieyasu his younger sister Asahi no kata and mother Ōmandokoro as hostages. Ieyasu eventually agreed to become a vassal of Hideyoshi.", "Like Nobunaga before him, Hideyoshi never achieved the title of \"shōgun\". Instead, he arranged to have himself adopted by Konoe Sakihisa, one of the noblest men belonging to the Fujiwara clan and secured a succession of high court titles including, in 1585, the prestigious position of Imperial Regent (\"kampaku\"). In 1586, Hideyoshi was formally given the new clan name Toyotomi (instead of Fujiwara) by the Imperial court. He built a lavish palace, the Jurakudai, in 1587 and entertained the reigning Emperor, Emperor Go-Yōzei, the following year.", "Afterwards, Hideyoshi subjugated Kii Province and conquered Shikoku under the Chōsokabe clan. He also took control of Etchū Province and conquered Kyūshū. In 1587, Hideyoshi banished Christian missionaries from Kyūshū to exert greater control over the \"Kirishitan\" \"daimyōs\". However, since he made much of trade with Europeans, individual Christians were overlooked unofficially. In 1588, Hideyoshi forbade ordinary peasants from owning weapons and started a sword hunt to confiscate arms. The swords were melted down to create a statue of the Buddha. This measure effectively stopped peasant revolts and ensured greater stability at the expense of freedom of the individual \"daimyōs\".", "The 1590 Siege of Odawara against the Hōjō clan in the Kantō region eliminated the last resistance to Hideyoshi's authority. His victory signified the end of the Sengoku period. During this siege, Hideyoshi offered Ieyasu the eight Hōjō-ruled provinces in the Kantō region in exchange for the submission of Ieyasu's five provinces. Ieyasu accepted this proposal.", "In February 1591, Hideyoshi ordered Sen no Rikyū to commit suicide, likely in one of his angry outbursts. Rikyū had been a trusted retainer and master of the tea ceremony under both Hideyoshi and Nobunaga. Under Hideyoshi's patronage, Rikyū made significant changes to the aesthetics of the tea ceremony that had a lasting influence over many aspects of Japanese culture. Even after Rikyū's death, Hideyoshi is said to have built his many construction projects based upon aesthetics promoted by Rikyū, perhaps suggesting that he regretted his actions. Following Rikyū's death, Hideyoshi turned his attention from tea ceremony to Noh, which he had been studying since becoming Imperial Regent. During his brief stay in Nagoya Castle in what is today Saga Prefecture, on Kyūshū, Hideyoshi memorized the \"shite\" (lead roles) parts of ten Noh plays, which he then performed, forcing various \"daimyōs\" to accompany him onstage as the \"waki\" (secondary, accompanying role). He even performed before the emperor.", "The stability of the Toyotomi dynasty after Hideyoshi's death was put in doubt with the death of his son Tsurumatsu in September 1591. The three-year-old was his only child. When his half-brother Hidenaga died shortly after, Hideyoshi named his nephew Hidetsugu his heir, adopting him in January 1592. Hideyoshi resigned as \"kampaku\" to take the title of \"taikō\" (retired regent). Hidetsugu succeeded him as \"kampaku\". With Hideyoshi's health beginning to falter, but still yearning for some accomplishment to solidify his legacy, he adopted Oda Nobunaga's dream of a Japanese conquest of China and launched the conquest of the Ming dynasty by way of Korea (at the time known as Koryu or Joseon). Hideyoshi had been communicating with the Koreans since 1587 requesting unmolested passage into China. As an ally of Ming China, the Joseon government of the time at first refused talks entirely, and in April and July 1591 also refused demands that Japanese troops be allowed to march through Korea. The government of Joseon was concerned that allowing Japanese troops to march through Korea (Joseon) would mean that masses of Ming Chinese troops would battle Hideyoshi's troops on Korean soil before they could reach China, putting Korean security at risk. In August 1591, Hideyoshi ordered preparations for an invasion of Korea to begin.", "In the first campaign, Hideyoshi appointed Ukita Hideie as field marshal, and had him go to the Korean peninsula in April 1592. Konishi Yukinaga occupied Seoul, which had been the capital of the Joseon dynasty of Korea, on June 19. After Seoul fell easily, Japanese commanders held a war council in June in Seoul and determined targets of subjugation called Hachidokuniwari (literally, dividing the country into eight routes) by each corps (the First Division of Konishi Yukinaga and others from Pyeongan Province, the Second Division of Katō Kiyomasa and others from Hangyong Province, the Third Division of Kuroda Nagamasa and others from Hwanghae Province, the Fourth Division of Mōri Yoshinari and others from Gangwon Province; the Fifth Division of Fukushima Masanori and others from Chungcheong Province; the Sixth Division by Kobayakawa Takakage and others from Jeolla Province, the Seventh Division by Mōri Terumoto and others from Gyeongsang Province, and the Eighth Division of Ukita Hideie and others from Gyeonggi Province). In only four months, Hideyoshi's forces had a route into Manchuria and occupied much of Korea. The Korean king Seonjo of Joseon escaped to Uiju and requested military intervention from China. In 1593, the Wanli Emperor of Ming China sent an army under general Li Rusong to block the planned Japanese invasion of China and recapture the Korean peninsula. The Ming army of 43,000 soldiers headed by Li Ru-song proceeded to attack Pyongyang. On January 7, 1593, the Ming relief forces under Li recaptured Pyongyang and surrounded Seoul, but Kobayakawa Takakage, Ukita Hideie, Tachibana Muneshige and Kikkawa Hiroie won the Battle of Byeokjegwan in the suburbs of Seoul. At the end of the first campaign, Japan's entire navy was destroyed by Admiral Yi Sun-sin of Korea whose base was located in a part of Korea the Japanese could not control. This, in effect, put an end to Japan's dream of conquering China as the Koreans simply destroyed Japan's ability to re-supply their troops who were bogged down in Pyongyang.", "The birth of Hideyoshi's second son in 1593, Hideyori, created a potential succession problem. To avoid it, Hideyoshi exiled his nephew and heir Hidetsugu to Mount Kōya and then ordered him to commit suicide in August 1595. Hidetsugu's family members who did not follow his example were then murdered in Kyoto, including 31 women and several children.", "In January 1597, Toyotomi Hideyoshi had twenty-six Christians arrested as an example to Japanese who wanted to convert to Christianity. They are known as the Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan. They included five European Franciscan missionaries, one Mexican Franciscan missionary, three Japanese Jesuits and seventeen Japanese laymen including three young boys. They were tortured, mutilated, and paraded through towns across Japan. On February 5, they were executed in Nagasaki by public crucifixion.", "After several years of negotiations (broken off because envoys of both sides falsely reported to their masters that the opposition had surrendered), Hideyoshi appointed Kobayakawa Hideaki to lead a renewed invasion of Korea, but their efforts on the peninsula met with less success than the first invasion. Japanese troops remained pinned down in Gyeongsang Province. In June 1598, the Japanese forces turned back several Chinese offensives in Suncheon and Sacheon, but they were unable to make further progress as the Ming army prepared for a final assault. While Hideyoshi's battle at Sacheon was a major Japanese victory, all three parties to the war were exhausted. He told his commander in Korea, \"Don't let my soldiers become spirits in a foreign land.\"", "Toyotomi Hideyoshi died on September 18, 1598. He was delirious, with Sansom asserting that he was babbling of the distribution of fiefs. His last words, delivered to his closest daimyos and generals, were <nowiki>\"</nowiki>‘\"I depend upon you for everything. I have no other thoughts to leave behind. It is sad to part from you\"<nowiki>\"</nowiki>. His death was kept secret by the Council of Five Elders to preserve morale, and they ordered the Japanese forces in Korea to withdraw back to Japan. Because of his failure to capture Korea, Hideyoshi's forces were unable to invade China. Rather than strengthen his position, the military expeditions left his clan's coffers and fighting strength depleted, his vassals at odds over responsibility for the failure, and the clans that were loyal to the Toyotomi name weakened. The dream of a Japanese conquest of China was put on hold indefinitely. The Tokugawa government later not only prohibited any further military expeditions to the Asian mainland but closed Japan to nearly all foreigners during the years of the Tokugawa shogunate. It was not until the late 19th century that Japan again fought a war against China through Korea, using much the same route that Hideyoshi's invasion force had used. After his death, the other members of the Council of Five Regents were unable to keep the ambitions of Tokugawa Ieyasu in check. Two of Hideyoshi's top generals, Katō Kiyomasa and Fukushima Masanori, had fought bravely during the war but returned to find the Toyotomi clan castellan Ishida Mitsunari in power. He held the generals in contempt, and they sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu. Hideyoshi's underage son and designated successor Hideyori lost the power his father once held, and Tokugawa Ieyasu was declared \"shōgun\" following the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600.", "Toyotomi Hideyoshi changed Japanese society in many ways. These include the imposition of a rigid class structure, restriction on travel, and surveys of land and production. Class reforms affected commoners and warriors. During the Sengoku period, it had become common for peasants to become warriors, or for samurai to farm due to the constant uncertainty caused by the lack of centralized government and always tentative peace. Upon taking control, Hideyoshi decreed that all peasants be disarmed completely. Conversely, he required samurai to leave the land and take up residence in the castle towns. This solidified the social class system for the next 300 years. Furthermore, he ordered comprehensive surveys and a complete census of Japan. Once this was done and all citizens were registered, he required all Japanese to stay in their respective \"han\" (fiefs) unless they obtained official permission to go elsewhere. This ensured order in a period when bandits still roamed the countryside and peace was still new. The land surveys formed the basis for systematic taxation. In 1590, Hideyoshi completed construction of the Osaka Castle, the largest and most formidable in all Japan, to guard the western approaches to Kyoto. In that same year, Hideyoshi banned \"unfree labour\" or slavery, but forms of contract and indentured labour persisted alongside the period penal codes' forced labour. Hideyoshi also influenced the material culture of Japan. He lavished time and money on the tea ceremony, collecting implements, sponsoring lavish social events, and patronizing acclaimed masters. As interest in the tea ceremony rose among the ruling class, so too did demand for fine ceramic implements, and during the course of the Korean campaigns, not only were large quantities of prized ceramic ware confiscated, many Korean artisans were forcibly relocated to Japan. Inspired by the dazzling Golden Pavilion in Kyoto, he had the Golden Tea Room constructed, which was covered with gold leaf and lined inside with red gossamer. Using this mobile innovation, he was able to practice the tea ceremony wherever he went, powerfully projecting his unrivalled power and status upon his arrival. Politically, he set up a governmental system that balanced out the most powerful Japanese warlords (or \"daimyōs\"). A council was created to include the most influential lords. At the same time, a regent was designated to be in command. Just before his death, Hideyoshi hoped to set up a system stable enough to survive until his son grew old enough to become the next leader. A was formed, consisting of the five most powerful \"daimyōs\". Following the death of Maeda Toshiie, however, Tokugawa Ieyasu began to secure alliances, including political marriages (which had been forbidden by Hideyoshi). Eventually, the pro-Toyotomi forces fought against the Tokugawa in the Battle of Sekigahara. Ieyasu won and received the title of \"Seii-Tai Shōgun\" two years later. Hideyoshi is commemorated at several Toyokuni Shrines scattered over Japan. Ieyasu left in place the majority of Hideyoshi's decrees and built his shogunate upon them. This ensured that Hideyoshi's cultural legacy remained. In a letter to his wife, Hideyoshi wrote:", "Because of his low birth with no family name, to the eventual achievement of Imperial Regent, the highest title of Imperial nobility, Toyotomi Hideyoshi had quite a few names throughout his life. At birth, he was given the name. At \"genpuku\", he took the name. Later, he was given the surname Hashiba and the honorary court office Chikuzen no Kami; as a result, he was styled. His surname remained Hashiba even as he was granted the new \"Uji\" or \"sei\" ( or, clan name) Toyotomi by the Emperor. The Toyotomi \"Uji\" was simultaneously granted to a number of Hideyoshi's chosen allies, who adopted the new \"Uji\" \"\" (Toyotomi no some, courtier of Toyotomi). The Catholic sources of the time referred to him as \"emperor Taicosama\" (from \"taikō\", a retired \"kampaku\" (see Sesshō and Kampaku), and the honorific \"-sama\"). Toyotomi Hideyoshi had been given the nickname Kozaru, meaning \"little monkey\", from his lord Oda Nobunaga because his facial features and skinny form resembled that of a monkey. He was also known as the \"bald rat\" or a \"naked mole rat\".", "He was portrayed by Lee Hyo-jung in the 2004–2005 KBS1 TV series \"Immortal Admiral Yi Sun-sin\". \"Hyouge Mono\" (, lit. \"Jocular Fellow\") is a Japanese manga written and illustrated by Yoshihiro Yamada. It was adapted into an anime series in 2011, and includes a fictional depiction of Toyotomi Hideyoshi's life. In the \"Sengoku Basara\" game series and anime, he is described as a brutally strong man that killed his own wife to kill his heart, then raised an army to conquer Japan with conscripts and forced draftees. In The 39 Clues series, Toyotomi is a member of the Tomas branch of the Cahill family, the son of Thomas Cahill." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal history.", "Family history and early life.", "Upper Canada, marriage and children.", "War of 1812.", "Secord's walk.", "Post-war years.", "Later life and death.", "Memory and legend.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Thomas Ingersoll (1749–1812) married the seventeen-year-old Elizabeth Dewey on 28 February 1775. Their first child, Laura, was born in Great Barrington in the colonial Province of Massachusetts Bay on 13 September 1775. Thomas's family had lived in Massachusetts for five generations. His paternal immigrant ancestor was Richard Ingersoll, who had arrived in Salem, Massachusetts, from Bedfordshire, England, in 1629. Thomas was born in 1749 in Westfield, Massachusetts. Elizabeth, daughter of Israel Dewey and his wife, was also born in Westfield, on 28 January 1758. Thomas moved to Great Barrington in 1774, where he settled into a house on a small piece of land by the Housatonic River. Over the next several years, his success as a hatmaker allowed him to marry, increase his landholdings, and expand his house as his family grew. He spent much time away from home, as he rose through the ranks in the military on the side of the American revolutionaries during the American Revolutionary War. Upon his return to Great Barrington, he was made a magistrate. Elizabeth gave birth to three more girls: Elizabeth Franks on 17 October 1779; Mira (or Myra) in 1781; and Abigail in September 1783. They gave up Abigail for adoption in 1784 to an aunt with the surname Nash. Elizabeth Ingersoll died 20 February 1784. Thomas remarried the following year to Mercy Smith, widow of Josiah Smith, on 26 May 1785. Mercy had no children. She has been credited with teaching her stepdaughters to read and do needlework before her death from tuberculosis in 1789. By adolescence, the eldest daughter Laura was caring for her sisters and looking after the household affairs. Thomas remarried four months after Mercy's death, on 20 September 1789, to Sarah \"Sally\" Backus, a widow with a daughter, Harriet. The couple had an additional four girls and three boys. The first boy, Charles Fortescue, was born on 27 September 1791. Charlotte (born 1793) and Appolonia (born 1794) were the last members of this branch of the Ingersoll family to be born in Massachusetts. Thomas helped suppress Shays' Rebellion in 1786, which earned him the rank of major. In the years following, he witnessed and was offended by the continuing persecution of Loyalists in Massachusetts. He realized that in the depressed economic conditions that followed the Revolutionary War, and with his own deep debts, he was unlikely to see his former prosperity again. In 1793, Thomas met in New York City with Mohawk leader Joseph Brant, who offered to show him the best land for settlement in Upper Canada, where the Crown was encouraging development. He and four associates travelled to Upper Canada to petition Lieutenant Governor John Simcoe for a land grant. They received in the Thames Valley, and founded Oxford-on-the-Thames (later known as Ingersoll, Ontario), on condition that they populate it with forty other families within seven years. After winding up their affairs in Great Barrington, the Ingersoll family moved to Upper Canada in 1795.", "Thomas Ingersoll supported his family in their early years in Upper Canada by running a tavern in Queenston while land was being cleared and roads built in the settlement. The family stayed in Queenston until a log cabin was completed on the settlement in 1796. After Governor Simcoe returned to England in 1796, opposition grew in Upper Canada to the \"Late Loyalists\", such as Thomas, who had come to Canada for the land grants. The grants were greatly reduced, and Thomas's contract was cancelled for not having all of its conditions fulfilled. Feeling cheated, in 1805 he moved the family to Credit River, close to York (present-day Toronto), where he successfully ran an inn until his 1812 death following a stroke. Sally continued to run it until her own death in 1833. Laura Ingersoll remained in Queenston when the family moved. She married the wealthy James Secord, likely in June 1797. The Secord family originated in France, where the name was spelled \"D'Secor\" or \"Sicar\". Five Secord brothers, who were Protestant Huguenots, fled from persecution in France and founded New Rochelle, New York in 1688. At the time of the American Revolution, Loyalist members of the family anglicized their surname to \"Secord\". The Secord couple lived in a house built in, the first floor of which was a shop. Secord gave birth to her first child, Mary, in St. in 1799. Mary was followed by Charlotte (1801), Harriet (10 February 1803), Charles Badeau (1809 – the only male child) and Appolonia (1810).", "James Secord served in the 1st Lincoln Militia under Isaac Brock when the War of 1812 broke out. He was among those who helped carry away Brock's body after Brock was killed in the first attack of the Battle of Queenston Heights in October 1812. James himself was severely wounded in the leg and shoulder during the battle. Laura heard of his predicament and rushed to his side. Some sources suggest that she found three American soldiers preparing to beat him to death with their gunstocks. She begged them to save her husband's life, reportedly offering her own in return, when American Captain John E. Wool happened upon the situation and reprimanded the soldiers. This story may have been a later embellishment and may have originated with her grandson, James B. Secord. When the Secords arrived home, they found that the house had been looted in Laura's absence. Spending the winter in St., Laura spent the next several months nursing her wounded husband back to health. On 27 May 1813, the American army launched an attack across the Niagara River, and captured Fort George. Queenston and the Niagara area fell to the Americans. Men of military age were sent as prisoners to the U.S., though the still-recuperating James Secord was not among them. That June, a number of U.S. soldiers were billeted at the Secords' home.", "On the evening of 21 June 1813, Laura Secord heard of plans for a surprise American attack on Lieutenant James FitzGibbon's British troops at Beaver Dams, which would have furthered American control in the Niagara Peninsula. It is unclear how she became aware of these plans. According to tradition she overheard a conversation among the billeted Americans as they ate dinner. As her husband was still recovering from his October injuries, Secord set out early the next morning to warn the Lieutenant. She reportedly walked from present-day Queenston through St., Homer, Shipman's Corners and Short Hills at the Niagara Escarpment before she arrived at the camp of allied Mohawk warriors, who led her the rest of the way to FitzGibbon's headquarters at the DeCew House. Based on her warning, a small British force and a larger contingent of Mohawk warriors were readied for the American attack. They defeated the Americans, most of whom were casualties or taken prisoner in the Battle of Beaver Dams on 24 June. No mention of Secord was made in reports that immediately followed the battle.", "After the war, with the Secords' Queenston store in ruins, the family was impoverished. Only James's small war pension and the rent from 200 acres of land they had in Grantham Township supported them. The Secords' sixth child, Laura Anne, was born in October 1815, and their last child, Hannah, was born in 1817. The Secords' eldest daughter Mary wedded a doctor, William Trumball, on 18 April 1816. On 27 March 1817, Mary gave birth in Ireland to Elizabeth Trumball, the first of Laura and James's grandchildren. Mary had another daughter, also named Mary, in Jamaica. Following her husband's death, Mary returned to Queenston with her children in 1821. The struggling James petitioned the government in 1827 for some sort of employment. Lieutenant-Governor Peregrine Maitland did not offer him a position, but offered something to Laura. He asked her to be in charge of the yet-to-be-completed Brock's Monument. At first, she turned it down, but then reluctantly accepted it. When Brock's Monument opened in 1831, Secord learned the new Lieutenant-Governor, John Colborne, intended to give the keys to the widow of a member of the monument committee who had died in an accident. On 17 July 1831, Secord petitioned Colborne to honour Maitland's promise, and included another certificate from FitzGibbon attesting her contribution to the war. She wrote that Colonel Thomas Clarke had been told by Maitland, \"it was too late to think of [the committee member's widow] Mrs. Nichol as I have pledged my word to Mrs. Secord that as soon as possible she should have the key.\" Despite her pleas, Secord did not receive the keys to the monument. In 1828, the Secords' daughter, Appolonia, died at 18 of typhus, and James was appointed registrar of the Niagara Surrogate Court. He was promoted to judge in 1833, and his son Charles Badeau Secord took over the registrar position. Charles Badeau Secord's first son, Charles Forsyth Secord, was born 9 May 1833. His is the only line of Secords that survived into the 21st century. James became a customs collector in 1835 at the port of Chippawa. The position came with a home in Chippawa, into which the family moved. Charles Badeau Secord took over the Queenston home. Daughter Laura Ann and her son moved into the home in 1837 following her husband's death.", "James Secord died of a stroke on 22 February 1841. He was buried, according to his wishes, at Drummond Hill (now in Niagara Falls). James's death left Laura destitute. When his war pension ended, she was unable to maintain her land as profitable and sold off much of it. Governor-General Sydenham denied a 27 February 1841 petition which she sent, seeking to have her son to take over James's customs position. Sydenham also denied a petition she sent that May for a pension for herself, as James had received a pension for decades. Possibly with help from better-off members of the family, Secord moved to a red brick cottage on Water Street in November 1841. Daughter Harriet and her own two daughters joined her in May 1842, after Harriet's husband died of alcohol poisoning. The three shared quarters with Secord for the rest of her life. Youngest daughter Hannah also moved in when she was widowed in 1844, and brought two daughters with her. Though she lacked training, for a short time Laura Secord ran a small school out of the home in an effort to support herself. This venture came to an end when the public common school system was introduced in the 1840s. Over the years, the Secords unsuccessfully petitioned the government for some kind of acknowledgement. In 1860, when Secord was 85, the Prince of Wales heard of her story while travelling in Canada. At Chippawa, near Niagara Falls, he learned of Laura Secord's plight as an aging widow and sent an award of £100. It was the only official recognition that she received during her lifetime. Laura Secord died in 1868 at the age of 93. She was interred next to her husband in the Drummond Hill Cemetery in Niagara Falls. Her grave is marked by a monument with a bust on top, and is close to a monument marking the Battle of Lundy's Lane. The inscription on her grave marker reads:", "Her granddaughter described Secord as being with brown eyes and a fair complexion. James FitzGibbon wrote she was \"of slight frame and delicate appearance\". She was skilled at needlework, dressmaking and cooking. According to biographer Peggy Dymond Leavey, her many grandchildren enjoyed hearing their grandmother tell stories of her early life, and her Anglican faith increased with age. In his report of the battle, FitzGibbon stated only that he \"received information\" about the threat; it is possible he omitted mention of Secord to protect her family during wartime. He first wrote of Secord in a certificate dated 26 February 1820, in support of a petition by her husband for a licence to operate a stone quarry in Queenston. In 1827 FitzGibbon wrote: FitzGibbon wrote in a certificate dated 23 February 1837 that Secord did \"acquaint\" him with the Americans' intentions, but does not state whether he used the information. A diary entry of Mohawk chief John Norton talks of \"a loyal Inhabitant brought information that the Enemy intended to attack\", but does not name the \"Inhabitant\". Dominique Ducharme, leader of the Caughnawaga Mohawk in the Battle of Beaver Dams, made no mention of Secord in his reports, nor of receiving information from either Secord or FitzGibbon about the impending American attack. Secord wrote two accounts of her walk, the first in 1853, and the second in 1861. Neither account contains details that can be corroborated with military accounts of the battle, such as specific dates or details about troops. Her account changed throughout her life. Historian Pierre Berton noted that she never stated clearly how she learned of the impending attack. She told FitzGibbon that her husband had learned about it from an American officer, but years later told her granddaughter that she had overheard the plans directly from the American soldiers billeted in her home. Berton suggested that Secord's informant could have been an American still residing in the United States, who would have been charged with treason had Secord revealed her source. In the 1860s, as Secord's story gained prominence, historian William Foster Coffin added new details, which included the claim that Laura had brought a cow with her as an excuse to leave her home in case the American patrols questioned her. A number of historians have questioned Secord's account. W. Stewart Wallace, in his 1932 book, \"The Story of Laura Secord: A Study in Historical Evidence\", concluded her story was mostly myth, and that she played no significant role in the outcome of the Battle of Beaver Dams. Historian George Ingram contended in his 1965 book \"The Story of Laura Secord Revisited\" that Secord's debunking had been taken too far. Ruth MacKenzie also burnished Secord's reputation with \"Laura Secord: The Legend and the Lady\" in 1971. The question of Secord's actual contribution to the British success has been contested. In the early 1920s, historians suggested that Native scouts had already informed FitzGibbon of the coming attack well before Secord had arrived on 23 June. Historian Ernest Cruikshank wrote in 1895 that \"Scarcely had Mrs Secord concluded her narrative, when [Ducharme's] scouts came in... they had encountered the advance guard of the enemy.\" Later, two testimonials were found which FitzGibbon wrote in 1820 and 1827, which supported Secord's claim. FitzGibbon asserted that Laura Secord had arrived on 22 June (not 23 June), and that \"in consequence of this information\", he had been able to intercept the American troops.", "According to legend, \"it took her approximately 17 hours to travel the distance to warn James FitzGibbon of the impending American attack\". She has often been depicted as \"a lone figure bravely travelling through approximately 30 km of wilderness from her home at Queenston to a British military detachment camped in DeCew House in what is today Thorold, Ontario.\" Historian Cecilia Morgan argues that the Secord story became famous in the 1880s when upper-class women sought to strengthen the emotional ties between Canadian women and the British Empire. She writes that they needed a female heroine to validate their claims for women's suffrage. The first product of their campaign was Sarah Anne Curzon's verse drama \"Laura Secord: The Heroine of 1812\" in 1887. The play was a catalyst for \"a deluge of articles and entries on Secord that filled Canadian histories and school textbooks at the turn of the 20th century\". Although critics gave the play negative reviews, it was the first full work devoted to Secord's story and popularized her image. Secord has been compared to French-Canadian heroine Madeleine de Verchères and to American Revolution hero Paul Revere. Her story has been retold and commemorated by generations of biographers, playwrights, poets, novelists and journalists. After discovering a newspaper clipping of the events, early feminist Emma Currie began a lifelong interest in Secord's life. She tracked down information from Laura's relatives as far away as Great Barrington, and published a biographical account in 1900 called \"The Story of Laura Secord\". She later successfully petitioned to have a Secord memorial erected in Queenston Heights. The cut stone granite monument stands and was dedicated in 1901. In 1905, Secord's portrait was hung in Parliament. Playwright Merrill Denison wrote a radio play of her story in 1931 which mixed serious history with parody. On the centennial of Secord's walk in 1913, and to capitalize on Canadian patriotic feelings, Frank O'Connor founded Laura Secord Chocolates. The chain's first location opened on Yonge and Elm streets in Toronto. The chocolates were packaged in black boxes adorned with a cameo of Secord. By the 1970s, the company had become the largest candy retailer in Canada. Among most Canadians, the name Laura Secord is more strongly associated with the chocolate company than with the historical figure. During the War of 1812, the Secords' Queenston homestead was fired upon and looted. It was restored in the late 20th century and given to the Niagara Parks Commission in 1971. It is now operated as a museum and gift shop at Partition and Queen streets in Queenston. The \"Laura Secord Legacy Trail\" covers the 32 kilometer route of the journey she undertook from her homestead in Queenston to DeCew House in Thorold where she delivered her message to Lt. Fitzgibbon on June 22, 1813. Thomas Ingersoll's old home on Main Street in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, Laura Secord's birthplace, was used as the town's Free Library from 1896 until 1913. The Mason Library replaced it and was built on the site. The Great Barrington Historic District Commission made 18 October 1997 Laura Secord Day, and dedicated a plaque in her honour at the site of the Mason Library. Laura Secord is the namesake of a number of schools, including Laura Secord Public School (also known as Laura Secord Memorial School, 1914–2010) in Queenston, École Laura Secord School in Winnipeg, Manitoba (built 1912), Laura Secord Secondary School in St. Catharines, Ontario and Laura Secord Elementary School in Vancouver, British Columbia. Beaver Dams Battlefield Park has a plaque dedicated to Secord. In 1992, Canada Post issued a Laura Secord commemorative stamp. In 2003, the Minister of Canadian Heritage declared Secord a \"Person of National Historical Significance\", and in 2006 Secord's was one of fourteen statues dedicated at the Valiants Memorial in Ottawa. To commemorate the 200th anniversary of her walk, Secord's image adorned a circulation quarter issued by the Royal Canadian Mint and a postage stamp from Canada Post." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formation and \"Opiate\" (1989–1992).", "\"Undertow\" (1993–1994).", "\"Ænima and Salival\" (1995–2000).", "\"Lateralus\" (2001–2005).", "\"10,000 Days\" (2006–2009).", "\"Fear Inoculum\" (2012–present).", "Musical style and influences.", "Musical style.", "Influences.", "Visual arts.", "Music videos.", "Album artwork.", "Live shows.", "Band members.", "Awards and nominations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "During the 1980s, each of the future members of Tool moved to Los Angeles. Both Paul D'Amour and Adam Jones wanted to enter the film industry, while Maynard James Keenan found employment remodeling pet stores after having studied visual arts in Michigan. Danny Carey and Keenan performed for Green Jellÿ, and Carey played with Carole King and Pigmy Love Circus. Keenan and Jones met through a mutual friend in 1989. After Keenan played a tape recording for Jones of his previous band project, Jones was so impressed by his voice that he eventually talked his friend into forming their own band. They started jamming together and were on the lookout for a drummer and a bass player. Carey happened to live above Keenan and was introduced to Jones by Tom Morello, an old high school friend of Jones and former member of Electric Sheep. Carey began playing in their sessions because he \"felt kinda sorry for them,\" as other invited musicians were not showing up. Tool's lineup was completed when a friend of Jones introduced them to bassist D'Amour. Early on, the band fabricated the story that they formed because of the pseudophilosophy \"lachrymology\". Although \"lachrymology\" was also cited as an inspiration for the band's name, Keenan later explained their intentions differently: \"Tool is exactly what it sounds like: It's a big dick. It's a wrench.... we are... your tool; use us as a catalyst in your process of finding out whatever it is you need to find out, or whatever it is you're trying to achieve.\" After almost two years of practicing and performing locally in the Los Angeles area, the band was approached by record companies, and eventually signed a record deal with Zoo Entertainment. In March 1992, Zoo released the band's first effort, \"Opiate\". Described by the band as \"slam and bang\" heavy music and the \"hardest sounding\" six songs they had written to that point, the EP included the singles \"Hush\" and \"Opiate\". The band's first music video, \"Hush\", promoted their dissenting views about the then-prominent Parents Music Resource Center and its advocacy of the censorship of music. The video featured the band members naked with their genitalia covered by Parental Advisory stickers and their mouths covered by duct tape. The band began touring with Rollins Band, Fishbone, Rage Against the Machine, White Zombie, and Corrosion of Conformity, to positive responses, which Janiss Garza of \"RIP Magazine\" summarized in September 1992 as a \"buzz\" and \"a strong start\".", "The following year, at a time when alternative rock and grunge were at their height, Tool released their first full-length album, \"Undertow\" (1993). It expressed more diverse dynamics than \"Opiate\" and included songs the band had chosen not to publish on their previous release, when they had opted for a heavier sound. The band began touring again as planned, with an exception in May 1993. Tool was scheduled to play at the Garden Pavilion in Hollywood but learned at the last minute that the venue belonged to the Church of Scientology, which was perceived as a clash with \"the band's ethics about how a person should not follow a belief system that constricts their development as a human being.\" Keenan \"spent most of the show baa-ing like a sheep at the audience.\" Tool later played several concerts during the Lollapalooza festival tour, and were moved from the second stage to the main stage by their manager and the festival co-founder Ted Gardner. At the last concert of Lollapalooza in Tool's hometown Los Angeles, comedian Bill Hicks introduced the band. Hicks had become a friend of the band members and an influence on them after being mentioned in \"Undertow\"'s liner notes. He jokingly asked the audience of 10,000 people to stand still and help him look for a lost contact lens. The boost in popularity gained from these concerts helped \"Undertow\" to be certified gold by the RIAA in September 1993 and to achieve platinum status in 1995, despite being sold with censored album artwork by distributors such as Wal-Mart. The single \"Sober\" became a hit single by March 1994 and won the band Billboard's \"Best Video by a New Artist\" award for the accompanying stop motion music video. With the release of Tool's follow-up single \"Prison Sex\", the band again became the target of censorship. The song's lyrics and video dealt with child abuse, which sparked controversial reactions; Keenan's lyrics begin with: \"It took so long to remember just what happened. I was so young and vestal then, you know it hurt me, but I'm breathing so I guess I'm still alive... I've got my hands bound and my head down and my eyes closed and my throat wide open.\" The video was created primarily by guitarist Adam Jones, who saw it as his \"surrealistic interpretation\" of the subject matter. While some contemporary journalists praised the video and described the lyrics as \"metaphoric\", the American branch of MuchMusic (which asked Keenan to represent the band in a hearing) deemed the music video too graphic and obscene, and MTV stopped airing it after a few showings.", "In September 1995, the band started writing and recording their second studio album. At that time Tool experienced its only lineup change to date, with bassist D'Amour leaving the band amicably to pursue other projects. According to Carey, D'Amour left the band because he wanted to play guitar rather than bass. Justin Chancellor, a member of former tourmates Peach, eventually replaced D'Amour during the recording of the album, having been chosen over competitors such as Kyuss's Scott Reeder, Filter's Frank Cavanaugh, Pigmy Love Circus's E. Shepherd Stevenson, Jane's Addiction's Eric Avery and ZAUM's Marco Fox. On September 17, 1996, Tool released their second full-length album, \"Ænima\" (\"ON-ima\"). The band enlisted the help of producer David Bottrill, who had produced some of King Crimson's albums, while Jones collaborated with Cam de Leon to create \"Ænima\"s Grammy-nominated artwork. The album was dedicated to stand-up comedian Bill Hicks, who died two and a half years earlier. The band intended to raise awareness about Hicks's material and ideas, because they felt that Tool and Hicks \"were resonating similar concepts\". In particular, \"Ænima\"'s final track \"Third Eye\" is preceded by a clip of Hicks' performances, and the lenticular casing of the \"Ænima\" album packaging as well as the chorus of the title track \"Ænema\" make reference to a sketch from Hicks's \"Arizona Bay\", in which he contemplates the idea of Los Angeles falling into the Pacific Ocean. The first single, \"Stinkfist\", garnered limited airplay. It was shortened by radio programmers, MTV (U.S.) renamed the music video of \"Stinkfist\" to \"Track No. 1\" due to offensive connotations, and the lyrics of the song were altered. Responding to fan complaints about censorship, Matt Pinfield of MTV's \"120 Minutes\" expressed regret on air by waving his fist in front of his face while introducing the video and explaining the name change. A tour began in October 1996, two weeks after \"Ænima\"'s release. Following numerous appearances in the United States and Europe, Tool headed for Australia and New Zealand in late March 1997. Eventually returning to the United States, Tool appeared at Lollapalooza '97 in July, this time as a headliner, where they gained critical praise from \"The New York Times\". \"Ænima\" eventually matched Tool's successful debut album in sales, and the progressive-influenced album landed the band at the head of the alternative metal genre. It featured the Grammy Award-winning \"Ænema\" and appeared on several \"Best Albums of 1996\" lists, with notable examples being those of \"Kerrang!\" and \"Terrorizer\". It was eventually certified triple platinum by the RIAA on March 4, 2003. Two legal battles then began that interfered with the band's working on another release. Volcano Entertainment—the successor of Tool's by-then defunct label Zoo Entertainment—alleged contract violations by Tool and filed a lawsuit. According to Volcano, Tool had violated their contract when the band looked at offers from other record labels. After Tool filed a counter-suit stating that Volcano had failed to use a renewal option in their contract, the parties settled out of court. In December 1998 Tool agreed to a new contract, a three-record joint venture deal. Then in 2000, the band dismissed their long-time manager Ted Gardner, who then sued the band over his commission.During this time, Keenan joined the band A Perfect Circle, which was founded by long-time Tool guitar tech Billy Howerdel, while Jones joined The Melvins' Buzz Osborne and Carey drummed with Dead Kennedys' Jello Biafra on side projects. Although there were rumors that Tool was breaking up, Chancellor, Jones, and Carey were working on new material while waiting for Keenan to return. In 2000, the \"Salival\" box set (CD/VHS or CD/DVD) was released, effectively putting an end to the rumors. The CD contained one new original track, a cover of Led Zeppelin's \"No Quarter\", a live version of Peach's \"You Lied\", and revised versions of old songs. The VHS and the DVD each contained four music videos, plus a bonus music video for \"Hush\" on the DVD. Although \"Salival\" did not yield any singles, the hidden track \"Maynard's Dick\" (which dates back to the \"Opiate\" era) briefly found its way to FM radio when several DJs chose to play it on air under the title \"Maynard's Dead\".", "In January 2001, Tool announced a new album, \"Systema Encéphale\", along with a 12-song track list containing titles such as \"Riverchrist\", \"Numbereft\", \"Encephatalis\", \"Musick\", and \"Coeliacus\". File-sharing networks such as Napster were flooded with bogus files bearing the titles' names. A month later, the band revealed that the new album was actually titled \"Lateralus\"; the name \"Systema Encéphale\" and the track list had been a ruse. \"Lateralus\" and the corresponding tours would take Tool a step further toward art rock and progressive rock territory. \"Rolling Stone\" wrote in an attempt to summarize the album that \"Drums, bass and guitars move in jarring cycles of hyperhowl and near-silent death march... The prolonged running times of most of \"Lateralus\" thirteen tracks are misleading; the entire album rolls and stomps with suitelike purpose.\" Joshua Klein of \"The A.V. Club\" expressed his opinion that \"Lateralus\", with its 79 minutes and relatively complex and long songs—topped by the ten-and-a-half-minute music video for \"Parabola\"—posed a challenge to fans and music programming alike. The album became a worldwide success, reaching No.1 on the U.S. \"Billboard\" 200 albums chart in its debut week. Tool received their second Grammy Award for the best metal performance of 2001 for the song \"Schism\". During the band's acceptance speech, Carey stated that he would like to thank his parents (for putting up with him) and Satan, and bassist Chancellor concluded: \"I want to thank my dad for doing my mom.\" Extensive touring throughout 2001 and 2002 supported \"Lateralus\" and included a personal highlight for the band: a 10-show joint mini-tour with King Crimson in August 2001. Comparisons between the two were made, MTV describing the bands as \"the once and future kings of progressive rock\". Keenan stated of the minitour: \"For me, being on stage with King Crimson is like Lenny Kravitz playing with Led Zeppelin, or Britney Spears onstage with Debbie Gibson.\" Although the end of the tour in November 2002 seemed to signal the start of another hiatus for the band, they did not become completely inactive. While Keenan recorded and toured with A Perfect Circle, the other band members released an interview and a recording of new material, both exclusive to the fan club. The \"double vinyl four-picture disc\" edition of \"Lateralus\" was first released as a limited autographed edition exclusively available to fan club members and publicly released on August 23, 2005. On December 20 the two DVDs were released, one containing the single \"Schism\" and the other \"Parabola\", a remix by Lustmord, and a music video with commentary by David Yow and Jello Biafra.", "Fifteen years into the band's career, Tool had acquired what Dan Epstein of \"Revolver\" described as a devoted \"cult\" following, and as details about the band's next album emerged, such as the influence of \"Lateralus\" tourmates Fantômas and Meshuggah, controversy surrounding the new Tool album surfaced with speculation over song titles and pre-release rumors of leaked songs. Speculation over possible album titles was dismissed with a news item on the official Tool website, announcing that the new album's name was \"10,000 Days\". Nevertheless, speculation continued, with allegations that \"10,000 Days\" was merely a \"decoy\" album to fool audiences. The rumor was proven false when a leaked copy of the album was distributed via filesharing networks a week prior to its official release. The album opener, \"Vicarious\", premiered on U.S. radio stations on April 17, 2006. The album premiered on May 2 in the U.S. and debuted at the top spots of various international charts. \"10,000 Days\" sold 564,000 copies in its opening week in the U.S. and was number one on the \"Billboard\" 200 charts, doubling the sales of Pearl Jam's self-titled album, its closest competitor. However, \"10,000 Days\" was received less favorably by critics than its predecessor \"Lateralus\" had been. Prior to the release of \"10,000 Days\", a tour kicked off at Coachella on April 30. The touring schedule was similar to the \"Lateralus\" tour of 2001; supporting acts were Isis and Mastodon. During a short break early the next year, after touring Australia and New Zealand, drummer Carey suffered a biceps tear during a skirmish with his girlfriend's dog, casting uncertainty on the band's upcoming concerts in North America. Carey underwent surgery on February 21 and several performances had to be postponed. Back on tour by April, Tool appeared on June 15 as a headliner at the Bonnaroo Music Festival with a guest appearance from Rage Against the Machine's Tom Morello on \"Lateralus\". Meanwhile, \"Vicarious\" was a nominee for Best Hard Rock Performance and \"10,000 Days\" won Best Recording Package at the 49th Grammy Awards. The music video for \"Vicarious\" was released on DVD on December 18. The band's 2009 summer tour began on July 18 in Commerce City, Colorado, at the Mile High Music Festival. They headlined Lollapalooza 2009 and a show on August 22 for the Epicenter Festival in Pomona, California.", "Their Tool Winter Tour played dates across the U.S. and Canada in January and February 2012. The band played at Ozzfest Japan on May 12, 2013. On July 15, 2014, Carey and Jones informed \"Rolling Stone\" that family commitments and an ongoing lawsuit are the key reasons for the delayed fifth album. Carey said to the music publication that one untitled track is \"pretty much done\". In March 2015, Jones revealed that the lawsuit had been settled in the band's favor, and as such, the band was turning their focus towards recording the album. He said that he hoped the album would be finished before the end of 2015 but emphasized that the band would not rush their work to meet an arbitrary deadline. In January 2016, Tool undertook a tour of the United States. While it was reported in February 2017 that Keenan had entered the studio to work on vocals for the fifth Tool album, it was later reported that the album was not scheduled for release in 2017. Still, the band announced a North American tour starting in May. A month later, Chancellor revealed that the new Tool album was \"about 90-percent there\", while Carey claimed in separate interviews that it would \"definitely\" be released in 2018. In February 2018, Jones revealed that Keenan was working on lyrics for the album, and that the band would begin recording in March. In June 2018, during his acceptance speech for the Icon Award at the Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards, Keenan stated \"I'll go on record now saying you're gonna see some new music next year.\" On September 11, 2018, Keenan announced via Twitter that production on the record was progressing and that vocals had been written, before suggesting a 2019 release. In January 2019, Keenan announced that he had completed recording his vocals for the album \"months ago.\" While Carey mentioned aiming for a mid-April release date, Keenan later explained that between May and July was a more realistic time frame to wrap up production and release the album. On May 5, 2019, the band debuted two new songs live at the Welcome to Rockville Festival in Jacksonville, Florida called \"Descending\" and \"Invincible\". Three days later, it was confirmed that the band's new album is scheduled to be released on August 30, 2019. On July 29, 2019, Keenan confirmed the album would be titled \"Fear Inoculum\". The album's title track was released as a single on August 7, the band's first release in 13 years. On August 2, the entirety of Tool's discography (with the exception of \"Salival\") became available on digital streaming platforms. Tool was one of the last major holdouts to release their music digitally, as their record deal was signed before the rise in streaming and not revisited until before \"Fear Inoculum\". The release of the discography online resulted in every release re-charting on several international charts and the band breaking several \"Billboard\" chart records. \"Fear Inoculum\" was officially launched on August 30 and became their third U.S. number one. On January 26, 2020 the band won the Best Metal Performance for their song \"7empest\" at the 62nd Grammy Awards Their other nomination, the song \"Fear Inoculum\" lost the Best Rock Song category to Gary Clark Jr. In June 2020, the band announced that it will cancel its upcoming 2020 North American tour entirely, after initially postponing a handful of dates due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "Tool was described by Patrick Donovan of \"The Age\" as \"the thinking person's metal band. Cerebral and visceral, soft and heavy, melodic and abrasive, tender and brutal, familiar and strange, western and eastern, beautiful and ugly, taut yet sprawling and epic, they are a tangle of contradictions.\" Tool has gained critical praise from the \"International Herald Tribune\"s C.B. Liddell for their complex and ever-evolving sound. Describing their general sound, AllMusic refers to them as \"grinding, post-Jane's Addiction heavy metal\", and \"The New York Times\" sees similarities to \"Led Zeppelin's heaving, battering guitar riffs and Middle Eastern modes\". Their 2001 work \"Lateralus\" was compared by Allmusic to Pink Floyd's \"Meddle\" (1971), but thirty years later and altered by \"Tool's impulse to cram every inch of infinity with hard guitar meat and absolute dread\". Tool had been labelled as post-metal in 1993 and 1996, as well as in 2006, after the term came into popularity.", "A component of Tool's song repertoire relies on the use of unusual time signatures. For instance, Chancellor describes the time signature employed on the first single from \"Lateralus\", \"Schism\", as \"six\" and \"six-and-a-half\" and that it later \"goes into all kinds of other times\". Further examples include the album's title track, which also displays shifting rhythms, as do \"10,000 Days\": \"Wings for Marie (Pt 1)\" and \"10,000 Days (Wings Pt 2)\".\" Beyond this aspect of the band's sound, each band member experiments within his wide musical scope. \"Bass Player\" magazine described Chancellor's bass playing as having a \"thick midrange tone, guitar-style techniques, and elastic versatility\". As an example of this, the magazine mentioned the use of a wah effect by hammering \"the notes with the left hand and using the bass's tone controls to get a tone sweep\", such as on the song \"The Patient\", from \"Lateralus\". Completing the band's rhythm section, drummer Carey uses polyrhythms, tabla-style techniques, and the incorporation of custom electronic drum pads to trigger samples, such as prerecorded tabla and octoban sounds. Keenan's ability as a vocalist has been characterized more subjectively by the \"Seattle Post-Intelligencer\": After his performance during an Alice in Chains reunion concert in 2005, freelancer Travis Hay saw him as \"a natural fit at replacing Layne Staley\". Regarding his role in A Perfect Circle and Tool, \"The New York Times\" wrote that \"both groups rely on Mr. Keenan's ability to dignify emotions like lust, anger and disgust, the honey in his voice adding a touch of profundity\". According to \"Guitar Player\" magazine, Jones does not rely on any one particular guitar-playing technique but rather combines many techniques. For example, Allmusic wrote that he \"alternately utiliz[es] power chords, scratchy noise, chiming arpeggios, and a quiet minimalism\" in \"Sober\". Additionally, the band uses forms of instrumental experimentation, like the use of a \"pipe bomb microphone\" (a guitar pickup mounted inside a brass cylinder) and a talk box guitar solo on \"Jambi\". The band puts an emphasis on the sound of their songs and attempts to reduce the effect lyrics can have on the perception of songs by not releasing song lyrics with their albums, although they eventually released the lyrics for \"Fear Inoculum\" for that album's CD. Lyrical arrangements are often given special attention, such as in \"Lateralus\". The number of syllables per line in the lyrics to \"Lateralus\" correspond to an arrangement of the Fibonacci numbers and the song \"Jambi\" uses and makes a reference to the common metrical foot iamb. The lyrics on \"Ænima\" and \"Lateralus\" focus on philosophy and spirituality—specific subjects range from organized religion in \"Opiate\", to evolution and Jungian psychology in \"Forty-Six & 2\" and transcendence in \"Lateralus\". On \"10,000 Days\", Keenan wanted to explore issues more personal to him: the album name and title track refer to the twenty-seven years during which his mother suffered from complications of a stroke until her death in 2003.", "The band has named the group Melvins as an influence on its development, but the most-publicized influence is progressive rock pioneer group King Crimson. Longtime King Crimson member Robert Fripp has downplayed any influence his band had on Tool. In an interview, Fripp touched on how the two bands relate to each other, stating \"Do you hear the influence? There's just one figure where I hear an influence, just one. It was a piece we were developing that we dropped. And it's almost exactly the same figure: three note arpeggio with a particular accent from the guitar. So I do not think you could have heard it. That's the only thing.\" He also said, \"I happen to be a Tool fan. The members of Tool have been generous enough to suggest that Crimson has been an influence on them. Adam Jones asked me if I could detect it in their music, and I said I couldn’t. I can detect more Tool influence in King Crimson than I can hear King Crimson in Tool.\" In describing their wide range of styles, critics have noted that they are \"influenced as much by Pink Floyd as by the Sex Pistols.\" Other reported influences of the band include Rush, Helmet, Faith No More, and Jane's Addiction. In a 1993 interview, Adam Jones named Joni Mitchell, King Crimson, Depeche Mode, and country music as being among their influences. Writers HP Newquist and Rich Maloof attribute to Tool an influence on modern metal in their book \"The New Metal Masters\". Sean Richardson of \"The Boston Phoenix\" sees System of a Down, Deftones, and Korn as examples of Tool's \"towering influence\" on the genre. Keenan's unique style of singing has been seen as heavily influencing artists such as Pete Loeffler of Chevelle, Benjamin Burnley of Breaking Benjamin, Will Martin of Earshot, and Fred Durst of Limp Bizkit.", "Part of Tool's work as a band is to incorporate influences of other works of art in their music videos, live shows, and album packaging. Adam Jones doubles as the band's art director and director of their music videos. Another expression of this is an official website \"dedicated to the arts and influences\" on the band.", "The band has released eight music videos but made personal appearances in only the first two, which the band states is to prevent people from \"latching onto the personalities involved rather than listening to the music.\" With the exception of \"Hush\" and \"Vicarious\" all of Tool's music videos feature stop motion animation to some extent. The videos are created primarily by Adam Jones, often in collaboration with artists such as Chet Zar, Alex Grey, and Osseus Labyrint. The \"Sober\" music video in particular attracted much attention. Jones explained that it does not contain a storyline, but that his intentions were to summon personal emotions with its imagery. \"Rolling Stone\" described this imagery as \"evil little men dwell in a dark dungeon with meat coursing through pipes in the wall\" and called it a \"groundbreaking\", \"epic\" clip. \"Billboard\" voted it \"Best Video by a New Artist\". The video for \"Vicarious\" was released on DVD on December 18, 2007. The video is the first by Tool to be produced entirely through the use of CGI.", "Jones is responsible for most of the band's artwork concepts. Their album \"Undertow\" features a ribcage sculpture by Jones on its cover and photos contributed by the band members. Later albums included artwork by collaborating artists: \"Ænima\" and \"Salival\" featured works by Cam de Leon; \"Lateralus\" and \"10,000 Days\" were created with the help of Alex Grey. The releases garnered positive critical reception, with a music journalist of the Associated Press attributing to the band a reputation for innovative album packaging. Both \"Ænima\" and \"10,000 Days\" were nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Recording Package, but while the former failed to win in 1997, the latter did win in 2007. Jones created packaging for \"10,000 Days\" that features a pair of stereoscopic lenses for viewing 3-D artwork and photos. Jones, a lifelong fan of stereoscopic photography, wanted the packaging to be unique and to reflect the 1970s artwork he appreciates. The CD packaging for \"Fear Inoculum\" included a rechargeable 4 inch HD video screen and a speaker which played a hidden track along with a video when opened and also included a 36-page booklet.", "Following their first tours in the early 1990s, Tool has performed as a headline act in world tours and major festivals such as Lollapalooza (1997 and 2009), Coachella (1999 and 2006), Voodoo Fest (2001 and 2016), Download Festival (2006 and 2019), Roskilde (2001 and 2006), Big Day Out (2007 and 2011), Bonnaroo (2007), All Points West Music & Arts Festival (2009), and Epicenter (2009). They have been joined on stage by numerous artists such as Buzz Osborne and Scott Reeder on several occasions; Tom Morello and Zack de la Rocha during their 1991 tour; Layne Staley in Hawaii, 1993; Tricky, Robert Fripp, Mike Patton, Dave Lombardo, Brann Dailor of Mastodon, and experimental arts duo Osseus Labyrint during their 2001–02 \"Lateralus\" tour; and Kirk Hammett, Phil Campbell, Serj Tankian, and Tom Morello during their 2006–07 tour. They have covered songs by Led Zeppelin, Ted Nugent, Peach, Kyuss, the Dead Kennedys, and the Ramones. Live shows on Tool's headline tour incorporate an unorthodox stage setting and video display. Keenan and Carey line up in the back on elevated platforms, while Jones and Chancellor stand in the front, toward the sides of the stage. Keenan often faces the backdrop or the sides of the stage rather than the audience. No followspots or live cameras are used; instead, the band employs extensive backlighting to direct the focus away from the band members and toward large screens in the back and the crowd. Breckinridge Haggerty, the band's live video designer, says that the resulting dark spaces on stage \"are mostly for Maynard\". He explains, \"[a] lot of the songs are a personal journey for him and he has a hard time with the glare of the lights when he's trying to reproduce these emotions for the audience. He needs a bit of personal space, and he feels more comfortable in the shadows.\" The big screens are used to play back \"looped clips that aren't tracked to a song like a music video. The band has never used any sort of timecode. They’ve always made sure the video can change on-the-fly, in a way that can be improvised.... The show is never the same twice.\" During the \"10,000 Days\" tour, the video material consisted of over six hours of material, created by Jones, his wife Camella Grace, Chet Zar, Meats Meier, and Haggerty. Some of the material created by Zar has been released on his DVD \"Disturb the Normal\".", "Current members Former members", "Grammy Awards" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Character development.", "Appearances.", "\"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\".", "\"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\".", "\"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\".", "\"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\".", "\"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\".", "\"Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince\".", "\"Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows\".", "Epilogue and later life.", "Characterisation.", "Outward appearance.", "Personality.", "Magical abilities and skills.", "Reception.", "Portrayals.", "Film series.", "Theatre portrayal.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Hermione Jean Granger is a Muggle-born Gryffindor, who becomes best friends with Harry Potter and Ron Weasley. J.K. Rowling states that she was born on 19 September 1979 and she was nearly twelve when she first attended Hogwarts. She is an overachiever who excels academically and is described by J.K Rowling as a \"very logical, upright and good\" character. J.K. Rowling adds that Hermione's parents, two Muggle dentists, are a bit bemused by their odd daughter but \"very proud of her all the same.\" They are well aware of the wizarding world and have visited Diagon Alley with her. Hermione was originally intended to have a sister, but the planned sibling did not make an appearance in the first \"Harry Potter\" novel and, as Rowling noted, it \"seemed too late\" to introduce the character after all of that. Rowling confirmed in a 2004 interview that Hermione is an only child. Rowling has described the character of Luna Lovegood as the \"anti-Hermione\" as they are so very different. Hermione's nemesis at Hogwarts is Pansy Parkinson, a bully based on real-life girls who teased the author during her school days. Rowling stated that the character of Hermione carries several autobiographical influences: \"I did not set out to make Hermione like me but she is...she is an exaggeration of how I was when I was younger.\" She recalled being called a \"little know-it-all\" in her youth. Moreover, she states that not unlike herself, \"there is a lot of insecurity and a great fear of failure\" beneath Hermione's swottiness. Finally, according to Rowling, next to Albus Dumbledore, Hermione is the perfect expository character; because of her encyclopaedic knowledge, she can always be used as a plot dump to explain the \"Harry Potter\" universe. Rowling also states that her feminist conscience is rescued by Hermione, \"who's the brightest witch of her age.\" and is a \"very strong female character.\" Hermione's first name is taken from a character in William Shakespeare's \"The Winter's Tale\", though Rowling has said that the two characters have little to nothing in common otherwise. Rowling said that she wanted her name to be unusual since if fewer girls shared her name, fewer girls would get teased for it and it seemed that \"a pair of professional dentists, who liked to prove how clever they are...gave [her] an unusual name that no-one could pronounce.\" Her original last name was \"Puckle\", but Rowling felt the name \"did not suit her at all\", and so the less frivolous Granger made it into the books and movies.", "", "Hermione first appears in \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\" when she meets Harry and Ron on the Hogwarts Express, where she mocks Ron for his inability to perform a spell to turn his rat yellow. She proves just how much she knows by declaring that she memorized all the textbooks by heart and by performing the \"oculus\" spell on Harry to fix his broken glasses. She constantly annoys her peers with her knowledge, so Harry and Ron initially consider her arrogant, especially after she criticises Ron's incantation of the \"Levitation\" Charm. They heartily dislike her until they rescue her from a troll, for which she is so thankful that she lies to protect them from punishment, thus winning their friendship. Hermione's knack for logic later enables the trio to solve a puzzle that is essential to retrieving the Philosopher's Stone, and she defeats the constrictive Devil's Snare plant by summoning a jet of \"bluebell flame\". Hermione is the brains behind the plan to enter the place where the Stone is hidden. She responds to Harry's wariness of Professor Severus Snape and is also suspicious of him. She reveals to Harry and Ron that she does a lot of research in the library, which helped her defeat the Devil's Snare and work out the logic of the potions. Rowling said on her website that she resisted her editor's requests to remove the troll scene, stating \"Hermione is so very arrogant and annoying in the early part of \"Philosopher's Stone\" that I really felt it needed something (literally) huge to bring her together with Harry and Ron.\"", "Hermione (along with Ron's mother Molly Weasley and a few female students of Hogwarts) develops a liking for Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher Gilderoy Lockhart as he had written all the books required for the subject of Defence Against The Dark Arts in \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\". During a morning confrontation between the Gryffindor and Slytherin Quidditch teams, a brawl nearly ensues after Draco Malfoy calls her a \"Mudblood\", an insulting epithet for Muggle-born wizards when she defends the Gryffindor Quidditch team. She concocts the Polyjuice Potion needed for the trio to disguise themselves as Draco's housemates to collect information about the Heir of Slytherin who has reopened the Chamber of Secrets. However, she is unable to join Harry and Ron in the investigation after the hair plucked from the robes of Slytherin student Millicent Bulstrode (with whom Hermione was previously matched up during Lockhart's ill-fated Duelling Club) was that of her cat, whose appearance she takes on in her human form; it takes several weeks for the effects to completely wear off. Hermione is Petrified by the basilisk after successfully identifying the creature through library research. Though she lies incapacitated in the hospital wing, the information she has found and left behind is crucial to Harry and Ron in their successful mission to solve the mystery of the Chamber of Secrets. Hermione is revived after Harry kills the basilisk, but she is distraught to learn that all end-of-year exams have been cancelled as a school treat.", "Hermione buys a cat named Crookshanks, who takes to chasing Ron's pet rat, Scabbers. Before the start of term, Professor McGonagall secretly gives Hermione a Time-Turner, a device which enables her to go back in time and handle her heavy class schedule, though this is not revealed until the penultimate chapter. Much tension comes into play between Hermione and her two best friends; Harry is furious with her because she told McGonagall that he had received a Firebolt, which was confiscated to be inspected for traces of dark magic. Ron is angry because he feels Crookshanks is responsible for Scabbers' disappearance, while Hermione fiercely maintains that Crookshanks is innocent. While filling in for Remus Lupin in one Defence Against the Dark Arts class, Snape labels Hermione \"an insufferable know-it-all\" and penalises Gryffindor after she speaks out of turn in her attempt to describe a werewolf when no one else does. She correctly deduces Lupin's secret after completing Snape's homework assignment from the class. Crookshanks proves vital in exposing Scabbers as Peter Pettigrew, an erstwhile friend of James and Lily Potter, who revealed their whereabouts to Lord Voldemort the night of their murders, and was able to wrongly implicate Sirius Black (revealed to be Harry's godfather) in the Potters' deaths. The Time-Turner enables Hermione and Harry to rescue Sirius and the hippogriff Buckbeak.", "Hermione is horrified by the cruelty that house-elves suffer, and establishes S.P.E.W., the Society for the Promotion of Elfish Welfare, as an effort to gain basic rights for them. She is Bulgarian Quidditch prodigy Viktor Krum's date at the Yule Ball of the Triwizard Tournament. The proper pronunciation of her name (\"Her-my-oh-nee\") is interjected into the plot when she teaches it to Krum; the best he can do is \"Herm-own-ninny,\" but she has no problem with it. She later gets into a heated argument with Ron after he accuses her of \"fraternising with the enemy\" about her friendship with Krum. In the book, Hermione's feelings toward Ron are hinted at when she says that Ron can't see her \"like a girl,\" but Krum could. She supports Harry through the Triwizard Tournament, helping him prepare for each task. At the end of the second task, Krum asks her to come to see him over the summer in Bulgaria, but she politely declines. Near the end of the term, she stops fraudulent tabloid reporter and unregistered Animagus, Rita Skeeter, who had published defamatory material about Hermione, Harry, and Hagrid during the Triwizard Tournament, by holding her Animagus form (a beetle) captive in a jar.", "Hermione becomes a Gryffindor prefect along with Ron and befriends Luna Lovegood, but their friendship gets off to a rocky start after Hermione chastises the publication of Luna's father: \"\"The Quibbler\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s rubbish, everyone knows that.\" She also lambasts housemate Lavender Brown for believing the \"Daily Prophet's\" allegations of Harry fabricating stories of Voldemort's return. Ron and Hermione spend much of their time bickering, likely due to their growing romantic feelings toward one another, but they show continued loyalty to Harry. Later, new headmistress Professor Umbridge attempts to ban \"The Quibbler\" from Hogwarts. This effort becomes moot as Harry's interview about Voldemort's return spreads quickly through the school. One turning point in the series is when Hermione conceives the idea of Harry secretly teaching defensive magic to a small band of students in defiance of the Ministry of Magic's dictum to teach only the subject's basic principles from a textbook, with no hands-on practice. Hermione gets an unexpectedly huge response, and the group becomes the nascent Dumbledore's Army. She is involved in the battle in the Department of Mysteries and seriously injured by a spell from Death Eater Antonin Dolohov, but makes a full recovery.", "New Potions professor Horace Slughorn invites Hermione to join his \"Slug Club\", and she helps Ron retain his spot on the Gryffindor Quidditch team when she casts a spell on Cormac McLaggen, causing him to miss his last save attempt during Keeper tryouts. Hermione's feelings for Ron continue to grow and she decides to make a move by inviting him to Slughorn's Christmas Party, but he romances Lavender instead in retaliation for his belief that Hermione had kissed Krum years earlier. She attempts to get even by dating McLaggen at the Christmas party, but her plan goes awry and she abandons him midway through the party. Ron and Hermione continually feud with each other (Ron is upset with her because she set birds to attack him after seeing him and Lavender kissing; Hermione is mostly mad because of her growing jealousy) until he suffers a near-fatal poisoning from tainted mead, which frightens her enough to reconcile with him. Following Dumbledore's death, Ron and Hermione both vow to stay by Harry's side regardless of what happens. A minor subplot in the book is that Hermione and Harry form a rivalry in Potions, as Hermione is used to coming first in her subjects and is angered that Harry outperforms her undeservedly by following tips and different instructions written in the margins of Harry's potions book by the previous owner. Hermione is also the only one of the trio to successfully pass her Apparition test (Ron failed, albeit barely, and Harry was too young).", "In the seventh and final book, Hermione accompanies Harry on his quest to destroy Voldemort's remaining Horcruxes. Before leaving on the quest, she helps ensure the safety of her parents by placing a false memory charm on them, making them think they are Wendell and Monica Wilkins, whose lifetime ambition is to move to Australia. She inherits Dumbledore's copy of \"The Tales of Beedle the Bard\", which allows her to decipher some of the secrets of the Deathly Hallows. She prepared for their departure and journey by placing an Undetectable Extension Charm on a small beaded purse so she can fill the infinite depths of the bag with materials they will need. Hermione's spell saves her and Harry from Lord Voldemort and his snake Nagini in Godric's Hollow, although the ricochet snaps Harry's wand. When she, Ron, and Harry are captured by Snatchers, who are on the hunt for Muggle-borns under the Ministry's orders, Hermione disguises Harry by temporarily disfiguring his face with a Stinging Jinx. She also attempts to pass herself off as former Hogwarts student Penelope Clearwater and a half-blood to avoid persecution, but they are recognised and taken to Malfoy Manor. Bellatrix Lestrange tortures her with the Cruciatus Curse in an attempt to extract information on how Hermione, Harry, and Ron came to possess Godric Gryffindor's sword (which was supposed to be safe in the Lestrange vault at Gringotts). Bellatrix orders for Griphook the goblin to inspect the sword and tell whether it is fake or real. To save Hermione, Harry convinces him to lie to Bellatrix that the sword is a fake. When the others escape their cell, Bellatrix threatens to slit Hermione's throat. Hermione, Harry, Ron and the other prisoners being held in Malfoy Manor are eventually rescued by Dobby. Hermione later uses Polyjuice Potion to impersonate Bellatrix when the trio attempt to steal Hufflepuff's cup from Gringotts. She, Harry, and Ron join Dumbledore's Army in the Battle of Hogwarts, during which Hermione destroys Hufflepuff's cup in the Chamber of Secrets with a basilisk fang, eliminating another Horcrux. Hermione and Ron also share their first kiss during the battle. In the final battle in the Great Hall, Hermione fights Bellatrix with the help of Ginny Weasley and Luna. However, the three of them are unable to defeat Bellatrix and stop fighting her once Molly Weasley orders them to disengage.", "Nineteen years after Voldemort's death, Hermione and Ron have two children, Rose and Hugo. Though the epilogue does not explicitly say Hermione and Ron are married, news articles and other sources treat it as a fact. The two children are named Rose Granger-Weasley and Hugo Granger-Weasley.", "", "In the books, Hermione is described as having \"bushy brown hair\" and brown eyes. Her front buck teeth, already very large, grow uncontrollably in \"Goblet of Fire\" after she is affected by a spell cast by Draco Malfoy. Madam Pomfrey attends to her in the hospital wing and, at her request, shrinks the teeth down to a normal size that matches her mouth. In the films, her hair is less bushy and she always has regular teeth. There is controversy over whether Hermione's skin color was ever categorically established in the books. Some take as proof a line from \"Prisoner of Azkaban\": \"Hermione's white face was sticking out from behind a tree.\" They interpret this to be a direct description of her skin color. Others interpret it as a description relative to her usual complexion, arising due to fright and anxiety as she watches Harry Potter's attempt to save the hippogriff Buckbeak from execution. J.K. Rowling herself states that Hermione \"turned white\" in that she \"lost colour from her face after a shock.\" Conversely, another description from early in \"Prisoner of Azkaban\" can also be cited: \"They were there, both of them, sitting outside Florean Fortescue's Ice-Cream Parlour, Ron looking incredibly freckly, Hermione very brown, both waving frantically at him.\" Some claim that this is a direct description of her skin color, while others claim that it's a relative description of the results of a tan acquired over the summer break.", "Hermione's most prominent features include her prodigious intellect and cleverness. She is levelheaded, book-smart, and always very logical. Throughout the series, Hermione uses the skills of a librarian and teacher to gather the information necessary to defeat Voldemort, the \"Dark Lord\". When in doubt, it is to the school library that Hermione always turns to. She is often bossy yet unfailingly dutiful and loyal to her friends—a person who can always be counted on. J.K. Rowling stated that Hermione is a person that, \"never strays off the path; she always keeps her attention focused on the job that must be done.\" Despite Hermione's intelligence and bossy attitude, Rowling says that Hermione has \"quite a lot of vulnerability in her personality,\" as well as a \"sense of insecurity underneath,\" feels, \"utterly inadequate... and to compensate, she tries and strives to be the best at everything at school, projecting a confidence that irritates people.\" During her Defence Against the Dark Arts exam at the end of \"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\", Hermione reveals that her biggest fear is failure after a Boggart takes the form of Professor McGonagall and tells her that she has failed all her exams. Hermione is extremely compassionate and is very quick to help others, especially those who are defenceless, such as Neville Longbottom, first-years, House-Elves, fellow Muggle-borns, half-giants like Hagrid, and werewolves like Lupin. It was revealed by J.K. Rowling after the publication of the final book that Hermione's career in the Ministry was to fight for the rights of the oppressed and disenfranchised (such as House-elves or Muggle-borns). Hermione is also very protective of her friends and values them so much that Rowling has suggested that, if Hermione had looked in the Mirror of Erised, she would have seen Harry, Ron, and herself \"alive and unscathed, and Voldemort finished.\" Hermione has also learned to ignore what bullies such as Draco Malfoy say to her, often preventing Harry and Ron from retaliating and thinking of some way to outsmart him. She accepts her status as a Muggle-born witch, and states in \"Deathly Hallows\" that she is \"a Mudblood and proud of it\".", "Hermione is portrayed during the whole series as an exceptionally talented young witch. J.K. Rowling has stated that Hermione is a \"borderline genius.\" She received ten O.W.L.s, which were nine Outstandings and one Exceeds Expectations. She is the best student in Harry's year and is repeatedly the first student to master any spell or charm introduced in her classes and even from more advanced years, as evidenced when she can conjure a Protean Charm on the D.A.'s fake Galleon coins, which is a N.E.W.T. level charm. She is also the first one of her age to be able to cast non-verbal spells. Hermione is a competent duellist – Rowling has stated that while during the first three books Hermione could have beaten Harry in any magical duel, but by the fourth book Harry had become so good at Defence Against the Dark Arts that he would have defeated Hermione. Hermione did not tend to do as well in subjects that were not learned through books or formal training, as broom flying did not come as naturally to her in her first year as it did to Harry, and she showed no affinity for Divination, which she dropped from her third-year studies. She was also not good at Wizard's Chess, as it was the only thing at which she ever lost to Ron. Hermione's Patronus is an otter, Rowling's favourite animal. In the Deathly Hallows book, while they enter the Ministry Of Magic under disguise, Hermione impersonates Mafalda Hopkirk. It is also stated that conjuring a Patronus is the only thing she ever has trouble with. Her wand is made of vine wood and dragon heartstring core; vine is the wood ascribed to Hermione's fictional birth month (September) on the Celtic calendar.", "Hermione is viewed by many as a feminist icon. In \"The Ivory Tower and Harry Potter,\" the first book-length analysis of the \"Harry Potter\" series (edited and compiled by Lana A. Whited), a chapter titled \"Hermione Granger and the Heritage of Gender,\" by Eliza T. Dresang, discusses Hermione's role in the series and its relation to feminist debates. The chapter begins with an analysis of Hermione's name and the role of previous characters with the same name in mythology and fiction, and the heritage Hermione has inherited from these characters due to her name. Dresang also emphasises Hermione's parallelism with Rowling herself and how, as Hermione has some attributes from Rowling herself, she must be a strong character. The chapter also points out the fact that, despite being born to Muggle parents, Hermione's magical abilities are innate. Her \"compulsion for study\" helps both the character's development, which makes Hermione \"a prime example that information brings power\", and the plot of the series, as her knowledge of the wizarding world is often used to \"save the day\". Dresang states that \"Harry and Ron are more dependent on Hermione than she is on them.\" However, she also remarks that Hermione's \"hysteria and crying happen far too often to be considered a believable part of the development of Hermione's character and are quite out of line with her core role in the book.\" UGO Networks listed Hermione as one of their best heroes of all time, saying, \"Most of us can probably recall having a classmate like Hermione when we were in grammar school\"—one who \"can at first be a little off-putting, but once you get to know her, she's not a bad chick to have on your side\". \"IGN\" also listed Hermione as their second top \"Harry Potter\" character, praising her character development. In 2016 \"The Hollywood Reporter\" conducted a poll of Hollywood professionals, including actors, writers and directors, into their favourite female characters of all time, with Hermione topping the poll. Philip Nel of Kansas State University notes that \"Rowling, who worked for Amnesty International, evokes her social activism through Hermione's passion for oppressed elves and the formation of her 'Society for the Promotion of Elfish Welfare'\". However, in an analysis for \"Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows\", Rowland Manthrope states that \"seven books on, we still only know her as swottish, sensible Hermione—a caricature, not a character.\"", "", "Emma Watson portrayed Hermione in all eight \"Harry Potter\" films. Watson's Oxford theatre teacher passed her name on to the casting agents of \"Philosopher's Stone\", impressed with her school play performances. Though Watson took her audition seriously, she \"never really thought she had any chance\" of getting the part. The producers were impressed by Watson's self-confidence and she outperformed the thousands of other girls who had applied. Rowling herself was supportive of Watson after her first screen test. When asked if she thought actors suited the characters, Rowling said, \"Yes, I did. Emma Watson in particular was very, very like Hermione when I first spoke to her, I knew she was perfect from that first phone call.\" Watson was well-received for the first film; IGN even commented that \"from Hermione Granger's perfect introduction to her final scene, Watson is better than I could have possibly imagined. She steals the show.\" IGN also wrote that her \"astute portrayal of Hermione has already become a favourite among fans.\" Before the production of \"Half-Blood Prince\", Watson considered not returning, but eventually decided that \"the pluses outweighed the minuses\" and that she could not bear to see anyone else play Hermione. Watson has said that Hermione is a character who makes \"brain not beauty cool,\" and that though Hermione is \"slightly socially inept,\" she is \"not ashamed of herself.\" When filming \"Chamber of Secrets\", Watson was \"adamant\" that she wasn't like Hermione, but she reflects that \"as I got older, I realised she was the greatest role model a girl could have.\" In 2007, before the release of \"Order of the Phoenix,\" Watson said, \"There are too many stupid girls in the media. Hermione's not scared to be clever. I think sometimes really smart girls dumb themselves down a bit, and that's bad. When I was nine or ten, I would get really upset when they tried to make me look geeky, but now I absolutely love it. I find it's so much pressure to be beautiful. Hermione doesn't care what she looks like. She's a complete tomboy.\" Screenwriter Steve Kloves revealed in a 2003 interview that Hermione was his favourite character. \"There's something about her fierce intellect coupled with a complete lack of understanding of how she affects people sometimes that I just find charming and irresistible to write.\"", "In \"Harry Potter and the Cursed Child\", Hermione is played by the Swaziland-born actress Noma Dumezweni, also known for her work in \"Linda\", \"A Raisin in the Sun\" and \"A Human Being Died That Night\". Dumezweni described the role as a \"privilege and a responsibility\" and said that \"we all aspire to be Hermione.\" The choice of a black actress to play the part led to criticism on social media, which J.K. Rowling described as being by \"a bunch of racists\", adding that the books never explicitly mentioned her race or skin colour (although she did write in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban \"Hermione's white face was sticking out from behind a tree.\") and that she has been portrayed as black in fan art. Dumezweni herself called the backlash \"so unimaginative\", stating that \"So many young actors and actresses have told me that they’re so pleased I’m playing Hermione because they can see a version of themselves on the stage.\" Dumezweni received praise for her performance; \"The Independent\" commented that she \"did a tremendous job as the stern witch.\" At the 2017 Laurence Olivier Awards, Dumezweni received the Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role for her portrayal of Hermione.", "Hermione has been parodied in numerous sketches and animated series. On \"Saturday Night Live\", Hermione was played by Lindsay Lohan. On his show \"Big Impression\", Alistair McGowan did a sketch called \"Louis Potter and the Philosopher's Scone\". It featured impressions of Nigella Lawson as Hermione. In 2003, Comic Relief performed a spoof story called \"Harry Potter and the Secret Chamberpot of Azerbaijan\", in which Miranda Richardson, who plays Rita Skeeter in the Harry Potter films, featured as Hermione. Hermione also features in the \"Harry Bladder\" sketches in \"All That\", in which she appears as Herheiny and is portrayed by Lisa Foiles. \"The Wedge\", an Australian sketch comedy, parodies Hermione and Harry in love on a \"\"Cooking With...\"\" show before being caught by Snape. Hermione also appears as Hermione Ranger in \"Harry Podder: Dude Where's My Wand?\", a play by Desert Star Theater in Utah, written by sisters Laura J., Amy K. and Anna M. Lewis. In the 2008 American comedy film \"Yes Man\", Allison (played by Zooey Deschanel) accompanies Carl (Jim Carrey) to a Harry Potter-themed party dressed as Hermione. In \"Harry Cover\", a French comic book parody of the \"Harry Potter\" series by Pierre Veys (subsequently translated into Spanish and English), Hermione appears as Harry Cover's friend Hormone. Hermione also appears in \"The Potter Puppet Pals\" sketches by Neil Cicierega and in the \"A Very Potter Musical,\" \"A Very Potter Sequel,\" and \"A Very Potter Senior Year\" musicals by StarKid Productions played by Bonnie Gruesen in the first two and Meredith Stepien in the third. Hermione is the focus of the fan-created web-series, \"Hermione Granger and the Quarter Life Crisis\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "American plan.", "Battle.", "Casualties.", "Results.", "Legends and folk tales.", "Laura Secord.", "National Historic Site of Canada." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "On 25 May 1813, the Americans had won the Battle of Fort George, capturing the fort. The British fell back to a position at Burlington Heights (Ontario) near the western end of Lake Ontario, briefly abandoning the entire Niagara Peninsula to the Americans. The Americans attempted to pursue the British, but their advance was checked at the Battle of Stoney Creek by a British counter-attack. At the same time, the American flotilla of warships which had been supporting their army on the Niagara Peninsula was hastily withdrawn to face a threat to their own base, and a British flotilla threatened the Americans' line of communications. The Americans fell back to Fort George. The British followed up and established an outpost at DeCou's house in the present-day city of Thorold, Ontario, from which Natives and militia harassed American outposts. The American commander at Fort George, Brigadier General John Parker Boyd, decided to clear the threat posed by enemy raiders and to restore his men's morale by making a surprise attack on the outpost at DeCou's.", "The American force assigned to the attack was led by the recently promoted Colonel Charles Boerstler of the 14th U.S. Infantry and consisted of Boerstler's own 14th U.S. Regiment of Infantry, with detachments of the 6th, 13th and 23rd U.S. Regiments of Infantry, a company of artillery with one 12-pounder and one 6-pounder field guns, and twenty U.S. Dragoons. An irregular corps of forty mounted volunteers from the New York Militia under Cyrenius Chapin led the way. The force was accompanied by two large supply wagons. At dusk on 23 June, Boerstler's force moved in secret from Fort George to the village of Queenston, where they quartered themselves in the houses and other buildings. Several American officers had earlier billeted themselves in the house of Militia Captain James Secord, who had been severely wounded the previous year at the Battle of Queenston Heights. His wife, Laura Secord, overheard the American officers discussing their scheme. Very early on 22 June, she set out to warn the British at DeCou's house, walking about through the woods until she came upon a Native encampment on the Twelve Mile Creek. The warriors took her to Lieutenant James FitzGibbon, who commanded the British outpost. The information she conveyed to FitzGibbon confirmed what Natives had reported since they first observed the American column near St. David's.", "The main contingent of Natives were 300 Kahnawake, also referred to as \"Caughnawaga\" in contemporary accounts. (The Kahnawake were Mohawks who had earlier been converted to Christianity by Jesuit missionaries.) They were nominally commanded by Captain Dominique Ducharme of the Indian Department, with Lieutenants Isaac LeClair and J.B. de Lorimier. There were also 100 Mohawks under Captain William Johnson Kerr. They set up ambushes in a thickly wooded area east of Beaver Dams. FitzGibbon with 46 men of the 49th Regiment of Foot was in reserve. Early on 24 June, the Americans set out for DeCou's stone house. At St. David's they proceeded along a trail at the base of the escarpment until they reached another trail leading up the \"mountain\". Reaching the top, they became aware of Natives closing in on their flanks and rear. Boerstler did not change his plans. When the Natives opened fire, Boerstler was wounded and placed in one of the wagons. According to American accounts, they caused the Mohawks to flee and fought their way out of the woods into open fields where they could use their artillery, and the Natives were not at such an advantage. This account is not supported by other witnesses. At this point, FitzGibbon intervened. Addressing Boerstler under a flag of truce, he claimed that the Americans were outnumbered and surrounded, and that if they did not surrender he would be unable to restrain the natives from slaughtering the entire American force. The wounded Boerstler capitulated to Major de Haren of the Canadian Regiment of Fencible Infantry, who had just arrived on the field with another detachment of British regulars (mainly from the 104th Regiment) from Twelve Mile Creek. The American force surrendered in a field just south of the Thorold Tunnel, east of the present day Welland Canal. The prisoners were escorted first to DeCou's, then to the British base at Ball's Falls..", "The natives admitted to a total of five chiefs and warriors killed, and 20 wounded, although Ducharme stated that 15 were killed and 25 wounded. The American casualty report stated 25 killed and 50 wounded; all of the wounded being among the prisoners, who numbered 23 officers and 489 enlisted men. It was later claimed that many of the wounded Americans were killed by Mohawks.", "The loss of Boerstler's detachment demoralized the Americans at Fort George. From then until they abandoned the fort on 10 December, they rarely dared send any patrols more than a mile from the fort. To reinforce their fear of the Native people, there was another minor disaster on 8 July when a party from the 8th (King's) Regiment and Merritt's Troop of Provincial Dragoons, accompanied by Ottawas under Captain Matthew Elliott and other Indigenous warriors under Mohawk chief John Norton, went to retrieve a chest of medicines which had been hastily buried at Ball's Farm near Two Mile Creek when the British had evacuated Fort George in May. An American party from the 13th U.S. Infantry under Lieutenant Joseph Eldridge attempted to pursue the British detachment but was ambushed, losing 28 men, several of whom were scalped despite the efforts of officers of the Indian Department to prevent it. Most of the American regular soldiers and Boyd himself were transferred from Fort George to Sackett's Harbor in September, leaving the fort in the hands of New York Militia.", "Referring to the respective parts played by the various Native Americans and the British, local legend (perhaps started by Mohawk leader John Norton, who was present) had it that, \"The Caughnawaga got the victory, the Mohawks got the plunder and FitzGibbon got the credit\". In 1818, FitzGibbon made a report to Captain Kerr which read in part: With respect to the affair with Captain \"(sic)\" Boerstler, not a shot was fired on our side by any but the Indians. They beat the American detachment into a state of terror, and the only share I claim is taking advantage of a favorable moment to offer them protection from the tomahawk and scalping knife. The Indian Department did the rest. Captain Ducharme claimed that he himself did not demand the Americans' surrender because as a French Canadian by birth who had spent most of his life among the Indians, he spoke no English.", "Much later, in 1827, FitzGibbon wrote: I do hereby Certify that on the 22d. day of June 1813, Mrs. Secord, Wife of James Secord, Esqr. then of St. David's, came to me at the Beaver Dam after Sun Set, having come from her house at St. David's by a circuitous route a distance of twelve miles, and informed me that her Husband had learnt from an American officer the preceding night that a Detachment from the American Army then in Fort George would be sent out on the following morning (the 23d.) for the purpose of Surprising and capturing a Detachment of the 49th Regt. then at Beaver Dam under my Command. In Consequence of this information, I placed the Indians under Norton together with my own Detachment in a Situation to intercept the American Detachment and we occupied it during the night of the 22d. – but the Enemy did not come until the morning of the 24th when his Detachment was captured. Colonel Boerstler, their commander, in a conversation with me confirmed fully the information communicated to me by Mrs. Secord and accounted for the attempt not having been made on the 23rd. as at first intended. By this account, Laura Secord learned of the American plans and made her exit from St. David's (near Queenston) on 22 June, before the American main body had set out from Fort George.", "Beaver Dams represents one of the earliest attempts to create a national historical park. In 1914, a convention of Ontario historical and patriotic groups resolved to ask the Department of the Interior \"to develop a 40-acre site near Thorold as a national battlefield park commemorating the Battle of Beaver Dams.\" Although Beaver Dams was not made a national park, the Historic Sites and Monuments Board was created in 1919 to develop a heritage policy at the federal level for historic sites. In 1921, soon after the Board's formation, the Board recommended the designation of the Battle of Beaver Dams site as a National Historic Site of Canada, one of its earliest selections. In June 2013, the \"Laura Secord Legacy Trail\" was dedicated, recreating the route of her journey from her homestead in Queenston to DeCew House in Thorold where she delivered her message to Lt. Fitzgibbon on 22 June 1813. The trail is divided into five distinct stages and encompasses ancient forested Indian trails and modern city sidewalks. The trail is linked to the Trans-Canada Trail and spans a total length of 32 kilometers. A monument commemorating the battle was dedicated in 1923 and situated on the original site of the event (near the southeast corner of the intersection of Davis Road and Old Thorold Stone Road, approximately southeast of present-day Thorold), where it was located for several decades. In 1976, this monument (as well as one marking the site where in 1876 during construction of the 3rd Welland Canal the remains of 16 U.S. soldiers from the battle were uncovered) was subsequently relocated several kilometres to the west when the Battle of Beaverdams [sic] Park was opened and there was talk of constructing a 5th Welland Canal near the battlefield. The original site of the battlefield was unmarked from 1976 until 2013, the Battle of Beaverdams Committee discussed marking the site with a \"historic boulder\" for the bicentennial and this was in fact carried out on 23 June 2013" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Design conception.", "First flight.", "Competition.", "Basic design.", "Early civilian variants.", "He 111C.", "He 111G.", "Military variants.", "He 111 A – D.", "He 111 E.", "He 111 F.", "He 111 J.", "He 111 P.", "He 111H and its variants.", "He 111 H-1 to H-10.", "Later H variants, H-11 to H-20.", "Production.", "Exports.", "Operational history.", "Surviving aircraft." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "After its defeat in World War I, Germany was banned from operating an air force by the Treaty of Versailles. German re-armament began earnestly in the 1930s and was initially kept secret because it violated the treaty. The early development of military bombers was disguised as a development program for civilian transport aircraft. Among the designers seeking to benefit from German re-armament was Ernst Heinkel. Heinkel decided to create the world's fastest passenger aircraft, a goal met with scepticism by Germany's aircraft industry and political leadership. Heinkel entrusted development to Siegfried and Walter Günter, both fairly new to the company and untested. In June 1933 Albert Kesselring visited Heinkel's offices. Kesselring was head of the Luftwaffe Administration Office: at that point Germany did not have a State Aviation Ministry but only an aviation commissariat, the \"Luftfahrtkommissariat\". Kesselring was hoping to build a new air force out of the Flying Corps being constructed in the \"Reichswehr\", and required modern aircraft. Kesselring convinced Heinkel to move his factory from", "The first He 111 flew on 24 February 1935, piloted by chief test pilot Gerhard Nitschke, who was ordered not to land at the company's factory airfield at Rostock-Marienehe (today's Rostock-Schmarl neighbourhood), as this was considered too short, but at the central \"Erprobungstelle\" Rechlin test facility. He ignored these orders and landed back at Marienehe. He said that the He 111 performed slow manoeuvres well and that there was no danger of overshooting the runway. Nitschke also praised its high speed \"for the period\" and \"very good-natured flight and landing characteristics\", stable during cruising, gradual descent and single-engined flight and having no nose-drop when the undercarriage was operated. During the second test flight Nitschke revealed there was insufficient longitudinal stability during climb and flight at full power and the aileron controls required an unsatisfactory amount of force. By the end of 1935, prototypes V2 and V4 had been produced under civilian registrations D-ALIX, D-ALES and D-AHAO. D-ALES became the first prototype of the He 111 A-1 on", "In the mid-1930s, Dornier Flugzeugwerke and Junkers competed with Heinkel for Ministry of Aviation (German: Reichsluftfahrtministerium, abbreviated RLM) contracts. The main competitor to the Heinkel was the Junkers Ju 86. In 1935, comparison trials were undertaken with the He 111. At this point, the Heinkel was equipped with two BMW VI engines while Ju 86A was equipped with two Jumo 205Cs, both of which had 492 kW (660 hp). The He 111 had a slightly heavier takeoff weight of 8,220 kg (18,120 lb) compared to the Ju 86's 8,000 kg (17,640 lb) and the maximum speed of both aircraft was", "The design of the He 111 A-L initially had a conventional stepped cockpit, with a pair of windscreen-like panels for the pilot and co-pilot. The He 111P and subsequent production variants were fitted with fully glazed cockpits and a laterally asymmetric nose, with the port side having the greater curvature for the pilot, offsetting the bombardier to starboard. The resulting stepless cockpit, which was a feature on a number of German bomber designs during the war years in varying shapes and formats, no longer had the separate windscreen panels for the pilot. Pilots had to look outside through the same bullet-like glazing that was used by the bombardier and navigator. The pilot was seated on the left and the navigator/bomb aimer on the right. The navigator went forward to the prone bomb-aiming position or could tilt his chair to one side, to move into the rear of the aircraft. There was no cockpit floor below the pilot's feet—the rudder pedals being on arms—giving very good visibility below. Sliding and removable panels were manufactured into the nose glazing to allow the pilot, navigator and or bomb aimer to exit the aircraft quickly, without a time-consuming retreat into the fuselage. The fuselage contained two major bulkheads, with the cockpit at the front of the first bulkhead. The nose was fitted with a rotating machine gun mount, offset to allow the pilot a better field of forward vision. The cockpit was fully glazed, with the exception of the lower right section, which acted as a platform for the bombardier-gunner. The commonly-used \"Lotfernrohr\"-series bombsight penetrated through the cockpit floor into a protective housing on the outside of the cockpit. Between the forward and rear bulkhead was the bomb bay, which was constructed with a double-frame to strengthen it for carrying the bomb load. The space between the bomb bay and rear bulkhead was used up by \"Funkgerät\" radio equipment and contained the dorsal and flexible casemate ventral gunner positions. The rear bulkhead contained a hatch which allowed access into the rest of the fuselage", "", "The first prototype, He 111 V1 (W.Nr. 713, D-ADAP), flew from Rostock-Marienehe on 24 February 1935. It was followed by the civilian-equipped V2 and V4 in May 1935. The V2 (W.Nr. 715, D-ALIX) used the bomb bay as a four-seat \"smoking compartment\", with another six seats behind it in the rear fuselage. V2 entered service with Deutsche Luft Hansa in 1936, along with six other newly built versions known as the He 111C. The He 111 V4 was unveiled to the foreign press on 10 January 1936. Nazi propaganda inflated the performance of the He 111C, announcing its maximum speed as 400 km/h (249 mph); in reality its performance stood at 360 km/h (224 mph). The He 111 C-0 was a", "The He 111G was an upgraded variant and had a number of differences to its predecessors. To simplify production the leading edge of the wing was straightened, like the bomber version. Engine types used included the BMW 132, BMW VI, DB 600 and DB601A. Some C variants were upgraded with the new wing modifications. A new BMW 132H engine was also used in a so-called \"Einheitstriebwerk\" (unitary powerplant). These radial engines were used in the Junkers Ju 90 and the Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor. The wing units and engines", "", "The initial reports from the test pilot, Gerhard Nitschke, were favourable. The He 111's flight performance and handling were impressive although it dropped its wing in the stall. As a result, the passenger variants had their wings reduced from 25 m (82 ft) to 23 m (75 ft). The military aircraft – V1, V3 and V5 – spanned just 22.6 m (74.1 ft). The first prototypes were underpowered, as they were equipped with 431 kW (578 hp) BMW VI 6.0 V12 in-line engines. This was eventually increased to 745 kW (999 hp) with the fitting of the DB (Daimler-Benz) 600 engines in the V5, which became the prototype", "The pre-production E-0 series were built in small numbers, with Jumo 211 A-1 engines loaded with retractable radiators and exhaust systems. The variant could carry 1,700 kg (3,748 lb) of bombs, giving it a takeoff weight of 10,300 kg (22,707 lbs). The development team for the Jumo 211 A-1 engines managed to increase engine power to, subsequently the He 111 E-1s bomb load capacity increased to 2,000 kg (4,410 lb) and a top speed of 242 mph (390 km/h). The E-1 variant with Jumo 211A-1 engines was", "The He 111 design quickly ran through a series of minor design revisions. One of the more obvious changes started with the He 111F models, which moved from the elliptical wing to one with straight leading and trailing edges, which could be manufactured more efficiently. The dimensions of the new design had a wing span of 22.6m (74 ft 13⁄4in) and an area of 87.60m2 (942.90 ft). Heinkel's industrial capacity was limited and production was delayed. Nevertheless, 24 machines of the F-1 series were exported to Turkey. Another 20 of the F-2 variant were built. The Turkish interest, prompted by the fact the tests", "The He 111's low-level performance attracted the interest of the \"Kriegsmarine\". The result was the He 111J, capable of carrying torpedoes and mines. However, the navy eventually dropped the program as they deemed the four-man crew too extravagant. The RLM continued production of the He 111 J-0. Some 90 (other sources claim", "The He 111P incorporated the updated Daimler-Benz DB 601A-1 liquid-cooled engine and featured a newly designed nose section, including an asymmetric mounting for an MG 15 machine gun that replaced the'stepped' cockpit with a roomier and more aerodynamic glazed \"stepless cockpit\" over the entire front of the aircraft. This smooth glazed nose was first tested on the He 111 V8 in January 1938. These improvements allowed the aircraft to reach 475 km/h (295 mph) at 5,000 m (16,400 ft) and a cruise speed of 370 km/h (230 mph), although a full bomb load reduced this figure to 300 km/h (190 mph). The design was implemented in 1937 because pilot reports indicated problems with visibility. The pilot's seat could actually be elevated, with the pilot's eyes above the level of the upper glazing, complete with a small pivoted windscreen panel, to get the pilot's head above the level of the top of the \"glass tunnel\" for a better forward view for takeoffs and landings. The", "", "The H variant of the He 111 series was more widely produced and saw more action during World War II than any other Heinkel variant. Owing to the uncertainty surrounding the delivery and availability of the DB 601 engines, Heinkel switched to 820 kW (1,100 hp) Junkers Jumo 211 powerplants, whose somewhat greater size and weight were regarded as unimportant considerations in a twin-engine design. When the Jumo was fitted to the P model it became the He 111 H. The He 111 H-1 was fitted with a standard set of three 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 15 machine guns and eight SC 250 250 kg (550 lb) or 32 SC 50 50 kg (110 lb) bombs. The same armament was used in the H-2 which started production in August 1939. The P-series was gradually replaced on the eve of war with the new the H-2, powered by improved Jumo 211", "In the summer of 1942, the H-11, based on the H-3 was introduced. With the H-11, the Luftwaffe had at its disposal a powerful medium bomber with heavier armour and revised defensive armament. The drum-fed 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 15 was replaced with a belt-fed 13 mm (.51 in) MG 131 in the now fully enclosed dorsal position (\"B-Stand\"); the gunner in the latter was now protected with armoured glass. The single MG 15 in the ventral \"C-Stand\" or \"Bola\" was also replaced, with a belt-fed 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 81Z with much higher rate of fire. The beam positions originally retained the single MG 15s, but the H-11/R1 replaced these with twin MG 81Z as well; this latter arrangement was standardized in November 1942. The port internal ESAC bomb racks could be removed, and an 835 L (221 US gal) fuel tanks installed in its place. Many H-11s were equipped with a new PVC rack under the fuselage, which carried five 250 kg (550 lb) bombs. Additional armour plating was fitted around crew spaces, some of it on the lower fuselage and could be jettisoned in an emergency. Engines were two 1,000 kW (1,340 hp) Junkers Jumo 211F-2, allowing this variant to carry a 2,000 kg (4,410 lb) payload to a range of 2,340 km", "To meet demand for numbers, Heinkel constructed a factory at Oranienburg. On 4 May 1936, construction began, and exactly one year later the first He 111 rolled off the production line. The Ministry of Aviation Luftwaffe administration office suggested that Ernst Heinkel lend his name to the factory. The \"Ernst Heinkel GmbH\" was established with a share capital of 5,000,000 \"Reichsmarks\" (RM). Heinkel was given a 150,000 RM share. The factory itself was built by, and belonged to, the German state. From this production plant, 452 He 111s and 69 Junkers Ju 88s were built in the first year of the war. German production for the Luftwaffe amounted to 808 He 111s by September 1939. According to Heinkel's memoirs, a further 452 were built in 1939, giving a total of 1,260. But \"1940s production suffered extreme losses during the Battle of Britain, with 756 bombers lost\". Meanwhile, the He 111's rival – the Ju 88 – had increased production to 1,816 aircraft, some 26 times the number from the previous year. Losses were also considerable the previous year over the Balkans and Eastern Fronts. To compensate, He 111 production was increased to 950 in 1941. In 1942, this increased further to 1,337 He 111s. The Ju 88 production figures were even higher still, exceeding 3,000 in 1942, of which 2,270 were bomber variants. In 1943, He 111 increased to 1,405 aircraft. But the Ju 88 still outnumbered it in production terms as its figures reached 2,160 for 1943. The Allied bomber offensives in 1944 and in particular Big Week failed to stop or damage production at Heinkel. Up until the last quarter of 1944, 756 Heinkel He 111s had been built, while Junkers produced 3,013 Ju 88s, of which 600 were bomber versions. During 1939–1944, a total of 5,656 Heinkel He 111s were built compared to 9,122 Ju 88s. As the Luftwaffe was now on the strategic defensive, bomber production and that of the He 111 was suspended. Production in September 1944, the last production month for the He 111, included 118 bombers. Of these 21 Junkers Ju 87s, 74 Junkers Ju 188s, 3 Junkers Ju 388s and 18 Arado Ar 234s were built. Of the Heinkel variants, zero Heinkel He 177s were produced and just two Heinkel He 111s were built.", "In 1937, 24 He 111 F-1s were bought by the Turkish Air Force. The Turks also ordered four He 111 G-5s. China also ordered 12 He 111 A-0s, but at a cost 400,000 \"Reichsmark\" (RM). The aircraft were crated up and transported by sea. According to other sources, China got only six He 111 K (export version of He 111 A), delivered in 1936. At the", "The Heinkel He 111 served on all the German military fronts in the European Theatre of World War II. Beginning the war as a medium bomber it supported the German campaigns in the field until 1943", "Only five original German-built He 111 survive today, on display or stored in museums around the world (not including major sections):" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Cultivation and uses.", "Notable trees." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "\"Tilia tomentosa\" is a deciduous tree growing to tall, with a trunk up to in diameter. The leaves are alternately arranged, rounded to triangular-ovate, 4–13 cm long and broad with a 2.5–4 cm petiole, green and mostly hairless above, densely white tomentose with white hairs below, and with a coarsely toothed margin. The flowers are pale yellow, hermaphrodite, produced in cymes of three to ten in mid to late summer with a pale green subtending leafy bract; they have a strong scent and are pollinated by honeybees. The fruit is a dry nut-like drupe 8–10 mm long, downy, and slightly ribbed.", "It is widely grown as an ornamental tree throughout Europe. The cultivar 'Brabant' has a strong central stem and a symmetrical conic crown. The cultivar 'Petiolaris' (pendent or weeping silver lime) differs in longer leaf petioles 4–8 cm long and drooping leaves; it is of unknown origin and usually sterile, and may be a hybrid with another \"Tilia\" species. It is very tolerant of urban pollution, soil compaction, heat, and drought, and would be a good street tree in urban areas. In cultivation in the UK, \"T. tomentosa\" 'Petiolaris' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. An infusion made from the flowers of \"T. tomentosa\" is antispasmodic, diaphoretic and sedative. This may be attributable to the presence of pharmacologically active ligands of benzodiazepine receptor A widespread belief is that the nectar of this species contains mannose, which can be toxic to some bees. This is incorrect; the sight of numerous comatose bees found on the ground at flowering time is rather a result of the paucity of nectar sources in late summer in urban areas. This species, while fragrant in spring, drops buds and pollen during the spring and fall.", "Eminescu's Linden Tree () is a 500-year-old silver lime situated in the Copou Public Garden, Iași, Romania. Mihai Eminescu reportedly wrote some of his best works underneath this silver lime, rendering the tree one of Romania's most important natural monuments and an Iași landmark." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Prelude.", "British moves.", "American internal quarrels.", "Brock's preparations.", "Battle.", "British dispositions.", "First American landing.", "Death of Isaac Brock.", "Movements, 10 a.m. to 2 p.m..", "Sheaffe's attack.", "Casualties.", "Aftermath.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The United States invasion across the Niagara River was originally intended to be part of a four-pronged attack on Upper Canada's border strongpoints. From west to east, Brigadier General William Hull would attack Amherstburg through Detroit, Major General Van Rensselaer would attack across the Niagara River, another diversionary attack would cross the St. Lawrence River to take Kingston, and Major General Henry Dearborn, the commander in chief of the United States Army, would make the major attack via Lake Champlain to capture Montreal in Lower Canada. These attacks were expected to bring the colony to its knees and ensure a quick peace. However, the four attacks on Upper Canada failed or were not even launched. Hull was besieged in Detroit", "", "Major General Isaac Brock was both the civil Administrator of Upper Canada and Commander of the military forces there. He was an aggressive commander, and his successful capture of Detroit had won him praise, the reputation as the \"saviour of Upper Canada\" and a knighthood, the news of which would only reach Upper Canada after his death. However, his superior at Quebec, Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost, was of a more cautious bent, and the two clashed over strategy. Brock had hastened back from Detroit, intending to cross the Niagara, defeat Van Rensselaer before he could be reinforced and occupy upper New York State. Prevost vetoed this plan, ordering Brock to behave more defensively. Not only was Prevost concerned by Brock's apparently rash actions, but he was aware that the British Government had revoked several Orders in Council which affected American merchant ships,", "Even with Hull's failure and Dearborn's inaction, Van Rensselaer's situation appeared strong. On 1 September he had only 691 unpaid men fit for duty, but the arrival of reinforcements boosted his force considerably. In addition to his own force of around 6,000 regulars, volunteers and militia, Van Rensselaer had Brigadier General Alexander Smyth's force of 1,700 regular soldiers under his command. However, Smyth, who was a regular officer although a lawyer by trade, steadfastly refused to obey Van Rensselaer's orders or respond to his summons. As soon as his force reached the frontier, Smyth deployed his force near", "Brock was aware of the failed attempt to cross the river on 11 October but was not certain this was not a mere demonstration to distract him from a major attack elsewhere. On 12 October, Major Thomas Evans (the Brigade Major at Fort George) crossed the Niagara River under a flag of truce to request an immediate exchange of prisoners taken in Elliot's raid on the British brigs three days before. He attempted to see Colonel Solomon Van Rensselaer but was told the Colonel was ill. Instead, he was met by a man who claimed to", "", "The village of Queenston consisted of a stone barracks and twenty houses each surrounded by gardens and peach orchards. Several farmhouses were scattered through the neighbouring fields and pastures. The village lay at the mouth of the gorge of the River Niagara. Immediately south of the village, the ground rose 300 feet (100 m) to Queenston Heights. The slope from the heights to the river bank was very steep but overgrown with shrubs and trees, making it fairly easy to climb. Lewiston was on the American side of the river, with the ground to its south rising to Lewiston Heights. The river was fast-flowing and 200 yards wide, but was described as being little trouble to even an indifferent oarsman. In time of peace,", "The American forces involved were the 6th, 13th and 23rd U.S. Regiments of Infantry, with detachments of U.S. Artillery serving as infantry. There were also the 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th and 20th Regiments of New York Militia and a volunteer battalion of riflemen, totalling 900 regulars and 2,650 militia. Because the United States Army was being rapidly expanded, most of the regulars at Lewiston were recent recruits, and Van Rensselaer considered the militiamen's drill and discipline superior to that of the regulars. The Americans had twelve boats, each of which could carry thirty men, and two large boats which could carry eighty men and which were fitted with", "At Fort George, Brock had been awakened by the noise of the artillery at Queenston. As he considered this might only be a diversion, he ordered only a few detachments to move to Queenston but galloped there himself, accompanied by a few aides. He passed through the village as dawn broke, being cheered by the men of the 49th, many of whom knew him well, and moved up to the redan to gain a better view. The 18-pounder cannon and the howitzer in the redan were causing great carnage amongst the American boats. Since coming ashore an hour-and-a-half earlier, the U.S. forces had been pinned down along the river. Prompted by Lieutenant Gansevoort of the U.S. Artillery, who knew the area well, the wounded Colonel Solomon Van Rensselaer ordered Captains Wool and Ogilvie to", "By 10 a.m., the Americans were opposed only by the 24-pounder at Vrooman's Point which was firing at the American boats at very long range. The Americans were able to push several hundred fresh troops and a 6-pounder field gun across the river. They unspiked the 18-pounder in the redan and used it to fire into Queenston village, but it had a limited field of fire away from the river. Some American soldiers entered Queenston village and looted some houses. They also rescued Lieutenant Colonel Fenwick and other survivors from his party, but did not attempt to drive Dennis from his position near Vrooman's Point. Colonel Chrystie briefly took charge of the troops on the Canadian side but returned to Lewiston to collect reinforcements and entrenching tools. At about noon, General van Rensselaer and Chrystie crossed to the Canadian side of the river. They ordered the position on Queenston Heights to be fortified. Lieutenant Joseph Gilbert Totten of the U.S. Engineers traced out the position of the proposed fortifications. Van Rensselaer appointed Lieutenant Colonel Winfield Scott of", "Sheaffe arrived at Queenston at 2 p.m. and took charge of the British troops. He ordered yet more reinforcements to join him, and when they had done so, he led his force on a detour to the Heights, shielding them from the American artillery. Here, he was joined by another column of reinforcements from Chippawa under Captain Richard Bullock of the 41st. In all, he commanded over 800 men. In addition to the remnants of the force which had been engaged under Brock in the morning, he had five companies of the 41st and seven of militia (including Captain Runchey's Company of", "The British official casualty return gave 14 killed, 77 wounded and 21 missing, with the loss of Norton's Native Americans not included. Historian Robert Malcomson has demonstrated this computation to be in error and shows that the British and Canadian losses were 16 killed, 83 wounded and 21 captured, with a further 5 killed, 2 wounded and 1 captured among the Native American contingent. This gives a total loss of 21 killed, 85 wounded and 22 captured. Among the wounded Canadians was James Secord, husband of Laura Secord. The number of Americans killed in the battle has been variously estimated at 60, 90 and 100. 82 severely wounded Americans were evacuated across the Niagara before the surrender, of whom 2 soon died. 955 Americans were initially captured by the British, including 120 severely wounded officers and men. This was more than the hospital at Niagara could accommodate, so some of them had to", "Sheaffe immediately proposed a temporary truce and invited Van Rensselaer to send surgeons to assist in treating the wounded. Having assented, General Van Rensselaer resigned immediately after the battle and was succeeded as senior officer on the Niagara by Alexander Smyth, the officer whose insolence had badly injured the invasion attempt. Smyth still had his regulars at Buffalo but refused to launch an attack until he had 3,000 men under his command. He launched a successful raid to prepare the ground for a full-scale invasion at the Battle of Frenchman's Creek but then bungled two attempts to cross the river near Fort Erie and drew the loathing of his soldiers. Universally castigated for his refusal to attack and with rumours of mutiny in the air, Smyth slipped away to his home in Virginia rather than remain at his post. At Albany, the defeat of Van Rensselaer only increased Henry Dearborn's reluctance to act. With two armies already defeated, Dearborn was not keen on leading the third. He led a half-hearted advance as far as Odelltown, where his militia refused to proceed further. After his regulars were easily repulsed by the garrison of an outpost at Lacolle Mills, Dearborn retired to American territory. He would be replaced the following year with only minor successes to", "A 56-metre (185 ft) column atop Queenston Heights in Queenston, Ontario, Canada, known as Brock's Monument, commemorates the battle as well as the memory of the British General who died there. The song \"MacDonell on the Heights\", by Stan Rogers, commemorates the role of John MacDonell in the battle. The Battle Honour \"Queenstown\" was awarded to two British Regiments in the aftermath of the war: the 41st and 49th Regiments, whose successor units in the modern British Army are the Royal Welsh and the Rifles Regiments. In the Canadian Army, the Lincoln and Welland Regiment, the 56th Field Artillery Regiment, RCA, the Queen's York Rangers the Royal Hamilton Light Infantry, and The Lorne Scots perpetuate the history and heritage of Canadian militia units that took part in the battle. These regiments also carry the Queenston Heights Battle Honour. The Ontario Highway 405 that connects the Queenston-Lewiston Bridge to the Queen Elizabeth Way is named the General Brock Parkway. Many songs have been written about the battle. In 1959, as an answer to \"The Battle of New Orleans\", then a hit record by Johnny Horton, Toronto radio station CHUM recorded \"The Battle of Queenston Heights\", with DJ Mike Darow on lead vocals. Credited to \"Mike Darow and the CHUMs\", the number became a regional hit in its own right, reaching the top twenty on CHUM's own chart. Multiple streets, avenues and roads in Ontario are named after Major-General Brock, as is the city of Brockville in the province." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Ecology.", "Cultivation and Uses.", "Wood.", "Medicinal uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The American basswood is a medium-sized to large deciduous tree reaching a height of exceptionally with a trunk diameter of at maturity. It grows faster than many North American hardwoods, often twice the annual growth rate of American beech and many birch species. Life expectancy is around 200 years, with flowering and seeding generally occurring between 15 and 100 years, though occasionally seed production may start as early as 8 years. The crown is domed, the branches spreading, often pendulous. The bark is gray to light brown, with narrow, well defined fissures. The roots are large, deep, and spreading. The twigs are smooth, reddish-green, becoming light gray in their second year, finally dark brown or brownish gray, marked with dark wart-like excrescences. The winter buds are stout, ovate-acute, smooth, deep red, with two bud scales visible. The leaves are simple, alternately arranged, ovate to cordate, asymmetrical, unequal at the base (the side nearest the branch the largest), (can grow up to ) long and broad, with a long, slender petiole, a coarsely serrated margin and an acuminate apex. Bean noted that occasionally, enormous leaves measuring long by wide appear on thick, succulent shoots. They open from the bud conduplicate, pale green, downy; when full grown are dark green, smooth, shining above, paler beneath, with tufts of rusty brown hairs in the axils of the primary veins; the small stipules fall soon after leaf opening. The fall color is yellow-green to yellow. Both the twigs and leaves contain mucilaginous sap. The flowers are small, fragrant, yellowish-white, in diameter, arranged in drooping, cymose clusters of 6–20 with a whitish-green leaf-like bract attached for half its length at the base of the cyme. They are perfect, regular, with five sepals and petals, numerous stamens, and a five-celled superior ovary. The leaves emerge in mid-spring, but the flowers require day lengths of approximately 14 hours and 30 minutes to form, hence \"T. americana\"'s range is limited to north of the 35th parallel. Time of flowering varies by several weeks depending on the latitude; early May in Canada and early June in the extreme southern extent. Leaf drop in fall occurs between early and late October depending on the latitude. The flowers are fragrant and insect-pollinated. The fruit is a small, globose, downy, hard and dry cream-colored nutlet with a diameter of.", "American basswood is dominant in the sugar maple–basswood forest association, which is most common in western Wisconsin and central Minnesota, but occurs as far east as New England and southern Quebec in places that have mesic soil with relatively high pH. It also has minor occurrence in many other forest cover types. Its flowers provide abundant nectar for insects. The seeds are eaten by chipmunks, mice, and squirrels. Rabbits and voles eat the bark, sometimes girdling young trees. The leaves serve as food for caterpillars of various Lepidoptera (see Lepidoptera which feed on \"Tilia\"). The ribbed cocoon maker species \"Bucculatrix improvisa\" has not been found on other plants. This species is particularly susceptible to adult Japanese beetles (an invasive species in North America) that feed on its leaves. The mushroom \"Pholiota squarrosoides\" is known to decay the logs of the tree.", "The American basswood can be propagated by cuttings and grafting as well as by seed. Propagated plants grow rapidly in a rich soil, but are susceptible to many pests. The American basswood is known for being one of the most difficult native North American trees to propagate from seed, as they not only have a low viability rate (approximately 30% of all seeds are viable), but quickly develop an extremely hard seed coating that may delay germination for up to two years. If planting them, it is recommended to gather the seeds in early autumn and sow them before they dry out and form a coating. This will then allow germination to occur immediately. Overall, seeds are not a major part of the tree's reproductive strategy and it instead mostly spreads by self-coppicing. All juvenile basswoods coppice extremely readily, and even old trees will often sprout from the stump if cut. The American basswood is recommended as an ornamental tree when the mass of foliage or a deep shade is desired; no native tree surpasses it in this respect. It is often planted on the windward side of an orchard as a protection to young and delicate trees. It is cultivated at least as far north as Juneau, Alaska. The foliage and flowers are both edible, though the tender young leaves are more palatable. It is a beneficial species for attracting pollinators as well. Bees produce excellent honey with a mildly spicy flavor from its blossoms. The inner bark was used historically as a fiber source for making baskets, rope, and fishing nets. Basswood attracts many insect pests including Japanese beetles and skeletonized leaves are common. Mite galls commonly form on the foliage. Cultivars include 'Nova', 'Duros' (with an upright crown), the pyramidal 'Frontyard' and the conic-crowned 'Redmond'. The tree was introduced to the UK in 1752, but has never prospered there, being prone to dieback.", "The wood is pale brown, sometimes nearly white or faintly tinged with red; light, soft with fine close grain; clear of knots but does not split easily. It is low in strength and has a poor steam-bending classification. It can take stains and polish without difficulty and it planes, glues, screws and nails well. It is sold generally under the name basswood, but is sometimes confounded with tulip-wood and then called white-wood, and is largely used in the manufacture of wooden-ware, wagon boxes and furniture. It has a density of 0.4525 (relative to water). The wood is considered odorless. This makes it valuable in the manufacture of wooden-ware, cheap furniture, and bodies of carriages; it is also especially adapted for wood-carving. The inner bark is very tough and fibrous, used in the past for making ropes. It is a common wood for use in the production of solid-body electric guitars, where it is considered an analogue for aspen and poplar, because it is light, strong and resonant, though it is usually used for guitars that will be painted an opaque color, because its lack of notable grain makes it an unattractive candidate for transparent finish. It is especially popular in heavy metal. Linden wood rots easily and old trees have many cavities that serve as nesting places for birds.", "Although \"Tilia cordata\" is believed to be stronger, \"T. americana\" is also used medicinally. The dried flowers are mildly sweet and sticky, and the fruit is somewhat sweet and mucilaginous. Linden tea has a pleasing taste, due to the aromatic volatile oil found in the flowers. The flowers, leaves, wood, and charcoal (obtained from the wood) are used for medicinal purposes. Active ingredients in the linden flowers include flavonoids (which act as antioxidants), volatile oils, and mucilaginous constituents (which soothe and reduce inflammation). The plant also contains tannins that can act as an astringent. Linden flowers are used in colds, cough, fever, infections, inflammation, high blood pressure, headache (particularly migraine), as a diuretic (increases urine production), antispasmodic (reduces smooth muscle spasm along the digestive tract), and sedative. The flowers were added to baths to quell hysteria, and steeped as a tea to relieve anxiety-related indigestion, irregular heartbeat, and vomiting. The leaves are used to promote sweating to reduce fevers. The wood is used for liver and gallbladder disorders and cellulitis (inflammation of the skin and surrounding soft tissue). The wood burned to charcoal is ingested to treat intestinal disorders and used topically to treat edema or infection, such as cellulitis or ulcers of the lower leg. Several animal studies showed that the extract of \"T. americana\" increased sleeping time by 50 minutes (similar to the effects of diazepam) and decreased movement, which indicates sedative effects. It is argued that its mechanism of action is due to the flavonoid quercetin, as it inhibits the release of histamine." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Sets.", "Notation and terminology.", "Cardinality of sets.", "Examples." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Writing formula_1 means that the elements of the set are the numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4. Sets of elements of, for example formula_2, are subsets of. Sets can themselves be elements. For example, consider the set formula_3. The elements of are \"not\" 1, 2, 3, and 4. Rather, there are only three elements of, namely the numbers 1 and 2, and the set formula_4. The elements of a set can be anything. For example, formula_5, is the set whose elements are the colors, and.", "The relation \"is an element of\", also called set membership, is denoted by the symbol \"∈\". Writing means that \"\"x\" is an element of \"A\"\". Equivalent expressions are \"\"x\" is a member of \"A\"\", \"\"x\" belongs to \"A\"\", \"\"x\" is in \"A\"\" and \"\"x\" lies in \"A\"\". The expressions \"\"A\" includes \"x\"\" and \"\"A\" contains \"x\"\" are also used to mean set membership, however some authors use them to mean instead \"\"x\" is a subset of \"A\"\". Logician George Boolos strongly urged that \"contains\" be used for membership only and \"includes\" for the subset relation only. For the relation ∈, the converse relation ∈ may be written The negation of set membership is denoted by the symbol \"∉\". Writing The symbol ∈ was first used by Giuseppe Peano 1889 in his work. Here he wrote on page X: which means The symbol ∈ means \"is\". So a ∈ b is read as a \"is a\" b;... The symbol itself is a stylized lowercase Greek letter epsilon (\"ε\"), the first letter of the word, which means \"is\".", "The number of elements in a particular set is a property known as cardinality; informally, this is the size of a set. In the above examples the cardinality of the set \"A\" is 4, while the cardinality of either of the sets \"B\" and \"C\" is 3. An infinite set is a set with an infinite number of elements, while a finite set is a set with a finite number of elements. The above examples are examples of finite sets. An example of an infinite set is the set of positive integers, {1, 2, 3, 4,...}.", "Using the sets defined above, namely \"A\" = {1, 2, 3, 4 }, \"B\" = {1, 2, {3, 4}} and \"C\" = {red, green, blue}:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Modern Chinese intellectual tradition.", "Iconoclastic revolution and anti-Confucianism.", "Nationalism and the appeal of Marxism.", "Yan'an period between November 1935 and March 1947.", "Mao Zedong's intellectual development.", "Initial Marxist period (1920–1926).", "Formative Maoist period (1927–1935).", "Mature Maoist period (1935–1940).", "Civil War period (1940–1949).", "Post-Civil War period (1949–1976).", "Differences from Marxism.", "Components.", "New Democracy.", "People's war.", "Mass line.", "Cultural Revolution.", "Contradiction.", "Three Worlds Theory.", "Agrarian socialism.", "In China.", "After Mao Zedong's death.", "China.", "Internationally.", "International influence.", "Afghanistan.", "Australia.", "Bangladesh.", "Belgium.", "Ecuador.", "India.", "Iran.", "Palestine.", "Philippines.", "Portugal.", "Spain.", "Sweden.", "Turkey.", "United States.", "Criticism and implementation.", "Populism.", "Nationalism.", "Mao-Spontex." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "At the turn of the 20th century, the modern Chinese intellectual tradition is defined by two central concepts: (i) iconoclasm and (ii) nationalism.", "By the turn of the 20th century, a proportionately small yet socially significant cross-section of China's traditional elite (i.e. landlords and bureaucrats) found themselves increasingly skeptical of the efficacy and even the moral validity of Confucianism. These skeptical iconoclasts formed a new segment of Chinese society, a modern intelligentsia whose arrival—or as historian of China Maurice Meisner would label it, their defection—heralded the beginning of the destruction of the gentry as a social class in China. The fall of the last imperial Chinese dynasty", "Along with iconoclasm, radical anti-imperialism dominated the Chinese intellectual tradition and slowly evolved into a fierce nationalist fervor which influenced Mao's philosophy immensely and was crucial in adapting Marxism to the Chinese model. Vital to understanding Chinese nationalist sentiments of the time is the Treaty of Versailles, which was signed in 1919. The Treaty aroused a wave of bitter nationalist resentment in Chinese intellectuals as lands formerly ceded to Germany in Shandong were—without consultation with the Chinese—transferred to Japanese control rather than returned to Chinese sovereignty. The negative reaction culminated in the 4 May Incident in 1919 during", "During the period immediately following the Long March, Mao and the Communist Party of China (CPC) were headquartered in Yan'an, which is a prefecture-level city in Shaanxi province. During this period, Mao clearly established himself as a Marxist theoretician and he produced the bulk of the works which would later be canonized into the \"thought of Mao Zedong\". The", "Mao's intellectual development can be divided into five major periods, namely (1) the initial Marxist period from 1920–1926; (2) the formative Maoist period from 1927–1935; (3) the mature Maoist period from 1935–1940; (4) the Civil-War period from 1940–1949; and (5) the post-1949 period following the revolutionary victory.", "Marxist thinking employs imminent socioeconomic explanations and Mao's reasons were declarations of his enthusiasm. Mao did not believe that education alone would bring about the transition from capitalism to communism because of three main reasons. (1)", "In this period, Mao avoided all theoretical implications in his literature and employed a minimum of Marxist category thought. His writings in this period failed to elaborate what he meant by", "Intellectually, this was Mao's most fruitful time. The shift of orientation was apparent in his pamphlet \"Strategic Problems of China's Revolutionary War\" (December 1936). This pamphlet tried to provide a theoretical veneer", "Unlike the Mature period, this period was intellectually barren. Mao focused more on revolutionary practice and paid less attention to Marxist theory. He continued to emphasize theory as practice-oriented knowledge. The biggest topic of theory he delved into was in connection with the Cheng Feng movement of 1942. It was", "The victory of 1949 was to Mao a confirmation of theory and practice. \"Optimism is the keynote to Mao's intellectual orientation in the post-1949 period\". Mao assertively revised theory to relate it to the new practice of socialist construction. These revisions are apparent in the 1951 version of \"On Contradiction\". \"In the 1930s, when Mao talked about contradiction, he meant the contradiction between subjective thought and objective reality. In \"Dialectal Materialism\" of 1940, he saw idealism and materialism as two possible correlations between subjective thought and objective reality. In the 1940s, he introduced no new elements into his understanding of the subject-object contradiction. In the 1951 version of \"On Contradiction\", he saw contradiction as a universal principle underlying all processes of development, yet with each contradiction possessed of its own particularity\".", "The two differences between Maoism and Marxism are how the", "", "The theory of the New Democracy was known to the Chinese revolutionaries from the late 1940s. This thesis held that", "Holding that \"political power grows out of the barrel of a gun\", Maoism emphasizes the \"revolutionary struggle of the vast majority of people against the exploiting classes and their state structures\", which Mao termed a \"people's war\". Mobilizing large parts of rural populations to revolt against established institutions by engaging in guerrilla warfare, Maoist Thought focuses on \"surrounding", "Contrary to the Leninist vanguard model employed by the Bolsheviks, the theory of the mass line holds that party must not be separate from the", "The theory of the Cultural Revolution states that the proletarian revolution and the dictatorship of the proletariat does not wipe", "Mao drew from the writings of Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Vladimir Lenin, and Joseph Stalin in elaborating his theory. Philosophically, his most important reflections emerge on the concept of \"contradiction\" (\"maodun\"). In two major essays, \"On Contradiction\" and \"On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People\", he adopts the positivist-empiricist idea (shared by Engels) that contradiction is present in matter itself and thus also in the ideas of the brain. Matter always develops through a dialectical contradiction: \"The interdependence of the contradictory", "Three Worlds Theory states that during the Cold War two imperialist states formed the \"first world\"—the United States and the Soviet Union. The second world consisted of the other imperialist states in their spheres of influence. The third world consisted of the non-imperialist countries. Both the first and the second", "Maoism departs from conventional European-inspired Marxism in that its focus is on the agrarian countryside, rather than the industrial urban forces—this is known as agrarian socialism. Notably, Maoist parties in Peru, Nepal, and the Philippines have adopted equal stresses on urban and rural areas, depending on the country's focus of economic activity. Maoism broke with the", "In its post-revolutionary period, Mao Zedong Thought is defined in the CPC's Constitution as \"Marxism–Leninism applied in a Chinese context\", synthesized by Mao and China's \"first-generation leaders\". It asserts that class struggle continues even if the proletariat has already overthrown the bourgeoisie and there are capitalist restorationist elements within the Communist Party itself. Maoism provided the CPC's first comprehensive theoretical", "", "Shortly after Mao's death in 1976, Deng Xiaoping initiated socialist market reforms in 1978, thereby beginning the radical change in Mao's ideology in the People's Republic of China (PRC). Although Mao Zedong Thought nominally remains the state ideology, Deng's admonition to \"seek truth from facts\" means that state policies are judged on their practical consequences and in many areas the role of ideology in determining policy has thus been considerably reduced. Deng also separated Mao from Maoism, making it clear that Mao was fallible and hence the truth of Maoism comes from observing social consequences rather than by using Mao's quotations as holy writ, as was done in Mao's lifetime. Contemporary", "After the death of Mao in 1976 and the resulting power-struggles in China that followed, the international Maoist movement was divided into three camps. One group, composed of various ideologically nonaligned groups, gave weak support to the new Chinese leadership under Deng Xiaoping. Another camp denounced the new leadership as traitors to the cause of Marxism–Leninism–Mao Zedong Thought. The third camp sided with the Albanians in denouncing the Three Worlds Theory of the CPC (see the Sino-Albanian split). The pro-Albanian camp would start to", "From 1962 onwards, the challenge to the Soviet hegemony in the world communist movement made by the CPC resulted in various divisions in communist parties around the world. At an early stage, the Albanian Party of Labour sided with the CPC. So did many of the mainstream (non-splinter group) Communist parties in South-East Asia, like the Burmese Communist Party, Communist Party of Thailand and Communist Party of Indonesia. Some Asian parties, like the Workers Party of Vietnam and the Workers' Party of Korea attempted to take a middle-ground position. The Khmer Rouge of Cambodia is said to have been a replica of the Maoist regime. According to the BBC, the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK) in Cambodia, better known as the Khmer Rouge, identified strongly with Maoism and it is generally labeled a Maoist movement today. However, Maoists and Marxists generally contend that the CPK strongly deviated from Marxist doctrine and the few references to Maoist China in CPK propaganda were critical of the Chinese. Various efforts have sought to regroup the international communist movement under Maoism since the time of Mao's death in 1976. In the West and Third World, a plethora of parties and organizations were formed that upheld links to the CPC. Often they took names such as Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist) or Revolutionary Communist Party to distinguish themselves from the traditional pro-Soviet communist parties. The pro-CPC movements were in many cases based among the wave of student radicalism that engulfed the world in the 1960s and 1970s. Only one Western classic communist party sided with the CPC, the Communist Party of New Zealand. Under the leadership of the CPC and Mao Zedong, a parallel international communist movement emerged to rival that of the Soviets, although it was never as formalized and homogeneous as the pro-Soviet tendency. Another effort at regrouping the international communist movement is the International Conference of Marxist-Leninist Parties and Organizations (ICMLPO). Three notable parties that participate in the ICMLPO are the Marxist–Leninist Party of Germany (MLPD), the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) and Marxist–Leninist Communist Organization – Proletarian Way. The ICMLPO seeks to unity around Marxism-Leninism, not Maoism. However, some of the parties and organizations within the ICMLPO identify as Mao Zedong Thought or Maoist.", "The Progressive Youth Organization was a Maoist organization in Afghanistan. It was founded in", "The Communist Party of Australia (Marxist-Leninist) is a Maoist organisation", "The Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party is a Maoist party in Bangladesh. It was", "The Sino-Soviet split had an important influence on communism in Belgium. The pro-Soviet Communist Party of Belgium experienced a split of a Maoist wing under Jacques Grippa. The latter was a lower-ranking CPB member before the split, but Grippa rose in prominence as he formed a worthy internal Maoist opponent to the CPB leadership. His followers where sometimes referred to as Grippisten or Grippistes. When it became clear that the differences between the pro-Moscow leadership and the pro-Beijing wing were too great, Grippa and his entourage decided to split from the CPB and formed the Communist Party of Belgium – Marxist–Leninist (PCBML). The PCBML had some influence, mostly in the heavily industrialized Borinage region of Wallonia, but never managed to gather more support than the CPB. The latter", "The Communist Party of Ecuador – Red Sun,", "The Communist Party of India (Maoist) is the leading Maoist organisation in India. Two major political groupings owing allegiance to Mao's ideas, namely the Communist Party of", "The Union of Iranian Communists (Sarbedaran) was an Iran Maoist organization. The UIC (S) was formed in 1976 after the alliance of a number of Maoist", "The Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine is a Maoist political and military organization. The", "The Communist Party of the Philippines is the largest communist party in the Philippines, active since December 26, 1968 (Mao's birthday). It was formed as a result of the First Great Rectification Movement and a split between the old Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas-1930 which the founders saw as revisionist. The CPP was formed on Maoist lines in stark contrast with the old PKP which put primary focus to the", "Maoist movements in Portugal were very active during the 1970s, especially during the Carnation Revolution that led to the fall of the fascist government the Estado Novo in 1974. The largest Maoist movement in Portugal was the Portuguese Workers' Communist Party. The party was among the most active resistance movements before the Portuguese democratic revolution of 1974, especially among students of Lisbon.", "The Communist Party of Spain (Reconstituted) was a Spanish clandestine", "In 1968, a small extremist Maoist sect called Rebels () was established in Stockholm. Led by", "The Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist (TKP/ML) is a Maoist organization in Turkey currently waging a people's war against the Turkish", "In the United States during the late 1960s, parts of the emerging New Left rejected the Marxism espoused by the Soviet Union and instead adopted pro-Chinese communism. The Black Panther", "Maoism has fallen out of favour within the Communist Party of China, beginning with Deng Xiaoping's reforms in 1978. Deng believed that Maoism showed the dangers of \"ultra-leftism\", manifested in the harm perpetrated by the various mass movements that characterized the Maoist era. In Chinese communism, the term \"left\" can be taken as a euphemism for Maoist policies. However, Deng stated that the revolutionary side of Maoism should be considered separate from the governance side, leading to his famous epithet that Mao was \"70% right, 30% wrong\". Chinese scholars generally agree that Deng's interpretation of Maoism preserves the legitimacy of Communist rule in China, but at the same time criticizes Mao's brand of economic and political governance. Critic Graham Young says that Maoists see Joseph Stalin as the last true socialist leader of the Soviet Union, but allows that the Maoist assessments of Stalin vary between the extremely positive and the more ambivalent. Some political philosophers, such as Martin Cohen, have seen in Maoism an attempt to combine Confucianism and socialism—what one such called \"a third way between communism and capitalism\". Enver Hoxha critiqued Maoism from a Marxist–Leninist perspective, arguing that New Democracy halts class struggle, allows unrestricted capitalist exploitation, the theory of the three worlds is \"counter-revolutionary\" and questioned Mao's guerilla warfare methods. Some say Mao departed from Leninism not only in his near-total lack of interest in the urban working class, but also in his concept of the nature and role of the party. For Lenin, the party was sacrosanct because it was the incarnation of the \"proletarian consciousness\" and there was no question about who were the teachers and who were the pupils. On the other hand, for Mao this question would always be virtually impossible to answer. The implementation of Maoist thought in China was arguably responsible for as many as 70 million deaths during peacetime, with the Cultural Revolution, Anti-Rightist Campaign of 1957–1958 and the Great Leap Forward. Some historians have argued that because of Mao's land reforms during the Great Leap Forward which resulted in famines, thirty million perished between 1958 and 1961. By the end of 1961, the birth rate was nearly cut in half because of malnutrition. Active campaigns, including party purges and \"reeducation\" resulted in imprisonment and/or the execution of those deemed contrary to the implementation of Maoist ideals. The incidents of destruction of cultural heritage, religion and art remain controversial. Some Western scholars saw Maoism specifically engaged in a battle to dominate and subdue nature and was a catastrophe for the environment.", "Mao also believed strongly in the concept of a unified people. These notions were what prompted him to investigate the peasant uprisings in Hunan while the rest of China's communists were in the cities and focused on the orthodox Marxist proletariat. Many of the pillars of", "Mao's nationalist impulses also played a crucially important role in the adaption of Marxism to the Chinese model and in the formation of Maoism. Mao truly believed that China was to play a crucial preliminary role in the socialist revolution", "Mao-Spontex refers to a Maoist interpretation in western" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Equipment.", "Setup and gameplay.", "Rules.", "Objective.", "Movement.", "Promotion.", "Drops.", "Check.", "End of the game.", "Checkmate.", "Resignation.", "Illegal move.", "Repetition (draw).", "Impasse.", "Draws in tournaments.", "Time control.", "Player rank and handicaps.", "Handicaps.", "Notation.", "Strategy and tactics.", "Etiquette.", "History.", "Tournament play.", "Computer shogi.", "Shogi video games.", "Culture.", "In popular culture.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Two players face each other across a board composed of rectangles in a grid of 9 \"ranks\" (rows, ) by 9 \"files\" (columns, ) yielding an 81 square board. In Japanese they are called \"Sente\" (first player) and \"Gote\" (second player), but in English are conventionally referred to as Black and White, with Black the first player. The board is nearly always rectangular, and the rectangles are undifferentiated by marking or color. Pairs of dots mark the players' promotion zones. Each player has a set of 20 flat wedge-shaped pentagonal pieces of slightly different sizes. Except for the kings, opposing pieces are undifferentiated by marking or color. Pieces face \"forward\" by having the pointed side of each piece oriented toward the opponent's side – this shows who controls the piece during play. The pieces from largest (most important) to smallest (least important) are: Several of these names were chosen to correspond to their rough equivalents in international chess, and not as literal translations of the Japanese names. Each piece has its name written on its surface in the form of two \"kanji\" (Chinese characters used in Japanese), usually in black ink. On the reverse side of each piece, other than the king and", "Each player sets up friendly pieces facing forward (toward the opponent). Traditionally, the order of placing the pieces on the board is determined. There are two commonly used orders, the \"Ōhashi\" order 大橋流 and the \"Itō\" order 伊藤流. Placement sets pieces with multiples (generals, knights, lances) from left to right in all cases, and follows the order: A \"furigoma\" 振り駒 'piece toss' is used to decide who moves first. One of the players tosses five pawns. If the number of tokins (promoted pawns, と) facing up is higher than unpromoted pawns (歩), then the player who tossed the pawns plays \"gote\" 後手 'white' (that is, getting the second move). Among", "", "The usual goal of a game is for", "Most shogi pieces can move only to an adjacent square. A few may move across the board, and one jumps over intervening pieces. The lance, bishop, and rook are \"ranging\" pieces: They can move any number of squares along a straight line limited only by intervening pieces and the edge of the board. If an opposing piece intervenes, it may be captured by removing it from the board and replacing it with the moving piece. If a friendly piece intervenes, the moving piece must stop short of that square; if the friendly piece is adjacent, the moving piece may", "A player's \"promotion zone\" consists of the furthest one-third of the board – the three ranks occupied by the opponent's pieces at setup. The zone is typically delineated on shogi boards by two inscribed dots. When a piece is moved, if part of the piece's path lies within the promotion zone (that is, if the piece moves into, out of, or wholly within the zone; but \"not\" if it is dropped into the zone – see Drops), then the player has the option to \"promote\" the piece at the end of the turn. Promotion is indicated by turning the piece over after it moves, revealing the character of the promoted piece. If a pawn or lance is moved to the furthest rank, or a knight is moved to either of the two furthest ranks, that piece \"must\" promote (otherwise, it would have no legal move on subsequent", "Captured pieces are retained in hand and can be brought back into play under the capturing player's control. The Japanese term for \"piece(s) in hand\" is either 持ち駒 \"mochigoma\" or 手駒 \"tegoma.\" On any turn, instead of moving a piece on the board, a player may select a piece in hand and place it – unpromoted side up and facing the opposing side – on any empty square. The piece is then one of that player's active pieces on the board and can be moved accordingly. This is called \"dropping\" the piece, or simply, a \"drop\". A drop counts as a complete move. A", "When a player's move threatens to capture the opposing king on the next turn, the move is said to \"give check\" to the king and the king is said to be \"in check.\" If a player's king is in check, that player's responding move must remove", "The usual way for shogi games to end is for one side to checkmate the other side's king, after which the losing player will be given the opportunity to admit defeat. Unlike western chess or xiangqi, checkmate is almost always the end result in shogi since pieces never retire from play which gives the players a sufficient number of pieces to deliver checkmate. However, there are three other possible ways for a game to end: \"repetition\" ( \"sennichite\"), \"impasse\" ( \"jishōgi\"), and an \"illegal move\" (反則手). The first two – repetition and impasse – are particularly uncommon. Illegal moves are also uncommon in professional games although this may not be true with amateur players (especially beginners). Unlike western chess, there is no tradition of offering a mutual draw by agreement.", "If the king is in check and there is no possible move which could protect the king, the move is", "The losing player will usually resign when the situation is thought to be hopeless and may declare the resignation at any time during their turn. Although a player may resign just after they are checkmated, playing up to the checkmate point rarely occurs in practice as players normally resign as soon as a loss is deemed inevitable – such as when a \"tsume\" (forced mate sequence) is realized by the losing player. Similarly, if a player were", "In professional and serious (tournament) amateur games, a player who makes an illegal move loses immediately. The loss stands even if play continued and the move was discovered later in game. However, if neither the opponent nor a third party points out the illegal move and the opponent later resigned, the resignation stands as the result. Illegal moves include: In friendly amateur games,", "If the same game position occurs four times with the same player to move and the same pieces in hand for each player, then the game ends in a repetition draw (千日手 \"sennichite,\" lit. \"moves for a thousand days\"), as long as the positions are not due to perpetual check. Perpetual check (連続王手の千日手) is an illegal move (see above), which ends the game in a loss in tournament play. In professional shogi, a repetition draw outcome is not a final result as draws essentially do not count. There can be only one victorious through wins. In the case of a repetition draw, professional shogi players will have to immediately play a subsequent game (or as many games as necessary) with sides", "The game reaches an Impasse or Deadlock (持将棋 \"jishōgi\") if both kings have advanced into their respective promotion zones – a situation known as 相入玉 (\"ai-nyū gyoku\" \"double entering kings\") – and neither player can hope to mate the other or to gain any further material. An Impasse can result in either a win or a draw. If an Impasse happens, the winner is decided as follows: each player agrees to an Impasse, then each rook or bishop, promoted or not, scores 5 points for the owning player, and all other pieces except kings score 1 point each. A player scoring fewer than 24 points loses. (Note that", "In professional tournaments, the rules typically require drawn games to be replayed with sides reversed, possibly with reduced time limits. This is rare compared to chess and xiangqi, occurring at a rate of 1–2% even in amateur games. The 1982 \"Meijin\" title match between Makoto Nakahara and Hifumi Katoh was unusual in this regard with an impasse draw in the first (Double Fortress) game on April 13–14 (only the fifth draw in the then 40-year history of the tournament). This game (with Katoh as Black) lasted for 223 moves with 114 minutes spent pondering a single move. One of the reasons for the length of this game was that White (Nakahara) was very close to falling below the minimum of 24 points required for a draw. Thus, the end of the endgame was strategically about trying to keep White's points above the 24-point threshold. In this match, \"sennichite\" occurred in the sixth and eighth games. Thus, this best-of-seven match lasted eight games and took over three months to finish; Black did not lose a single game and the eventual victor was Katoh at 4–3.", "Professional games are timed as in international chess, but professional shogi players are almost never expected to keep time in their games. Instead a timekeeper is assigned, typically an apprentice professional. Time limits are much longer than in international chess (9 hours a side plus extra time in the prestigious \"Meijin\" title match), and in addition \"byōyomi\"", "Amateur players are ranked from 15 \"kyū\" to 1 kyū and then from 1 \"dan\" to 8 dan. Amateur 8 dan was previously only honorarily given to famous people. While it is now possible to win amateur 8 dan by actual strength (winning amateur Ryu-oh 3 times), this has yet to be achieved. Professional players operate with their own scale, from 6 kyū to 3 dan for pro-aspiring players and professional 4 dan to 9 dan for formal professional players. Amateur and professional ranks are offset (with amateur 4 dan being equivalent to professional 6 kyū).", "Shogi has a handicap system (like go) in which games between players of disparate strengths are adjusted so that the stronger player is put", "There are two common systems used to notate piece movements in shogi game records. One is used in Japanese language texts while a second was created for western players by George Hodges and Glyndon Townhill in the English language. This system was updated by Hosking to be closer to the Japanese standard (two numerals). Other systems are used to notate shogi board positions. Unlike chess, the origin (11 square) is at the top right of a printed position rather than the bottom left. In western piece movement notation, the format is the piece initial followed by the type of movement and finally the file and rank where the piece moved to. The piece initials are K (King), R (Rook), B (Bishop), G (Gold), S (Silver), N (Knight), L (Lance), and P (Pawn). Simple movement is indicated with -, captures with x, and piece drops with *.", "Shogi is similar to chess but has a much larger game tree complexity because of the use of drops, greater number of pieces, and larger board size. In comparison, shogi games average about 140 (half-)moves per game (or 70 chess move-pairs) whereas western chess games average about 80 moves per game (or 40 chess move-pairs) and minishogi averages about 40 moves per game (or 20 chess move-pairs). Like chess, however, the game can be divided into the opening, middle game and endgame, each requiring a different strategy. The opening consists of arranging one's defenses usually in a castle and positioning for attack, the mid game consists of attempting to break through the opposing defenses while maintaining one's own, and the endgame starts when one side's defenses have been compromised.", "Shogi players are expected to follow etiquette in addition to rules explicitly described. Commonly accepted etiquette include following: Shogi piece sets may contain two types of king pieces, (king) and (jewel). In this case, the higher classed player, in either social or genuine shogi player rank, may take the king piece. For example, in titleholder system games, the current titleholder takes the king piece as the higher. The higher-ranked (or older) player also sits facing the door of the room", "From \"The Chess Variant Pages\": It is not clear when chess was brought to Japan. The earliest generally accepted mention of shogi is (1058–1064) by Fujiwara Akihira. The oldest archaeological evidence is a group of 16 shogi pieces excavated from the grounds of Kōfuku-ji in Nara Prefecture. As it was physically associated with a wooden tablet written on in the sixth year of Tenki (1058), the pieces are thought to date from that period. These simple pieces were cut from a writing plaque in the same five-sided shape as modern pieces, with the names of the pieces written on them. The dictionary of common folk culture, (c. 1210–1221), a collection based on the two works and, describes two forms of shogi, large \"(dai)\" shogi and small \"(shō)\" shogi. These are now called Heian shogi (or Heian small shogi) and Heian dai shogi. Heian small shogi is the version on which modern shogi is based, but the \"Nichūreki\" states that one wins if one's opponent is reduced to a single king, indicating that drops had not yet been introduced. According to Kōji Shimizu, chief researcher at the Archaeological Institute of Kashihara, Nara Prefecture, the names of the Heian shogi pieces keep those of chaturanga (general, elephant, horse, chariot and soldier), and add to them the five treasures of Buddhism (jade, gold, silver, katsura tree, and incense). Around the 13th century the game of dai shogi developed, created by increasing the number of pieces in Heian shogi, as was sho shogi, which added the rook, bishop, and drunken elephant from dai shogi to Heian shogi. The drunken elephant steps one square in any direction except directly backward, and promotes to the prince, which acts as a second king and must also be captured along with the original king for the other player to win. Around the 15th century, the rules of dai shogi were simplified, creating the game of chu shogi. Chu shogi, like its parent dai shogi, contains many distinct pieces, such as the queen (identical with Western chess) and the lion (which moves like a king, but twice per turn, potentially being able to capture twice, among other idiosyncrasies). The popularity of dai shogi soon waned in favour of chu shogi, until it stopped being played commonly. Chu shogi rivalled sho shogi in popularity", "There are two organizations for shogi professional players in Japan: the JSA, and the, or LPSA. The JSA is the primary organization for men and women's professional shogi while the LPSA is a group of women professionals who broke away from the JSA in 2007 to establish their own independent organization. Both organize tournaments for their members and have reached an agreement to cooperate with each other to promote shogi through events and other activities. Top professional players are fairly well-paid from tournament earnings. In 2016, the highest tournament earners were Yoshiharu Habu and Akira Watanabe who earned ¥91,500,000 and ¥73,900,000. (The tenth highest earner, Kouichi Fukaura, won ¥18,490,000.) The JSA recognizes two categories of shogi professionals:, and. Sometimes \"kishi\" are addressed as, a term from Go used to distinguish \"kishi\" from other classes of players. JSA professional ranks and female professional ranks are not equivalent and each has their own promotion criteria and ranking system. In 2006, the JSA officially granted women \"professional status\". This is not equivalent, however, to the more traditional way of \"gaining professional status\", i.e., being promoted from the : leagues of strong amateur players aspiring to become a professional. Rather, it is a separate system especially designed for female professionals. Qualified amateurs, regardless of gender, may apply for the \"Shoreikai System\" and all those who successfully \"graduate\" are granted \"kishi\" status; however, no woman has yet to accomplish this feat (the highest women have reached is \"Shoreikai 3 \"dan\" league\" by Kana Satomi and Tomoka Nishiyama), so \"kishi\" is de facto only used to refer to male shogi professionals. The JSA is the only body which can organize tournaments for professionals, e.g., the eight major tournaments in the titleholder system and other professional tournaments. In 1996, Yoshiharu Habu became the only \"kishi\" to hold seven major titles at the same time. For female professionals, both the JSA and LPSA organize tournaments, either jointly or separately. Tournaments for amateurs may be organized by the JSA and LPSA as well as local clubs, newspapers, private corporations, educational institutions or municipal governments for cities or prefectures under the guidance of the JSA or LPSA. Since the 1990s, shogi has grown in popularity outside Japan, particularly in the People's Republic of China, and especially in Shanghai. The January 2006 edition of stated that there were 120,000 shogi players in Shanghai. The spread of the game to countries where Chinese characters are not in common use, however, has been slower.", "Shogi has the highest game complexity of all popular chess variants. Computers have steadily improved in playing shogi since the 1970s. In 2007, champion Yoshiharu Habu estimated the strength of the 2006 world computer shogi champion Bonanza at the level of two-dan shoreikai. The JSA prohibits its professionals from playing computers in public without prior permission, with the reason of promoting shogi and monetizing the computer–human events. On October 12, 2010, after some 35 years of development, a computer finally beat a professional player, when the top ranked female champion Ichiyo Shimizu was beaten by the Akara2010 system in a game lasting just", "Hundreds of video games were", "According to professional player Yoshiharu Habu, in Japan shogi is viewed as not merely a game as entertainment or a mind sport but is instead an art that is a part of traditional Japanese culture along with haiku, tanka, noh, ikebana, and the Japanese tea ceremony. Its elevated status was established by the \"iemoto\" system supported by the historical shogunate. The backwards \"uma\" (shogi horse symbol) is often featured on merchandise (such as on large decorative shogi piece sculptures, keychains, and other keepsakes) available for sale in Tendō. It also serves as a symbol of good luck. (Cf. Rabbit's foot.) There are multiple theories on its origin. One is that \"uma\" (うま ) spelled in the Japanese syllabary backwards is まう \"mau\" (舞う), which means \"(to) dance\" and dancing horses are a good luck omen.", "In the manga series \"Naruto\", shogi plays an essential part in Shikamaru Nara's character development. He often plays it with his sensei, Asuma Sarutobi, apparently always beating him. When Asuma is fatally injured in battle, he reminds Shikamaru that the shogi king must always be protected, and draws a parallel between the king in shogi and his yet-unborn daughter, Mirai, whom he wanted Shikamaru to guide. Shogi has been a central plot point in the manga and anime \"Shion no Ō\", the manga and anime \"March Comes in Like a Lion\", and the manga and television drama \"81diver\". In the manga and anime \"Durarara!!\", the information broker Izaya Orihara plays a twisted version of chess, go and shogi, where he mixes all three games into one as a representation", "Rules Online play Online tools" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition in the real numbers.", "Definition in a metric space.", "Boundedness in topological vector spaces.", "Boundedness in order theory." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A set \"S\" of real numbers is called \"bounded from above\" if there exists some real number \"k\" (not necessarily in \"S\") such that \"k\" ≥ \" s\" for all \"s\" in \"S\". The number \"k\" is called an upper bound of \"S\". The terms \"bounded from below\" and lower bound are similarly defined. A set \"S\" is bounded if it has both upper and lower bounds. Therefore, a set of real numbers is bounded if it is contained in a finite interval.", "A subset \"S\" of a metric space (\"M\", \"d\") is bounded if there exists \"r\" > 0 such that for all \"s\" and \"t\" in \"S\", we have d(\"s\", \"t\") < \"r\". (\"M\", \"d\") is a \"bounded\" metric space (or \"d\" is a \"bounded\" metric) if \"M\" is bounded as a subset of itself.", "In topological vector spaces, a different definition for bounded sets exists which is sometimes called von Neumann boundedness. If the topology of the topological vector space is induced by a metric which is homogeneous, as in the case of a metric induced by the norm of normed vector spaces, then the two definitions coincide.", "A set of real numbers is bounded if and only if it has an upper and lower bound. This definition is extendable to subsets of any partially ordered set. Note that this more general concept of boundedness does not correspond to a notion of \"size\". A subset \"S\" of a partially ordered set \"P\" is called bounded above if there is an element \"k\" in \"P\" such that \"k\" ≥ \"s\" for all \"s\" in \"S\". The element \"k\" is called an upper bound of \"S\". The concepts of bounded below and lower bound are defined similarly. (See also upper and lower bounds.) A subset \"S\" of a partially ordered set \"P\" is called bounded if it has both an upper and a lower bound, or equivalently, if it is contained in an interval. Note that this is not just a property of the set \"S\" but also one of the set \"S\" as subset of \"P\". A bounded poset \"P\" (that is, by itself, not as subset) is one that has a least element and a greatest element. Note that this concept of boundedness has nothing to do with finite size, and that a subset \"S\" of a bounded poset \"P\" with as order the restriction of the order on \"P\" is not necessarily a bounded poset. A subset \"S\" of R is bounded with respect to the Euclidean distance if and only if it bounded as subset of R with the product order. However, \"S\" may be bounded as subset of R with the lexicographical order, but not with respect to the Euclidean distance. A class of ordinal numbers is said to be unbounded, or cofinal, when given any ordinal, there is always some element of the class greater than it. Thus in this case \"unbounded\" does not mean unbounded by itself but unbounded as a subclass of the class of all ordinal numbers." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Examples.", "Idempotent functions.", "Computer science meaning.", "Computer science examples.", "Applied examples." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "An element \"x\" of a magma (\"M\", •) is said to be \"idempotent\" if: If all elements are idempotent with respect to •, then • is called idempotent. The formula ∀\"x\", is called the idempotency law for •.", "", "In the monoid (\"E\", ∘) of the functions from a set \"E\" to itself with the function composition ∘, idempotent elements are the functions such that, in other words such that for all \"x\" in \"E\", (the image of each element in \"E\" is a fixed point of \"f\"). For example: Other examples include: If the set \"E\" has \"n\" elements, we can partition it into \"k\" chosen fixed points and non-fixed points under \"f\", and then \"k\" is the number of different idempotent functions. Hence, taking into account all possible partitions, is the total number of possible idempotent functions on the set. The integer sequence of the number of idempotent functions as given by the sum above for \"n\" = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,... starts with 1, 1, 3, 10, 41, 196, 1057, 6322, 41393,.... Neither the property of being idempotent nor that of being not is preserved under function composition. As an example for the former, mod 3 and \"g\"(\"x\") = max(\"x\", 5) are both idempotent, but is not, although happens to be. As an example for the latter, the negation function ¬ on the Boolean domain is not idempotent, but is. Similarly, unary negation of real numbers is not idempotent, but is.", "In computer science, the term \"idempotence\" may have a different meaning depending on the context in which it is applied: This is a very useful property in many situations, as it means that an operation can be repeated or retried as often as necessary without causing unintended effects. With non-idempotent operations, the algorithm may have to keep track of whether the operation was already performed or not.", "A function looking up a customer's name and address in a database is typically idempotent, since this will not cause the database to change. Similarly, changing a customer's address to XYZ is typically idempotent, because the final address will be the same no matter how many times XYZ is submitted. However, placing an order for a cart for the customer is typically not idempotent, since running the call several times will lead to several orders being placed. Canceling an order is idempotent, because the order remains canceled no matter how many requests are made. A composition of idempotent methods or subroutines, however, is not necessarily idempotent if a later method in the sequence changes a value that an earlier method depends on – \"idempotence is not closed under composition\". For example, suppose the initial value of a variable is 3 and there is a sequence that reads the variable, then changes it to 5, and then reads it again. Each step in the sequence is idempotent: both steps reading the variable have no side effects and changing a variable to 5 will always have the same effect no matter how many times it is executed. Nonetheless, executing the entire sequence once produces the output (3, 5), but executing it a second time produces the output (5, 5), so the sequence is not idempotent. In the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), idempotence and safety are the major attributes that separate HTTP verbs. Of the major HTTP verbs, GET, PUT, and DELETE should be implemented in an idempotent manner according to the standard, but POST need not be. GET retrieves a resource; PUT stores content at a resource; and DELETE eliminates a resource. As in the example above, reading data usually has no side effects, so it is idempotent (in fact \"nullipotent\"). Storing and deleting a given set of content are each usually idempotent as long as the request specifies a location or identifier that uniquely identifies that resource and only that resource again in the future. The PUT and DELETE operations with unique identifiers reduce to the simple case of assignment to an immutable variable of either a value or the null-value, respectively, and are idempotent for the same reason; the end result is always the same as the result of the initial execution, even if the response differs. Violation of the unique identification requirement in storage or deletion typically causes violation of idempotence. For example, storing or deleting a given set of content without specifying a unique identifier: POST requests, which do not need to be idempotent, often do not contain unique identifiers, so the creation of the identifier is delegated to the receiving system which then creates a corresponding new record. Similarly, PUT and DELETE requests with nonspecific criteria may result in different outcomes depending on the state of the system - for example, a request to delete the most recent record. In each case, subsequent executions will further modify the state of the system, so they are not idempotent. In Event stream processing, idempotence refers to the ability of a system to produce the same outcome, even if the same file, event or message is received more than once. In a load-store architecture, instructions that might possibly cause a page fault are idempotent. So if a page fault occurs, the OS can load the page from disk and then simply re-execute the faulted instruction. In a processor where such instructions are not idempotent, dealing with page faults is much more complex. When reformatting output, pretty-printing is expected to be idempotent. In other words, if the output is already \"pretty\", there should be nothing to do for the pretty-printer. In service-oriented architecture (SOA), a multiple-step orchestration process composed entirely of idempotent steps can be replayed without side-effects if any part of that process fails.", "Applied examples that many people could encounter in their day-to-day lives include elevator call buttons and crosswalk buttons. The initial activation of the button moves the system into a requesting state, until the request is satisfied. Subsequent activations of the button between the initial activation and the request being satisfied have no effect, unless the system is designed to adjust the time for satisfying the request based on the number of activations." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Absolute complement.", "Definition.", "Properties.", "Relative complement.", "Definition.", "Properties.", "Complementary relation.", "LaTeX notation.", "In programming languages." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "If is a set, then the absolute complement of (or simply the complement of ) is the set of elements not in, within a larger set that is implicitly defined. In other words, let be a set that contains all the elements under study; if it is no need to mention, either because it has been previously specified, or it is obvious and unique, then the absolute complement of is the relative complement of in : Formally: The absolute complement of is usually denoted by formula_3. Other notations include formula_4, formula_5, formula_6, and formula_7.", "Let and be two sets in a universe. The following identities capture important properties of absolute complements: The first two complement laws above show that if is a non-empty, proper subset of, then is a partition of.", "", "If and are sets, then the relative complement of in, also termed the set difference of and, is the set of elements in but not in. The relative complement of in is denoted according to the ISO 31-11 standard. It is sometimes written, but this notation is ambiguous, as in some contexts it can be interpreted as the set of all elements, where is taken from and from. Formally:", "Let,, and be three sets. The following identities capture notable properties of relative complements:", "A binary relation \"R\" is defined as a subset of a product of sets \"X\" × \"Y\". The complementary relation formula_35 is the set complement of \"R\" in \"X\" × \"Y\". The complement of relation \"R\" can be written Often \"R\" is viewed as a logical matrix with rows representing the elements of \"X\", and columns elements of \"Y\". The truth of \"aRb\" corresponds to 1 in row \"a\", column \"b\". Producing the complementary relation to \"R\" then corresponds to switching all 1s to 0s and 0s to 1s for the logical matrix of the complement. Together with composition of relations and converse relations, complementary relations and the algebra of sets are the elementary operations of the calculus of relations.", "In the LaTeX typesetting language, the command codice_1 is usually used for rendering a set difference symbol, which is similar to a backslash symbol. When rendered, the codice_1 command looks identical to codice_3 except that it has a little more space in front and behind the slash, akin to the LaTeX sequence codice_4. A variant codice_5 is available in the amssymb package.", "Some programming languages have sets among their builtin data structures. Such a data structure behaves as a finite set, that is it consists of a finite number of data, that are not specifically ordered, and may thus be considered as the elements of a set. In some cases, the elements are not necessary distinct, and the data structure codes multisets rather than sets. These programming languages have operators or functions for computing the complement and the set differences. These operators may generally be applied also to data structures that are not really mathematical sets, such as ordered lists or arrays. It follows that some programming languages may have a function called codice_6 even if they have not any data structure for sets." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin of names.", "Taxonomy.", "Description.", "Distribution.", "Associated insects.", "Applications.", "Species." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The common English name \"hornbeam\" derives from the hardness of the woods (likened to horn) and the Old English \"beam\" \"tree\" (cognate with German \"Baum\"). The American hornbeam is also occasionally known as blue-beech, ironwood, or musclewood, the first from the resemblance of the bark to that of the American beech \"Fagus grandifolia\", the other two from the hardness of the wood and the muscular appearance of the trunk, respectively. The botanic name for the genus, \"Carpinus\", is the original Latin name for the European species.", "Though some botanists grouped them with the hazels (\"Corylus\") and hop-hornbeams (\"Ostrya\") in a segregated family, \"Corylaceae\", modern botanists place the hornbeams in the birch subfamily Coryloideae.", "Hornbeams are small to medium-sized trees, \"Carpinus betulus\" reaching a height of 32 m. The leaves are deciduous, alternate, and simple with a serrated margin, and typically vary from 3–10 cm in length. The flowers are wind-pollinated pendulous catkins, produced in spring. The male and female flowers are on separate catkins, but on the same tree (monoecious). The fruit is a small nut about 3–6 mm long, held in a leafy bract; the bract may be either trilobed or simple oval, and is slightly asymmetrical. The asymmetry of the seedwing makes it spin as it falls, improving wind dispersal. The shape of the wing is important in the identification of different hornbeam species. Typically, 10–30 seeds are on each seed catkin.", "The 30–40 species occur across much of the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, with the greatest number of species in east Asia, particularly China. Only two species occur in Europe, only one in eastern North America, and one in Mesoamerica. \"Carpinus betulus\" can be found in Europe, Turkey and Ukraine.", "Hornbeams are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including autumnal moth, common emerald, feathered thorn, walnut sphinx, Svensson's copper underwing, and winter moth (recorded on European hornbeam) as well as the \"Coleophora\" case-bearers \"C. currucipennella\" and \"C. ostryae\".", "Hornbeams yield a very hard timber, giving rise to the name \"ironwood\". Dried heartwood billets are nearly white and are suitable for decorative use. For general carpentry, hornbeam is rarely used, partly due to the difficulty of working it. The wood is used to construct carving boards, tool handles, handplane soles, coach wheels, piano actions, shoe lasts, and other products where a very tough, hard wood is required. The wood can also be used as gear pegs in simple machines, including traditional windmills. It is sometimes coppiced to provide hardwood poles. It is also used in parquet flooring and for making chess pieces.", "Accepted species:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Major themes.", "Zionist views.", "Literary and academic career.", "Philosophy.", "Dialogue and existence.", "\"Ich-Du\".", "\"Ich-Es\".", "Hasidism and mysticism.", "Published works.", "Collected works.", "Correspondence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Martin (Hebrew name: \"מָרְדֳּכַי,\" \"Mordechai\") Buber was born in Vienna to an Orthodox Jewish family. Buber was a direct descendant of the 16th-century rabbi Meir Katzenellenbogen, known as the Maharam (מהר\"מ), the Hebrew acronym for “Our Teacher, the Rabbi, Rabbi Meir”, of Padua. Karl Marx is another notable relative. After the divorce of his parents when he was three years old, he was raised by his grandfather in Lvov. His grandfather, Solomon Buber, was a scholar of Midrash and Rabbinic Literature. At home, Buber spoke Yiddish and German. In 1892, Buber returned to his father's house in Lemberg, today's Lviv, Ukraine. Despite Buber's putative connection to the Davidic line as a descendant of Katzenellenbogen, a personal religious crisis led him to break with Jewish religious customs. He began reading Immanuel Kant, Søren Kierkegaard, and Friedrich Nietzsche. The latter two, in particular, inspired him to pursue studies in philosophy. In 1896, Buber went to study in Vienna (philosophy, art history, German studies, philology). In 1898, he joined the Zionist movement, participating in congresses and organizational work. In 1899, while studying in Zürich, Buber met his future wife, Paula Winkler, a \"brilliant Catholic writer from a Bavarian peasant family\" who in 1901 left the Catholic Church and in 1907 converted to Judaism. Buber, initially, supported and celebrated the Great War as a 'world historical mission' for Germany along with Jewish intellectuals to civilize the Near East. Some researchers believe that while in Vienna during and after World War I, he was influenced by the writings of Jacob L. Moreno, particularly the use of the term ‘encounter’. In 1930, Buber became an honorary professor at the University of Frankfurt am Main, but resigned from his professorship in protest immediately after Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933. He then founded the Central Office for Jewish Adult Education, which became an increasingly important body as the German government forbade Jews from public education. In 1938, Buber left Germany and settled in Jerusalem, Mandate Palestine, receiving a professorship at Hebrew University and lecturing in anthropology and introductory sociology. After the creation of the state of Israel in 1948 Buber became the best known Israeli philosopher. Buber's wife Paula died in 1958, and he died at his home in the Talbiya neighborhood of Jerusalem on June 13, 1965. They had two children: a son, Rafael Buber, and a daughter, Eva Strauss-Steinitz.", "Buber's evocative, sometimes poetic, writing style marked the major themes in his work: the retelling of Hasidic and Chinese tales, Biblical commentary, and metaphysical dialogue. A cultural Zionist, Buber was active in the Jewish and educational communities of Germany and Israel. He was also a staunch supporter of a binational solution in Palestine, and, after the establishment of the Jewish state of Israel, of a regional federation of Israel and Arab states. His influence extends across the humanities, particularly in the fields of social psychology, social philosophy, and religious existentialism. Buber's attitude toward Zionism was tied to his desire to promote a vision of \"Hebrew humanism\". According to Laurence J. Silberstein, the terminology of \"Hebrew humanism\" was coined to \"distinguish [Buber's] form of nationalism from that of the official Zionist movement\" and to point to how \"Israel's problem was but a distinct form of the universal human problem. Accordingly, the task of Israel as a distinct nation was inexorably linked to the task of humanity in general\".", "Approaching Zionism from his own personal viewpoint, Buber disagreed with Theodor Herzl about the political and cultural direction of Zionism. Herzl did not envision Zionism as a movement with religious objectives. In contrast, Buber believed the potential of Zionism was for social and spiritual enrichment. For example, Buber argued that following the formation of the Israeli state, there would need to be reforms to Judaism: \"We need someone who would do for Judaism what Pope John XXIII has done for the Catholic Church\". Herzl and Buber would continue, in mutual respect and disagreement, to work towards their respective goals for the rest of their lives. In 1902, Buber became the editor of the weekly \"Die Welt\", the central organ of the Zionist movement. However, a year later he became involved with the Jewish Hasidim movement. Buber admired how the Hasidic communities actualized their religion in daily life and culture. In stark contrast to the busy Zionist organizations, which were always mulling political concerns, the Hasidim were focused on the values which Buber had long advocated for Zionism to adopt. In 1904, he withdrew from much of his Zionist organizational work, and devoted himself to study and writing. In that year, he published his thesis, \"Beiträge zur Geschichte des Individuationsproblems\", on Jakob Böhme and Nikolaus Cusanus. In the early 1920s, Martin Buber started advocating a binational Jewish-Arab state, stating that the Jewish people should proclaim \"its desire to live in peace and brotherhood with the Arab people, and to develop the common homeland into a republic in which both peoples will have the possibility of free development\". Buber rejected the idea of Zionism as just another national movement, and wanted instead to see the creation of an exemplary society; a society which would not, he said, be characterized by Jewish domination of the Arabs. It was necessary for the Zionist movement to reach a consensus with the Arabs even at the cost of the Jews remaining a minority in the country. In 1925, he was involved in the creation of the organization Brit Shalom (Covenant of Peace), which advocated the creation of a binational state, and throughout the rest of his life, he hoped and believed that Jews and Arabs one day would live in peace in a joint nation. In 1942, he co‐founded the Ihud party, which advocated a bi-nationalist program. Nevertheless, he was connected with decades of friendship to Zionists and philosophers such as Chaim Weizmann, Max Brod, Hugo Bergman, and Felix Weltsch, who were close friends of his from old European times in Prague, Berlin, and Vienna to the Jerusalem of the 1940s through the 1960s. After the establishment of Israel in 1948, Buber advocated Israel's participation in a federation of \"Near East\" states wider than just Palestine.", "From 1906 until 1914, Buber published editions of Hasidic, mystical, and mythic texts from Jewish and world sources. In 1916, he moved from Berlin to Heppenheim. During World War I, he helped establish the Jewish National Committee to improve the condition of Eastern European Jews. During that period he became the editor of \"Der Jude\" (German for \"The Jew\"), a Jewish monthly (until 1924). In 1921, Buber began his close relationship with Franz Rosenzweig. In 1922, he and Rosenzweig co-operated in Rosenzweig's House of Jewish Learning, known in Germany as \"Lehrhaus\". In 1923, Buber wrote his famous essay on existence, \"Ich und Du\" (later translated into English as \"I and Thou\"). Though he edited the work later in his life, he refused to make substantial changes. In 1925, he began, in conjunction with Franz Rosenzweig, translating the Hebrew Bible into German. He himself called this translation \"Verdeutschung\" (\"Germanification\"), since it does not always use literary German language, but instead attempts to find new dynamic (often newly invented) equivalent phrasing to respect the multivalent Hebrew original. Between 1926 and 1930, Buber co-edited the quarterly \"Die Kreatur\" (\"The Creature\"). In 1930, Buber became an honorary professor at the University of Frankfurt am Main. He resigned in protest from his professorship immediately after Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933. On October 4, 1933, the Nazi authorities forbade him to lecture. In 1935, he was expelled from the \"Reichsschrifttumskammer\" (the National Socialist authors' association). He then founded the Central Office for Jewish Adult Education, which became an increasingly important body, as the German government forbade Jews to attend public education. The Nazi administration increasingly obstructed this body. Finally, in 1938, Buber left Germany, and settled in Jerusalem, then capital of Mandate Palestine. He received a professorship at Hebrew University, there lecturing in anthropology and introductory sociology. The lectures he gave during the first semester were published in the book \"The problem of man\" (\"Das Problem des Menschen\"); in these lectures he discusses how the question \"What is Man?\" became the central one in philosophical anthropology. He participated in the discussion of the Jews' problems in Palestine and of the Arab question – working out of his Biblical, philosophic, and Hasidic work. He became a member of the group \"Ihud\", which aimed at a bi-national state for Arabs and Jews in Palestine. Such a binational confederation was viewed by Buber as a more proper fulfillment of Zionism than a solely Jewish state. In 1946, he published his work \"Paths in Utopia\", in which he detailed his communitarian socialist views and his theory of the \"dialogical community\" founded upon interpersonal \"dialogical relationships\". After World War II, Buber began lecture tours in Europe and the United States. In 1952, he argued with Jung over the existence of God.", "Buber is famous for his thesis of dialogical existence, as he described in the book \"I and Thou\". However, his work dealt with a range of issues including religious consciousness, modernity, the concept of evil, ethics, education, and Biblical hermeneutics. Buber rejected the label of \"philosopher\" or \"theologian\", claiming he was not interested in ideas, only personal experience, and could not discuss God, but only relationships to God. Politically, Buber's social philosophy on points of prefiguration aligns with that of anarchism, though Buber explicitly disavowed the affiliation in his lifetime and justified the existence of a state under limited conditions.", "In \"I and Thou\", Buber introduced his thesis on human existence. Inspired by Feuerbach's \"The Essence of Christianity\" and Kierkegaard's \"Single One\", Buber worked upon the premise of existence as encounter. He explained this philosophy using the word pairs of \"Ich-Du\" and \"Ich-Es\" to categorize the modes of consciousness, interaction, and being through which an individual engages with other individuals, inanimate objects, and all reality in general. Theologically, he associated the first with the Jewish Jesus and the second with the apostle Paul (formerly Saul of Tarsus, a Jew). Philosophically, these word pairs express complex ideas about modes of being—particularly how a person exists and actualizes that existence. As Buber argues in \"I and Thou\", a person is at all times engaged with the world in one of these modes. The generic motif Buber employs to describe the dual modes of being is one of dialogue (\"Ich-Du\") and monologue (\"Ich-Es\"). The concept of communication, particularly language-oriented communication, is used both in describing dialogue/monologue through metaphors and expressing the interpersonal nature of human existence.", "\"Ich‐Du\" (\"I‐Thou\" or \"I‐You\") is a relationship that stresses the mutual, holistic existence of two beings. It is a concrete encounter, because these beings meet one another in their authentic existence, without any qualification or objectification of one another. Even imagination and ideas do not play a role in this relation. In an I–Thou encounter, infinity and universality are made actual (rather than being merely concepts). Buber stressed that an \"Ich‐Du\" relationship lacks any composition (e. g., structure) and communicates no content (e. g., information). Despite the fact that \"Ich‐Du\" cannot be proven to happen as an event (e. g., it cannot be measured), Buber stressed that it is real and perceivable. A variety of examples are used to illustrate \"Ich‐Du\" relationships in daily life—two lovers, an observer and a cat, the author and a tree, and two strangers on a train. Common English words used to describe the \"Ich‐Du\" relationship include encounter, meeting, dialogue, mutuality, and exchange. One key \"Ich‐Du\" relationship Buber identified was that which can exist between a human being and God. Buber argued that this is the only way in which it is possible to interact with God, and that an \"Ich‐Du\" relationship with anything or anyone connects in some way with the eternal relation to God. To create this I–Thou relationship with God, a person has to be open to the idea of such a relationship, but not actively pursue it. The pursuit of such a relation creates qualities associated with It‐ness, and so would prevent an I‐You relation, limiting it to I‐It. Buber claims that if we are open to the I–Thou, God eventually comes to us in response to our welcome. Also, because the God Buber describes is completely devoid of qualities, this I–Thou relationship lasts as long as the individual wills it. When the individual finally returns to the I‐It way of relating, this acts as a barrier to deeper relationship and community.", "The \"Ich-Es\" (\"I‐It\") relationship is nearly the opposite of \"Ich‐Du\". Whereas in \"Ich‐Du\" the two beings encounter one another, in an \"Ich‐Es\" relationship the beings do not actually meet. Instead, the \"I\" confronts and qualifies an idea, or conceptualization, of the being in its presence and treats that being as an object. All such objects are considered merely mental representations, created and sustained by the individual mind. This is based partly on Kant's theory of phenomenon, in that these objects reside in the cognitive agent's mind, existing only as thoughts. Therefore, the \"Ich‐Es\" relationship is in fact a relationship with oneself; it is not a dialogue, but a monologue. In the \"Ich-Es\" relationship, an individual treats other things, people, etc., as objects to be used and experienced. Essentially, this form of objectivity relates to the world in terms of the self – how an object can serve the individual's interest. Buber argued that human life consists of an oscillation between \"Ich‐Du\" and \"Ich‐Es\", and that in fact \"Ich‐Du\" experiences are rather few and far between. In diagnosing the various perceived ills of modernity (e. g., isolation, dehumanization, etc.), Buber believed that the expansion of a purely analytic, material view of existence was at heart an advocation of \"Ich‐Es\" relations - even between human beings. Buber argued that this paradigm devalued not only existents, but the meaning of all existence.", "Buber was a scholar, interpreter, and translator of Hasidic lore. He viewed Hasidism as a source of cultural renewal for Judaism, frequently citing examples from the Hasidic tradition that emphasized community, interpersonal life, and meaning in common activities (e. g., a worker's relation to his tools). The Hasidic ideal, according to Buber, emphasized a life lived in the unconditional presence of God, where there was no distinct separation between daily habits and religious experience. This was a major influence on Buber's philosophy of anthropology, which considered the basis of human existence as dialogical. In 1906, Buber published \"Die Geschichten des Rabbi Nachman\", a collection of the tales of the Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, a renowned Hasidic \"rebbe\", as interpreted and retold in a Neo-Hasidic fashion by Buber. Two years later, Buber published \"Die Legende des Baalschem\" (stories of the Baal Shem Tov), the founder of Hasidism. Buber's interpretation of the Hasidic tradition, however, has been criticized by Chaim Potok for its romanticization. In the introduction to Buber's \"Tales of the Hasidim\", Potok claims that Buber overlooked Hasidism's \"charlatanism, obscurantism, internecine quarrels, its heavy freight of folk superstition and pietistic excesses, its tzadik worship, its vulgarized and attenuated reading of Lurianic Kabbalah\". Even more severe is the criticism that Buber de-emphasized the importance of the Jewish Law in Hasidism. \"Chinesische Geister- und Liebesgeschichten\" included the first German translation ever made of \"Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio\". Alex Page translated the \"Chinesische Geister- und Liebesgeschichten\" as \"Chinese Tales\", published in 1991 by Humanities Press.", "", "\"Werke\" 3 volumes (1962–1964) \"Martin Buber Werkausgabe\" (MBW). Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften / Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, ed. Paul Mendes-Flohr & Peter Schäfer with Martina Urban; 21 volumes planned (2001–)", "\"Briefwechsel aus sieben Jahrzehnten 1897–1965\" (1972–1975) Several of his original writings, including his personal archives, are preserved in the National Library of Israel, formerly the Jewish National and University Library, located on the campus of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Church tradition.", "In Islam.", "Beliefs.", "Veneration.", "Relics.", "Patronage.", "In art.", "\"Christ in the House of His Parents\".", "Iconography.", "Virgin and Child with Saint Anne." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The story bears a similarity to that of the birth of Samuel, whose mother Hannah ( \"Ḥannāh\" \"favour, grace\"; etymologically the same name as Anne) had also been childless. Although Anne receives little attention in the Latin Church prior to the late 12th century, dedications to Anne in Eastern Christianity occur as early as the 6th century. In the Eastern Orthodox tradition, Hannah is ascribed the title \"Forebear of God\", and both the Nativity of Mary and the Presentation of Mary are celebrated as two of the twelve Great Feasts of the Orthodox Church. The Dormition of Hannah is also a minor feast in Eastern Christianity. In Lutheran Protestantism, it is held that Martin Luther chose to enter religious life as an Augustinian friar after crying out to St. Anne while endangered by lightning.", "Anne () is also revered in Islam, recognized as a highly spiritual woman and as the mother of Mary. She is not named in the Quran, where she is referred to as \"The wife of Imran\". The Qur'an describes her remaining childless until her old age. One day, Hannah saw a bird feeding its young while sitting in the shade of a tree, which awakened her desire to have children of her own. She prayed for a child and eventually conceived; her husband, Imran, died before the child was born. Expecting the child to be male, Hannah vowed to dedicate him to isolation and service in the Second Temple. However, Hannah bore a daughter instead, and named her Mary. Her words upon delivering Mary reflect her status as a great mystic, realising that while she had wanted a son, this daughter was God's gift to her:", "Although the canonical books of the New Testament never mention the mother of the Virgin Mary, traditions about her family, childhood, education, and eventual betrothal to Joseph developed very early in the history of the church. The oldest and most influential source for these is the apocryphal \"Gospel of James\", first written in Koine Greek around the middle of the second century AD. In the West, the \"Gospel of James\" fell under a cloud in the fourth and fifth centuries when it was accused of \"absurdities\" by Jerome and condemned as untrustworthy by Pope Damasus I, Pope Innocent I, and Pope Gelasius I. Ancient belief, attested to by a sermon of John of Damascus, was that Anne married once. In the Late Middle Ages, legend held that Anne was married three times: first to Joachim, then to Clopas and finally to a man named Solomas and that each marriage produced one daughter: Mary, mother of Jesus, Mary of Clopas, and Mary Salome, respectively. The sister of Saint Anne was Sobe, mother of Elizabeth. In the fifteenth century, the Catholic cleric Johann Eck related in a sermon that St Anne's parents were named Stollanus and Emerentia. The \"Catholic Encyclopedia\" (1907) regards this genealogy as spurious. In the 4th century and then much later in the 15th century, a belief arose that Mary was conceived of Anne without Original sin. This belief was however already implicitly present in the idea of Mary as the New Eve, present in the 2nd century writers St Justin Martyr, St Irenaeus and Tertullian, and arguably also in St Paul (1 Cor.11:12). This belief in the Immaculate Conception states that God preserved Mary's body and soul intact and sinless from her first moment of existence, through the merits of Jesus Christ. The Immaculate Conception, often confused with the Annunciation of the Incarnation (Mary's virgin birth of Jesus), was made dogma in the Catholic church by Pope Pius IX's papal bull, \"Ineffabilis\" \"Deus\", in 1854.", "In the Eastern church, the cult of Anne herself may go back as far as c. 550, when Justinian built a church in Constantinople in her honor. The earliest pictorial sign of her veneration in the West is an 8th-century fresco in the church of Santa Maria Antiqua, Rome. Virginia Nixon sees an economic incentive in the local promotion of the cult of St. Anne in order to attract pilgrims. The identification of Sepphoris as the birthplace of Mary may reflect competition with a similar site in Jerusalem. A shrine at Douai, in northern France, was one of the early centers of devotion to St. Anne in the West. Two well-known shrines to St. Anne are that of Ste. Anne d'Auray in Brittany, France; and that of Ste. Anne de Beaupré near the city of Québec. The number of visitors to the Basilica of Ste. Anne de Beaupré is greatest on St Anne's Feast Day, 26 July, and the Sunday before Nativity of the Virgin Mary, 8 September. In 1892, Pope Leo XIII sent a relic of St Anne to the church. In the Maltese language, the Milky Way galaxy is called \"It-Triq ta' Sant'Anna\", literally \"\"The Way of St. Anne\"\". In Imperial Russia, the Order of St Anne was one of the leading state decorations. In the United States, the Daughters of the Holy Spirit named the former Annhurst College in her honor. A woman's attachment to and faith in a St. Anne medallion is the subject of The Chairman Dances' song \"Saint Anne Medal\", included on their EP \"Samantha Says\" (2015).", "The supposed relics of St. Anne were brought from the Holy Land to Constantinople in 710 and were kept there in the church of St. Sophia as late as 1333. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, returning crusaders and pilgrims from the East brought relics of Anne to a number of churches, including most famously those at Apt, in Provence, Ghent, and Chartres. St. Anne's relics have been preserved and venerated in the many cathedrals and monasteries dedicated to her name, for example in Austria, Canada, Germany, Italy, and Greece in Holy Mount and the city of Katerini. Medieval and baroque craftsmanship is evidenced in, for example, the metalwork of the life-size reliquaries containing the bones of her forearm. Examples employing folk art techniques are also known. Düren has been the main place of pilgrimage for Anne since 1506, when Pope Julius II decreed that her relics should be kept there.", "The Church of Saint Anne in Beit Guvrin National Park was built by the Byzantines and the Crusaders in the 12th century, known in Arabic as Khirbet (lit. \"ruin\") Sandahanna, the mound of Maresha being called Tell Sandahanna. Saint Anne is patroness of unmarried women, housewives, women in labor or who want to be pregnant, grandmothers, and educators. She is also a patroness of horseback riders, cabinet-makers and miners. As the mother of Mary, this devotion to Saint Anne as the patron of miners arises from the medieval comparison between Mary and Christ and the precious metals silver and gold. Anne's womb was considered the source from which these precious metals were mined. Saint Anne is also said to be a patron saint of sailors and a protector from storms. She is also the patron saint of: Brittany (France), Chinandega (Nicaragua), the Mi'kmaq people of Canada, Castelbuono (Sicily), Quebec (Canada), Santa Ana (California), Norwich (Connecticut), Detroit (Michigan), Adjuntas (Puerto Rico), Santa Ana and Jucuarán (El Salvador), Berlin (New Hampshire), Santa Ana Pueblo, Seama, and Taos (New Mexico), Chiclana de la Frontera, Marsaskala, Tudela and Fasnia (Spain), Town of Sta Ana Province of Pampanga, Hagonoy, Santa Ana, Taguig City, Saint Anne Shrine, Malicboy, Pagbilao and Quezon and Malinao, Albay (Philippines), Santana (Brazil), Saint Anne (Illinois), Sainte Anne Island, Baie Sainte Anne and Praslin Island (Seychelles), Bukit Mertajam and Port Klang (Malaysia), Kľúčové (Slovakia) and South Vietnam. The parish church of Vatican City is Sant'Anna dei Palafrenieri. There is a shrine dedicated to Saint Anne in the Woods in Bristol, United Kingdom.", "", "In John Everett Millais's 1849–50 work, \"Christ in the House of His Parents\", Anne is shown in her son-in-law Joseph's carpentry shop caring for a young Jesus who had cut his hand on a nail. She joins her daughter Mary, Joseph, and a young boy who will later become known as John the Baptist in caring for the injured hand of Jesus.", "The subject of Joachim and Anne \"The Meeting at the Golden Gate\" was a regular component of artistic cycles of the Life of the Virgin. The couple meet at the Golden Gate of Jerusalem and embrace. They are aware of Anne's pregnancy, of which they have been separately informed by an archangel. This moment stood for the conception of Mary, and the feast was celebrated on the same day as the Immaculate Conception. Art works representing the Golden Gate and the events leading up to it were influenced by the narrative in the widely read \"Golden Legend\" of Jacobus de Voragine. The Birth of Mary, the Presentation of Mary and the Marriage of the Virgin were usual components of cycles of the Life of the Virgin in which Anne is normally shown here. Her emblem is a door. She is often portrayed wearing red and green, representing love and life. Anne is never shown as present at the Nativity of Christ, but is frequently shown with the infant Christ in various subjects. She is sometimes believed to be depicted in scenes of the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple and the Circumcision of Christ, but in the former case, this likely reflects a misidentification through confusion with Anna the Prophetess. There was a tradition that Anne went (separately) to Egypt and rejoined the Holy Family after their Flight to Egypt. Anne is not seen with the adult Christ, so was regarded as having died during the youth of Jesus. Anne is also shown as the matriarch of the Holy Kinship, the extended family of Jesus, a popular subject in late medieval Germany; some versions of these pictorial and sculptural depictions include Emerentia who was reputed in the 15th Century to be Anne's mother. In modern devotions, Anne and her husband are invoked for protection for the unborn.", "The role of the Messiah's grandparents in salvation history was commonly depicted in early medieval devotional art in a vertical double-Madonna arrangement known as the Virgin and Child with Saint Anne. Another typical subject has Anne teaching the Virgin Mary the Scriptures (see gallery below)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Ancestry.", "Early life.", "The Beatles.", "Business dealings.", "Personal life.", "Sexual orientation.", "Drug use.", "Gambling.", "Death.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Epstein was Jewish; his grandfather Isaac Epstein was from Lithuania (then part of the Russian Empire) and had arrived in Britain in the 1890s at the age of eighteen. His grandmother Dinah was the daughter of Joseph (a draper) and Esther Hyman, who had emigrated from Russia to Britain (c. 1871/72) with their eldest son Jacob. The Hymans had six more children. Isaac Epstein married Dinah Hyman in Manchester in 1900. In 1901, Isaac and Dinah were living at 80 Walton Road, Liverpool, with Isaac's sister Rachael Epstein, above the furniture dealership that he founded. Dinah", "Epstein was born on 19 September 1934 in Rodney Street, Liverpool. Harry and Queenie also had another son named Clive, who was born 22 months after his older brother. During World War II the Epsteins moved to Southport, where two schools expelled Epstein for laziness and poor performance, but returned to Liverpool in 1945. The Epsteins lived at 197 Queens Drive, Childwall in Liverpool, and remained there for the next 30 years. Epstein's parents moved him from one boarding school to another, including Clayesmore School in Dorset. He spent two years at Wrekin College in Shropshire, where he was taught the violin. Shortly before his 16th birthday he sent a long letter to his father explaining that he wanted to become a dress designer, but Harry Epstein was adamantly opposed, and after serving a six months' apprenticeship at another company his son finally had to \"report for duty\" at the family's furniture shop on a £5 per week wage. In December 1952, Epstein was conscripted to do his national service as a data entry clerk into the Royal Army Service Corps, and was posted to the Albany Street Barracks near Regent's Park in London, where he was often reprimanded for not picking up his army pay. After returning to Liverpool, he was put in charge of the Clarendon Furnishing shop in Hoylake and was made a director", "Epstein first noticed the Beatles in issues of \"Mersey Beat\" and on numerous posters around Liverpool created by his commercial artist associate Tony Booth, before he asked \"Mersey Beat\" editor Bill Harry who they were. Harry had previously convinced Epstein to sell the magazine at NEMS, with the Beatles featured on the front page of its second issue. The Beatles had recorded the \"My Bonnie\" single with Tony Sheridan in Germany, and some months after its release Epstein asked his personal assistant Alistair Taylor about it in NEMS. Epstein's version of the story was that customer Raymond Jones walked into the NEMS shop and asked him for the \"My Bonnie\" single, which made Epstein curious about the group. Taylor later claimed that he had used the name of Jones (a regular customer) to order the single and paid the deposit, knowing that Epstein would notice it and order further copies. Harry and McCartney later repudiated Epstein's story, as Harry had been talking to Epstein for a long time about the Beatles—the group that he promoted the most in \"Mersey Beat\"—with McCartney saying, \"Brian knew perfectly well who the Beatles were; they were on the front page of the second issue of \"Mersey Beat\"\". On 3 August 1961, Epstein started a regular music column in the \"Mersey Beat\" called \"Stop the World—And Listen To Everything In It: Brian Epstein of NEMS\". The Beatles were due to perform a lunchtime concert at The Cavern Club on 9 November 1961. According to club owner Sytner, Epstein had visited the club quite a few times previously on Saturday nights, once asking Sytner to book a group for his twenty-first birthday party. Epstein asked Harry to arrange for Epstein and his assistant Taylor to watch the Beatles perform. The club allowed Epstein and Taylor to enter without queuing. They bypassed the line of fans at the door and heard Bob Wooler, the resident disc jockey, announce a welcome message over the club's public address system: \"We have someone rather famous in the audience today. Mr Brian Epstein, the owner of NEMS...\" Epstein later talked about the performance: \"I was immediately struck by their music, their beat and their sense of humour on stage—and, even afterwards, when I met them, I was struck again by their personal charm. And it was there that, really, it all started\". After the performance, Epstein and Taylor went into the dressing room (which he later described as being \"as big as a broom cupboard\") to talk to the group. The Beatles, all regular NEMS customers, immediately recognised Epstein, but before he could congratulate them on their performance George Harrison said, \"And what brings Mr Epstein here?\" Epstein replied with, \"We just popped in to say hello. I enjoyed your performance.\" He introduced Taylor, who merely nodded a greeting, said, \"Well done, then, goodbye\" and left. Epstein and Taylor went to Peacock's restaurant in Hackins Hey for lunch, and during the meal Epstein asked Taylor what he thought about the group. Taylor replied that he honestly thought they were \"absolutely awful\", but there was something \"remarkable\" about them. Epstein sat there smiling for a long time before exclaiming, \"I think they're tremendous!\" Later, when Epstein was paying the bill, he grabbed Taylor's arm and said, \"Do you think I should manage them?\" The Beatles played at The Cavern Club over the next three weeks, and Epstein was always there to watch them. He contacted Allan Williams (their previous promoter/manager) to confirm that Williams no longer had any ties to the group, but Williams advised Epstein \"not to touch them with a fucking barge pole\" because of a Hamburg concert percentage that the group had refused to pay.", "Epstein once offered all four Beatles a fixed wage of £50 a week for life (). Harrison remembered that he was earning £25 a week at the time (), which was more than the £10 a week that his father was earning (). The group declined Epstein's offer, believing that they were worth much more than £50 a week. NEMS had a staff of twenty-five at the time of its move from Liverpool to London in 1964. NEMS booked the Beatles' concerts, and it also presented groups as an opening act. It accrued money as promoter, booking agent, and manager for all concerts. The Beatles were constantly in demand by concert promoters, and Epstein took advantage of the situation to avoid paying some taxes by accepting \"hidden\" fees on the night of a performance, which he always kept in a brown paper bag. Epstein also successfully managed Gerry and the Pacemakers, Billy J. Kramer and the Dakotas (who had four hits with Lennon–McCartney songs), the Fourmost (Lennon wrote their first two singles), the Cyrkle (Epstein's first American group), and Cilla Black (who was Epstein's only female artist), as well as Tommy Quickly and Sounds Incorporated (later known as Sounds Inc.). He sent his roster of artists on \"package tours\" around the UK, a common practice at the time. This involved short sets by each act, alternating with a compère or a comedian. Epstein once revealed that even though he was entitled to be reimbursed by acts for expenses incurred, he paid for his own flights to and from the United States, as he did not see himself as being part of a touring group. Photographs, transport, and international telephone calls were paid from his own 25 percent share in profits. The Beatles toured the Philippines in July 1966, playing two shows at the Rizal Memorial Football Stadium in Manila. Epstein unintentionally snubbed the nation's first lady Imelda Marcos when presented with an invitation to a breakfast party. He had politely declined on behalf of the group, as it was their policy never to accept such official invitations. The Beatles and their entourage were ejected from their hotel on the same day and given a police escort to the airport, even though Epstein had publicly apologised for the misunderstanding in a televised statement, which was not seen or heard because of static. The entourage boarded the plane for home, but Epstein and Beatles' assistant Mal Evans were ordered off, both believing that they would not be allowed back on the plane. Epstein was forced to give the tax authorities £6,800 worth of Philippine peso notes earned from the Manila shows and to sign a tax bond verifying the exchange before being allowed back on the plane with Evans. Epstein added the Vic Lewis Organisation to NEMS in 1966, and later brought impresario Robert Stigwood in as a manager. He once offered to sell the control of NEMS to Stigwood, without telling any of his artists about the offer. McCartney was taking a more active interest in NEMS' finances, as it became known that some artists with more ruthless managers claimed to be benefiting from more commercially advantageous terms, such as the Rolling Stones under the management of Allen Klein. After Epstein's death, Clive Epstein assumed control of NEMS as the company's second-largest shareholder. Stigwood then tried to take over management of NEMS but all four Beatles vigorously objected, with Lennon saying, \"We don't know you. Why would we do this?\" McCartney admitted that they had always signed all the contracts that Epstein presented to them without reading them first, but after Epstein's death Lennon complained, \"Well, he was alright. I've found out since, of course, that he wasn't quite as honest to us as he made out.\" Despite this, other interviews with Lennon report him as being loyal to Epstein's memory: \"We had complete faith in him when he was running us. To us, he was the expert.\" When asked in 1964 about his standing as a manager or businessman, Epstein replied, \"Fair, as a businessman, fair. I've got a business background, and probably a reasonable business brain. I'm no, sort of, genius [laughter].\" Asked about his deficiencies, Epstein replied, \"I'm probably too conscious of ideas, rather than finance behind ideas.\"", "Throughout Epstein's life he was known to be kind and caring to his family, friends of his family, and business colleagues. When Lennon married Cynthia Powell, on 23 August 1962, Epstein served as best man and paid for the couple's celebration lunch afterwards. During Cynthia's pregnancy Epstein paid for a private room in a hospital and offered the Lennons the sole use of his flat at 36 Falkner Street, Liverpool, when they needed a home. He also agreed to be godfather to Lennon's son Julian.", "Epstein's homosexuality was not publicly known until some years after his death, although it had been an open secret among his friends and business associates. While Epstein was in the British Army, he commissioned a tailor to make an officer's uniform for him that he wore when cruising the bars of London, but was arrested one night at the Army and Navy Club in Piccadilly by the military police for impersonating an officer. Epstein managed to avoid a court martial by agreeing to", "After the start of his management career, Epstein started taking stimulants, usually Preludin, which did not require a prescription at the time. Lennon, McCartney, Harrison, and Starr had also taken it since their days in Hamburg. Epstein explained his use of the drug as the only means of staying awake at night during numerous concert tours. In 1964 Peter Brown suspected that Epstein was taking too many pills, as he would often cough at parties, which Brown realised was Epstein's way of secretly putting pills into his mouth without anyone noticing. McCartney often met Epstein at late night clubs in London, and remembered that Epstein would often grind his jaws (possibly due to bruxism), once saying to him, \"Ugghhh, the pills\". Epstein also developed dependencies on the drug carbromal, a barbiturate-like sedative/hypnotic drug. In 1964, after having been introduced to cannabis by Bob Dylan in New York, Epstein was", "In August 1965, the Beatles and Epstein visited Elvis Presley at his house in Perugia Way in Los Angeles, where Elvis's manager, Colonel Tom Parker, set up a roulette wheel and several packs of playing cards. Epstein immediately asked to play, as he was known for his love of gambling. McCartney frequently visited gambling clubs in London, such as Epstein's", "Epstein attended a traditional shiva in Liverpool after his father died, having just come out of the Priory clinic where he had been trying to cure his acute insomnia and addiction to amphetamines. A few days before his death he made his last visit to a Beatles recording session on 23 August 1967, at the Chappell Recording Studios on Maddox Street in Mayfair, London. On 24 August, Epstein asked Peter Brown and Geoffrey Ellis down to Kingsley Hill for the bank holiday weekend. Approximately 50 miles from his home in Chapel Street, Kingsley Hill was Epstein's country home in Warbleton, Sussex. After they arrived, Epstein decided to drive back to London alone because an expected group of friends he had invited failed to arrive, although they did turn up after Epstein left. Epstein phoned Brown at 5 PM the next day from his Chapel Street house in London. Brown thought that Epstein sounded \"very groggy\" and suggested he take a train back down to the nearest railway station, in Uckfield, instead of driving under the influence of Tuinals. Epstein replied that he would eat something, read his mail, and watch \"Juke Box Jury\" before phoning Brown to tell him which train to meet. He never called again. Epstein died of an overdose of Carbitral, a form of barbiturate or sleeping pill, in his locked bedroom on 27 August 1967. He was discovered after his butler had knocked on the door and then, hearing no response, asked the housekeeper to call the police. Epstein was found on a single bed, dressed in pajamas, with various correspondence spread over a second single bed. At the statutory inquest his death was officially ruled an accident, caused by a gradual buildup of Carbitral combined with alcohol in his system. It was revealed that he had taken six Carbitral pills in order to sleep, which was probably normal for him, but in combination with alcohol they reduced his tolerance. The Beatles were on a retreat in Bangor in northern Wales at the", "Epstein was upset that he was not honoured along with Lennon, McCartney, Harrison, and Starr when they received the MBE in 1965, though Harrison once said that the MBE stood for \"Mister Brian Epstein\"; The Beatles were among the earliest entrants into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, but Epstein was not included in the Hall's \"Non-Performers' Section\" until 2014, and not without controversy as he was inducted alongside Rolling Stones manager Andrew Loog Oldham who refused to attend, in part in protest at what he perceived as the indignity of a joint induction. Martin Lewis, previously Taylor's assistant, created the official Brian Epstein website, which included a petition that Epstein be inducted into the Hall of Fame. Lewis also organised the 1998 re-publication, in the United States, of Epstein's 1964 autobiography \"A Cellarful of Noise\". McCartney summarised the importance of Epstein when he was interviewed in 1997 for a BBC documentary about Epstein, saying, \"If anyone was the Fifth Beatle, it was Brian.\" In his 1970 \"Rolling Stone\" interview, Lennon commented that Epstein's death marked the beginning of the end for the group: \"I knew that we were in trouble then... I thought, 'We've f**king had it now.'\" In 2006 Cynthia Lennon said: \"I think Brian's one of the forgotten people. It's almost as if he's been written out of the [Beatles] story. I don't think they'd have got anywhere without Brian.\" The first contract between the Beatles and Epstein was auctioned in London in 2008, fetching £240,000. Epstein's influence on the Beatles and his complicated personal life continue to provoke controversy. In 2013 author Vivek Tiwary released the graphic novel \"The Fifth Beatle: The Brian Epstein Story\". A film of the same name was scheduled for release in 2014, originally to be produced by Bruce Cohen and directed by Peyton Reed. Tiwary said about that project that the film would \"be less a music bio and more of an inspirational human-interest story about an outsider\". Tiwary and named co-producers Stuart Ford and Simon Cowell originally set the film for release in 2016, but in March 2016 it was announced that the project would be a television series. Epstein was once asked about the future of the Beatles and their \"fresh honesty\" (as he put it), which the interviewer thought could be \"corrupted by time\". He replied by saying, \"I think they will go in the reverse direction, and become more honest.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Before Ülker Stadium was built, the field was known as \"Papazın Çayırı\" (\"The field of the priest\"). The field, however, became the very first football pitch of Turkey, where the first league games of the Istanbul Football League were all held consecutively. In 1908, the local teams in the league needed a regular football field, so this land was leased from the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II for 30 Ottoman gold pounds a year. The total construction cost was 3,000 Ottoman gold pounds. The name was changed to the \"Union Club Field\" after the club which made the highest donation for construction of the ground. The \"Union Club Field\" was used by many teams in İstanbul, including the owner, Union Club (which changed its name to \"İttihatspor\" after World War I), Fenerbahçe, Galatasaray, and Beşiktaş. However, it lost its importance when a bigger venue, the Taksim Stadium, was built in 1922, inside the courtyard of the historic \"Taksim Topçu Kışlası\" (Taksim Artillery Barracks), which was located at the present-day Taksim Gezi Parkı (Taksim Park). İttihatspor (which had close relations with the political İttihat ve Terakki), was forced to sell it to the state, in which Şükrü Saracoğlu was a member of the CHP government. Thus, the ownership of the stadium passed to the state, but the field was immediately leased to Fenerbahçe. Later, on May 27, 1933, Fenerbahçe purchased the stadium from the government when Şükrü Saracoğlu was the President of Fenerbahçe, for either the symbolic amount of 1 TL or the worth of the stadium which was 9,000 TL. The name of the field was changed to Fenerbahçe Stadium, and this made Fenerbahçe SK the first football club in Turkey to own their stadium, with the help of the Şükrü Saracoğlu government. In the following years, Fenerbahçe SK renovated the stadium and increased its seating capacity. By the year 1949, Fenerbahçe Stadium was the largest football venue in Turkey, with a seating capacity of 25,000. The name of the stadium was changed once more in 1998, becoming Fenerbahçe Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium, named after Fenerbahçe's legendary chairman and Turkey's 5th Prime Minister Şükrü Saracoğlu. In 1999, the latest round of renovations and capacity increasing projects started. The stands on the four sides of the stadium were torn down one at a time, as the Turkish Super League seasons progressed, and the entire renewal and construction project was finalised in 2006." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Founding of the Peoples Temple.", "Indiana beginnings.", "Racial integrationist.", "\"Rainbow Family\".", "Travel to Brazil.", "Move to California.", "Focus on San Francisco.", "Formation and operation of Jonestown.", "New children.", "Pressure and wanting political support.", "Visit by Congressman Ryan and mass murder at Jonestown.", "Port Kaituma Airstrip shootings.", "Mass murder-suicide in Jonestown.", "Death.", "Sexuality.", "Family aftermath.", "Marceline.", "Surviving sons.", "Lew, Agnes, and Suzanne Jones.", "John Stoen and Kimo." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Jones was born on May 13, 1931, in a rural area of Crete, Indiana to James Thurman Jones (1887–1951), a World WarI veteran, and Lynetta Putnam (1902–1977). Jones was of Irish and Welsh descent; he later claimed partial Cherokee ancestry through his mother, but his maternal second cousin said this was untrue. Economic difficulties during the Great Depression led the family to Lynn, Indiana in 1934, where Jones grew up in a shack without plumbing. Jones was a voracious reader who studied Stalin, Marx, Mao, Gandhi, and Hitler. He also developed an intense interest in religion. One writer suggests this was primarily because he found it difficult to make friends. Childhood acquaintances recalled him as a \"really weird kid\" who was obsessed with religion and death. They alleged that he frequently held funerals for small animals on his parents' property, and that he had stabbed a cat to death. Jones and a childhood friend both claimed his father was associated with the Ku Klux Klan, which had become very popular in Depression-era Indiana. Jones recounted how he and his father argued on the issue of race, and how he did not speak with his father for \"many, many years\" after he refused to allow one of Jones' black friends into the house. Jones' parents separated, and Jones relocated with his mother to Richmond, Indiana. In December 1948, he graduated from Richmond High School early with honors. Jones married nurse Marceline Baldwin (1927–1978) in 1949, and the two relocated to Bloomington, Indiana. She died with him in Jonestown. He attended Indiana University Bloomington, where he was impressed with a speech by Eleanor Roosevelt about the plight of African-Americans. In 1951, the couple relocated to Indianapolis. Jones attended Indiana University for two years and then took night classes at Butler University, earning a degree in secondary education in 1961—ten years after enrolling.", "", "In 1951, 20-year-old Jones began attending gatherings of the Communist Party USA in Indianapolis. He became flustered with harassment during the McCarthy Hearings, particularly regarding an event that he attended with his mother focusing on Paul Robeson, after which she was harassed by the FBI in front of her co-workers for attending. He also became frustrated with the persecution of open and accused communists in the United States, especially during the trial of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. Jones said he asked himself, \"How can I demonstrate my Marxism? The thought was, infiltrate the church.\" Jones was surprised when a Methodist district superintendent helped him get a start in the church, even though he knew Jones to be a communist. In 1952, he became a student pastor at the Sommerset Southside Methodist Church, but later claimed he left the church because its leaders forbade him from integrating blacks into his congregation. Around this time, Jones witnessed a faith-healing service at a Seventh Day Baptist Church. He observed that it attracted people and their money, and he concluded that he could accomplish his social goals with financial resources from such services. Jones organized a mammoth religious convention to take place June 11–15, 1956 in Cadle Tabernacle. Needing a well-known religious figure to draw crowds, he arranged to share the pulpit with Rev. William M. Branham, a healing evangelist and religious author who was as highly revered as Oral Roberts. Jones was able to begin his own church after the convention, which had various names until it became the Peoples Temple Christian Church Full Gospel. The Peoples Temple was initially an interracial mission. Jones was known to regularly study Adolf Hitler and Father Divine to learn how to manipulate members of the cult. Divine told Jones personally to \"find an enemy\" and \"to make sure they know who the enemy is\" as it will unify those in the group and make them subservient to him.", "\"The New York Times\" reported that, in 1953:[D]eclaring that he was outraged at what he perceived as racial discrimination in his white congregation, Mr. Jones established his own church and pointedly opened it to all ethnic groups. To raise money, he imported monkeys and sold them door to door as pets.In 1960, Indianapolis Mayor Charles Boswell appointed Jones director of the local Human Rights Commission. Jones ignored Boswell's advice to keep a low profile, however, finding new outlets for his views on local radio and television programs. The mayor and other commissioners asked him to curtail his public actions, but he resisted. He was wildly cheered at a meeting of the NAACP and Urban League when he yelled for his audience to be more militant, and then climaxed with, \"Let my people go!\" During this time, Jones also helped to racially integrate churches, restaurants, the telephone company, the Indianapolis Police Department, a theater, an amusement park, and the Indiana University Health Methodist Hospital. Swastikas were painted on the homes of two black families, and Jones walked through the neighborhood comforting local black people and counseling white families not to move. He set up sting operations to catch restaurants refusing to serve black customers and wrote to American Nazi leaders, passing their responses to the media. He was accidentally placed in the black ward of a hospital after a collapse in 1961, but refused to be moved; he began to make the beds and empty the bedpans of black patients. Political pressures resulting from Jones' actions caused hospital officials to desegregate the wards. Jones received considerable criticism in Indiana for his integrationist views. Likewise, white-owned businesses and locals were critical of him. A swastika was placed on the Temple, a stick of dynamite was left in a Temple coal pile, and a dead cat was thrown at Jones' house after a threatening phone call. Other incidents occurred, but one could theorize that Jones himself was involved in at least some of them.", "Jones and his wife adopted several non-white children, referring to the household as his \"rainbow family,\" and stating: \"Integration is a more personal thing with me now. It's a question of my son's future.\" He also portrayed the Temple as a \"rainbow family.\" In 1954, he and his wife adopted Agnes, who was part Native American. The couple adopted three Korean-American children named Lew, Stephanie, and Suzanne, the latter of whom was adopted at age six in 1959. Jones encouraged Temple members to adopt orphans from war-ravaged Korea. He was also critical of U.S. opposition to communist leader Kim Il-sung's 1950 invasion of South Korea, calling it the \"war of liberation\" and stating that South Korea \"is a living example of all that socialism in the north has overcome.\" In June 1959 the couple had their only biological child, naming him Stephan Gandhi. In 1961, they became the first white couple in Indiana to adopt a black child. They also adopted a white son, originally named Timothy Glen Tupper (shortened to Tim), whose birth mother was a member of the Peoples Temple.", "Jones traveled with his family to Belo Horizonte, Brazil with the idea of setting up a new Temple location, after preaching at the Temple about the fears of a nuclear holocaust and reading an article in the January 1962 issue of \"Esquire Magazine\" which listed the city as a safe place in nuclear war. On his way to Brazil, he made his first trip to Guyana, a British colony at the time. The family rented a modest three-bedroom home in Belo Horizonte. Jones studied the local economy and receptiveness of racial minorities to his message, although language remained a barrier. He also explored local Brazilian syncretistic religions. Careful not to portray himself as a communist in a foreign territory, he spoke of an apostolic communal lifestyle rather than of Castro or Marx. Ultimately, the lack of resources in the locale led the family to move to Rio de Janeiro in mid-1963 where they worked with the poor in the slums. Jones became plagued by guilt for leaving behind the Indiana civil-rights struggle and possibly losing what he had tried to build there. His associate preachers in Indiana told him the Temple was about to collapse without him, so he returned.", "Jones returned from Brazil in December 1963 and told his Indiana congregation that the world would be engulfed by nuclear war on July 15, 1967, leading to a new socialist Eden on Earth, and that the Temple had to move to Northern California for safety. Accordingly, the Temple began moving to Redwood Valley, California, near the city of Ukiah. According to religious studies professor Catherine Wessinger, Jones always spoke of the Social Gospel's virtues, but he chose to conceal that his gospel was actually communism until the late 1960s. By that time, he began partially revealing the details of his \"Apostolic Socialism\" concept in Temple sermons. He also taught that \"those who remained drugged with the opiate of religion had to be brought to enlightenment—socialism.\" He often mixed these ideas, such as preaching:If you're born in capitalist America, racist America, fascist America, then you're born in sin. But if you're born in socialism, you're not born in sin.By the early 1970s, Jones began deriding Christianity as \"fly away religion,\" rejecting the Bible as being a tool to oppress women and non-whites, and denouncing a \"Sky God\" who was no God at all. He wrote a booklet titled \"The Letter Killeth\", criticizing the King James Bible. Jones also began preaching that he was the reincarnation of Gandhi, Father Divine, Jesus, Gautama Buddha, and Vladimir Lenin. Former Temple member Hue Fortson, Jr. quoted him as saying:What you need to believe in is what you can see.... If you see me as your friend, I'll be your friend. As you see me as your father, I'll be your father, for those of you that don't have a father.... If you see me as your savior, I'll be your savior. If you see me as your God, I'll be your God.In a 1976 phone conversation with John Maher, Jones alternately said he was an agnostic and an atheist. Marceline Jones admitted in a 1977 \"New York Times\" interview that Jones was trying to promote Marxism in the U.S. by mobilizing people through religion, citing Mao as his inspiration: \"Jim used religion to try to get some people out of the opiate of religion.\" He had slammed the Bible on the table yelling \"I've got to destroy this paper idol!\" In one sermon, Jones said:You're gonna help yourself, or you'll get no help! There's only one hope of glory; that's within you! Nobody's gonna come out of the sky! There's no heaven up there! We'll have to make heaven down here!", "Within five years of moving to California, the Temple experienced a period of exponential growth and opened branches in cities including San Fernando, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. By the early 1970s, Jones began shifting his focus to major cities because of limited expansion opportunities in Ukiah, California. He eventually moved the Temple's headquarters to San Francisco, which was a major center for radical protest movements, where both Jones and the Temple became influential in San Francisco politics, culminating in the Temple's instrumental role in George Moscone's mayoral victory in 1975. Moscone subsequently appointed Jones as the chairman of the San Francisco Housing Authority Commission. Jones was able to gain contact with prominent politicians at the local and national level. For example, he and Moscone met privately with vice presidential candidate Walter Mondale on his campaign plane days before the 1976 election, leading Mondale to publicly praise the Temple. First Lady Rosalynn Carter also met with Jones on multiple occasions, corresponded with him about Cuba, and spoke with him at the grand opening of the San Francisco headquarters—where he received louder applause than she did. In September 1976, California assemblyman Willie Brown served as master of ceremonies at a large testimonial dinner for Jones attended by Governor Jerry Brown and Lieutenant Governor Mervyn Dymally. At that dinner, Brown touted Jones as \"what you should see every day when you look in the mirror\" and said he was a combination of Martin Luther King, Jr., Angela Davis, Albert Einstein, and Mao Tse-tung. Harvey Milk spoke to audiences during political rallies held at the Temple, and he wrote to Jones after one such visit:Rev Jim, It may take me many a day to come back down from the high that I reach today. I found something dear today. I found a sense of being that makes up for all the hours and energy placed in a fight. I found what you wanted me to find. I shall be back. For I can never leave.Jones hosted local political figures at his San Francisco apartment for discussions, including Angela Davis. He spoke with publisher Carlton Goodlett of the \"San Francisco Sun-Reporter\" about his remorse over not being able to travel to socialist countries such as the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union, speculating that he could be Chief Dairyman of the U.S.S.R. His criticisms led to increased tensions with the Nation of Islam, so Jones spoke at a huge rally in the Los Angeles Convention Center that was attended by many of his closest political acquaintances, hoping to close the rift between the two groups. Jones also forged alliances with key columnists and others at the \"San Francisco Chronicle\" and other press outlets, although the move to San Francisco also brought increasing media scrutiny. Encountering resistance to publishing an exposé, \"Chronicle\" reporter Marshall Kilduff brought his story to \"New West\" magazine. In the summer of 1977, Jones and several hundred Temple members abruptly decided to move to the Temple's compound in Guyana after they learned the contents of Kilduff's article, which included allegations by former Temple members that they were physically, emotionally, and sexually abused. Jones named the settlement \"Jonestown\" after himself.", "Jones had started building Jonestown (formally known as the \"Peoples Temple Agricultural Project\") several years before the \"New West\" article was published. It was promoted as a means to create both a \"socialist paradise\" and a \"sanctuary\" from the media scrutiny in San Francisco. Jones purported to establish it as a model communist community, adding that the Temple comprised \"the purest communists there are.\" He did not, however, permit members to leave Jonestown. Religious scholar Mary McCormick Maaga argues that Jones' authority decreased after he moved to the isolated commune because he was not needed for recruitment and he could not hide his drug addiction from rank-and-file members. In spite of the allegations prior to Jones' departure, he was still respected by some for setting up a racially-mixed church which helped the disadvantaged; 68% of Jonestown residents were black. Jones began to propagate his belief in what he termed \"Translation\" once they were in Jonestown, where he and his followers would all die together and move to another planet and live blissfully.", "Jones claimed he was the biological father of child John Victor Stoen, though the birth certificate listed Temple attorney Timothy Stoen and his wife Grace as the parents of the child. The Temple repeatedly claimed that Jones fathered the child in 1971 when Stoen had requested that Jones have sex with Grace to keep her from defecting. Grace left the Temple in 1976 and began divorce proceedings the following year. Jones ordered Tim to take the boy to Guyana in February 1977 in order to avoid a custody dispute with Grace. After Tim, himself, defected in June 1977, the Temple kept John Stoen in Jonestown. He also fathered Jim Jon (Kimo) with Temple member Carolyn Louise Moore Layton.", "In the autumn of 1977, Tim Stoen and others who had left the Temple formed a \"Concerned Relatives\" group because they had family members in Jonestown. Stoen traveled to Washington, D.C. in January 1978 to visit with State Department officials and members of Congress, and he wrote a white paper detailing his grievances against Jones and the Temple. His efforts aroused the curiosity of California Congressman Leo Ryan, who wrote a letter on Stoen's behalf to Guyanese Prime Minister Forbes Burnham. The Concerned Relatives also began a legal battle with the Temple over the custody of Stoen's son, John. Most of Jones's political allies broke ties after his departure, though some did not. Willie Brown spoke out against enemies at a rally that was attended by Harvey Milk and Assemblyman Art Agnos. On February 19, 1978, Milk wrote a letter to President Jimmy Carter defending Jones as \"a man of the highest character,\" and he claimed that escaped Temple members were trying to \"damage Rev. Jones's reputation\" with \"apparent bold-faced lies.\" Moscone's office issued a press release saying Jones had broken no laws. On April 11, 1978, the Concerned Relatives distributed a packet of documents, letters, and affidavits to the Peoples Temple, members of the press, and members of Congress which they titled an \"Accusation of Human Rights Violations by Rev. James Warren Jones.\" In June 1978, escaped Temple member Deborah Layton provided the group with a further affidavit detailing crimes by the Temple and substandard living conditions in Jonestown. Jones was facing increasing scrutiny in the summer of 1978 when he hired JFK assassination conspiracy theorists Mark Lane and Donald Freed to help make the case of a \"grand conspiracy\" against the Temple by U.S. intelligence agencies. Jones told Lane that he wanted to \"pull an Eldridge Cleaver,\" referring to a fugitive member of the Black Panthers who was able to return to the U.S. after repairing his reputation.", "In November 1978, Congressman Leo Ryan led a fact-finding mission to Jonestown to investigate allegations of human-rights abuses. His delegation included relatives of Temple members, an NBC camera crew, and reporters for various newspapers. The group arrived in the Guyanese capital of Georgetown on November 15. Two days later, they traveled by airplane to Port Kaituma, then were transported to the Jonestown encampment in a limousine. Jones hosted a reception for the delegation that evening at the central pavilion in Jonestown. The delegation left hurriedly the afternoon of November 18, after Temple member Don Sly attacked Ryan with a knife, though the attack was thwarted. Ryan and his delegation managed to take along 15 Temple members who had expressed a wish to leave, and Jones made no attempt to prevent their departure at that time.", "As members of the delegation boarded two planes at the airstrip, Jones's armed guards, called the \"Red Brigade,\" arrived on a tractor and trailer and began shooting at them. The gunmen killed Ryan and four others near a Guyana Airways Twin Otter aircraft. At the same time, one of the supposed defectors, Larry Layton, drew a weapon and began firing on members of the party who had already boarded a small Cessna. An NBC cameraman was able to capture footage of the first few seconds of the shooting at the Otter. The five killed at the airstrip were Ryan; NBC reporter Don Harris; NBC cameraman Bob Brown; \"San Francisco Examiner\" photographer Greg Robinson; and Temple member Patricia Parks. Surviving the attack were future Congresswoman Jackie Speier, at the time a Ryan staff member; Richard Dwyer, Deputy Chief of Mission from the U.S. Embassy at Georgetown; Bob Flick, an NBC producer; Steve Sung, an NBC sound engineer; Tim Reiterman, a \"San Francisco Examiner\" reporter; Ron Javers, a \"San Francisco Chronicle\" reporter; Charles Krause, a \"Washington Post\" reporter; and several defecting Temple members.", "Later that same day, 909 inhabitants of Jonestown, 304 of them children, died of apparent cyanide poisoning, mostly in and around the settlement's main pavilion. This resulted in the greatest single loss of American civilian life (murder + suicide, though not on American soil) in a deliberate act until the September 11 attacks. The FBI later recovered a 45-minute audio recording of the suicide in progress. On that tape, Jones tells Temple members that the Soviet Union, with whom the Temple had been negotiating a potential exodus for months, would not take them after the airstrip murders. The reason given by Jones to commit suicide was consistent with his previously stated conspiracy theories of intelligence organizations allegedly conspiring against the Temple, that men would \"parachute in here on us,\" \"shoot some of our innocent babies,\" and \"they'll torture our children, they'll torture some of our people here, they'll torture our seniors.\" Jones' prior statements that hostile forces would convert captured children to fascism would lead many members who held strong opposing views to fascism to view the suicide as valid. With that reasoning, Jones and several members argued that the group should commit \"revolutionary suicide\" by drinking cyanide-laced grape-flavored Flavor Aid. Later-released Temple films show Jones opening a storage container full of Kool-Aid in large quantities. However, empty packets of grape Flavor Aid found on the scene show that this is what was used to mix the solution, along with a sedative. One member, Christine Miller, dissents toward the beginning of the tape. When members apparently cried, Jones counseled, \"Stop these hysterics. This is not the way for people who are socialists or communists to die. No way for us to die. We must die with some dignity.\" Jones can be heard saying, \"Don't be afraid to die;\" that death is \"just stepping over into another plane\" and that it's \"a friend.\" At the end of the tape, Jones concludes: \"We didn't commit suicide; we committed an act of revolutionary suicide protesting the conditions of an inhumane world.\" According to escaping Temple members, children were given the drink first by their own parents; families were told to lie down together. Mass suicide had been previously discussed in simulated events called \"White Nights\" on a regular basis. During at least one such prior White Night, members drank liquid that Jones falsely told them was poison.", "Following the mass murder-suicide, Jones was found dead on the floor; he was resting on a pillow near his deck chair, with a gunshot wound to his head which Guyanese coroner Cyrill Mootoo said was consistent with suicide. His body was later dragged outside for examination and embalming. The official autopsy conducted in December 1978 also confirms his death as a suicide. Jones' son Stephan believes his father may have directed someone else to shoot him, but that is speculation. An autopsy of Jones' body also showed levels of the barbiturate pentobarbital, which may have been lethal to humans who had not developed physiological tolerance. A sign could be seen hanging above Jones's deck chair; Jones had borrowed a quote from George Santayana: \"Those who do not remember the past are condemned to repeat it.\"", "Jones married Marceline Baldwin in 1949. He began his first known affair in 1968 with a woman named Carolyn Layton whom he was with until the end. Another woman he became closest to was Maria Katsaris. Their relationship began in 1974 and she was also one of his mistresses up until his death. He also had many other mistresses during the 1970s, both before the move to Jonestown and while living in Jonestown. The book \"The Road to Jonestown\" by Jeff Guinn states: \"Jones had occasional sex with male followers\" but \"never as often as he did with women.\" It states he was most likely bisexual, but his main physical and sexual attraction was towards women. On December 13, 1973, Jones was arrested and charged with lewd conduct for masturbating in a movie theater restroom near MacArthur Park in Los Angeles. The decoy was an undercover LAPD vice officer. Jones is on record as later telling his followers he was \"the only true heterosexual.\" While Jones banned sex among Temple members outside marriage, he voraciously engaged in sexual relations with both male and female Temple members. Jones, however, claimed that he detested engaging in homosexual activity and did so only for the male temple adherents' own good, purportedly to connect them symbolically with him (Jones). The International Peace Mission movement leader Father Divine was one of Jones's sources of inspiration.", "", "On the final morning of Ryan's visit, Jones's wife Marceline took reporters on a tour of Jonestown. Later in the day, she was found dead at the pavilion, having been poisoned.", "Stephan, Jim Jr., and Tim Jones did not take part in the mass suicide because they were playing with the Peoples Temple basketball team against the Guyanese national team in Georgetown. At the time of events in Jonestown, Stephan and Tim were both nineteen and Jim Jones Jr. was eighteen. Tim's biological family, the Tuppers, which consisted of his three biological sisters, biological brother, and biological mother, all died at Jonestown. Three days before the tragedy, Stephan Jones refused, over the radio, to comply with an order by his father to return the team to Jonestown for Ryan's visit. During the events at Jonestown, Stephan, Tim, and Jim Jones Jr. drove to the U.S. Embassy in Georgetown in an attempt to receive help. The Guyanese soldiers guarding the embassy refused to let them in after hearing about the shootings at the Port Kaituma airstrip. Later, the three returned to the Temple's headquarters in Georgetown to find the bodies of Sharon Amos and her three children. Guyanese soldiers kept the Jones brothers under house arrest for five days, interrogating them about the deaths in Georgetown. Stephan Jones was accused of being involved in the Georgetown deaths, and was placed in a Guyanese prison for three months. Tim Jones and Johnny Cobb, another member of the Peoples Temple basketball team, were asked to go to Jonestown and help identify the bodies of people who had died. After returning to the United States, Jim Jones Jr. was placed under police surveillance for several months while he lived with his older sister, Suzanne, who had previously turned against the Temple. When Jonestown was first being established, Stephan had originally avoided two attempts by his father to relocate him to the settlement. He eventually moved to Jonestown after a third attempt. He has since said that he gave in to his father's wishes to move to Jonestown because of his mother. Stephan Jones is now a businessman, and married with three daughters. He appeared in the documentary \"Jonestown: Paradise Lost\" which aired on the History Channel and Discovery Channel. He stated he will not watch the documentary and has never grieved for his father. One year later, he appeared in the documentary \"Witness to Jonestown\" where he responds to rare footage shot inside the Peoples Temple. Jim Jones Jr., who lost his wife and unborn child at Jonestown, returned to San Francisco. He remarried and has three sons from this marriage, including Rob Jones, a high-school basketball star who went on to play for the University of San Diego before transferring to Saint Mary's College of California.", "Lew and Agnes Jones both died at Jonestown. Agnes Jones was thirty-five years old at the time of her death. Her husband and four children all died at Jonestown. Lew Jones, who was twenty-one years old at the time of his death, died alongside his wife Terry and son Chaeoke. Stephanie Jones had died at age five in a car accident in May 1959. Suzanne Jones married Mike Cartmell; they both turned against the Temple and were not in Jonestown on November 18, 1978. After this decision to abandon the Temple, Jones referred to Suzanne openly as \"my damned, no good for nothing daughter\" and said she was not to be trusted. In a signed note found at the time of her death, Marceline Jones directed that the Joneses' funds were to be given to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and specified: \"I especially request that none of these are allowed to get into the hands of my adopted daughter, Suzanne Jones Cartmell.\" Cartmell had two children and died of colon cancer in November 2006.", "Specific references to Tim Stoen, the father of John Stoen, including the logistics of possibly murdering him, are made on the Temple's final \"death tape,\" as well as a discussion over whether the Temple should include John Stoen among those committing \"revolutionary suicide.\" At Jonestown, John Stoen was found poisoned in Jim Jones's cabin. Jim Jon (Kimo) and his mother, Carolyn Louise Moore Layton, both died during the events at Jonestown." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Steel plow.", "Later life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "John Deere was born on February 7, 1804, in Rutland, Vermont. After a brief educational period at Middlebury College, at age 17 in 1821 he began an apprenticeship with Captain Benjamin Lawrence, a successful Middlebury blacksmith, and entered the trade for himself in 1826. He married Demarius Lamb in 1827 and fathered nine children. Deere worked in Burlington before opening his own shops, first in Vergennes, and then in Leicester.", "John Deere settled in Grand Detour, Illinois. At the time, Deere had no difficulty finding work due to a lack of blacksmiths working in the area. Deere found that cast-iron plows were not working very well in the tough prairie soil of Illinois and remembered the needles he had previously polished by running them through sand as he grew up in his father's tailor shop in Rutland, Vermont. Deere came to the conclusion that a plow made out of highly polished steel and a correctly shaped moldboard (the self-scouring steel plow) would be better able to handle the soil conditions of the prairie, especially its sticky clay. There are varying versions of the inspiration for Deere's famous steel plow. In one version, he recalled the way the polished steel pitchfork tines moved through hay and soil and thought that same effect could be obtained for a plow. In 1837, Deere developed and manufactured the first commercially successful cast-steel plow. The wrought-iron framed plow had a polished steel share. This made it ideal for the tough soil of the Midwest and worked better than other plows. By early 1838, Deere completed his first steel plow and sold it to a local farmer, Lewis Crandall, who quickly spread word of his success with Deere's plow. Subsequently, two neighbors soon placed orders with Deere. By 1841, Deere was manufacturing 75–100 plows per year. In 1843, Deere partnered with Leonard Andrus to produce more plows to keep up with demand. However, the partnership became strained due to the two men's stubbornness – while Deere wished to sell to customers outside Grand Detour, Andrus opposed a proposed railroad through Grand Detour – and Deere's distrust of Andrus' accounting practices. In 1848, Deere dissolved the partnership with Andrus and moved to Moline, Illinois, because the city was a transportation hub on the Mississippi River. By 1855, Deere's factory sold more than 10,000 such plows. It became known as \"The Plow that Broke the Plains\" and is commemorated as such in a historic place marker in Vermont. Deere insisted on making high-quality equipment. He once said, \"I will never put my name on a product that does not have in it the best that is in me.\" Following the Panic of 1857, as business improved, Deere left the day-to-day operations to his son Charles. In 1868, Deere incorporated his business as Deere & Company.", "Later in life, Deere focused most of his attention on civil and political affairs. He served as President of the National Bank of Moline, a director of the Moline Free Public Library, and was a trustee of the First Congregational Church. Deere also served as Moline's mayor for two years but due to chest pains and dysentery Deere refused to run for a second term. He died at home (known as Red Cliff) on May 17, 1886." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Ecology.", "Biotope restoration.", "Characteristics.", "Microscale.", "Biotope networks.", "Human daily life.", "Artificial.", "Germany.", "Legal basis.", "Landscape plan.", "Citizen welfare.", "Aquaria." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The concept of a biotope was first advocated by Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919), a German zoologist famous for the recapitulation theory. In his book \"General Morphology\" (1866), which defines the term \"ecology\", he stresses the importance of the concept of habitat as a prerequisite for an organism's existence. Haeckel also explains that with one ecosystem, its biota is shaped by environmental factors (such as water, soil, and geographical features) and interaction among living things; the original idea of a biotope was closely related to evolutional theory. Following this, F. Dahl, a professor at the Berlin Zoological Museum, referred to this ecological system as a \"biotope\" (biotop) (1908).", "Although the term \"biotope\" is considered to be a technical word with respect to ecology, in recent years the term is more generally used in administrative and civic activities. Since the 1970s the term \"biotope\" has received great attention as a keyword throughout Europe (mainly Germany) for the preservation, regeneration, and creation of natural environmental settings. Used in this context, the term \"biotope\" often refers to a smaller and more specific ecology and is very familiar to human life. In Germany especially, activities related to regenerating biotopes are enthusiastically received. These activities include — Various sectors play a part in these activities, including architecture, civil engineering, urban planning, traffic, agriculture, river engineering, limnology, biology, education, landscape gardening, and domestic gardening. In all fields, all sorts of people are seeking a viable way for humans to respect other living things. The term \"biotope\" would include a complete environmental approach.", "The following four points are the chief characteristics of biotopes.", "A biotope is generally not considered to be a large-scale phenomenon. For example, a biotope might be a neighbouring park, a back garden, even potted plants or a fish tank on a porch. In other words, the biotope is not a macroscopic but a microscopic approach to preserving the ecosystem and biological diversity. So biotopes fit into ordinary people's daily activities and lives, with more people being able to take part in biotope creation and continuing management.", "It is commonly emphasised that biotopes should not be isolated. Instead biotopes need to be connected to each other and other surrounding life for without these connections to life-forms such as animals and plants, biotopes would not effectively work as a place in which diverse organisms live. So one of the most effective strategies for regenerating biotopes is to plan a \"stretch\" of biotopes, not just a \"point\" where animals and plants come and go. (Such an organic traffic course is called a corridor.) In the stretch method, the centre of the network would be large green tracts of land: a forest, natural park, or cemetery. By connecting parcels of land with smaller biotope areas such as a green belt along the river, small town parks, gardens, or even roadside trees, biotopes can exist in a network. In other words, a biotope is an open not a closed system and is a practicable strategy.", "The term \"biotope\" does not apply to biosphere reserves, which are completely separate from humans and become the object of human admiration. Instead, it is an active part of human daily life. For example, an ornamental flower bed may be considered a biotope (though rather a small one) since it enhances the experience of daily life. An area that has many functions, such as human living space, and is home to other living things, whether plant or animal, can be considered a biosphere reserve.", "When artificial items are introduced to a biotope setting, their design and arrangement is of great importance for biotope regeneration. Tree-planting areas where the surface is uneven results in plants that sprout and the nesting of small insects. A mat or net made from natural fibres will gradually biodegrade as it is exposed to the weather. So there is no binomial opposition between the natural and the artificial in a biotope. Rather, such artificial materials are widely used.", "It is especially characteristic in Germany, which is the birthplace of the term biotope, that the authorities take the initiative in conserving biotopes, maintaining consistency with urban or rural planning and considering the regions' history and landscape.", "The federal nature protection law (Bundesnaturschutzgesetz or BNUM, since 1976) requires that wild animals and plants and their community should be protected as part of the ecosystem in the specific diversity that has grown naturally and historically, and their biotope and other living conditions should be protected, preserved, developed, and restored. (Number 9, Clause 1, Article 2). The law also requires that some kinds of biotope that are full of a specific variety should not be harmed by development. So there is a law that mandates the protection of biotopes. There is also a provincial law corresponding to the federal one. Such developments were uncommon in those times.", "Many German states are obliged by law to produce a landscape plan (Landschaftsplan) as part of their urban planning, though these plans vary somewhat from place to place. The purpose of the \"Landschaftsplan\" is to protect the region's environment and landscape. These plans use text and figures to describe the present environmental state and proposed remedies. They consider, for example, the regional lie of the land, climate, wind direction, soil, ground water, type of biotope, distribution of animals and plants, inhabitants' welfare and competition with development projects.", "Biotope preservation in cities also emphasises recreation and relaxation for citizens and improving the urban environment. For example, in the reserve of Karlsruhe in Baden-Württemberg people can cycle on the bike path or walk the dog, although it is forbidden to gather plants and animals there or walk in the exclusion zone. At the core of biotope preservation is the idea that if civic life is surrounded by a rich profusion of nature whose background is in local history and culture, it is improved by protecting nature and preserving the landscape.", "The term \"biotope\" is also used by aquarium hobbyists to describe an aquarium setup that tries to simulate the natural habitat of a specific assemblage of fish. The idea is to replicate conditions such as water parameters, natural plants, substrate, water type (fresh, saline or brackish), lighting, and to include other native fish which usually live together in nature and as such, represent a particular real-world biotope. An example of one South American biotope type might be \"Forest creek tributary of Rio Negro near Barcelos, Brazil\" with many branches, twigs, roots, dead leaves, light sandy substrate, tannin-stained water and subdued lighting with floating plants, along with \"Nannostomus eques\", \"Paracheirodon axelrodi\", \"Hemigrammus bleheri\", and \"Dicrossus filamentosus\". Note that \"South American\" is not itself a biotope, since South America contains hundreds of distinct biotopes in different regions, rivers, etc." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "Personal life.", "Awards.", "Other." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Klein was born on November 19, 1942 to a Jewish family in The Bronx, the son of Flore (\"née\" Stern) (1909-2006) and Leo Klein. Leo had immigrated to New York from Hungary, while Flore was born in the United States to immigrants from Galicia (Eastern Europe) and Buchenland, Austrian Empire (modern day-Ukraine). Klein went to Isobel Rooney Middle School 80 (M.S.80) as a child. He attended the High School of Art and Design in Manhattan and matriculated at, but never graduated from, New York's Fashion Institute of Technology, receiving an honorary doctorate in 2003. He did his apprenticeship in 1962 at an old line cloak-and-suit manufacturer, Dan Millstein, and spent five years designing at other New York City shops. In 1968, he launched his first company with a childhood friend, Barry K. Schwartz. Klein was one of several design leaders raised in the Jewish immigrant community in the Bronx, along with Robert Denning and Ralph Lauren. He became a protégé of Baron de Gunzburg, through whose introductions he became the toast of the New York elite fashion scene even before he had his first mainstream success with the launch of his first jeans line. He was immediately recognized for his talent after his first major showing at New York Fashion Week. He was hailed as the new Yves Saint Laurent, and was noted for his clean lines.", "Klein married Jayne Centre, a textile designer, in 1964. They have a daughter, Marci, who currently works as Talent Producer for NBC's \"Saturday Night Live\". They divorced in 1974. In September 1986 Klein married his assistant, Kelly Rector, in Rome while they were on a buying trip in Italy. She later became a well-known socialite photographer. After separating in 1996, they divorced in April 2006 after 20 years of marriage. In 2003, Klein bought an ocean-front estate in Southampton, New York on Long Island and demolished it to build a $75 million glass-and-concrete mansion. In 2015, he put his Miami Beach, Florida mansion on the market for $16 million. The Florida home sold in February 2017 for $12,850,000. In June 2015, Klein bought a mansion in Los Angeles, California for $25 million. Calvin Klein dated Nicholas Gruber. Klein is a supporter of the U.S. Democratic Party, having given over $250,000 to candidates and PACs since 1980.", "In 1974, Klein designed the tight-fitting signature jeans that would go on to gross $200,000 in their first week of sales. In that same year he also became the first designer to receive outstanding design in men’s and women’s wear from the CFDA award show. In 1983, he was placed on the International Best Dressed List. Also in 1981, 1983 and 1993, he received an award from Councils of Fashion Designs of America.", "Klein made a cameo appearance in Season 3, Episode 15 (\"The Bubble\"), of the television series \"30 Rock\". A fictionalized version of him also appears in Season 4, Episode 13 (\"The Pick\"), of the television series \"Seinfeld\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life (1471–1490).", "\"Wanderjahre\" and marriage (1490–1494).", "First journey to Italy (1494–1495).", "Return to Nuremberg (1495–1505).", "Second journey to Italy (1505–1507).", "Nuremberg and the masterworks (1507–1520).", "Journey to the Netherlands (1520–1521).", "Final years in Nuremberg (1521–1528).", "Legacy and influence.", "Theoretical works.", "\"Four Books on Measurement\".", "\"Four Books on Human Proportion\".", "Exhibitions.", "List of works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Dürer was born on 21 May 1471, third child and second son of his parents, who had at least fourteen and possibly as many as eighteen children. His father, Albrecht Dürer the Elder (originally Albrecht Ajtósi), was a successful goldsmith who in 1455 had moved to Nuremberg from, near Gyula in Hungary. One of Albrecht's brothers, Hans Dürer, was also a painter and trained under him. Another of Albrecht's brothers, Endres Dürer, took over their father's business and was a master goldsmith. The German name \"Dürer\" is a translation from the Hungarian, \"Ajtósi\". Initially, it was \"Türer\", meaning doormaker, which is \"ajtós\" in Hungarian (from \"ajtó\", meaning door). A door is featured in the coat-of-arms the family acquired. Albrecht Dürer the Younger later changed \"Türer\", his father's diction of the family's surname, to \"Dürer\", to adapt to the local Nuremberg dialect. Dürer the Elder married Barbara Holper, daughter of his master when he himself qualified as a master in 1467. Dürer's godfather was Anton", "After completing his apprenticeship, Dürer followed the common German custom of taking \"Wanderjahre\"—in effect gap years—in which the apprentice learned skills from artists in other areas; Dürer was to spend about four years away. He left in 1490, possibly to work under Martin Schongauer, the leading engraver of Northern Europe, but who died shortly before Dürer's arrival at Colmar in 1492. It is unclear where Dürer travelled in the intervening period, though it is likely that he went to Frankfurt and the Netherlands. In Colmar, Dürer was welcomed by Schongauer's brothers, the goldsmiths Caspar and Paul and the painter Ludwig. In 1493 Dürer went to Strasbourg, where he would have experienced the sculpture of Nikolaus Gerhaert. Dürer's first painted self-portrait (now in the Louvre) was painted at this time, probably to", "Within three months of his marriage, Dürer left for Italy, alone, perhaps stimulated by an outbreak of plague in Nuremberg. He made watercolour sketches as he traveled over the Alps. Some have survived and others may be deduced from accurate landscapes of real places in his later work, for example his engraving \"Nemesis\". In Italy, he went to Venice to study its more advanced artistic world. Through Wolgemut's tutelage, Dürer had learned how", "On his return to Nuremberg in 1495, Dürer opened his own workshop (being married was a requirement for this). Over the next five years, his style increasingly integrated Italian influences into underlying Northern forms. Arguably his best works in the first years of the workshop were his woodcut prints, mostly religious, but including secular scenes such as \"The Men's Bath House\" (ca. 1496). These were larger and more finely cut than the great majority of German woodcuts hitherto, and far more complex and balanced in composition. It is now thought unlikely that Dürer cut any of the woodblocks himself; this task would have", "In Italy, he returned to painting, at first producing a series of works executed in tempera on linen. These include portraits and altarpieces, notably, the Paumgartner altarpiece and the \"Adoration of the Magi\". In early 1506, he returned to Venice and stayed there until the spring of 1507. By this time Dürer's engravings had attained great popularity and were being copied. In", "Despite the regard in which he was held by the Venetians, Dürer returned to Nuremberg by mid-1507, remaining in Germany until 1520. His reputation had spread throughout Europe and he was on friendly terms and in communication with most of the major artists including Raphael. Dürer describes Giovanni Bellini as \"very old, but still the best in painting\". Between 1507 and 1511 Dürer worked on some of his most celebrated paintings: \"Adam and Eve\" (1507), \"The Martyrdom of the Ten Thousand\" (1508, for Frederick of Saxony), \"Virgin with the Iris\" (1508), the altarpiece \"Assumption of the Virgin\" (1509, for Jacob Heller of Frankfurt), and \"Adoration of the Trinity\" (1511, for Matthaeus Landauer). During this period he also completed two woodcut series, the \"Great Passion\" and the \"Life of the Virgin\", both published in 1511 together with a second edition of the \"Apocalypse\" series. The post-Venetian woodcuts show Dürer's development of chiaroscuro modelling effects, creating a mid-tone throughout the print to which the highlights and shadows can be contrasted. Other works from this", "Maximilian's death came at a time when Dürer was concerned he was losing \"my sight and freedom of hand\" (perhaps caused by arthritis) and increasingly affected by the writings of Martin Luther. In July 1520 Dürer made his fourth and last major journey, to renew the Imperial pension Maximilian had given him and to secure the patronage of the new emperor, Charles V, who was to be crowned at Aachen. Dürer journeyed with his wife and her maid via the Rhine to Cologne and then to Antwerp, where he was well received and produced numerous drawings in silverpoint, chalk and charcoal. In addition to going to the coronation, he made excursions to Cologne (where he admired the painting of Stefan Lochner), Nijmegen,'s-Hertogenbosch, Bruges (where he saw Michelangelo's Madonna of Bruges), Ghent (where he admired van Eyck's altarpiece), and Zeeland. Dürer took a large stock of prints with him and wrote in his diary to whom he gave, exchanged or sold them, and for how much. This", "On his return to Nuremberg, Dürer worked on a number of grand projects with religious themes, including a crucifixion scene and a Sacra conversazione, though neither was completed. This may have been due in part to his declining health, but perhaps also because of the time he gave to the preparation of his theoretical works on geometry and perspective, the proportions of men and horses, and fortification. However, one consequence of this shift in emphasis was that during the last years of his life, Dürer produced comparatively little as an artist. In painting, there was only a portrait of, a,, and two panels showing St. John with St. Peter in and St. Paul with St. Mark in the. This last great work, the Four Apostles, was given by Dürer to the City of Nuremberg—although he was given 100 guilders in return. As for engravings, Dürer's work was restricted to portraits and illustrations for his treatise. The", "Dürer exerted a huge influence on the artists of succeeding generations, especially in printmaking, the medium through which his contemporaries mostly experienced his art, as his paintings were predominantly in private collections located in only a few cities. His success in spreading his reputation across Europe through prints was undoubtedly an inspiration for major artists such as Raphael, Titian, and Parmigianino, all of whom collaborated with printmakers in order to promote and distribute their work. His work in engraving seems to have had an intimidating effect upon his German successors, the \"Little Masters\" who attempted few large engravings but continued Dürer's themes in small, rather cramped compositions. Lucas van Leyden was the only Northern European engraver to successfully continue to produce large engravings in the first third of the 16th century. The generation of Italian engravers who trained in the shadow of Dürer all either directly copied parts of his landscape backgrounds (Giulio Campagnola, Giovanni Battista Palumba, Benedetto Montagna and Cristofano Robetta), or whole prints (Marcantonio Raimondi and Agostino Veneziano). However, Dürer's influence became less dominant after 1515, when Marcantonio perfected his new engraving style, which in turn travelled over the Alps to dominate Northern engraving also. In painting, Dürer had relatively little influence in Italy, where probably only his altarpiece in Venice was seen, and his German successors were less effective in blending German and Italian styles. His intense and self-dramatizing self-portraits have continued to have a strong influence up to the present, especially on painters in the 19th and 20th century who desired a more dramatic portrait style. Dürer has never fallen from critical favour, and there have been significant revivals of interest in his works in Germany in the \"Dürer Renaissance\" of about 1570 to 1630, in the early nineteenth century, and in German nationalism from 1870 to 1945. Dürer's study of human proportions and the use of transformations to a coordinate grid to demonstrate facial variation inspired similar work by D'Arcy Thompson in his book \"On Growth and Form\". In 1498, Dürer painted a series of self-portraits, quite possibly the first examples of an artist depicting himself. His 1507 panel paintings of \"Adam and Eve\" are the first full-size nudes in Northern European art. The Lutheran Church remembers Dürer as a great Christian annually on 6 April, along with Lucas Cranach the Elder and Hans Burgkmair. The liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (United States) remembers him, Cranach and Matthias Grünewald on 5 August.", "In all his theoretical works, in order to communicate his theories in the German language rather than in Latin, Dürer used graphic expressions based on a vernacular, craftsmen's language. For example, \"Schneckenlinie\" (\"snail-line\") was his term for a spiral form. Thus, Dürer contributed to the expansion in German prose which Martin Luther had begun with his translation of the Bible.", "Dürer's work on geometry is called the \"Four Books on Measurement\" (\"Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirckel und Richtscheyt\" or \"Instructions for Measuring with Compass and Ruler\"). The first book focuses on linear geometry. Dürer's geometric constructions include helices, conchoids and epicycloids. He also draws on Apollonius, and Johannes Werner's 'Libellus super viginti duobus elementis conicis' of 1522. The second book moves onto two-dimensional geometry, i.e. the construction of regular polygons. Here Dürer favours the methods of Ptolemy over Euclid. The third book applies these principles of geometry to architecture, engineering and typography. In architecture Dürer cites Vitruvius but elaborates his own classical designs and columns. In typography, Dürer depicts the geometric construction of the Latin alphabet, relying on Italian precedent. However, his construction of the Gothic alphabet is based upon an entirely different modular system. The fourth book completes the progression of the first and second by moving", "Dürer's work on human proportions is called the \"Four Books on Human Proportion\" (\"Vier Bücher von Menschlicher Proportion\") of 1528. The first book was mainly composed by 1512/13 and completed by 1523, showing five differently constructed types of both male and female figures, all parts of the body expressed in fractions of the total height. Dürer based these constructions on both Vitruvius and empirical observations of \"two to three hundred living persons\", in his own words. The second book includes eight further types, broken down not into fractions but an Albertian system, which Dürer probably learned from Francesco di Giorgio's 'De harmonica mundi totius' of 1525. In the third book, Dürer gives principles by which the proportions of the figures can be modified, including the mathematical simulation of convex and concave mirrors; here Dürer also deals with human physiognomy. The fourth book is devoted to the theory of movement. Appended to the last book, however, is a self-contained", "An important exhibition ran at the Albertina in Vienna, Austria from 20 September 2019 to 6 January 2020. The Albertina has the largest collection in the world of Dürer drawings with more than 140 works. With loans, over 200 works were exhibited. Other exhibitions include: Paris Autumn-Winter", "For lists of Albrecht Dürer's works, see:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Habitat.", "Description.", "Subspecies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Downy oaks typically grow in dry, lime-rich soils. It is a submediterranean species, growing from the coastline to deep in the continent. Its optimum is in the submediterranean region, characterized by hot dry summers and cool winters with little rain fall. In western and central Europe, downy oak is confined to areas with submediteranean microclimate (gorges, sandplains, steppe slopes) or to coastlines of former lakes.", "\"Quercus pubescens\" is a medium-sized deciduous tree growing up to 20 m. Forest-grown trees grow tall, while open-growing trees develop a very broad and irregular crown. They are long-lived, to several hundred years, and eventually grow into very stout trees with trunks up to 2 m in diameter. Open-grown trees frequently develop several trunks. The bark is very rough, light grey and divided into small flakes. Large trees develop very thick whitish bark cracked into deep furrows, similar to the pedunculate oak but lighter in colour. The twigs are light purple or whitish, tomentose. The buds are small (3–6 mm) and blunt, light brown. The leaves are leathery usually 4–10 cm long (rarely to 13 cm) and 3–6 cm wide, usually widest beyond the middle. The leaves group at the ends of twigs. The upper leaf surface is dark green and rough, the lower light green. Both leaf surfaces are covered with minute pubescence which is sometimes lost in older leaves by late summer. The young expanding leaves are whitish or pinkish with very soft tomentum. The leaf shape is very variable, divided into 3-7 pairs of deep or shallow lobes, which are usually divided into a few sublobes. The lobes are usually blunt, rarely sharp. The apex is usually wide and round. The base of the leaf is heart shaped, widely rounded or sometimes pointed. The petioles are 4–15 mm (rarely to 22 mm) long, stout and pubescent. The leaves are persistent late into the autumn, remaining green up to early winter. They eventually turn russet or brown and fall off. The \"Quercus pubescens\" acorns are light brown to yellow, 8–20 mm long, usually thin and pointed. The acorn cups are light grey to almost white, with pointed, overlapping scales, covered with tomentum. The acorn stalks are thick and pubescent, up to 2 cm long. The acorns usually occur in groups of 2-5 on the same stalk.", "Three subspecies are accepted by \"Flora Europaea\":" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Works.", "Legacy.", "Editions and translations.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The details of Priscian's life are largely unknown. Priscian was born and raised in the North-African city of Caesarea (modern Cherchell, Algeria) the capital of the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis. According to Cassiodorus, he taught Latin at Constantinople in the early sixth century. His minor works include a panegyric to Anastasius (491—518), written about 512, which helps establish his time period. In addition, the manuscripts of his \"Institutes\" contain a subscription to the effect that the work was copied (526, 527) by Flavius Theodorus, a clerk in the imperial secretariat.", "Priscian's most famous work, the \"Institutes of Grammar\" (), is a systematic exposition of Latin grammar. The dedication to Julian probably indicates the consul and patrician, not the author of a well-known epitome of Justinian's \"Novellae\", who lived somewhat later than Priscian. The grammar is divided into eighteen books, of which the first sixteen deal mainly with sounds, word-formation and inflexions; the last two, which form from a fourth to a third of the whole work, deal with syntax. Priscian's grammar is based on the earlier works of Herodian and Apollonius. The examples it includes to illustrate the rules preserve numerous fragments from Latin authors which would otherwise have been lost, including Ennius, Pacuvius, Accius, Lucilius, Cato and Varro. But the authors whom he quotes most frequently are Virgil, and, next to him, Terence, Cicero, Plautus; then Lucan, Horace, Juvenal, Sallust, Statius, Ovid, Livy and Persius. The grammar was quoted by several writers in Britain of the 8th century - Aldhelm, Bede, Alcuin - and was abridged or largely used in the next century by Hrabanus Maurus of Fulda and Servatus Lupus of Ferrières. About a thousand manuscripts exist, all ultimately derived from the copy made by Theodorus. Most copies contain only books I—XVI; these are sometimes known as the \"Priscianus Major\" (\"Greater Priscian\"). Others contain only books XVII and XVIII along with the three books to Symmachus; these are known as his work \"On Construction\" (\"\") or the \"Priscianus Minor\" (\"Lesser Priscian\"). A few copies contain both parts. The earliest manuscripts are from the 9th century, though a few fragments are somewhat earlier. Priscian's minor works include:", "Books XVII & XVIII of the \"Institutes\", his work \"On Construction\", was part of the core curriculum of the University of Paris in the 13th century and Roger Bacon's lectures for the class were the probable origin of his own \"Overview of Grammar\", one of the first expositions on the idea of a universal grammar. Dante places Priscian in Hell among sodomites.", "Editions German Translations French translations", "Attribution" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Cultivation and uses.", "Hybrids." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Quercus cerris\" is a large deciduous tree growing to 25–40 m tall with a trunk up to 2 m diameter. The bark is dark grey and deeply furrowed. On mature trees the bark fissures are often streaked orange near the base of the trunk. The glossy leaves are 7–14 cm long and 3–5 cm wide, with 6–12 triangular lobes on each side; the regularity of the lobing varies greatly, with some trees having very regular lobes, others much less regular. The flowers are wind-pollinated catkins, maturing about 18 months after pollination; the fruit is a large acorn, 2.5–4 cm long and 2 cm broad, bicoloured with an orange basal half grading to a green-brown tip; the acorn cup is 2 cm deep, densely covered in soft 4–8 mm long'mossy' bristles. First year acorns are very bitter, but are eaten by jays and pigeons; squirrels usually only eat them when other food sources have run out. The tree harbours the gall wasp \"Andricus quercuscalicis\" whose larvae seriously damage the acorns of native British oaks. In 1998, the Ministry of Defence ordered the felling of all Turkey oaks on its UK bases.", "The species' range extended to northern Europe and the British Isles before the previous ice age, about 120,000 years ago. It was reintroduced in the United Kingdom and in Ireland in the eighteenth century as an ornamental tree, its gall wasps now provide early food for birds. Turkey oak is widely planted and is naturalised in much of Europe. This is partly for its relatively fast growth. It is used as an ornamental, and as a coastal windbreak. The wood has many of the characteristics of other oaks, but is very prone to crack and split and hence is relegated to such uses as fencing. Several cultivars have been selected, including 'Variegata', a variegated cultivar, and 'Woden', with large, deeply lobed leaves.", "Turkey oak readily hybridises with cork oak (\"Q. suber\"), the resulting hybrid being named \"Q. × crenata\" Lam. This hybrid occurs both naturally where its parents' ranges overlap in the wild, and has also arisen in cultivation. It is a very variable medium to large tree, usually semi-evergreen, sometimes nearly completely so, and often with marked hybrid vigour; its bark is thick and fissured but never as thick as that of the cork oak. Numerous cultivars are available, often grafted onto Turkey oak root stock. These include 'Ambrozyana', evergreen except in severe winters, originating from the Mlyňany Arboretum in Slovakia, home of the late Count Ambrozy; 'Diversifolia', with the leaves extremely deeply cut leaving a narrow strip down the centre, and very corky bark; 'Fulhamensis' (Fulham oak), raised at Osborne's nursery in Fulham c.1760; and 'Lucombeana' (Lucombe oak), raised by William Lucombe at his nursery in Exeter 1762. An early specimen raised by Lucombe is at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. A similar Lucombe oak was felled by fungus and a light wind in Phear Park, Exmouth 15 February 2009." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The province of Çorum is a mixture of mountains and high plateaus, some of it watered by the Kızılırmak and Yeşilırmak rivers. The province includes much attractive high meadow and mountain for walking and excursions from the city and towns. Çorum is also known as a Geographical centre of Earth. In 2003, a revised calculation by Holger Isenberg using the higher resolution ETOPO2 global digital elevation model (DEM) with data points every 2' (3.7 km near equator) led to a more precise result of 40°52′N 34°34′E in the region of Çorum, Turkey (180 km northeast of Ankara) and thereby validated Woods' calculation.", "Excavations reveal that Çorum area was inhabited during the Paleolithic, Neolithic period and the 4th stage of the Calcolithic Age. Remains of these periods have been found at Büyük Güllüce, Eskiyapar and Kuşsaray. In later times Çorum and its environs were dominated by Hittites and in the district of Boğazkale is one of the most important Hittite sites in Anatolia, the UNESCO World Heritage listed Hattusa, the capital of the Hittite Empire from 1700 BC to 1200 BC. Other important Hittite site include the open-air temples at Yazılıkaya and Alacahöyük; royal tombs; and the excavations of Boğazköy including tablets proving tradings links between the Hittites and the Ancient Egyptians. Then came the other civilizations: Phrygians, who left remains at Pazarlı, north of Çorum; Then Cimmerians, Medes, Persians, Galatians, Romans, Byzantines, Seljuk Turks, Danishmends, Mongol Empire (Ilkhanids), Eretnids, Kadi Burhan al-Din and finally the Ottoman Empire. As well as the Hittite archaeology the province also contains a number of castles, bridges and mosques from the Seljuk and Ottoman periods. In 1980, Nationalist Movement Party militants perpetrated the Çorum Massacre against the Alevi Turk minority, killing 57 and injuring more than 200." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Railway bridge built 1916.", "Bridge built 1999." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Khabarovsk Bridge was originally built in 1916 as a single-track structure that carried the Trans-Siberian Railway line across the Amur River near the city of Khabarovsk, Russia. The bridge remained the longest bridge in Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union for decades, having a length of. The bridge construction was supposed to cost 13,500,000 Russian rubles, and to be done in only 26 months to a design by the eminent bridge builder Lavr Proskuryakov. However, a year after construction began on 30 July 1913, the First World War broke out. Since the bridge was being constructed by Warsaw-based K. Rudzki i S-ka company and the spans were manufactured in its factory in Mińsk Mazowiecki, they had to be brought to Khabarovsk by sea all the way around Eurasia. In fall 1914, a merchant ship carrying the last two spans was sunk in the Indian Ocean by the German cruiser \"Emden\", delaying the completion of the bridge by more than a year. The bridge was finally completed for an official opening on October 5, 1916. It was named \"Alekseyevsky\" after Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia. On April 5, 1920, two of the bridge's eighteen metal spans were detonated by the guerrilla units retreating from Khabarovsk during the provocative speeches of the Japanese military over the course of the Civil War. As a result, the Trans-Siberian railway was torn apart for 5 years. The reconstruction began shortly after the establishment of Soviet rule in the Far East (since November 1922). The 13th span was assembled in Vladivostok at the plant Dalzavod from the damaged parts of the spans that had fallen into the river by one end. Instead of the 12th span, a reserve one across the Vetluga River (a tributary of the Volga River) was installed, which had a slightly different shape, but was suitable by its dimensions and design. Minor repairs and missing parts were made by the Khabarovsk plant \"Arsenal\" (now Daldiesel). The bridge was re-opened to through traffic by March 22, 1925. In the 1980s, research was undertaken on the bridge with the objective of its renovation. The spans and arches of the bridge were found to be defective, and so speed limits were imposed. At the same time, the bridge's pillars were in satisfactory condition.", "In 1999, a new bridge was built right next to the old one, carrying automobile and rail traffic on two levels. It is 3,890 m long. The original spans of the old bridge were dismantled in the 21st century, though its supports were preserved. One of the spans of the old bridge was saved, restored and set on the banks of the Amur in the Museum of Khabarovsk Bridge, which is located nearby. The reconstructed Khabarovsk Bridge is depicted on the 5,000 Russian ruble banknote." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Agriculture.", "Environment.", "Districts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the early Turkish Republic, the Çanakkale Province came into existence with the abolition of the Ottoman-era \"sanjaks\" of Biga and Gelibolu. According to a population census in 1927, Çanakkale had 8,500 inhabitants, except its neighbouring villages. It is recorded that Çanakkale, which was also called as \"Hellespontos\" and \"Dardanelles\" in ancient times, has accommodated to many civilizations for about 3,000 years. Even the Archaic Troy (Troia) city, where was governed by Lydians and destroyed by the devastating earthquake in 2500 BC, has ruins in today. In 336 BC, Persian Empire which became the crucial power in Anatolia and was conducted by Alexander the Great that aimed to extend ancient Greece all over the world, was defeated. Also with the ruin of the Anatolian beylik of Karesi, most of the territory of Canakkale was conquered in the Ottoman era, with the assistance of the castles in remuneration for helping to Byzantine Empire, locating Gelibolu. Afterwards, the Canakkale strait was given to the Ottoman Empire. The province was included in the Second Inspectorate General on the 19 February 1934 which span over the provinces of Edirne, Çanakkale, Kırklareli, Tekirdağ. It was ruled by an Inspector General who had wide-ranging authorities over civilian, military and educational matters. The office of the Inspectorate-General was abandoned in 1948 but the legal framework of the Inspectorate-Generals was only abolished in 1952, under the Government of the Democrat Party.", "The province of Çanakkale is a notable region for viticulture and winemaking in Turkey. The region between Saros Gulf and Gelibolu on the Gallipoli peninsula is cultivated with vineyards. Wine producer \"Suvla\" is located in Suvla.", "several of the country's coal fired power stations are here, some with smokestack filters which do not meet regulations.", "Çanakkale province is divided into 12 districts (capital district in bold):" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy.", "Description.", "Diet.", "Behavior.", "Life cycle.", "Habitat.", "Plant communities.", "Cover requirements.", "Predation.", "Conservation status." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The American badger is a member of the Mustelidae, a diverse family of carnivorous mammals that also includes weasels, otters, ferrets, and the wolverine. The American badger belongs to the Taxidiinae, one of four subfamilies of mustelid badgers – the other three being the Melinae (4 species, including the European badger), the Helictidinae (5 species of ferret-badgers) and the Mellivorinae (honey badger); the so-called stink badgers are mephitids. The American badger's closest relative is the prehistoric \"Chamitataxus\". Among extant mustelids, the American badger is the most basal species; its lineage is thought to have split off from the rest of Mustelidae about 18 million years (Ma) ago, following the split of mustelids from procyonids about 29 Ma ago. Recognized subspecies include: Ranges of subspecies overlap considerably, with intermediate forms occurring in the areas of overlap. In Mexico, this animal is sometimes called \"tlalcoyote\". The Spanish word for badger is \"tejón\", but in Mexico this word is also used to describe the coati. This can lead to confusion, as both coatis and badgers are found in Mexico.", "The American badger has most of the general characteristics common to badgers; with stocky and low-slung bodies with short, powerful legs, they are identifiable by their huge foreclaws (measuring up to 5 cm in length) and distinctive head markings. American badgers possess morphological characteristics that enables them to be good fossorial specialists such as a conical head, bristles on the ears and nictitating membranes in the eyes. American badgers have powerful forelimbs. They also possess a strong humerus and large bony processes for the attachment of muscles. The mechanical advantage in badger forelimbs is increased by the specialized olecranon process and bones such as the radius and metacarpals. Measuring generally between in length, males of the species are slightly larger than females. They may attain an average weight of roughly for females and up to for males. Northern subspecies such as \"T. t. jeffersonii\" are heavier than the southern subspecies. In the fall, when food is plentiful, adult male badgers can reach up to. In some northern populations, females can average. Except for the head, the American badger is covered with a grizzled, brown, black and white coat of coarse hair or fur, giving almost a mixed brown-tan appearance. The coat aids in camouflage in grassland habitat. Its triangular face shows a distinctive black and white pattern, with brown or blackish \"badges\" marking the cheeks and a white stripe extending from the nose to the base of the head. In the subspecies \"T. t. berlandieri\", the white head stripe extends the full length of the body, to the base of the tail.", "The American badger is a fossorial carnivore. It preys predominantly on pocket gophers (Geomyidae), ground squirrels (\"Spermophilus\"), moles (Talpidae), marmots (\"Marmota\"), prairie dogs (\"Cynomys\"), pika (\"Ochotona\"), woodrats (\"Neotoma\"), kangaroo rats (\"Dipodomys\"), deer mice (\"Peromyscus\"), and voles (\"Microtus\"), often digging to pursue prey into their dens, and sometimes plugging tunnel entrances with objects. The American badger is a significant predator of snakes including rattlesnakes, and is considered the most important predator of rattlesnakes in South Dakota. They also prey on ground-nesting birds, such as the bank swallow or sand martin (\"Riparia riparia\") and the burrowing owl (\"Athene cunicularia\"), lizards, amphibians, carrion, fish, skunks (\"Mephitis\" and \"Spilogale\"), insects (including bees and honeycomb), and some plant foods such as corn (\"Zea mais\"), peas, green beans, mushrooms and other fungi, and sunflower seeds (\"Helianthus\").", "American badgers are generally nocturnal; however, in remote areas with no human encroachment they are routinely observed foraging during the day. Seasonally, a badger observed during daylight hours in the spring months of late March to early May often represents a female foraging during daylight and spending nights with her young. Badgers do not hibernate but may become less active in winter. A badger may spend much of the winter in cycles of torpor that last around 29 hours. They do emerge from their burrows when the temperature is above freezing. As a fossorial mammal, the American badger uses a scratch-digging process where the forelimbs are withdrawn to break the soil and move the debris behind or to the sides of its body An abandoned badger burrow may be occupied by mammals of similar size, such as foxes and skunks, as well as animals as diverse as the burrowing owl, California tiger salamander and California red-legged frog. The American badger has been seen working with a coyote in tandem while hunting. Typically this pairing is one badger to one coyote, however, one study found about 9% of sightings included two coyotes to one badger, while 1% had one badger to three coyotes. Researchers have found that the coyote benefits by an increased catch rate of about 33%, and while it is difficult to see precisely how the badger benefits, the badger has been noted to spend more time underground and active. Badgers are also thought to expend less energy while hunting in burrows. According to research, this partnership works due to the different hunting styles of the predators and how their prey reacts to them. A ground squirrel, upon spotting a coyote, will crawl into its hole to escape; while upon seeing a badger, the ground squirrel will climb out of its hole and use its speed to outrun the badger. Hunting in tandem raises the prey vulnerability and both predators win.", "Badgers are normally solitary animals, but are thought to expand their territories in the breeding season to seek out mates. Mating occurs in late summer and early fall, with some males breeding with more than one female. American badgers experience delayed implantation, with pregnancies suspended until December or as late as February. Young are born from late March to early April in litters ranging from one to five young, averaging about three. Badgers are born blind, furred, and helpless. Eyes open at four to six weeks. The female feeds her young solid foods prior to complete weaning, and for a few weeks thereafter. Young American badgers first emerge from the den on their own at five to six weeks old. Families usually break up and juveniles disperse from the end of June to August; young American badgers leave their mothers as early as late May or June. Juvenile dispersal movements are erratic. Most female American badgers become pregnant for the first time after they are a year old. A minority of females four to five months old ovulate and a few become pregnant. Males usually do not breed until their second year. Large predators occasionally kill American badgers. The average longevity in the wild is 9–10 years, with a record of 14; a captive example lived at least 15 years and five months.", "American badgers prefer grasslands and open areas with grasslands, which can include parklands, farms, and treeless areas with friable soil and a supply of rodent prey. They may also be found in forest glades and meadows, marshes, brushy areas, hot deserts, and mountain meadows. They are sometimes found at elevations up to but are usually found in the Sonoran and Transition life zones (which are at elevations lower and warmer than those characterized by coniferous forests). In Arizona, they occur in desert scrub and semidesert grasslands. In California, American badgers are primarily able to survive through a combination of open grasslands of agricultural lands, protected land trust and open space lands, and even regional and state and national park lands with grassland habitat. The Sonoma County badger population includes some protected and private lands near the Sonoma Coast, as well as one in South Sonoma County fragilely surviving in spite of abundant prey due to fragmentation. Badgers are occasionally found in open chaparral (with less than 50% plant cover) and riparian zones. They are not usually found in mature chaparral. In Manitoba aspen parklands, American badger abundance was positively associated with the abundance of Richardson's ground squirrels (\"Spermophilus richardsonii\"). In Ontario it primarily resides on the extreme southwestern portion of the province, restricted to the north shore of Lake Erie in open areas generally associated with agriculture and along woodland edges. There have been a few reports from the Bruce-Grey region. American badger use of home range varies with season and sex. Different areas of the home range are used more frequently at different seasons and usually are related to prey availability. Males generally have larger home ranges than females. In a 1972 study, radiotransmitter-tagged American badgers had an average annual home range of. The home range of one female was in summer, in fall, and in winter. Lindzey reported average home ranges of. Estimated density of American badgers in Utah scrub-steppe was one per square mile (2.6 km), with 10 dens in active or recent use. , overdevelopment of American Badger habitat had resulted in reduced range, decreased prey, and forced badgers into contact with humans when foraging between fragments. Direct observations in Sonoma County, documenting habitat and badger sightings and foraging, reflect various ranges within the fragmented habitat areas from less than 1/2 mile to approximately 4 miles. Within these areas, the availability of prey and a fresh water source are key factors for the preferred habitat areas and ability to survive. Identifying and conserving habitat areas where there is year-round activity, along with identified burrowing patterns and observations of female badger territory for birthing and raising young have become critical factors in survival of the species.", "American badgers are most commonly found in treeless areas, including tallgrass and shortgrass prairies, grass-dominated meadows and fields within forested habitats, and shrub-steppe communities. In the Southwest, plant indicators of the Sonoran and Transition life zones (relatively low, dry elevations) commonly associated with American badgers include creosotebush (\"Larrea tridentata\"), junipers (\"Juniperus\" spp.), gambel oak (\"Quercus gambelii\"), willows (\"Salix\" spp.), cottonwoods (\"Populus\" spp.), ponderosa pine (\"Pinus ponderosa\"), grasses, and sagebrushes (\"Artemisia\" spp.). In Colorado in 1977, American badgers were common in grass–forb and ponderosa pine habitats. In Kansas, they are common in tallgrass prairie dominated by big bluestem (\"Andropogon gerardi\"), little bluestem (\"Schizachyrium scoparium\"), and Indian grass (\"Sorghastrum nutans\"). In Montana 24 years ago, badgers were present in Glacier National Park in fescue (\"Festuca\" spp.) grasslands. In Manitoba, they occur in grassland extensions within aspen (\"Populus\" spp.) parklands.", "American badgers require cover for sleep, concealment, protection from weather, and natal denning. They typically enlarge foraged out gopher or other prey holes, or other animal burrows. Their dens range from about 4 feet to 10 feet in depth and 4 feet to 6 feet in width. A female American Badger may create 2 to 4 burrows in proximity with a connecting tunnel for concealment and safety for her young. Displaced soil from digging out the burrow characteristically appears in front of the burrow entrance, and a view from a distance reveals a mound-like roof of the burrow, with the living and concealment space created underneath the raised-roof appearing mound. During summer and autumn, badgers range more frequently, with mating season generally in November, and burrowing patterns reflect 1 to 3 burrows may be dug from foraged out prey holes in a day, used for a day to a week, and then abandoned, with possible returns later, and other small wildlife utilizing abandoned burrows in the interim. Where prey is particularly plentiful, they will reuse dens, especially in the fall, sometimes for a few days at a time. In winter, a single den may be used for most of the season. Natal dens are dug by the female and are used for extended periods, but litters may be moved, probably to allow the mother to forage in new areas close to the nursery. Natal dens are usually larger and more complex than diurnal dens.", "While the American badger is an aggressive animal with few natural enemies, it is still vulnerable to other species in its habitat. Predation on smaller individuals by golden eagles (\"Aquila chrysaetos\"), coyotes and bobcats (\"Lynx rufus\") have been reported. Bears (\"Ursus\" spp.) and gray wolves (\"Canis lupus\") occasionally kill American badgers, while cougars (\"Puma concolor\"), according to a 2019 study, apparently are the main predators of adults, hunting them much more frequently than the other carnivorans, with a documented case where the badger is one of the main prey of a collared cat. American badgers are trapped by humans for their pelts. Their fur is used for shaving and painting brushes.", "In May 2000, the Canadian Species at Risk Act listed both the \"Taxidea taxus jacksoni\" and the \"T. t. jeffersonii\" subspecies as an endangered species in Canada. The California Department of Fish and Game designated the American badger as a California species of special concern. Badgers" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History.", "Administrative divisions.", "Main sights." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The province is drained by the Bolu River (\"Boli Su\") and the Koca River. The forests, lakes and mountains are rich in wildlife including three deer species and very popular weekend and holiday retreats for walkers and climbers. Parts of the province are vulnerable to earthquakes.", "It is not definitely known when Bolu was first founded. There are some archaeological findings dating back about 100,000 years that suggest the region was inhabited then. The area now in Bolu Province was in eastern Bithynia and southwestern Paphlagonia. The town of Bithynium from which the area takes its name is the modern Bolu. The area was called Bithynia during the Hellenistic period, the Romans named it Claudio Polis, and it was called Bolu by the Turks. By about 375 BCE, Bithynia had gained its independence from Persia, and King Bas subsequently defeated Alexander's attempt to take it. The Bithynian region with parts of Paphlagonia remained its own kingdom until 88 BCE when it briefly came under Mithridates VI and the Kingdom of Pontus. With Roman help the last Bithynian king, Nicomedes IV regained his throne, but on his death bequeathed the kingdom to Rome. This led to the Third Mithridatic War and the fall of Pontus, the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire as a single province joining Paphlagonia with Bithynia. Under the folling Byzantine Empire the Bolu area was divided from western Bithynia at the Sakarya River, with western Bithynia keeping the name. The Sakarya is still the southern and western boundary of the province. The Byzantine Empire briefly lost the Bolu area to the Seljuk Turks after the 1071 Battle of Manzikert, but recovered it under the Komnenian restoration. After the end of the Komnenos dynasty, the Turks gradually took the Bolu area back. About 1240 the Seljuk Turks took the eastern part of the Bolu area (i.e. the Paphlagonian part) from the Byzantine Empire and incorporated it into the Sultanate of Rum. Due to their assistance in taking it and Sinop, the Chobanids were given that territory and adjacent areas to the north and east to rule. The Chobanids were relatively independent of the Sultan. That eastern area fell under the Isfendiyarids between 1292 and 1461. In 1461 it was incorporated into the rest of the Ottoman Empire. By 1265, the western part of the Bolu area was again acquired by the Seljuk Turks, but it fell to the arms of Orhan I and the Ottoman Empire in the early to mid-1300s. The two areas were reunited in 1461, under Mehmed II. In the 1864 Ottoman Empire administrative reorganization, Bolu was created as an independent sanjak, although it was geographically part of the Kastamonu Vilayet.", "Bolu province is divided into nine districts, four sub-districts, thirteen municipalities and 491 villages.", "Attractive towns include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Districts.", "Economy.", "Education.", "Archaeology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1927 the office of the Inspector General was created, which governed with martial law. The province was included in the first Inspectorate General (\"Umumi Müfettişlik,\" UM) over which the Inspector General ruled. The UM span over the provinces of Hakkâri, Siirt, Van, Mardin, Bitlis, Sanlıurfa, Elaziğ and Diyarbakır. In December 1935, the Tunceli Law was passed, which demanded a more powerful Government in the region. In January 1936 the Elaziğ province was transferred under the authority of the newly established Fourth Inspectorate General, which span over the provinces of Elaziğ, Erzincan, Bingöl and Tunceli and its seat was in the city of Elazığ. The fourth UM was governed by a Governor-Commander. Most of the employees in the municipalities had to be from the military and the Governor-Commander had the authority to evacuate whole villages and resettle them in another part of the province. In 1946 the Tunceli Law was abolished and the state of emergency removed but the authority of the fourth UM was transferred to the military. The Inspectorates General were dissolved in 1952 during the Government of the Democrat Party. The province had experienced a 6.7 richter earthquake on 24 January 2020.", "Elâzığ stretches in a general west-southwest to east-northeast direction, along the line of equal geographic latitude and longitude. The source of the Euphrates river is located in this province.", "Elâzığ province is divided into 11 districts (capital district in bold):", "Historically, Elazığ Province produced silver, which ceased being mined in 1885. The Turkish government attempted to modernize the mines; however, the cost of fuel and energy caused the shut down. There was a silver mine still producing in 1903 in Palu, as with coal. Coal is also found in other areas of the province. Gold and salt was also produced.", "Education is provided by the Elâzığ Provincial Directorate for National Education. It currently views over 442 educational institutions, both formal and informal ones.", "Altinova, Elazig was an important archaeological site in the Altınova plain that was excavated in the 1970s. It was later flooded by the Keban Dam. Other sites in the Altinova plain were also Tepecik, Korucutepe, Değirmentepe, and Körtepe." ] }

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{ "title": [ "İçel and Mersin.", "Geography.", "Tourism.", "History.", "Districts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As of 1933, there were two separate provinces, namely İçel and Mersin, on the territory of today's Mersin Province when the Mersin Province was abolished and merged with the İçel Province but the seat of the latter was moved from Silifke to Mersin. In 2002, the province's name was changed from İçel to Mersin but the province retained the license plate number of 33, İçel having been the 33rd in the alphabetical order of Turkish province names.", "87% of the land area is mountain, leading up to the rocky heights of the central Taurus Mountains, the highest peak is Medetsiz (3,584 m) in the Bolkar range, and there are a number of important passes over to central Anatolia. There are many high meadows and small plains between 700 and 1500m. The coastal strip has many large areas of flatland, formed from soil brought down by rivers and streams running off the mountains. This is fertile land, the largest area being the plain of Tarsus. The largest rivers are the Göksu and the Berdan (aka Tarsus, \"Cydnus\" of antiquity), but there are many small streams running into lakes, reservoirs or the Mediterranean sea. Mersin has 321 km of coastline, much of it sandy beach. The climate is typical of the Mediterranean; very hot and very humid in summer, warm and wet in winter; the winter rains can be very heavy and flooding is a problem in many areas, but it never snows on the coast, although there is snow in the high mountain areas. The city of Mersin is one of Turkey's busiest: due to the economic activity in this part of Turkey generated by the GAP Project Mersin is Turkey's biggest Mediterranean port, and now has an oil refinery and a free trade zone too; there are a number of factories along the road between Mersin and Adana, manufacturing glass, detergents, fertilisers and many more. With all this activity a modern city has grown with a university and other major amenities. About 50% of the population of the province is younger than 24 years of age. 68% were born in Mersin. The literacy rate is 89%. About 43% of the male population and about 27% of the female population graduated from middle school. Infant mortality is 0.48%. Urban population growth rate is 2.42%. Population density is 117.", "Mersin does not have the huge volume of tourists enjoyed by neighbouring Antalya or the Aegean coast, but Turkish people do come to this coast, especially now that the hotels have air-conditioning, and perhaps more to the mountain country behind where there are healing mineral water springs. In summer the hills are a popular retreat from the high humidity and extreme heat on the coast. West of Mersin includes bays, and little islands. Yacht touring is a tourism income in these areas.", "In antiquity this coast was part of Cilicia, named for a Phoenician or Assyrian prince that had settled here. Trade from Syria and Mesopotamia over the mountains to central Anatolia passed through here, through the Cilician Gates. The geographer Strabo, described the region as being divided into \"Rugged Cilicia\" (\"Cilicia Trachea\", Κιλικία Τραχεία in Greek) and \"Flat Cilicia\" (\"Cilicia Pedias\", Κιλικία Πεδιάς). The capital of both sections of Cilicia was Tarsus and Mersin was its seaport.", "Mersin province is divided into thirteen districts four of which are actually included within the municipality of Mersin city (shown in boldface letters)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Economy.", "Demographics.", "Districts.", "Places to see." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Ordu\" is the word for 'army' in current Turkish, originally meaning 'army camp', during the Ottoman Empire an army outpost was set up near the present day city. The city, and later the province, derived its name from this. Ordu is a strip of Black Sea coast and the hills behind, historically an agricultural and fishing area and in recent years, tourism has seen an increase, mainly visitors from Russia and Georgia, as Ordu boasts some of the best beaches, rivers, and lush, green mountains on the Black Sea coast. Walking in the high pastures is now a popular excursion for Turkish holidaymakers. The higher altitudes are covered in forest. Melet River, Bolaman River, Elekçi River, Turnasuyu Stream, Akçaova Stream and Civil Stream are the main rivers of the province. The topography of the province is not conducive to lake formation and only two major lakes, Gaga Lake and Ulugöl, are present in Ordu.", "The economy of the province depends on agriculture. Ordu is famous for hazelnuts. Turkey as a whole produces about 70 percent of the world's hazelnuts, and Ordu is the chief producer in Turkey, responsible for 150,000–180,000 tonnes per year, which amounts to around 30% of Turkey's production. Hazelnuts production takes around 88% of Ordu's arable land, the remainder mainly consists of corn and wheat fields. Whilst covering only 0.1% of the arable land of the province, Ordu's kiwi production is the second largest in the country after Yalova. Beekeeping is also important in Ordu, which produced in 2010 12.8% of honey produced in Turkey.", "Mostly Chepni Turks and other Oghuz Turks live here and the province is home to a minority of Cheveneburi Georgians. In recent decades many people from Ordu have migrated away to jobs in Istanbul, Bursa, Samsun, Sakarya or abroad.", "Ordu province is divided into 19 districts (capital district in bold):", "Ordu has an attractive coast including pretty bays and the cleanest and longest beaches on this stretch of the Black Sea coast. Specific sites include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Evolution.", "Description.", "Behavior and ecology.", "Territorial behavior.", "Reproduction and development.", "Diet.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Mortality.", "History.", "Decline.", "Reintroduction and conservation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Like its close relative, the Asian steppe polecat (with which it was once thought to be conspecific), the black-footed ferret represents a more progressive form than the European polecat in the direction of carnivory. The black-footed ferret's most likely ancestor was \"Mustela stromeri\" (from which the European and steppe polecats are also derived), which originated in Europe during the Middle Pleistocene. Molecular evidence indicates that the steppe polecat and black-footed ferret diverged from \"M. stromeri\" between 500,000 and 2,000,000 years ago, perhaps in Beringia. The species appeared in the Great Basin and the Rockies by 750,000 years ago. The oldest recorded fossil find originates from Cathedral Cave, White Pine County, Nevada, and dates back to 750,000–950,000 years ago. Prairie dog fossils have been found in six sites where ferrets are yielded, thus indicating that the association between the two species is an old one. Anecdotal observations and 42% of examined fossil records indicated that any substantial colony of medium- to large-sized colonial ground squirrels, such as Richardson's ground squirrels, may provide a sufficient prey base and a source of burrows for black-footed ferrets. This suggests that the black-footed ferret and prairie dogs did not historically have an obligate predator-prey relationship. The species has likely always been rare, and the modern black-footed ferret represents a relic population. A reported occurrence of the species is from a late Illinoian deposit in Clay County, Nebraska, and is further recorded from Sangamonian deposits in Nebraska and Medicine Hat. Fossils have also been found in Alaska dating from the Pleistocene.", "The black-footed ferret has a long, slender body with black outlines such as the feet, ears, parts of the face and its tail. The forehead is arched and broad, and the muzzle is short. It has few whiskers, and its ears are triangular, short, erect and broad at the base. The neck is long and the legs short and stout. The toes are armed with sharp, very slightly arched claws. The feet on both surfaces are covered in hair, even to the soles, thus concealing the claws. It combines several physical features common in both members of the subgenus \"Gale\" (least, short-tailed and long-tailed weasels) and \"Putorius\" (European and steppe polecats). Its skull resembles that of polecats in its size, massiveness and the development of its ridges and depressions, though it is distinguished by the extreme degree of constriction behind the orbits where the width of the cranium is much less than that of the muzzle. Although similar in size to polecats, its attenuate body, long neck, very short legs, slim tail, large orbicular ears and close-set pelage is much closer in conformation to weasels and stoats. The dentition of the black-footed ferret closely resembles that of the European and steppe polecat, though the back lower molar is vestigial, with a hemispherical crown which is too small and weak to develop the little cusps which are more apparent in polecats. Males measure in body length and in tail length, thus constituting 22–25% of its body length. Females are typically 10% smaller than males. It weighs. Captive-bred ferrets used for the reintroduction projects were found to be smaller than their wild counterparts, though these animals rapidly attained historical body sizes once released. The base color is pale yellowish or buffy above and below. The top of the head and sometimes the neck is clouded by dark-tipped hairs. The face is crossed by a broad band of sooty black, which includes the eyes. The feet, lower parts of the legs, the tip of the tail and the preputial region are sooty-black. The area midway between the front and back legs is marked by a large patch of dark umber-brown, which fades into the buffy surrounding parts. A small spot occurs over each eye, with a narrow band behind the black mask. The sides of the head and the ears are dirty-white in color.", "", "The black-footed ferret is solitary, except when breeding or raising litters. It is nocturnal and primarily hunts for sleeping prairie dogs in their burrows. It is most active above ground from dusk to midnight and 4 am to mid-morning. Aboveground activity is greatest during late summer and early autumn when juveniles become independent. Climate generally does not limit black-footed ferret activity, but it may remain inactive inside burrows for up to 6 days at a time during winter. Female black-footed ferrets have smaller home ranges than males. Home ranges of males may sometimes include the home ranges of several females. Adult females usually occupy the same territory every year. A female that was tracked from December to March occupied. Her territory was overlapped by a resident male that occupied during the same period. The average density of black-footed ferrets near Meeteetse, Wyoming, is estimated at one black-footed ferret to. As of 1985, 40 to 60 black-footed ferrets occupied a total of of white-tailed prairie dog habitat. From 1982 to 1984, the average year-round movement of 15 black-footed ferrets between white-tailed prairie dog colonies was 1.6 miles/night (2.5 km) (with a spread of 1.1 miles or 1.7 km). Movement of black-footed ferrets between prairie dog colonies is influenced by factors including breeding activity, season, sex, intraspecific territoriality, prey density, and expansion of home ranges with declining population density. Movements of black-footed ferrets have been shown to increase during the breeding season; however, snow-tracking from December to March over a 4-year period near Meeteetse, Wyoming revealed that factors other than breeding were responsible for movement distances. Temperature is positively correlated with distance of black-footed ferret movement. Snow-tracking from December to March over a 4-year period near Meeteetse, Wyoming, revealed that movement distances were shortest during winter and longest between February and April, when black-footed ferrets were breeding and white-tailed prairie dogs emerged from hibernation. Nightly movement distance of 170 black-footed ferrets averaged (range ). Nightly activity areas of black-footed ferrets ranged from ), and were larger from February to March () than from December to January (). Adult females establish activity areas based on access to food for rearing young. Males establish activity areas to maximize access to females, resulting in larger activity areas than those of females. Prey density may account for movement distances. Black-footed ferrets may travel up to to seek prey, suggesting that they will interchange freely among white-tailed prairie dog colonies that are less than apart. In areas of high prey density, black-footed ferret movements were nonlinear in character, probably to avoid predators. From December to March over a 4-year study period, black-footed ferrets investigated 68 white-tailed prairie dog holes per of travel/night. Distance traveled between white-tailed prairie dog burrows from December to March averaged over 149 track routes.", "The reproductive physiology of the black-footed ferret is similar to that of the European polecat and the steppe polecat. It is probably polygynous, based on data collected from home range sizes, skewed sex ratios, and sexual dimorphism. Mating occurs in February and March. When a male and female in estrus encounter each other, the male sniffs the genital region of the female, but does not mount her until after a few hours have elapsed, which is contrast to the more violent behavior displayed by the male European polecat. During copulation, the male grasps the female by the nape of the neck, with the copulatory tie lasting from 1.5–3.0 hours. Unlike other mustelids, the black-footed ferret is a habitat specialist with low reproductive rates. In captivity, gestation of black-footed ferrets lasts 42–45 days. Litter size ranges from one to five kits. Kits are born in May and June in prairie dog burrows. Kits are altricial and are raised by their mother for several months after birth. Kits first emerge above ground in July, at 6 weeks old. They are then separated into individual prairie dog burrows around their mother's burrow. Kits reach adult weight and become independent several months following birth, from late August to October. Sexual maturity occurs at one year of age. Intercolony dispersal of juvenile black-footed ferrets occurs several months after birth, from early September to early November. Dispersal distances may be short or long. Near Meeteetse, Wyoming, 9 juvenile males and three juvenile females dispersed following litter breakup. Four juvenile females dispersed a short distance (<), but remained on their natal area.", "Up to 91% of the black-footed ferret's diet is composed of prairie dogs. Their diet varies depending on geographic location. In western Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, and Montana, black-footed ferrets historically associated with white-tailed prairie dogs and were forced to find alternative prey when white-tailed prairie dogs entered their four-month hibernation cycle. In Wyoming, alternative prey items consumed during white-tailed prairie dog hibernation included voles (\"Microtus\" spp.) and mice (\"Peromyscus\" and \"Mus\" spp.) found near streams. In South Dakota, black-footed ferrets associate with black-tailed prairie dogs. Because black-tailed prairie dogs do not hibernate, little seasonal change in black-footed ferret diet is necessary. In Mellette County, South Dakota, black-tailed prairie dog remains occurred in 91% of 82 black-footed ferret scats. Mouse remains occurred in 26% of scats. Mouse remains could not be identified to species; however, deer mice, northern grasshopper mice, and house mice were captured in snap-trap surveys. Potential prey items included thirteen-lined ground squirrels, plains pocket gophers, mountain cottontails, upland sandpipers, horned larks, and western meadowlarks. Based on 86 black-footed ferret scats found near Meeteetse, Wyoming, 87% of their diet was composed of white-tailed prairie dogs. Other food items included deer mice, sagebrush voles, meadow voles, mountain cottontails, and white-tailed jackrabbits. Water is obtained through consumption of prey. A study published in 1983 modeling metabolizable energy requirements estimated that one adult female black-footed ferret and her litter require about 474 to 1,421 black-tailed prairie dogs per year or 412 to 1,236 white-tailed prairie dogs per year for sustenance. They concluded that this dietary requirement would require protection of of black-tailed prairie dog habitat or of white-tailed prairie dog habitat for each female black-footed ferret with a litter.", "The historical range of the black-footed ferret was closely correlated with, but not restricted to, the range of prairie dogs (\"Cynomys\" spp.). Its range extended from southern Alberta and southern Saskatchewan south to Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona., the only known wild black-footed ferret population was located on approximately in the western Big Horn Basin near Meeteetse, Wyoming. Since 1990, black-footed ferrets have been reintroduced to the following sites: Shirley Basin, Wyoming; UL Bend National Wildlife Refuge and Fort Belknap Indian Reservation, Montana; Conata Basin/Badlands, Buffalo Gap National Grassland, and the Cheyenne River Sioux Reservation in South Dakota; Aubrey Valley, Arizona; Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge and Wolf Creek in Colorado; Coyote Basin, straddling Colorado and Utah, northern Chihuahua, Mexico, and Grasslands National Park, Canada Historical habitats of the black-footed ferret included shortgrass prairie, mixed-grass prairie, desert grassland, shrub steppe, sagebrush steppe, mountain grassland, and semi-arid grassland. Black-footed ferrets use prairie dog burrows for raising young, avoiding predators, and thermal cover. Six black-footed ferret nests found near Mellette County, South Dakota, were lined with buffalo grass, prairie threeawn, sixweeks grass, and cheatgrass. High densities of prairie dog burrows provide the greatest amount of cover for black-footed ferrets. Black-tailed prairie dog colonies contain a greater burrow density per acre than white-tailed prairie dog colonies, and may be more suitable for the recovery of black-footed ferrets. The type of prairie dog burrow may be important for occupancy by black-footed ferrets. Black-footed ferret litters near Meeteetse, Wyoming, were associated with mounded white-tailed prairie dog burrows, which are less common than non-mounded burrows. Mounded burrows contain multiple entrances and probably have a deep and extensive burrow system that protects kits. However, black-footed ferrets used non-mounded prairie dog burrows (64%) more often than mounded burrows (30%) near Meeteetse, Wyoming.", "Primary causes of mortality include habitat loss, human-introduced diseases, and indirect poisoning from prairie dog control measures. Annual mortality of juvenile and adult black-footed ferrets over a 4-year period ranged from 59 to 83% (128 individuals) near Meeteetse, Wyoming. During fall and winter, 50 to 70% of juveniles and older animals perish. Average lifespan in the wild is probably only one year, but may be up to five years. Males have higher rates of mortality than females because of longer dispersal distances when they are most vulnerable to predators. Given an obligate dependence of black-footed ferrets on prairie dogs, black-footed ferrets are extremely vulnerable to prairie dog habitat loss. Habitat loss results from agriculture, livestock use, and other development. Black-footed ferrets are susceptible to numerous diseases. They are fatally susceptible to canine distemper virus, introduced by striped skunks, common raccoons, red foxes, coyotes, and American badgers. A short-term vaccine for canine distemper is available for captive black-footed ferrets, but no protection is available for young born in the wild. Black-footed ferrets are also susceptible to rabies, tularemia, and human influenza. They can directly contract sylvatic plague (\"Yersinia pestis\"), and epidemics in prairie dog towns may completely destroy the ferrets' prey base. Predators of black-footed ferrets include golden eagles, great horned owls, coyotes, American badgers, bobcats, prairie falcons, ferruginous hawks, and prairie rattlesnakes. Oil and natural gas exploration and extraction can have detrimental impacts on prairie dogs and black-footed ferrets. Seismic activity collapses prairie dog burrows. Other problems include potential leaks and spills, increased roads and fences, increased vehicle traffic and human presence, and an increased number of raptor perching sites on power poles. Traps set for coyotes, American mink, and other animals may harm black-footed ferrets.", "Native American tribes, including the Crow, Blackfoot, Sioux, Cheyenne, and Pawnee, used black-footed ferrets for religious rites and for food. The species was not encountered during the Lewis and Clark Expedition, nor was it seen by Nuttall or Townsend, and it did not become known to modern science until it was first described in Jake Audubon and Bachman's \"Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America\" in 1851.", "For a time, the black-footed ferret was harvested for the fur trade, with the American Fur Company having received 86 ferret skins from Pratt, Chouteau, and Company of St. Louis in the late 1830s. During the early years of predator control, black-footed ferret carcasses were likely discarded, as their fur was of low value. This likely continued after the passing of the Endangered Species Act of 1973, for fear of reprisals. The large drop in black-footed ferret numbers began during the 1800s through to the 1900s, as prairie dog numbers declined because of control programs and the conversion of prairies to croplands. Sylvatic plague, a disease caused by \"Yersinia pestis\" introduced into North America, also contributed to the prairie dog die-off, though ferret numbers declined proportionately more than their prey, thus indicating other factors may have been responsible. Plague was first detected in South Dakota in a coyote in 2004, and then in about 50,000 acres of prairie dogs on Pine Ridge Reservation in 2005. Thereafter 7,000 acres of prairie dog colonies were treated with insecticide (DeltaDust) and 1,000 acres of black-footed ferret habitat were prophylactically dusted in Conata Basin in 2006–2007. Nevertheless, plague was proven in ferrets in May 2008. Since then each year 12,000 acres of their Conata Basin habitat is dusted and about 50–150 ferrets are immunized with plague vaccine. Inbreeding depression may have also contributed, as studies on black-footed ferrets from Meeteetse, Wyoming revealed low levels of genetic variation. Canine distemper devastated the Meeteetse ferret population in 1985. A live virus vaccine originally made for domestic ferrets killed large numbers of black-footed ferrets, thus indicating that the species is especially susceptible to distemper.", "The black-footed ferret is an example of a species that benefits from strong reproductive science. A captive-breeding program was initiated in 1987, capturing 18 living individuals and using artificial insemination. This is one of the first examples of assisted reproduction contributing to conservation of an endangered species in nature. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, state and tribal agencies, private landowners, conservation groups, and North American zoos have actively reintroduced ferrets back into the wild since 1991. Beginning in Shirley Basin in Eastern Wyoming, reintroduction expanded to Montana, 6 sites in South Dakota in 1994, Arizona, Utah, Colorado, Saskatchewan, Canada and Chihuahua, Mexico. The Toronto Zoo has bred hundreds, most of which were released into the wild. Several episodes of \"Zoo Diaries\" show aspects of the tightly controlled breeding. In May 2000, the Canadian Species at Risk Act listed the black-footed ferret as being an extirpated species in Canada. A population of 35 animals was released into Grasslands National Park in southern Saskatchewan on October 2, 2009, and a litter of newborn kits was observed in July 2010. Reintroduction sites have experienced multiple years of reproduction from released individuals. The black-footed ferret was first listed as endangered in 1967 under the Endangered Species Preservation Act, and was relisted on January 4, 1974, under the Endangered Species Act. In September 2006, South Dakota's ferret population was estimated to be around 420, with 250 (100 breeding adults consisting of 67 females and 33 males) in Eagle Butte, South Dakota, which is 100,000 acres, less than 3% of the public grasslands in South Dakota, 70 miles east of Rapid City, South Dakota, in the Buffalo Gap National Grassland bordering Badlands National Park, 130 ferrets northeast of Eagle Butte, SD, on Cheyenne River Indian Reservation, and about 40 ferrets on the Rosebud Indian Reservation. Arizona's Aubrey Valley ferret population was well over 100 and a second reintroduction site with around 50 animals is used. An August 2007 report in the journal Science counted a population of 223 in one area of Wyoming (the original number of reintroduced ferrets, most of which died, was 228), and an annual growth rate of 35% from 2003–2006 was estimated. This rate of recovery is much faster than for many endangered species, and the ferret seems to have prevailed over the previous problems of disease and prey shortage that hampered its improvement., the total wild population of black-footed ferrets in the U.S. was well over 650 individuals, plus 250 in captivity. In 2008, the IUCN reclassified the species as \"globally endangered\", a substantial improvement since the 1996 assessment, when it was considered extinct in the wild, as the species was indeed only surviving in captivity., about 1,200 ferrets are thought to live in the wild. Conservation efforts have been opposed by stock growers and ranchers, who have traditionally fought prairie dogs. In 2005, the U.S. Forest Service began poisoning prairie dogs in private land buffer zones of the Conata Basin of Buffalo Gap National Grassland. Because 10–15 ranchers complained the measure was inadequate, the forest service advised by Mark Rey, then Undersecretary of Agriculture, expanded its \"prairie-dog management\" in September 2006 to all of South Dakota's Buffalo Gap and the Fort Pierre National Grassland, and also to the Oglala National Grassland in Nebraska, against opinions of biologists in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Following exposure by conservation groups including the Climate, Community & Biodiversity Alliance and national media public outcry and a lawsuit mobilized federal officials, and the poisoning plan was revoked. The contradictory mandates of the two federal agencies involved, the USFWS and the U.S. Forest Service, are exemplified in what the Rosebud Sioux tribe experienced: The ferret was reintroduced by the USFWS, which according to the tribe promised to pay more than $1 million a year through 2010. On the other hand, the tribe was also contracted for the U.S. Forest Service prairie dog poisoning program. The increasing numbers of ferrets led to conflicts between the tribe's Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe Game, Fish and Parks Department and the Tribal Land Enterprise Organization. When the federal government started an investigation of the tribe's prairie dog management program, threatening to prosecute tribal employees or agents carrying out the management plan in the ferret reintroduction area, the tribal council passed a resolution in 2008, asking the two federal agencies to remove ferrets, and reimburse the tribe for its expenses for the ferret recovery program." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "In Turkey.", "Modern history.", "Districts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "It has been home to many civilisations and the surrounding area including itself is home to many Mesolithic era stone carvings and artifacts. The province has been ruled by the Akkadians, Hurrians, Mittani, Medes, Hittites, Armenians, Neo-Babylonians, Achaemenids, Greeks, Romans, Parthia, Byzantium, Sassanids, Arabs, Seljuk Empire, Mongol Empire, Safavid dynasty, Marwanids, and Ayyubids. The majority of the province's population today is Kurdish.", "In order to Turkefy the local population, in June 1927 the Law 1164 was passed which allowed the creation of Inspectorates-General (Turkish: \"Umumi Müffetişlik,\" UM). The Diyarbakır province was therefore included in the so-called First Inspectorate General (), which span over the provinces of Hakkâri, Siirt, Van, Mardin, Bitlis, Sanlıurfa, Elaziğ and Diyarbakır.The first UM was created on the 1 January 1928 and centered in Diyarbakır. The UM was governed by an Inspector General, who governed with a wide-ranging authority over civilian, juridical and military matters.The office of the Inspector General was dissolved in 1952 during the government of the Democrat Party. The Diyarbakır province though was still banned for foreign citizens until 1965.", "From 1987 to 2002, Diyarbakir Province was part of the OHAL (State of emergency) region which was declared to counter the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) and governed by a so called Supergovernor who got invested with additional powers than a normal Governor. In 1987 he was given the power to relocate and resettle whole villages, settlements and hamlets. In December 1990 with the Decree No. 430, the supergovernor and the provincial governors in the OHAL region received immunity against any legal prosecution in connections with actions they made due to the powers they received with the Decree No. 430.", "Diyarbakır province is divided into 14 districts:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and symbolism.", "Description." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Eritrea and Ethiopia were both occupied by the Italians between 1935-1941. Before the Second World War, Eritrea was more developed and prosperous than Ethiopia. After Italy's defeat in the war, Ethiopia reverted to its pre-Italian feudal monarchy while Eritrea was given over to modern British rule under a mandate by the United Nations in 1949. The advent of Arab nationalism in the 1940s saw the Muslim part of Eritrea demand independence from British rule. Meanwhile, Ethiopia tried to claim the Eritrean state as its own by calling it a \"lost province\". Several officers proposed that Eritrea be separated into two parts: the Christian area to be merged to Ethiopia; the Muslim area to Sudan. After international debate and the intervention of the Allied Powers, the United States passed a resolution with the agreement of Britain formulating the creation of an autonomous Eritrea in federation with Ethiopia in 1950. On September 15, 1952, Eritrea became independent from British rule and was made an autonomous part of Ethiopia. Since the United Nations had helped the country obtain independence from British rule, the 1952 Eritrean flag was designed with a light blue background to honour the organisation's assistance. The flag at that time had an olive wreath in the centre, symbolising peace. The wreath encircled a six-leafed plant which represented the six administrative divisions of Eritrea. After civil war broke out in Eritrea in 1961, Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie banned the Eritrean flag, coat of arms, and all other government seals from public places. He annexed Eritrea in 1962 with the approval of the United Nations. The Eritrean People's Liberation Front fought for the country's independence, and in January 1977, the party adopted its own official flag. The current flag of Eritrea bears resemblance to the party's official flag. The flag had three triangles: red, blue, and green. The yellow star in the red triangle symbolised the country's rich mineral resources, with the five points representing unity, liberation, justice, democracy, and progress. After Eritrea was proclaimed an independent nation, the flag was modified and its first official hoisting was performed on May 24, 1993. In the red triangle, a gold wreath symbol with 14 leaves on each side, derived from the 1952 flag, replaced the gold star of the Eritrean People's Liberation Front's flag. In 1995 the number of leaves in the wreath were standardised: the 30 leaves symbolise the number of years spent in civil war before achieving independence. The flag's length to breadth ratio was changed from 2:3 to 1:2. The official currency of Eritrea's Nakfa coins issued in 1997 featured six native animals; on the reverse the coins showed a group of Eritrean People's Liberation Front's fighters raising the national flag and the slogan \"Liberty, Equality and Justice\" in English language.", "The flag of Eritrea is dominated by a red isosceles triangle based on the hoist-side pointed toward the fly-side and then divided into two right triangles. The upper triangle is green and the lower triangle is blue with a yellow vertical olive branch encircled by an olive wreath centered on the hoist side of the triangle. The shape of the red triangle broadly mimics the shape of the country. The green stands for the agriculture and livestock of the country, blue for the bounty of the sea, and red for the blood shed in the struggle for independence with the 30 leaves in the wreath corresponding to the thirty years spent in the struggle. The flag has proportions of 1:2." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "History.", "Hardware.", "Specifications.", "Expandability.", "TV output.", "Power.", "Storage.", "Overclocking.", "Software.", "Built-in software.", "Emulators.", "Games.", "Multimedia players.", "Music Creation Tools.", "PDA Applications.", "Open source development.", "GP2X executables.", "DRM controversy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The GP2X was designed to play music and videos, view photos, and play games. It had an open architecture (Linux based), allowing anybody to develop and run software. Also, there was the possibility for additional features (such as support for new media formats) to be added in the future due to the upgradeable firmware. A popular use of the GP2X was to run emulators, which allows one to use software from a video game of another system on the GP2X.", "Shortly after the release of the GP32 in 2001, its maker Game Park began to design their next handheld. A disagreement within the company about the general direction of this system prompted many of the staff to leave and create their own company, GamePark Holdings, to produce a 2D-based handheld system which they saw as the sequel to the GP32. GamePark Holdings spoke to previous GP32 distributors and developers to determine the specifications for the new machine and how it should be promoted. Meetings were held in Seoul, Korea, where the final design of the new console was agreed upon. The first name of this console was the GPX2. However, it couldn't be used as a final name due to a possible trademark violation with the name of a Japanese printer, the GPX. A contest for a new name was announced on August 3, 2005. Around 1500 names were submitted in total. The winner of the competition was Matt Bakse who chose the title GP2X. For this he was awarded a free GP2X console, although delivery of his prize was rather delayed. The GP2X has seen several minor hardware updates, most notably the changes from the First Edition to Normal Edition and the Normal Edition to the MK2. Also, a new version called the \"F200\" was released October 30, 2007 and features a touchscreen, among other changes. As of October 16, 2006, the GP2X had sold 30,000 units. On August 31, 2008, the CEO of Gamepark Holdings told German GP2X distributor Michael Mrozek (aka. EvilDragon) that 60,000 GP2X units had been sold. On 26 August 2008, GamePark Holdings announced the successor to the GP2X, the \"Wiz\". As of September 1, a version of the GP2X is still being sold in Korea by Vocamaster that is geared toward Koreans who wish to learn English. In fact, according to the official GP2X distributor for the UK, Craig Rothwell, most GP2X units sold to date have been sold through Vocamaster as English-learning tools.", "", "From http://dl.openhandhelds.org/cgi-bin/gp2x.cgi: The ARM940T was used by GPH's implementation of Linux to control video processing. Using the 940T core in Linux for other tasks apart from video processing is difficult but possible. Accessing the hardware directly makes it easier to use both CPUs. The F-200 version of the GP2X hardware replaced the joystick with a directional pad and adds a touchscreen.", "The GP2X had an expansion \"EXT\" port on the base of the unit into which a range of special cables (for USB host, TV-out etc.) or break out box could be plugged, allowing four USB devices to be connected to and used with the GP2X directly. The only thing limiting what can be used through this interface is the availability of drivers. The connector used to expand the GP2X is hard to come by on its own but it is used with a few other devices. The Samsung e810/e730 and LG U8110/20/30/36/38 mobile telephone data cables, along with the official GP2X TV-Out adapter are suitable connectors. This connector isn't proprietary; the specifications of this connector are fully open, encouraging home cable construction.", "The GP2X also supported TV-out with a special cable that plugs into the EXT port. This allows videos that are normally scaled down to fit the GP2X's screen to be played at native resolution on a TV. It also lets software be displayed on the higher resolution TV rather than the screen. Not all software supports this natively, but 3rd party software exists that enables TV-out functionality in all applications. This is done by launching a background process.", "The GP2X requires 2 AA-sized batteries if not running from an external power supply. Due to the high current drain, standard alkaline batteries will not function for very long in the GP2X; NiMH or lithium batteries are recommended. Battery life varies depending on the type of activity being performed and can last anywhere from 10 minutes (using alkaline batteries) to over 6 hours (using high-capacity NiMH batteries). When listening to music, power can be conserved by turning off the backlight and display. The GP2X has a socket for an external power supply. It must be rated 3.3V DC at 1A with a standard center-grounded (negative center) connector. The power supply should be regulated, as voltage spikes can permanently damage the unit.", "The GP2X's primary storage device is the Secure Digital card, which can be placed into a socket at the top of the unit. Older firmware only supported SD cards up to 4 GB in capacity. SD cards must be formatted as either FAT16, FAT32 (32 is more reliable), or ext2. The GP2X also has 64 MB of internal flash memory storage, of which 32MB can be used for user data. From firmware release version 4.0 the GP2X F200 is capable of addressing the new SDHC standard and thus now works with SDHC cards up to 32GB in size.", "The two ARM processors in the GP2X can be overclocked beyond their rated speed in software. The maximum speed one can reach through overclocking varies from system to system, with about 1 in 50 reaching over 300 MHz and others barely reaching 240 MHz (many systems can be overclocked beyond 240 MHz with no problems. The highest they are advertised to overclock to is 266 MHz.)", "Because the tools required for development on the GP2X are freely available, there is a wealth of software available for the GP2X, much of which is free. Types of software available includes emulators, games, PDA applications and multimedia players.", "The GP2X has several pieces of software built directly into the firmware. There is a version of MPlayer which is used to play music and video, an image viewer, an e-book reader (which can display the contents of standard text documents on-screen) and a utility to adjust the LCD update frequency to eliminate any flickering. Other applications available (though not accessible directly through the menu) were a Samba server, for transferring files to the machine using the default Windows network file sharing protocol; an HTTP server, for providing web pages; an FTP server, a different way of transferring files; and telnet access allowing for direct command line access from outside the machine. These servers operate over the included USB networking functionality, allowing one to connect the GP2X to a wider network through a PC. The new GP2X-F200 supports none of these network programs. Version 3.0.0 of the firmware comes with 5 games pre-installed in the NAND memory. The games are \"Payback\" (demo), \"Noiz2sa\", \"Flobopuyo\", \"SuperTux\", and \"Vektar\" (freeware version). This firmware is currently shipped with new GP2Xs.", "There are many emulators available for the GP2X which allow you to run software from other systems on the GP2X. Many emulators will run most software perfectly and at the intended speed, but some others may have various issues (often to do with speed or sound). Popular emulators include GnGeo which emulates the Neo Geo; GNUboy2x, Game Boy and Game Boy Color emulators; MAME, an emulator of various arcade machines; DrMD, which emulates the Sega Master System, Game Gear and Mega Drive/Genesis; SquidgeSNES and PocketSNES, which emulate Super Nintendo games; and Picodrive, which emulates Mega Drive and Sega CD games; psx4all which emulates PlayStation games. Stella, an emulator for the Atari 2600 has also been ported to the GP2X", "Since the GP2X has a much smaller following than other handheld consoles, such as the Sony PSP or the Nintendo DS, there are very few commercial games available for it. \"Vektar\", \"Payback\", \"Quartz2\", \"retrovirus RTS\", \"\" and \"Blazar\" have been released as commercial games for the GP2X, and the games \"Odonata\" and \"Elsewhere\" were released in October 2006 for Korean distribution only. However, there are many ports of games from other platforms, mostly Linux, to the GP2X. Popular ports include \"SuperTux\" and \"Frozen Bubble\" as well as the \"Duke Nukem 3D\", \"Quake\", and \"Doom\" engines (which can run the original games if the user owns a copy with the correct data files). There are also hundreds of original freeware games such as Tilematch and Beat2X, made by GP2X programmers in their spare time.", "There are several unofficial multimedia players available for the GP2X, intended to support more formats than the built-in music and video players can handle. One such program is a port of FFPlay that allows you to play several RealMedia and Windows Media formats. Since the release of the MPlayer source code, several unofficial builds have been released for various purposes. One of these adds support for playing music in the AAC format.", "The GP2X natively runs the free homebrew application Little Game Park Tracker, a music tracker program which was created by chip musician M-.-n specifically for the GP2X. Little Game Park Tracker, also known as LGPT or Little Piggy Tracker, allows for sample-based music production with a myriad of sample tweaking abilities. LGPT borrows the interface of the popular Game Boy music tracker Little Sound DJ. It has since been ported to the PSP, Dingoo, Windows, OS X, and other platforms.", "Two popular PDA desktop environments have been ported to the GP2X: Qtopia and GPE. Both contain a range of programs such as a web browser, word processor, etc. and can be controlled with either the GP2X controls or a USB mouse and keyboard connected through a USB cable attached to the EXT port.", "SDKs (software development kits) are freely and easily available for the GP2X allowing anybody with the required skills to write an application or game. Most SDKs are based around a gcc cross-compiler toolchain and SDL. SDL is available for many systems, allowing for cross-compatibility of code with other platforms such as Microsoft Windows and GNU/Linux. A port of the Allegro game programming library is also available for the GP2X, as are ports of the Fenix and BennuGD game toolkits. Other libraries under development include Minimal Library SDK, which allows for direct hardware access inside the GP2X Linux environment, and sdk2x a set of libraries and a program which allows you to leave Linux completely for total control of all the hardware with no operating system to interfere. Currently in development is gpu940, a soft 3D renderer that can do many rendering types, including true perspective texture mapping/lighting. It utilizes the ARM940T CPU of the GP2X, and allows for the GP2X to run basic OpenGL functions. In January 2007, the renderer's OpenGL functions allowed for the 3D roleplaying game \"Egoboo\" to be ported to the GP2X at a playable speed, and a month later updated with increased speed and added lighting effects.", "GP2X executable files have one of two 3 letters file extensions. For games, the.gpe extension is used. These are listed in the Games section of the menu. Utilities have the extension.gpu, and appear in the Utilities section of the menu; in firmware 3.0.0 they appear along with the games.", "There was debate before launch over the implied inclusion of DRM in the GP2X. However, since release, the GP2X platform was shown to be clear of any form of DRM." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design.", "Proposal for a new flag." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The flag's bright blue background symbolizes the Pacific Ocean, which plays an important part in the lives of the islanders, both in terms of the fishing industry, and the huge tourist trade. The Union Jack reflects the country's links with the United Kingdom. The shield is derived from the country's coat of arms, which was granted by Royal Warrant in 1908. It is a white shield with a red cross and a red chief (upper third of a shield). The images depicted on the shield represent agricultural activities on the islands, and the historical associations with the United Kingdom. At the top of the shield, a British lion holds a cocoa pod between its paws. The first quarter is sugar cane, second quarter is a coconut palm, the third quarter is a dove of peace, and the fourth quarter is a bunch of bananas. The flag is very similar to the colonial ensign used prior to independence, the main differences being the latter used a darker shade of blue and displayed the entire Fijian coat of arms as opposed to just the shield. While some reformists have called for the removal of the Union Flag, seeing it a British colonial emblem, others support its retention for the sake of historical continuity. The flags of five other independent countries (see Flags of Australia, Cook Islands, New Zealand, Niue, and Tuvalu articles) retain the Union Flag in their national flags. But of these, only Fiji is a republic. The Union flag also remains on the flag of Hawaii, a state of the USA since 1959. Some influential Fijians have called for the restoration of the full coat of arms to the flag. On 30 November 2005, Fiji's Great Council of Chiefs called for the two warrior figures, who guard the shield on the coat of arms, to be placed on the flag, along with a miniature canoe and the national motto, \"Rerevaka na kalou ka doka na tui\" (\"Fear God and honour the Queen\") – symbols that were featured on the original flag of the Kingdom of Viti, the first unified Fijian state created under the leadership of Seru Epenisa Cakobau in 1871. \"The coat of arms is very significant because it has the word of God, then it has the two warriors and the Fijian canoe also. I think that the council members prefer that the full coat of arms be included in the Fiji flag,\" said Asesela Sadole, General Secretary of the Great Council of Chiefs. Prior to ceding the country to British rule in 1874, the government of Fiji adopted a national flag featuring blue and white vertical stripes, with in the centre a red shield depicting a white dove. This flag ceased to be used when the colonial era began and Fiji relinquished its independence. Fiji was a British colony from 1874 to 1970.", "In his New Year's Day address in 2013, Prime Minister Frank Bainimarama announced that the flag would soon be changed so as \"to reflect a sense of national renewal, to reinforce a new Fijian identity and a new confidence in being Fijian on the global stage\". The change in the flag would accompany the adoption of a new Constitution, intended by Fiji's military leader (who came to power in a coup in December 2006) to establish a \"one person, one vote\", non-racial and secular democracy under military oversight. The country, a republic, had removed Queen Elizabeth II from its currency a few weeks earlier. On 3 February 2015, Bainimarama confirmed that the flag of Fiji would be replaced. He announced that a national competition to design the new flag would be held, with the aim of hoisting this flag on 11 October 2015, the 45th anniversary of independence. During the competition, over 2,000 designs were submitted, before a final shortlist of 23 was selected by Fiji's National Flag Committee on 9 June 2015. It was intended to submit these designs to the Cabinet for consideration on 30 June 2015, following a brief public feedback period. However, on 30 June, Bainimarama announced that this feedback period was to be extended to 31 December 2015, saying, \"(People) want more time to consider what form the new flag should take... By extending the deadline, there is now ample opportunity for Fijians of all ages and backgrounds to further contribute and consider what symbols most appropriately represent our wonderful nation.\" On 24 December 2015, the Fijian government announced that it had again put off a decision on the country's new flag via delaying the next stage by another two months to the end of February 2016. In a statement, the government said that it had now received new submissions since it released 23 designs earlier in 2015, and that it was still seeking more. Furthermore, it was announced that five designs would be chosen through the Prime Minister's Office in March 2016, with the public then having three months to select one. The government also said it expected to announce the new flag on 1 July 2016 or at a later date, and that it planned to raise the new flag on Constitution Day, 7 September 2017 (a new public holiday celebrating the 2013 Constitution of Fiji). However, on 17 August 2016, Bainimarama publicly announced that the government was abandoning plans to change the flag. He read out a statement saying: \"While I remain convinced personally that we need to replace some of the flag’s colonial symbols with a genuinely indigenous expression of our present and our future, it has been apparent to the Government since February that the flag should not be changed for the foreseeable future\". The flag's popularity had been boosted by the country winning its first ever Olympic gold medal under its banner in the 2016 Summer Olympics. The decision to retain the current flag was welcomed by opposition parties." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Phytochemistry.", "Taxonomy.", "History.", "Phylogeny.", "Subdivision.", "Sections.", "Species.", "List of selected species.", "Evolution and biogeography.", "Genetics.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Ecology.", "Horticultural uses.", "Species and cultivars.", "Bedding plants.", "Perennial cultivars.", "Other uses.", "Culinary.", "Medicinal.", "Perfume.", "Cultural associations.", "Birth.", "Geographical territories.", "Lesbian and bisexual culture.", "Tributes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "4", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Annual or perennial caulescent or acaulescent (with or without a visible plant stem above the ground) herbs, shrubs or very rarely treelets. In acaulescent taxa the foliage and flowers appear to rise from the ground. The remainder have short stems with foliage and flowers produced in the axils of the leaves (axillary). \"Viola\" typically have heart-shaped or reniform (kidney-shaped), scalloped leaves, though a number have linear or palmate leaves. The simple leaves of plants with either habit are arranged alternately; the acaulescent species produce basal rosettes. Plants always have leaves with stipules that are often leaf-like. The flowers of the vast majority of the species are strongly zygomorphic with bilateral symmetry and solitary, but occasionally form cymes. The flowers are formed from five petals; four are upswept or fan-shaped petals with two per side, and there is one, broad, lobed lower petal pointing downward. This petal may be slightly or much shorter than the others and is weakly differentiated. The shape of the petals and placement defines many species, for example, some species have a \"spur\" on the end of each petal while most have a spur on the lower petal. The spur may vary from scarcely exserted (projecting) to very long. Solitary flowers end long stalks with a pair of bracteoles. The flowers have five sepals that persist after blooming, and in some species the sepals enlarge after blooming. The corolla ranges from white to yellow, orange or various shades of blue and violet or multicolored, often blue and yellow, with or without a yellow throat. The flowers have five free stamens with short free filaments that are oppressed against the ovary, with a dorsal connective appendage that is large, entire and oblong to ovate. Only the lower two stamens are calcarate (possessing nectary spurs that are inserted on the lowest petal into the spur or a pouch). The styles are filiform (threadlike) or clavate (clubshaped), thickened at their tip, being globose to rostellate (beaked). The stigmas are head-like, narrowed or often beaked. The flowers have a superior ovary with one cell, which has three placentae, containing many ovules. After flowering, fruit capsules are produced that are thick walled, with few to many seeds per carpel, and dehisce (split open) by way of three valves. On drying, the capsules may eject seeds with considerable force to distances of several meters. The nutlike seeds, which are obovoid to globose, are typically arillate (with a specialized outgrowth) and have straight embryos, flat cotyledons, and soft fleshy endosperm that is oily.", "One characteristic of some \"Viola\" is the elusive scent of their flowers; along with terpenes, a major component of the scent is a ketone compound called ionone, which temporarily desensitizes the receptors of the nose, thus preventing any further scent being detected from the flower until the nerves recover.", "", "First formally described by Linnaeus in 1753 with 19 species, the genus \"Viola\" bears his botanical authority, L. When Jussieu established the hierarchical system of families (1789), he placed Viola in the Cisti (rock roses), though by 1811 he suggested Viola be separated from these. However, in 1802 Batsch had already established a separate family, which he called Violariae based on Viola as the type genus, with seven other genera. Although Violariae continued to be used by some authors, such as Bentham and Hooker in 1862 (as Violarieae), most authors adopted the alternative name Violaceae, first proposed by de Lamarck and de Candolle in 1805, and Gingins (1823) and Saint-Hilaire (1824).However de Candolle also used Violarieae in his 1824 \"Prodromus\".", "\"Viola\" is one of about 25 genera and about 600 species in the large family eudicot family Violaceae, divided into sufamilies and tribes. While most genera are monotypic, \"Viola\" is a very large genus, variously circumscribed as having between 500-600 species. Historically it was placed in subfamily Violoideae, tribe Violeae. But these divisions have been shown to be artificial and not monophyletic. Molecular phylogenetic studies show that \"Viola\" occurs in Clade I of the family, as \"Viola\", \"Schweiggeria\", \"Noisettia\" and \"Allexis\", in which \"Schweiggeria\" and \"Noisettia\" are monotypic and form a sister group to \"Viola\".", "\"Viola\" is a large genus, that has traditionally been treated in sections. One of these was that of Gingins (1823), based on stigma morphology, with five sections (\"Nomimium\", \"Dischidium\", \"Chamaemelanium\", \"Melanium\", \"Leptidium\"). The extensive taxonomic studies of Wilhelm Becker, culminating in his 1925 conspectus, resulted in 14 sections and many infrasectional groups. The largest and most diverse, being section \"Viola\", with 17 subsections. In addition to subsections, series were also described. Alternatively, some authors have preferred to subdivide the genus into subgenera. Subsequent treatments were by Gershoy (1934) and Clausen (1964), using subsections and series. These were all based on morphological characteristics. Subsequent studies using molecular phylogenetic methods, such as that of Ballard et al. (1998) have shown that many of these traditional divisions are not monophyletic, the problem being related to a high degree of hybridization. In particular section \"Nomimium\" was dismembered into several new sections and transferring part of it to section \"Viola\". Section Viola \"s. lat.\" is represented by four sections, \"Viola\" \"s. str.\", \"Plagiostigma\" \"s. str.\", \"Nosphinium\" \"s.lat\". and the \"V. spathulata\" group. In that analysis, the S American sections appear to be the basal groups, starting with \"Rubellium\", then \"Leptidium\". However, the exact phylogenetic relationships remain unresolved, as a consequence many different taxonomic nomenclatures are in use, including groupings referred to as Grex. Marcussen et al. place the five S American sections, \"Andinium\", \"Leptidium\", \"Tridens\", \"Rubellium\" and \"Chilenium\" at the base of the phylogenetic tree, in that order. These are followed by the single Australian section, \"Erpetion\", as sister group to \"Chilenium\", the northern hemisphere sections and finally the single African section, \"V. abyssinica\". These sections are morphologically, chromosomally, and geographically distinct.", "Seventeen sections are recognized, listed alphabetically (approximate no. species);", "The genus includes dog violets, a group of scentless species which are the most common \"Viola\" in many areas, sweet violet (\"Viola odorata\") (named from its sweet scent), and many other species whose common name includes the word \"violet\". But other \"violets\": Neither \"Saintpaulia\" (\"African violets\", Gesneriaceae) nor \"Erythronium dens-canis\" (\"dogtooth violets\", Liliaceae) are related to \"Viola\".", "Section \"Danxiaviola\" Section \"Delphiniopsis\" Section \"Erpetion\" Section \"Leptidium\" Section \"Melanium\" (pansies) Section \"Nosphinium\" Section A (\"V. abyssinica\" group) Section B (\"V. spathulata\" group) Section \"Plagiostigma\" Section \"Rubellium\" Section \"Sclerosium\" Section \"Tridens\" Section \"Viola\" (violets) Section \"Xylinosium\"", "One fossil seed of †Viola rimosa has been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland. The genus is thought to have arisen in S America, most likely the Andes.", "Habitat fragmentation has been shown to have minimal effect on the genetic diversity and gene flow of the North American woodland violet \"Viola pubescens.\" This may be partially attributed to the ability of \"Viola pubescens\" to continue to persist within a largely agricultural matrix. This trend of unexpectedly high genetic diversity is also observed in \"Viola palmensis\", a Canary Island endemic known only from a 15 square kilometer range on La palma island. High levels of genetic diversity within these species indicate that these plants are outcrossing, even though many violet species can produce many clonal offspring throughout the year via cleistogamous flowers. Plants that produce copious amounts of clonal seeds from cleistogmaous flowers often experience increased levels of inbreeding. These reportedly high rates of outcrossing and genetic diversity indicate that these violets are strong competitors for pollinators during the early spring when they are in bloom and that those pollinators can travel considerable distances between often fragmented populations.", "The worldwide northern temperate distribution of the genus distinguishes it from the remaining largely tropical Violaceae genera, restricted to either Old World or New World species, while in the tropics the distribution is primarily in high mountainous areas. Centres of diversity occur mainly in the northern hemisphere, in mountainous regions of eastern Asia, Melanesia, and southern Europe, but also occur in the Andes and the southern Patagonian cone of South America. One of the highest species concentrations is in the former USSR. Australia is home to a number of \"Viola\" species, including \"Viola hederacea\", \"Viola betonicifolia\" and \"Viola banksii\", first collected by Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander on the Cook voyage to Botany Bay.", "\"Viola\" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the giant leopard moth, large yellow underwing, lesser broad-bordered yellow underwing, high brown fritillary, small pearl-bordered fritillary, pearl-bordered fritillary, regal fritillary, cardinal, and Setaceous Hebrew character. The larvae of many fritilary butterfly species use violets as an obligate host plant, although these butterflies do not always ovaposit directly onto violets. While the ecology of this genera is extremely diverse, violets are mainly pollinated by members within the orders \"diptera\" and \"hymenoptera\". Showy flowers are produced in early spring and clonal cleistogamous flowers are produced from late spring until the end of the growing season under favorable conditions. Cleistogamy allows plants to produce offspring year round and have more chances for establishment. This system is especially important in violets, as these plants are often weak competitors for pollination due to their small size. Many violet species exhibit two modes of seed dispersal. Once seed capsules have matured, seeds are dispelled around the plant through explosive dehiscence. \"Viola pedata\" seeds have been reported being dispersed distances of up to 5 meters away from the parent plant. Often, seeds are then further dispersed by ants through a process called myrmecochory. Violets whose seeds are dispersed this way have specialized structures on the exterior of the seeds called elaiosomes. This interaction allows violet seed to germinate and establish in a protected, stable environment. Many violet seeds exhibit physiological dormancy and require some period of cold stratification to induce germination under \"ex situ\" conditions. Rates of germination are often quite poor, especially when seeds are stored for extended periods of time. In North American habitat restoration, native violets are in high demand due to their relationship with the aforementioned fritillary butterflies. Violet species occupy a diverse array of habitats, from bogs (\"Viola lanceolata)\" to dry hill prairies (\"Viola pedata\") to woodland understories (\"Viola labradorica)\". While many of these species are indicators of high quality habitat, some violets are capable of thriving in a human altered landscape. Two species of zinc violet \"(Viola calaminaria\" and \"Viola guestphalica)\" are capable of living in soils severely contaminated with heavy metals. Many violets form relationships with Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and in the case of the zinc violets, this relationship allows these plants to tolerate such highly contaminated soils. Flowering is often profuse, and may last for much of the spring and summer. \"Viola\" are most often spring blooming with chasmogamous flowers with well-developed petals pollinated by insects. Many species also produce self-pollinated cleistogamous flowers in summer and autumn that do not open and lack petals. In some species the showy chasmogamous flowers are infertile (e.g.,\"Viola sororia\").", "The international registration authority for the genus is the American Violet Societty, where growers register new Viola cultivars. A coding system is used for cultivar description of ten horticultural divisions, such as Violet (Vt) and Violetta (Vtta). Examples include \"Viola\" 'Little David' (Vtta) and \"Viola\" 'Königin Charlotte' (Vt). In this system violets (Vt) are defined as \"stoloniferous perennials with small, highly fragrant, self-coloured purple, blue or white flowers in late winter and early spring\".", "Many species, varieties and cultivars are grown in gardens for their ornamental flowers. In horticulture the term pansy is normally used for those multi-colored, large-flowered cultivars which are raised annually or biennially from seed and used extensively in bedding. The terms viola and violet are normally reserved for small-flowered annuals or perennials, including the wild species. Cultivars of \"Viola cornuta\", \"Viola cucullata\", and \"Viola odorata\", are commonly grown from seed. Other species often grown include \"Viola labradorica\", \"Viola pedata\", and \"Viola rotundifolia\". The modern garden pansy (\"V. \"×\" wittrockiana\") is a plant of complex hybrid origin involving at least three species, \"V. tricolor\" (wild pansy or heartsease), \"V. altaica\", and \"V. lutea\" (mountain pansy). The hybrid horned pansy (\"V.\" × \"williamsii\") originates from hybridization involving garden pansy and \"Viola cornuta\".", "In 2005 in the United States, \"Viola\" cultivars (including pansies) were one of the top three bedding plant crops and 111 million dollars worth of flats of \"Viola\" were produced for the bedding flower market. Pansies and violas used for bedding are generally raised from seed, and F1 hybrid seed strains have been developed which produce compact plants of reasonably consistent flower coloring and appearance. Bedding plants are usually discarded after one growing season.", "There are hundreds of perennial viola and violetta cultivars; many of these do not breed true from seed and therefore have to be propagated from cuttings. Violettas can be distinguished from violas by the lack of ray markings on their petals. The following cultivars, of mixed or uncertain parentage, have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit; Other popular examples include:", "", "When newly opened, \"Viola\" flowers may be used to decorate salads or in stuffings for poultry or fish. Soufflés, cream, and similar desserts can be flavoured with essence of \"Viola\" flowers. The young leaves are edible raw or cooked as a somewhat bland leaf vegetable. The flowers and leaves of the cultivar 'Rebecca', one of the Violetta violets, have a distinct vanilla flavor with hints of wintergreen. The pungent perfume of some varieties of \"V. odorata\" adds inimitable sweetness to desserts, fruit salads, and teas while the mild pea flavor of \"V. tricolor\" combines equally well with sweet or savory foods, like grilled meats and steamed vegetables. The heart-shaped leaves of \"V. odorata\" provide a free source of greens throughout a long growing season, while the petals are used for fragrant flavoring in milk puddings and ice cream or in salads and as garnishes. A candied violet or crystallized violet is a flower, usually of \"Viola odorata\", preserved by a coating of egg white and crystallised sugar. Alternatively, hot syrup is poured over the fresh flower (or the flower is immersed in the syrup) and stirred until the sugar recrystallizes and has dried. This method is still used for rose petals and was applied to orange flowers in the past (when almonds or orange peel are treated this way they are called pralines). Candied violets are still made commercially in Toulouse, France, where they are known as \"violettes de Toulouse\". They are used as decorating cakes or trifles or included in aromatic desserts. The French are also known for their violet syrup, most commonly made from an extract of violets. In the United States, this French violet syrup is used to make violet scones and marshmallows. \"Viola\" essence flavours the liqueurs Creme Yvette, Creme de Violette, and Parfait d'Amour. It is also used in confectionery, such as Parma Violets and C. Howard's Violet candies.", "Many \"Viola\" species contain antioxidants called anthocyanins. Fourteen anthocyanins from \"V. yedoensis\" and \"V. prionantha\" have been identified. Some anthocyanins show strong antioxidant activities. Most violas tested and many other plants of the family Violaceae contain cyclotides, which have a diverse range of \"in vitro\" biological activities when isolated from the plant, including uterotonic, anti-HIV, antimicrobial, and insecticidal activities. \"Viola canescens,\" a species from India, exhibited \"in vitro\" activity against \"Trypanosoma cruzi\". Viola has been evaluated in different clinical indications in human studies. A double blind clinical trial showed that the adjuvant use of \"Viola odorata\" syrup with short-acting β-agonists can improve the cough suppression in children with asthma. In another study intranasal administration of \"Viola odorata\" extract oil showed to be effective in patients with insomnia. Topical use of an herbal formulation containing \"Viola tricolor\" extract also showed promising effects in patients with mild-to-moderate atopic dermatitis.", "\"Viola odorata\" is used as a source for scents in the perfume industry. Violet is known to have a 'flirty' scent as its fragrance comes and goes. Ionone is present in the flowers, which turns off the ability for humans to smell the fragrant compound for moments at a time.", "", "Violet is the traditional birth flower for February in English tradition.", "In the United States, the common blue violet \"Viola sororia\" is the state flower of Illinois, Rhode Island, New Jersey and Wisconsin, In Canada, the \"Viola cucullata\" is the provincial flower of New Brunswick adopted in 1936 In the United Kingdom, \"Viola riviniana\" is the county flower of Lincolnshire.", "Violets became symbolically associated with love between women. This connection originates from fragments of a poem by Sappho about a lost love, in which she describes her as \"Close by my side you put around yourself [many wreaths] of violets and roses.\" In another poem, Sappho describes her lost love as wearing \"violet tiaras, braided rosebuds, dill and crocus twined around\" her neck. In 1926, one of the first plays to involve a lesbian relationship, \"La Prisonnière\" by Édouard Bourdet, used a bouquet of violets to signify lesbian love.", "Violets, and badges depicting them, were sold in fund-raising efforts in Australia and New Zealand on and around Violet Day in commemoration of the lost soldiers of World War I." ] }

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{ "title": [ "\"Shugo-daimyo\".", "\"Sengoku-daimyo\".", "During the Edo period.", "After the Meiji Restoration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The were the first group of men to hold the title daimyo. They arose from among the \"shugo\" during the Muromachi period. The \"shugo-daimyo\" held not only military and police powers, but also economic power within a province. They accumulated these powers throughout the first decades of the Muromachi period. Major \"shugo-daimyo\" came from the Shiba, Hatakeyama, and Hosokawa clans, as well as the tozama clans of Yamana, Ōuchi, and Akamatsu. The greatest ruled multiple provinces. The Ashikaga shogunate required the \"shugo-daimyo\" to reside in Kyoto, so they appointed relatives or retainers, called \"shugodai\", to represent them in their home provinces. Eventually some of these in turn came to reside in Kyoto, appointing deputies in the provinces. The Ōnin War was a major uprising in which \"shugo-daimyo\" fought each other. During this and other wars of the time, \"kuni ikki\", or provincial uprisings, took place as locally powerful warriors sought independence from the \"shugo-daimyo\". The deputies of the \"shugo-daimyo\", living in the provinces, seized the opportunity to strengthen their position. At the end of the fifteenth century, those \"shugo-daimyo\" who succeeded remained in power. Those who had failed to exert control over their deputies fell from power and were replaced by a new class, the \"sengoku-daimyo\", who arose from the ranks of the \"shugodai\" and \"ji-samurai\".", "Among the were many who had been \"shugo-daimyo\", such as the Satake, Imagawa, Takeda, Toki, Rokkaku, Ōuchi, and Shimazu. New to the ranks of the daimyo were the Asakura, Amago, Nagao, Miyoshi, Chōsokabe, Jimbō, Hatano, Oda, and Matsunaga. These came from the ranks of the \"shugodai\" and their deputies. Additional \"sengoku-daimyo\" such as the Mōri, Tamura, and Ryūzōji arose from the \"ji-samurai\". The lower officials of the shogunate and rōnin (Late Hōjō, Saitō), provincial officials (Kitabatake), and \"kuge\" (Tosa Ichijō) also gave rise to \"sengoku-daimyo\".", "The Battle of Sekigahara in the year 1600 marked the beginning of the Edo period. \"Shōgun\" Tokugawa Ieyasu then reorganized roughly 200 daimyo and their territories into \"han,\" which were assessed by rice production. Those heading \"han\" assessed at 10,000 \"koku\" (50,000 bushels) or more were considered daimyo. Ieyasu also categorized the daimyo according to their relation to the ruling Tokugawa family: the \"shinpan\" were related to the Tokugawa; the \"fudai\" had been vassals of the Tokugawa or allies in battle; and the \"tozama\" had not allied with the Tokugawa before the battle (did not necessarily fight against the Tokugawa). The \"shinpan\" were collaterals of Ieyasu, such as the Matsudaira, or descendants of Ieyasu other than in the main line of succession. Several \"shinpan\", including the Tokugawa of Owari (Nagoya), Kii (Wakayama), and Mito, as well as the Matsudaira of Fukui and Aizu, held large \"han\". A few \"fudai daimyo\", such as the Ii of Hikone, held large \"han,\" but many were small. The shogunate placed many \"fudai\" at strategic locations to guard the trade routes and the approaches to Edo. Also, many \"fudai daimyo\" took positions in the Edo shogunate, some rising to the position of \"rōjū.\" The fact that \"fudai daimyo\" could hold government positions while \"tozama\" in general, could not was a main difference between the two. \"Tozama daimyo\" held mostly large fiefs far away from the capital, with e.g. the Kaga \"han\" of Ishikawa Prefecture, headed by the Maeda clan, assessed at 1,000,000 \"koku\". Other famous \"tozama\" clans included the Mori of Chōshū, the Shimazu of Satsuma, the Date of Sendai, the Uesugi of Yonezawa, and the Hachisuka of Awa. Initially, the Tokugawa regarded them as potentially rebellious, but for most of the Edo period, marriages between the Tokugawa and the \"tozama\", as well as control policies such as \"sankin-kōtai\", resulted in peaceful relations. Daimyo were required to maintain residences in Edo as well as their fiefs, and to move periodically between Edo and their fiefs, typically spending alternate years in each place, in a practice called \"sankin-kōtai\".", "In 1869, the year after the Meiji Restoration, the daimyo, together with the \"kuge,\" formed a new aristocracy, the \"kazoku\". In 1871, the han were abolished and prefectures were established. In this year, around 200 daimyo returned their titles to the emperor, who consolidated their han into 75 prefectures. Their military forces were also demobilized, with the daimyo and their samurai followers pensioned into retirement. The move to abolish the feudal domains effectively ended the daimyo era in Japan. This was effectively carried out due to the financial collapse of the feudal-domain governments, hampering their capability for resistance. In the wake of the changes, many daimyo remained in control of their lands, being appointed as prefectural governors; however, they were soon relieved of this duty and called en masse to Tokyo, thereby cutting off any independent base of power from which to potentially rebel. Despite this, members of former daimyo families remained prominent in government and society, and in some cases continue to remain prominent to the present day. For example, Morihiro Hosokawa, the former prime minister, is a descendant of the daimyo of Kumamoto." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Characteristics.", "Uses.", "Geology.", "Resources.", "Australia.", "Types." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Lignite is brownish-black in color and has a carbon content from as low as 20-25 percent up to 60–70 percent, a high inherent moisture content sometimes as high as 75 percent, and an ash content ranging from 6–19 percent compared with 6–12 percent for bituminous coal. The energy content of lignite ranges from 10 to 20 MJ/kg (9–17 million BTU per short ton) on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis. The energy content of lignite consumed in the United States averages (13 million BTU/ton), on the as-received basis (i.e., containing both inherent moisture and mineral matter). The energy content of lignite consumed in Victoria, Australia, averages (7.3 million BTU/ton). Lignite has a high content of volatile matter which makes it easier to convert into gas and liquid petroleum products than higher-ranking coals. Unfortunately, its high moisture content and susceptibility to spontaneous combustion can cause problems in transportation and storage. Processes which remove water from brown coal reduce the risk of spontaneous combustion to the same level as black coal, increase the calorific value of brown coal to a black coal equivalent fuel, and significantly reduce the emissions profile of 'densified' brown coal to a level similar to or better than most black coals. However, removing the moisture increases the cost of the final lignite fuel.", "Because of its low energy density and typically high moisture content, brown coal is inefficient to transport and is not traded extensively on the world market compared with higher coal grades. It is often burned in power stations near the mines, such as in Australia's Latrobe Valley and Luminant's Monticello plant in Texas. Primarily because of latent high moisture content and low energy density of brown coal, carbon dioxide emissions from traditional brown-coal-fired plants are generally much higher per megawatt generated than for comparable black-coal plants, with the world's highest-emitting plant being Hazelwood Power Station until its closure in March 2017. The operation of traditional brown-coal plants, particularly in combination with strip mining, is politically contentious due to environmental concerns. In 2014, about 12 percent of Germany's energy and, specifically, 27 percent of Germany's electricity came from lignite power plants, while in 2014 in Greece, lignite provided about 50 percent of its power needs. An environmentally beneficial use of lignite can be found in its use in cultivation and distribution of biological control microbes that suppress plant disease causing microbes. The carbon enriches the organic matter in the soil while the biological control microbes provide an alternative to chemical pesticides. Reaction with quaternary amine forms a product called amine-treated lignite (ATL), which is used in drilling mud to reduce fluid loss during drilling.", "Lignite begins as an accumulation of partially decayed plant material, or peat. Burial by other sediments results in increasing temperature, depending on the local geothermal gradient and tectonic setting, and increasing pressure. This causes compaction of the material and loss of some of the water and volatile matter (primarily methane and carbon dioxide). This process, called coalification, concentrates the carbon content, and thus the heat content, of the material. Deeper burial and the passage of time result in further expulsion of moisture and volatile matter, eventually transforming the material into higher-rank coals such as bituminous and anthracite coal.[11] Lignite deposits are typically younger than higher-ranked coals, with the majority of them having formed during the Tertiary period.", "Germany has the biggest deposits, followed by China, Russia and United States.", "The Latrobe Valley in Victoria, Australia, contains estimated reserves of some 65 billion tonnes of brown coal. The deposit is equivalent to 25 percent of known world reserves. The coal seams are up to 100 metres thick, with multiple coal seams often giving virtually continuous brown coal thickness of up to 230 metres. Seams are covered by very little overburden (10 to 20 metres).", "Lignite can be separated into two types. The first is xyloid lignite or fossil wood and the second form is the compact lignite or perfect lignite. Although xyloid lignite may sometimes have the tenacity and the appearance of ordinary wood, it can be seen that the combustible woody tissue has experienced a great modification. It is reducible to a fine powder by trituration, and if submitted to the action of a weak solution of potash, it yields a considerable quantity of humic acid. Leonardite is an oxidized form of lignite, which also contains high levels of humic acid. Jet is a hardened, gem-like form of lignite used in various types of jewelry." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and succession.", "Campaigns.", "Battle of Okehazama and death.", "Appearances in popular fiction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Yoshimoto was born in 1519, the third son of Imagawa Ujichika of the Imagawa clan-which claimed descent from Emperor Seiwa (850–880). His childhood name was Yosakimaru (芳菊丸). His family branched from Minamoto clan by the Ashikaga clan. As he was not the eldest son, he was not an heir to his father's lordship. As a result, the young boy was sent to a temple where his name was changed to or. In 1536, his older brother Ujiteru died suddenly, unleashing successional disputes. His elder half-brother,, tried to seize the lordship, but the clan split into two factions. Yoshimoto's faction argued he was the rightful heir because Yoshimoto's mother (Jukei-ni) was the consort of Ujichika. Genkō Etan's faction disputed this based on Genkō's seniority, and that his mother was a member of the Kushima family. However, the Genkō faction was eliminated in the. Baigaku Shōhō changed his name to Yoshimoto at this point and succeeded the clan.", "After Yoshimoto succeeded to family headship, he married the sister of Takeda Shingen of Kai. This allowed Yoshimoto to cement an alliance with the Takeda when he helped Shingen imprison his father, Takeda Nobutora, in 1540. Soon after, Yoshimoto fought against the Hōjō of Sagami. In 1542, Yoshimoto began his advance into Mikawa Province, in an effort to fight the growing influence of Oda Nobuhide in that region, but was defeated in the Battle of Azukizaka (1542). In campaigns over the course of the ensuing decades, Yoshimoto wrested control over the Suruga, Totomi, and Mikawa provinces. In 1552, Shingen's son, Takeda Yoshinobu, married Yoshimoto's daughter. Yoshimoto and the Hōjō clan reached a peace agreement in 1554 with the marriage of Yoshimoto's son Ujizane to the daughter of Hōjō Ujitsuna. In 1558, Yoshimoto left the clan's political affairs in Ujizane's hands, in order to focus on dealing with the advance westward into Mikawa.", "In the summer of 1560, after forming a three-way alliance with the Takeda and the Hōjō, Yoshimoto headed out to the capital with Tokugawa Ieyasu (then known as Matsudaira Motoyasu) of Mikawa in the vanguard. Despite having a strong force of 25,000, Yoshimoto deliberately announced that he had 40,000 troops. While this statement put fear in many factions, Oda Nobunaga of Owari Province saw through it. (Some historical sources support the claim of 40,000.) With many victories, Yoshimoto's army was letting its guard down, celebrating with song and sake. A surprise attack by the Oda army of 3,000 following a downpour left Yoshimoto's army in complete disorder. Two Oda samurai (Mōri Shinsuke and Hattori Koheita) ambushed the Imagawa army and killed Yoshimoto, in the village of Dengakuhazama. Imagawa Ujizane succeeded to family headship after Yoshimoto's death, but the Imagawa clan fell from power. Ujizane was later summoned by Tokugawa Ieyasu and became a \"kōke\" in the administration of the Tokugawa clan. Yoshimoto's niece was Lady Tsukiyama, the wife of Tokugawa Ieyasu. Yoshimoto has several graves; his body itself is buried at Daisei-ji, a temple in the city of Toyokawa in modern Aichi Prefecture.", "\"See People of the Sengoku period in popular culture.\" He is a playable character in \"Pokémon Conquest\" (Pokémon + Nobunaga's Ambition in Japan), with his partner Pokémon being Pineco and Forretress. In the \"Samurai Warriors\" series, Yoshimoto is represented as a foolish old-fashioned nobleman. His weapon is a kemari which is inspired by his son, Ujizane's historical obsession towards kemari. A female version of Yoshimoto appears in anime The Ambition of Oda Nobuna. In this version, instead of dying Yoshimoto is spared and later installed as a figurehead Shōgun to legitimize Nobuna's claim to Kyoto. In Sengoku Basara game and anime series, he was shown to be a weak leader, using his vassals as decoys while trying to retreat. In anime version, he was killed by Oda Nobunaga." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Method.", "Importance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A spore print is made by placing the spore-producing surface flat on a sheet of dark and white paper or on a sheet of clear, stiff plastic, which facilitates moving the spore print to a darker or lighter surface for improved contrast; for example, it is easier to determine whether the spore print is pure white or, rather, very slightly pigmented. The mushroom is left for several hours, often overnight, in this manner. Some guides advise using a moisture-resistant enclosure, like a glass or jar, to contain the mushroom during printing. If the mushroom is to be preserved, a small hole can be made in the spore print paper rather than cutting the stipe. When the mushroom is removed, the colour of the spores should be visible. Mycologists often use glass slides, which allow for quick examination of spores under a microscope. A mushroom cannot be identified from its spore print alone; the spore print is only one characteristic used in making a taxonomic determination. Spore prints are usually white to cream, black, or shades of red, purple, or brown. The poisonous false parasol (\"Chlorophyllum molybdites\") has a green spore deposit. Although the spore print is generally used to help identify the genus of a specimen, on occasion it can be used to help distinguish between similar species. For example, the lookalikes \"Russula crustosa\" and \"Russula virescens\" have yellowish and white spore deposits, respectively. In the field, spore print colour can sometimes be quickly determined by examining the top of stipes for spore \"dust\" on the nearby forest floor. The spore print is not always successful, as some mushrooms are too young or old to produce spores. Mushrooms collected at high elevations will typically not produce a spore print at lower elevations. Sometimes, the colour can vary depending on the thickness of the spore print. In the genus \"Lactarius\", thin deposits are usually white, while thick deposits are cream to yellow. Many of the original authors of species in this genus did not indicate whether spore print colours they recorded were with thick or thin prints, limiting the usefulness of this feature as an identification characteristic. In some instances, the colour of the spore print matches that of the mature gills, but this is not always true and gill colour cannot reliably be used as an indicator of spore print colour.", "Historically the classification of many families of fungi were based on spore colour, a feature first systematically emphasized by Swedish mycologist Elias Fries. An example is the Tricholomataceae, a large family containing many fungi whose common factor was having white spores. However recent molecular research has shown some strange relationships, with some fungi of disparate spore colours showing close relations." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Establishment.", "Government.", "Provincial administration.", "Parliament.", "Local government.", "Politics.", "Family Compact.", "Reform movement.", "Upper Canada Rebellion of 1837.", "Sydenham and the Union of the Canadas.", "Settlement.", "First Nations dispossession and reserves.", "Loyalists and the land grant system.", "Assisted immigration.", "Talbot settlement.", "Crown and clergy reserves.", "Common school lands.", "Land sale system.", "Canada Company.", "Huron Tract.", "List of cities and towns of Upper Canada.", "Population.", "Ethnic groups.", "First Nations.", "Métis.", "Canadiens/French-Canadians.", "Loyalists/Later Loyalists.", "Freed slaves.", "British.", "Religion.", "Church of England.", "Catholic Church.", "Ryerson and the Methodists.", "Presbyterians.", "Mennonites, Tunkers, Quakers, and Children of Peace.", "Poverty.", "Trade, monetary policy, and financial institutions.", "Corporations.", "Currency and banking.", "Currency.", "Bank of Upper Canada.", "Bank wars: the Scottish joint-stock banks.", "Trade.", "Wheat and grains.", "Timber.", "Transportation and communications.", "Canal system.", "Rideau Canal.", "Welland Canal.", "Desjardins Canal.", "Lake traffic: steamships.", "Roads.", "United States relations.", "War of 1812 (1812–1815).", "1837 Rebellion and Patriot War.", "Education.", "Canada West." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris which ended the Seven Years' War global conflict and the French and Indian War in North America, Great Britain retained control over the former New France, which had been defeated in the French and Indian War. The British had won control after Fort Niagara had surrendered in 1759 and Montreal capitulated in 1760, and the British under Robert Rogers took formal control of the Great Lakes region in 1760. Fort Michilimackinac was occupied by Roger's forces in 1761. The territories of contemporary southern Ontario and southern Quebec were initially maintained as the single Province of Quebec, as it had been under the French. From 1763 to 1791, the Province of Quebec maintained its French language, cultural behavioural expectations, practices and laws. The British passed the \"Quebec Act\" in 1774, which expanded the Quebec colony's authority to include part of the Indian Reserve to the west (i.e., parts of southern Ontario), and other western territories south of the Great Lakes including much of what would become the United States' Northwest Territory, including the modern states of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin and parts of Minnesota. After", "", "Upper Canada's constitution was said to be \"the very image and transcript\" of the British constitution, and based on the principle of \"mixed monarchy\" – a balance of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. The Executive arm of government in the colony consisted of a lieutenant-governor, his executive council, and the Officers of the Crown (equivalent to the Officers of the Parliament of Canada): the Adjutant General of the Militia, the", "The Legislative branch of the government consisted of the parliament comprising legislative council and legislative assembly. When the capital was first moved to Toronto from Newark (present-day Niagara-on-the-Lake) in 1796, the Parliament Buildings of Upper Canada were located at the corner of Parliament and Front Streets, in buildings that were burned by US forces in the War of 1812, rebuilt, then burned again by accident. The site", "Local government in the Province of Upper Canada was based on districts. In 1788, four districts were created: The name changes all took place in 1792. Justices of the Peace were appointed by the Lt. Governor. Any two justices meeting together could form the lowest level of the justice system, the Courts of Request. A Court of Quarter Sessions was held four times a year in each", "", "The Family Compact is the epithet applied to an oligarchic group of men who exercised most of the political and judicial power in Upper Canada from the 1810s to the 1840s. It was noted for its conservatism and opposition to democracy. The", "There were many outstanding individual reform politicians in Upper Canada, including Robert Randal, Peter Perry, Marshall Spring Bidwell, William Ketchum and Dr. William Warren Baldwin; however, organised collective reform activity began with Robert Fleming Gourlay. Gourlay was a well-connected Scottish emigrant who arrived in 1817, hoping to encourage \"assisted emigration\" of the poor from Britain. He solicited information on the colony through township questionnaires, and soon became a critic of government mismanagement. When the local legislature ignored his call for an inquiry, he called for a petition to the British Parliament. He organised township meetings, and a provincial convention – which the government considered dangerous and seditious. Gourlay was tried in December 1818 under the 1804 Sedition Act and jailed for 8 months. He was banished from the province in August 1819. His expulsion made him a martyr in the reform community. The next wave of organised Reform activity emerged in the 1830s through the work", "The Upper Canada Rebellion was an insurrection against the oligarchic government of the Family Compact by W.L. Mackenzie in December 1837. Long term grievances included antagonism between Later Loyalists and British Loyalists, political corruption, the collapse of the international financial system and the resultant economic distress, and a growing republican sentiment. While public grievances had existed for years, it was the Rebellion in Lower Canada (present day Quebec) that emboldened rebels in Upper Canada to openly revolt soon after. The", "After the Rebellions, the new governor, Charles Poulett Thomson, 1st Baron Sydenham, proved an exemplary Utilitarian, despite his aristocratic pretensions. This combination of free trade and aristocratic pretensions needs to be underscored; although a liberal capitalist, Sydenham was no radical democrat. Sydenham approached the task of implementing those aspects of Durham's report that the colonial office approved of, municipal reform, and the union of the Canadas, with a \"campaign of state violence and coercive institutional innovation...", "", "The First Nations occupying the territory that was to become Upper Canada were: Prior to the creation of Upper Canada in 1791 much land had already been ceded by the First Nations to the Crown in accordance with the Royal Proclamation of 1763. During the American Revolutionary War most of the First", "Crown land policy to 1825 was multi-fold in the use of a \"free\" resource that had value to people who themselves may have little or no money for its purchase and for the price of settling upon it to support themselves and a create a new society. First, the cash-strapped Crown government in Canada could pay and reward the services and loyalty of the \"United Empire Loyalists\" who, originated outside of Canada, without encumbrance of debt by being awarded with small portions of land (under ) with the proviso that it be settled by those to which it was granted; Second, portions would be reserved for the future use of the Crown and the clergy that did not require settlement by which to gain control. Lt. Governor Simcoe saw this as the mechanism by which an aristocracy might be created, and that compact settlement could be avoided with the grants of large tracts of land to those Loyalists not required to settle on it as the means of gaining control.", "The Calton weavers were a community of handweavers established in the community of Calton, then in Lanarkshire just outside Glasgow, Scotland in the 18th century. In the early 19th century, many of the weavers emigrated to Canada, settling in Carleton Place and other communities in eastern", "Thomas Talbot emigrated in 1791, where he became personal secretary to John Graves Simcoe, Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada. Talbot convinced the government to allow him to implement a land settlement scheme of in Elgin County in the townships of Dunwich and Aldborough in 1803. According to his government agreement, he was entitled to for every settler who received ; in this way he gained an estate of. Talbot's administration was regarded as despotic. He was infamous for registering settlers' names on the local settlement map in pencil and if displeased, erasing their entry. Talbot's abuse of power was a contributing factor in the Upper Canada Rebellion of 1837.", "The Crown reserves, one seventh of all lands granted, were to provide the provincial executive with an independent source of revenue not under the control of the elected Assembly. The clergy reserves, also one seventh of all lands granted in the province, were created \"for the support and maintenance of a Protestant clergy\" in lieu of tithes. The revenue from the lease of these lands was claimed by the Rev. John Strachan on behalf of the Church of England. These reserves were directly administered by the Crown; which, in turn, came under increasing political pressure from other Protestant bodies. The Reserve lands were to be a focal point of dissent within the Legislative Assembly. The Clergy Corporation was incorporated in 1819 to manage the clergy reserves. After the Rev. John Strachan was appointed to the Executive Council, the advisory body to the Lieutenant Governor, in 1815, he began to push", "In 1797, lands in twelve townships (six east of York, and six west, totalling about ) were set aside,", "The land grant policy changed after 1825 as the Upper Canadian administration faced a financial crisis that would otherwise require raising local taxes, thereby making it more dependent on a local elected legislature. The Upper Canadian", "Few chose to lease the Crown reserves as long as free grants of land were still available. The Lieutenant Governor increasingly found himself depending upon the customs duties shared with, but collected in Lower Canada for revenue; after a dispute with the lower province on the relative proportions to be allocated to each, these duties were withheld, forcing the Lieutenant Governor to search for new sources of revenue. The Canada Company was created as a means of generating government revenue that was not under the control of the elected Assembly, thereby granting the Lt. Governor greater independence from local voters. The plan for the Canada Company was promoted by the province's Attorney General, John Beverly Robinson, then studying law at Lincoln's Inn", "The Huron Tract lies in the counties of Huron, Perth, Middlesex and present-day Lambton County, Ontario, bordering on Lake Huron to the west and Lake Erie to the east. The tract was purchased by the Canada Company for resale to settlers. Influenced by William \"Tiger\" Dunlop, John Galt and other businessmen formed the Canada Company. The Canada Company was the administrative agent for the Huron Tract.", "Incorporated in Upper Canada era", "", "Although the province is frequently referred to as \"English Canada\" after the Union of the Canadas, and its ethnic homogeneity said to be a factor in the Upper Canada Rebellion of 1837, there was range of ethnic groups in Upper Canada. However, due to the lack of a detailed breakdown, it is difficult to count each group, and this may be considered abuse of statistics. An idea of the ethnic breakdown can be had if one considers the religious census of 1842, which is helpfully provided below: Roman Catholics were 15% of the population, and adherents to this religion were, at the time, mainly drawn from the Irish and the French settlers. The Roman Catholic faith also numbered some votaries from amongst the Scottish settlers. The category of \"other\" religious adherents, somewhat under 5% of the population, included the Aboriginal and Metis culture.", "See above:", "Many British and French-Canadian fur traders married First Nations and Inuit women from", "Early settlements in the region include the Mission of Sainte-Marie among the Hurons at Midland in 1649, Sault Ste. Marie in 1668, and Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit in 1701. Southern Ontario was part of the \"Pays d'en-haut\" (Upper Country) of New France, and later part of the province of Quebec until Quebec was split into Upper and Lower Canada in 1791. The", "After an initial group of about 7,000 United Empire Loyalists were thinly settled across the province in the mid-1780s, a far larger number of \"late-Loyalists\" arrived in the late 1790s and were required to take an oath of allegiance to the Crown to obtain land if they came from the US. Their fundamental political allegiances were always considered dubious. By 1812, this had become acutely problematic since the American settlers outnumbered the original", "The Act Against Slavery passed in Upper Canada on 9 July 1793. The 1793 \"Act against Slavery\" forbade the importation of any additional slaves and freed children. It did not grant freedom to adult slaves—they were finally freed by the British Parliament in 1833. As a", "The Great Migration from Britain from 1815 to 1850 has been numbered at 800,000. The population of Upper Canada in 1837 is documented at 409,000. Given the lack of detailed census data, it is difficult to assess the relative size of the American and Canadian born \"British\" and the foreign-born \"British.\" By the time of the first census in 1841, only half of the population of Upper Canada were foreign-born British.", "", "The first Lt. Governor, Sir John Graves Simcoe, sought to make the Church of England the Established Church of the province. To that end, he created the clergy reserves, the revenues of which were to support the church. The clergy reserves proved to be a long-term political issue, as other denominations, particularly the Church of Scotland (Presbyterians) sought a proportional share of the revenues. The Church of", "Father Alexander Macdonell was a Scottish Catholic priest who formed his evicted clan into The Glengarry Fencibles regiment, of which he served as chaplain. He was the first Catholic chaplain in the British Army since the Reformation. When the regiment was disbanded, Rev. Macdonell appealed to the government to grant its members a tract of land in Canada, and, in 1804, were provided in what is now Glengarry County, Canada. In 1815, he began his service as the first Roman Catholic Bishop at St. Raphael's Church in", "The undisputed leader of the highly fractious Methodists in Upper Canada was Egerton Ryerson, editor of their newspaper, \"The Christian Guardian\". Ryerson (1803–1882) was an itinerant minister – or circuit rider – in the Niagara area for the Methodist Episcopal Church – an", "The earliest Presbyterian ministers in Upper Canada came from various denominations based in Scotland, Ireland, and the United States. The \"Presbytery of the Canadas\" was formed in 1818 primarily by Scottish Associate Presbyterian missionaries, yet independently of their mother denomination in the hope of including Presbyterian ministers of all stripes in Upper and Lower Canada. Although successfully including members from Irish Associate, and American Presbyterian and Reformed denominations, the growing group of missionaries belonging to the Church of Scotland remained separate. Instead, in 1831, they formed their own \"Synod of the Presbyterian Church of Canada in Connection with the Established Church of Scotland\". That same year the \"Presbytery of the Canadas\", having grown and been re-organized, became the \"United Synod of Upper Canada\". In its continued pursuit for Presbyterian unity (and a share of government funding from the clergy reserves for established churches) the United Synod sought a union with the Church of Scotland synod which it finally", "These groups of later Loyalists were proportionately larger in the early decades of the province's settlement. The Mennonites, Tunkers, Quakers and Children of Peace are the traditional Peace churches. The Mennonites and Tunkers were generally German-speaking and immigrated as Later Loyalists from Pennsylvania. Many of their descendants continue to speak a form of German called Pennsylvania German. The Quakers (Society of Friends) immigrated from New York, the New England States and Pennsylvania. The Children of Peace were founded during the War of 1812 after a schism in the Society of Friends in York County. A further schism occurred in 1828, leaving two branches, \"Orthodox\" Quakers and \"Hicksite\" Quakers.", "In the decade ending in 1837, the population of Upper Canada doubled, to 397,489, fed in large part by erratic spurts of displaced paupers, the \"surplus population\" of the British Isles. Historian Rainer Baehre estimated that between 1831 and 1835 a bare minimum of one-fifth of all emigrants to the province arrived totally destitute, forwarded by their parishes in the United Kingdom. The pauper immigrants arriving in Toronto were the excess agricultural workers and artisans whose growing ranks sent the cost of parish-based poor relief in England spiralling; a financial crisis that generated frenetic public debate and the overhaul of the Poor Laws in 1834. \"Assisted emigration,\" a second solution to the problem touted by the Parliamentary Under-Secretary in the Colonial Office, Robert Wilmot Horton, would remove them permanently from the parish poor rolls. The roots of Wilmot-Horton's \"assisted emigration\" policies began in April 1820, in the middle of an insurrection in", "", "There were two types of corporate actors at work in the Upper Canadian economy: the legislatively chartered companies and the unregulated joint-stock companies. The joint stock company was popular in building public works, since it should be for general public benefit, as the benefit would otherwise be sacrificed to legislated monopolies with exclusive privileges. or lie dormant. An example of the legislated monopoly is found in the Bank of Upper Canada. However, the benefit of the joint-stock shareholders, as the risk takers,", "", "The government of Upper Canada never issued a provincial currency. A variety of coins, mainly of French, Spanish, English and American origin circulated. The government used the Halifax standard, where one pound Halifax", "The Bank of Upper Canada was \"captured\" from Kingston merchants by the York elite at the instigation of John Strachan in 1821, with the assistance of William Allan, a Toronto merchant and Executive Councillor. York was too small to warrant such an institution as indicated by the inability of its promoters to raise even the minimal 10% of the £200,000 authorised capital required for start-up. It succeeded where the Bank of Kingston had failed only because it had the political influence to have this minimum reduced by half, and because the provincial government subscribed for two thousand of its eight thousand shares. The administration appointed four", "The difference between the chartered banks and the joint-stock banks lay almost entirely on the issue of liability and its implications for the issuance of bank notes. The joint-stock banks lacked limited liability, hence every partner in the bank was responsible for the bank's debts to the full extent of their personal property. The formation of new joint-stock banks blossomed in 1835 in the aftermath of a parliamentary report by Dr Charles Duncombe, which established their legality here. Duncombe's report drew in large part on an increasingly dominant banking orthodoxy in the United Kingdom which challenged the English system of chartered banks. Duncombe's Select Committee on Currency offered a template for the creation", "After the Napoleonic Wars, as industrial production in Britain took off, English manufacturers began dumping cheap goods in Montreal; this allowed an increasing number of shopkeepers in York to obtain their goods competitively from Montreal wholesalers. It was during this period that the three largest pre-war merchants who imported directly from Britain retired from business as a result; Quetton St. George in 1815, Alexander Wood in 1821, and William Allan in 1822. Toronto and Kingston then underwent a boom in the number of increasingly specialised shops and", "Upper Canada was in the unenviable position of having few exports with which to pay for all its imported manufactured needs. For the vast majority of those who settled in rural areas, debt could be paid off only through the sale of wheat and flour; yet, throughout much of the 1820s, the price of wheat went through periodic cycles of boom and bust depending upon the British markets that ultimately provided the credit upon which the farmer lived. In the decade 1830–39, exports of wheat averaged less than £1 per", "The Ottawa River timber trade resulted from Napoleon's 1806 Continental Blockade in Europe. The United Kingdom required a new source of timber for its navy and shipbuilding. Later the UK's application of gradually increasing preferential tariffs increased Canadian imports. The trade in squared timber lasted until the 1850s. The transportation of raw timber by means of floating down the Ottawa River was proved possible in 1806 by Philemon Wright. Squared timber would be assembled into large rafts which held living quarters for men on their six-week journey to Quebec City, which had large exporting facilities and easy access to the Atlantic Ocean. The timber trade was Upper and Lower Canada's major industry in terms of employment and value of the product. The largest supplier of square red and white pine to the British market was the Ottawa River and the Ottawa Valley. They had \"rich red and white pine forests.\" Bytown (later called Ottawa), was a major lumber and sawmill centre of Canada.", "", "The early nineteenth century was the age of canals. The Erie Canal, stretching from Buffalo to Albany, New York, threatened to divert all of the grain and other trade on the upper Great Lakes through the Hudson River to New York city after its completion in 1825. Upper Canadians sought to build a similar system that would tie this trade to the St Lawrence River and Montreal.", "The Rideau Canal's purpose was military and hence was paid for by the British and not the local treasury. It was intended to provide a secure supply and communications route between Montreal and the British naval base in Kingston. The objective was to bypass the St. Lawrence River bordering New York; a route which would have left British supply ships vulnerable to an", "The Welland Canal was created to directly link Lake Erie with Lake Ontario, bypassing Niagara Falls and the Erie Canal. It was the idea of William Hamilton Merritt who owned a sawmill, grist mill and store on the Twelve Mile Creek. The Legislature authorised the joint-stock Welland Canal Company on 19 January 1824, with a capitalisation of $150,000, and Merritt as the agent. The canal was officially opened exactly five years later on 30 November 1829. However, the original route to Lake Erie followed the Welland and Niagara Rivers and was difficult and slow to navigate. The Welland Canal Company obtained a loan of 50,000 pounds from the Province of Upper Canada", "The Desjardins Canal, named after its promoter Pierre Desjardins, was built to give Dundas, Ontario, easier access to Burlington Bay and Lake Ontario. Access to Lake Ontario from Dundas was made difficult by the topography of the area, which included a natural sand and gravel barrier, across Burlington Bay which allowed only boats with a shallow draft through. In 1823 a canal was dug through the sandbar. In 1826 the passage was completed, allowing schooners to sail to neighbouring Hamilton. Hamilton then became a major port and quickly expanded as a centre of trade and commerce. In 1826 a group of Dundas businessmen incorporated to compete with Hamilton and increase the value of their real estate holdings. The project to build Desjardins Canal continued for ten years, from 1827 to 1837, and required constant infusions of money from the province. In 1837, the year it opened, the company's income was £6,000, of which £5,000 was from a government loan and £166 was received from canal tolls.", "There is disagreement as to whether the Canadian-built (), launched on 7 September 1816, at Ernestown, Ontario or the US-built \"Ontario\" (), launched in the spring of 1817 at Sacketts Harbor, New York, was the first steamboat on the Great Lakes. While \"Frontenac\" was launched first, \"Ontario\" began active service first. The first steamboat on the upper Great Lakes was the passenger-carrying \"Walk-In-The-Water\", built in 1818 to navigate Lake Erie. In the years between 1809 and 1837 just over", "Besides marine travel, Upper Canada had a few Post roads or footpaths used for transportation by horse or stagecoaches along the key settlements between London to Kingston. The Governor's Road was built beginning in 1793 from Dundas to Paris and then to the", "", "During the War of 1812 with the United States, Upper Canada was the chief target of the Americans, since it was weakly defended and populated largely by American immigrants. However, division in the United States over the war, a lackluster American militia, the incompetence of American military commanders, and swift and decisive action by the British commander, Sir Isaac Brock, kept Upper Canada part of British North America. Detroit was captured by the British on 6 August 1812. The Michigan Territory", "Mackenzie, Duncombe, John Rolph and 200 supporters fled to Navy Island in the Niagara River, where they declared themselves the Republic of Canada on 13 December. They obtained supplies from supporters in the United States, resulting in British reprisals (see Caroline affair). This incident has been used to establish the principle of \"anticipatory self-defense\" in international politics, which holds that it may be justified only in cases in which the \"necessity of that self-defense is instant, overwhelming, and leaving no choice of means, and no moment for deliberation\". This formulation is part of the", "In 1807 the Grammar School Act allowed the government to take over various grammar schools across the province and", "Canada West was the western portion of the United Province of Canada from 10 February 1841, to 1 July 1867. Its boundaries were identical to those of the former Province of Upper Canada. Lower Canada would also become Canada East. The area was named the Province of Ontario under the \"British North America Act\" of 1867." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Government.", "History.", "21st century.", "Visiting.", "Niagara Peninsula wineries.", "Niagara-on-the-Lake.", "Living.", "Transportation.", "Maritime Infrastructure." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The greater part of the peninsula is incorporated as the Regional Municipality of Niagara. Cities in the region include St. Catharines, Niagara Falls, Thorold, Port Colborne and Welland. Towns include Niagara-on-the-Lake, Lincoln, Pelham, Grimsby and Fort Erie, as well as the townships Wainfleet and West Lincoln. The remainder of the peninsula encompasses parts of the City of Hamilton and Haldimand County.", "The area was originally inhabited by a First Nations people called the \"Neutrals\", so named for their practice of trading goods such as flint arrowhead blanks with both of the feuding regional powers, the Wyandot and Iroquois. The Neutrals were wiped out by the Iroquois c. 1650 as the latter sought to expand their fur-trapping territory as part of the Beaver Wars. From this point until the arrival of United Empire Loyalists following the American War of Independence, the region was only sporadically inhabited, as the Iroquois did not establish permanent settlements in the area. The Niagara Peninsula then became one of the first areas settled in Upper Canada by British Loyalists in the late 18th century. The capital of the new colony was established with the founding of Niagara-on-the-Lake, then called Newark. Many English and Irish immigrants settled in the peninsula, but by the 1800s, Italian and German immigrants heavily populated the peninsula and were the chief sources of immigrants followed by French, Polish, and other Central Europeans. Following the agricultural period of European settlement, the Niagara area became an important industrial centre, with water-powered mills joined later by hydro-electric power generation in Niagara Falls and electricity-intensive industry in both Niagara Falls and St. Catharines. While agriculture – especially fruit farming along the shore of Lake Ontario – remains important to this day, it was joined in the 19th century by industrial developments. A succession of canals were built to connect the markets and mineral resources of the upper Great Lakes with the St. Lawrence Seaway (See also Welland Canal). General Motors built a considerable presence in St. Catharines with auto plants and a foundry, and a number of auto-parts manufacturers followed. Dry docks were also built at Port Weller on Lake Ontario.", "Heavy industry has been diminishing for the past decade or more primarily due to the slow-down of the North American automotive manufacturers. Thousands of jobs have been lost at long-time area employers such as General Motors, Thompson Products, Deere & Company, Dana Canada Corp, Port Weller Drydocks, Domtar Papers and Gallagher Thorold Paper. Because of this, local municipalities have been forced to look at new and diversified opportunities to prevent an exodus of well trained staff.", "Hospitality and tourism has attracted numerous visitors to the area for more than 150 years primarily thanks to Niagara Falls. New development beginning during the mid-1990s has spun off an upscale hospitality boom throughout the whole Niagara Peninsula. Today, more than 10 million guests visit the peninsula annually to see the beauty of the Falls and the Niagara Parks. Ecotourism has become more popular with more people finding and exploring out of the way places such as the Niagara Escarpment, named a world Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO in 1990.", "Another area of major tourism growth in the past thirty years has been the expansion of the grape and wine industry. The Niagara Peninsula is one of four recognized viticultural areas by the VQA in the Ontario wine industry. The many European-style wineries and vineyards have played a major role in attracting visitors seeking a unique cultural experience. Most of the local wineries offer full tours of their facilities with a few offering onsite dining featuring unique Canadian cuisine paired with their own VQA vintages. It is common for many of these wineries' world-class chefs to use fresh ingredients that are grown or acquired from local farms in season. Some wineries also feature live music and theatrical performances in the vineyard during the summer months. Visitors come during the coldest months of the year (usually December to February) to watch some varieties of grapes being harvested and pressed outdoors in the vineyard as part of the process of creating the sweetest, and among the most expensive, wine on earth – ice wine. A few Niagara Peninsula wineries have won the most prestigious international awards for their ice wine products, many of which are only available from the vintner. There is an official Wine Routes Guide for those that wish to self-drive while transportation companies offering wine tours operate out of major hotel and bed and breakfast establishments in Niagara Falls, Niagara-on-the-Lake and Toronto. (Driving from downtown Toronto to the Niagara wine region is about two hours.)", "Another major attraction for the well travelled looking for cultural activities is the famous Shaw Festival Theater (named for playwright George Bernard Shaw) located in the town of Niagara-on-the-Lake. A resident repertory company of actors uses three theatres during a six-month season. Niagara-on-the-Lake is also the location of Fort George, a British-built and -occupied fort during the War of 1812. It was rebuilt for the public during the 1960s and is open during the summer months. Other key historical locations nearby include: Brock's Monument, the Laura Secord Monument and the battlefield sites of Battle of Queenston Heights, Battle of Lundy's Lane and Battle of Chippawa.", "The region's moderate year-round climate, in addition to its close proximity to the United States for easy road and air access to the southern U.S., makes it a popular retirement destination. In fact, the Niagara Peninsula has both the highest density and growth rate of seniors for any region within Ontario. The highest percentage of seniors to the total population is located within the city of Port Colborne. During the early 1990s a major telecommunications highway between metropolitan Toronto and the U.S. was upgraded to become one of North America's fastest fiber backbones. It passes through the heart of the Niagara Peninsula and enters the U.S. at Buffalo, New York. This gave Niagara the advantage of having direct access to the backbone and attracting many new professional call centers. Compared with the cities of Toronto, Hamilton and most Ontario municipalities with populations similar in size to the whole of the Niagara Peninsula, the average cost of living is very reasonable. The cost of housing, both owned and rented, is lower. The three major cities, St. Catharines, Niagara Falls and Welland are mostly urban with most needed services available locally. The remainder of the peninsula, especially to the far west and south, is either partially urban or almost entirely rural. Centres of higher education are Brock University and Niagara College, both offering undergraduate and post-graduate studies in many disciplines.", "The major roadway bisecting the peninsula is the Queen Elizabeth Way (QEW). This freeway connects Toronto and Buffalo, New York, in the United States. It is one of the major thoroughfares for the North American trucking industry and is responsible for supporting the carriage of nearly one third of all goods imported and exported. The second major roadway is Highway 406 which begins at the QEW in west St. Catharines and ends approximately 30 km south in the city of Welland. Another shorter freeway is Highway 405, named the General Isaac Brock Parkway in 2006. It begins at the QEW in Niagara-on-the-Lake, just east of St. Catharines, and ends about 9 km away at Queenston, Ontario, where it connects to an international bridge that crosses into the United States at Lewiston, New York. This is also a major travel zone for the Canada/US trucking industry. All cities and some towns in the peninsula have taxi services while St. Catharines, Niagara Falls and Welland all have a local transit commission. There is also one major airbus company that services Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo airports exclusively. Most cities and some towns also have very limited inter-city bus services operated mostly by Greyhound and Coach Canada. A specialized inter-city regional bus service, owned and operated by the Regional government, began operation in late 2006 but is restricted to those requiring transport to medical appointments throughout the region and have no other means of transportation. (Other restrictions apply.) The region hopes to have a fully integrated region-level transit system by the end of the decade. Niagara Falls, St. Catharines and Grimsby are all connected to the CN railway line. Via Rail offers limited daily commuter and weekend service between these three peninsula municipalities and Toronto and many points between. Via Rail and Amtrak also offer daily southbound service from Toronto to New York City with stops at the same stations.", "Niagara Region also possesses significant maritime shipping infrastructure. The region is home to Port Weller, Port Colborne, the Welland Canal and the largest Canadian Great Lakes port in Hamilton." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background and development.", "Recording.", "Music and lyrics.", "Promotion.", "Singles.", "Critical reception.", "Commercial performance.", "Accolades.", "Legacy.", "Track listing.", "Personnel.", "Certification and sales." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Confessions on a Dance Floor\" merged elements from 1970s disco, 1980s electropop and 2000s club music. Madonna decided to incorporate elements of disco in her songs while trying not to remake her music from past, instead choosing to pay tribute towards artists like the Bee Gees and Giorgio Moroder. The songs reflected Madonna's thoughts on love, fame and religion, hence the title \"Confessions on a Dance Floor\". It was the complete opposite direction from her previous studio effort \"American Life\" (2003). The songs on that album were a form of diatribe directed at the American society. However, Madonna decided to take a different direction with this album. Regarding the development, Madonna commented: \"When I wrote \"American Life\", I was very agitated by what was going on in the world around me, [...] I was angry. I had a lot to get off my chest. I made a lot of political statements. But now, I feel that I just want to have fun; I want to dance; I want to feel buoyant. And I want to give other people the same feeling. There's a lot of madness in the world around us, and I want people to be happy.\" She started to work with Mirwais Ahmadzaï with whom she had previously developed her eighth album \"Music\" (2000). However, that collaboration did not suit Madonna's musical direction. According to Madonna, \"[Producer] Mirwais is also very political, seriously cerebral and intellectual. All we did was sit around, talking politics all the time. So, that couldn't help but find its way into the music. I think there's an angry aspect to the music that directly reflects my feelings at the time.\" Hence after recording tracks with Mirwais, Madonna decided to stop the project and start fresh. It was then that she turned to Stuart Price who had served as musical director on her two previous concert tours and co-wrote one song on \"American Life\". In 2004, after the release of \"American Life\", Madonna began working on two different musicals: one tentatively called \"Hello Suckers\" and another one with Luc Besson, who previously directed the music video for her single \"Love Profusion\"., which would portray her as a woman on her deathbed looking back on her life. Madonna collaborated with Patrick Leonard, Ahmadzaï and Price to write new songs, the latter being assigned to pen disco songs sounding like \"ABBA on drugs\". However, Madonna found herself dissatisfied with the script written by Besson and scrapped it. Hence Madonna and Price decided to use the compositions for the album instead. According to Madonna, it was easy for her to shift from her previous album's sentiments, since she included those political views in her documentary \"I'm Going to Tell You a Secret\". She elaborated: I was running back and forth, literally, from the editing room with [the documentary's director] Jonas Akerlund to working with Stuart, who was also mixing the music in the film. We were together, non-stop, all of us. Cutting 350 hours of film down to two hours. There are a lot of serious aspects to the movie. I needed a release. When I would go to Stuart's, and we'd go up to his loft, it was like, 'Honey, I want to dance.' I wanted to be happy, silly and buoyant. I wanted to lift myself and others up with this record. So, yes, the new album was a reaction to all the other stuff I was doing, which was very serious in nature. I hope that doesn't imply that I wanted to make a superficial record, because it's not. I want people to smile when they hear this record. I wanted it to put a smile on my face, too.", "The first three songs that were written for the album were \"Hung Up\", \"Sorry\" and \"Future Lovers\" In an interview with \"Billboard\", Madonna commented that the recording process was a give-and-take situation. According to her, Price used to stay up all night working on the songs. This was helped by the fact that he is a DJ and is used to staying awake all night. This gave Madonna the chance to work on other aspects of the compositions. She noted the fact that she and Price had opposite characteristics, which helped in their collaboration. The songs were mainly recorded at Price's home. Madonna said: We did a lot of recording at his house. I'd come by in the morning and Stuart would answer the door in his stocking feet - as he'd been up all night. I'd bring him a cup of coffee and say, 'Stuart, your house is a mess, there's no food in the cupboard.' Then I'd call someone from my house to bring food over for him. And then we'd work all day. We're very much the odd couple. She further elaborated that their camaraderie was also because they had toured together for Madonna's Re-Invention World Tour. Hence Madonna reflected that her relationship with Price was more of a brother-sister kind than the formal collaborations she was accustomed to during the recording process.", "\"Confessions on a Dance Floor\" is primarily a dance, electronica, disco, and deep house record. It is structured like a nightly set composed by a DJ. The music starts light and happy, and as it progresses, it becomes intense, with the lyrics dealing more about personal feelings, hence \"Confessions\". According to Madonna, \"[t]his is the direction of my record. That's what we intended, to make a record that you can play at a party or in your car, where you don't have to skip past a ballad. It's nonstop.\" Madonna used samples and references of music by other disco artists. In the album's first song, \"Hung Up\", she sampled ABBA's 1979 hit \"Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)\", for which she wrote a personal letter to songwriters Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus, who permitted Madonna to use the track. References of other disco-influenced acts, including Pet Shop Boys, Depeche Mode, and Daft Punk, were also used on the album, as were the disco hits of Parisian DJ Cerrone. The album has a song called \"Forbidden Love\", which is different from the same-titled song from Madonna's sixth studio album \"Bedtime Stories\". Regarding sampling herself and her own song names, Madonna commented: \"I did all of that on purpose, [...] I mean, if I'm going to plagiarize somebody, it might as well be me, right? I feel like I've earned the right to rip myself off. 'Talent borrows, genius steals,' [...] \"Let's see how many other clichés I can throw in there. That's exactly it. I was only hinting early on, but then I tell it like it is. It's like, now that I have your attention, I have a few things to tell you.\" A pulsating rhythm is present in the song \"Isaac\", which is regarded as the only song close to a ballad on the album. However, the song was heavily criticized by a group of Israeli rabbis who commented that Madonna was committing a blasphemy with their religion. They said that the song was about sixteenth-century Kabbalah scholar Yitzhak Luria. In reality, the song was named after the featured vocalist Yitzhak Sinwani, who sang portions of the Yemenite Hebrew poem \"Im Nin'alu\" in the track, as well as references to the Biblical story of Abraham and Isaac. Initially, Madonna toyed with the idea of calling the song as \"Fear of Flying\" since the idea behind the composition was to let go. However, at the end she decided to just call it \"Isaac\" after the English version of Sinwani's name. Regarding the song's development and the condemnation of the Rabbis, Madonna said: \"You do appreciate the absurdity of a group of rabbis in Israel claiming that I'm being blasphemous about someone when they haven't heard the record, right? And then, everyone in the media runs with it as if it's the truth. And that's a little weird. But what's even weirder is that the song is not about Isaac Lurier, as the rabbis claim. It's named after Yitzhak Sinwani, who's singing in Yemenite on the track. I couldn't think of a title for the song. So I called it \"Isaac\" [the English translation of \"Yitzhak\"]. It's interesting how their minds work, those naughty rabbis. [...] He's saying, \"If all of the doors of all of the generous peoples' homes are closed to you, the gates of heaven will always be open.\" The words are about 1,000 years old. [...] [Yitzhak] is an old friend of mine. He's never made a record. He comes from generations of beautiful singers. Stuart and I asked him to come into the studio one day. We said, \"We're just going to record you. We don't know what we're going to do with it.\" He's flawless. One take, no bad notes. He doesn't even need a microphone. We took one of the songs he did and I said to Stuart, \"Let's sample these bits. We'll create a chorus and then I'll write lyrics around it.\" That's how we constructed it.\" The lyrics of the songs on the album incorporate bits of Madonna's musical history and are written in the form of confessions. \"Hung Up\" contains lyrics from Madonna's 1989 duet with Prince called \"Love Song\", from the \"Like a Prayer\" album. \"How High\" continues the themes of two songs from Madonna's eighth studio album \"Music\", namely \"Nobody's Perfect\" and \"I Deserve It\". The lyrics of \"Push\" thank the person who challenged her to expand her limits and also incorporate elements of The Police's song \"Every Breath You Take\". Other tracks like \"Sorry\" include the title word in ten different languages (several of which are non-idiomatic). In \"I Love New York\" (written at the time of American Life), she praises the city where her career began and replies to negative comments made by George W. Bush. Elsewhere, Madonna sings about success and fame (\"Let It Will Be\") and the crossroads of past, present and future (\"Like It or Not\").", "On November 4, 2005, Madonna opened the 2005 MTV Europe Music Awards with her first performance of \"Hung Up\". She emerged from a glitter ball to perform the song, while wearing a purple leotard and matching leather boots. During the next days, Madonna performed \"Hung Up\" on TV shows such as \"Wetten, dass..?\" in Germany, and \"Star Academy\" in France, as well as on the Children in Need 2005 telethon in London. In order to promote the album's release, Madonna appeared on \"Parkinson\". She played a number of songs from the album at London's Koko Club and G-A-Y as well as in United States, Japan, Germany and France, as part of a promo tour to support the album. The performances saw Madonna emerge from a glitter ball while wearing a purple jacket, velvet pedal pushers and knee-high boots. Songs performed included \"Hung Up\", \"Get Together\", \"Sorry\", \"I Love New York\", \"Ray of Light\", \"Let It Will Be\" and \"Everybody\". In December, Madonna travelled to Japan, where \"Hung Up\" was performed on TV show \"SMAP×SMAP\" and her concert at Studio Coast. On February 8, 2006, Madonna opened the 2006 Grammy Awards, by pairing up with the fictional animated band Gorillaz. The band appeared on the stage via a three dimensional technique which projected their holograms on the stage. They performed their song \"Feel Good Inc.\" while rappers De La Soul made a guest appearance. Madonna then appeared on the stage and started performing the song while interchanging places with the hologram figures of the band. She was later joined by her own group of dancers and the performance was finished on the main stage rather than the virtual screen. Another performance of \"Hung Up\" came on April 30, 2006 during the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in Indio, California. A remix only album titled \"Confessions Remixed\" was also released in limited vinyl editions. In Japan, \"Confessions on a Dance Floor – Japan Tour Special Edition\" (CD+DVD) was released on August 23, 2006. It reached number 27 on the Oricon weekly albums chart and stayed on the chart for 12 weeks. The album received further promotion from the Confessions Tour which began in May 2006. The tour grossed over US $194.7 million, becoming highest grossing tour ever for a female artist, at that time. Additionally, the tour received the \"Most Creative Stage Production\" at the Pollstar Concert Industry Awards, as well as \"Top Boxscore\" from the Billboard Touring Awards.", "\"Hung Up\" was released as the album's lead single on October 17, 2005. The song received critical appreciation amongst reviewers, who suggested that the track would restore the singer's popularity, which had diminished following the release of her 2003 album \"American Life\". Critics claimed that it was her best dance track to date and have compared it to other Madonna tracks in the same genre. They also complimented the effective synchronization of the ABBA sample with Madonna's song. \"Hung Up\" became a worldwide commercial success, peaking atop the charts of 41 countries and earning a place in the \"Guinness Book of World Records\" along with the album. In the United States it became her 36th top ten hit, tying her with Elvis Presley. The corresponding music video was a tribute to John Travolta, his movies and dancing in general. Directed by Johan Renck, the video featured Madonna dancing in a ballet studio in a pink leotard, which she left to go to a gaming parlour to dance with her backup dancers. It also featured the physical discipline parkour. \"Sorry\" was released as the second single from the album on February 28, 2006. The song received positive reviews from contemporary critics who declared the track as the strongest song on \"Confessions on a Dance Floor\". It achieved commercial success, topping the singles charts in Italy, Spain, Romania and the United Kingdom, where it became Madonna's 12th number one single. Elsewhere, the song was a top ten hit in more than a dozen countries around the world. However, in the United States, the song was less commercially successful due to underplay on radio, but managed to reach the top of \"Billboard\"s dance charts. \"Get Together\" was released as the third single from the album by Warner Bros. Records on June 6, 2006. The decision was spurred by the fact that \"Get Together\" was the third most downloaded song from the album. It was also released to coincide with the start of Madonna's Confessions Tour. Critics complimented Madonna's ability to turn cliché comments into pop slogans with the song. The song became a success on the United States dance charts, but failed to enter the Hot 100. It reached the top ten in countries such as Australia, Canada, United Kingdom and Italy, and peaked at number one in Spain. \"Jump\" was released as fourth and the final single from the album on October 31, 2006. Critics complimented the song and its empowerment theme. The song peaked inside the top ten of the charts in some European countries, while reaching the peak position in Italy and Hungary. In the United States, \"Jump\" charted in several \"Billboard\" dance charts but failed to chart on the Hot 100.", "\"Confessions on a Dance Floor\" received generally favorable reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 80, based on 28 reviews. Keith Caulfield from \"Billboard\" commented that \"Confessions\" is a \"welcome return to form for the Queen of Pop.\" Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic commented that \"Confessions\" is the first album where Madonna sounds like a veteran musician since she created the record for \"the dance clubs or, in other words, Madonna's core audience.\" Alan Braidwood from the BBC commented that \"[t]his is the most commercial album Madonna has made in 15 years and it's magic.\" David Browne from \"Entertainment Weekly\" noted that for \"all its pretenses of being giddy and spontaneous, though, \"Confessions\" is rarely either.\" Alexis Petridis from \"The Guardian\" said that the album \"may be a return to core values, but there's still a bravery about \"Confessions on a Dancefloor\". It revels in the delights of wilfully plastic dance pop in an era when lesser dance-pop artists – from Rachel Stevens to Price's protege Juliet – are having a desperately thin time of it.\" Peter Robinson from Observer Music Monthly declared that the album ranks alongside Madonna's other albums like \"True Blue\" (1986) and \"Like a Prayer\" (1989). He credited producer Stuart Price for the album, noting that \"\"Confessions\" clearly wouldn't exist without Madonna, but it's Price who steals the show.\" Stephen M. Deusner from \"Pitchfork\" noted that with the album \"Madonna again reinvents herself, and it appears she's nearly lapped herself.\" According to Deusner, the music also makes her appear young. However he felt that the first half of the album till \"I Love New York\" was strong, while the second half \"loses its delicate balance between pop frivolity and spiritual gravity.\" Thomas Inskeep from Stylus Magazine stated that the album is \"Madonna's most purely beat-driven album since her self-titled 1983 debut\" and \"easily her finest effort since \"Ray of Light\".\" Kelefa Sanneh from \"The New York Times\" called the album \"exuberant.\" Christian John Wikane from \"PopMatters\" commented that the album \"proved that Madonna, approaching 50 years-old, is a vital force in the ever-expansive landscape of popular music.\" Joan Morgan from \"The Village Voice\" noted that \"[w]ith \"Confessions on a Dance Floor\", Madonna at long last finds her musical footing. Easily dance record of the year, Confessions is an almost seamless tribute to the strobe-lit sensuality of the '80s New York club scene that gave Madge her roots, which she explores with compelling aplomb.\" Josh Tyrangiel from \"Time\" magazine commented that \"In dance music, words exist to be repeated, twisted, obscured and resurrected. How they sound in the moment is far more important than what they mean, and Madonna knows that better than anyone. \"Confessions on a Dance Floor\" is 56 minutes of energetic moments. It will leave you feeling silly for all the right reasons.\" Sal Cinquemani from \"Slant Magazine\" was impressed with the album and said that \"Madonna, with the help of Price, [...] has succeeded at creating a dance-pop odyssey with an emotional, if not necessarily narrative, arc — and one big continuously-mixed F you to the art-dismantling iPod Shuffle in the process.\" He compared the album to Australian recording artist Kylie Minogue's studio album \"Light Years\" (2000), saying \"Comparisons to \"Light Years\", Kylie Minogue's own discofied comeback album from 2000, are inevitable\". Alan Light from \"Rolling Stone\" declared that the album illustrated that \"Madonna has never lost her faith in the power of the beat.\" However, he opined that \"\"Confessions on a Dance Floor\" won't stand the test of time like her glorious early club hits, but it proves its point. Like Rakim back in the day, Madonna can still move the crowd.\"", "Despite being released late in the year, \"Confessions on a Dance Floor\" was ranked by the IFPI as the sixth biggest-selling album of 2005 worldwide, with sales of 6.3 million. Worldwide sales of the album stand at 10 million copies. In the United States, the album debuted at number one on the \"Billboard\" 200 chart, selling 350,000 copies in its first week. It became her sixth number one album on the chart and the third consecutive album to debut at the top, following \"Music\" (2000) and \"American Life\" (2003). On December 14, 2005, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of one million copies. As of December 2016, the album has sold over 1.734 million copies in America, according to Nielsen SoundScan. The album also debuted at the top of the charts in Canada, with first-week sales of 74,000. It was present on the chart for a total of 46 weeks and received a quintuple platinum certification from Music Canada (MC) for total shipment of 500,000 copies in the country. In Australia, \"Confessions on a Dance Floor\" debuted at the top of the ARIA Albums Chart for the issue dated November 21, 2005, and was present for a total of 33 weeks within the top 50 of the chart. It was certified two times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) denoting shipments of 140,000 copies. It debuted at number five on the New Zealand albums chart, and was certified platinum by Recorded Music NZ (RMNZ) for shipment of 15,000 copies. The same peak position was attained on the Oricon charts in Japan, where the album was certified double platinum for shipment of 500,000 copies by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ). In the United Kingdom, \"Confessions on a Dance Floor\" debuted at the top of the UK Albums Chart with first week sales of 217,610 units, her highest ever in the country. It became Madonna's ninth number-one album, and has sold 1,340,000 copies as of November 2015, according to the Official Charts Company, while being certified quadruple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). That same week, the first single from the album, \"Hung Up\", topped the singles chart. The album became the fifth consecutive Madonna album to top the chart. The album also topped the European Top 100 Albums chart for four weeks and was certified quadruple platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) for shipping a total of four million copies across Europe. In Ireland, the album debuted and peaked at number three. In France, the album debuted at position 113 on the albums chart, jumping to the top of the chart the next week. In Hong Kong, the album was awarded a Gold Disc Award by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry for becoming one of ten biggest-selling international album for 2005. Across Europe, the album peaked at number one in Austria, Belgium (Flanders and Wallonia), Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Norway, Poland, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland.", "Madonna won the Best International Female Solo Artist at the 2006 BRIT Awards. She also won World's Best Selling Pop Artist and Best Selling U.S. Artist at the 2006 World Music Awards for the album. She was nominated for five awards at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards for the music video of the album's first single, \"Hung Up\". Madonna also got nominated for Best Album of the Year, Best Pop Video, and Best Female Artist at the MTV Europe Music Awards 2006. She also won a Grammy Award in the category of \"Best Dance/Electronic Album\" at the 2007 ceremony. \"Rolling Stone\" ranked \"Confessions on a Dance Floor\" as the twenty-second top album of 2005. \"NME\" also placed it at number 29 on the magazine's list of the 50 best albums of 2005. Sal Cinquemani of \"Slant Magazine\" ranked the album at the third position on his list of the top ten albums of 2005. The same magazine considered the album the 38th best one from the 2000s. Three critics writing for Stylus Magazine also included \"Confessions on a Dance Floor\" in their year-end lists of the best albums of 2005. Q Magazine named the record the 26th best one of 2005. On their ranking of the best albums from 2005, \"The Observer\" listed the album at number 26. By the end of the 2000s, \"Slant Magazine\" placed the album at number 38 on their list of \"The 100 Best Albums of the Aughts\". In 2015, \"Confessions on a Dance Floor\" was ranked third on \"The 99 Greatest Dance Albums of All Time\" by \"Vice\" magazine.", "Mike Nied from Idolator praised \"Confessions on a Dance Floor\" as one of the most influential pop albums of the decade and dubbed Madonna as a \"timeless trendsetter\" and \"creative genius\". According to Michael Arceneaux from NBC News, it is \"arguably her last great, impactful album; it's the last time she still felt truly forward-thinking, even if it looked back sonically.\" Christopher Rosa from VH1 called it her \"best album to date\" and explained that is a \"near-perfect pop record\" and \"her most natural reinvention\". It was ranked as the third best dance album of all-time by \"Vice\" magazine—the highest peak by a female performer. The magazine staff commented: \"This is the album all her subsequent albums is compared to; for its enduring relevance and how it redefined Madonna as an artist, it should be\". Author Sancho Xavi from \"El País\" noted that the album started the during the 21st century and popularized the revivals concept of others musical genres during the first decade. Justin Myers from the UK Official Charts Company commented: \"An 'imperial phase' is when a pop star is at the pinnacle of their career, shifting stacks of records, having big hits, selling out arenas, owning the radio and being generally unavoidable and untouchable. Many pop acts barely manage one. Thanks to this album, Madonna claimed her third. How many popstars can honestly say that?\" Calling her the \"Mother of Reinvention\", Jim Schembri from \"The Age\" wrote a detailed article of Madonna's impact with \"Confessions on a Dance Floor\": [The album] went straight to No. 1 everywhere except Mars. So too did the first single, \"Hung Up\", the video for which is on every time you turn on the TV. [Madonna] has reclaimed her place in the pop firmament with unrivaled ferocity. And she is a sterling example of pop survival. In a firmament that eats up artists like popcorn and where chart success is as fleeting as Jessica Simpson's attention span, Madonna remains an inspiring, intimidating beacon of permanence. Her longevity has thrived on her ability to continually reinvent herself by reading the winds of pop culture and taking her cue from there. With the \"Confessions on a Dance Floor\" era, Madonna broke several world records and the album resuscitated her music sales and popularity, after the critical and commercial disappointment of \"American Life\". According to \"The Jerusalem Post\", the album sold 4 million copies worldwide during the first week of release. Madonna became the best-selling female artist in the European market and the fifth best-selling artist overall, with a quadruple platinum award by the IFPI. In the United Kingdom, \"Confessions on a Dance Floor\" became one of the fastest selling albums ever, with first week sales of 217,610 copies according to the Official UK Charts Company. Also, Madonna earned a place in the \"Guinness Book of World Records\" as the \"oldest artist to simultaneously top the UK singles and album charts\". With estimated sales of over 10 million copies worldwide, \"Confessions on a Dance Floor\" is considered to be one of the best-selling albums of the 21st century. English singer Dua Lipa's 2019 album, \"Future Nostalgia\", also produced by Price, was influenced by \"Confessions on a Dance Floor\".", "Sample credit", "Credits adapted from the album's liner notes.", "!scope=\"row\"|Chile (IFPI Chile) !scope=\"row\"|Worldwide" ] }

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{ "title": [ "In a specific context.", "In ordinary mathematics.", "In set theory.", "In predicate calculus.", "In category theory.", "In type theory." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Perhaps the simplest version is that \"any\" set can be a universe, so long as the object of study is confined to that particular set. If the object of study is formed by the real numbers, then the real line R, which is the real number set, could be the universe under consideration. Implicitly, this is the universe that Georg Cantor was using when he first developed modern naive set theory and cardinality in the 1870s and 1880s in applications to real analysis. The only sets that Cantor was originally interested in were subsets of R. This concept of a universe is reflected in the use of Venn diagrams. In a Venn diagram, the action traditionally takes place inside a large rectangle that represents the universe \"U\". One generally says that sets are represented by circles; but these sets can only be subsets of \"U\". The complement of a set \"A\" is then given by that portion of the rectangle outside of \"A\"'s circle. Strictly speaking, this is the relative complement \"U\" \\ \"A\" of \"A\" relative to \"U\"; but in a context where \"U\" is the universe, it can be regarded as the absolute complement \"A\" of \"A\". Similarly, there is a notion of the nullary intersection, that is the intersection of zero sets (meaning no sets, not null sets). Without a universe, the nullary intersection would be the set of absolutely everything, which is generally regarded as impossible; but with the universe in mind, the nullary intersection can be treated as the set of everything under consideration, which is simply \"U\". These conventions are quite useful in the algebraic approach to basic set theory, based on Boolean lattices. Except in some non-standard forms of axiomatic set theory (such as New Foundations), the class of all sets is not a Boolean lattice (it is only a relatively complemented lattice). In contrast, the class of all subsets of \"U\", called the power set of \"U\", is a Boolean lattice. The absolute complement described above is the complement operation in the Boolean lattice; and \"U\", as the nullary intersection, serves as the top element (or nullary meet) in the Boolean lattice. Then De Morgan's laws, which deal with complements of meets and joins (which are unions in set theory) apply, and apply even to the nullary meet and the nullary join (which is the empty set).", "However, once subsets of a given set \"X\" (in Cantor's case, \"X\" = R) are considered, the universe may need to be a set of subsets of \"X\". (For example, a topology on \"X\" is a set of subsets of \"X\".) The various sets of subsets of \"X\" will not themselves be subsets of \"X\" but will instead be subsets of PX\", the power set of \"X\". This may be continued; the object of study may next consist of such sets of subsets of \"X\", and so on, in which case the universe will be P(PX\"). In another direction, the binary relations on \"X\" (subsets of the Cartesian product may be considered, or functions from \"X\" to itself, requiring universes like or \"X\". Thus, even if the primary interest is \"X\", the universe may need to be considerably larger than \"X\". Following the above ideas, one may want the superstructure over \"X\" as the universe. This can be defined by structural recursion as follows: Then the superstructure over \"X\", written S\"X\", is the union of S\"X\", S\"X\", S\"X\", and so on; or No matter what set \"X\" is the starting point, the empty set {} will belong to S\"X\". The empty set is the von Neumann ordinal [0]. Then {[0]}, the set whose only element is the empty set, will belong to S\"X\"; this is the von Neumann ordinal [1]. Similarly, {[1]} will belong to S\"X\", and thus so will {[0],[1]}, as the union of {[0]} and {[1]}; this is the von Neumann ordinal [2]. Continuing this process, every natural number is represented in the superstructure by its von Neumann ordinal. Next, if \"x\" and \"y\" belong to the superstructure, then so does, which represents the ordered pair (\"x\",\"y\"). Thus the superstructure will contain the various desired Cartesian products. Then the superstructure also contains functions and relations, since these may be represented as subsets of Cartesian products. The process also gives ordered \"n\"-tuples, represented as functions whose domain is the von Neumann ordinal [\"n\"], and so on. So if the starting point is just \"X\" = {}, a great deal of the sets needed for mathematics appear as elements of the superstructure over {}. But each of the elements of S{} will be a finite set. Each of the natural numbers belongs to it, but the set N of \"all\" natural numbers does not (although it is a \"subset\" of S{}). In fact, the superstructure over {} consists of all of the hereditarily finite sets. As such, it can be considered the \"universe of finitist mathematics\". Speaking anachronistically, one could suggest that the 19th-century finitist Leopold Kronecker was working in this universe; he believed that each natural number existed but that the set N (a \"completed infinity\") did not. However, S{} is unsatisfactory for ordinary mathematicians (who are not finitists), because even though N may be available as a subset of S{}, still the power set of N is not. In particular, arbitrary sets of real numbers are not available. So it may be necessary to start the process all over again and form S(S{}). However, to keep things simple, one can take the set N of natural numbers as given and form SN, the superstructure over N. This is often considered the \"universe of ordinary mathematics\". The idea is that all of the mathematics that is ordinarily studied refers to elements of this universe. For example, any of the usual constructions of the real numbers (say by Dedekind cuts) belongs to SN. Even non-standard analysis can be done in the superstructure over a non-standard model of the natural numbers. There is a slight shift in philosophy from the previous section, where the universe was any set \"U\" of interest. There, the sets being studied were \"subset\"s of the universe; now, they are \"members\" of the universe. Thus although P(SX\") is a Boolean lattice, what is relevant is that SX\" itself is not. Consequently, it is rare to apply the notions of Boolean lattices and Venn diagrams directly to the superstructure universe as they were to the power-set universes of the previous section. Instead, one can work with the individual Boolean lattices PA\", where \"A\" is any relevant set belonging to SX\"; then PA\" is a subset of SX\" (and in fact belongs to S\"X\"). In Cantor's case \"X\" = R in particular, arbitrary sets of real numbers are not available, so there it may indeed be necessary to start the process all over again.", "It is possible to give a precise meaning to the claim that SN is the universe of ordinary mathematics; it is a model of Zermelo set theory, the axiomatic set theory originally developed by Ernst Zermelo in 1908. Zermelo set theory was successful precisely because it was capable of axiomatising \"ordinary\" mathematics, fulfilling the programme begun by Cantor over 30 years earlier. But Zermelo set theory proved insufficient for the further development of axiomatic set theory and other work in the foundations of mathematics, especially model theory. For a dramatic example, the description of the superstructure process above cannot itself be carried out in Zermelo set theory. The final step, forming S as an infinitary union, requires the axiom of replacement, which was added to Zermelo set theory in 1922 to form Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, the set of axioms most widely accepted today. So while ordinary mathematics may be done \"in\" SN, discussion \"of\" SN goes beyond the \"ordinary\", into metamathematics. But if high-powered set theory is brought in, the superstructure process above reveals itself to be merely the beginning of a transfinite recursion. Going back to \"X\" = {}, the empty set, and introducing the (standard) notation \"V\" for S{}, \"V\" = {}, \"V\" = P{}, and so on as before. But what used to be called \"superstructure\" is now just the next item on the list: \"V\", where ω is the first infinite ordinal number. This can be extended to arbitrary ordinal numbers: Every individual \"V\" is a set, but their union \"V\" is a proper class. The axiom of foundation, which was added to ZF set theory at around the same time as the axiom of replacement, says that \"every\" set belongs to \"V\".", "In an interpretation of first-order logic, the universe (or domain of discourse) is the set of individuals (individual constants) over which the quantifiers range. A proposition such as is ambiguous, if no domain of discourse has been identified. In one interpretation, the domain of discourse could be the set of real numbers; in another interpretation, it could be the set of natural numbers. If the domain of discourse is the set of real numbers, the proposition is false, with as counterexample; if the domain is the set of naturals, the proposition is true, since 2 is not the square of any natural number.", "There is another approach to universes which is historically connected with category theory. This is the idea of a Grothendieck universe. Roughly speaking, a Grothendieck universe is a set inside which all the usual operations of set theory can be performed. This version of a universe is defined to be any set for which the following axioms hold: The advantage of a Grothendieck universe is that it is actually a \"set\", and never a proper class. The disadvantage is that if one tries hard enough, one can leave a Grothendieck universe. The most common use of a Grothendieck universe \"U\" is to take \"U\" as a replacement for the category of all sets. One says that a set \"S\" is U-small if \"S\" ∈\"U\", and U-large otherwise. The category \"U\"-Set of all \"U\"-small sets has as objects all \"U\"-small sets and as morphisms all functions between these sets. Both the object set and the morphism set are sets, so it becomes possible to discuss the category of \"all\" sets without invoking proper classes. Then it becomes possible to define other categories in terms of this new category. For example, the category of all \"U\"-small categories is the category of all categories whose object set and whose morphism set are in \"U\". Then the usual arguments of set theory are applicable to the category of all categories, and one does not have to worry about accidentally talking about proper classes. Because Grothendieck universes are extremely large, this suffices in almost all applications. Often when working with Grothendieck universes, mathematicians assume the Axiom of Universes: \"For any set \"x\", there exists a universe \"U\" such that \"x\" ∈\"U\".\" The point of this axiom is that any set one encounters is then \"U\"-small for some \"U\", so any argument done in a general Grothendieck universe can be applied. This axiom is closely related to the existence of strongly inaccessible cardinals.", "In some type theories, especially in systems with dependent types, types themselves can be regarded as terms. There is a type called the universe (often denoted formula_17) which has types as its elements. To avoid paradoxes such as Girard's paradox (an analogue of Russell's paradox for type theory), type theories are often equipped with a countably infinite hierarchy of such universes, with each universe being a term of the next one. There are at least two kinds of universes that one can consider in type theory: Russell-style universes (named after Bertrand Russell) and Tarski-style universes (named after Alfred Tarski). A Russell-style universe is a type whose terms are types. A Tarski-style universe is a type together with an interpretation operation allowing us to regard its terms as types." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Classification of spore-producing organisms.", "Plants.", "Fungi.", "Classification of spores.", "By spore-producing structure.", "Fungi.", "By mobility.", "External anatomy.", "Spore tetrads and trilete spores.", "Dispersal." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The term \"spore\" derives from the ancient Greek word σπορά \"spora\", meaning \"seed, sowing\", related to σπόρος \"sporos\", \"sowing\", and σπείρειν \"speirein\", \"to sow\". In common parlance, the difference between a \"spore\" and a \"gamete\" is that a spore will germinate and develop into a sporeling, while a gamete needs to combine with another gamete to form a zygote before developing further. The main difference between spores and seeds as dispersal units is that spores are unicellular, the first cell of a gametophyte, while seeds contain within them a developing embryo (the multicellular sporophyte of the next generation), produced by the fusion of the male gamete of the pollen tube with the female gamete formed by the megagametophyte within the ovule. Spores germinate to give rise to haploid gametophytes, while seeds germinate to give rise to diploid sporophytes.", "", "Vascular plant spores are always haploid. Vascular plants are either homosporous (or isosporous) or heterosporous. Plants that are homosporous produce spores of the same size and type. Heterosporous plants, such as seed plants, spikemosses, quillworts, and ferns of the order Salviniales produce spores of two different sizes: the larger spore (megaspore) in effect functioning as a \"female\" spore and the smaller (microspore) functioning as a \"male\". Such plants typically give rise to the two kind of spores from within separate sporangia, either a megasporangium that produces megaspores or a microsporangium that produces microspores. In flowering plants, these sporangia occur within the carpel and anthers, respectively.", "Fungi commonly produce spores, as a result of sexual, or asexual, reproduction. Spores are usually haploid and grow into mature haploid individuals through mitotic division of cells (Urediniospores and Teliospores among rusts are dikaryotic). Dikaryotic cells result from the fusion of two haploid gamete cells. Among sporogenic dikaryotic cells, karyogamy (the fusion of the two haploid nuclei) occurs to produce a diploid cell. Diploid cells undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores.", "Spores can be classified in several ways:", "", "In fungi and fungus-like organisms, spores are often classified by the structure in which meiosis and spore production occurs. Since fungi are often classified according to their spore-producing structures, these spores are often characteristic of a particular taxon of the fungi.", "Spores can be differentiated by whether they can move or not.", "Under high magnification, spores often have complex patterns or ornamentation on their exterior surfaces. A specialized terminology has been developed to describe features of such patterns. Some markings represent apertures, places where the tough outer coat of the spore can be penetrated when germination occurs. Spores can be categorized based on the position and number of these markings and apertures. Alete spores show no lines. In monolete spores, there is a single narrow line (laesura) on the spore. This indicates the mother spore split into four along a vertical axis. In trilete spores, each spore shows three narrow lines radiating from a center pole. This shows that four spores shared a common origin and were initially in contact with each other forming a tetrahedron. A wider aperture in the shape of a groove may be termed a colpus. The number of colpi distinguishes major groups of plants. Eudicots have tricolpate spores (i.e. spores with three colpi).", "Envelope-enclosed spore tetrads are taken as the earliest evidence of plant life on land, dating from the mid-Ordovician (early Llanvirn, ~), a period from which no macrofossils have yet been recovered. Individual trilete spores resembling those of modern cryptogamic plants first appeared in the fossil record at the end of the Ordovician period.", "In fungi, both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores of many fungal species are actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as travelling through the air over long distances. Many fungi thereby possess specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms as well as spore-surface structures, such as hydrophobins, for spore ejection. These mechanisms include, for example, forcible discharge of ascospores enabled by the structure of the ascus and accumulation of osmolytes in the fluids of the ascus that lead to explosive discharge of the ascospores into the air. The forcible discharge of single spores termed \"ballistospores\" involves formation of a small drop of water (Buller's drop), which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000 g. Other fungi rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release, such as external mechanical forces, exemplified by puffballs. Attracting insects, such as flies, to fruiting structures, by virtue of their having lively colours and a putrid odour, for dispersal of fungal spores is yet another strategy, most prominently used by the stinkhorns. In Common Smoothcap moss (\"Atrichum undulatum\"), the vibration of sporophyte has been shown to be an important mechanism for spore release. In the case of spore-shedding vascular plants such as ferns, wind distribution of very light spores provides great capacity for dispersal. Also, spores are less subject to animal predation than seeds because they contain almost no food reserve; however they are more subject to fungal and bacterial predation. Their chief advantage is that, of all forms of progeny, spores require the least energy and materials to produce. In the spikemoss \"Selaginella lepidophylla\", dispersal is achieved in part by an unusual type of diaspore, a tumbleweed." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Rebellion.", "Constitution.", "Population.", "Transportation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Like Upper Canada, there was significant political unrest. Twenty-two years after the invasion by the Americans in the War of 1812, a rebellion now challenged the British rule of the predominantly French population. After the Patriote Rebellion in the Rebellions of 1837–1838 were crushed by the British Army and Loyal volunteers, the 1791 Constitution was suspended on 27 March 1838 and a special council was appointed to administer the colony. An abortive attempt by revolutionary Robert Nelson to declare a Republic of Lower Canada was quickly thwarted. The provinces of Lower Canada and Upper Canada were combined as the United Province of Canada in 1841, when the \"Act of Union 1840\" came into force. Their separate legislatures were combined into a single parliament with equal representation for both constituent parts, even though Lower Canada had a greater population.", "The Province of Lower Canada inherited the mixed set of French and English institutions that existed in the Province of Quebec during the 1763–1791 period and which continued to exist later in Canada-East (1841–1867) and ultimately in the current Province of Quebec (since 1867).", "Lower Canada was populated mainly by Canadiens, an ethnic group who trace their ancestry to French colonists who settled in Canada from the 17th century onward.", "Travelling around Lower Canada was mainly by water along the St. Lawrence River. On land the only long-distance route was the Chemin du Roy or King's Highway, built in the 1730s by New France. The King's Highway was, in addition to the mail route, the primary means of long-distance passenger travel until steamboats (1815) and railways (1850s) began to challenge the royal road. The royal road's importance waned after the 1850s and would not re-emerge as a key means of transportation until the modern highway system of Quebec was created in the 20th century." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Formal notation.", "Substitution form.", "Set theory and Boolean algebra.", "Infinite unions and intersections.", "Engineering.", "Text searching.", "History.", "Informal proof.", "Negation of a disjunction.", "Negation of a conjunction.", "Formal proof.", "Part 1.", "Part 2.", "Conclusion.", "Generalising De Morgan duality.", "Extension to predicate and modal logic." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The \"negation of conjunction\" rule may be written in sequent notation: and The \"negation of disjunction\" rule may be written as: and In rule form: \"negation of conjunction\" and \"negation of disjunction\" and expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic: where formula_17 and formula_18 are propositions expressed in some formal system.", "De Morgan's laws are normally shown in the compact form above, with negation of the output on the left and negation of the inputs on the right. A clearer form for substitution can be stated as: This emphasizes the need to invert both the inputs and the output, as well as change the operator, when doing a substitution.", "In set theory and Boolean algebra, it is often stated as \"union and intersection interchange under complementation\", which can be formally expressed as: where:", "The generalized form is where is some, possibly uncountable, indexing set. In set notation, De Morgan's laws can be remembered using the mnemonic \"break the line, change the sign\".", "In electrical and computer engineering, De Morgan's laws are commonly written as: and where:", "De Morgan’s laws commonly apply to text searching using Boolean operators AND, OR, and NOT. Consider a set of documents containing the words “cars” and “trucks”. De Morgan’s laws hold that these two searches will return the same set of documents: The corpus of documents containing “cars” or “trucks” can be represented by four documents: To evaluate Search A, clearly the search “(cars OR trucks)” will hit on Documents 1, 2, and 3. So the negation of that search (which is Search A) will hit everything else, which is Document 4. Evaluating Search B, the search “(NOT cars)” will hit on documents that do not contain “cars”, which is Documents 2 and 4. Similarly the search “(NOT trucks)” will hit on Documents 1 and 4. Applying the AND operator to these two searches (which is Search B) will hit on the documents that are common to these two searches, which is Document 4. A similar evaluation can be applied to show that the following two searches will return the same set of documents (Documents 1, 2, 4):", "The laws are named after Augustus De Morgan (1806–1871), who introduced a formal version of the laws to classical propositional logic. De Morgan's formulation was influenced by algebraization of logic undertaken by George Boole, which later cemented De Morgan's claim to the find. Nevertheless, a similar observation was made by Aristotle, and was known to Greek and Medieval logicians. For example, in the 14th century, William of Ockham wrote down the words that would result by reading the laws out. Jean Buridan, in his \"Summulae de Dialectica\", also describes rules of conversion that follow the lines of De Morgan's laws. Still, De Morgan is given credit for stating the laws in the terms of modern formal logic, and incorporating them into the language of logic. De Morgan's laws can be proved easily, and may even seem trivial. Nonetheless, these laws are helpful in making valid inferences in proofs and deductive arguments.", "De Morgan's theorem may be applied to the negation of a disjunction or the negation of a conjunction in all or part of a formula.", "In the case of its application to a disjunction, consider the following claim: \"it is false that either of A or B is true\", which is written as: In that it has been established that \"neither\" A nor B is true, then it must follow that both A is not true and B is not true, which may be written directly as: If either A or B \"were\" true, then the disjunction of A and B would be true, making its negation false. Presented in English, this follows the logic that \"since two things are both false, it is also false that either of them is true\". Working in the opposite direction, the second expression asserts that A is false and B is false (or equivalently that \"not A\" and \"not B\" are true). Knowing this, a disjunction of A and B must be false also. The negation of said disjunction must thus be true, and the result is identical to the first claim.", "The application of De Morgan's theorem to a conjunction is very similar to its application to a disjunction both in form and rationale. Consider the following claim: \"it is false that A and B are both true\", which is written as: In order for this claim to be true, either or both of A or B must be false, for if they both were true, then the conjunction of A and B would be true, making its negation false. Thus, one (at least) or more of A and B must be false (or equivalently, one or more of \"not A\" and \"not B\" must be true). This may be written directly as, Presented in English, this follows the logic that \"since it is false that two things are both true, at least one of them must be false\". Working in the opposite direction again, the second expression asserts that at least one of \"not A\" and \"not B\" must be true, or equivalently that at least one of A and B must be false. Since at least one of them must be false, then their conjunction would likewise be false. Negating said conjunction thus results in a true expression, and this expression is identical to the first claim.", "Here we use formula_30to denote the complement of A. The proof that formula_31 is completed in 2 steps by proving both formula_32 and formula_33.", "Let formula_34. Then, formula_35. Because formula_36, it must be the case that formula_37 or formula_38. If formula_37, then formula_40, so formula_41. Similarly, if formula_38, then formula_43, so formula_44. Thus, formula_45; that is, formula_32.", "To prove the reverse direction, let formula_41, and for contradiction assume formula_48. Under that assumption, it must be the case that formula_49, so it follows that formula_50 and formula_51, and thus formula_52 and formula_53. However, that means formula_54, in contradiction to the hypothesis that formula_41, therefore, the assumption formula_48 must not be the case, meaning that formula_57. Hence, formula_58, that is, formula_33.", "If formula_33 \"and\" formula_61, then formula_31; this concludes the proof of De Morgan's law. The other De Morgan's law, formula_63, is proven similarly.", "In extensions of classical propositional logic, the duality still holds (that is, to any logical operator one can always find its dual), since in the presence of the identities governing negation, one may always introduce an operator that is the De Morgan dual of another. This leads to an important property of logics based on classical logic, namely the existence of negation normal forms: any formula is equivalent to another formula where negations only occur applied to the non-logical atoms of the formula. The existence of negation normal forms drives many applications, for example in digital circuit design, where it is used to manipulate the types of logic gates, and in formal logic, where it is needed to find the conjunctive normal form and disjunctive normal form of a formula. Computer programmers use them to simplify or properly negate complicated logical conditions. They are also often useful in computations in elementary probability theory. Let one define the dual of any propositional operator P(\"p\", \"q\",...) depending on elementary propositions \"p\", \"q\",... to be the operator formula_64 defined by", "This duality can be generalised to quantifiers, so for example the universal quantifier and existential quantifier are duals: To relate these quantifier dualities to the De Morgan laws, set up a model with some small number of elements in its domain \"D\", such as Then and But, using De Morgan's laws, and verifying the quantifier dualities in the model. Then, the quantifier dualities can be extended further to modal logic, relating the box (\"necessarily\") and diamond (\"possibly\") operators: In its application to the alethic modalities of possibility and necessity, Aristotle observed this case, and in the case of normal modal logic, the relationship of these modal operators to the quantification can be understood by setting up models using Kripke semantics." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology and history.", "Types.", "Banded iron formations.", "Picture jaspers.", "Basanite and other types of touchstone." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The name means \"spotted or speckled stone\", and is derived via Old French \"jaspre\" (variant of Anglo-Norman \"jaspe\") and Latin \"iaspidem\" (nom. \"iaspis\") from Greek ἴασπις \"iaspis\" (feminine noun), from an Afroasiatic language (cf. Hebrew ישפה \"yashpeh\", Akkadian \"yashupu\"). This Semitic etymology is believed to be unrelated to that of the English given name Jasper (of Persian origin). Green jasper was used to make bow drills in Mehrgarh between 4th and 5th millennium BC. Jasper is known to have been a favorite gem in the ancient world; its name can be traced back in Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, Assyrian, Greek and Latin. On Minoan Crete, jasper was carved to produce seals circa 1800 BC, as evidenced by archaeological recoveries at the palace of Knossos. Although the term jasper is now restricted to opaque quartz, the ancient \"iaspis\" was a stone of considerable translucency including nephrite. The jasper of antiquity was in many cases distinctly green, for it is often compared to the emerald and other green objects. Jasper is referred to in the \"Nibelungenlied\" as being clear and green. The jasper of the ancients probably included stones which would now be classed as chalcedony, and the emerald-like jasper may have been akin to the modern chrysoprase. The Hebrew word may have designated a green jasper. Flinders Petrie suggested that the \"odem\", the first stone on the High Priest's breastplate, was a red jasper, whilst \"tarshish\", the tenth stone, may have been a yellow jasper.", "Jasper is an opaque rock of virtually any color stemming from the mineral content of the original sediments or ash. Patterns arise during the consolidation process forming flow and depositional patterns in the original silica rich sediment or volcanic ash. Hydrothermal circulation is generally thought to be required in the formation of jasper. Jasper can be modified by the diffusion of minerals along discontinuities providing the appearance of vegetative growth, i.e., dendritic. The original materials are often fractured and/or distorted, after deposition, into diverse patterns, which are later filled in with other colorful minerals. Weathering, with time, will create intensely colored superficial rinds. The classification and naming of jasper varieties presents a challenge. Terms attributed to various well-defined materials includes the geographic locality where it is found, sometimes quite restricted such as \"Bruneau\" (a canyon) and \"Lahontan\" (a lake), rivers and even individual mountains; many are fanciful, such as \"forest fire\" or \"rainbow\", while others are descriptive, such as \"autumn\" or \"porcelain\". A few are designated by the place of origin such as a brown Egyptian or red African.", "Jasper is the main component in the silica-rich parts of banded iron formations (BIFs) which indicate low, but present, amounts of dissolved oxygen in the water such as during the Great Oxidation Event or snowball earths. The red bands, typically more competent than the hematite layers surrounding it, are made of microcrystalline red chert, also called jasper.", "Picture jaspers exhibit combinations of patterns {such as banding from flow or depositional patterns (from water or wind), dendritic or color variations} resulting in what appear to be scenes or images (on a cut section). Diffusion from a center produces a distinctive orbicular appearance, i.e., leopard skin jasper, or linear banding from a fracture as seen in leisegang jasper. Healed, fragmented rock produces brecciated (broken) jasper. While these \"picture jaspers\" can be found all over the world, specific colors or patterns are unique to the geographic region from which they originate. The primary source of the stone is Indonesia, especially in Purbalingga district.Oregon's Biggs jasper, and Idaho's Bruneau jasper from the Bruneau River canyon are particularly fine examples. Other examples can be seen at Llanddwyn Island in Wales.A remarkable, pale, blue-green jasper, with patterns somewhat resembling those of malachite, occurs in a deposit at Ettutkan Mountain, Staryi Sibay, Bashkortostan, Russia. (The town of Sibay, in the far south of the Ural Mountains, near the border with Kazakhstan, is noted for its colossal, open-cast copper mine).", "Basanite is a deep velvety-black variety of amorphous quartz, of a slightly tougher and finer grain than jasper, and less splintery than hornstone. It was the \"Lydian stone\" or \"touchstone\" of the ancients. It is mentioned and its use described in the writings of Bacchylides about 450 B.C., and was also described by Theophrastus in his book \"On Stones\" (Ancient Greek title: Περὶ λίθων: \"Peri Lithon\"), a century later. It is evident that the touchstone that Pliny had in mind when he wrote about it was merely a dense variety of basalt. Some touchstone is, in reality, a very fine-grained sedimentary stone allied to quartzite, but it may be just as useful for testing purposes. Basanite, \"Lydian stone\", and Radiolarite (a.k.a. Lydite or Flinty slate) are terms used to refer to several types of black, jasper-like rock (also including tuffs, cherts and siltstones) which are dense, fine-grained and flinty / cherty in texture and found in a number of localities. The \"Lydian Stone\" known to the Ancient Greeks is named for the ancient kingdom of Lydia in what is now western Turkey. A similar rock type occurs in New England. Such rock types have long been used for the making of touchstones to test the purity of precious metal alloys, because they are hard enough to scratch such metals, which, if drawn (scraped) across them, show to advantage their metallic streaks of various (diagnostic) colours, against the dark background. As the Mindat.org website points out, there are, confusingly, not one but two rocks called Basanite, one being a black form of jasper and the other a black volcanic rock closely akin to basalt. As if this were not enough, there is also a totally unrelated mineral called bassanite. Add to this the fact that many different rock types have, over the ages, been pressed into service as touchstones and it will be seen that there is ample scope for confusion in this petrology- and mineralogy-related field of study." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Childhood.", "College education and adulthood.", "Law practice and marriage.", "Career before the Revolution.", "Opponent of Stamp Act.", "Counsel for the British: Boston Massacre.", "Becoming a revolutionary.", "Continental Congress.", "Member of Continental Congress.", "Independence.", "Diplomatic service.", "Commissioner to France.", "Ambassador to the Dutch Republic.", "Treaty of Paris.", "Ambassador to Great Britain.", "Vice presidency, 1789–1797.", "Election.", "Tenure.", "Election of 1796.", "Presidency, 1797–1801.", "Inauguration.", "Failed peace commission and XYZ affair.", "Alien and Sedition Acts.", "Quasi-War.", "Fries's Rebellion.", "Federalist divisions and peace.", "Establishing government institutions and move to Washington.", "Election of 1800.", "Judicial appointments.", "Retirement.", "Initial years.", "Correspondence with Jefferson.", "Last years and death.", "Political writings.", "\"Thoughts on Government\".", "Massachusetts Constitution.", "\"Defence of the Constitutions\".", "Political philosophy and views.", "Slavery.", "Accusations of monarchism.", "Religious views.", "Legacy.", "Historical reputation.", "In memoriam." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "John Adams was born on October 30, 1735 (October 19, 1735, Old Style, Julian calendar), to John Adams Sr. and Susanna Boylston. He had two younger brothers, Peter (1738-1823) and Elihu (1741-1775), and a sister, Jerusha (1748-1810). Adams was born on the family farm in Braintree, Massachusetts. His mother was from a leading medical family of present-day Brookline, Massachusetts. His father was a deacon in the Congregational Church, a farmer, a cordwainer, and a lieutenant in the militia. John Sr. served as a selectman (town councilman) and supervised the building of schools and roads. Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship. Adams's great-great-grandfather Henry Adams emigrated to Massachusetts from Braintree, Essex, England, around 1638. Though raised in modest surroundings, Adams felt pressured to live up to his heritage. His was a family of Puritans, who profoundly affected their region's culture,", "At age sixteen, Adams entered Harvard College in 1751, studying under Joseph Mayhew. As an adult, Adams was a keen scholar, studying the works of ancient writers such as Thucydides, Plato, Cicero, and Tacitus in their original languages. Though his father expected him to be a minister, after his 1755 graduation with an A.B. degree, he taught school temporarily in Worcester, while pondering his permanent vocation. In the next four years, he began to seek prestige, craving \"Honour or Reputation\" and \"more from [his] fellows\", and was determined to be \"a great", "In 1756, Adams began reading law under James Putnam, a leading lawyer in Worcester. In 1758, he earned an A.M. from Harvard, and in 1759 was admitted to the bar. He developed an early habit of writing about events and impressions of men in his diary; this included James Otis Jr.'s 1761 legal argument challenging the legality of British writs of assistance, allowing the British to search a home without notice or reason. Otis's argument inspired Adams to the cause of the American colonies. A group of", "", "Adams rose to prominence leading widespread opposition to the Stamp Act of 1765. The Act was imposed by the British Parliament without consulting the American legislatures. It required payment of a direct tax by the colonies for stamped documents, and was designed to pay for the costs of Britain's war with France. Power of enforcement was given to British vice admiralty courts, rather than common law courts. These Admiralty courts acted without juries and were greatly disliked. The Act was despised for both its monetary cost and implementation without colonial consent, and encountered violent resistance, preventing its enforcement. Adams authored the \"Braintree Instructions\" in 1765, in the form of a letter sent to the representatives of Braintree in the Massachusetts legislature. In it, he explained that the Act should be opposed since it denied two fundamental rights guaranteed to all Englishmen (and which all free men deserved): rights to be taxed only by consent and to be tried by a jury of one's peers. The instructions were a succinct and forthright defense", "Britain's passage of the Townshend Acts in 1767 revived tensions, and an increase in mob violence led the British to dispatch more troops to the colonies. On March 5, 1770, when a lone British sentry was accosted by a mob of citizens, eight of his fellow soldiers reinforced him, and the crowd around them grew to several hundred. The soldiers were struck with snowballs, ice, and stones, and in the chaos the soldiers opened fire, killing five civilians, bringing about the infamous Boston Massacre. The accused soldiers were arrested on charges of murder. When no other", "Adams, who had been among the more conservative of the Founders, persistently held that while British actions against the colonies had been wrong and misguided, open insurrection was unwarranted and peaceful petition with the ultimate view of remaining part of Great Britain was a better alternative. His ideas began to change around 1772, as the British Crown assumed payment of the salaries of Governor Thomas Hutchinson and his judges instead of the Massachusetts legislature. Adams wrote in the \"Gazette\" that these measures would destroy judicial independence and place the colonial government in closer subjugation to the Crown. After discontent among members of the legislature, Hutchinson delivered a speech warning that Parliament's powers over the colonies were absolute and that any resistance was", "", "In 1774, at the instigation of Samuel Adams, the First Continental Congress was convened in response to the Intolerable Acts, a series of deeply unpopular measures intended to punish Massachusetts, centralize authority in Britain, and prevent rebellion in other colonies. Four delegates were chosen by the Massachusetts legislature, including Adams, who agreed to attend, despite an emotional plea from his friend Jonathan Sewall not to. Shortly after he arrived in Philadelphia, Adams was placed on the 23-member Grand Committee tasked with drafting a letter of grievances to King George III. The members of the committee soon split into conservative and radical factions. Although the Massachusetts delegation was largely passive, Adams criticized conservatives such as Joseph Galloway,", "Throughout the first half of 1776, Adams grew increasingly impatient with what he perceived to be the slow pace of declaring independence. He kept busy on the floor of the Congress, helping push through a plan to outfit armed ships to launch raids on enemy vessels. Later in the year, he drafted the first set of regulations to govern the provisional navy. Adams drafted the preamble to the Lee resolution of colleague Richard Henry Lee. He developed a rapport with Delegate Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, who had been slower to support independence but by early 1776 agreed that it was necessary. On June 7, 1776, Adams seconded the resolution, which stated, \"These colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states.\" Prior to independence being declared, Adams organized and", "", "Before the signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1776, Adams advocated in Congress that independence was necessary to establish trade, and conversely, trade was essential for the attainment of independence; he specifically urged negotiation of a commercial treaty with France. He was then appointed, along with Franklin, Dickinson, Benjamin Harrison of Virginia and Robert Morris of Pennsylvania, \"to prepare a plan of treaties to be proposed to foreign powers.\" While Jefferson was laboring over the Declaration of Independence, Adams worked on the Model Treaty. The Model Treaty authorized a commercial agreement with France but contained no provisions for formal recognition or military assistance. There were provisions for what constituted French territory. The treaty adhered to the provision that \"free ships make free goods,\" allowing neutral nations to trade reciprocally while exempting an agreed upon list of contraband. By late 1777, America's finances were in tatters, and that September a", "In mid-1780, Adams traveled to the Dutch Republic. One of the few other existing republics at the time, Adams thought it might be sympathetic to the American cause. Securing a Dutch loan could increase American independence from France and pressure Britain into peace. At first, Adams had no official status, but in July he was formally given permission to negotiate for a loan and took up residence in Amsterdam in August. Adams was originally optimistic and greatly enjoyed the city, but soon became disappointed. The Dutch, fearing British retaliation, refused to meet Adams. Before he had arrived, the British found out about secret aid the Dutch had sent to the Americans, the British authorized reprisals against their ships, which only increased their apprehension. Word had also reached Europe of American battlefield defeats. After five months of not meeting with a single Dutch official, Adams in early 1781 pronounced Amsterdam \"the capital of the reign of Mammon.\" He was finally invited to present his credentials as ambassador to the Dutch government at The Hague on April 19, 1781, but they did not", "After negotiating the loan with the Dutch, Adams was re-appointed as the American commissioner to negotiate the war-ending treaty, the Treaty of Paris. Vergennes still disapproved of Adams, so Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay, and Henry Laurens were appointed to collaborate with Adams, although Jefferson did not go to Europe and Laurens was posted to the Dutch Republic. In the final negotiations, securing fishing rights off Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island proved both very important and very difficult. In response to very strict restrictions proposed by the British, Adams insisted that not only should American fishermen be allowed to travel as close to shore as desired, but that they should be", "Adams was appointed the first American ambassador to Great Britain in 1785. When a counterpart assumed that Adams had family in England, Adams replied, \"Neither my father or mother, grandfather or grandmother, great grandfather or great grandmother, nor any other relation that I know of, or care a farthing for, has been in England these one hundred and fifty years; so that you see I have not one drop of blood in my veins but what is American.\" After arriving in London from Paris, Adams had his first", "", "On June 17, Adams arrived back in Massachusetts to a triumphant welcome. He returned to farming life in the months after. The nation's first presidential election was soon to take place. Because George Washington was widely expected to win the presidency, many felt that the vice presidency should go to a northerner. Although he made no public comments on the matter, Adams was the primary contender. Each state's presidential electors gathered on February 4, 1789, to cast their. The person with the most votes would be president and the second would become vice president. Adams received 34 electoral college votes in the election, second place", "The sole constitutionally prescribed responsibility of the vice president is to preside over the Senate, where he can cast a tie-breaking vote. Early in his term, Adams became deeply involved in a lengthy Senate controversy over the official titles for the president and executive officers of the new government. Although the House agreed that the president should be addressed simply as \"George Washington, President of the United States\", the Senate debated the issue at some length. Adams favored the adoption of the style of \"Highness\" (as well as the title of \"Protector of Their [the United States'] Liberties\") for the president. Some senators favored a variant of \"Highness\" or the lesser \"Excellency\".\" Anti-federalists in the Senate objected to the monarchical sound of them all; Jefferson described them", "The election of 1796 was the first contested American presidential election. Twice, George Washington had been elected to office unanimously but, during his presidency, deep philosophical differences between the two leading figures in the administration – Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson – had caused a rift, leading to the founding of the Federalist and Republican parties. When Washington announced that he would not be a candidate for a third term, an intense partisan struggle for control of Congress and the presidency", "", "Adams was sworn into office as the nation's second president on March 4, 1797, by Chief Justice Oliver Ellsworth. As president, he followed Washington's lead in using the presidency to exemplify republican values and civic virtue, and his service was free of scandal. Adams spent much of his term at his Massachusetts home Peacefield, preferring the quietness of domestic life to business at the capital. He ignored the political patronage and office seekers which other office holders utilized. Historians debate his", "Historian Joseph Ellis writes that \"[t]he Adams presidency was destined to be dominated by a single question of American policy to an extent seldom if ever encountered by any succeeding occupant of the office.\" That question was whether to make war with France or find peace. In Europe, Britain and France were at war as a result of the French Revolution. Hamilton and the Federalists favored the British monarchy against what they perceived to be the political and anti-religious radicalism of the French Revolution, while Jefferson and the Republicans, with their firm opposition to monarchy, strongly supported France. The French had supported Jefferson for", "Despite the XYZ Affair, Republican opposition persisted. Federalists accused the French and their associated immigrants of provoking civil unrest. In an attempt to quell the outcry, the Federalists introduced, and the Congress passed, a series of laws collectively referred to as the Alien and Sedition Acts, which were signed by Adams in June 1798. Congress specifically passed four measures – the Naturalization Act, the Alien Friends Act, the Alien Enemies Act and the Sedition Act. All came within a period of two weeks, in what Jefferson called an \"unguarded passion.\" The Alien Friends Act, Alien Enemies Act, and Naturalization Acts targeted immigrants, specifically French, by giving the president greater deportation authority and increasing citizenship requirements. The Sedition Act made it a crime to publish \"false, scandalous, and malicious writing\" against the government or its officials. Adams had not promoted any of these acts, but was urged to sign them by his wife and cabinet. He eventually agreed and signed the bills into law. The", "In May 1798, a French privateer captured a merchant vessel off of the New York Harbor. An increase in attacks on sea marked the beginning of the undeclared naval war known as the Quasi-War. Adams knew that America would be unable to win a major conflict, both because of its internal divisions and because France at the time was dominating the fight in most of Europe. He pursued a strategy whereby America harassed French ships in an effort sufficient to stem the French assaults on American interests. In May, shortly after the attack in New York, Congress created a separate Navy Department. The prospect of a French invasion of the U.S. mainland led for calls to build up the army. Hamilton and other \"High Federalists\" were particularly adamant that a large army be called up, in spite of a common fear, particularly among Republicans, that large standing armies were subversive to liberty. In May, a \"provisional\"", "To pay for the military buildup of the Quasi-War, Adams and his Federalist allies enacted the Direct Tax of 1798. Direct taxation by the federal government was widely unpopular, and the government's revenue under Washington had mostly come from excise taxes and tariffs. Though Washington had maintained a balanced budget with the help of a growing economy, increased military expenditures threatened to cause major budget deficits, and the Federalists developed a taxation plan to meet the need for increased government revenue. The Direct Tax of 1798 instituted a progressive land value tax of up to 1%", "On May 5, 1800, Adams's frustrations with the Hamilton wing of the party exploded during a meeting with McHenry, a Hamilton loyalist who was universally regarded, even by Hamilton, as an inept Secretary of War. Adams accused him of subservience to Hamilton and declared that he would rather serve as Jefferson's vice president or minister at The Hague than be beholden to Hamilton for the presidency. McHenry offered to resign at once, and Adams accepted. On May 10, he asked Pickering to resign. Pickering refused and was summarily dismissed. Adams named John Marshall as Secretary of State and Samuel Dexter as Secretary of War. In 1799, Napoleon took over as head of the French government in the Coup of 18 Brumaire and declared the French Revolution over. News of this event increased Adams's desire to disband the provisional army, which, with Washington now dead, was commanded only by Hamilton. His moves", "Adams's leadership on naval defense has sometimes led him to be called the \"father of the American Navy.\" In July 1798, he signed into law An Act for the relief of sick and disabled seamen, which authorized the establishment of a government-operated marine hospital service. In 1800, he signed the law establishing the Library of Congress. Adams made his first official visit to the nation's new seat of government in early June 1800. Amid the \"raw and unfinished\" cityscape, the president found the public buildings \"in a much greater forwardness of", "With the Federalist Party deeply split over his negotiations with France, and the opposition Republican Party enraged over the Alien and Sedition Acts and the expansion of the military, Adams faced a daunting reelection campaign in 1800. The Federalist congressmen caucused in the spring of 1800 and nominated Adams and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney. The Republicans nominated Jefferson and Burr, their candidates in the previous election. The campaign was bitter and characterized by malicious insults by partisan presses on both sides. Federalists claimed that the Republicans were the enemies of \"all who love order, peace, virtue, and religion.\" They were said to be libertines and dangerous radicals who", "Adams appointed two U.S. Supreme Court associate justices during his term in office: Bushrod Washington, the nephew of American founding father and President George Washington, and Alfred Moore. After the retirement of Ellsworth due to ill health in 1800, it fell to Adams to appoint the Court's fourth Chief Justice. At the time, it was not yet certain whether Jefferson or Burr would win the election. Regardless, Adams believed that the choice should be someone \"in the full vigor of middle age\" who could counter what might be a long line of successive Republican presidents. Adams chose his Secretary of State John Marshall. He, along with Stoddert, was one of Adams's few trusted cabinet members, and", "", "Adams resumed farming at Peacefield in the town of Quincy and began work on an autobiography. The work had numerous gaps and was eventually abandoned and left unedited. Most of Adams's attention was focused on farm work. He regularly worked around the farm but mostly left manual labor to hired hands. His frugal lifestyle and presidential salary had left him with a considerable fortune by 1801. In 1803, the bank holding his cash reserves of about $13,000 collapsed. John Quincy resolved the crisis by buying", "In early 1801, Adams sent Thomas Jefferson a brief note after returning to Quincy wishing him a happy and prosperous presidency. Jefferson failed to respond, and they did not speak again for nearly 12 years. In 1804, Abigail, unbeknownst to her husband, wrote to Jefferson to express her condolences upon the death of his daughter Polly, who had stayed with the Adamses in London in 1787. This initiated a brief correspondence between the two which quickly descended into political rancor. Jefferson terminated it by not replying to Abigail's fourth letter. Aside from that, by 1812 there had been no communication between Peacefield and Monticello since Adams left office. In early 1812, Adams reconciled with Jefferson. The previous year had been tragic for Adams; his brother-in-law and friend Richard Cranch had died along with his widow Mary, and Nabby had been diagnosed with breast cancer. These events mellowed Adams and caused him to soften his outlook. Their mutual friend Benjamin Rush, a fellow signer of the Declaration of Independence who had been corresponding with both, encouraged them to reach out to each other. On New", "Abigail died of typhoid on October 28, 1818, at their Quincy home, Peacefield. The year 1824 was filled with excitement in America, featuring a four-way presidential contest which included John Quincy. The Marquis de Lafayette toured the country and met with Adams, who greatly enjoyed Lafayette's visit to Peacefield. Adams was delighted by the election of John Quincy to the presidency. The results became official in February 1825 after a deadlock was decided in the House of Representatives. He remarked, \"No man who ever held the office of President would congratulate a friend on obtaining it.\" Less than a month before his death, Adams issued a statement about the destiny of the United States, which historian", "", "During the First Continental Congress, Adams was sometimes solicited for his views on government. While recognizing its importance, Adams had privately criticized Thomas Paine's 1776 pamphlet \"Common Sense\", which attacked all forms of monarchy, even constitutional monarchy of the sort advocated by John Locke. It supported a unicameral legislature and a weak executive elected by the legislature. According to Adams, the author had \"a better hand at pulling down than building.\" He believed that the views expressed in the pamphlet were \"so democratical, without any restraint or even an attempt at any equilibrium or counter poise, that it must produce confusion and every evil work.\" What Paine advocated was a radical democracy with the views of the majority neither checked nor counterbalanced. This was incompatible with the system of checks and balances that conservatives like Adams would implement. Some delegates urged Adams to commit his views to paper. He did so in separate letters to these colleagues. So", "After returning from his first mission to France in 1779, Adams was elected to the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention with the purpose of establishing a new constitution for Massachusetts. He served on a committee of three, also including Samuel Adams and James Bowdoin, to draft the constitution. The task of writing it fell primarily to John Adams. The resulting Constitution of Massachusetts was approved in 1780. It was the first constitution written by a special committee, then ratified by the people; and was the first to feature a bicameral legislature. Included were a distinct executive – though restrained", "Adams's preoccupation with political and governmental affairs – which caused considerable separation from his wife and children – had a distinct familial context, which he articulated in 1780: \"I must study Politicks and War that my sons may have the liberty to study Mathematicks and Philosophy. My sons ought to study Geography, natural History, Naval Architecture, navigation, Commerce and Agriculture, in order to give their children a right to study Painting, Poetry, Musick, Architecture, Statuary, Tapestry, and Porcelaine.\" While in London, Adams learned of a convention being planned to amend the Articles of", "", "Adams never owned a slave and declined on principle to use slave labor, saying, \"I have, through my whole life, held the practice of slavery in such abhorrence, that I have never owned a negro or any other slave, though I have lived for many years in times, when the practice was not disgraceful, when the best men in my vicinity thought it not inconsistent with their character, and when it has cost me thousands of dollars for the labor and subsistence of free men, which I", "Throughout his lifetime Adams expressed controversial and shifting views regarding the virtues of monarchical and hereditary political institutions. At times he conveyed substantial support for these approaches, suggesting for example that \"hereditary monarchy or aristocracy\" are the \"only institutions that can possibly preserve the laws and liberties of the people.\" Yet at other times he distanced himself from such ideas, calling himself \"a mortal and irreconcilable enemy to Monarchy\" and \"no friend to hereditary limited monarchy in America.\" Such denials did not assuage his critics, and Adams was often accused of being a monarchist. Historian Clinton Rossiter portrays Adams not as a monarchist but a revolutionary conservative who sought to balance republicanism with the stability of monarchy to create \"ordered liberty.\" His 1790 \"Discourses on Davila\" published in the \"Gazette of the United States\"", "Adams was raised a Congregationalist, since his ancestors were Puritans. According to biographer David McCullough, \"as his family and friends knew, Adams was both a devout Christian, and an independent thinker, and he saw no conflict in that.\" In a letter to Rush, Adams credited religion with the success of his ancestors since their migration to the New World. He believed that regular church service was beneficial to man's moral sense. Everett (1966) concludes that \"Adams strove for a religion based on a common sense sort of reasonableness\" and maintained that religion must change and evolve toward perfection. Fielding (1940) argues that Adams's beliefs synthesized Puritan, deist, and humanist concepts. Adams at one point said that Christianity had originally been revelatory, but was being misinterpreted in the service of superstition, fraud, and unscrupulous power. Frazer (2004) notes that while he shared many perspectives with deists and often used deistic terminology, \"Adams clearly was not a deist. Deism rejected any and", "", "Franklin summed up what many thought of Adams when he said, \"He means well for his country, is always an honest man, often a wise one, but sometimes, and in some things, absolutely out of his senses.\" Adams came to be seen as someone with a long, distinguished, and honorable career in public service, and a man of great patriotism and integrity, but whose vanity, stubbornness, and cantankerousness often got him into unnecessary trouble. Adams strongly felt that he would be forgotten and underappreciated by history. These feelings often manifested themselves through envy and verbal attacks on other Founders. Historian George Herring argues that Adams was the most independent-minded of the Founders. Though he formally aligned with the Federalists, he was somewhat a party unto himself, at times disagreeing with the Federalists as much as he did the Republicans. He was often described as \"prickly\", but his tenacity was fed by decisions made in the face of universal opposition. Adams was often combative, which diminished presidential decorum, as he admitted in his old age: \"[As President] I refused to suffer in silence. I sighed, sobbed, and groaned, and sometimes screeched and screamed. And I must confess to my shame and sorrow that I sometimes swore.\" Stubbornness was seen as one of his defining traits, a fact for which Adams made no apology. \"Thanks to God that he gave me stubbornness when I know I am right,\" he wrote. His resolve to advance peace with France while maintaining a posture of defense reduced his popularity and contributed to his defeat for reelection. Most historians applaud him for avoiding an all-out war with France during his presidency. His signing of the Alien and Sedition Acts is almost always condemned. According to Ferling, Adams's political philosophy fell \"out of step\" with the way that the", "Adams is commemorated as the namesake of various counties, buildings, and other items. One example is the John Adams Building of the Library of Congress, an institution whose existence Adams had signed into law. Unlike many other Founders, Adams does not have a monument" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Titles.", "Main series.", "Other games.", "Compilations.", "Related media.", "Common elements.", "Gameplay.", "Setting.", "Voice acting.", "Controversies.", "\"Grand Theft Auto\".", "\"Grand Theft Auto III\".", "\"Vice City\".", "\"San Andreas\".", "\"Grand Theft Auto IV\".", "\"The Lost and Damned\".", "\"Chinatown Wars\".", "\"Grand Theft Auto V\".", "Lawsuits.", "Lawsuits involving Jack Thompson.", "Reception.", "Similar games." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The \"Grand Theft Auto\" series is split into separate fictional universes, named after the primary level of graphics capability used in each era. The original \"Grand Theft Auto\", its expansions and its sequel are considered the \"2D universe\". \"Grand Theft Auto III\" and its sequels are considered the \"3D universe\". \"Grand Theft Auto IV\", its expansions and \"Grand Theft Auto V\" are considered the \"HD universe\". Each universe is considered separate with only brands, place names and background characters shared between them. \"Grand Theft Auto\", the first game in the series, was released for Microsoft Windows and MS-DOS in October 1997, ported to the PlayStation in 1998 and the Game Boy Color in 1999. \"Grand Theft Auto 2\" was released in 1999 for Microsoft Windows, later receiving ports on the PlayStation, Dreamcast and Game Boy", "\"Grand Theft Auto\" has spawned numerous additional games and expansion packs. In 1999, the original game received two expansion packs: \"\" and \"\". \"Grand Theft Auto Advance\", released in 2004 for the Game Boy Advance, featured a top-down perspective. Three games were released for the PlayStation Portable. The 2005 game \"\" is a prequel to \"Grand Theft Auto III\", while the 2006 game \"\" is a prequel to \"Vice City\"; both games were later ported to the PlayStation 2. In 2009, \"\" was released for the Nintendo DS, and later ported to the PlayStation Portable. In 2009, \"\" and \"\" were released", "\"Grand Theft Auto Double Pack\" was released in 2003 for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox. It includes \"Grand Theft Auto III\" and \"Vice City\". \"Grand Theft Auto: The Trilogy\" is a compilation of \"III\", \"Vice City\", and \"San Andreas\". The compilation was first released in 2005 for the Xbox. Later it was released for the PlayStation 2, Windows, Mac OS X, and PlayStation 4. \"The Trilogy\"", "The series has been expanded into various other formats. \"Jacked: The Outlaw Story of Grand Theft Auto\", a book written by David Kushner chronicling the development of the series, was published in 2012. In March 2015, BBC Two announced \"The Gamechangers\", a 90-minute docudrama based on the creation of \"Grand Theft Auto\". Directed by Owen Harris and written by James Wood, the drama stars Daniel Radcliffe as Rockstar president Sam Houser and Bill Paxton as disbarred attorney Jack Thompson. In May 2015, Rockstar filed a lawsuit against the BBC for trademark infringement, stating that they had no involvement with the development of the film and had unsuccessfully tried to contact the BBC to resolve the matter. It first aired on 15 September 2015 on", "", "Each game in this series allows the player to take on the role of a criminal in the big city, typically an individual who plans to rise through the ranks of organised crime through the course of the game. The player is given various missions by kingpins and major idols in the city underworld which must be completed to progress through the storyline. Assassinations and other violent crimes are featured regularly. Occasionally taxi driving, firefighting, street racing, bus driving, or learning to fly helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft are also involved in the game. In later titles, notably those released after \"Grand Theft Auto", "Most of the \"Grand Theft Auto\" series is set in a fictional version of the United States, in a number of different time periods. The original \"Grand Theft Auto\" introduced three main cities: Liberty City, based upon New York City, Vice City, based upon Miami, and San Andreas, based mostly upon parts of California; in this game, San Andreas was based mostly on San Francisco and parts of Las Vegas. The \"\" and \"\" expansion packs changed the setting to a fictional version of London, making them the only games in the series so far to use a location outside the United States and with the name of a real-life city. The second entry in the", "The series has included a wide variety of voice actors. The original \"Grand Theft Auto\", its and its sequel, as well as \"Grand Theft Auto Advance\" and \"\" did not feature any voice credited to specific roles. The first game in the series to do so was \"Grand Theft Auto III\" which, despite a limited budget and the series' low profile at the time, featured several notable actors from film and television. These included Frank Vincent, Michael Madsen and Kyle MacLachlan, who all had prominent roles. At the time it was rare for a video game to", "According to \"The Guinness World Records\" 2008 and 2009 Gamer's Edition, it is the most controversial video game series in history, with over 4,000 articles published about it, which include accusations of glamorising violence, corrupting gamers, and connection to real life crimes.", "The game was controversial from the very first incarnation of the series. \"Grand Theft Auto\" was condemned in Britain,", "The controversies flared up again with \"Grand Theft Auto III\", since the 3D graphics made the violence more realistic, and players could pay for the services of prostitutes to restore their health, and if they wished, kill", "The sixth game in the series, \"\", also came under criticism. One mission in particular, in which the player must instigate a gang war between Haitian and Cuban gangs, has been controversial. Haitian and Cuban anti-defamation groups criticised the game. Jean-Robert Lafortune of the Haitian American Grassroots Coalition is", "\"San Andreas\" was criticised initially due to its \"gangster\" elements, which include drugs, prostitution, and murder. Later it received additional criticism after the discovery of an interactive sex minigame, nicknamed Hot Coffee; initially cut from the game, it remained in the game code, and was discovered in both the console and Windows versions of the game. After the release of \"\", modders managed to find the unused code in the game and released", "One of the controversies involved with this game was Mothers Against Drunk Driving's (MADD) criticism of the ability to drink and drive as a new feature. MADD had even requested ESRB to change the rating of the game from \"M\" for ages seventeen and up to \"AO\", for adults only, because they felt it was inappropriate for children, even at the age of seventeen,", "\"\" expansion pack for \"Grand Theft Auto IV\" was condemned by US parents group Common Sense Media who issued a public warning", "There has been some controversy over a drug dealing minigame along with comments that some Nintendo games are being aimed at children (despite the fact that the game was rated Mature).", "A segment in the latest instalment caused controversy for scenes containing player initiated torture. The mission \"By the Book\" features graphic depictions of kneecapping, electrocution, dental extraction and waterboarding, and the player is required to perform an act of torture in order to progress in the game. UK-based charity Freedom from Torture publicly condemned the use of torture scenes in \"Grand Theft Auto V\". The organisation, who works to rehabilitate survivors of torture, joined other human rights charities who were outraged at a torture scene in the game in which the players have to pull teeth and electrocute an", "Several celebrities have sued Rockstar Games and/or Take-Two Interactive for purportedly violating their intellectual property or personality rights, including hip-hop artist Daz Dillinger, Karen Gravano of \"Mob Wives\", and actress Lindsay Lohan.", "Former lawyer Jack Thompson has been involved in a number of attempts to get families of murder victims to hold the \"Grand Theft Auto\" series accountable for the death of their loved ones. Due to his conduct in this and related cases, Thompson was disbarred in 2008 and was fined more than $100,000 by the Florida Bar Association. On 20 October 2003, the families of Aaron Hamel and Kimberly Bede, two young people shot by teens William and Josh Buckner (who in statements to investigators claimed their actions were inspired by \"Grand Theft Auto III\") filed a US$246 million lawsuit against publishers Rockstar Games, Take-Two Interactive Software, retailer Walmart, and PlayStation 2 manufacturer Sony Computer Entertainment America. Rockstar and its parent company, Take-Two, filed for dismissal of the lawsuit, stating in US District Court on 29 October 2003 that the \"ideas and concepts as well as the 'purported psychological effects' on the Buckners are protected by the First Amendment's free-speech clause\". The lawyer of the victims, Jack Thompson, denied that, but failed in his attempt to move the lawsuit into a state court and under Tennessee's consumer protection act. Two days later, the plaintiffs filed a Notice of Voluntary Dismissal, and the case was closed. In February 2005, a lawsuit was brought upon the makers and distributors of the \"Grand Theft Auto\" series claiming the games caused a teenager to shoot and kill three members of the Alabama police force. The shooting", "Ever since the release of \"Grand Theft Auto III\" in 2001, the \"Grand Theft Auto\" series has been a major success, both critically and financially. It has generated perfect or near perfect reviews and scores on almost all of the games; by September 2013, the series sold over 150 million copies worldwide, and, \"Grand Theft Auto\" shipped over 220 million units worldwide. \"The Times Online\" reported that \"Grand Theft Auto IV\" recorded 609,000 copies in the UK on its first day of release. In its first week, \"Grand Theft Auto IV\" sold approximately 6 million copies worldwide and grossed over $500 million. In 2006, \"Grand Theft Auto\" was voted one of Britain's top 10 designs in the Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum. The game appeared in a list of British design icons which included Concorde, Jaguar E-Type, Aston Martin DB5, Mini, World Wide Web, \"Tomb Raider\", K2 telephone box, London tube map, AEC Routemaster bus and the Supermarine", "The release of \"Grand Theft Auto III\" is treated as a major event in the history of video games, much like the release of \"Doom\" nearly a decade earlier. During interviews to mark the 10th anniversary of the release of \"Grand Theft Auto III\", producer of the \"Street Fighter\" series, Yoshinori Ono, said \"It would be no exaggeration to say that \"Grand Theft Auto III\" changed the industry, and we can basically separate the time before and after its emergence as distinct eras.\" In the same article Bethesda studios director, Todd Howard, said \"The mark of a truly great game is how many people try to recapture or emulate it and fail. There's a long line behind this one.\" Subsequent games that follow this formula of driving and shooting have been called \"\"Grand Theft Auto\" clones\". Some reviewers even extended this label to the \"Driver\" series, even though this series began years before the release of \"Grand Theft Auto III\". \"Grand Theft Auto\" clones are a type of 3D action-adventure game, where players are given the ability to drive any vehicle or fire any weapon as they explore an open world. These games often incorporate violent and criminal themes. Notable games that are comparable to \"Grand Theft Auto\" are \"Saints Row\", \"\", \"\", \"Watch Dogs\", \"Sleeping Dogs\", \"Just Cause\", \"\" and \"\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "The basic form.", "Gold Fortress.", "Classic Fortress development (early S-77).", "New Fortress development (early P-66).", "Quick Fortress development.", "Development from declined Bishop Exchange.", "Attacking Gold Fortress.", "Variants.", "S-68 Gold Fortress.", "Tofu Fortress.", "Complete Fortress.", "Complete Fortress game examples.", "Silver Fortress.", "Silver Fortress game example.", "Incomplete Fortress.", "Helmet Fortress.", "Dented Fortress.", "Doi's Fortress.", "Floating Chrysanthemum Fortress.", "Diamond Fortress.", "High Silver Fortress.", "Fortress Anaguma.", "Square Fortress.", "Straight Line Fortress.", "Right Fortress.", "Relations with other castles.", "Crab castle.", "Snowroof castle.", "Mino castle." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "A Fortress castle structure was first formed by Sansa Hon'inbō in 1618 who was playing a Static Rook position (eventually Sleeve Rook) against who was playing a Fourth File Rook position (eventually Third File Rook). In the modern era, Fortress castles are typically used in Static Rook positions against Static Rook opponents (that is, in Double Static Rook games). However, Static Rook positions playing against some Bishop-Exchange Ranging Rook position may also use a Fortress variant after the bishop trade off. Furthermore, Fortress castles constructed on the right side of the board may be used in Double Ranging Rook games.", "The Fortress castle has the left silver on the 77 square and the right gold on the 78 square. In particular, the silver on 77 is the quintessential characteristic that defines the Fortress. Most Fortress castle variants have this structure. The seventh file pawn must be pushed in order to make way for the silver. When the king is moved into the castle, then it will be positioned on the 88 square although there are exceptions where the king remains outside the castle (on 68 or 69 or 79) or on a different square in some variants (such as on 78). This basic form can occur in games when the player attacks early without extensive defensive preparations. For instance, the basic shape is usually formed in Bishop Exchange openings and this may be the only castle development in the faster attacking strategies such as Climbing Silver or Rushing Silver. When used in the Fortress opening, a simple Fortress can be constructed with the S-77 G-78 formation and with the fifth file pawn typically pushed so that the bishop can be utilized early for counterattacking purposes (such as trading off the third file pawn, or exchanging the bishops off the board via P-24 Px24 Bx24 Bx24 Rx24 if the opponent's bishop is on 33, or by moving to 46 to attack the opponent's rook on 82 or to attack the opponent's jumped knight on 73 possibly with supporting a P*74 pawn drop or P-74 pawn push). This shape of Black's shown in the adjacent digram is actually found as transitional development in the Classic Fortress variation of the Fortress opening. The sixth pawn file is often pushed to 66 although this is not always the case (for instance it is not always pushed in the Helmet Fortress in Bishop Exchange openings and in other cases it remains on 67 so that the left silver can move to 66). Although these can be thought as the basic structure of the Fortress in the abstract, the most common form of the Fortress is the Gold Fortress.", "A common Fortress structure is the Gold Fortress (金矢倉 \"kin yagura\"), and usually when the term Fortress/矢倉 is used (especially in the Yagura opening), it implies that the variant referred to is the Gold Fortress. It has a strongly protected king and a well-fortified line of pawns. It is difficult to break down with a frontal assault, though it is weaker from the side. It is typically used against Static Rook openings that involve advancing the rook's pawn. However, one's opponent may just as easily adopt this defense, giving neither side an obvious advantage. There is a good deal of flexibility in the order of moves when building the Fortress defense. A point to keep in mind is that the generals should move diagonally, not directly forward. While forming the castle, the rook's pawn is often advanced two squares in preparation for a rook assault on the opposing king. Another common preparation is to advance the adjacent silver's pawn square, allowing passage for both the rook's silver and knight. These offensive moves are not properly part of the castle, but the two-square pawn advance must be carried out early if there is to be room for it, and so it is often done while still castling. In the following three sections are possible typical developments of a Fortress castle in Double Fortress openings. The first are normal castle development sequences of nine moves. The last section shows the development of a Quick Fortress which is one move faster than usual methods. However, the specific order of the castle move sequence will vary depending on White's piece development. Moreover, the castle usually isn't built all at once – rather, castle development is interwoven with the development of the attacking pieces. Additionally, moving the king all the way into the castle to the 88 square is not always optimal depending on the state and nature of White's attack.", "The development of the Gold Fortress castle in the Classic Fortress (旧矢倉) opening is shown below for Black. This is a 9-move sequence that is fairly typical.", "The development of the Gold Fortress castle in the New Fortress (新矢倉) opening for Black is shown below. The New Fortress castle construction differs from the Classic Fortress construction starting from the player's third move.", "or Quick Fortress castling or Rapid Fortress castling (矢倉早囲い \"yagura hayagakoi\") is a faster way of forming a Fortress castle than the standard way in that it saves one tempo. It is not a distinct castle but rather a method of castle construction. Quick Fortress castling will lead to the intermediate position seen in the adjacent diagram. This intermediate position does not occur when a Fortress is built using the slower traditional move sequence.", "A Fortress can be built from an initial Bishop Exchange configuration in which the opponent declines the usual bishop exchange.", "A common attack against the Fortress defense is to advance the rook's knight directly forward, defended by the rook and with a pawn in hand, to attack the fortifications on either side of the castled king. If the defender has answered a lance's pawn advance on that side, a pawn may be dropped where the edge pawn had been. If the defending silver has moved or is not yet in position, a pawn may be dropped there.", "Although the Gold Fortress castle is very common, there are several variants of Fortress. Many of the variants are designed to address weakness in the Gold Fortress's structure under certain situations.", "Although the left silver is typically on the 77 square in the Gold Fortress. However, when being attacked with an opponent's Left Mino Right Fourth File Rook strategy, the silver on 77 will be attacked by the opponent's knight which jumps to 85 or 65. Since a silver–knight exchange is often not favorable, the silver remains on 68 where it is safe from attack and also defends the 57 square (in case of a knight to 65). This form also allows the left knight to capture/recapture on 77 as well as close the long diagonal that the opponent's bishop may be attacking on.", "The Tofu Fortress (豆腐矢倉 \"tōfu yagura\") is not a proper castle but rather a deformation of the Gold Fortress caused by the opponent's attack. Thus, this form occurs under inadequate preparation. The use of \"tofu\" is a metaphor of how easily this castle will fall apart like the soft silken tofu used in Japan. The Tofu Fortress develops from a Gold Fortress when the opponent attacks the Fortress's silver on 77 with a knight jump from 73 to 85. Since the silver–knight exchange is not favorable to Black, the silver escapes the attack by moving to 86. Unfortunately, this removes one piece that is closing the diagonal that the opponent's bishop is attacking. The second attacking move is the...P-65 pawn. Black cannot capture this sixth file pawn with Px65 since their sixth file pawn on 66 is pinned by White's bishop. However, there are no other satisfactory responses. If Black does not capture the pawn, then...Px66 attacks Black's right gold on 67. Moving the gold leftward with G-77 places the gold into White's knight attack. Moving the gold rightward with G-57 will be followed by...Px66 which is threatening the P-67+ that will attack both of Black's golds and bishop and simultaneously give a discovered check on Black's king allowing White to capture either gold after Black resolves the check. Moving the king off the diagonal with K-79 still leaves an unfavorable state where...Px66 will attack Black's gold again threatening P-67+ with a similar set of attacked pieces except now with a discovered attack on Black's left lance by White's bishop. This type of Anti-Fortress attack occurs in Counter-Fortress Rapid Attack strategies, Left Mino Right Fourth File Rook, and some Snowroof positions.", "The Complete Fortress (総矢倉 \"sōyagura\") is called \"complete\" since it uses four generals instead of the usual three in which the right silver is positioned on the 57 square in Black's castle or the 53 square if White's castle. Since the player's silvers are on the same rank on 57 and 77 (Black's castle), the two silvers are prone to be forked by the opponent's knight via a...P-65 Px65 Nx65 sequence.", "The joseki for the Double Complete Fortress can often lead to a repetition draw since both sides are felt to be in a \"zugzwang\"-like situation. Thus, it may be used purposely in order to strategically switch sides (since Repetition Draw outcomes lead to a new game being immediately replayed but with the player's sides reversed). Nonetheless, it is still possible to play a Double Complete Fortress game without a repetition draw. The 1976 May 13 Meijin game between Kunio Yonenaga and Makoto Nakahara is an example of such a game.", "A Silver Fortress (銀矢倉 \"gin yagura\") uses a silver on 67 instead of a gold. This allows for defending of the gold on 78, which is only defended by the king in a Gold Fortress. Silver Fortress allows for greater flexibility with two silvers on rank 7. In a Gold Fortress, if the silver on 77 moves to 76, it is not be able to return 77, and if the gold on 67 moves to 76, it can't move back to 77. Using two silvers on 77 and 67 allows for the same range of defense on 86, 76, 66, and 56 as well as the greater potential of both silvers returning to 77 and 67 after moving up to rank 6. However, by using a second silver for the castle, one gives up the use of the silver for offensive purposes and the side of silver (57) is not defended.", "A game of Akira Watanabe vs Akira Inaba in April 2019 shows an example of a Silver Fortress. The opening was Bishop Exchange, Double Reclining Silver, P25 G48 R29 variation. Both players first built a Helmet castle as is typical of Bishop Exchange games. After this, Inaba (White) used the currently popular tactic of waiting for Black to start the attack by playing \"waiting\" moves. This gave Watanabe (Black) the time to develop his Helmet castle into a Silver Fortress by pushing his sixth file pawn (P-66), moving his reclined silver from 56 to 66, moving his king into the castle (K-79, K-88), and pushing the central pawn (P-56).", "An Incomplete Fortress or \"Half Fortress\" (片矢倉 \"kata yagura\") has the king and the gold on 78 and 68, respectively, instead of the positions 88 and 78 as in the usual Fortress castles. This positioning is meant to protect from the opponent's bishop being dropped onto 69 or 59 (highlighted in diagram) after a bishop exchange as now the gold on 68 is defended by the silver on 77 and the gold on 67 and the gold on 68 can attack 69. In a Gold Fortress, the gold on 68 is not defended by any piece besides the king, and it cannot attack a bishop that was dropped on 69. An Incomplete Fortress is also known as Amano's Fortress (天野矢倉), named after Edo period shogi master.", "The Helmet Fortress (兜矢倉 \"kabuto yagura\") or simply Helmet or \"Headpiece\" (カブト \"kabuto\") castle is a variant used in Bishop Exchange games especially in Reclining Silver variations where there is more defensive development before the players start their attacks. The king can be moved fully into the castle on the 88 square but often it remains outside the castle on 79 or 68 (or more rarely 69). The right gold is typically not moved up to 67 but remains on 58 so that it can defend more widely against the opponent's bishop drops. There is even a variant in which the right gold is positioned on 48 so that it defends an even wider area. The edge pawn is often pushed to P-96 especially in the Reclining Silver variations. As a result of the right gold remaining on rank 8, the sixth file pawn is often not pushed to 66. In the Reclining Silver variations of Bishop Exchange, some subvariations do move the 66 so that it may capture the opponent's pawn on that file (with...P-65 Px65). However, in some subvariations, the P-66 pawn may not be considered advantageous. A Helmet Fortress can be developed into a Dented Fortress by moving the right gold to 68. In a Reclining Silver variation with P-66, the reclined right silver on 56 can possibly be moved to 67 to develop into a Silver Fortress.", "Dented Fortress or \"Hollow Fortress\" (へこみ矢倉 or 凹み矢倉 \"hekomi yagura\") The Dented Fortress is often in Bishop Exchange openings as a development from the Helmet Yagura castle. It is typically used by White in the Double Reclining Silver variations of that opening. The sixth file (or fourth file for White) pawn can also be pushed so that this castle can be developed into a Gold Fortress.", "Doi's Fortress (土居矢倉 \"Doi yagura\") is a Fortress variant that was invented by Ichitarō Doi (土居市太郎) who used the structure in a 1940 Meijin title tournament. Its unique feature is having the left gold move up to the 67 square instead of the usual right gold moving to 67 and the right gold remains on 58. This variant is not as strong as the Gold Fortress; however, it does protect more widely within the player's camp which can be important if the opponent's bishop if off the board. (Note is this the same reasoning used for the Incomplete Fortress where the left gold is more central on 68 instead of 78 and the Helmet Fortress used in Bishop Exchange games with its right gold on 58 or 68.) The castle was recently prominently used by Taichi Takami in a 2018 Eiō title tournament.", "Floating Chrysanthemum Fortress or \"Kikusui Fortress\" or (菊水矢倉 \"kikusui yagura\")", "Diamond Fortress or \"Lozenge Fortress\" (菱矢倉 \"hishi yagura\")", "High Silver Fortress or \"Silver Standing Fortress\" (銀立ち矢倉 \"gintachi yagura\") The High Silver Fortress is used in the King's Head Vanguard Pawn strategy, which is a Counter-Ranging Rook position.", "Fortress Anaguma (矢倉穴熊)", "The Square Fortress variant (四角矢倉 \"shikaku yagura\") has an arrangement of all four general in a 2x2 square shape. There are two subvariants: a Gold Square Fortress and a Silver Square Fortress. The Silver Square Fortress is structurally similar to the Silver Fortress (silvers on 77 and 67), the Incomplete Fortress (gold on 68), and the Big Four castle (which also has this same square silver-silver and gold-gold arrangement). This castle is very strong. Firstly, a bishop is unable to drop to the yellow squares which are possible with a Gold Fortress. Secondly, 57 is protected by the 68 gold. Thirdly, the 76 and 66 squares are not weak points. But, it is dangerous if attacked on the left edge. The other related form is the Gold Square Fortress. This uses the same 2x2 four general square shape but has the typical gold on the 67 square as in the Gold Fortress. A silver is placed on 68 to complete the square.", "Straight Line Fortress (一文字矢倉 \"ichi monji yagura\")", "A Right Fortress or \"Right-Hand Fortress\" (右矢倉 \"migi yagura\") is a Fortress castle built on the right side of the board instead of the traditional left side. A Right Fortress may be useful in Double Ranging Rook positions since the Fortress structure is strong against attacks from above. A demerit of Right Fortress is that it requires several moves to create (compared to other Ranging Rook castles like Mino castle). A Mino castle may transition into a Right Fortress.", "", "When building a Fortress castle, there is a strong intermediate position called the Crab castle ( \"kani gakoi\"). It has the three pawns on the left side advanced to their final Fortress positions, and on rank 8 all four generals are lined up next to the bishop, which is still in its starting position: 角金銀金銀 \"bishop-gold-silver-gold-silver.\" The king is moved one square to the left, behind the middle silver. The crab name comes from the way the king at 69 can only move from side to side (79, 59).", "In some variations (especially older pre-1960s theory) of the Snowroof opening, the Snowroof may be developed into a Silver Fortress.", "A Mino castle may be developed into Right Fortress." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geographical distribution.", "Official status.", "Phonology.", "Consonant clusters.", "Alveolar stops.", "Voiceless velar fricative.", "Velar nasal.", "Vowel inventory.", "Writing system.", "Morphology and grammar.", "Negation process.", "Classifiers.", "Nominalization.", "Grammatical cases.", "Pronouns.", "Tense.", "Dialects.", "Regional dialects.", "Samples.", "Non-regional dialects.", "Literature.", "Sample text." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Assamese originated in Old Indo-Aryan dialects, though the exact nature of its origin and growth is not clear yet. It is generally believed that Assamese and the Kamatapuri lects derive from the Kamarupi dialect of Eastern Magadhi Prakrit that kept to the north of the Ganges; though some authors contest a close connection of Assamese with Magadhi Prakrit. Assamese developed from Indo-Aryan settlements in urban centers and along the Brahmaputra river embedded in Tibeto-Burman and Austroasiatic communities. Kakati's (1941) assertion that Assamese has an Austroasiatic substrate is generally accepted — which suggests that when the Indo-Aryan centers formed in the 4th-5th centuries CE, there were substantial Austroasiatic speakers that later accepted the Indo-Aryan vernacular. The Indo-Aryan vernacular in Kamarupa had differentiated itself from the original vernacular by the 7th-century, before it did in Bengal or Orissa, as observed by Xuanzang the Chinese traveler. These changes were likely due to non-Indo-Aryan speakers adopting the language. The evidence of the newly differentiated vernacular is found in the Prakritisms present in the Sanskrit of the Kamarupa inscriptions from which eventually Assamese emerged. The earliest forms of Assamese in literature are found in the ninth-century Buddhist verses called Charyapada, and in 12-14th century works of Ramai Pundit (\"Sunya Puran\"), Boru Chandidas (\"Krishna Kirtan\"), Sukur Mamud (\"Gopichandrar Gan\"), Durllava Mullik (\"Gobindachandrar Git\") and Bhavani Das (\"Mainamatir Gan\"). In these works, Assamese features coexist with features from other Modern Indian Languages. A fully distinguished literary form (poetry) appeared first in the fourteenth century— in the courts of the Kamata kingdom and in the courts of an eastern Boro Kachari king where Madhav Kandali translated the Ramayana into Assamese (Saptakanda Ramayana). From the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, songs – \"Borgeets\", dramas – \"Ankiya Naat\" and the first prose writings (by Bhattadeva) were composed. The literary language moved to the court of the Ahom kingdom in the seventeenth century, where it became the state language. This period saw the widespread development of standardised prose infused with colloquial forms in Buranjis. According to, this included \"the colloquial prose of religious biographies, the archaic prose of magical charms, the conventional prose of utilitarian literature on medicine, astrology, arithmetic, dance and music, and above all the standardised prose of the Buranjis. The literary language, having become infused with the eastern idiom, became the standard literary form in the nineteenth century, when the British adopted it for state purposes. As the political and commercial center shifted to Guwahati after the mid-twentieth century, the literary form moved away from the eastern variety to take its current form.", "Assamese is native to Brahmaputra Valley consisting of western and eastern Assam. It is also spoken in states of Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. Presence of Assamese script can be found in Rakhine state of present Myanmar. Pashupati temple in Nepal also have inscription in Assamese showing its influence and prosperity in the past. There are also significant Assamese-speaking diaspora worldwide.", "Assamese is the official language of Assam, and one of the 23 official languages recognised by the Republic of India. The Assam Secretariat functions in Assamese.", "The Assamese phonemic inventory consists of eight vowels, ten diphthongs, and twenty-three consonants (including two semivowels).", "Consonant clusters in Assamese include thirty-three pure consonant letters in the Assamese alphabet. Each letter represents a single sound with an inherent vowel, the short vowel. The first twenty-five consonants letters are called \"sparxa barna\". These \"sparxa barna\"s are again divided into five \"barga\"s. Therefore, these twenty-five letters are also called \"bargia barna\".", "The Assamese phoneme inventory is unique in the Indic group of languages in its lack of a dental-retroflex distinction among the coronal stops as well as the lack of postalveolar affricates and fricatives. Historically, the dental and retroflex series merged into alveolar stops. This makes Assamese resemble non-Indic languages of Northeast India (such as Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan languages). The only other language to have fronted retroflex stops into alveolars is the closely related eastern dialects of Bengali (although a contrast with dental stops remains in those dialects). Note that is normally realised as or as a retroflex approximant.", "Assamese and Sylheti are unusual among Eastern Indo-Aryan languages for the presence of the (which, phonetically, varies between velar () and a uvular () pronunciations, depending on the speaker and speech register), historically the MIA sibilant has lenited to and (non-initially). The derivation of the velar fricative from the coronal sibilant is evident in the name of the language in Assamese; some Assamese prefer to write or instead of or to reflect the sound change. The voiceless velar fricative is absent in the West Goalpariya dialects though it is found in lesser extent in East Goalpariya and Kamrupi, otherwise used extensively further east. The change of to and then to has been attributed to Tibeto-Burman influence by Dr. Chatterjee.", "Assamese, Odia, and Bengali, in contrast to other Indo-Aryan languages, use the velar nasal (the English \"ng\" in \"sing\") extensively. In many languages, while the velar nasal is commonly restricted to preceding velar sounds, in Assamese it can occur intervocalically. This is another feature it shares with other languages of Northeast India, though in Assamese the velar nasal never occurs word-initially.", "Eastern Indic languages like Assamese, Bengali, Sylheti, and Odia do not have a vowel length distinction, but have a wide set of back rounded vowels. In the case of Assamese, there are four back rounded vowels that contrast phonemically, as demonstrated by the minimal set: \"kôla\" ('deaf'), \"kola\" ('black'), \"kûla\" ('lap'), and \"kula\" ('winnowing fan'). The near-close near-back rounded vowel is unique in this branch of the language family. But in lower Assam, ও is pronounced same as অ' (o') which is also correct. \"kola\" \"mor\" Vowel harmony Assamese has vowel harmony. The vowels [i] and [u] cause the preceding mid vowels and the high back vowels to change to [e] and [o] and [u] respectively. Assamese is one of the few languages spoken in India which exhibit a systematic process of vowel harmony", "Modern Assamese uses the Assamese script, and in the medieval times, the script came in three varieties: \"Bamuniya\", \"Garhgaya,\" \"Kaitheli/Lakhari\", which developed from the Kamarupi script. It very closely resembles the Mithilakshar script of the Maithili language, as well as the Bengali script. There is a strong literary tradition from early times. Examples can be seen in edicts, land grants and copper plates of medieval kings. Assam had its own manuscript writing system on the bark of the \"saanchi\" tree in which religious texts and chronicles were written, as opposed to the pan-Indian system of Palm leaf manuscript writing. The present-day spellings in Assamese are not necessarily phonetic. \"Hemkosh\" ( ), the second Assamese dictionary, introduced spellings based on Sanskrit, which are now the standard. In the early 1970s, it was agreed upon that the Roman script was to be the standard writing system for Nagamese Creole.", "The Assamese language has the following characteristic morphological features:", "Verbs in Assamese are negated by adding before the verb, with picking up the initial vowel of the verb. For example:", "Assamese has a large collection of classifiers, which are used extensively for different kinds of objects, acquired from the Sino-Tibetan languages. A few examples of the most extensive and elaborate use of classifiers are given below: In Assamese, classifiers are generally used in the \"numeral + classifier + noun\" (e.g. 'one man') or the \"noun + numeral + classifier\" (e.g. 'one man') forms.", "Most verbs can be converted into nouns by the addition of the suffix. For example, ('to eat') can be converted to ('good eating').", "Assamese has 8 grammatical cases:", "m=\"male\", f=\"female\", n=\"neuter.\", *=\"the person or object is near.\", **=\"the person or object is far.\", v =\"very familiar, inferior\", f=\"familiar\", p=\"polite\", e=\"ergative form\".", "With consonant ending verb likh (write) and vowel ending verb kha (eat, drink, consume). For different types of verbs.", "", "The language has quite a few regional variations. Banikanta Kakati identified two broad dialects which he named (1) Eastern and (2) Western dialects, of which the eastern dialect is homogeneous, and prevalent to the east of Guwahati, and the western dialect is heterogeneous. However, recent linguistic studies have identified four dialect groups listed below from east to west:", "Collected from the book, \"Assamese – Its formation and development\". The translations are of different versions of the English translations:", "Assamese does not have caste- or occupation-based dialects. In the nineteenth century, the Eastern dialect became the standard dialect because it witnessed more literary activity and it was more uniform from east of Guwahati to Sadiya, whereas the western dialects were more heterogeneous. Since the nineteenth century, the center of literary activity (as well as of politics and commerce) has shifted to Guwahati; as a result, the standard dialect has evolved considerably away from the largely rural Eastern dialects and has become more urban and acquired western dialectal elements. Most literary activity takes place in this dialect, and is often called the \"likhito-bhaxa\", though regional dialects are often used in novels and other creative works. In addition to the regional variants, sub-regional, community-based dialects are also prevalent, namely:", "There is a growing and strong body of literature in this language. The first characteristics of this language are seen in the Charyapadas composed in between the eighth and twelfth centuries. The first examples emerged in writings of court poets in the fourteenth century, the finest example of which is Madhav Kandali's Saptakanda Ramayana. The popular ballad in the form of Ojapali is also regarded as well-crafted. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries saw a flourishing of Vaishnavite literature, leading up to the emergence of modern forms of literature in the late nineteenth century.", "The following is a sample text in Assamese of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Assamese in Assamese alphabet Assamese in Romanization system 1 Assamese in Romanization system 2 Assamese in the International Phonetic Alphabet Gloss Translation" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Fictional history.", "Concept and creation.", "Adaptations.", "Namesakes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "When Sauron began searching Middle-earth during the Second Age for a permanent dwelling place, his attention was immediately drawn to Mordor, and especially to Orodruin, whose power he believed he could use to his advantage. He subsequently established his kingdom based around Orodruin and \"used the fire that welled there from the heart of the earth in his sorceries and his forging\". The most famous of Sauron's creations forged at Mount Doom is the One Ring. In \"The Fellowship of the Ring\", Gandalf explains that the materials of which the Ring is made are so durable and the enchantments with which it is imbued so powerful that it can only be destroyed in the \"Cracks of Doom\" where it was made. Orodruin is more than just an ordinary volcano; it responds to Sauron's commands and his presence, lapsing into dormancy when he is away from Mordor and becoming active again when he returns. When Sauron is defeated at the end of the Third Age, the volcano erupts violently.", "According to the fanzine \"Niekas\", Tolkien \"caught a glimpse of Mount Doom\" when sailing past the volcano of Stromboli off Sicily. Another possible source of the name is a long story by Algernon Blackwood. Reviewer Bart Higgins noted the similarity between Tolkien's Mount Doom and the volcanic caverns under Venus depicted in \"Perelandra\" by Tolkien's friend C.S. Lewis. \"In both cases, the book reaches a cataclysmic scene of a struggle in a cavern, ending with an evil being falling into volcanic fire and being consumed. Since it is well known that Tolkien and Lewis frequently shared with each other their respective works in progress, it is reasonable to assume that the resemblance is no coincidence\".", "In Peter Jackson's film adaptation of \"The Lord of the Rings\", Mount Doom was represented by two active volcanoes in New Zealand: Mount Ngauruhoe and Mount Ruapehu. In long shots, the mountain is either a large model or a CGI effect, or a combination. The production was not permitted to film the summit of Ngauruhoe because the Māori hold it to be sacred, but some scenes on the slopes of Mount Doom were filmed on the slopes of Ruapehu.", "The International Astronomical Union names all mountains on Saturn's moon Titan after mountains in Tolkien's work. In 2012, they named a Titanian mountain \"Doom Mons\" after Mount Doom. Swedish melodic death metal band Amon Amarth, whose lyrics deal primarily with Viking culture and Norse mythology, are named after the mountain." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Racial and ethnic groups.", "White and European Americans.", "Middle Easterners and North Africans.", "Hispanic and Latino Americans.", "Black and African Americans.", "Asian Americans.", "American Indians and Alaska Natives.", "Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders.", "Two or more races.", "Some other race.", "National personification.", "Language.", "Religion.", "Culture.", "Diaspora." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The majority of Americans or their ancestors immigrated to America or are descended from people who were brought as slaves within the past five centuries, with the exception of the Native American population and people from Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands, who became American through expansion of the country in the 19th century, additionally America expanded into American Samoa, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Northern Mariana Islands in the 20th century. Despite its multi-ethnic composition, the culture of the United States held in common by most Americans can also be referred to as mainstream American culture, a Western culture largely derived from the traditions of Northern and Western European colonists, settlers, and immigrants. It also includes influences of African-American culture. Westward expansion integrated the Creoles and Cajuns of Louisiana and the Hispanos of the Southwest and brought close contact with the culture of Mexico. Large-scale immigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from Southern and Eastern Europe introduced a variety of elements. Immigration from Asia, Africa, and Latin America has also had impact. A cultural melting pot, or pluralistic salad bowl, describes the way in which generations of Americans have celebrated and exchanged distinctive cultural characteristics. In addition to the United States, Americans and people of American descent can be found internationally. As many as seven million Americans are estimated to be living abroad, and make up the American diaspora.", "The United States of America is a diverse country, racially, and ethnically. Six races are officially recognized by the U.S. Census Bureau for statistical purposes: White, American Indian and Alaska Native, Asian, Black or African American, Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, and people of two or more races. \"Some other race\" is also an option in the census and other surveys. The United States Census Bureau also classifies Americans as \"Hispanic or Latino\" and \"Not Hispanic or Latino\", which identifies Hispanic and Latino Americans as a racially diverse \"ethnicity\" that comprises the largest minority group in the nation.", "People of European descent, or White Americans (also referred to as Caucasian Americans), constitute the majority of the 308 million people living in the United States, with 72.4% of the population in the 2010 United States Census. They are considered people who trace their ancestry to the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Of those reporting to be White American, 7,487,133 reported to be Multiracial; with largest combination being white and black. Additionally, there are 29,184,290 White Hispanics or Latinos. Non-Hispanic Whites are the majority in 45 states. There are five minority-majority states: California, Texas, New Mexico, Nevada, and Hawaii. In addition, the District of Columbia has a non-white majority. The state with the highest percentage of non-Hispanic White Americans is Maine. The largest continental ancestral group of Americans are that of Europeans who have origins in any of the original peoples of Europe. This includes people via African, North American, Caribbean, Central American or South American and Oceanian nations that have a large European descended population. The Spanish were some of the first Europeans to establish a continuous presence in what is now the United States in 1565. Martín de Argüelles born 1566, San Agustín, La Florida then a part of New Spain, was the first person of European descent born in what is now the United States. Twenty-one years later, Virginia Dare born 1587 Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina, was the first child born in the original Thirteen Colonies to English parents. In the 2017 American Community Survey, German Americans (13.2%), Irish Americans (9.7%), English Americans (7.1%) and Italian Americans (5.1%) were the four largest self-reported European ancestry groups in the United States forming 35.1% of the total population. However, the English Americans and British Americans demography is considered a serious under-count as they tend to self-report and identify as simply \"Americans\" (since the introduction of a new \"American\" category in the 1990 census) due to the length of time they have inhabited America. This is highly over-represented in the Upland South, a region that was settled historically by the British. Overall, as the largest group, European Americans have the lowest poverty rate and the second highest educational attainment levels, median household income, and median personal income of any racial demographic in the nation.", "According to the American Jewish Archives and the Arab American National Museum, some of the first Middle Easterners and North Africans (viz. Jews and Berbers) arrived in the Americas between the late 15th and mid-16th centuries. Many were fleeing ethnic or ethnoreligious persecution during the Spanish Inquisition, and a few were also taken to the Americas as slaves. In 2014, The United States Census Bureau began finalizing the ethnic classification of MENA populations. According to the Arab American Institute (AAI), Arab Americans have family origins in each of the 22 member states of the Arab League. Following consultations with MENA organizations, the Census Bureau announced in 2014 that it would establish a new MENA ethnic category for populations from the Middle East, North Africa and the Arab world, separate from the \"white\" classification that these populations had previously sought in 1909. The expert groups, felt that the earlier \"white\" designation no longer accurately represents MENA identity, so they successfully lobbied for a distinct categorization. This new category would also include Jewish Americans. The Census Bureau does not currently ask about whether one is Sikh, because it views them as followers of a religion rather than members of an ethnic group, and it does not combine questions concerning religion with race or ethnicity. As of December 2015, the sampling strata for the new MENA category includes the Census Bureau's working classification of 19 MENA groups, as well as Turkish, Sudanese, Djiboutian, Somali, Mauritanian, Armenian, Cypriot, Afghan, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups. In January 2018, it was announced that the Census Bureau would not include the grouping in the 2020 Census.", "Hispanic or Latino Americans (of any race) constitute the largest ethnic minority in the United States. They form the second largest group after non-Hispanic Whites in the United States, comprising 16.3% of the population according to the 2010 United States Census. Hispanic/Latino Americans are very racially diverse, and as a result form an ethnic category, rather than a race. People of Spanish or Hispanic descent have lived in what is now the United States since the founding of St. Augustine, Florida in 1565 by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés. In the State of Texas, Spaniards first settled the region in the late 1600s and formed a unique cultural group known as Tejanos.", "Black and African Americans are citizens and residents of the United States with origins in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to the Office of Management and Budget, the grouping includes individuals who self-identify as African American, as well as persons who emigrated from nations in the Caribbean and Sub-Saharan Africa. The grouping is thus based on geography, and may contradict or misrepresent an individual's self-identification since not all immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa are \"Black\". Among these racial outliers are persons from Cape Verde, Madagascar, various Arab states and Hamito-Semitic populations in East Africa and the Sahel, and the Afrikaners of Southern Africa. African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans or Afro-Americans, and formerly as American Negroes) are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa. According to the 2009 American Community Survey, there were 38,093,725 Black and African Americans in the United States, representing 12.4% of the population. In addition, there were 37,144,530 non-Hispanic blacks, which comprised 12.1% of the population. This number increased to 42 million according to the 2010 United States Census, when including Multiracial African Americans, making up 14% of the total U.S. population. Black and African Americans make up the second largest group in the United States, but the third largest group after White Americans and Hispanic or Latino Americans (of any race). The majority of the population (55%) lives in the South; compared to the 2000 Census, there has also been a decrease of African Americans in the Northeast and Midwest. Most African Americans are the direct descendants of captives from West Africa, who survived the slavery era within the boundaries of the present United States. As an adjective, the term is usually spelled \"African-American\". The first West African slaves were brought to Jamestown, Virginia in 1619. The English settlers treated these captives as indentured servants and released them after a number of years. This practice was gradually replaced by the system of race-based slavery used in the Caribbean. All the American colonies had slavery, but it was usually the form of personal servants in the North (where 2% of the people were slaves), and field hands in plantations in the South (where 25% were slaves); by the beginning of the American Revolutionary War 1/5th of the total population was enslaved. During the revolution, some would serve in the Continental Army or Continental Navy, while others would serve the British Empire in Lord Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment, and other units. By 1804, the northern states (north of the Mason–Dixon line) had abolished slavery. However, slavery would persist in the southern states until the end of the American Civil War and the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment. Following the end of the Reconstruction Era, which saw the first African American representation in Congress, African Americans became disenfranchised and subject to Jim Crow laws, legislation that would persist until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act due to the Civil Rights Movement. According to US Census Bureau data, very few African immigrants self-identify as African American. On average, less than 5% of African residents self-reported as \"African American\" or \"Afro-American\" on the 2000 US Census. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants (~95%) identified instead with their own respective ethnicities. Self-designation as \"African American\" or \"Afro-American\" was highest among individuals from West Africa (4%-9%), and lowest among individuals from Cape Verde, East Africa and Southern Africa (0%-4%). African immigrants may also experience conflict with African Americans.", "Another significant population is the Asian American population, comprising 17.3 million in 2010, or 5.6% of the U.S. population. California is home to 5.6 million Asian Americans, the greatest number in any state. In Hawaii, Asian Americans make up the highest proportion of the population (57 percent). Asian Americans live across the country, yet are heavily urbanized, with significant populations in the Greater Los Angeles Area, New York metropolitan area, and the San Francisco Bay Area. They are by no means a monolithic group. The largest sub-groups are immigrants or descendants of immigrants from Cambodia, Mainland China, India, Japan, Korea, Laos, Pakistan, the Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. Asians overall have higher income levels than all other racial groups in the United States, including whites, and the trend appears to be increasing in relation to those groups. Additionally, Asians have a higher education attainment level than all other racial groups in the United States. For better or for worse, the group has been called a model minority. While Asian Americans have been in what is now the United States since before the Revolutionary War, relatively large waves of Chinese, Filipino, and Japanese immigration did not begin until the mid-to-late 19th century. Immigration and significant population growth continue to this day. Due to a number of factors, Asian Americans have been stereotyped as \"perpetual foreigners\".", "According to the 2010 Census, there are 5.2 million people who are Native Americans or Alaska Native alone, or in combination with one or more races; they make up 1.7% of the total population. According to the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), an \"American Indian or Alaska Native\" is a person whose ancestry have origins in any of the original peoples of North, Central, or South America. 2.3 million individuals who are American Indian or Alaskan Native are multiracial; additionally the plurality of American Indians reside in the Western United States (40.7%). Collectively and historically this race has been known by several names; as of 1995, 50% of those who fall within the OMB definition prefer the term \"American Indian\", 37% prefer \"Native American\" and the remainder have no preference or prefer a different term altogether. Native Americans, whose ancestry is indigenous to the Americas, originally migrated to the two continents between 10,000-45,000 years ago. These Paleoamericans spread throughout the two continents and evolved into hundreds of distinct cultures during the pre-Columbian era. Following the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, the European colonization of the Americas began, with St. Augustine, Florida becoming the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States. From the 16th through the 19th centuries, the population of Native Americans declined in the following ways: epidemic diseases brought from Europe; genocide and warfare at the hands of European explorers, settlers and colonists, as well as between tribes; displacement from their lands; internal warfare, enslavement; and intermarriage.", "As defined by the United States Census Bureau and the Office of Management and Budget, Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders are \"persons having origins in any of the original peoples of Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other Pacific Islands\". Previously called Asian Pacific American, along with Asian Americans beginning in 1976, this was changed in 1997. As of the 2010 United States Census there are 1.2 million who reside in the United States, and make up 0.4% of the nation's total population, of whom 56% are multiracial. 14% of the population have at least a bachelor's degree, and 15.1% live in poverty, below the poverty threshold. As compared to the 2000 United States Census this population grew by 40%; and 71% live in the West; of those over half (52%) live in either Hawaii or California, with no other states having populations greater than 100,000. The largest concentration of Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders, is Honolulu County in Hawaii, and Los Angeles County in the continental United States.", "The United States has a growing multiracial identity movement. Multiracial Americans numbered 7.0 million in 2008, or 2.3% of the population; by the 2010 census the Multiracial increased to 9,009,073, or 2.9% of the total population. They can be any combination of races (White, Black or African American, Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, \"some other race\") and ethnicities. The largest population of Multiracial Americans were those of White and African American descent, with a total of 1,834,212 self-identifying individuals. Barack Obama, 44th President of the United States, is biracial with his mother being of English and Irish descent and his father being of Kenyan birth; however, Obama only self-identifies as being African American.", "According to the 2010 United States Census, 6.2% or 19,107,368 Americans chose to self-identify with the \"some other race\" category, the third most popular option. Also, 36.7% or 18,503,103 Hispanic/Latino Americans chose to identify as some other race as these Hispanic/Latinos may feel the U.S. Census does not describe their European and American Indian ancestry as they understand it to be. A significant portion of the Hispanic and Latino population self-identifies as Mestizo, particularly the Mexican and Central American community. Mestizo is not a racial category in the U.S. Census, but signifies someone who has both European and American Indian ancestry.", "A national personification is an anthropomorphism of a nation or its people; it can appear in both editorial cartoons and propaganda. Uncle Sam is a national personification of the United States and sometimes more specifically of the American government, with the first usage of the term dating from the War of 1812. He is depicted as a stern elderly white man with white hair and a goatee beard, and dressed in clothing that recalls the design elements of the flag of the United States – for example, typically a top hat with red and white stripes and white stars on a blue band, and red and white striped trousers. Columbia is a poetic name for the Americas and the feminine personification of the United States of America, made famous by African-American poet Phillis Wheatley during the American Revolutionary War in 1776. It has inspired the names of many persons, places, objects, institutions, and companies in the Western Hemisphere and beyond, including the District of Columbia, the seat of government of the United States.", "English is the de facto national language. Although there is no official language at the federal level, some laws—such as U.S. naturalization requirements—standardize English. In 2007, about 226 million, or 80% of the population aged five years and older, spoke only English at home. Spanish, spoken by 12% of the population at home, is the second most common language and the most widely taught second language. Some Americans advocate making English the country's official language, as it is in at least twenty-eight states. Both English and Hawaiian are official languages in Hawaii by state law. While neither has an official language, New Mexico has laws providing for the use of both English and Spanish, as Louisiana does for English and French. Other states, such as California, mandate the publication of Spanish versions of certain government documents. The latter include court forms. Several insular territories grant official recognition to their native languages, along with English: Samoan and Chamorro are recognized by American Samoa and Guam, respectively; Carolinian and Chamorro are recognized by the Northern Mariana Islands; Spanish is an official language of Puerto Rico.", "Religion in the United States has a high adherence level compared to other developed countries, as well as a diversity in beliefs. The First Amendment to the country's Constitution prevents the Federal government from making any \"law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof\". The U.S. Supreme Court has interpreted this as preventing the government from having any authority in religion. A majority of Americans report that religion plays a \"very important\" role in their lives, a proportion unusual among developed countries, although similar to the other nations of the Americas. Many faiths have flourished in the United States, including both later imports spanning the country's multicultural immigrant heritage, as well as those founded within the country; these have led the United States to become the most religiously diverse country in the world. The majority of Americans (76%) are Christians, mostly within Protestant and Catholic denominations; these adherents constitute 48% and 23% of the population, respectively. Other religions include Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism, which collectively make up about 4% to 5% of the adult population. Another 15% of the adult population identifies as having no religious belief or no religious affiliation. According to the American Religious Identification Survey, religious belief varies considerably across the country: 59% of Americans living in Western states (the \"Unchurched Belt\") report a belief in God, yet in the South (the \"Bible Belt\") the figure is as high as 86%. Several of the original Thirteen Colonies were established by settlers who wished to practice their own religion without discrimination: the Massachusetts Bay Colony was established by English Puritans, Pennsylvania by Irish and English Quakers, Maryland by English and Irish Catholics, and Virginia by English Anglicans. Although some individual states retained established religious confessions well into the 19th century, the United States was the first nation to have no official state-endorsed religion. Modeling the provisions concerning religion within the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, the framers of the Constitution rejected any religious test for office, and the First Amendment specifically denied the federal government any power to enact any law respecting either an establishment of religion or prohibiting its free exercise, thus protecting any religious organization, institution, or denomination from government interference. The decision was mainly influenced by European Rationalist and Protestant ideals, but was also a consequence of the pragmatic concerns of minority religious groups and small states that did not want to be under the power or influence of a national religion that did not represent them.", "The American culture is primarily a Western culture, but is influenced by Native American, West African, East Asian, Polynesian, and Latin American cultures. The United States of America has its own unique social and cultural characteristics, such as dialect, music, arts, social habits, cuisine and folklore. Its chief early European influences came from English, Scottish, Welsh, and Irish settlers of colonial America during British rule. British culture, due to colonial ties with Britain that spread the English language, legal system and other cultural inheritances, had a formative influence. Other important influences came from other parts of Europe, especially Germany, France, and Italy. Original elements also play a strong role, such as Jeffersonian democracy. Thomas Jefferson's \"Notes on the State of Virginia\" was perhaps the first influential domestic cultural critique by an American and a reactionary piece to the prevailing European consensus that America's domestic originality was degenerate. Prevalent ideas and ideals that evolved domestically, such as national holidays, uniquely American sports, military tradition, and innovations in the arts and entertainment give a strong sense of national pride among the population as a whole. American culture includes both conservative and liberal elements, scientific and religious competitiveness, political structures, risk taking and free expression, materialist and moral elements. Despite certain consistent ideological principles (e.g. individualism, egalitarianism, faith in freedom and democracy), the American culture has a variety of expressions due to its geographical scale and demographic diversity.", "Americans have migrated to many places around the world, including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Costa Rica, France, Germany, Hong Kong, India, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, the United Arab Emirates, and the United Kingdom., there were approximately 9 million U.S. citizens living outside of the United States." ] }