Datasets:

---

StivenLancheros

/

all_datasets_wikis

like 0

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{ "title": [ "Administration.", "Geography.", "Economy.", "Codes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The French Southern and Antarctic Lands have formed a (an overseas territory) of France since 1955. Formerly, they were administered from Paris by an assisted by a secretary-general; since December 2004, however, their administrator has been a \"préfet\", currently Cécile Pozzo di Borgo, with headquarters in Saint Pierre on Réunion Island. The territory is divided into five districts: Each district is headed by a district chief, who has powers similar to those of a French mayor (including recording births and deaths and being an officer of judicial police). Because there is no permanent population, there is no elected assembly, nor does the territory send representatives to the national parliament.", "The territory includes Amsterdam Island, Saint Paul Island, the Crozet Islands, and the Kerguelen Islands in the southern Indian Ocean near 43°S, 67°E, along with \"Adélie Land\", the sector of Antarctica claimed by France, named by the French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville after his wife. \"Adélie Land\" (about ) and the islands, totaling, have no indigenous inhabitants, though in 1997 there were about 100 researchers whose numbers varied from winter (July) to summer (January). Amsterdam Island and Saint Paul Island are extinct volcanoes and have been delineated as the Amsterdam and Saint-Paul Islands temperate grasslands ecoregion. The highest point in the territory is Mont Ross on Kerguelen Island at. There are very few airstrips on the islands, only existing on islands with weather stations, and the of coastline have no ports or harbors, only offshore anchorages. The islands in the Indian Ocean are supplied by the special ship \"Marion Dufresne\" sailing out of Le Port in Réunion Island. Terre Adélie is supplied by \"L'Astrolabe\" sailing out of Hobart in Tasmania. However, the territory has a merchant marine fleet totaling (in 1999) 2,892,911 GRT/, including seven bulk carriers, five cargo ships, ten chemical tankers, nine container ships, six liquefied gas carriers, 24 petroleum tankers, one refrigerated cargo ship, and ten roll-on-roll-off (RORO) carriers. This fleet is maintained as a subset of the French register that allows French-owned ships to operate under more liberal taxation and manning regulations than permissible under the main French register. This register, however, is to vanish, replaced by the International French Register (\"Registre International Français\", RIF).", "The territory's natural resources are limited to fish and crustaceans. Economic activity is limited to servicing meteorological and geophysical research stations and French and other fishing fleets. The main fish resources are Patagonian toothfish and spiny lobster. Both are poached by foreign fleets; because of this, the French Navy, and occasionally other services, patrol the zone and arrest poaching vessels. Such arrests can result in heavy fines and/or the seizure of the ship. France previously sold licenses to foreign fisheries to fish the Patagonian toothfish; because of overfishing, it is now restricted to a small number of fisheries from Réunion Island. The territory takes in revenues of about €16 million a year.", "The French Southern Territories (i.e. the TAAF excluding Adélie Land) have been given the following country codes: FS (FIPS) and (ISO 3166-1 alpha-2)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Club career.", "Ajax.", "Milan.", "Fulham (loan).", "Roma.", "Verona.", "Sheffield Wednesday.", "FC Utrecht.", "International career.", "Personal life.", "Honours.", "Club.", "International." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Emanuelson is a product of Ajax's youth system, joining them from Voorland SC. He made his debut during the 2004–05 season on 10 April 2005 in a 4–2 home win over AZ. As of the 2005–06 season, he became first-choice left back and he won his first career trophies, starting with the 2005 Johan Cruyff Shield and the 2005–06 KNVB Cup. As a result, his efforts he was named \"Amsterdam talent of the year 2006\". Both the Johan Cruyff Shield and KNVB Cup were successfully defended in the 2006–07 season, with the former won for the third consecutive year at the start of the 2007–08 season. In his last season at Ajax, Emanuelson primarily played as a left midfielder because of his weak defending abilities. He flourished in his new role on the left wing, frequently making runs and assisting from the flanks while scoring goals himself. In the 2009–10 season, Emanuelson won the KNVB Cup for the third time in his career.", "On 23 January 2011, Italian Serie A club Milan announced the signing of Emanuelson on a three-and-a-half-year contract for a transfer fee of around €1.7 million. After the 2010–11 season, the fee increased by €750,000, making a total fee of around €2.5 million. Emanuelson made his debut for the club on 26 January 2011 in a Coppa Italia match against Sampdoria, providing an assist for Alexandre Pato. Milan won the match 2–1. He played his first game in Serie A after entering as a substitute against Catania. Emanuelson scored his first goal for Milan in a Coppa Italia match against Palermo, the equaliser in a 2–2 draw. He helped Milan win their first \"Scudetto\" in seven years at the end of the season, acting mostly as a substitute. He also won the 2011 Supercoppa Italiana. Emanuelson scored his first Serie A goal for Milan in an away match against Cesena on 19 February 2012. He scored his second Serie A goal for Milan in an away game against Parma on 17 March 2012.", "Emanuelson signed for English Premier League side Fulham on loan until the end of the 2012–13 season on 31 January 2013. He made his Fulham debut on 2 February against Manchester United at Craven Cottage, coming on for Giorgos Karagounis. He scored his first goal for Fulham in a 3–0 win over Swansea City on the final day of the season.", "On 11 July 2014, Emanuelson signed a one-year deal with Roma with the option for the club to extend his contract for another two seasons.", "On 3 January 2016, Emanuelson joined Hellas Verona on a free transfer.", "After being released by Verona in the summer 2016, Emanuelson joined English Championship side Sheffield Wednesday on 6 September on a free transfer.", "Emanuelson returned to Holland in summer 2017, after signing a one-year contract with FC Utrecht.", "Emanuelson was a member of the Dutch squad playing at the FIFA U-20 World Cup in 2005, held in Netherlands. The Dutch were eliminated in the quarter-final against Nigeria. He also was a member of the Dutch squad that won the UEFA U-21 Championship in 2006 and was named in the UEFA Team of the Tournament as a left back. The last major tournament he played was the 2008 Summer Olympics where the team was eliminated in the quarter-finals by eventual winners Argentina. On 16 August 2006, Emanuelson made his debut for the Netherlands senior team in a friendly match against the Republic of Ireland. Despite playing for the Netherlands occasionally during the qualifiers for UEFA Euro 2008, he was not selected in the final squad that would participate in the tournament itself.", "Emanuelson comes from a football-playing family. His father Errol Emanuelson was a professional footballer who played for S.V. Robinhood in Suriname and Sint-Niklaas in Belgium before settling in Amsterdam. His older brother Julian Emanuelson, also a product of the Ajax Youth Academy, played professionally for HFC Haarlem, and for Lustenau in Austria. His sister Sharifa Emanuelson, a former basketball player, and his cousin Roché Emanuelson has played for various clubs in the SVB Hoofdklasse and for the Suriname national team. His maternal cousin is 1. FSV Mainz 05 midfielder Jean-Paul Boëtius.", "", "Ajax Milan", "Netherlands" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "History.", "19th century.", "20th century.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Provincial finances.", "Education.", "Healthcare.", "Government and politics.", "Transportation.", "Culture.", "Arts.", "Sports.", "Symbols.", "Centennial celebrations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "Its name derived from the Saskatchewan River. The", "As Saskatchewan's borders largely follow the geographic coordinates of longitude and latitude, the province is roughly a quadrilateral, or a shape with four sides. However, the 49th parallel boundary and the 60th northern border appear curved on globes and many maps. Additionally, the eastern boundary of the province is partially crooked rather than following a line of longitude, as correction lines were devised by surveyors prior to the homestead program (1880–1928). Saskatchewan is part of the Western Provinces and is bounded on the west by Alberta, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the north-east by Nunavut, on the east by Manitoba, and on the south by the U.S. states of Montana and North Dakota. Saskatchewan has the distinction of being the only Canadian province for which no borders correspond to physical geographic features (i.e. they are all parallels and meridians). Along with Alberta, Saskatchewan is one of only two land-locked provinces. The overwhelming majority of Saskatchewan's population is located in the southern third of the province, south of the 53rd parallel. Saskatchewan contains two major natural regions: the Boreal Forest in the north and the Prairies in the south. They are separated by an aspen parkland transition zone near the North Saskatchewan River on the western side of the province, and near to south of the Saskatchewan River on the eastern side. Northern Saskatchewan is mostly covered by forest except for the Lake Athabasca Sand Dunes, the largest active sand dunes in the world north of 58°, and adjacent to the southern shore of Lake Athabasca. Southern Saskatchewan contains another area with sand dunes known as the \"Great Sand Hills\" covering over. The Cypress Hills, located in the southwestern corner of Saskatchewan and Killdeer Badlands (Grasslands National Park), are areas of the province that were unglaciated during the last glaciation period, the Wisconsin glaciation. The province's highest point, at, is located in the Cypress Hills less than 2 km from the provincial boundary with Alberta. The lowest point is the shore of Lake Athabasca, at. The province has 14 major drainage basins made up of various rivers and watersheds draining into the Arctic Ocean, Hudson Bay and the Gulf of Mexico.", "Saskatchewan receives more hours of sunshine than any other Canadian province. The province lies far from any significant body of water. This fact, combined with its northerly latitude, gives it a warm summer, corresponding to its humid continental climate (Köppen type \"Dfb\") in the central and most of the eastern parts of the province, as well as the Cypress Hills; drying off to a semi-arid steppe climate (Köppen type \"BSk\") in the southwestern part of the province. Drought can affect agricultural areas during long periods with little or no precipitation at all. The northern parts of Saskatchewan – from about La Ronge northward – have a subarctic climate (Köppen \"Dfc\") with a shorter summer season. Summers can get very hot, sometimes above during the day, and with humidity decreasing from northeast to southwest. Warm southern winds blow from the plains and intermontane regions of the Western United States during much of July and August, very cool or hot but changeable air masses often occur during spring and in September. Winters are usually bitterly cold, with frequent Arctic air descending from the north. with high temperatures not", "Saskatchewan has been populated by various indigenous peoples of North America, including members of the Sarcee, Niitsitapi, Atsina, Cree, Saulteaux, Assiniboine (Nakoda), Lakota and Sioux. The first known European to enter Saskatchewan was Henry Kelsey in 1690, who travelled up the Saskatchewan River in hopes of trading fur with the region's indigenous peoples. The first permanent European settlement was a Hudson's Bay Company post at Cumberland House, founded in 1774 by Samuel Hearne. In 1762 the south of the province was part of the Spanish Louisiana until 1802.", "In 1803 the Louisiana Purchase transferred from France to the United States part of what is now Alberta and Saskatchewan. In 1818 the U.S. ceded the area to Britain. Most of what is now Saskatchewan was part of Rupert's Land and controlled by the Hudson's Bay Company, which claimed rights to all watersheds flowing into Hudson Bay, including the Saskatchewan River, Churchill, Assiniboine, Souris, and Qu'Appelle River systems. In the late 1850s and early 1860s, scientific expeditions led by John Palliser and Henry Youle Hind explored the prairie region of the province. In 1870, Canada acquired the Hudson's Bay Company's territories and formed the North-West Territories to administer the vast territory between British Columbia and Manitoba. The Crown also entered into a series of numbered treaties with the indigenous peoples of the area, which serve as the basis of the relationship between First Nations, as they are called today, and the Crown. Since the late twentieth century, land", "Gender roles were sharply defined. Men were primarily responsible for breaking the land; planting and harvesting; building the house; buying, operating and repairing machinery; and handling finances. At first, there were many single men on the prairie, or husbands whose wives were still back east, but they had a hard time. They realized the need for a wife. In 1901, there were 19,200 families, but this surged to 150,300 families only 15 years later. Wives played a central role in settlement of the prairie region. Their labor, skills, and ability to adapt to the harsh environment proved decisive in meeting the challenges. They prepared bannock, beans and bacon, mended clothes, raised children, cleaned, tended the garden, helped at harvest time and nursed everyone back to health. While prevailing patriarchal attitudes, legislation, and economic principles obscured women's contributions, the flexibility exhibited by farm women in performing productive and nonproductive labor was critical to the survival of family farms, and thus to the success of the wheat economy. On September 1, 1905, Saskatchewan became a province, with inauguration day held September 4. Its political leaders at the time proclaimed its destiny was to become Canada's most powerful province. Saskatchewan embarked on an ambitious province-building program based on its Anglo-Canadian culture and wheat production for the export market. Population quintupled from 91,000 in 1901 to 492,000 to 1911, thanks to heavy immigration of farmers from the Ukraine, U.S., Germany and Scandinavia. Efforts were made to assimilate the newcomers to British Canadian culture and values. In the 1905 provincial elections, Liberals won 16 of 25 seats in Saskatchewan. The Saskatchewan government bought out Bell Telephone Company in 1909, with the government owning the long-distance lines and left local service to small companies organized at the municipal level. Premier Walter Scott preferred government assistance to outright ownership because he thought enterprises worked better if citizens had a stake in running them; he set up the Saskatchewan Cooperative Elevator Company in 1911. Despite pressure from farm groups for direct government involvement in the grain handling business, the Scott government opted", "According to the Canada 2011 Census, the largest ethnic group in Saskatchewan is German (28.6%),", "Historically, Saskatchewan's economy was primarily associated with agriculture, with wheat being the precious symbol on the province's flag. Increasing diversification has resulted in agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting only making up 8.9% of the province's GDP in 2018. Saskatchewan grows a large portion of Canada's grain. In 2017, the production of canola surpassed the production of wheat, which is Saskatchewan's most familiar crop and the one most often associated with the province. Total net income from farming was $3.3 billion in 2017, which was $0.9 billion less than the income in 2016. Other grains such as flax, rye, oats, peas, lentils, canary seed, and barley are also produced in the province. Saskatchewan is the world's largest exporter of mustard seed. Beef cattle production by a Canadian province is only exceeded by Alberta. In the northern part of the province, forestry is also a significant industry. Mining is a major industry in the province, with Saskatchewan being the world's largest exporter of potash and uranium. Oil and natural gas production is also a very important part of Saskatchewan's economy, although the oil industry is larger. Among Canadian provinces, only Alberta exceeds Saskatchewan in overall oil production. Heavy crude is extracted in the Lloydminster-Kerrobert-Kindersley areas. Light crude is found in the Kindersley-Swift Current areas as well as the Weyburn-Estevan fields. Natural gas is found almost entirely in the western part of Saskatchewan, from the Primrose Lake area through Lloydminster, Unity, Kindersley, Leader, and around Maple Creek areas. A list of the companies includes The Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan (defunct in December 2017), Federated Cooperatives Ltd. and IPSCO. Major Saskatchewan-based Crown corporations are Saskatchewan Government Insurance (SGI), SaskTel, SaskEnergy (the province's main supplier of natural gas), and SaskPower. Bombardier runs the NATO Flying Training Centre at 15 Wing, near Moose Jaw. Bombardier was awarded a long-term contract in the late 1990s for $2.8 billion from the federal government for the purchase of military aircraft and the running of the training facility. SaskPower since 1929 has been the principal supplier of electricity in Saskatchewan, serving more than 451,000 customers and managing $4.5 billion in assets. SaskPower is a major employer in the province with almost 2,500 permanent full-time staff located in 71 communities.", "The Tabulated Data covers each fiscal year (e.g. 2015–2016 covers April", "Publicly funded elementary and secondary schools in the province are administered by the Saskatchewan Ministry of Education. Public elementary and secondary schools either operate as secular or as a separate schools. Nearly all school divisions, except one operate as an English first language school board. The Division scolaire francophone No. 310 is the only school division that operates French first language schools. In addition to elementary and secondary schools, the province is also home to several post-secondary institutions. The first education on the prairies took place within the family groups of the First Nation and early fur trading settlers. There were only a few missionary or trading post schools established in Rupert's Land – later known as the North West Territories. The first 76 North-West Territories school districts and the first Board of Education meeting formed in 1886. The pioneering boom formed ethnic bloc settlements. Communities were seeking education for their children similar", "Saskatchewan's Ministry of Health is responsible for policy direction, sets and monitors standards, and provides funding for regional health authorities and provincial health services. Saskatchewan's medical health system is widely and inaccurately characterized as \"socialized medicine\": medical practitioners in Saskatchewan, as in other Canadian provinces, are not civil servants but remit their accounts to the publicly funded Saskatchewan Medical Care Insurance Plan rather than to patients (i.e. a single-payer system). Saskatchewan medical health system has faced", "Saskatchewan has the same form of government as the other Canadian provinces with a lieutenant-governor (who is the representative of the Queen in Right of Saskatchewan), premier, and a unicameral legislature. During the 20th century, Saskatchewan was one of Canada's more left-wing provinces, reflecting the slant of its many rural citizens which distrusted the distant capital government and which favored a strong local government to attend to their issues. In 1944 Tommy Douglas became premier of the first avowedly socialist regional government in North America. Most of his Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs) represented rural and small-town ridings. Under his Cooperative Commonwealth Federation government, Saskatchewan became the first province to have Medicare. In 1961, Douglas left provincial politics to become the first leader of the federal New Democratic Party. In the 21st century, Saskatchewan began to", "Transportation in Saskatchewan includes an infrastructure system of roads, highways, freeways, airports, ferries, pipelines, trails, waterways and railway systems serving a population of approximately 1,003,299 (according to 2007 estimates) inhabitants year-round. It is funded primarily with local and federal government funds. The Saskatchewan Department of Highways and Transportation estimates 80% of traffic is carried on the 5,031-kilometre principal system of highways. The Ministry of Highways and Infrastructure operates over of highways and divided highways. There are also municipal roads which comprise different surfaces. Asphalt concrete pavements comprise almost, granular pavement almost, non structural or thin membrane surface TMS are close to and finally gravel highways make up over through the province. In the northern sector, ice roads which can only be navigated in the winter months comprise another approximately of travel. Saskatchewan has over 250,000 kilometres (150,000 mi) of roads and highways, the highest length of road surface of any Canadian province. The major highways in Saskatchewan are the Trans Canada expressway, Yellowhead Highway northern Trans Canada route, Louis Riel Trail, CanAm Highway, Red Coat Trail, Northern Woods and Water route, and Saskota travel route. The first Canadian transcontinental railway was constructed by the Canadian Pacific Railway between 1881 and 1885. After the great east-west transcontinental railway was built, north-south connector branch lines were established. The 1920s saw the largest rise in rail line track as the CPR and CNR fell into competition to provide rail service within ten kilometres. In the 1960s there were applications for abandonment", "Saskatchewan is home to a number of museums. The Royal Saskatchewan Museum serves as the provincial museum of the province. Other museums include Diefenbaker House, Evolution of Education Museum, Museum of Antiquities, the RCMP Heritage Centre, Rotary Museum of Police and Corrections, Saskatchewan Science Centre, Saskatchewan Western Development Museum, and the T.rex Discovery Centre.", "The province is home to several art galleries, including MacKenzie Art Gallery, and Remai Modern. The province is also home to several performing arts centres including the Conexus Arts Centre in Regina, and TCU Place", "The Saskatchewan Roughriders Canadian football team is the province's professional football franchise (playing in the Canadian Football League), and are extremely popular across Saskatchewan. The team's fans are also found to congregate on game days throughout Canada, and collectively they are known as \"Rider Nation\". The province's other major sport franchise is the Saskatchewan Rush of the National Lacrosse League. In their first year of competition, 2016, the Rush won both their Division Title and the League Championship. Hockey is the most popular sport in the province. More than 490 NHL players have been born in Saskatchewan, the highest per capita output of any Canadian province, U.S. state, or European country. Notable NHL figures born in Saskatchewan include Keith Allen, Gordie Howe, Bryan Trottier, Bernie Federko, Clark Gillies, Fern Flaman, Bert Olmstead, Harry Watson, Elmer Lach, Max Bentley, Sid Abel, Doug Bentley, Eddie Shore, Clint Smith, Bryan Hextall, Johnny Bower, Emile Francis, Glenn Hall, Chuck Rayner, Brad McCrimmon,", "The flag of Saskatchewan was officially adopted on September 22, 1969. The flag features the provincial shield in the upper quarter nearest the staff, with the floral emblem, the Prairie Lily, in the fly. The upper green (in forest green) half of the flag represents the northern Saskatchewan forest lands, while the golden lower half of the flag symbolizes the southern wheat fields and prairies. A province-wide competition was held to design the flag, and drew over 4,000 entries. The winning design was by Anthony Drake, then living in Hodgeville. In 2005, Saskatchewan Environment held a province-wide vote to recognize Saskatchewan's centennial year, receiving more than 10,000 online and mail-in votes from the public. The walleye was the overwhelming favourite of the six native fish species nominated for the designation, receiving more than half the votes cast. Other species in the running were the lake sturgeon, lake trout, lake whitefish, northern pike and yellow perch. Saskatchewan's other symbols include the tartan, the license plate, and the provincial flower. Saskatchewan's official tartan was registered with the Court of Lord Lyon King of Arms in Scotland in 1961. It has seven colours: gold, brown, green, red, yellow, white and black. The provincial licence plates display the slogan \"Land of Living Skies\". The provincial flower of Saskatchewan is the Western Red Lily.", "In 2005, Saskatchewan celebrated its centennial. To honour it, the Royal Canadian Mint issued a commemorative five-dollar coin depicting Canada's wheat fields as well as a circulation 25-cent coin of a similar design. Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip visited Regina, Saskatoon, and Lumsden, and the Saskatchewan-reared Joni Mitchell issued an album in Saskatchewan's honour." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Club.", "International.", "Personal.", "Honours.", "Club.", "International." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Rosales began his career with Newell's Old Boys. His play with Newell's attracted the interest of top European clubs and in 2004 he joined Dutch top side Ajax. While with Ajax Rosales appeared in 63 league matches scoring 6 goals. In 2007 Rosales left Ajax returning to Argentina to play for River Plate for a fee of 1.8 million euros. He was part of the squad that won the Clausura 2008 tournament, the club's first title in four years. In January 2011 it was reported that he would be joining Querétaro F.C. of Mexico's Primera División. However, he was not signed by the Mexican club. In late February 2011 he went on trial with Seattle Sounders FC of Major League Soccer in the United States. On 18 March 2011, following a successful trial, the club officially signed Rosales. During Rosales' first season with Seattle, he scored 5 goals in 26 appearances. Additionally, he assisted on 13 goals which was third overall in the league. His 13 assists also set a club record for number of assists by a single player in a single season. Rosales won the MLS Newcomer of the Year Award for the 2011 Major League Soccer season and was subsequently signed to a new, multi-year deal on 13 December 2011. In his three years with the club Rosales tallied 12 goals and 34 assists in league play. He also helped the club in capturing the 2011 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup. Rosales was traded to Chivas USA in exchange for Tristan Bowen on 11 December 2013. Rosales was traded to Vancouver Whitecaps FC in exchange for Nigel Reo-Coker on 21 August 2014. At the end of the 2014 season, Rosales opted out of the MLS re-entry draft for the next season later signing with the club for an additional year The following year the Whitecaps did not offer a contract to Rosales and he was made eligible for the MLS reentry draft. He started in 29 of the 35 games he played for the club scoring one goal and assisting in six other in 2321 minutes of regular season play and an additional 91 minutes in two games in the post-season. On February 16, 2016, Rosales was traded to FC Dallas in exchange for Blas Pérez.", "Rosales was part of the Argentina Under-20 team that won the 2001 FIFA World Youth Championship and the gold-medal winning Argentine national team at the 2004 Summer Olympics.", "Rosales earned his U.S. green card in March 2012. This status qualifies him as a domestic player for MLS roster purposes.", "", "Ajax River Plate Seattle Sounders FC Vancouver Whitecaps FC FC Dallas", "Argentina U-20 Argentina U-23" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Writing.", "Casting.", "Filming.", "Release.", "Reception.", "Box office.", "Critical reception.", "Awards and nominations.", "Sequels, adaptations and remake.", "Historical authenticity." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In March 1944, OSS officer Major John Reisman is ordered by the commander of ADSEC in Britain, Major General Sam Worden, to undertake a top-secret mission transforming twelve prisoners into commandos and sending them on a suicide mission to attack a chateau in France, near Normandy, ahead of the D-Day invasion, in order to disrupt the enemy's chain of command. The twelve are either condemned to death or to lengthy sentences; and, are unorganized and undisciplined. As an incentive, any survivors of the mission will have their sentences commuted and be restored to active duty. Reisman puts them through rigorous training. Despite the rebellious attitude of the men, and interference from Colonel Everett Dasher Breed, Reisman is able to convince General Worden to allow the mission to proceed. The mission's plan is not carried out perfectly; however, the chateau is destroyed and many German officers are killed. Of the dozen prisoners, only one survives, along with Reisman and Sgt. Bowren. The relatives of the other eleven were informed they died \"in the line of duty.\"", "", "Although Robert Aldrich had failed to buy the rights to E.M. Nathanson's novel \"The Dirty Dozen\" while it was just an outline, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer succeeded in May 1963. On publication, the novel became a best-seller in 1965. It was adapted to the screen by veteran scriptwriter and producer, Nunnally Johnson, and Lukas Heller. A repeated rhyme was written into the script where the twelve actors verbally recite the details of the attack in a rhyming chant to help them remember their roles while approaching the mission target:", "The cast included many World War II US veterans including Lee Marvin, Robert Webber and Robert Ryan (all US Marines), Telly Savalas (US Army), Charles Bronson (USAAF), Ernest Borgnine (US Navy) and Clint Walker (US Merchant Marine). John Wayne was the original choice for Reisman, but he turned down the role because he objected to the adultery present in the original script, which featured the character having a relationship with an Englishwoman whose husband was fighting on the Continent. Jack Palance refused the \"Archer Maggott\" role when they would not rewrite the script to make his character lose his racism; Telly Savalas took the role instead. Six of the dozen were experienced American stars, while the \"Back Six\" were actors resident in the UK, Englishman Colin Maitland, Canadians Donald Sutherland and Tom Busby, and Americans Stuart Cooper, Al Mancini, and Ben Carruthers. According to commentary on \"The Dirty Dozen: 2-Disc Special Edition\", when Trini López left the film early, the death scene of Lopez's character where he blew himself up with the radio tower was given to Busby (in the film, Ben Carruthers' character Glenn Gilpin is given the task of blowing up the radio tower while Busby's character Milo Vladek is shot in front of the château). Lopez's character dies off-camera during the parachute drop which begins the mission. The impersonation of the general scene was to have been done by Clint Walker, but when he thought the scene was demeaning to his character, who was a Native American, Aldrich picked out Sutherland for the bit. Jim Brown, the Cleveland Browns running back, announced his retirement from American football at age 29 during the making of the film. The owner of the Browns, Art Modell, demanded Brown choose between football and acting. With Brown's considerable accomplishments in the sport (he was already the NFL's all-time leading rusher, was well ahead statistically of the second-leading rusher, and his team had won the 1964 NFL Championship), he chose acting. In Spike Lee's 2002 documentary \"\" Modell admitted he made a huge mistake in forcing Jim Brown to choose between football and Hollywood. He said that if he had it to do over again, he would never have made such a demand. Modell fined Jim Brown the equivalent of over $100 per day, a fine which Brown said that \"today wouldn't even buy the doughnuts for a team\".", "The production was filmed in UK in the summer of 1966. Interiors and set pieces took place at MGM British Studios, Borehamwood where the château set was built under the direction of art director William Hutchinson. It was wide and high, surrounded with of heather, 400 ferns, 450 shrubs, 30 spruce trees and six weeping willows. Construction of the faux château proved problematic. The script required its explosion, but it was so solid, 70 tons of explosives would have been required for the effect. Instead, a cork and plastic section was destroyed. Exteriors were shot throughout southeast England. The credit scenes at the American military prison – alluded in the movie to be Shepton Mallett – were shot in a courtyard at Ashridge House in Hertfordshire. Co-star Richard Jaeckel recalled that when the introductory line up scene was first shot, Aldrich, who liked to play pranks on his actors, initially placed Charles Bronson between Clint Walker and Donald Sutherland, provoking an angry response from the diminutive Bronson; making Aldrich laugh. The jump school scene was at the former entrance to RAF Hendon in London. The wargame was filmed in and around the village of Aldbury. Bradenham Manor was the Wargames' Headquarters. Beechwood Park School in Markyate was also used as a location during the school's summer term, where the training camp and tower were built and shot in the grounds and the village itself as parts of \"Devonshire\". The main house was also used, appearing in the film as a military hospital. After filming finished the training camp huts were relocated and used as sports equipment storage for the school's playing fields. Residents of Chenies, Buckinghamshire complained to MGM when filming caused damage around their village. While making the film, some of the cast members gave an interview to \"ABC Film review\", in which they contrasted their own real wartime ranks to their officer roles in the film: George Kennedy: Took me two years to make Private First Class. <br> Lee Marvin: I didn't even make that in the Marines. <br> Ernest Borgnine: I was beneath notice in the Navy <br> For punks we're doing all right, said Marvin, I wonder how the generals are doing? Heavy rains throughout the summer caused filming delays of several months leading to $1 million in overruns, bringing the final cost to $5 million. Principal photography wrapped at MGM-British Studios in September 1966 with post-production to be completed at MGM studios in Culver City, California.", "\"The Dirty Dozen\" premiered at the Capitol Theatre in New York City on June 15, 1967 and opened at the 34th Street East theatre the following day. Despite being shot in an aspect ratio of 1.85:1, the film was initially shown in 70mm which cut off 15% of the film and resulted in a grainy look.", "", "\"The Dirty Dozen\" was a massive commercial success. In its first five days in New York, the film grossed $103,849 from 2 theatres. Produced on a budget of $5.4 million, it earned theatrical rentals of $7.5 million in its first five weeks from 1,152 bookings and 625 prints, one of the fastest-grossing films at the time, however, on \"Variety\" weekly box office survey, based on a sample of key city theatres, it only reached number two at the U.S. box office behind \"You Only Live Twice\" until it finally reached number one in its sixth week. It eventually earned rentals of $24.2 million in the United States and Canada from a gross of $45.3 million. It was the fourth-highest-grossing film of 1967 and MGM's highest-grossing film of the year. It was also a hit in France, with admissions of 4,672,628. To coincide with its release, Dell Comics published a comic \"The Dirty Dozen\" in October 1967.", "The film currently holds an 86% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 35 reviews. On release, the film was criticised for its level of violence. Roger Ebert, who was in his first year as a film reviewer for the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", wrote sarcastically: I'm glad the Chicago Police Censor Board forgot about that part of the local censorship law where it says films shall not depict the burning of the human body. If you have to censor, stick to censoring sex, I say...but leave in the mutilation, leave in the sadism and by all means leave in the human beings burning to death. It's not obscene as long as they burn to death with their clothes on. In another contemporaneous review, Bosley Crowther called it \"an astonishingly wanton war film\" and a \"studied indulgence of sadism that is morbid and disgusting beyond words\"; he also noted: It is not simply that this violent picture of an American military venture is based on a fictional supposition that is silly and irresponsible... But to have this bunch of felons a totally incorrigible lot, some of them psychopathic, and to try to make us believe that they would be committed by any American general to carry out an exceedingly important raid that a regular commando group could do with equal efficiency – and certainly with greater dependability – is downright preposterous. Crowther called some of the portrayals \"bizarre and bold\": Marvin's taut, pugnacious playing of the major... is tough and terrifying. John Cassavetes is wormy and noxious as a psychopath condemned to death, and Telly Savalas is swinish and maniacal as a religious fanatic and sex degenerate. Charles Bronson as an alienated murderer, Richard Jaeckel as a hard-boiled military policeman, and Jim Brown as a white-hating Negro stand out in the animalistic group. Art Murphy of \"Variety\" was more positive, calling it \"an exciting World War II pre-D-Day drama\" with an \"excellent cast\" and a \"very good screenplay\" with \"a ring of authenticity to it\". The \"Time Out Film Guide\" notes that over the years, \"\"The Dirty Dozen\" has taken its place alongside that other commercial classic, \"The Magnificent Seven\"\". The review then states: The violence which liberal critics found so offensive has survived intact. Aldrich sets up dispensable characters with no past and no future, as Marvin reprieves a bunch of death row prisoners, forges them into a tough fighting unit, and leads them on a suicide mission into Nazi France. Apart from the values of team spirit, cudgeled by Marvin into his dropout group, Aldrich appears to be against everything: anti-military, anti-Establishment, anti-women, anti-religion, anti-culture, anti-life. Overriding such nihilism is the super-crudity of Aldrich's energy and his humour, sufficiently cynical to suggest that the whole thing is a game anyway, a spectacle that demands an audience.", "Also, the film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:", "Three years after \"The Dirty Dozen\" was released, \"Too Late the Hero\", a film also directed by Aldrich, was described as a \"kind of sequel to \"The Dirty Dozen\"\". The 1969 Michael Caine film \"Play Dirty\" follows a similar theme of convicts recruited as soldiers. The 1977 Italian war film directed by Enzo G. Castellari, \"The Inglorious Bastards\", is a loose remake of \"The Dirty Dozen\". Quentin Tarantino's 2009 \"Inglourious Basterds\" was derived from the English-language title of the Castellari film. Several TV films were produced in the mid-to-late 1980s which capitalized on the popularity of the first film. Lee Marvin, Richard Jaeckel and Ernest Borgnine reprised their roles for \"\" in 1985, leading a group of military convicts in a mission to kill a German general who was plotting to assassinate Adolf Hitler. In \"\" (1987), Telly Savalas, who had played the role of the psychotic Maggott in the original film, assumed the different role of Major Wright, an officer who leads a group of military convicts to extract a group of German scientists who are being forced to make a deadly nerve gas. Ernest Borgnine again reprised his role of General Worden. \"\" (1988) depicts Savalas's Wright character and a group of renegade soldiers attempting to prevent a group of extreme German generals from starting a Fourth Reich, with Erik Estrada co-starring and Ernest Borgnine again playing the role of General Worden. In 1988, Fox aired a short-lived television series starring Ben Murphy. Among the cast was John Slattery, who played Private Leeds in eight of the show's 11 episodes. The surviving cast members of the original film provided the voices of the toy soldiers in Joe Dante's \"Small Soldiers\". In 2014, Warner Bros. announced that director David Ayer would be the director of a live-action adaptation of the DC Comics property Suicide Squad, and Ayer has gone on to say that the film is \"the Dirty Dozen with super villains\", citing the original film as inspiration. In December 2019 Warner Brothers announced it was developing a remake with David Ayer set to direct.", "Nathanson states in the prologue to his novel \"The Dirty Dozen\", that while he heard a legend that such a unit may have existed, he incorrectly heard they were convicts. He was unable to find any corroboration in the archives of the US Army in Europe. He instead turned his research of convicted felons into the subsequent novel. While he does not state from where he acquired the name, but Arch Whitehouse coined the name \"Dirty Dozen\" as the 12 enlisted men of the airborne section that would become the \"Filthy Thirteen\" after the lieutenant joined their ranks. In Arch Whitehouse's article in \"True Magazine\", he claimed all the enlisted men were full-blood Indians, but in reality only their leader, Jake McNeice was quarter Choctaw. The parts of the Filthy Thirteen story that carried over into Nathanson's book were not bathing until the jump into Normandy, their disrespect for military authority, and the pre-invasion party. The Filthy Thirteen was in actuality a demolitions section with a mission to secure bridges over the Douve on D-Day. A similarly named unit called the \"Filthy Thirteen\" was an airborne demolition unit documented in the eponymous book, and this unit's exploits inspired the fictional account. Barbara Maloney, the daughter of John Agnew, a private in the Filthy Thirteen, told the \"American Valor Quarterly\" that her father felt that 30% of the film's content was historically correct, including a scene where officers are captured. Unlike the Dirty Dozen, the Filthy Thirteen were not convicts; however, they were men prone to drinking and fighting and often spent time in the stockade." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Work.", "Bibliography.", "Translations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Among his most famous poems are \"La isla en peso\" (1943), and \"La gran puta\" (1960). He was a member of the \"Origenes\" literary group, although he often differed with the conservative views of the group. In the late 1950s he co-founded the literary journal \"Ciclón\". Following a long exile in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Piñera returned to Cuba in 1958, months before the Cuban Revolution won. His work includes essays on literature and literary criticism, several collections of short stories compiled under the title of \"Cold Tales\", a great number of dramatic works, and three novels: \"La carne de René\" (Rene's Flesh), \"Presiones y Diamantes\" (Pressures and Diamonds), and \"Las pequeñas maniobras\" (Small Maneuvers). His work is seen today as a model by new generations of Cuban and Latin American writers. Some believe that his work influenced that of Reinaldo Arenas, who wrote in his memoir \"Before Night Falls\" of Piñera's time in Argentina and friendship there with Witold Gombrowicz. The magazine \"Unión\" posthumously published autobiographical writing by Piñera in which he discussed how he concluded he was gay. However, his work can not be reduced to his open discussions on homosexuality in a time when such a topic was taboo, especially in the Spanish Caribbean. Piñera's literary and cultural perspective went beyond sexuality, to express concerns on national and continental identity, philosophical approaches to theater, writing and politics. This focus drew fire from the Spanish American literary establishment of his time, including Cuban poets Cintio Vitier and Roberto Fernandez Retamar, and leaders like Fidel Castro and Che Guevara. Due to Piñera's social points of view and especially to his homosexuality, he was censured by the revolution, and died without any official recognition. As more of his work has been translated into English, Piñera's work has been rediscovered by American academia as a testimony of 20th century resistance against totalitarian regimes.", "Anderson, Thomas F. \"Everything in its Place: The Life and Works of Virgilio Piñera\". Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 2006. Cabrera Infante, Guillermo. \"Mea Cuba\". In Aviva Chomsky, Barry Carr and Pamela Maria Smorkaloff (eds.) \"The Cuba Reader: History, Culture, Politics.\" Duke University Press (2004). Chichester, Ana Garcia. \"Virgilio Piñera and the Formulation of a National Literature.\" \"CR: The New Centennial Review\", 2.2 (2002): 231-251. Jambrina, Jesús. \"Virgilio Piñera: poesía, nación y diferencias\". Madrid: Editorial Verbum, 2012 López Cruz, Humberto, ed. Virgilio Piñera: el artificio del miedo. Madrid: Hispano Cubana, 2012. Molinero, Rita (ed). \"Virgilio Piñera: la memoria del cuerpo\". Editorial Plaza Mayor, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 2002.", "\"Electra Garrigó\", translated by Margaret Carson. In \"Stages of Conflict: A Critical Anthology of Latin American Theater and Performance\", ed. Diana Taylor and Sarah J. Townsend. Ann Arbor: U Michigan Press, 2008." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology and other names.", "Historical development and literature.", "Indus Valley origins.", "Vedic origins.", "Rudra.", "Agni.", "Indra.", "Later literature.", "Assimilation of traditions.", "Position within Hinduism.", "Shaivism.", "Vaishnavism.", "Shaktism.", "Smarta Tradition.", "Yoga.", "Trimurti.", "Forms and depictions.", "Destroyer and Benefactor.", "Ascetic and householder.", "Iconographic forms.", "Lingam.", "Five mantras.", "Avatars.", "Festivals.", "Beyond the Indian subcontinent and Hinduism.", "In contemporary culture.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the earliest of the vedic texts, the word \"Shiva\" means Auspicious, Sacred. It does not relate to any deity, but refers to the quality of being sacred and auspicious. In later vedic texts, Shiva becomes a deity. Shiva is also called as \"Brahman\", the supreme universal consciousness. The word \"shivo'ham\" translates as \"I am Shiva\", conveying that one's consciousness is where the lord resides, uniting it with the supreme \"transcendence\". In Tamil, he was called by different names other than Sivan. Nataraja (Dancing form of Shiva), Rudra (Enraged form of Shiva), and Dhakshinamoorthy (Yoga form of Shiva). Nataraja is the only form of Shiva worshipped in a human figure format. Elsewhere he is worshipped in Lingam figure. Pancha Bootha temples are located in south India. Pancha Bhoota Stalam refers to five temples dedicated to Shiva. Tamil literature is enriched by Shiva devotees called 63 Nayanmars (Nayanars). The Sanskrit word \"\" (, also transliterated as \"shiva\") means, states Monier Monier-Williams, \"auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, friendly\". The roots of in folk etymology are \"śī\" which means \"in whom all things lie, pervasiveness\" and \"va\" which means \"embodiment of grace\". The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda (approximately 1700–1100 BC), as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, including", "The Shiva-related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over the Indian subcontinent, such as India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia, such as Bali, Indonesia. Scholars have interpreted early prehistoric paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters, carbon dated to be from pre-10,000 BCE period, as Shiva dancing, Shiva's trident, and his mount Nandi. Rock paintings from Bhimbetka, depicting a figure with a trishul, have been described as Nataraja by Erwin Neumayer, who dates them to the mesolithic.", "Of several Indus valley seals that show animals, one seal that has attracted attention shows a large central figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic, seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position, surrounded by animals. This figure was named by early excavators of Mohenjo-daro as \"Pashupati\" (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit '), an epithet of the later Hindu deities Shiva and Rudra. Sir John Marshall and others suggested that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, with three faces, seated in a \"yoga posture\" with the knees out and feet joined. Semi-circular shapes on the head were interpreted as two horns. Scholars such as Gavin Flood, John Keay and Doris Meth Srinivasan have expressed doubts about this suggestion. Gavin Flood states that it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three", "The Vedic literature refers to a minor atmospheric deity, with fearsome powers called Rudra. The Rigveda, for example, has 3 out of 1,028 hymns dedicated to Rudra, and he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text. The term Shiva also appears in the Rigveda, but simply as an epithet, that means \"kind, auspicious\", one of the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities. While fierce ruthless natural phenomenon and storm-related Rudra is feared in the hymns of the Rigveda, the beneficial rains he brings are welcomed as Shiva aspect of him. This healing, nurturing, life-enabling aspect emerges in the Vedas as Rudra-Shiva, and in post-Vedic literature ultimately as Shiva", "Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra, and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures. The two names are used synonymously. Rudra, the god of the roaring storm, is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity. The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rig Veda, which is dated to between 1700 and 1100 BC based on linguistic and", "Rudra and Agni have a close relationship. The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva. The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the \"Nirukta\", an important early text on etymology, which says, \"Agni is also called Rudra.\"", "According to Wendy Doniger, the Puranic Shiva is a continuation of the Vedic Indra. Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, the transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term \"\" is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3, 6.45.17, and 8.93.3.) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull. In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion, and the pre-Islamic Indo-Iranian religion. The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be", "Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the \"Shvetashvatara Upanishad\" (400–200 BC), according to Gavin Flood. Prior to it, the Upanishadic literature is monistic, and the \"Shvetashvatara\" text presents the earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva. Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and liberator of souls from the birth-rebirth cycle. The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on", "The figure of Shiva as we know him today may be an amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure. How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not understood, a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation. According to Vijay Nath,", "", "Shaivism is one of the four major sects of Hinduism, the others being Vaishnavism, Shaktism and the Smarta Tradition. Followers of Shaivism, called \"Shaivas\", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is. He is not only the creator in Shaivism, but he is also the creation that results from him, he is everything and everywhere. Shiva is the primal soul, the pure consciousness and Absolute Reality in the Shaiva traditions. The Shaivism theology is broadly grouped into two: the popular theology influenced by Shiva-Rudra in the Vedas, Epics and the Puranas; and the esoteric", "The Vaishnava (Vishnu-oriented) literature acknowledges and discusses Shiva. Like Shaiva literature that presents Shiva as supreme, the Vaishnava literature presents Vishnu as supreme. However, both traditions are pluralistic and revere both Shiva and Vishnu (along with Devi), their texts do not show exclusivism, and Vaishnava texts such as the \"Bhagavata Purana\" while praising Krishna as the Ultimate Reality, also present Shiva and Shakti", "The goddess-oriented Shakti tradition of Hinduism is based on the premise that the Supreme Principle and the Ultimate Reality called Brahman is female (Devi), but it treats the male as her equal and complementary partner. This partner is Shiva. The earliest evidence of the tradition of reverence for the feminine with Rudra-Shiva context, is found in the Hindu scripture", "In the Smarta tradition of Hinduism, Shiva is a part of its Panchayatana puja. This practice consists of the use of icons or anicons of five deities considered equivalent, set in a quincunx pattern. Shiva is one of the five deities, others being Vishnu, Devi (such as Parvati), Surya and Ganesha or Skanda or any personal god of devotee's preference (Ishta Devata). Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols (murti) are icons", "Shiva is considered the Great Yogi who is totally absorbed in himself – the transcendental reality. He is the Lord of Yogis, and the teacher of Yoga to sages. As Shiva Dakshinamurthi, states Stella Kramrisch, he is the supreme guru who \"teaches in silence the oneness of one's innermost self (\"atman\") with the ultimate reality (\"brahman\").\" The theory and practice of Yoga, in different styles, has been a part of all major traditions of Hinduism, and Shiva has been the patron or spokesperson in numerous Hindu Yoga texts. These contain the philosophy and techniques for Yoga. These ideas are estimated to be from", "The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the maintainer", "According to [[Gavin Flood]], \"Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox,\" whose attributes include opposing themes. The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.", "In [[Yajurveda]], two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrifying (Sanskrit: ') and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: ') forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that \"all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here\". In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as \"the standard of invincibility, might, and terror\", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance. The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names. The name Rudra reflects Shiva's fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name \"Rudra\" is derived from the root \"rud-\", which means \"to cry, howl\". [[Stella Kramrisch]] notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form \"raudra\", which means", "[[File:2 image collage of Shiva as yogi and householder.jpg|thumb|Shiva is depicted both as an ascetic yogi, and as a householder with goddess [[Parvati]].]] Shiva is depicted as both an ascetic [[yogi]] and as a householder ([[grihasta]]), roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society. When depicted as a yogi, he may be shown sitting and meditating. His epithet Mahāyogi (\"the great Yogi: \"\" = \"great\", \"Yogi\" = \"one who practices Yoga\") refers to his association with yoga. While [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the [[Indian epic poetry|Epic period]] that the concepts of [[Tapas (Sanskrit)|tapas]], yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts. As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati and two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya. His epithet (\"The husband of \") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the", "[[File:Shiva as the Lord of Dance LACMA edit.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Chola dynasty]] statue depicting Shiva dancing as [[Nataraja]] ([[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]]).]] The depiction of Shiva as [[Nataraja]] (Sanskrit: ', \"Lord of Dance\") is popular. The names Nartaka (\"dancer\") and Nityanarta (\"eternal dancer\") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama. His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the [[Puranas|Puranic]] period. In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: ') are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular. The two most common forms of the dance are the [[Tandava]], which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world. When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed, Shiva does it", "Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, he is also represented in aniconic form of a lingam. These are depicted in various designs. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column in the centre of a lipped, disk-shaped object, the \"yoni\", symbolism for the goddess Shakti. In Shiva temples, the \"linga\" is typically present in its sanctum sanctorum and is the focus of votary offerings such as milk, water, flower petals, fruit, fresh leaves, and rice. According to Monier Williams and Yudit Greenberg, \"linga\" literally means'mark, sign or emblem', and also refers to a \"mark or sign from which the existence of something else can be reliably inferred\". It implies the regenerative divine energy innate in nature, symbolized by Shiva. Some scholars, such as [[Wendy Doniger]], view \"linga\" merely as an erotic phallic symbol, although this interpretation is criticized by others, including [[Swami Vivekananda]], [[Sivananda Saraswati]], and [[S. N. Balagangadhara]]. According", "[[File:10th century five headed Shiva Sadashiva Cambodia Metmuseum.jpg|thumb|left|The 10th century five headed Shiva, Sadashiva, Cambodia.]] Five is a sacred number for Shiva. One of his most important mantras has five syllables (). Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the. As forms of God, each of these have their", "[[Puranas|Puranic scriptures]] contain occasional references to \"ansh\" – literally 'portion, or avatars of Shiva', but the idea of Shiva avatars is not universally accepted in [[Saivism]]. The Linga Purana mentions twenty-eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars, however such mention is unusual and the avatars of Shiva", "There is a \"Shivaratri\" in every lunar month on its 13th night/14th day, but once a year in late winter (February/March) and before the arrival of spring, marks \"Maha Shivaratri\" which means \"the Great Night of Shiva\". Maha Shivaratri is a major Hindu festival, but one that is solemn and theologically marks a remembrance of \"overcoming darkness and ignorance\" in life and the world, and meditation about the polarities of existence, of Shiva and a devotion to humankind. It is observed by reciting Shiva-related poems, chanting prayers, remembering Shiva, fasting, doing [[Yoga]] and meditating on ethics and virtues such as self-restraint, honesty, noninjury to others, forgiveness, introspection, self-repentance and the discovery of Shiva. The ardent devotees keep awake all night. Others visit one of the Shiva temples or go on pilgrimage to [[Jyotirlingam]] shrines. Those who visit temples, offer milk, fruits, flowers, fresh leaves and sweets to the lingam. Some communities organize special dance events, to mark Shiva as the lord of dance, with individual and group performances. According to Jones and Ryan, Maha Sivaratri is an ancient Hindu festival which probably originated around the 5th-century. Another major festival involving Shiva worship is [[Kartik Purnima]], commemorating [[Tripurantaka|Shiva's victory]] on the demons [[Tripurasura]]. Across India,", "[[File:Shiva's statue at CERN engaging in the Nataraja dance.jpg|thumb|250px|The statue of Shiva engaging in the [[Nataraja]] dance at the campus of [[CERN|European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN)]] in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]].]] In Shaivism of Indonesia, the popular name for Shiva has been \"[[Batara Guru]]\", which is derived from Sanskrit \"Bhattaraka\" which means “noble lord\". He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual teacher, the first of all [[Guru]]s in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Batara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva, as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him. Batara Guru's wife in southeast Asia is the same Hindu deity Durga, who has been popular since ancient times, and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations, each visualized with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and others. Shiva has been called Sadasiva, Paramasiva, Mahadeva in benevolent forms, and Kala, Bhairava, Mahakala in his fierce forms. The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivism traditions found on the subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the contemporary era, the more common are of those of Shaiva Siddhanta (locally also called Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta). In the pre-Islamic period on the island of [[Java]], Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and", "[[File:Sagar Shiv Mandir 1.jpg|thumb|[[Sagar Shiv Mandir]] in [[Mauritius]]]] In contemporary culture, Shiva is depicted in films, books, tattoos and art. He has been referred to as \"the god of cool things\" and a \"bonafide rock hero\". Popular films include the [[Gujarati language]] movie \"Har Har Mahadev\", the [[Kannada]] movie \"[[Gange Gowri]]\" and well-known books include [[Amish Tripathi]]'s \"[[Shiva Trilogy]]\", which has sold over a million", "[[Category:Ascetics]] [[Category:Characters in the Mahabharata]] [[Category:Creator gods]] [[Category:Destroyer gods]] [[Category:Hindu eschatology]] [[Category:Hindu gods]] [[Category:Hindu Tantric deities]] [[Category:Indian yogis]] [[Category:Life-death-rebirth gods]] [[Category:Justice gods]] [[Category:Names of God in Hinduism]] [[Category:Savior gods]] [[Category:Shaivism| ]] [[Category:Triple gods]] [[Category:Wisdom gods]]" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mao era (1949–1976).", "Socialist transformation.", "Great Leap Forward and aftermath.", "Cultural Revolution.", "Foreign relations.", "Disasters.", "Controversies.", "Transition and Deng era (1976–1989).", "The transition period.", "Invalidating the Cultural Revolution.", "Reforms and Opening-up.", "Political reforms.", "Political turmoil.", "Military modernization.", "Foreign relations.", "Disasters.", "Controversies.", "Jiang Zemin and the third generation (1989–2002).", "Transition of power and Deng's Southern Tour.", "Domestic affairs.", "Foreign relations.", "Disasters.", "Controversies.", "Hu Jintao and the fourth generation (2002–2012).", "Transition of power.", "Domestic affairs.", "Foreign relations.", "Disasters.", "Controversies.", "Xi Jinping and the fifth generation (2012–present).", "Transition of power.", "Domestic affairs.", "Foreign relations.", "Disasters.", "Controversies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Following the Chinese Civil War and victory of Mao Zedong's Communist forces over the Kuomintang forces of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, who fled to Taiwan, Mao proclaimed the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC) on October 1, 1949. Mao laid heavy theoretical emphasis on command economy and class struggle, while the first constitution of PRC was published in 1954, which was known as the \"1954 Constitution\". After the Korean War, Mao launched various campaigns to persecute former landlords and merchants beginning 1953, starting the industrialization program at the same time. Mao's first goal was a total overhaul of the land ownership system, and extensive land reforms, including the execution of more powerful landlords. China's old system of gentry landlord ownership", "Mao believed that socialism would eventually triumph over all other ideologies, and following the First Five-Year Plan based on a Soviet-style centrally controlled economy, Mao took on the ambitious project of the Great Leap Forward in 1958, beginning an unprecedented process of collectivization in rural areas. Mao urged the use of communally organized iron smelters to increase steel production, pulling workers off of agricultural labor to the point that large amounts of crops rotted unharvested. Mao decided to continue to advocate these smelters despite a visit to a factory steel mill which proved to him that high quality steel could only be produced in a factory. He thought that ending the program would dampen peasant enthusiasm for his political mobilization, the Great Leap Forward.", "To impose socialist orthodoxy and rid China of \"old elements\", and at the same time serving certain political goals, Mao began the Cultural Revolution in May 1966, attempting to return to the center of political power in China. The campaign was far reaching into all aspects of Chinese life. Estimated death toll ranges from tens of thousands to 20 million. Massacres took place", "In October 1949, the People's Republic of China (PRC) established formal diplomatic relations with East Germany. In 1950, India became one of the first countries to recognize People's Republic of China and established formal diplomatic relation with China. However, in 1962, a one-month Sino-Indian war broke out. In January 1964, PRC established formal diplomatic relations with France. In the 1960s, relations between China and the Soviet Union became deeply strained, largely due to their different interpretations of Marxism–Leninism. The split started with Nikita Khrushchev taking power in the USSR. Over time, this led to China and the USSR shifting away from each other, and this forced communist parties around the world to take sides; many of them split,", "Only major disasters are", "In Mao era, tens of millions of people died in various political movements and in the Great Chinese famine, while tens of millions of people were persecuted and permanently crippled. China turned into a \"de facto\" one-party state country after the Anti-Rightists Movement in 1957, in which democracy and the rule of law were damaged and at least 550,000 intellectuals and political dissidents were persecuted. Moreover, the Cultural Revolution severely damaged the rule of law as well as the traditional Chinese culture and moral values; massacres took place across the country while massive cannibalism also occurred. Higher education was halted during the Cultural Revolution while scientific researches were seriously affected as many scientists were persecuted, killed or committed suicides. Mao and the Communist Party of China (CPC) also exported the ideology of socialism", "", "Mao Zedong's death was followed by a power struggle between the Gang of Four, Hua Guofeng, and eventually Deng Xiaoping. The third constitution of China, known as the \"1978 Constitution\", was passed in 1978 under", "In September 1977, Deng first proposed the idea of \"Boluan Fanzheng\", attempting to gradually dismantle the far-left policies associated with the Cultural Revolution. In particular, on the subject of Mao's legacy, Deng coined the famous phrase \"7 parts good, 3 parts bad\" and avoided denouncing Mao altogether. A major document presented at the September 1979 Fourth Plenum, gave a \"preliminary assessment\" of the entire 30-year period of Communist rule. At the plenum, party Vice Chairman Ye Jianying declared the Cultural Revolution \"an appalling catastrophe\" and \"the most severe setback to [the] socialist cause since [1949].\" In June", "At the Third Plenum of the Eleventh National Party Congress Central Committee, Deng embarked China on the road to \"Reform and Opening-up\" (改革开放 \"Gaige Kaifang\"), policies that began with the de-collectivization of the countryside, followed with industrial reforms aimed at decentralizing government controls in the industrial sector. In 1979, Deng emphasized the goal of \"Four Modernizations\" and further proposed the idea of \"xiaokang\", or \"moderately prosperous society\". Deng laid emphasis on light industry as a stepping stone to the development of heavy industries. The achievements of Lee Kuan Yew to create an economic superpower in Singapore had a profound effect on the Communist leadership in China. Leaders in China made a major effort, especially under Deng", "On August 18, 1980, Deng Xiaoping gave a speech titled \"On the Reform of the Party and State Leadership System (党和国家领导制度改革)\" at an enlarged meeting of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee in Beijing, launching the political reforms in China. He called for the end of bureaucracy, centralization of power as well as patriarchy; at the same time, he proposed term limits to the leading positions in China, and advocated the \"democratic centralism\" as well as the \"collective leadership\". In addition, Deng proposed to the National People's Congress a systematic revision of China's constitution (the 1978 Constitution), and emphasized that the Constitution must be able to protect the civil rights of Chinese citizens and must reflect the principle of separation of powers; he also described the idea of \"collective leadership\", advocating \"one man, one vote\" among the leaders to avoid the dictatorship of the General Secretary of CPC. In December 1982, the fourth Constitution of China, known as the \"1982 Constitution\", was passed by the 5th National People's Congress, embodying Chinese-style constitutionalism with most of its content still being effective as of today.", "In 1983, left-wing conservatives initiated the \"Anti-Spiritual Pollution Campaign\". In 1986, the student demonstrations led to the resignation of Hu Yaobang, then General Secretary of CPC and a leading reformist, and the left-wing conservatives continued to launch the \"Anti-Bourgeois Liberalization Campaign\". The campaign ended in mid-1987 because Zhao Ziyang convinced Deng Xiaoping that the conservatives were taking advantage of the campaign to oppose the Reforms and Opening-up program. Although standards of living improved significantly in", "In early 1979, China started a one-month war with Vietnam. In March 1981, Deng Xiaoping determined that a military exercise was necessary for the People's Liberation Army (PLA), and in September,", "On January 1, 1979, the People's Republic of China formally established its diplomatic relations with the United States. In January 1979, Deng Xiaoping visited the U.S., and it was first official visit by a paramount leader of China to the U.S. In the same year, the Chinese Olympic Committee for PRC was recognized by the International Olympic Committee.cUnder the advice of Lee Kuan Yew, Deng Xiaoping agreed to further open up the country and stop exporting communist ideologies and revolutions to other countries like Mao did, and the decision significantly improved the relations between China and many countries, especially those in south-east Asia. In 1984, Xu Haifeng, a pistol shooter, won the first Olympic gold medal for China in the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. On the other hand, in 1984, the \"Sino-British Joint Declaration\" was signed", "Only major disasters", "After the Cultural Revolution, Deng started the Boluan Fanzheng program to correct the Maoist mistakes, but some of his policies and views were controversial. Deng insisted on praising that Mao had done \"7 good and 3 bad\" for the Chinese people, while attributing numerous disasters in the Cultural Revolution to Lin", "", "After the events at Tiananmen, Deng Xiaoping stepped away from public view and fully retired in 1992. Power passed to the third generation of leadership led by Jiang Zemin, who was hailed as its \"core\". However, due to the 1989 Tiananmen massacre, the Reforms and Opening-up program came to a halt in early 1990s, and Jiang, supported by left-wing conservatives, was not", "Economic growth achieved a sustained high rate by the mid-1990s. Jiang's macroeconomic reforms furthered Deng's vision for \"Socialism with Chinese Characteristics\". Jiang laid heavy emphasis on scientific and technological advancement in areas such as space exploration. At the same time, Jiang's period saw a continued rise in social corruption in all areas of life. Unemployment skyrocketed as unprofitable SOEs were closed to make way for more competitive ventures internally and abroad. The ill-equipped social welfare system was put on a serious test. Conversely, Premier Zhu Rongji's economic policies held China's economy strong during the Asian Financial Crisis. Economic growth averaged at 8% annually, pushed back by the 1998 Yangtze", "In November 1991, China joined the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. The 1990s saw the peaceful Handover of Hong Kong and Macao by the United Kingdom and Portugal respectively to China. Hong Kong and Macau mostly continued their own governance, retaining independence in their economic, social, and judicial systems until 2019, when Beijing tried to expand national powers in the face of large-scale protests in Hong Kong. Jiang and Bill Clinton exchanged state visits, but Sino-American relations took very sour turns at the end of the decade, especially after the third Taiwan Strait Crisis. On May 7,", "Only major disasters are", "On the political agenda, China was once again put on the spotlight for the banning of public Falun Gong activity in 1999. Silent protesters from the spiritual movement sat outside of Zhongnanhai, asking for dialogue with China's leaders. Jiang saw it as threatening to the political situation and outlawed the group altogether, while using the", "", "Hu Jintao succeeded as the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China in November 2002. In March 2003, Hu", "The economy continued to grow in double-digit numbers as the development of rural areas became the major focus of government policy. In 2010, China overtook Japan as the world's second-largest economy. The assertion of the Scientific Perspective to create a Socialist Harmonious Society was the focus of the Hu-Wen administration, as some Jiang-era excesses were slowly reversed. In late 2002, the South–North Water Transfer Project began construction. In gradual steps to consolidate his power, Hu Jintao removed Shanghai Party secretary Chen Liangyu and other potential political opponents amidst the fight against corruption, and the ongoing struggle against once powerful Shanghai clique. In 2012, the Wang Lijun incident and the scandal of Bo Xilai received widespread attention and media coverage. The continued economic growth of the country", "China's position in the War on terror drew the country closer diplomatically to the United States. In 2010, the Asian Games was held in Guangzhou, and in 2011, the Summer", "Only major disasters are", "In the years after Hu's rise to power, respect of basic human rights in China continued to be a source of concern. Liu Xiaobo, Nobel Peace Prize winner and human rights activist, was arrested and sentenced to jail for", "", "Xi Jinping became the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission", "A massive, long-term anti-corruption campaign has been carried out under Xi since 2012, most targeting members of the Jiang faction such as Zhou Yongkang, Guo Boxiong and Xu Caihou. In March 2018, the party-controlled National People's Congress passed a set of constitutional amendments including removal of term limits for the president and vice president, the creation of a National Supervisory Commission, as well as enhancing the central role of the Communist Party. On March 17, 2018, the Chinese legislature reappointed Xi Jinping as president, now without term limits. According to the \"Financial Times\", Xi expressed his views of constitutional amendment at meetings with Chinese", "As Xi continued to consolidate power domestically, he gradually abandoned the diplomatic principles (\"hide your strength, bide your time, never take the lead\") set by Deng Xiaoping and appeared more as a \"strongman\" in the global stage. He launched the \"One Belt One Road initiative\" to make infrastructure investment in dozens of countries, which received widespread attention (both receptions and criticism) from around the world. In addition, since Xi succeeded as the leader of China, he changed \"China's", "Only major disasters are", "Since 2012, Xi has rolled back several policies from the Boluan Fanzheng period of Deng Xiaoping and promoted his cult of personality as Mao Zedong did. For example, in 2018, Xi eliminated the term limit in China's Constitution for Chinese president, which challenged some of the political legacies of Deng, triggering concerns of a new Cultural Revolution. In July 2015, hundreds of Chinese lawyers and human rights activists nationwide were detained or arrested during the 709 crackdown. Moreover, the Xinjiang re-education camps since 2017 and the massive protests in Hong Kong since 2019 received extensive attention and media coverage from around the world." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Club career.", "Early career.", "Ajax.", "Arsenal.", "2009–10 season.", "2010–11 season.", "2011–12 season.", "2012–13 season.", "2013–14 season.", "Barcelona.", "Loan to Roma.", "Return to Barcelona.", "Vissel Kobe.", "International career.", "Personal life.", "Honours." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Vermaelen started his youth career in his home country with Germinal Ekeren, which later became Germinal Beerschot after a merger.", "Vermaelen joined the academy of Dutch club Ajax. He made his professional debut on 15 February 2004 in a 0–2 away win over FC Volendam. His breakthrough came when he returned to Ajax and won the KNVB Cup. Performances that season resulted in a call-up to the Belgium national football team. Ajax won the Johan Cruyff Shield and another KNVB Cup the following season and in 2007, they won the Johan Cruyff Shield for the second consecutive time. He forged a partnership with fellow academy graduate John Heitinga and later Jan Vertonghen when Heitinga left for Atlético Madrid in Spain. Following the departure of Klaas-Jan Huntelaar in mid-season, Vermaelen served as captain of Ajax for the remainder of the 2008–09 season, where he mostly played as a left-back.", "", "Vermaelen joined Arsenal from Ajax for an initial fee of €10 million (rising to €12 million) on 19 June 2009, signing a four-year contract. After Kolo Touré surrendered the number 5 jersey to him upon joining Manchester City, Vermaelen, with William Gallas, formed Arsenal's central defence pairing. Vermaelen made his Premier League debut on 15 August 2009 in a 1–6 away win against Everton, and scored in the 37th minute. He became the 84th Arsenal player to score in their debut. He then scored a brace against Wigan Athletic in a 4–0 victory. Arsenal fans voted him as their Player of the Month twice in a row on Arsenal.com, and affectionately nicknamed him the \"Verminator\". However, he scored an own goal in a home match against Chelsea when a cross came in from Ashley Cole. The match finished 0–3 to Chelsea at the Emirates Stadium. Vermaelen became notable for being a goal-scoring defender due to his spectacular 25-yard, left-footed goal against Blackburn Rovers and many headed goals during the first half of Arsenal's 2009–10 season. In recognition of his contributions, he was nominated for the Belgian Sportsman of the year award and was also included in the PFA Team of the Season. Vermaelen finished the season with 45 games and eight goals in all competitions under his belt.", "In the pre-season of the 2010–11 season, Vermaelen captained Arsenal in an Emirates Cup match against Milan with regular captain Cesc Fàbregas and vice-captains Manuel Almunia and Robin van Persie not in the squad. Vermaelen started all of the first three Arsenal matches of the season before suffering an Achilles tendon injury on international duty with Belgium. He had a new injury setback when manager Arsène Wenger reported that the Achilles tendon problem would keep him out of action for an unforeseeable time. On 17 March 2011, Wenger confirmed that Vermaelen would miss the remainder of the season with a new injury setback, but on 26 April, Vermaelen played 90 minutes in his first competitive game after eight months in a reserves game against Manchester United at Old Trafford on 28 April. On 8 May, he was included in Arsenal's 18-man squad travelling to Stoke City at the Britannia Stadium. However, Vermaelen was an unused substitute, but on 15 May, he finally returned in Arsenal's 2–1 defeat to Aston Villa and played the full 90 minutes.", "Following Cesc Fàbregas' transfer to Barcelona in August 2011, Vermaelen was named vice-captain of Arsenal, with Robin van Persie named captain. On 6 September 2011, Vermaelen had treatment on his Achilles tendon which ruled him out for six weeks. On 18 October 2011, he signed a contract extension to keep him at the club for an additional four years. He made his long-awaited return against Bolton Wanderers in the fourth round of the League Cup, where he captained the side to a 2–1 victory at the Emirates Stadium. He suffered a suspected calf injury in the 84th minute, but to Arsenal's relief, he stated in the post-match interview it was just a cramp. On 1 November, Vermaelen started his first UEFA Champions League game in three months against Marseille and played a key role in helping keep a clean sheet for \"the Gunners\" in which the game ended 0–0. Vermaelen scored Arsenal's second goal in their 3–0 win over West Bromwich Albion on 5 November. He also featured in the 1–1 draw with Fulham on 26 November, when he scored a 65th minute own-goal but salvaged a point with an 82nd-minute equaliser for Arsenal. On 3 December, Vermaelen scored the second goal against Wigan to win the match 4–0. On 12 March 2012, Vermaelen scored the winner in the 95th minute against Newcastle United. He had run the entire length of the pitch to score a half-volley from Theo Walcott's cross. In the following game, he converted a Robin van Persie corner, heading home Arsenal's only goal in a 0–1 victory over Everton at Goodison Park. On 16 April 2012, he headed home a Tomáš Rosický cross against Wigan to reduce the deficit to 1–2, with Wigan having taken a two-goal lead at the Emirates. However, the scoreline finished the same. Manager Arsène Wenger has called him a defensive rock and his partnership with Laurent Koscielny is strong, enabling Arsenal to build from the back.", "In August 2012, Vermaelen was announced as Arsenal's new captain, replacing Robin van Persie upon his departure to Manchester United. On 11 December 2012, Vermaelen missed the deciding penalty kick in Arsenal's shoot-out defeat against League Two side Bradford City in the League Cup, his shot striking the post. Vermaelen had scored Arsenal's equalising goal within normal time of the same match. However, consistently poor performances followed for Vermaelen, most notably against Manchester City and Liverpool. Vermaelen's performances forced Arsène Wenger to drop him for the pivotal Champions League game against Bayern Munich at the Allianz Arena. Arsenal won 0–2, although it was not enough to progress to the next round through aggregate, but they were the first team to prevent Bayern from scoring that season, thanks to an assured performance from the defence and reserve goalkeeper Łukasz Fabiański. Per Mertesacker and Laurent Koscielny continued to partner each other at centre-back for the following games, until the former's red card against West Brom at The Hawthorns on 6 April 2013 gave Vermaelen a chance to reestablish himself in the team. Arsenal held on for a 1–2 win. Due to Mertesacker's suspension, Vermaelen partnered Koscielny for the game against Norwich City on 13 April, with Arsenal winning 3–1.", "On 17 May 2014, Vermaelen won his only trophy with Arsenal as an unused substitute in the team's 3–2 win over Hull City in the 2014 FA Cup Final.", "On 9 August 2014, Arsenal accepted a £15 million offer from Barcelona for Vermaelen. The next day, he completed his move after signing a five-year contract. Vermaelen was plagued with injuries since his transfer; he was thought to be ready for Barcelona's game against APOEL in the Champions League, but was taken out of the squad. He underwent surgery on 2 December 2014 for a recurring hamstring injury, and was expected back in four-to-six months. After being an unused substitute in a 2–0 win over Real Sociedad two weeks earlier, Vermaelen started on his debut for Barcelona on 23 May 2015 in the final La Liga match of the season against Deportivo de La Coruña in which he played for 63 minutes before being substituted for Douglas in a 2–2 draw at the Camp Nou. In the second game of his second season on 29 August 2015, Vermaelen scored his first goal for Barcelona, finishing from a cross to win a home match against Málaga. He was praised by manager Luis Enrique afterwards. Vermaelen was an 81st-minute substitute for Javier Mascherano on 20 December as Barcelona won the 2015 FIFA Club World Cup Final against River Plate in Japan.", "On 8 August 2016, Roma loaned Vermaelen from Barcelona on a one-year deal with an option to purchase. On 18 August 2016, Vermaelen made his debut for the Rome club in a UEFA Champions League qualification play-off against FC Porto and was sent off for two yellow card offences after only 41 minutes. During his time at the club, Vermaelen played only 607 minutes due to injury and returned to Barcelona at the end of the season.", "On 26 November 2017, Vermaelen was selected to start in Barcelona's 1–1 draw with Valencia at the Mestalla Stadium, covering for the suspended Gerard Piqué. He retained his place in central defence for seven of the next eight fixtures, before picking up an injury, including Barça's 3–0 win at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium against rivals Real Madrid.", "On 27 July 2019, Vermaelen signed a two-and-a-half-year contract with J1 League side Vissel Kobe. At the club, he rejoined former Barcelona teammates Andrés Iniesta and Sergi Samper, and former Arsenal teammate Lukas Podolski. On 1 January 2020, Vermaelen won his first trophy in Japan, starting in Vissel Kobe's 2–0 victory over Kashima Antlers in the final of the 2019 Emperor's Cup. On 8 February 2020, Vermaelen was one of nine consecutive players to miss their spot-kick in the penalty-shootout of the Japanese Super Cup; his teammate Hotaru Yamaguchi eventually won the match for the cup winners with a successful penalty.", "A former youth international, Vermaelen had participated in the U-19 Championships and the 2007 U-21 European Championships. He made his senior debut for Belgium at age 20 against Luxembourg in March 2006. On 8 October 2009, he was named Belgium captain prior to the games against Turkey and Estonia in the 2010 World Cup qualifiers, but could not prevent the Belgians from finishing fourth in their group. He was recalled to squad for 14 November friendly against Hungary and scored his first goal for his country by tapping in an Eden Hazard cross. On 13 May 2014, Vermaelen was named in Belgium's squad for the 2014 World Cup. After spending Belgium's first match of the tournament, a 2–1 win against Algeria, on the substitutes' bench, Vermaelen was chosen to start in the second match against Russia, replacing former Ajax teammate Jan Vertonghen at left-back. However, after 31 minutes, Vermaelen was taken off with an injury and replaced by Vertonghen.", "In 2012, Vermaelen began dating English glamour model and TV presenter Polly Parsons. The couple have two sons, Raff and Ace. The couple married in June 2017.", "Ajax Arsenal Barcelona Vissel Kobe Belgium Individual" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Assessment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Founded by Ivo Lukačovič in 1996, Seznam began as the first internet yellow pages and search engine in the Czech Republic. Ivo started his business with 50,000 CZK he had saved up. In 1998, Seznam added email to its portfolio, with email accounts running on the \"@seznam.cz\" domain. Since then, more brands and services have come on-line. Since 2001, Seznam has included financial, social and political news, TV programs, weather forecasts, dictionaries, maps and community services. In 2000, Spray International, a Swedish web portal company, invested in Seznam. At that time Seznam became a joint stock company. Until 2000, Ivo Lukačovič was self-employed and Seznam was his own sole business. With the investment, it is estimated that Spray International acquired around 30% share of Seznam. Exact numbers are not known, as Lukačovič and Seznam officials have never released any details about the transaction. What has been confirmed, though, is that Ivo Lukačovič retained at least 70% of Seznam stock after the investment. Spray acquired a stake in Seznam with the intention of making an IPO; however, Spray never reached that goal. After the dot-com bubble burst in 2000, Spray abandoned the idea. There are rumors about Spray defaulting on its obligations to Ivo Lukačovič by not making an IPO. In 2003, Ivo Lukačovič increased the base capital of Seznam without Spray and became 70% owner of Seznam. Since 2003, Ivo Lukačovič has remained the controlling shareholder of Seznam. Until 2003, Seznam had been using a fulltext engine from the Czech company Jyxo; however, in 2005, Seznam replaced that search engine with its own technology. Also in 2005, Seznam acquired the Czech firm ATC which was, among other ventures, running the email server Email.cz. Email services Email.cz and Seznam.cz have now merged. In 2006, Seznam moved its headquarters from Prague Košíře to a more prominent location in the Prague Anděl. That year, Ivo Lukačovič gave up the day-to-day business direction of Seznam, and Pavel Zima became CEO. In the Fall of 2006, Seznam acquired all email users from another web portal, \"Czech On Line\", with the domain \"@post.cz\". Seznam bought 50% of Global Inspiration, a Czech company running a video portal Stream.cz, similar to the global YouTube in 2007. Lycos Europe (a subsequent incarnation of Spray International) sold its 30% share in Seznam to Tiger Holding and Miura International. Lycos received more than 1.7 billion CZK from this transaction. As of 2015, Miura International S.a.r.l. had 5,6% of shares, Tiger holding four S.a.r.l. had 24,4% of shares and Helifreak limited had 70% of shares. In 2008, the Czech media reported on alleged meetings between Seznam and Goldman Sachs representatives to find a buyer for Seznam. Ivo Lukačovič and Seznam representatives denied this. Such speculation ended with the start of the financial crisis in Europe in late 2008. The EU believes Google overtook Seznam.cz around 2011 in the Czech Republic. According to the data from ad marketing agency eVisions, Seznam still held a majority share of the Czech search market at the start of 2014, but that Google pulled ahead in the second half of that year. Google's share of search on the Czech internet at 74% as of the end of 2018, while Seznam's share at 26%. Since 2016, Seznam.cz is operating its own internet news Seznam Zprávy. Since 2018, it is broadcasting its own television Televize Seznam.", "Seznam uses its own ranking scale for web pages, called S-Rank. It is a similar to PageRank with a range from 0 to 10." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "European settlements.", "French colony.", "British colony.", "Modern New Brunswick.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Flora and fauna.", "Geology.", "Topography.", "Demographics.", "Ethnicity and language.", "Religion.", "Economy.", "Primary sector.", "Education.", "Government.", "Judiciary.", "Administrative divisions.", "Provincial finances.", "Infrastructure.", "Energy.", "Transportation.", "Rail.", "Culture.", "Arts.", "Visual arts.", "Literature.", "Media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Indigenous peoples have been in the area since about 7000 BC. At the time of European contact, inhabitants were the Mi'kmaq, the Maliseet, and the Passamaquoddy. Although these tribes did not leave a written record, their language is present in many placenames, such as Aroostook, Bouctouche, Memramcook, Petitcodiac, Quispamsis, Richibucto and Shediac. New Brunswick may have been part of Vinland during the Norse exploration of North America, and Basque, Breton, and Norman fishermen may have visited the Bay of Fundy in the early 1500s.", "", "The first documented European visits were by Jacques Cartier in 1534. In 1604, a party including Samuel de Champlain visited the mouth of the Saint John River on the eponymous Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day. Now Saint John, this was later the site of the first permanent European settlement in New Brunswick. French settlement eventually extended up the river to the site of present-day Fredericton. Other settlements in the southeast extended from Beaubassin, near the present-day border with Nova Scotia, to Baie Verte, and up the Petitcodiac, Memramcook, and Shepody Rivers. By the early 1700s the French settlements formed a part of Acadia, a colonial division of New France. Acadia covered what is now the Maritimes, as well as bits of Quebec and Maine. The British conquest of most of the Acadian peninsula occurred during the Queen Anne's War, and was formalized in the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713. After the war, French Acadia was reduced to Île Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island) and Île-Royale (Cape Breton Island). The ownership of continental Acadia (New Brunswick) remained disputed, with an informal border on the Isthmus of Chignecto. In an effort to limit British expansion into continental Acadia, the French built Fort Beauséjour at the isthmus in 1751. From 1749 to 1755, the British engaged in a campaign to consolidate its control over Nova Scotia. The resulting conflict led to an Acadian Exodus to French controlled territories in North America, including portions of continental Acadia. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour, severing the Acadian supply lines to Nova Scotia, and Île-Royale. Unable to make most of the Acadians sign an unconditional oath of allegiance, British authorities undertook a campaign to expel the Acadians in the initial periods of the Seven Years' War.", "Continental Acadia was eventually incorporated into the British colony of Nova Scotia, with nearly all of New France being surrendered to the British with the Treaty of Paris in 1763. Acadians that returned from exile discovered several thousand immigrants, mostly from New England, on their former lands. Some settled around Memramcook and along the Saint John River. In 1766, settlers from Pennsylvania founded Moncton, and English settlers from Yorkshire arrived in the Sackville area. However, settlement of the area remained slow in the mid 18th century. After the American Revolution, about 10,000 loyalist refugees settled along the north shore of the Bay of Fundy, commemorated in the province's motto, (\"hope restored\"). The number reached almost 14,000 by 1784, with about one in ten eventually returning to America. New Brunswick was founded in 1784 upon the partition of Nova Scotia into two areas which became the Provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. In the same year New Brunswick formed its first elected assembly. The colony was named New Brunswick in honour of George III, King of Great Britain, King of Ireland, and Prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in what is now Germany. In 1785, Saint John became Canada's first incorporated city. The population of the colony reached 26,000 in 1806 and 35,000 in 1812. The 1800s saw an age of prosperity based on wood export and shipbuilding, bolstered by The Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty of 1854 and demand from the American Civil War. St. Martins became the third most productive shipbuilding town in the Maritimes, producing over 500 vessels. In 1848, responsible home government was granted and the 1850s saw the emergence of political parties largely organised along religious and ethnic lines. The first half of the 1800s saw large-scale immigration from Ireland and Scotland, with the population reaching 252,047 by 1861. The notion of unifying the separate colonies of British North America was discussed increasingly in the 1860s. Many felt that the American Civil war was the result of weak central government and wished to avoid such violence and chaos. The 1864 Charlottetown Conference was intended to discuss a Maritime Union, but concerns over possible conquest by the Americans, coupled with a belief that Britain was unwilling to defend its colonies against American attack, led to a request from the Province of Canada (now Ontario and Quebec) to expand the meeting's scope. In 1866 the US cancelled the Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty, leading to loss of trade with New England and prompting a desire to build trade within British North America, while Fenian raids increased support for union. On 1 July 1867, New Brunswick entered the Canadian Confederation along with Nova Scotia and the Province of Canada.", "Confederation brought into existence the Intercolonial Railway in 1872, a consolidation of the existing Nova Scotia Railway, European and North American Railway, and Grand Trunk Railway. In 1879 John A. Macdonald's Conservatives enacted the National Policy which called for high tariffs and opposed free trade, disrupting the trading relationship between the Maritimes and New England. The economic situation was worsened by the decline of the wooden ship building industry. The railways and tariffs did foster the growth of new industries in the province such as textile manufacturing, iron mills, and sugar refineries, many of which eventually failed to compete with better capitalized industry in central Canada. In 1937 New Brunswick had the highest infant mortality and illiteracy rates in Canada. At the end of the Great Depression the New Brunswick standard of living was much below the Canadian average. In 1940 the Rowell–Sirois Commission reported that the federal government attempts to manage the depression illustrated grave flaws in the Canadian constitution. While the federal government had most of the revenue gathering powers, the provinces had many expenditure responsibilities such as healthcare, education, and welfare, which were becoming increasingly expensive. The Commission recommended the creation of equalization payments, implemented in 1957. After Canada joined World War II, 14 NB army units were organized, in addition to The Royal New Brunswick Regiment, and first deployed in the Italian campaign in 1943. After the Normandy landings they redeployed to northwestern Europe, along with The North Shore Regiment. The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan, a training program for ally pilots, established bases in Moncton, Chatham, and Pennfield Ridge, as well as a military typing school in Saint John. While relatively unindustrialized before the war, New Brunswick became home to 34 plants on military contracts from which the province received over $78 million. Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, who had promised no conscription, asked the provinces if they would release the government of said promise. New Brunswick voted 69.1% yes. The policy was not implemented until 1944, too late for many of the conscripts to be deployed. There were 1808 NB fatalities among the armed forces. The Acadians in northern New Brunswick had long been geographically and linguistically isolated from the more numerous English speakers to the south. The population of French origin grew dramatically after Confederation, from about 16 per cent in 1871 to 34 per cent in 1931. Government services were often not available in French, and the infrastructure in Francophone areas was less developed than elsewhere. In 1960 Premier Louis Robichaud embarked on the New Brunswick Equal Opportunity program, in which education, rural road maintenance, and healthcare fell under the sole jurisdiction of a provincial government that insisted on equal coverage throughout the province, rather than the former county-based system. The flag of New Brunswick, based on the coat of arms, was adopted in 1965. The conventional heraldic representations of a lion and a ship represent colonial ties with Europe, and the importance of shipping at the time the coat of arms was assigned.", "Roughly square, New Brunswick is bordered on the north by Quebec, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Bay of Fundy, and on the west by the US state of Maine. The southeast corner of the province is connected to Nova Scotia at the isthmus of Chignecto. Glaciation has left much of New Brunswick's uplands with only shallow, acidic soils which have discouraged settlement but which are home to enormous forests.", "New Brunswick's climate is more severe than that of the other Maritime provinces, which are lower and have more shoreline along the moderating sea. New Brunswick has a humid continental climate, with slightly milder winters on the Gulf of St. Lawrence coastline. Elevated parts of the far north of the province have a subarctic climate. Evidence of climate change in New Brunswick can be seen in its more intense precipitation events, more frequent winter thaws, and one quarter to half the amount of snowpack. Today the sea level is about 30 cm higher than it was 100 years ago, and it is expected to rise twice that much again by the year 2100.", "Most of New Brunswick is forested with secondary forest or tertiary forest. At the start of European settlement, the Maritimes were covered from coast to coast by a forest of mature trees, giants by today's standards. Today less than one per cent of old-growth Acadian forest remains, and the World Wide Fund for Nature lists the Acadian Forest as endangered. Following the frequent large scale disturbances caused by settlement and timber harvesting, the Acadian forest is not growing back as it was, but is subject to borealization. This means that exposure-resistant species that are well adapted to the frequent large scale disturbances common in the boreal forest are increasingly abundant. These include jack pine, balsam fir, black spruce, white birch, and poplar. Forest ecosystems support large carnivores such as the bobcat, Canada lynx, and black bear, and the large herbivores moose and white-tailed deer. Fiddlehead greens are harvested from the Ostrich fern which grows on riverbanks. Furbish's lousewort a perennial herb endemic to the shores of the upper Saint John River, is an endangered species threatened by habitat destruction, riverside development, forestry, littering and recreational use of the riverbank. Many wetlands are being disrupted by the highly invasive Introduced species purple loosestrife.", "Bedrock types range from 1 billion to 200 million years old. Much of the bedrock in the west and north derives from ocean deposits in the Ordovician that were subject to folding and igneous intrusion and that were eventually covered with lava during the Paleozoic, peaking during the Acadian orogeny. During the Carboniferous era, about 340 million years ago, New Brunswick was in the Maritimes Basin, a sedimentary basin near the equator. Sediments, brought by rivers from surrounding highlands, accumulated there; after being compressed, they produced the Albert oil shales of southern New Brunswick. Eventually, sea water from the Panthalassic Ocean invaded the basin, forming the Windsor Sea. Once this receded, conglomerates, sandstones, and shales accumulated. The rust colour of these was caused by the oxidation of iron in the beds between wet and dry periods. Such late carboniferous rock formed the Hopewell Rocks, which have been shaped by the extreme tidal range of the Bay of Fundy. In the early Triassic, as Pangea drifted north it was rent apart, forming the rift valley that is the Bay of Fundy. Magma pushed up through the cracks, forming basalt columns on Grand Manan.", "New Brunswick lies entirely within the Appalachian Mountain range. All of the rivers of New Brunswick drain into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to the east or the Bay of Fundy to the south. These watersheds include lands in Quebec and Maine. New Brunswick and the rest of the Maritime Peninsula was covered by thick layers of ice during the last glacial period (the Wisconsinian glaciation). It cut U-shaped valleys in the Saint John and Nepisiguit River valleys and pushed granite boulders from the Miramichi highlands south and east, leaving them as erratics when the ice receded at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation, along with deposits such as the eskers between Woodstock and St George, which are today sources of sand and gravel.", "The four Atlantic Provinces are Canada's least populated, with New Brunswick the third-least populous at 747,101 in 2016. The Atlantic provinces also have higher rural populations. New Brunswick was largely rural until 1951; since then, the rural-urban split has been roughly even. Population density in the Maritimes is above average among Canadian provinces, which reflects their small size and the fact that they do not possess large, unpopulated hinterlands, as do the other seven provinces and three territories. New Brunswick's 107 municipalities cover of the province's land mass but are home to of its population. The three major urban areas are in the south of the province and are Greater Moncton, population 126,424, Greater Saint John, population 122,389, and Greater Fredericton, population 85,688.", "In the 2001 census, the most commonly reported ethnicities were British 40%, French Canadian and Acadian 31%, Irish 18%, other European 7%, First Nations 3%, Asian Canadian 2%. Each person could choose more than one ethnicity. According to the Canadian Constitution, both English and French are the official languages of New Brunswick, making it the only officially bilingual province. Government and public services are available in both English and French. For education, English-language and French-language systems serve the two linguistic communities at all levels. Anglophone New Brunswickers make up roughly two-thirds of the population, while about one-third are Francophone. Recently there has been growth in the numbers of people reporting themselves as bilingual, with 34% reporting that they speak both English and French. This reflects a trend across Canada.", "In the 2011 census, 84% of provincial residents reported themselves as Christian: 52% were Roman Catholic, 8% Baptist, 8% United Church of Canada, 7% Anglican and 9% other Christian. Fifteen percent of residents reported no religion.", "As of October 2017, seasonally-adjusted employment is 73,400 for the goods-producing sector and 280,900 for the services-producing sector. Those in the goods-producing industries are mostly employed in manufacturing or construction, while those in services work in social assistance, trades, and health care. A large portion of the economy is controlled by the Irving Group of Companies, which consists of the holdings of the family of K. C. Irving. The companies have significant holdings in agriculture, forestry, food processing, freight transport (including railways and trucking), media, oil, and shipbuilding. The United States is the province's largest export market, accounting for 92% of a foreign trade valued in 2014 at almost $13 billion, with refined petroleum making up 63% of that, followed by seafood products, pulp, paper and sawmill products and non-metallic minerals (chiefly potash). The value of exports, mostly to the United States, was $1.6 billion in 2016. About half of that came from lobster. Other products include salmon, crab, and herring. In 2015, spending on non-resident tourism in New Brunswick was $441 million, which provided $87 million in tax revenue.", "A large number of residents from New Brunswick are employed in the primary sector of industry. More than 13,000 New Brunswickers work in agriculture, shipping products worth over $1 billion, half of which is from crops, and half of that from potatoes, mostly in the Saint John River valley. McCain Foods is one of the world's largest manufacturers of frozen potato products. Other products include apples, cranberries, and maple syrup. New Brunswick was in 2015 the biggest producer of wild blueberries in Canada. The value of the livestock sector is about a quarter of a billion dollars, nearly half of which is dairy. Other sectors include poultry, fur, and goats, sheep, and pigs. About 83% of New Brunswick is forested. Historically important, it accounted for more than 80% of exports in the mid-1800s. By the end of the 1800s the industry, and shipbuilding, were declining due to external economic factors. The 1920s saw the development of a pulp and paper industry. In the mid-1960s, forestry practices changed from the controlled harvests of a commodity to the cultivation of the forests. The industry employs nearly 12,000, generating revenues around $437 million. Mining was historically unimportant in the province, but has grown since the 1950s. The province's GDP from the Mining and Quarrying industry in 2015 was $299.5 million. Mines in New Brunswick produce lead, zinc, copper, and potash.", "Public education elementary and secondary education in the province is administered by the provincial Department of Education and Early Childhood Development. New Brunswick has a parallel system of Anglophone and Francophone public schools. The province also operates five public post-secondary institutions, including a college and four universities. Four public universities operate campuses in New Brunswick, including the oldest English-language university in the country, the University of New Brunswick. The other universities in the province include Mount Allison University, St. Thomas University, and the Université de Moncton. All four universities offer undergraduate, and postgraduate education. Additionally, the Université de Moncton, and the University of New Brunswick also offer professional education. Medical education programs have also been established at both the Université de Moncton and at UNBSJ in Saint John (affiliated with Université de Sherbrooke and Dalhousie University respectively). Public colleges in the province are managed as a part of the New Brunswick Community College (NBCC) system. In addition to public institutions, the province is also home to several private vocational schools, such as the Moncton Flight College; and universities, the largest being Crandall University.", "Under Canadian federalism, power is divided between federal and provincial governments. Among areas under federal jurisdiction are citizenship, foreign affairs, national defence, fisheries, criminal law, indigenous policies, and many others. Provincial jurisdiction covers public lands, health, education, and local government, among other things. Jurisdiction is shared for immigration, pensions, agriculture, and welfare. The parliamentary system of government is modelled on the British Westminster system. Forty-nine representatives, nearly always members of political parties, are elected to the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick. The head of government is the Premier of New Brunswick, normally the leader of the party or coalition with the most seats in the legislative assembly. Governance is handled by the executive council (cabinet), with about 32 ministries. Ceremonial duties of the Monarchy in New Brunswick are mostly carried out by the Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick. Under amendments to the province's Legislative Assembly Act in 2007, a provincial election is held every four years. The two largest political parties are the New Brunswick Liberal Association and the Progressive Conservative Party of New Brunswick. Since the 2018 election, minor parties are the Green Party of New Brunswick and the People's Alliance of New Brunswick.", "The Court of Appeal of New Brunswick is the highest provincial court. It hears appeals from: The system consists of eight Judicial Districts, loosely based on the counties. The Chief Justice of New Brunswick serves at the apex of this court structure.", "Ninety-two per cent of the land in the province, inhabited by about 35% of the population, is under provincial administration and has no local, elected representation. The 51% of the province that is Crown land is administered by the Department of Natural Resources and Energy Development. Most of the province is administrated as a local service district (LSD), an unincorporated unit of local governance. As of 2017, there are 237 LSDs. Services, paid for by property taxes, include a variety of services such as fire protection, solid waste management, street lighting, and dog regulation. LSDs may elect advisory committees and work with the Department of Local Government to recommend how to spend locally collected taxes. In 2006 there were three rural communities. This is a relatively new entity; to be created, it requires a population of 3,000 and a tax base of $200 million. In 2006 there were 101 municipalities. Regional Service Commissions, which number 12, were introduced in 2013 to regulate regional planning and solid waste disposal, and provide a forum for discussion on a regional level of police and emergency services, climate change adaptation planning, and regional sport, recreational and cultural facilities. The commissions' administrative councils are populated by the mayors of each municipality or rural community within a region. Historically the province was divided into counties with elected governance, but this was abolished in 1966. These were further subdivided into 152 parishes, which also lost their political significance in 1966 but are still used as census subdivisions by Statistics Canada.", "New Brunswick has the most poorly-performing economy of any Canadian province, with a per capita income of $28,000. The government has historically run at a large deficit. With about half of the population being rural, it is expensive for the government to provide education and health services, which account for 60 per cent of government expenditure. Thirty-six per cent of the provincial budget is covered by federal cash transfers. The government has frequently attempted to create employment through subsidies, which has often failed to generate long-term economic prosperity and has resulted in bad debt, examples of which include Bricklin, Atcon, and the Marriott call centre in Fredericton. According to a 2014 study by the Atlantic Institute for Market Studies, the large public debt is a very serious problem. Government revenues are shrinking because of a decline in federal transfer payments. Though expenditures are down (through government pension reform and a reduction in the number of public employees), they have increased relative to GDP, necessitating further measures to reduce debt in the future. In the 2014–15 fiscal year, provincial debt reached $12.2 billion or 37.7 per cent of nominal GDP, an increase over the $10.1 billion recorded in 2011–12. The debt-to-GDP ratio is projected to fall to 36.7% in 2019–20.", "", "Publicly owned NB Power operates 13 of New Brunswick's generating stations, deriving power from fuel oil and diesel (1497 MW), hydro (889 MW), nuclear (660 MW), and coal (467 MW). There were 30 active natural gas production sites in 2012.", "The Department of Transportation and Infrastructure maintains government facilities and the province's highway network and ferries. The Trans-Canada Highway is not under federal jurisdiction, and traverses the province from Edmundston following the Saint John River Valley, through Fredericton, Moncton, and on to Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island.", "Via Rail's Ocean service, which connects Montreal to Halifax, is currently the oldest continuously operated passenger route in North America, with stops from west to east at Campbellton, Charlo, Jacquet River, Petit Rocher, Bathurst, Miramichi, Rogersville, Moncton, and Sackville. Canadian National Railway operates freight services along the same route, as well as a subdivision from Moncton to Saint John. The New Brunswick Southern Railway, a division of J. D. Irving Limited, together with its sister company Eastern Maine Railway form a continuous main line connecting Saint John and Brownville Junction, Maine.", "There are about 61 historic places in New Brunswick, including Fort Beauséjour, Kings Landing Historical Settlement and the Village Historique Acadien. Established in 1842, the New Brunswick Museum in Saint John was designated as the provincial museum of New Brunswick. The province is also home to a number of other museums in addition to the provincial museum.", "New Brunswick is home to a number of individuals that worked as musicians, in the performing arts, and/or the visual arts. Music of New Brunswick includes artists such as Henry Burr, Roch Voisine, Lenny Breau, and Édith Butler. Symphony New Brunswick, based in Saint John, tours extensively in the province. Symphony New Brunswick based in Saint John and the Atlantic Ballet Theatre of Canada (based in Moncton), tours nationally and internationally. Theatre New Brunswick (based in Fredericton), tours plays around the province. Canadian playwright Norm Foster saw his early works premiere with Theatre New Brunswick. Other live theatre troops include the Théatre populaire d'Acadie in Caraquet, and Live Bait Theatre in Sackville. The refurbished Imperial and Capitol Theatres are found in Saint John and Moncton, respectively; the more modern Playhouse is in Fredericton.", "Mount Allison University in Sackville began offering classes in 1854. The program came into its own under John A. Hammond, from 1893 to 1916. Alex Colville and Lawren Harris later studied and taught art there, and both Christopher Pratt and Mary Pratt were trained at Mount Allison. The university also opened an art gallery in 1895 and is named for its patron, John Owens of Saint John. The art gallery at Mount Allison University is presently the oldest university-operated art gallery in Canada. Modern New Brunswick artists include landscape painter Jack Humphrey, sculptor Claude Roussel, and Miller Brittain. The province is also home to the Beaverbrook Art Gallery, which was designated as the provincial art gallery in 1994.", "Julia Catherine Beckwith, born in Fredericton, was Canada's first published novelist. Poet Bliss Carman and his cousin Charles G. D. Roberts were some of the first Canadians to achieve international fame for letters. Antonine Maillet was the first non-European winner of France's Prix Goncourt. Other modern writers include Alfred Bailey, Alden Nowlan, John Thompson, Douglas Lochhead, K. V. Johansen, David Adams Richards, Raymond Fraser, and France Daigle. A recent New Brunswick Lieutenant-Governor, Herménégilde Chiasson, is a poet and playwright. The Fiddlehead, established in 1945 at University of New Brunswick, is Canada's oldest literary magazine.", "New Brunswick has four daily newspapers: the \"Times & Transcript\", serving eastern New Brunswick; the \"Telegraph-Journal\", based in Saint John and distributed province-wide; \"The Daily Gleaner\", based in Fredericton; and \"L'Acadie Nouvelle\", based in Caraquet. The three English-language dailies and the majority of the weeklies are owned and operated by Brunswick News—which is privately owned by James K. Irving. Due to its dominant position, critics have accused Brunswick News of being biased towards the Irving Group of Companies, including its reluctance to publish stories that are critical of the group. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation has anglophone television and radio operations in Fredericton. Télévision de Radio-Canada is based in Moncton. CTV and Global also operate stations in New Brunswick, which operate largely as sub-feeds of their stations in Halifax as part of regional networks." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Rules of the game.", "Objective.", "Gameplay.", "Game equipment.", "Promotion.", "Piece movement.", "Step movers.", "Jumping pieces.", "Ranging pieces.", "Lion move (multiple capture).", "Individual pieces.", "Repetition.", "Check and mate.", "Game end.", "Touch rule.", "Handicaps.", "Game notation.", "Variations.", "Strategy.", "Opening.", "King castle.", "Edges.", "Piece values.", "Promoting." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The objective of the game is to capture the opponent's king and, if present, the prince, which counts as a second king. These two pieces are called \"royal pieces\", as the game is lost when a player is left without any of them. Alternatively, under the rules of the Japanese Chu Shogi Association, it suffices to capture all the opponent's other pieces, leaving a bare king or a bare prince, whereupon the player wins and the game ends early, provided that one's own king is not immediately bared or captured on the next move. Unlike standard shogi, pieces may not be dropped back into play after capture.", "Two players alternate making a move, with Black moving first. (The pieces are not differentiated by color, but rather by facing of the pieces, with the \"sharp\" end pointed at the opponent; the traditional chess terms \"Black\" and \"White\" are only used to indicate who plays first, and to differentiate the sides during discussions of the game.) A \"move\" consists of moving a piece either to an empty square on the board or to a square occupied by an opposing piece, thus capturing that piece; and optionally of promoting the moving piece, if the move enters the \"promotion zone\", or if it is a capture and any part of it is in the promotion zone.", "Two players, Black and White (or 先手 \"sente\" and 後手 \"gote),\" play on a board ruled into a grid of 12 \"ranks\" (rows) and 12 \"files\" (columns), with a total of 144 squares. The squares are undifferentiated by marking or color, unlike a Western chess board. Each player has a set of 46 pieces of 21 different types, and each piece has its name written on it in Japanese kanji. The writing is typically in black. On the reverse side of most pieces (i.e. except the king, queen, and lion) there are characters to indicate the piece's promoted rank, typically written in red. The pieces are wedge-shaped and their orientation indicates which player they belong to, as they point toward the opposing side. In all, the players must remember 28 moves for these pieces. The pieces are of slightly different sizes; from largest to smallest (most to least powerful) they are: Listed below are the pieces of the game and, if they promote, the pieces they promote to. Names are rough translations that have become somewhat standardized in English. Pieces are listed alphabetically by their English name. The promotions apply only to pieces which start out with the ranks in the left-most column, that is, pieces with these ranks written in black; promoted pieces with those same ranks written in red may not promote further. Pieces which only appear upon promotion, that is, names which only occur written in red, are marked with an asterisk. The king, queen, and lion do not promote. Below is a diagram showing the setup of the players' pieces. The board setup is symmetrical: the way one player sees their own pieces is the same way that the opposing player sees their pieces. In some contexts, one-letter abbreviations may be necessary. Those used in WinBoard are given in the second column of abbreviations. Promoted pieces are notated by a + in front of the symbol; thus a white horse is +L, and a promoted gold (now a rook) is +G.", "The promotion zone is the 'enemy camp', the farthest four ranks of the board, which are mostly occupied by the opposing player's pieces when the board is first set up. When a promotable piece enters the promotion zone from outside, or makes a capture starting within the promotion zone, it has the option of \"promoting\" to a more powerful rank. Promotion is not mandatory, and in some cases it may be beneficial to leave the piece unpromoted. (For example, the pawn, gold general, silver general, copper general, ferocious leopard, phoenix, kirin, vertical mover, side mover, and go-between all lose some of their powers upon promoting, so that there may be immediate tactical reasons for deferral, even though they all gain much more than they lose.) Promotion is permanent and promoted pieces may not revert to their original rank, nor promote a second time. If a piece is not promoted upon entering the promotion zone, then it may not promote until it leaves the zone and reenters unless it makes a capture, with the exception of pawns (see below). Promotion is effected by turning the piece over after it moves, revealing the name of its promoted rank. Promoting a piece has the effect of changing how that piece moves. See below. For example, promoting a kirin turns it into a lion, and thereafter it behaves exactly like the original lion, even for the lion-trading rules. (Which can be a reason to defer promotion of a kirin.) A rook obtained by promoting a gold differs from an original rook, though, by that the latter can still promote (to dragon king), while the former cannot. If a pawn reaches the furthest rank, it gets a second opportunity to promote on a non-capture. (This is because the pawn can never leave the zone, and there is a legitimate reason to defer its promotion: a pawn can stand between two protected lions without allowing either player to trade them, which is something a promoted pawn – a gold general – cannot do.) No such exception exists or is needed for lances (the only other piece with no backward moves) as there is never any reason to defer promotion of a lance in the first place: therefore, a lance that reaches the furthest rank without promoting becomes an immobile \"dead piece\" (死に駒). This last-rank promotion of pawns can likewise be declined, leaving the pawn as an immobile \"dead piece\". (Unlike for lances, this might still be done with reason, again because of the lion-trading rules.) According to Fumiaki Okazaki, the go-between can likewise promote on the furthest rank on a non-capture. In the past, the Japanese Chu Shogi Association used this rule, but later repealed it because the go-between can go backwards. Some of the new rules given by Okazaki and not present in the Edo-period texts seem to be late innovations in the history of chu shogi from the Showa period.", "An opposing piece is captured by \"displacement\": That is, if a piece moves to a square occupied by an opposing piece, the opposing piece is displaced and removed from the board. A piece cannot move to a square occupied by a friendly piece, that is, by another piece controlled by the moving player. Each piece on the game moves in a characteristic pattern. Pieces move either \"orthogonally\" (that is, forward, backward, left, or right, in the direction of one of the arms of a plus sign, +), or \"diagonally\" (in the direction of one of the arms of a multiplication sign, ×). The lion is the sole exception, in that it is not required to move in a straight line. As stated earlier, this game is based on dai shogi and all of the pieces of this game can be found in dai shogi. The eight types of pieces that were removed were all rather weak and all promoted to gold generals. Furthermore, the larger board of dai shogi makes the slow-moving step movers even slower. All of this made for comparatively dull gameplay. Many pieces are capable of several kinds of movement, with the type of movement most often depending on the direction in which they move. The movement categories are:", "Some pieces move only one square at a time. If a friendly piece occupies an adjacent square, the moving piece may not move in that direction; if an opposing piece is there, it may be displaced and captured. The step movers are the king, prince, drunk elephant, blind tigers, ferocious leopards, the generals, go-betweens, and the 12 pawns of each side. Only the king and prince can move in all eight directions. The king and prince are additionally considered royal pieces, as losing both of them loses the game. The Japanese Chu Shogi Association, in addition to separating out the king and prince, also considers the pawns and go-betweens as a separate class of \"pawns\" (歩), while the remaining step movers are called \"small pieces\" (小駒).", "Several pieces can \"jump\", that is, they can pass over any intervening piece, whether friend or foe, with no effect on either. These are the lion, the kirin, the phoenix, the horned falcon and the soaring eagle. Only the lion can jump in all directions.", "Many pieces can move any number of empty squares along a straight orthogonal or diagonal line, limited only by the edge of the board. If an opposing piece intervenes, it may be captured by moving to that square and removing it from the board. A ranging piece must stop where it captures, and cannot bypass a piece that is in its way. If a friendly piece intervenes, the moving piece is limited to a distance that stops short of the intervening piece; if the friendly piece is adjacent, it cannot move in that direction at all. The ranging pieces are the queen, dragon king, dragon horse, rook, bishop, vertical mover, side mover, reverse chariot, lance, and all those pieces which do not appear in the initial setup except the prince. Only the queen can range along all eight directions. The Japanese Chu Shogi Association further divides them into greater (大走り駒) and lesser (走り駒) ranging pieces: the greater ranging pieces are the queen, horned falcon, and soaring eagle, and the remainder are lesser ranging pieces.", "The lion has a double-capture ability, called a 'lion move', as to a lesser extent do the soaring eagle and horned falcon (promoted dragon king and dragon horse). The details of these powerful moves are described for the lion below.", "Following are diagrams that indicate the movement of each piece. Pieces are listed roughly in order, from front to back rows, with pieces making similar moves paired. Pieces with a grey heading start out in the game; those with a blue heading only appear on the board as a promoted piece. Betza's funny notation has been included in brackets for easier reference, with the extension that the notation \"xxxayyyK stands for an \"xxxK move possibly followed by an \"yyy\"K move, not necessarily in the same direction. By default continuation legs can go into all directions, but can be restricted to a single line by a modifier 'v' (\"vertical\", interpreted relative to the piece's current position on its path). The default modality of all legs is the ability to move and capture: other possibilities are specified explicitly. Square brackets are used to make it clear what operators the a modifier chains together: thus DaK would denote a dabbaba move followed by a king move, but D[aK] would denote a piece that can move as a dabbaba, or twice as a king. Below are eight examples of the lion-trading rules in action. In all examples below, the Black and White pieces are distinguished by colour, rather than their direction as they would be in a real game. (Black moves up the board.)", "In principle a player may not make a move if the resulting position is one that has previously occurred in the game \"with the same player to move\". (This rule is usually relaxed without altering its effect, by only forbidding the 4th occurrence of any position, to allow for human error.) However, evidence from historical mating problems suggests that this prohibition does not apply to a player who is in check. Note that certain pieces have the ability to pass in certain situations (a lion, when at least one square immediately adjacent to it is unoccupied, a horned falcon, when the square immediately in front of it is unoccupied, and a soaring eagle, when one or both of the two squares immediately diagonally in front of it are unoccupied). (The lion, horned falcon, and soaring eagle can also be blocked from passing by the edge of the board.) Such a pass move leaves the position unchanged, but it does not violate the repetition rule, as it will now be the turn of the other player to move. Of course, two consecutive passes are not possible, as the first player will see the same position as before. The Japanese Chu Shogi Association plays by more complex repetition rules. Only a fourth repetition is forbidden, and the burden to deviate is not necessarily on the player that reaches this first. If one side is making attacks with his moves in the repeat cycle, and the other is not, the attacking side must deviate, while in case of checking the checker must deviate regardless of whether the checked side attacks other pieces. In the case of consecutive passes, the side passing first must deviate, making turn passing to avoid zugzwang pointless if the opponent is in a position where he can pass his turn too.", "When a player makes a move such that the opponent's only remaining royal (king or prince) could be captured on the following move, the move is said to \"give check\"; the king or prince is said to be \"in check\". If a player's king or prince is in check and no legal move by that player will get it out of check, the checking move is also \"mate\", and effectively wins the game. Unlike Western chess, a player need not move out of check in chu shogi, and indeed may even move into check. Although obviously not often a good idea, a player with more than one royal may occasionally sacrifice one of these pieces as part of a gambit, or trade it for more capable pieces. A player is not allowed to give perpetual check. This is not a rule in itself, but arises from the repetition rule.", "A player who captures the opponent's sole remaining king or prince wins the game. Thus a player who is checkmated or stalemated will lose. This situation extends to \"smothered stalemates\" where the king's safety is not at issue, but no moves are possible: these also result in a loss for the stalemated player to move by the rules of \"The Chess Variant Pages\". As an alternative, there is the \"bare king\" rule. A historic description of chu shogi mentions, \"When pieces are gone, and there are only the 2 kings, one can mate only if he has a promoted gold\". Nonetheless, this is only one specific case, and the motivation for such a rule is uncertain given that king and rook (a promoted gold) against king is an easy forced checkmate. The Japanese Chu-Shogi Association has altered this into a general baring rule similar to that of shatranj, where a bare king immediately loses against any other material, unless you can bare the opponent on the following move (in which case the game is a draw), or you can capture the opponent's sole remaining king or prince on the following move (in which case the opponent loses). This makes a difference in the endgames of king and pawn against king, or king and ferocious leopard against king, which cannot be won by the stronger side without the bare king rule (and also in some cases with blind tigers, silver generals, and copper generals that can be trapped by the enemy king when separated from their own kings). Further detail is offered in their standardised rules: king and any piece against king is an immediate win by the bare king rule, \"except\" if the piece is a pawn or go-between, in which case it must be promoted safely (to a gold general or drunk elephant respectively) before the win can be claimed. Furthermore, \"dead pieces\" do not count under this rule; a king and an immobile pawn or lance at the far rank against a king is still a draw. In practice these winning conditions are rarely fulfilled, as a player will resign when checkmated, as otherwise when loss is inevitable. A player who makes an illegal move loses immediately. (This rule may be relaxed in casual games, and Hodges writing for a Western audience encourages players to do so.) Players can also agree to a draw at any time, or if the game reaches a position such that the winning condition is impossible to fulfill for either player (called 持将棋 \"jishōgi\", as in standard shogi). (In practice, positions that cannot be won without the other side making a very obvious blunder are also considered as \"jishōgi\", such as a king with only his lion blocked from getting near the enemy king by two side movers on adjacent ranks.) Under the historical rules, this means that no legal series of moves can lead to all of one player's royal pieces being captured; under the Japanese Chu Shogi Association's rules, this additionally means that no legal series of moves can lead to one player being left with only a king, or with no royal pieces. In professional play, drawn games are replayed with opposite colours.", "Hodges reports a strict touch rule for chu shogi. Once a piece has been touched, then that piece must be moved. Furthermore, if the piece is also moved to a square, it must remain on that square without exception. (That is, the piece cannot be moved to a different square, even if one's hand does not leave the piece.) Thus, chu shogi's touch rule is more severe than the western chess touch-move rule used in tournament play. Under the rules of the Japanese Chu Shogi Association, if a piece is touched but it cannot move, there is no penalty for the first two times, but the opponent can declare a foul on the third time and result in forfeiture of the game.", "Games between players of disparate strengths are often played with handicaps. In a handicap game, one or more of White's pieces are removed from the setup—in exchange, White may move up a few of his pieces or rearrange them to fill in the gaps and protect the weaker pieces, and White plays first. Lions can also be handicapped by having Black's kirin promoted for a second lion, and, for a third, swapping Black's phoenix for White's kirin and promoting the latter. The imbalance created by this method of handicapping is not as strong as it is in international chess because material advantage is not as powerful in chu shogi as it is in chess. The handicaps detailed in the \"Middle Shogi Manual\", in increasing order of size, are as follows: Other handicaps may be used, such as Queen, Queen and Dragon King, or Two Kings (where the weaker player begins with the Drunk Elephant promoted). The relationship between handicaps and differences in rank is not universally agreed upon. Colin Adams' suggestion is as follows: He also suggests a grading system going downward from 20 \"kyū\" (beginner) to 1 \"kyū\", and then upward from 1 \"dan\" to 9 \"dan\".", "The method used in English-language texts to express shogi moves was established by George Hodges in 1976 ('TSA notation') in the magazine \"Shogi.\" It is derived from the algebraic notation used for chess, but modifications have been made for chu shogi. A typical example is P-8f. The first one or two letters represents the piece moved (see setup above, except that Ky \"kylin\" is used for Kirin and FK \"free king\" for Queen). Promoted pieces have a + added in front of the letter, for example +P for a promoted pawn. The designation of the piece is followed by a symbol indicating the type of move: - for an ordinary move or x for a capture. Next is the designation for the square on which the piece lands. This consists of a number representing the file and a lowercase letter representing the rank, with 1a being the top right corner (as seen from Black's point of view) and 12l being the bottom left corner. (This method of designating squares is based on Japanese convention, which, however, uses Japanese numerals instead of letters. For example, the square 2c is denoted by 2三 in Japanese.) If a move entitles the player to promote the piece, then a + is added to the end to signify that the promotion was taken, or an = to indicate that it was declined. For example, Px7d= indicates a pawn capturing on 7d without promoting. In cases where the above notation would be ambiguous, the designation of the start square is added after the designation for the piece in order to make clear which piece is meant. When a 'Lion', 'Horned Falcon' or 'Soaring Eagle' captures by 'igui' (that is, without moving), the square of the piece being captured is used instead of the destination square, and this is preceded by the symbol '!'. For example, a Lion on 8c capturing a piece on 9d by \"igui\" would be shown as Lnx!9d. When a piece makes a double capture with 'Lion' powers both captures are shown in the order that they were made. For example, a Lion on 3g, capturing a piece on 3h and then capturing another on 2i, would be represented by Lnx3hx2i. Moves are commonly numbered as in chess. WinBoard/XBoard uses non-easternised algebraic notation for the moves, differing mainly from TSA notation by using single-letter piece abbreviations, labeling the board files with the letters a–l from left to right, the board ranks with the numbers 1–12 from bottom to top, and omitting the hyphen separator between piece name and square coordinates. It reverses the names \"Black\" and \"White\" to conform to international chess. Thus it becomes White who moves first, and his king starts at f1; the Black king starts at g12. (In the TSA notation, these squares are 7l and 6a respectively.) Double moves are indicated by the same method as in TSA notation (e.g. +Dxf6-g7). Igui, however, has no special notation but is written as the back-and-forth double move it is, while a turn pass is written as -- and not associated with a particular piece. Absence of a promotion + suffix implies deferral. Some WinBoard versions use a more general notation for double moves, writing all legs as individual SAN moves, separating them by commas.", "One modern variant of chu shogi, called Heisei chu shogi (平成中将棋), is played on a more open board. Forty percent of the pieces are set aside at setup and held in reserve, and once during the game a player may drop one of these on an empty square adjacent to a friendly piece. Captured pieces do not come back into play, and the rest of the game is played as in regular chu shogi. The set-aside pieces are the lances, coppers, silvers, side movers, vertical movers, reverse chariots, kirin, and phoenix. As with dropped pieces in standard shogi, the piece may not be dropped on a square from where it cannot move (e.g. a lance in the far rank). If dropped into the promotion zone, the piece may promote immediately or on any subsequent move in the promotion zone.", "", "The valuable long-range sliders have to be shielded from attack by the enemy's much less-valuable steppers by operating from behind your own steppers, or they would get quickly lost through fork attacks. As the steppers start on the back rank, they need to be developed before you can engage the opponent. This is usually done by pushing the Pawns one rank forward, creating a passage through the 3rd rank by moving up some of the sliders there, and walk Copper, Silver and Leopard to the 4th rank and beyond through the resulting corridor. One of the Side Movers is usually moved up to 4th rank, so that when your own camp empties as a result of launching your attack, the Side Movers prevent entry of the enemy Lion by controlling 3rd and 4th rank.", "The King is usually protected by hiding it behind a wall on the 2nd rank built from the two Tigers and the Elephant. When standing shoulder to shoulder these pieces protect each other's blind spots, making the defense hold up against a lone Lion. An even stronger castle results from leaving the Golds diagonally protecting the outer-most pieces of the wall, although this has the obvious disadvantage that these Golds then cannot be used for attacking, or protecting the wings of your camp from infestation by enemy promoting pieces. There is no hurry in building the castle, as it will take a long time before the opponent can fight his way through all the material that is initially in front of your King.", "The left and right board edge are controlled by the battery formed by Lance and Chariot. Usually little can be achieved here before you somehow acquire a majority by taking out some of the opponent's pieces there from the side. But even if the opponent's edge would be completely annihilated, it will take an impractically long time before you can cash in on that, and promote Lance and Chariot so they can get involved on the real battle, as you would first have to get your Pawn out of the way by walking it to promotion. So a majority here is more a tie breaker in case the main battle ends undecided than an immediate advantage.", "According to the German Chu Shogi Association, the average values of the pieces are: These average values do not take into account the special status of the king and prince as royal pieces. They have also been normalized so that the pawn is worth 1 point to avoid fractions. Additionally, pieces gain in value if they have a good chance of promotion (particularly for the kirin, which promotes to the most powerful piece in the game). Wayne Schmittberger adopts a different point of view, claiming that no such point values can be assigned, because most pieces can promote. Instead, he sorts the pieces, while grouping them by approximate value: <nowiki>*</nowiki>Value varies greatly according to how close it is to promotion <nowiki>**</nowiki>But if the player has lost his or her king, the crown prince is priceless. () = promoted and cannot promote further; e.g. \"(bishop)\" = promoted ferocious leopard", "Pieces that can slide forward promote far more easily than steppers or jumpers. As the board thins out their promotion becomes unavoidable, while steppers can almost always be met by an opponent stepper to neutralize it by the time it arrives at the promotion zone. The potential promotion gain of the sliders is thus always an important part of the material balance, but if it makes up too large a part of your total strength, you might be overwhelmed before you can develop this potential. Particularly significant are the phoenix and kirin, which promote to the two most powerful pieces in the game. They are best not used up in tactics, but kept until they get an opportunity to survive a promotion." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Works.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Eduardo Germán María Hughes Galeano was born in Montevideo, Uruguay, on Sept. 3, 1940. His two family names were inherited from Welsh and Italian (from Genoa) great-grandfathers; the other two were from Germany and Spain. Galeano wrote under his maternal family name; as young man, he briefly wrote for an Uruguayan socialist publication, \"El Sol\", signing articles as \"Gius,\" \"a pseudonym approximating the pronunciation in Spanish of his paternal surname Hughes.\" Galeano's family belonged to the fallen Uruguayan aristocracy; Galeano himself went to work at fourteen, having completed just two years of secondary school. He started his career as a journalist in the early 1960s as editor of \"Marcha\", an influential weekly journal which had such contributors as Mario Vargas Llosa, Mario Benedetti, Manuel Maldonado Denis and Roberto Fernández Retamar. For two years he edited the daily \"Época\" and worked as editor-in-chief of the University Press. In 1959 he married his first wife, Silvia Brando, and in 1962, having divorced, he remarried to Graciela Berro. In 1973, a military coup took power in Uruguay; Galeano was imprisoned and later was forced to flee, going into exile in Argentina where he founded the magazine \"Crisis\". His book \"Open Veins of Latin America\" was banned by the right-wing military government, not only in Uruguay, but also in Chile and Argentina. In 1976 he married for the third time to Helena Villagra; however, in the same year, the Videla regime took power in Argentina in a bloody military coup and his name was added to the list of those condemned by the death squads. He fled again, this time to Spain, where he wrote his famous trilogy, \"Memoria del fuego\" (\"Memory of Fire\"), described as \"the most powerful literary indictment of colonialism in the Americas.\" At the beginning of 1985 Galeano returned to Montevideo when democratization occurred. Following the victory of Tabaré Vázquez and the Broad Front alliance in the 2004 Uruguayan elections marking the first left-wing government in Uruguayan history Galeano wrote a piece for \"The Progressive\" titled \"Where the People Voted Against Fear\" in which Galeano showed support for the new government and concluded that the Uruguayan populace used \"common sense\" and were \"tired of being cheated\" by the traditional Colorado and Blanco parties. Following the creation of TeleSUR, a Latin American television station based in Caracas, Venezuela, in 2005 Galeano along with other left-wing intellectuals such as Tariq Ali and Adolfo Pérez Esquivel joined the network's 36 member advisory committee. On February 10, 2007, Galeano underwent a successful operation to treat lung cancer. During an interview with journalist Amy Goodman following Barack Obama's election as President of the United States in November 2008, Galeano said, \"The White House will be Barack Obama's house in the time coming, but this White House was built by black slaves. And I’d like, I hope, that he never, never forgets this\". At the 17 April 2009 opening session of the 5th Summit of the Americas held in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez gave a Spanish-language copy of Galeano's \"Open Veins of Latin America\" to U.S. President Barack Obama, who was making his first diplomatic visit to the region. In a May 2009 interview he spoke about his past and recent works, some of which deal with the relationships between freedom and slavery, and democracies and dictatorships: \"not only the United States, also some European countries, have spread military dictatorships all over the world. And they feel as if they are able to teach democracy\". He also talked about how and why he has changed his writing style, and his recent rise in popularity. In April 2014 Galeano gave an interview at the \"II Bienal Brasil do Livro e da Leitura\" in which he regretted some aspects of the writing style in \"Las Venas Abiertas de América Latina\", saying \"Time has passed, I've begun to try other things, to bring myself closer to human reality in general and to political economy specifically. 'The Open Veins' tried to be a political economy book, but I simply didn't have the necessary education. I do not regret writing it, but it is a stage that I have since passed.\" This interview was picked up by many critics of Galeano's work in which they used the statement to reinforce their own criticisms. However, in an interview with Jorge Majfud he said, \"The book, written ages ago, is still alive and kicking. I am simply honest enough to admit that at this point in my life the old writing style seems rather stodgy, and that it's hard for me to recognize myself in it since I now prefer to be increasingly brief and untrammeled. [The] voices that have been raised against me and against \"The Open Veins of Latin America\" are seriously ill with bad faith.\"", "\"Las venas abiertas de América Latina\" (\"Open Veins of Latin America\"), a history of the region from the time of Columbus from the perspective of the subjugated people, is considered one of Galeano's best-known works. An English-language translation by Cedric Belfrage gained some popularity in the English-speaking world after Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez gave it as a gift to U.S. President Barack Obama in 2009. Galeano was also an avid fan of football, writing most notably about it in \"Football in Sun and Shadow\" (\"El fútbol a sol y sombra\"). In a retrospective for SB Nation after Galeano's death, football writer Andi Thomas described the work—a history of the sport, as well as an outlet for the author's own experiences with the sport and his political polemics—as \"one of the greatest books about football ever written\".", "Galeano died on 13 April 2015 in Montevideo from lung cancer at the age of 74, survived by third wife Helena Villagra and three children." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Biography.", "Honours.", "Club." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Kenneth Perez was born on 29 August 1974 in Copenhagen, Denmark, as Kenneth Perez Dahl Jensen. He is married to Britt Perez. They have two sons. In 1997 his girlfriend Britt moved with him from Denmark to the Netherlands, and a few years later, they married. Perez's mother is from Las Palmas de Gran Canaria.", "Perez started his career for Danish club Akademisk Boldklub, where he reached the 1995 Danish Cup final. The final was lost to F.C. Copenhagen, with whom Perez signed a two-year contract in autumn that year. He played two years for F.C. Copenhagen, and Perez was a part of the team which won the 1997 Danish Cup. With months left of his contract, he moved abroad in August 1997, to play for Dutch Eredivisie side MVV. Perez scored goals frequently for MVV, and his dribbling ability was regarded as one of the best in the Eredivisie. With his contract nearing expiry, he looked to leave the club in winter 1999. Dutch clubs Roda JC and AZ wanted to buy Perez, and he eventually penned a 51⁄2-year contract with AZ starting from January 2000. He made his debut for the Danish national team under manager Morten Olsen in November 2003. He came on as a substitute to replace Dennis Rommedahl in the 3–2 victory against England. He was selected to represent Denmark at the 2004 European Championship, where he took part in one match, coming on as a substitute. Often playing on the left winger, Perez was the most technical of AZ's prolific strike force during the 2004–05 season. He was AZ's top goal scorer in that season, as he fired 13 goals past opposition goalkeepers, and was the joint 9th best league goal scorer. The club finished in third place that season, and ended second in the 2005–06 season. After six and a half years at AZ, Perez transferred to rival Eredivisie side Ajax in the summer 2006. He subsequently ended his national team career to focus on playing for Ajax. Since his debut in November 2003, Perez played 19 national team matches, though he was either substituted on or off the pitch, and never played a full national team match. He won the Dutch Super Cup trophy with Ajax, beating PSV 3–1 in August 2006. In December 2006, Perez admitted having used a racial slur against an assistant referee. He publicly apologized to the assistant referee and received a five-match ban and a €12,500 fine. In July 2007, Perez signed with Ajax rivals PSV on a two-year deal. On 31 December 2007, it was announced Perez would make a shock return to Ajax with immediate effect. He signed a one-and-a-half-year deal with an option for another season. Pressed for an explanation, Jan Reker, the technical director of PSV, responded on 1 January 2008. Reker observed that Perez had requested a transfer back to Amsterdam only after Ajax had failed to lure Ismail Aissati to Amsterdam. According to Reker, Perez cited two reasons for the request: the commute from his home in Noord-Holland to Eindhoven on a daily basis was a burden; and, once PSV coach Ronald Koeman left, interim coach Jan Wouters had limited his playing time. Perez and Martin van Geel, the technical director of Ajax, subsequently disputed Reker's account. Perez stated that PSV had initiated the transfer by telling Perez, just four months after his arrival from Ajax, that he no longer had a future at the club; and that Ajax, on the other hand, was still looking for a replacement for star midfield player Wesley Sneijder, who had been sold to Real Madrid. Then, with the departure of Ten Cate for Chelsea in September, Perez had a path back to Amsterdam. Van Geel added that Ajax had only wanted to buy Aissati the previous summer and that the failure to acquire Assaiti was not a factor in Perez's transfer. Perez was relegated to the Ajax reserves in the summer of 2008 by new Ajax head coach Marco van Basten He was released at the end of August. and later on July was transferred to Steve McClaren's FC Twente. In January 2010, Perez marked himself as the player with the second most assists and goals in Dutch football through the past decade. The only player above him was Dirk Kuyt. On 2 May 2010, Perez won his first Eredivisie title, coincidentally also the first title of his club FC Twente, at the age of 35 years. It was his last match in a FC Twente jersey.", "", "Copenhagen Ajax Twente" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview of Five Pillars of Islam.", "Pillars of Sunni Islam.", "First pillar: Shahada (profession of faith).", "Second Pillar: Salat (Prayer).", "Third Pillar: Zakat (Almsgiving).", "Fourth Pillar: Sawm (Fasting).", "Fifth Pillar: Hajj (Pilgrimage).", "Pillars of Shia Islam.", "Twelvers.", "Ismailis.", "History of the Pillars." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The ritual obligations of Muslims are called the Five Pillars. They are acknowledged and practiced by Muslims throughout the world, notwithstanding their disparities. They are viewed as compulsory for individuals who genuinely wish to pursue a life like that which Muhammad led, which was a prudent and mindful life. Like other religions, Islam holds certain practices to be standard; however, that does not imply that all individuals who regard themselves as Muslims necessarily observe them. Individual participation can vary depending on the individual's faith; for example, not every individual must pray every day, keep the fast, go on Hajj, or donate extensively to charity. Shortly after the Muslim Arabs conquered new terrains, they started raising mosques and castles and commissioning different commemorations and artifacts as articulations of their faith and culture. The religious practice of Islam, which signifies \"submission to God\", depends on fundamentals that are known as the Five Pillars. Each of the five pillars is alluded to in the Quran, though in various chapters (Sura). Further insights concerning these commitments are given in the Hadith. Though comparable practices were performed in pre-Islamic Arabia and by Jews and Christians at the time of Muhammad, they were changed in the Quran and Hadith, given a carefully monotheistic center, and identified with the life of the Prophet. In the Quran, in spite of the fact that the Shahada does not show up in full, Sura 8.20 urges the individuals who accept to obey God and his Messenger. Prayer is alluded to multiple times, with prayer times referenced in Sura 20.130, and the demonstrations of bowing and prostrating in 48.29. In a few chapters, Muslims are urged both to pray and give alms (for example Sura 5.12), however what, when and to whom gifts ought to be made is clarified in more detail in the hadith. There is a critical entry on fasting in the Quran (Sura 2.183-7), which alludes to the period of Ramadan and sets out the detail on who ought, and ought not fast, to a certain extent under specific conditions. Regarding the matter of the Hajj, the longest Quranic section (Sura 2.196-203) recommends the destination location of the pilgrimage, the lead and exercises of the individuals who participate, urging them to have God as a top priority consistently.", "", "The first pillar of Islam is the \"Shahada\", the assertion of faith, combining the themes of unity and mercy that are found in the Quran. There are two shahadas: \"There is no god but God\" and \"Muhammad is the messenger of God\". This set statement is normally recited in Arabic: \"lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu muḥammadun rasūlu-llāh\" () \"There is no god but God (and) Muhammad is the messenger of God.\" It is essential to utter it to become a Muslim and to convert to Islam. The first shahada promotes the essential unity of the faith, proclaiming that there is no god but God. The Tawhid, which is the prayer that states \"no god but God\" is a major component of the Islamic faith, for it asserts the monotheistic aspect of Islam, promoting unity of God as the source of existence. The second shahada demonstrates God’s essential mercy. This prayer proclaims Muhammad as the last prophet, and it uses Muhammad as the prime example of guidance for all Muslims. Muhammad received revelation that was distorted by earlier communities, such as Jewish and Christian societies; Muhammad was the recipient of the Quran’s guidance himself and now is bearer of this guidance for the rest of the Muslim community throughout history. The Shahada, or profession of faith is said five times a day during prayer. It is the first thing said to a newborn, and the last thing to a person on their death-bed, showing how the Muslim prayer and the pillars are instrumental from the day a person is born until the day they die.", "The Second Pillar of Sunni Islam is Salat, or prayer. Before a prayer is observed, ablutions are performed including washing one's hands, face and feet. A caller (Muezzin in Arabic) chants aloud in from a raised place in the mosque. Verses from the Quran are recited either loudly or silently.These prayers are a very specific type of prayer and a very physical type of prayer called prostrations. These prayers are done five times a day, at set strict times, with the individual facing Mecca. The prayers are performed at dawn, noon, afternoon, evening, and night: the names are according to the prayer times: \"Fajr\" (dawn), \"Dhuhr\" (noon), \"ʿAṣr\" (afternoon), \"Maghrib\" (evening), and \"ʿIshāʾ\" (night). The Fajr prayer is performed before sunrise, Dhuhr is performed in the midday after the sun has surpassed its highest point, Asr is the evening prayer before sunset, Maghrib is the evening prayer after sunset and Isha is the night prayer. All of these prayers are recited while facing in the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca and form an important aspect of the Muslim Ummah. Muslims must wash before prayer; this washing is called \"wudu\" (\"purification\"). The prayer is accompanied by a series of set positions including; bowing with hands on knees, standing, prostrating and sitting in a special position (not on the heels, nor on the buttocks). At every change in position, \"Allah is great\" is said and it is a fixed tradition that has to be recited in each posture. A Muslim may perform their prayer anywhere, such as in offices, universities, and fields. However, the mosque is the preferable place for prayers because the mosque allows for fellowship. These prayers may also be observed individually if one is not able to go to the mosque. Muslims offer special congregational prayers on Friday instead of the normal prayer just after noon. Sermons (Khutbah in Arabic) which entails preaching in any local language and jointly of the recitation of certain formulas in Arabic. The preacher normally recites verses of the Quran and addresses it which can be contain political, moral or social contents. Sermons on Fridays usually have considerable public opinion's impact regarding sociopolitical and moral questions. The five daily prayers can never be waived even for those not feeling well, they may pray in bed and even lying down. When traveling, one may observe the afternoon prayers following one another: also the sunset and late evening prayers can be combined too.", "The Third Pillar of Islam is Zakāt, or alms giving or charity. Zakat means purification which indicates that a payment makes the rest of one's wealth legally and religiously pure. By following this pillar, Muslims have to deduct certain amount of their income to support the Islamic community, and it usually about 2.5% of an individual’s income. This practice is not found in the Quran but rather in the hadith. The tax is used to take good care of the holy places and mosques in the individual's specific Muslim community or to give assistance to those in need or who are impoverished. The word zakāt can be defined as purification and growth because it allows an individual to achieve balance and encourages new growth. The principle of knowing that all things belong to God is essential to purification and growth. Zakāt is obligatory for all Muslims who are able to do so. It is the personal responsibility of each Muslim to ease the economic hardship of others and to strive towards eliminating inequality. Zakāt consists of spending a portion of one's wealth for the benefit of the poor or needy, such as debtors or travelers. A Muslim may also donate more as an act of voluntary charity (\"sadaqah\"), rather than to achieve additional divine reward. Also, Muslims are required to give back to the poor, specifically through financial support, on the streets in addition to the Zakāt. Zakāt shows how the Islam faith impacts the financial situation of a believer, drawing into all aspects of life. There are five principles that should be followed when giving the zakāt:", "The Fourth Pillar of Islam is Sawm, or fasting. Fasting takes place during Ramadan, which is the holy month in the Islamic calendar (lunar calendar). This means the month of Ramadan shifts 11 days each year. Sawm is directly stated in the Quran saying: “eat and drink until the whiteness of the day becomes distinct from the blackness of the night at dawn, then complete the fast till night...”. The fast occurs from dawn to sunset each day during which time believers are expected to prohibit themselves from any food, drink, sexual intercourse, or smoking. However after sunset and before dawn, individuals can participate in any of the actions previously stated as they desire. The reason for fasting during Ramadan is to remind Muslims that all individuals are similarly needy upon the assistance of Allah and that there are less lucky individuals who need their assistance. Ramadan is a period of reflection when Muslims are called upon to recharge their faith, increment their charity, and make apology. In the Quran, the month of Ramadan was first revealed to Muhammad. Ramadan fasting ends with the “Id-ul-Fitr” (Festival of the Breaking of the Fast), which lasts for three days; of the first day of this festival, there is a meeting at the mosque for prayer celebration & each family head gives money for alms. Three types of fasting (\"Siyam\") are recognized by the Quran: Ritual fasting, fasting as compensation for repentance (both from sura Al-Baqara), and ascetic fasting (from Al-Ahzab). Ritual fasting is an obligatory act during the month of Ramadan. Muslims must abstain from food and drink from dawn to dusk during this month, and are to be especially mindful of other sins. Fasting is necessary for every Muslim that has reached puberty (unless he/she suffers from a medical condition which prevents him/her from doing so). The fast is meant to allow Muslims to seek nearness and to look for forgiveness from God, to express their gratitude to and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and to remind them of the needy. During Ramadan, Muslims are also expected to put more effort into following the teachings of Islam by refraining from violence, anger, envy, greed, lust, profane language, gossip and to try to get along with fellow Muslims better. In addition, all obscene and irreligious sights and sounds are to be avoided. Fasting during Ramadan is obligatory, but is forbidden for several groups for whom it would be very dangerous and excessively problematic. These include pre-pubescent children, those with a medical condition such as diabetes, elderly people, and pregnant or breastfeeding women. Observing fasts is not permitted for menstruating women. Other individuals for whom it is considered acceptable not to fast are those who are ill or traveling. Missing fasts usually must be made up for soon afterward, although the exact requirements vary according to circumstance.", "The final Pillar of Islam is the Hajj, or pilgrimage. During one’s life, a Muslim is required to make the pilgrimage to Mecca during the 12th month of the lunar calendar. This ritual consists of making journey to Mecca wearing only 2 white sheets so all of the pilgrims are identical and there is no class distinction among them. Amid the hajj, every single Muslim man dresses alike in a straightforward fabric, again to emphasize their uniformity. Ladies wear a less complex type of their ordinary dress. Pilgrims put the white sheets on when they enter the sanctuary area of Mecca and enter a state of “ihram” or purity. After a Muslim makes the trip to Mecca, he/she is known as a hajj/hajja (one who made the pilgrimage to Mecca). The main rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba termed \"Tawaf\", touching the Black Stone termed Istilam, traveling seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah termed \"Sa'yee\", and symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina termed Ramee. When at Mecca, the pilgrims go to the Ka’aba in the mosque and walk around it in a circle. They then pray together in official ceremonies, and then they go out to perform the “standing ceremony” to remember the Farewell Sermon of Muhammad on the Arafat. On the return trip, pilgrims stop in Mina, where they throw 7 stones at stone pillars that represent Satan as to express their hatred for Shaitan (Satan). They then return to Mecca for final ceremonies by circumbulating Ka’aba seven times and then leave Mecca to journey back home. Ability, physical strength, and economic needs can play a role in whether or not an individual is able to complete this pilgrimage, for the Quran specifically says that only those capable of making the pilgrimage are required. The reason for this journey is to follow in the footsteps of the Prophet Muhammad, hoping to gain enlightenment as Muhammad did when he was in the presence of Allah. The pilgrimage of the Hajj is in the Quran. The pilgrim, or the \"haji\", is honoured in the Muslim community. Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God, not a means to gain social standing. The believer should be self-aware and examine their intentions in performing the pilgrimage. This should lead to constant striving for self-improvement. A pilgrimage made at any time other than the Hajj season is called an \"Umrah\", and while not mandatory is strongly recommended. Also, they make a pilgrimage to the holy city of Jerusalem in their alms-giving feast.", "", "Twelver Shia Islam has five Usul al-Din and ten Furu al-Din, i.e., the Shia Islamic beliefs and practices. The Twelver Shia Islam Usul al-Din, equivalent to a Shia Five Pillars, are all beliefs considered foundational to Islam, and thus classified a bit differently from those listed above. They are: In addition to these five pillars, there are ten practices that Shia Muslims must perform, called the \"Ancillaries of the Faith\" (Arabic: furūʿ al-dīn).", "Isma'ilis have their own pillars, which are as follows:", "One of the greatest assumptions about Islamic history is that the Five Pillars were already set and in place at the time of the Prophet’s death in 632 C.E. However, most changes to these Islamic rituals came from small differences among minority Muslim groups. The major beliefs of the Pillars were already in place, taking the shape of the life and beliefs of the Prophet Muhammad. The Five Pillars are alluded to in the Quran, and some are even specifically stated in the Quran, like the Hajj to Mecca. However, the difference in practice of these traditions are accepted in Islam of the Five Pillars, but this does not mean they have all existed since the life of Muhammad. The evidence of differences shows pillars have not always been consistent to what they are today, so it has taken many years for the Pillars to get to their current and classic form." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Official Patronage.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There is no reference to the story of Veronica and her veil in the canonical gospels. The closest is the miracle of the unnamed woman who was healed by touching the hem of Jesus’s garment (Luke 8:43–48). The apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus gives her name as Berenikē or Beronike (). The name Veronica is a Latinisation of this ancient Macedonian name. The story was later elaborated in the 11th century by adding that Christ gave her a portrait of himself on a cloth, with which she later cured the Emperor Tiberius. The linking of this with the bearing of the cross in the Passion only occurs around 1380, in the internationally popular book \"Meditations on the life of Christ\". At some point a relic became associated with the story. Pedro Tafur, a Spanish knight visiting Rome in 1436, describes the following in the Church of St. Peter in his 1454 travel account: However, he does not say specifically that he witnessed for himself this exhibition of the relic. Some academic sources suggest a different origin for the legend of St. Veronica: that the cloth bearing an image of Jesus' face was known in Latin as the \"vera icon\" (\"true image\"), and that this name for the relic was misinterpreted as the name of a saint. The \"Catholic Encyclopedia\" of 1913 writes: The reference to Abgar is related to a similar legend in the Eastern Church, the Image of Edessa or Mandylion. The \"Encyclopædia Britannica\" says this about the legend: Veronica was mentioned in the reported visions of Jesus by Marie of St Peter, a Carmelite nun who lived in Tours, France and started the devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus. In 1844, Sister Marie reported that in a vision, she saw Veronica wiping away the spit and mud from the face of Jesus with her veil on the way to Calvary. She said that sacrilegious and blasphemous acts today are adding to the spit and mud that Veronica wiped away that day. According to Marie of St Peter, in her visions, Jesus told her that he desired devotion to His Holy Face in reparation for sacrilege and blasphemy. Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ are thus compared to Veronica wiping the face of Jesus. The Devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus was eventually approved by Pope Leo XIII in 1885. Veronica is commemorated on 12 July.", "Saint Veronica is the patron of the French mulquiniers whose representations they celebrated biannually (summer and winter) as in many pious Christian countries. She is also the patron saint of photographers.", "In Volume 5 of her work, \"The Poem of the Man-God\", Italian writer and alleged mystic Maria Valtorta depicts Veronica as Nike, who offered the linen cloth to Christ. It is also stated earlier in the same volume that \"The one we call Veronica and whom Jesus called Nike...\" suggesting that Nike has been mistakenly referred to as Veronica throughout history. Selma Lagerlöf in Christ Legends expands the legend by making Veronica a former servant of the Roman emperor Tiberius, named Faustina, who travels to Jerusalem in search of the Prophet of Nazareth, after learning that he once cured a young woman of leprosy. She travels on behalf of Tiberius, now himself stricken, hoping to bring him a cure and redemption from his evil ways. Faustina arrives on the day of the Crucifixion, and the rest is legend. Mel Gibson's film \"The Passion of the Christ\" (2004) included an episode of Veronica wiping Jesus's face, although she is not referred to by name in the film (she is credited in the film as Seraphia). Anne Catherine Emmerich, one of the inspirational sources to the cited movie, depicts a long description of the Veronica episode and she identifies the true name of Veronica also as Seraphia. The most common pass with the cape in bullfighting is called a \"verónica\", as the \"torero\" holds the cape in the same way as Veronica is usually depicted holding the cloth. The song \"Climb\" by Tori Amos on her 2017 album \"Native Invader\" contains repeated references to Veronica." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Religious figures.", "Abraham.", "Moses.", "Muhammad.", "Other prophets.", "Historical interaction.", "Middle Ages.", "Conversion of Jews to Islam.", "Conversion of Muslims to Judaism.", "Contemporary era.", "Interfaith activities.", "Common aspects.", "Holy scripture.", "Religious law.", "Rules of conduct.", "Other similarities.", "Interplay between Jewish and Islamic thought.", "\"Saadia Gaon\".", "Maimonides.", "Influence on exegesis.", "Muslim–Jewish wars and military conflicts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The term \"Semitic\" is due to the legendary derivation of the peoples so called from Shem, son of Noah (Gen. x, 1). Hebreaic and Arabian peoples are generally classified as Semitic, a racialist concept derived from Biblical accounts of the origins of the cultures known to the ancient Hebrews. Those closest to them in culture and language were generally deemed to be descended from their forefather Shem, one of the sons of Noah. Enemies were often said to be descendants of his cursed nephew Canaan, grandson of Noah, son of Ham. Modern historians confirm the affinity of ancient Hebrews and Arabs based on characteristics that are usually transmitted from parent to child, such as genes and habits, with the most well-studied criterion being language. Similarities between Semitic languages (including Hebrew and Arabic) and their differences with those spoken by other adjacent people confirm the common origin of Hebrews and Arabs among other Semitic nations. Around the 12th century BC, Judaism developed as a monotheistic religion. According to Jewish religious tradition, the history of Judaism begins with the Covenant between God and Abraham, who is considered a Hebrew. (The first Hebrew being Eber, a forefather of Abraham.) The Hebrew Bible occasionally refers to \"Arvi\" peoples (or variants thereof), translated as \"Arab\" or \"Arabian\" deriving from \"Arava\" plain, the dwellers of plains. Some Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula are considered descendants of Ismael, the first son of Abraham. While the commonly held view among historians is that Islam originated in Arabia in the 7th century AD, in Islam's view, Adam was the first Muslim (in the sense of believing in Allah and surrendering to Allah's commands). Islam also shares many traits with Judaism (as well as with Christianity), like the belief in and reverence for common prophets, such as Moses and Abraham, who are recognized in all three Abrahamic religions.", "Judaism and Islam are known as \"Abrahamic religions\". The first Abrahamic religion was Judaism as practiced in the wilderness of the Sinai peninsula subsequent to the Exodus of the Hebrews from Egypt and continuing as the Hebrews entered the land of Canaan to conquer and settle it. The kingdom eventually split into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah prior to the Babylonian Exile, at the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. The firstborn son of Abraham, Ishmael, is considered by Muslims to be the \"Father of the Arabs\".", "As in Judaism and Christianity, Moses is regarded in Islam as one of the most prominent prophets. His story is frequently recounted in both the Meccan and Medinan chapters, some of which are long. Although there are differences in the Quranic and Biblical accounts, the remaining narratives are similar. They agree on the events of Moses' infancy, exile to Midian, plagues and miracles, deliverage of", "In the course of Muhammad's proselytizing in Mecca, he initially viewed Christians and Jews (both of whom he referred to as \"People of the Book\") as natural allies, sharing the core principles of his teachings, and anticipated their acceptance and support. Ten years after his first revelation in Mount Hira, a delegation consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Medina pledged to physically protect Muhammad and invited him as a neutral outsider to Medina to serve as chief arbitrator for the entire community, which had been fighting with each", "Both Judaism and Islam regard many people as being prophets, with exceptions. Both teach that Eber, Job, and Joseph were prophets. However, according to one sage in Judaism the whole story", "Jews have often lived in predominantly Islamic nations. Since many national borders have changed over the fourteen centuries of Islamic history, a single community, such as the Jewish community in Cairo, may have been contained in a number of different nations over different periods.", "In the Iberian Peninsula, under Muslim rule, Jews were able to make great advances in mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, chemistry and philology. This era is sometimes referred to as the Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula. Traditionally Jews living in Muslim lands, known (along with Christians) as dhimmis, were allowed to practice their religion and to administer their internal affairs but subject to certain conditions. They had to pay the jizya (a per capita tax imposed on free, adult non-Muslim males) to the Muslim government but were exempted from paying the zakat (a tax imposed on free, adult Muslim males). Dhimmis were prohibited from bearing arms or giving testimony in most Muslim court cases, for there were many Sharia laws which did not apply to Dhimmis, who practiced Halakha. A common misconception is that of the requirement of distinctive clothing, which is a law not taught by the Qur'an or hadith but allegedly invented by the Abbasid Caliphate in early medieval Baghdad. Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and", "According to Judaism, Jews that voluntarily convert to Islam commit a treacherous act of heresy in abandoning the Torah. There is a view, held by the Radvaz and Ritva, that a Jew should be prepared to take his own life rather than convert to another religion, but the Rambam, also known as Maimonides, expresses that it is not necessary that a Jew take his own life if he is forced to convert but privately follows the Torah. Islam accepts converts, and spreading Dawah to other religious adherents including Jews. In modern times, some notable converts to Islam from a Jewish background include Muhammad Asad (b. Leopold Weiss), Abdallah Schleifer (b. Marc Schleifer), Youssef Darwish, Layla Morad and Maryam Jameelah (b. Margret Marcus). More than 200 Israeli Jews converted to Islam between 2000 and 2008. Historically, in accordance with traditional Islamic law, Jews generally enjoyed freedom of religion in Islamic states as People of the Book. However, certain rulers did historically enact forced conversions for political reasons and religious reasons in regards to youth and orphans. A number of groups who converted from Judaism to Islam have", "Judaism does not proselytize, and often discourages conversion to Judaism; maintaining that all people have a covenant with God, and instead encourages non-Jews to uphold the Seven Laws which it believes were given to Noah. Conversions to Judaism are therefore relatively rare, including those from the Islamic world. One famous Muslim who converted to Judaism was Ovadyah, famous from", "Iran contains the largest number of Jews within predominantly Muslim countries and Uzbekistan and Turkey have the next largest communities. Iran's Jewish community is officially recognized as a religious minority group by the government, and, like the Zoroastrians, they were allocated a seat in the Iranian parliament. In 2000 it was estimated that at that time there were still 30,000–35,000 Jews in Iran; other sources put the figure as low as 20,000–25,000. They cannot emigrate out of Iran, since the government only allows one family member to leave and be out of the country at a time. A Jewish businessman was hanged", "The Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek has argued that the term \"Judeo-Muslim\" to describe the middle-east culture against the western Christian culture would be more appropriate in these days, claiming as well a reduced influence from the Jewish culture on the western world due to the historical persecution and exclusion of the Jewish minority. (Though there is also a different perspective on Jewish contributions and influence.) A \"Judaeo-Christian-Muslim\" concept thus refers to the three main monotheistic religions, commonly known as the Abrahamic religions. Formal exchanges between the three religions, modeled on the decades-old Jewish–Christian interfaith dialogue groups, became common in American cities following the 1993 Israeli–Palestinian Oslo accords. The governments of Jordan and Qatar have been particularly active in fostering dialogue between Muslims and Jews, through conferences and institutes. Following 9/11, there was a breakdown in interfaith dialogue that included mosques, due to the increased attention to Islamic sermons in American mosques, that revealed \"anti-Jewish and anti-Israel outbursts by previously respected Muslim clerics and community leaders.\" One of the country's most prominent mosques is the New York Islamic Cultural Center, built with funding from Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Malaysia. Its imam, Mohammad Al-Gamei'a, disappeared two days after 9/11. Since 2007, the Foundation for Ethnic Understanding, led by Rabbi Marc Schneier and Russell Simmons has made improving Muslim-Jewish Relations their main focus. They have hosted the National Summit of Imams and Rabbis in 2007, the Gathering of Muslim and Jewish Leaders in Brussels in 2010 and in Paris in 2012, and three Missions of Muslim and Jewish Leaders to Washington D.C.. Each November the Foundation hosts the Weekend of Twinning which encourages Muslims and Jews, Imams", "There are many common aspects between Islam and Judaism. As Islam developed it gradually became the major religion closest to Judaism, both of them being strictly Monotheist religious traditions originating in a Semitic Middle Eastern culture. As opposed to Christianity, which originated from interaction between ancient Greek and Hebrew cultures, Islam is similar to Judaism in its fundamental religious outlook, structure, jurisprudence and practice. There are many traditions within Islam originating from traditions within the Hebrew Bible or from postbiblical Jewish traditions. These practices are known collectively as the Isra'iliyat. The Qur'an speaks extensively about the Children of Israel (Banû Isrâ'îl) and recognizes that the Jews (al-Yahûd) are, according to lineage, descendants of Prophet Abraham through his son Isaac and grandson Jacob. They were chosen by Allah for a mission: \"And We chose them, purposely, above (all) creatures.\" [Sûrah al-Dukhân: 32] Allah raised among them many Prophets and bestowed upon them what He had not bestowed upon many others: \"And (remember) when Musa said unto his people: O my people! Remember Allah's favor unto you, how He placed among you Prophets, and He made you Kings, and gave you that (which) He gave not to any (other) of (His) creatures.\" [Sûrah al-Mâ'idah: 20] He, also, exalted them over other nations of the earth and granted them many favors: \"O Children of Israel! Remember My favor wherewith I favored you and how I preferred you to (all) creatures.\" [Sûrah al-Baqarah: 47] They were chosen by God for a mission (44:32) and God raised among them many Prophets and bestowed upon them what He had not bestowed upon many others (5:20). Qur'an also warned Muslims that the strongest enmity among men to the Muslim believers came from Jews and Pagans (\"mushrik\"), while Christians [\"nashara\"] are considered as the nearest among men in love to the believers. (Sûrah al-Maidah 5:82)", "Islam and Judaism share the idea of a revealed scripture. Even though they differ over the precise text and its interpretations, the Hebrew \"Torah\" and the Muslim \"Qur'an\" share a lot of narrative as well as injunctions. From this, they share many other fundamental religious concepts such as the belief in a day of Divine Judgment. Reflecting the vintage of the religions, the Torah is traditionally in the form of a scroll and the Qur'an in the form of a codex. Muslims commonly refer to Jews (and Christians) as fellow \"People of the Book\": people who follow the same general teachings in relation to the worship of the one God worshipped by Abraham. The \"Qur'an\" distinguishes between \"People of the Book\" (Jews and Christians), who should be tolerated even if they hold to their faiths, and idolaters (polytheists) who are not given that same degree of tolerance (See Al-Baqara, 256). Some restrictions for Muslims are relaxed, such as Muslim males being allowed to marry a woman from", "Judaism and Islam are unique in having systems of religious law based on oral tradition that can override the written laws and that does not distinguish", "The most obvious common practice is the statement of the absolute unity of God, which Muslims observe in their five times daily prayers (salat), and Jews state at least twice (Shema Yisrael), along with praying 3 times daily. The two faiths also share the central practices of fasting and almsgiving, as well as dietary laws and other aspects of ritual purity. Under the strict dietary laws, lawful food is called \"Kosher\" in Judaism and \"Halal\" in", "Islam and Judaism both consider the Christian doctrine of the trinity and the belief of Jesus being God as explicitly against the tenets of monotheism. Idolatry and the worship of graven images is likewise forbidden in both religions. Both have official colors (Blue in Judaism and Green in Islam). Both faiths believe in angels, as servants of God and share a similar idea of demons (\"Jinn\" and \"Shedim\"); Jewish demonology mentions ha-Satan and Muslim demonology mentions Al-Shai'tan both rejecting him as an opponent of God. Many angels also possess similar names and roles in both Judaism and Islam. Neither religion subscribes to the", "", "\"One of the most important early Jewish philosophers influenced by Islamic philosophy is Rav Saadia Gaon (892–942). His most important work is Emunoth ve-Deoth (Book of Beliefs and Opinions). In this work Saadia treats of the questions that interested the Mutakallimun so deeply—such as the creation of matter, the unity of God,", "Maimonides endeavored to harmonize the philosophy of Aristotle with Judaism; and to this end he composed the work, \"Dalalat al-Ḥairin\" (\"Guide for the Perplexed\")—known better under its Hebrew title \"Moreh Nevuchim\"—which served for many centuries as the subject of discussion and comment by Jewish thinkers. In this work, Maimonides considers creation, the unity of God, the attributes of God, the soul, etc., and treats them in accordance with the theories of Aristotle to the extent in which these latter do not conflict", "Saadia Gaon's commentary on the Bible bears the stamp of the Mutazilites; and its author, while not admitting any positive attributes of God, except these of essence, endeavors to interpret Biblical passages in such a way as to rid them of anthropomorphism. The Jewish commentator, Abraham ibn", "In the early days of Islam, according to Islamic sources, a Jewish tribe of Arabia (see Banu Qurayza) was alleged to have broken the peace treaty with the early Muslims, resulting in the execution of over 700 Jews. Many of the surviving women were subsequently taken by Muslim soldiers; one of these, Safiyya bint Huyayy whose husband Kenana ibn al-Rabi had also been killed, was taken by Muhammad as his wife. There were notable persecutions of Jews such as the 1033 Fez massacre, 1066 Granada massacre and 1834 looting of Safed. In the late 19th century, the Zionist movement sought to re-establish a Jewish homeland in historic Israel, within the historical territory of Palestine, also known as Zion, also known as the Holy Land. This created tensions between the Palestinian Jews and Palestinian Arabs, leading to, beginning in 1947, a civil war and the subsequent exodus of many Palestinian Arabs and many Jews from Muslim countries. In 1948, the state of Israel was declared, and shortly after its declaration of independence, the Arab States declared war on Israel, in which the Israelis were victorious. After the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, twelve more wars were fought between the Arab States and Israel. The Arab–Israeli conflict has weakened Islamic–Jewish relations severely." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Legend.", "Arts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Libuše is said to have been the youngest daughter of the equally mythical Czech ruler Krok. The legend goes that she was the wisest of the three sisters, and while her sister Kazi was a healer and Teta was a magician, she had the gift of seeing the future, and was chosen by her father as his successor, to judge over the people. According to legends she prophesied from her castle at Libušín, though later legends say it was Vyšehrad. Legend says that Libuše came out on a rocky cliff high above the Vltava and prophesied: \"I see a great city whose glory will touch the stars.\" On the site she ordered to build a castle and a town called Prague. Although she proved herself as a wise chieftain, the male part of the tribe was displeased that their ruler was a woman and demanded that she marry, but she had fallen in love with a ploughman, Přemysl. She therefore related a vision in which she saw a farmer with one broken sandal, ploughing a field, or in other versions of the legend, eating from an iron table. She instructed her councilmen to seek out this man by letting a horse loose at a junction; they followed it to the village of Stadice and found Přemysl exactly as she had said (either ploughing a field, or using an iron plough as a makeshift table). The two grandees who found Přemysl brought him to the princely palace where Libuše married him, and Přemysl the Ploughman thus became ruler. They went on to have three sons: Radobyl, Lidomir, and Nezamysl who continued the Přemyslid dynasty in the Czech lands. In another legend, she commanded her councillors to found a city at the place where they found a man making the best of use of his teeth at midday. They set off and at midday found a man sawing a block of wood (using his saw's teeth) when everyone else was eating; when they asked him what he was making he replied \"Prah\" (which in Czech means \"threshold\") and so Libuše named the city Prague (Czech: \"Praha\").", "The story of Libuše and Přemysl was recounted in detail in the 12th century by Cosmas of Prague in his \"Chronica Boëmorum\". Another early account was included in Jan Dubravius' 1552 chronicle \"Historia regni Bohemiae\", and Johann Karl August Musäus used this and Aeneas Silvius' \"Cardinalis de Bohemarum Origine ac Gestis Historia\" to write his version of the legend as \"Libussa\", which he included in his \"Volksmärchen der Deutschen\" (1782–86). The mythical figure of Libuše gave material for several dramatic works, including \"Libussa\", a tragedy by Franz Grillparzer, \"Libuše\", an opera by Bedřich Smetana and \"Pole a palisáda\", a novel by Miloš Urban. She is also featured as a character in Edward Einhorn's play, \"Rudolf II\". In 2009, an American-Czech film version of the Libuše and Přemysl story was released under the name \"The Pagan Queen\". Minor planet 264 Libussa is named in her honor." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Birth and family background.", "Childhood.", "Early military career.", "First marriage and aftermath.", "Second marriage and family; election to Congress.", "Election to Congress.", "Children.", "Mexican–American War.", "Return to politics.", "Senator.", "Secretary of War.", "Return to Senate.", "President of the Confederate States.", "Imprisonment.", "Later years.", "Author.", "Death and burials.", "Legacy.", "Screen portrayals.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Jefferson Finis Davis was born at the family homestead in Fairview, Kentucky, on June 3, 1808. He sometimes gave his year of birth as 1807. He dropped his middle name in later life, although he sometimes used a middle initial. Davis was the youngest of ten children born to Jane (née Cook) and Samuel Emory Davis; his oldest brother Joseph Emory Davis was 23 years his senior. He was named after then-incumbent President Thomas Jefferson, whom his father admired. In the early 20th century, the Jefferson Davis State Historic Site was established near the site of Davis's birth. Coincidentally, Abraham Lincoln was born in Hodgenville, Kentucky,", "During Davis's childhood, his family moved twice: in 1811 to St. Mary Parish, Louisiana, and less than a year later to Wilkinson County, Mississippi. Three of his older brothers served in the War of 1812. In 1813, Davis began his education at the Wilkinson Academy in the small town of Woodville, near the family cotton plantation. His brother Joseph acted as a surrogate father", "Joseph arranged for Davis to get an appointment and attend the United States Military Academy (West Point) starting in late 1824. While there, he was placed under house arrest for his role in the Eggnog Riot during Christmas 1826. Cadets smuggled whiskey into the academy to make eggnog, and more than one-third of the cadets were involved in the incident. In June 1828, Davis graduated 23rd in a class of 33. Following graduation, Second Lieutenant Davis was assigned to the", "Davis fell in love with Sarah Knox Taylor, daughter of his commanding officer, Zachary Taylor. Both Sarah and Davis sought Taylor's permission to marry. Taylor refused, as he did not wish his daughter to have the difficult life of a military wife on frontier army posts. Davis's own experience led him to appreciate Taylor's objection. He consulted his older brother Joseph, and they both began to question the value of an Army career. Davis hesitated to leave, but his desire for Sarah overcame this, and he resigned his commission in a letter dated April 20, 1835. He had arranged for the letter to be sent to the War Department for him on May 12 when he did not return from leave, but he did not tell Taylor he intended to resign. Against his former commander's wishes, on June 17, he married Sarah in Louisville, Kentucky. His resignation became effective June 30. Davis's older brother Joseph had been very successful and owned Hurricane Plantation and of adjoining land along the Mississippi River on a peninsula south of Vicksburg, Mississippi. The adjoining land was known as Brierfield, since it was largely covered with brush and briers. Wanting to have his youngest brother and his wife nearby, Joseph gave use of Brierfield to Jefferson, who eventually developed Brierfield Plantation there. Joseph retained the title. In August 1835, Jefferson and Sarah traveled south to his sister Anna's home in West Feliciana", "In 1844, Davis met Varina Banks Howell, then 18 years old, whom his brother Joseph had invited for the Christmas season at Hurricane Plantation. She was a granddaughter of New Jersey Governor Richard Howell; her mother's family was from the South and included successful Scots-Irish planters. Within a month of their meeting, the 35-year-old widower Davis had asked Varina to marry him, and they became engaged despite her parents' initial concerns about his age and politics. They were married on February 26, 1845.", "During this time, Davis was persuaded to become a candidate for the United States House of Representatives and began canvassing for the election. In early October 1845 he traveled to Woodville to give a", "Jefferson and Varina had six children; three died before reaching adulthood. Samuel Emory, born July 30, 1852, was named after his grandfather; he died June 30, 1854, of an undiagnosed disease. Margaret Howell was born February 25, 1855, and was the only child to marry and raise a family. She married Joel Addison Hayes, Jr. (1848–1919), and they had five children. They were married in St. Lazarus Church, nicknamed \"The Confederate Officers' Church\", in Memphis, Tennessee. In the late 19th century, they moved from Memphis to Colorado Springs, Colorado. She died on July 18, 1909, at the age of 54. Jefferson Davis, Jr., was born January 16, 1857. He died at age 21 because of yellow fever on October 16, 1878, during an in the Mississippi River", "In 1846 the Mexican–American War began. Davis raised a volunteer regiment, the Mississippi Rifles, becoming its colonel under the command of his former father-in-law, General Zachary Taylor. On July 21 the regiment sailed from New Orleans for Texas. Colonel Davis sought to arm his regiment with the M1841 Mississippi rifle. At this time, smoothbore muskets were still the primary infantry weapon, and any unit with rifles was considered special and designated as such. President James K. Polk had promised Davis the weapons if he would remain in Congress long enough for an important vote on the Walker tariff. General Winfield Scott objected on the basis that the weapons were insufficiently tested. Davis insisted and called in his promise from", "", "Honoring Davis's war service, Governor Albert G. Brown of Mississippi appointed him to the vacant position of United States Senator Jesse Speight, a Democrat, who had died on May 1, 1847. Davis, also a Democrat, took his temporary seat on December 5, and in January 1848 he was elected by the state legislature to serve the remaining two years of the term. In December, during the 30th United States Congress, Davis was made a regent of the Smithsonian Institution and began serving on the Committee on Military Affairs and the Library Committee. In 1848, Senator Davis proposed and introduced an amendment (the first of several) to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that would have annexed most of northeastern Mexico, but it failed on a vote of 11 to 44. Southerners wanted to increase territory held in Mexico as an area for the expansion of slavery. Regarding Cuba, Davis declared that it \"must be ours\" to \"increase the number of slaveholding constituencies.\" He also was concerned about the security implications of a Spanish holding lying relatively close to the coast of Florida.", "Franklin Pierce, after winning the presidential election, made Davis his Secretary of War in 1853. In this capacity, Davis began the Pacific Railroad Surveys in order to determine various possible routes for the proposed Transcontinental Railroad. He promoted the Gadsden Purchase of today's southern Arizona from Mexico, partly because it would provide an easier southern route for the new railroad; the Pierce administration agreed and the land was purchased in December 1853. He saw the size of the regular army as insufficient to fulfill its mission, maintaining that salaries", "In the 1840s, tensions were growing between the North and South over various issues including slavery. The Wilmot Proviso, introduced in 1846, contributed to these tensions; if passed, it would have banned slavery in any land acquired from Mexico. The Compromise of 1850 brought a temporary respite, but the Dred Scott case, decided by the United States Supreme Court in 1857, spurred public debate. Chief Justice Roger Taney ruled that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional and that African Americans had no standing as citizens under the constitution. Northerners were outraged and there was increasing talk in the South of secession from the Union. Davis's renewed service in the Senate was interrupted in early 1858 by an illness that began as a severe cold and which threatened him with the loss of his left eye. He was forced to remain in a darkened room for four weeks. He spent the summer of 1858 in Portland, Maine. On the Fourth", "Anticipating a call for his services since Mississippi had seceded, Davis had sent a telegraph message to Governor John J. Pettus saying, \"Judge what Mississippi requires of me and place me accordingly.\" On January 23, 1861, Pettus made Davis a major general of the Army of Mississippi. On February 9, a constitutional convention met at Montgomery, Alabama, and considered Davis and Robert Toombs of Georgia as a possible president. Davis, who had widespread support from six of the seven states, easily won. He was seen as the \"champion of a slave society and embodied the values of the planter class\", and was elected provisional Confederate President by acclamation. He was inaugurated on February 18, 1861. Alexander H. Stephens was chosen as Vice President, but he and Davis feuded constantly. Davis was the first choice because of his strong political and military credentials. He wanted to serve as commander-in-chief of the Confederate armies but said he would serve wherever directed. His wife Varina Davis later wrote that when he received word that he had been chosen as president, \"Reading that telegram he looked so grieved that I feared some evil had befallen our family.\" Several forts in Confederate territory remained in Union hands. Davis sent a commission to Washington with an offer to pay for any federal property on Southern soil, as well as the Southern portion of the national debt, but Lincoln refused to meet with the commissioners. Brief informal discussions did take place with Secretary of State William Seward through Supreme Court Justice John A. Campbell, the latter of whom later resigned from the federal government, as he was from Alabama. Seward hinted that Fort Sumter would be evacuated, but gave no assurance. On March 1, 1861, Davis appointed General P. G. T. Beauregard to command all Confederate troops in the vicinity of Charleston, South Carolina, where state officials prepared to take possession of Fort Sumter. Beauregard was to prepare his forces but await orders to attack the fort. Within the fort the issue was not of the niceties of geopolitical posturing but of survival. They would be out of food on the 15th. The small Union garrison had but half a dozen officers and 127 soldiers under Major Robert Anderson. Famously, this included the baseball folk hero Captain (later major general) Abner Doubleday. More improbable yet was a Union officer who had the name of Jefferson C. Davis. He would spend the war being taunted for his name but not his loyalty to the Northern cause. The newly installed President Lincoln, not wishing to initiate hostilities, informed South Carolina Governor Pickens that he was dispatching a small fleet of ships from the navy yard in New York to resupply but not re-enforce Fort Pickens in Florida and Fort Sumter. The U.S. President did not inform CSA President Davis of this intended resupply of food and fuel. For Lincoln, Davis, as the leader of an insurrection, was without legal standing in U.S. affairs. To deal with him would be to give legitimacy to the rebellion. The fact that Sumter was the property of the sovereign United States was the reason for maintaining the garrison on the island fort. He informed Pickens that the resupply mission would not land troops or munitions unless they were fired upon. As it turned out, just as the supply ships approached Charleston harbor, the bombardment would begin and the flotilla watched the spectacle from at sea. Davis faced the most important decision of his career: to prevent reinforcement at Fort Sumter or to let it take place. He and his cabinet decided to demand that the Federal garrison surrender and, if this was refused, to use military force to prevent reinforcement before the fleet arrived. Anderson did not surrender. With Davis's endorsement, Beauregard began the bombarding of the fort in the early dawn of April 12. The Confederates continued their artillery attack on Fort Sumter until it surrendered on April 14. No one was killed in the artillery duel, but the attack on the U.S. fort meant the fighting had started. President Lincoln called up 75,000 state militiamen to march south to recapture Federal property. In the North and South, massive rallies were held to demand immediate war. The Civil War had begun.", "On May 19, 1865, Davis was imprisoned in a casemate at Fortress Monroe, on the coast of Virginia. Irons were riveted to his ankles at the order of General Nelson Miles, who was in charge of the fort. Davis was allowed no visitors, and no books except the Bible. He became sicker, and the attending physician warned that his life was in danger, but this treatment continued for some months until late autumn when he was finally given better quarters. General Miles was transferred in mid-1866, and Davis's treatment continued to improve. Pope Pius IX (see Pope Pius IX and the United States), after learning that Davis was a prisoner, sent him a portrait inscribed with the Latin words \"\"Venite ad me omnes qui laboratis, et ego reficiam vos, dicit Dominus\"\", which correspond to, \"Come to me, all you that labor, and are burdened, and I will refresh you, sayeth the Lord\". A hand-woven crown of thorns associated with the portrait is often said to have been made by the Pope but may have been woven by Davis's wife Varina. Varina and their young daughter Winnie were allowed to join Davis, and the family was eventually given an apartment in the officers' quarters. Davis was indicted for treason while imprisoned; one", "After his release from prison and pardon, Davis faced continued financial pressures, as well as an unsettled family life. His elder brother Joseph died in 1870, his son William Howell Davis in 1872 and Jefferson Davis Jr. in 1878. His wife Varina was often ill or abroad, and for a time refused to live with him in Memphis, Tennessee. Davis resented having to resort to charity, and would only accept jobs befitting his former positions as U.S. Senator and Confederate President; several that he accepted proved financial failures. On one of his many trips to England, Davis sought a mercantile position in Liverpool. However, British companies were wary, both because Britons were not interested in Canadian mines, and because Mississippi defaulted on debts in the 1840s, and Judah Benjamin cautioned him against countering former wartime propaganda by Robert J. Walker. Davis also refused positions as head of Randolph-Macon Academy in Virginia and the University of the South in Sewanee, Tennessee, for financial reasons. In 1869, Davis became president of the Carolina Life Insurance Company in Memphis, Tennessee, at an annual salary of $12,000 (), plus travel expenses, and resided at the Peabody Hotel. He recruited former Confederate officers as agents, and the board ratified his position in 1870. By 1873, he suggested that the company have boards of trustees at its various branches, and that qualification for such be that the trustee either take out a policy of at least $5,000 or own at least $1,000 in the company's stock. By midyear the Panic of 1873 affected the company, and Davis resigned when it merged with another firm over his objections. He also planned a \"Davis Land Company\" in which investors would pay $10 per share for 5,700 acres Davis owned in Arkansas. He drafted a prospectus that stated he owed more than $40,000 and his income did not amount to $200. Upon General Lee's death, Davis agreed to preside over the Presbyterian memorial in Richmond on November 3, 1870. That speech prompted further invitations, although he declined them until July 1871, when he was commencement speaker at the University of the South. Two years later Davis addressed the Virginia Historical Society at White Sulpher Springs, where Davis proclaimed southerners were \"cheated not conquered\" and would never have surrendered if they had foreseen Congressional Reconstruction. In the summer of 1875, Davis agreed to speak at 17 agricultural fairs in the Midwest. He received criticism from the Chicago Tribune and threats to his life in Indiana, but crowds in Kansas City, Missouri and Fairview, Kentucky received him well. During the next two years Davis began writing his books about the Confederacy, but only addressed fellow former soldiers: first veterans of the Mexican War (before which he attacked Congressional Reconstruction), then Confederate veterans (where he promoted reconciliation). Early in Reconstruction, Davis publicly remained silent on his opinions, but privately condemned federal military rule and believed Republican authority over former Confederate states unjustified. Mississippi had elected Hiram Rhodes Revels, an African-American, as a U.S. Senator in 1870 to finish the term of Albert G. Brown. Furthermore, during the war, after Joseph Davis's departure from his plantations at Davis Bend and the Union capture of Vicksburg and the surrounding area, General Grant had continued Joseph Davis's utopian experiment and ordered that the land be leased to the freedman and black refugees allowed to settle", "Joseph Davis had encouraged his brother to write his memoirs just after his release from prison, but Davis had responded that he was not capable of doing so, either physically nor emotionally. His wartime assistant Preston Johnston had also encouraged Davis three years later. As Davis began to seriously consider the memoir endeavor in 1869, his early working title became \"Our Cause,\" for he believed he could convert others to the rightness of the Confederacy's actions. In 1875, unable to come to terms with Preston Johnston, Davis authorized William T. Walthall, a former Confederate officer and Carolina Life agent in Mobile, Alabama to look for a publisher for the proposed book. Walthall contacted D. Appleton & Company in New York City, and editor Joseph C. Derby agreed to pay Walthall $250/month as an advance until the manuscript's completion, with the final product not to exceed two volumes of 800 pages each. Davis made minor changes and Appleton agreed. In 1877, Sarah Anne Ellis Dorsey, a wealthy widow and writer whom he and Varina had known from childhood and who supported the Lost Cause, invited Davis to stay at her estate and plantation house, \"Beauvoir\", which faced the Gulf of Mexico in Biloxi, Mississippi. Her husband, Maryland-born Samuel Dorsey had bought Beauvoir in 1873, and died there two years later. Mrs. Dorsey wanted to provide Davis with a refuge in which he could write his memoirs per the Appleton contract. She provided him a cabin for his own use as well as helped him with his writing through organization, dictation, editing and encouragement. Davis refused to accept overt charity, but agreed to purchase the property at a modest price ($5,500, payable in installments over three years). In January 1878 Dorsey, knowing she too was ill (with breast cancer), made over her will with Walthall's assistance in order to leave her remaining three small Louisiana plantations and financial assets of $50,000 () to Davis and (acknowledging his still-precarious health) if he predeceased her, to his beloved daughter, Winnie Davis. Dorsey died in 1879, by which time both the Davises and Winnie were living at Beauvoir. Her relatives came to contest that last will, which excluded them and gave everything to Davis in fee simple. They argued Davis exerted undue influence over the widow. The court dismissed their lawsuit without comment in March 1880, and they filed no appeal. Upon", "On November 6, 1889, Davis left Beauvoir to visit his Brierfield plantation. He embarked a steamboat in New Orleans during sleety rain and fell ill during the trip, so that he initially felt too sick to disembark at his stop, and spent the night upriver in Vicksburg before making his way to the plantation the next day. He refused to send for a doctor for four days before embarking on his return trip. Meanwhile, servants sent Varina a telegram, and she took a train to New Orleans, and then a steamboat upriver, finally reaching the vessel on which her husband was returning. Davis finally received medical care as two doctors came aboard further south and diagnosed acute bronchitis complicated by malaria. Upon arriving in New Orleans three days later, Davis was taken to Garden District home of Charles Erasmus Fenner, a former Confederate officer who became an Associate Justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court. Fenner was the son-in-law of Davis's old friend J. M. Payne. Davis's doctor Stanford E. Chaille pronounced him too ill to travel to Beauvoir; four medical students who were sons of Confederate veterans and a Catholic nun attended Davis in the Charity Hospital ambulance which took him to the Fenner home. Davis remained bedridden but stable for the next two weeks. He took a turn for the worse in early December. According to Fenner, just when Davis again appeared to be improving, he lost consciousness on the evening of December 5 and died at 12:45 a.m. on Friday, December 6, 1889, holding Varina's hand and in the presence of several friends. His funeral was one of the largest in the South, and New Orleans draped itself in mourning as his body lay in state in the City Hall for several days. An Executive Committee decided to emphasize Davis's ties to the United States, so an American national flag was placed over the Confederate flag during the viewing, and many crossed American and Confederate flags nearby. Davis wore a new suit of Confederate grey fabric Jubal Early had given him, and Varina placed a sword Davis had carried during the Black Hawk War on the bier. A common decoration during the initial funeral was a small American flag in mourning, with a portrait of Davis in", "Jefferson Davis served in many roles. As a soldier, he was brave and resourceful. As a politician, he served as a United States senator and a Mississippi congressman and was active and accomplished, although he never completed a full term in any elected position. As a plantation owner, he employed slave labor as did most of his peers in the South, and supported slavery. As president of the Confederate States of America, he is widely viewed as an ineffective wartime leader; although the task of defending the Confederacy against the much stronger Union would have been a great challenge for any leader, Davis's performance in this role is considered poor. After the war, he contributed to reconciliation of the South with the North, but remained a symbol for Southern pride. Some portions of his legacy were created not as memorials, but as contemporary recognition of his service at the time. Fort Davis National Historic Site began as a frontier military post in October 1854, in the mountains of western Texas. It was named after then-United States Secretary of War Jefferson Davis. That fort gave its name to the surrounding Davis Mountains range, and the town of Fort Davis. The surrounding area was designated Jeff Davis County in 1887, with the town of Fort Davis as the county seat. Other states containing a Jefferson (or Jeff) Davis County/Parish include Georgia, Louisiana, and Mississippi. Jefferson Davis Hospital began operations in 1924 and was the first centralized municipal hospital to treat indigent patients in Houston, Texas. The building was designated as a protected historic landmark on November 13, 2013, by the Houston City Council and is monitored by the Historic Preservation Office of the City of Houston Department of Planning and Development. The hospital was named for Jefferson Davis, former president of the Confederacy, in honor of the Confederate soldiers who had been buried in the cemetery and as a means to console the families of the deceased. Numerous memorials to Jefferson Davis were created. The largest", "In films and on television, Jefferson", "Official Other" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Features.", "History.", "Windows CE.", "Pocket PC 2000.", "Pocket PC 2002.", "Windows Mobile 2003.", "Windows Mobile 2003 SE.", "Windows Mobile 5.", "Windows Mobile 6.", "Windows Mobile 6.1.", "Windows Mobile 6.5.", "Hardware.", "Embedded Handheld.", "Pocket PCs.", "Smartphones.", "Market share.", "Software development.", "Connectivity." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Most versions of Windows Mobile have a standard set of features, such as multitasking and the ability to navigate a file system similar to that of Windows 9x and Windows NT, including support for many of the same file types. Similarly to its desktop counterpart, it comes bundled with a set of applications that perform basic tasks. Internet Explorer Mobile is the default web browser, and Windows Media Player is the default media player used for playing digital media. The mobile version of Microsoft Office, is the default office suite. Internet Connection Sharing, supported on compatible devices, allows the phone to share its Internet connection with computers via USB and Bluetooth. Windows Mobile supports virtual private networking over PPTP protocol. Most devices with mobile connectivity also have a Radio Interface Layer. The Radio Interface Layer provides the system interface between the Cell Core layer within the Windows Mobile OS and the radio protocol stack used by the wireless modem hardware. This allows OEMs to integrate a variety of modems into their equipment. The user interface changed dramatically between versions, only retaining similar functionality. The \"Today Screen\", later called the \"Home Screen\", shows the current date, owner information, upcoming appointments, e-mails, and tasks. The taskbar display the current time as well as the volume level. Devices with a cellular radio also show the signal strength on said taskbar.", "Windows Mobile is based on the Windows CE kernel and first appeared as the \"Pocket PC 2000\" operating system. It includes a suite of basic applications developed with the Microsoft Windows API, and is designed to have features and appearance somewhat similar to desktop versions of Windows. It allowed third party developers to develop software for Windows Mobile with no restrictions imposed by Microsoft. Software applications were purchasable from Windows Marketplace for Mobile during the service's lifespan. Most early Windows Mobile devices came with a stylus, which can be used to enter commands by tapping it on the screen. The primary touch input technology behind most devices were resistive touchscreens which often required a stylus for input. Later devices used capacitive sensing which does not require a stylus. Along with touchscreens, a large variety of form factors existed for the platform. Some devices featured slideout keyboards, while others featured minimal face buttons.", "Microsoft's work on handheld portable devices began with research projects in 1990, with the work on Windows CE beginning in 1992. Initially, the OS and the user interface were developed separately. With Windows CE being based on Windows 95 code and a separate team handing the user interface which was codenamed WinPad (later Microsoft At Work for Handhelds). Windows 95 had strong pen support making porting easy; with some saying \"At this time, Windows 95 offers outstanding pen support. It is treating pens right for the first time.\" WinPad was delayed due to price and performance issues, before being scrapped in early 1995 due to touchscreen driver problems relating to WriteTouch technology, made by NCR Microelectronic Products. Although WinPad was never released as a consumer product, Alpha builds were released showcasing many interface elements. During development of WinPad a separate team worked on a project called Pulsar; designed to be a mobile communications version of WinPad, described as a \"pager on Steroids\". This project was also canceled around the same time as WinPad. The two disbanded groups would form the Pegasus project in 1995. Pegasus would work on the hardware side of the Windows CE OS, attempting to create a form factor similar to a PC-esque PDA like WinPad, with communications functionality like Pulsar. A hardware reference guide was created and devices began shipping in 1996, although most of these device bore little resemblance to the goal of a pen-based touchscreen handheld device.", "Pocket PC 2000, originally codenamed \"Rapier\", was released on April 19, 2000, and was based on the Windows CE 3.0 kernel. It was the debut of what was later dubbed the Windows Mobile operating system, and meant to be a successor to the operating system aboard Palm-Size PCs. It retained backwards compatibility with such Palm-Size PC applications. Pocket PC 2000 was intended mainly for Pocket PC devices; however, several Palm-Size PC devices had the ability to be updated also. While, several Pocket PC 2000 phones were released, Microsoft's smartphone hardware platform was not yet created. The only resolution supported by this release was 240×320 (QVGA). Removable storage card formats that were supported were CompactFlash and MultiMediaCard. At this time Pocket PC devices had not been standardized with a specific CPU architecture. As a result, Pocket PC 2000 was released on multiple CPU architectures; SH-3, MIPS, and ARM. Infrared (IR) File beaming capability was among the original hardware features. The original Pocket PC operating system had similar appearance to Windows 98, Windows Me, and Windows 2000 operating systems. Pocket PC 2000 is unsupported as of September 10, 2007. This initial release had multiple built-in applications, many of them similarly branded to match their desktop counterparts; such as Microsoft Reader, Microsoft Money, Pocket Internet Explorer and Windows Media Player. A version of Microsoft Office called Pocket Office was also bundled and included Pocket Word, Pocket Excel and Pocket Outlook. Notes, a note-taking app saw its first release and would be supported by most later versions of Windows Mobile. Intelligent character recognition support allowed Notes to distinguish styles of handwriting to be learned by the OS during processing to improve accuracy and recognition levels.", "Pocket PC 2002, originally codenamed \"Merlin\", was released in October 2001, and like Pocket PC 2000, was based on the Windows CE 3.0 kernel. Although targeted mainly for 240×320 (QVGA) Pocket PC devices, Pocket PC 2002 was also used for Pocket PC phones, and for the first time, smartphones. These Pocket PC 2002 Smartphones were mainly GSM devices. With future releases, the Pocket PC and Smartphone lines would increasingly collide as the licensing terms were relaxed allowing OEMs to take advantage of more innovative, individual design ideas. Aesthetically, Pocket PC 2002 was meant to be similar in design to the then newly released Windows XP. Newly added or updated programs include Windows Media Player 8 with streaming capability; MSN Messenger, and Microsoft Reader 2, with Digital rights management support. Upgrades to the bundled version of Office Mobile include a spell checker and word count tool in Pocket Word and improved Pocket Outlook. Connectivity was improved with file beaming on non-Microsoft devices such as Palm OS, the inclusion of Terminal Services and Virtual private networking support, and the ability to synchronize folders. Other upgrades include an enhanced UI with theme support and savable downloads and WAP in Pocket Internet Explorer.", "Originally called Pocket PC 2003 but later renamed Windows Mobile 2003, originally codenamed \"Ozone\", was released on June 23, 2003, was based on the Windows CE 4.x kernel, and was the first release under the Windows Mobile banner. It came in four editions: \"Windows Mobile 2003 for Pocket PC Premium Edition\", \"Windows Mobile 2003 for Pocket PC Professional Edition\", \"Windows Mobile 2003 for Smartphone\" and \"Windows Mobile 2003 for Pocket PC Phone Edition\". The last was designed especially for Pocket PCs which include phone functionalities. The Professional Edition was used in Pocket PC budget models. It lacked a number of features that were in the Premium Edition, such as a client for L2TP/IPsec VPNs. Windows Mobile 2003 was powered by Windows CE 4.20. Communications interface were enhanced with Bluetooth device management, which allowed for Bluetooth file beaming support, Bluetooth headset support and support for Bluetooth add-on keyboards. A pictures application with viewing, cropping, e-mail, and beaming support was added. Multimedia improvements included MIDI file support as ringtones in Phone Edition and Windows Media Player 9.0 with streaming optimization. A puzzle game titled \"Jawbreaker\" is among the preinstalled programs. GAPI was included with this release to facilitate the development of games for the platform. Other features/built-in applications included the following: enhanced Pocket Outlook with vCard and vCal support, improved Pocket Internet Explorer and SMS reply options for Phone Edition.", "Windows Mobile 2003 Second Edition, also known as \"Windows Mobile 2003 SE\", was released on March 24, 2004, was based on the Windows CE 4.x kernel, and first offered on the Dell Axim x30. This was the last version which allowed users to back up and restore an entire device through ActiveSync. This upgrade allows users to switch between portrait and landscape modes and introduces a single-column layout in Pocket Internet Explorer. It includes support for Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) and new screen resolutions: 640×480 (VGA), 240×240, and 480×480.", "Windows Mobile 5.0, originally codenamed \"Magneto\", was released at Microsoft's Mobile and Embedded Developers Conference 2005 in Las Vegas, May 9–12, 2005, and was based on the Windows CE 5.0 kernel. Microsoft offered mainstream support for Windows Mobile 5 through October 12, 2010, and extended support through October 13, 2015. It was first offered on the Dell Axim x51. It used the.NET Compact Framework 1.0 SP3, an environment for programs based on.NET. Windows Mobile 5.0 included Microsoft Exchange Server \"push\" functionality improvements that worked with Exchange 2003 SP2. The \"push\" functionality also required vendor/device support. With AKU2 software upgrades all WM 5.0 devices supported DirectPush. Other features included an enhanced battery-saving capability called \"persistent storage\" capability. Previously up to 50% (enough for 72 hours of storage) of battery power was reserved just to maintain data in volatile RAM. This continued the trend of Windows-based devices moving from using RAM as their primary storage medium to the use of a combination of RAM and flash memory (in use, no distinction between the two is obvious to users). Programs and frequently accessed data run in RAM, while most storage is in the flash memory. The OS seamlessly moves data between the two as needed. Everything is backed up in the flash memory, so unlike prior devices, WM5 devices lose no data if power is lost. New to 5.0, OS updates were released as adaptation kit upgrades, with AKU 3.5 being the final released. Windows Mobile 5 comes with Microsoft Office Mobile which includes PowerPoint Mobile, Excel Mobile with graphing capability and Word Mobile with the ability to insert tables and graphics. Media management and playback was enhanced with Picture and Video package, which converged the management of videos and pictures and Windows Media Player 10 Mobile. Among new hardware features were enhanced Bluetooth support, default QWERTY keyboard-support and a management interface for Global Positioning System (GPS). Improvements were made to ActiveSync 4.2 with 15% increased synchronization speed. Business customers benefited from a new error reporting facility similar to that present in desktop and server Windows systems. Caller ID now supports photos so a user can apply an image to each contact to show when a call is received. DirectShow was also natively added. This release was the first to include DirectDraw with hardware acceleration, replacing the deprecated graphics component of GAPI. Windows Mobile 5.0 requires at least 64 MB of ROM (it's advisable to have 64 MB of RAM), and the device must run an ARM compatible processor such as the Intel XScale or the Samsung and Texas Instruments ARM compatibles.", "Windows Mobile 6, formerly codenamed \"Crossbow\", was released on February 12, 2007 at the 3GSM World Congress 2007, and was based on the Windows CE 5.2 kernel. It comes in three different versions: \"Windows Mobile 6 Standard\" for Smartphones (phones without touchscreens), \"Windows Mobile 6 Professional\" for Pocket PCs with phone functionality, and \"Windows Mobile 6 Classic\" for Pocket PCs without cellular radios. Windows Mobile 6 is powered by Windows CE 5.0 (version 5.2) and is strongly linked to the then newly introduced Windows Live and Exchange 2007 products. Windows Mobile 6 Standard was first offered on the Orange's SPV E650, while Windows Mobile 6 Professional was first offered on the O2's Xda Terra. Aesthetically, Windows Mobile 6 was meant to be similar in design to the then newly released Windows Vista. Functionally, it works much like Windows Mobile 5, but with much better stability. Along with the announcement of Office Mobile 6.1 with support for Office 2007 document formats (pptx, docx, xlsx); OneNote Mobile, a companion to Microsoft Office OneNote was added to the already installed version. In addition to the newly included programs with Office Mobile improvements were made to existing applications. Such as HTML email support in Outlook Mobile. A large number of Windows Mobile users are enterprise users business environments were targeted. With \"Server Search\" on Microsoft Exchange 2007, Out of Office Replies with Microsoft Exchange 2007, and search ability for contacts in an Exchange Server Address Book being implemented. To aid development for programmers,.NET Compact Framework v2 SP2 is now preinstalled with the OS. Developers and users also have access to Microsoft SQL Server 2005 Compact Edition for storage and retrieval of information. AJAX, JavaScript, and XMLDOM support were added to Internet Explorer Mobile along with improved devicewide Internet Sharing. Communication abilities were further enhanced with a new Microsoft Bluetooth Stack and VoIP (Internet calling) support with AEC (Acoustic Echo Cancelling) and MSRT audio codec. To improve security Microsoft added Storage Card Encryption so that encryption keys are lost if device is cold-booted. Further updates both, security and feature, can now also be provided using Operating System Live Update Among other improvements: 320×320 and 800×480 (WVGA) screen resolution support (The S01SH or \"Em One\" by Sharp was the first and only device to have an 800×480 screen on WM5), Improved Remote Desktop access (available for only certain Pocket PCs), Customer Feedback option, \"Smartfilter\" for searching within programs and Unlicensed Mobile Access (UMA) support for select operators", "Windows Mobile 6.1 was announced April 1, 2008, and was based on the Windows CE 5.x kernel. It is a minor upgrade to the Windows Mobile 6 platform with various performance enhancements and a redesigned \"Home\" screen featuring horizontal \"tiles\" that expand on clicking to display more information, although this new home screen is featured only on Windows Mobile Standard edition. This was not supported in the Professional edition. Several other changes such as threaded SMS, full page zooming in Internet Explorer and 'Domain Enroll' were also added, along with a \"mobile\" version of the Microsoft OneNote program and an interactive \"Getting Started\" wizard. Domain Enroll is functionality to connect the device to System Center Mobile Device Manager 2008, a product to manage mobile devices. Windows Mobile 6.1 also had improved bandwidth efficiency in its push-email protocol ActiveSync up to 40%; this considerably improved battery life in many devices. Aside from the visual and feature distinctions, the underlying CE versions can be used to differentiate WM 6.0 from WM 6.1. The version of Windows CE in WM 6.0 is 5.2.*, where the third and final number being a four-digit build ID (e.g. 5.2.1622 on HTC Wing). In WM 6.1, the CE version is 5.2.* with a five-digit build number (e.g. 5.2.19216 on Palm Treo 800w).", "Windows Mobile 6.5 was based on the Windows CE 5.x kernel. Windows Mobile 6.5 was a stopgap update to Windows Mobile 6.1 intended to bridge the gap between version 6.1 and the then yet-to-be released Windows Mobile 7 (Later canceled in favor of Windows Phone 7), that arrived in 2010. It was never part of Microsoft's mobile phone roadmap, and has been described by its chief executive, Steve Ballmer, as \"not the full release Microsoft wanted\" until the multi-touch-enabled Windows Mobile 7 (now replaced by Windows Phone) arrived in 2010. Ballmer also indicated that the company \"screwed up with Windows Mobile\", he lamented that Windows Mobile 7 was not yet available and that the Windows Mobile team needed to try to recoup losses. Microsoft unveiled this version at the 2009 Mobile World Congress in February, and several devices were supplied with it. It was released to manufacturers on May 11, 2009; the first devices running the operating system appeared in late October 2009. Several phones that officially shipped with Windows Mobile 6.1 can be officially updated to Windows Mobile 6.5. This update includes some significant new added features, such as a revamped GUI, a new Today screen resembling that of Microsoft's Zune player with vertically scrollable labels (called 'Titanium'). WM 6.5 also includes the new Internet Explorer Mobile 6 browser, with improved interface. Along with Windows Mobile 6.5, Microsoft announced several cloud computing services codenamed \"SkyBox\", \"SkyLine\", \"SkyMarket\". \"SkyBox\" has been confirmed as My Phone, while \"SkyMarket\" has been confirmed as Windows Marketplace for Mobile. This version was designed mainly for easier finger usage. Some reviewers have noted interface inconsistencies, with some applications having small buttons making them harder to operate using only a finger. Whilst this version of Windows Mobile does not natively support capacitive screens, mobile manufacturers have been able to use them on their devices In the months following this release, development shifted from Windows Mobile to its successor Windows Phone. As such no major upgrades were planned or released, although three minor updates; 6.5.1, 6.5.3 and 6.5.5; were made to satisfy consumers during the transition period. 6.5.1 brings larger user interface elements, including icon based soft buttons (rather than text based), an updated contacts app, native support for A-GPS, improved threaded text messaging, and performance improvements. It was unofficially ported to several Windows Mobile phones. The second minor update was announced on February 2, 2010, along with the Sony Ericsson Aspen which was the first phone to use this version. 6.5.3 continues the trend of attempting to provide a more finger-friendly user interface with several new usability features such as native support for multitouch; although device maker HTC Corporation created proprietary work-arounds to allow multi-touch to work on some applications it installed on its HD2 handset (However, Microsoft applications on this handset, such as the Internet Explorer web browser, did not support multi-touch.) and drag-and-drop start menu icons. Touchable tiles replaced soft keys.\" Internet Explorer Mobile 6 has also received some major updates including decreased page load time, improved memory management and gesture smoothing. As with other updates it was unofficially ported to some other devices. Additional features include threaded email and Office Mobile 2010. The last minor update and the last released version is 6.5.5. It first leaked in January 2010, and was unofficially ported to some Windows Mobile phones. The name Windows Mobile 6.5.5 has been applied to these newer builds, although this name remained unconfirmed by Microsoft. Although Microsoft released a similarly-named Windows 10 Mobile in 2015, this operating system is unrelated to the former Windows Mobile operating systems.", "There are three main versions of Windows Mobile for various hardware devices: Windows Mobile for Automotive and Windows Mobile software for Portable Media Centers are among some specialty versions of the platform. Microsoft had over 50 handset partners, when Windows Mobile was still being shipped on new devices. 80% of the 50 million Windows Mobile devices that were made from launch to February 2009 were built by one contract manufacturing group, HTC, which makes handsets for several major companies under their brands, and under its own brand.", "On January 10, 2011, Microsoft announced Windows Embedded Handheld 6.5. The operating system has compatibility with Windows Mobile 6.5 and is presented as an enterprise handheld device, targeting retailers, delivery companies, and other companies that rely on handheld computing. Unlike Windows Phone, Windows Embedded Handheld retains backward compatibility with legacy Windows Mobile applications.", "Pocket PCs and personal digital assistants were originally the intended platform for Windows Mobile. These were grouped into two main categories: devices that lacked mobile phone capabilities, and those that included it. Beginning with version 6 devices with this functionality ran \"Windows Mobile 6 Professional\" and those that lacked it ran \"Windows Mobile 6 Classic\". Microsoft had described these devices as \"a handheld device that enables you to store and retrieve e-mail, contacts, appointments, play multimedia files, games, exchange text messages with MSN Messenger, browse the Web, and more\". From a technical standpoint Microsoft also specified various hardware and software requirements such as the inclusion of a touchscreen and a directional pad or touchpad.", "Smartphones were the second hardware platform after Pocket PC to run Windows Mobile, and debuted with the release of Pocket PC 2002. Although in the broad sense of the term \"Smartphone\", both Pocket PC phones and Microsoft branded Smartphones each fit into this category. Microsoft's use of the term \"Smartphone\" includes only more specific hardware devices that differ from Pocket PC phones. Such Smartphones were originally designed without touchscreens, intended to be operated more efficiently with only one hand, and typically had lower display resolution than Pocket PCs. Microsoft's focus for the Smartphone platform was to create a device that functioned well as a phone and data device in a more integrated manner.", "Windows Mobile's share of the smartphone market grew from its inception while new devices were being released. After peaking in 2007, it saw decline year-on-year. In Q1 2003, Windows Mobile was the third largest operating system in the smart handheld market, behind Symbian and Palm OS. In Q1 2004, Windows Mobile accounted for 23% of worldwide smartphone sales. Windows Mobile was projected in 2005 to overtake Symbian to become the leading mobile OS by 2010. In Q3 2004, Windows Mobile (CE) surpassed Palm OS to become the largest PDA operating system. In Q4 2005 Microsoft shipped 2.2 million PDAs, which increased to 3.5 million in the same quarter the following year. Windows Mobile saw year over year growth between 2005–2006 of 38.8% which according to Gartner \"helped Windows Mobile to solidify its stronghold on the market\". But by 2008, its share had dropped to 14%. Microsoft licensed Windows Mobile to four out of the world's five largest mobile phone manufacturers, with Nokia being the exception. Gartner research data showed that while the total smartphone industry grew 27% between 2008 and 2009, Windows Mobile's share of the smartphone market fell 2.7% in that same period. It also decreased by 20% in Q3 2009. At one time Windows Mobile was the most popular handset for business use, but by 2009 this was no longer the case; 24% of planned business deployments of mobile application in the United States were for Windows Mobile, putting it in 3rd place, behind BlackBerry (61%) and iPhone OS (27%); In February 2009, Microsoft signed a deal with the third largest mobile phone maker, LG Electronics, to license Windows Mobile OS on 50 upcoming LG smartphone models. But in September 2009, Palm, Inc. announced it would drop Windows Mobile from its smartphone line-up. Gartner estimated that by the third quarter of 2009 Windows Mobile's share of worldwide smartphone sales was 7.9%. By August 2010, it was the least popular smartphone operating system, with a 5% share of the worldwide smartphone market (after Symbian, BlackBerry OS, Android and iOS). An October 2009 report in \"DigiTimes\" said that Acer will shift its focus from Windows Mobile to Google Android. \"The New York Times\" reported in 2009 that Windows Mobile \"is foundering\", as cellphone makers desert it in favor of Google's Android phone platform. It cited the difficulties in Microsoft's business model, which involves charging handset manufacturers up to $25 for each copy of Windows Mobile, while rival Google gives away Android for free. From late 2009 analysts and media reports began to express concerns about the future viability of the Windows Mobile platform, and whether Microsoft would keep supporting it into the future. Samsung announced in November 2009 that it would phase out the Windows Mobile platform, to concentrate on its own Bada operating system, Google's Android, and Microsoft's Windows Phone.", "Software may be developed by third parties for the Windows Mobile operating system. Developers have several options for deploying mobile applications. These include writing native code with Visual C++, managed code that works with the.NET Compact Framework, writing code in Tcl-Tk with eTcl, GCC using CeGCC, Python using PythonCE or server-side code that can be deployed using Internet Explorer Mobile or a mobile client on a user's device. The.NET Compact Framework is a subset of the.NET Framework and hence shares many components with software development on desktop clients, application servers, and web servers which have the.NET Framework installed, thus integrating networked computing space. To aid developers Microsoft released software development kits (SDKs) that work in conjunction with their Visual Studio development environment. These SDKs include emulator images for developers to test and debug their applications while writing them. Software can be tested on a client machine directly or be downloaded to a device. Microsoft also distributes Visual Studio 2008 / 2005 Professional Editions, and server/database counterparts to students as downloads free of charge via its DreamSpark program. Third party integrated development environments can also be used to write software such as Lazarus, Resco MobileForms Toolkit, Lexico, NS Basic and Basic4ppc. Some third party development environments allow coding to be done on the device itself without the need for a computer. Developer communities have used the SDK to port later versions of Windows Mobile OS to older devices and making the OS images available for free, thus providing the devices with the current feature set. Microsoft has tolerated this procedure for some time but decided in February 2007 to ask developers to take their OS images off the net, which in turn raised discussions. At the same time Microsoft offered upgrades to Windows Mobile 6 versions to manufacturers for free. On July 5, 2009, Microsoft opened a third-party application distribution service called Windows Marketplace for Mobile. In 2011, Windows Marketplace for Mobile stopped accepting new admissions. and then fully closed on May 9, 2012.", "In the early years of Windows Mobile devices were able to be managed and synced from a remote computer using ActiveSync; a data synchronization technology and protocol developed by Microsoft, originally released in 1996. This allowed servers running Microsoft Exchange Server, or other third party variants, to act as a personal information manager and share information such as email, calendar appointments, contacts or internet favorites. With the release of Windows Vista, ActiveSync was replaced with Windows Mobile Device Center. Device Center is included with Vista and Windows 7 and provides many front end enhancements, allowing a home user to sync PIM information with Microsoft Outlook 2003 and later, photos from Windows Photo Gallery, videos or music from Windows Media Player and favorites with Internet Explorer; without the need for a server back end. Devices at this time also included a base driver compatible with Mobile Device Center so a user can connect to a computer without a need for any configuration." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Pre-Columbian era.", "Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada expedition and Spanish conquest.", "Spanish colonization.", "Nineteenth century.", "Regeneration.", "Twentieth century.", "Twenty-first century.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Urban layout and nomenclature.", "Demographics.", "Ethnic Groups.", "Crime.", "Government.", "Economy.", "Tourism.", "Shopping malls.", "Media.", "Infrastructure.", "Transport.", "Education.", "Culture.", "Cultural history.", "Architecture.", "Libraries and archives.", "Museums and galleries.", "Theater and arts.", "Religion.", "Cuisine.", "Parks and recreation.", "Sports.", "Symbols.", "International relations.", "Twin towns and sister cities.", "Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities.", "Partnerships and cooperations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The area of modern Bogotá was first populated by groups of indigenous people who migrated south based on the relation with the other Chibcha languages; the Bogotá savanna was the southernmost Chibcha-speaking group that exists from Nicaragua to the Andes in Colombia. The civilisation built by the Muisca, who settled in the valleys and fertile highlands of and surrounding the Altiplano Cundiboyacense (modern-day departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá and small parts of Santander), was one of the great civilisations in the Americas. The name Muisca Confederation has been given to a loose egalitarian society of various chiefs (\"caciques\") who lived in small settlements of maximum 100 \"bohíos\". The agriculture and salt-based society of the people was rich in goldworking, trade and mummification. The religion of the Muisca consisted of various gods, mostly related to natural phenomena as the Sun (Sué) and his wife, the Moon; Chía, rain Chibchacum, rainbow Cuchavira and with building and feasting (Nencatacoa) and wisdom (Bochica). Their complex luni-solar calendar, deciphered by Manuel Izquierdo based on work by Duquesne, followed three different sets of years, where the sidereal and synodic months were represented. Their astronomical knowledge is represented in one of the few extant landmarks of the architecture of the Muisca in \"El Infiernito\" outside Villa de Leyva to the north of Bogotá.", "The first populations inhabiting the present-day Metropolitan Area of Bogotá were hunter-gatherer people in the late Pleistocene. The oldest dated evidence thus far has been discovered in \"El Abra\" (12,500 BP), north of Zipaquirá. Slightly later dated excavations in a rock shelter southwest of the city in Soacha provided ages of ~11,000 BP; Tequendama. Since around 0 AD, the Muisca domesticated guinea pigs, part of their meat diet. The people inhabiting the Bogotá savanna in the late 15th century were the Muisca, speaking \"Muysccubun\", a member of the Chibcha language family. Muisca means \"people\" or \"person\", making \"Muisca people\", how they are called, a tautology. At the arrival of the conquerors, the population was estimated to be half a million indigenous people on the Bogotá savanna of up to two million in the Muisca Confederation. They occupied the highland and mild climate flanks between the Sumapaz Mountains to the southwest and Cocuy's snowy peak to the northeast, covering an approximate area of, comprising Bogotá's high plain, the current Boyacá department portion and a small Santander region.", "From 1533, a belief persisted that the Río Grande de la Magdalena was the trail to the South Sea, to Perú, legendary \"El Dorado\". Such was the target of Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, the Granadanian conquistador who left Santa Marta on 6 April 1536 with 800 soldiers, heading towards the interior of current Colombia. The expedition divided into two groups, one under Quesada's command to move on land, and the other commanded by Diego de Urbino would go up river in four brigantine ships to, later on, meet Quesada troops at the site named Tora de las Barrancas Bermejas. When they arrived, they heard news about Indians inhabiting the south and making large salt cakes used to trade for wild cotton and fish. Jiménez de Quesada", "The city mayor and the chapter formed by two councilmen, assisted by the constable and the police chief, governed the city. For better administration of these domains, in April 1550, the Audiencia of Santafé was organized. Santa Fe (or Santafé) became the seat of the government of the New Kingdom of Granada. Fourteen years later in 1564, the Spanish Crown designated the first Royal Audiencia chairman, Andrés Díaz Venero de Leyva. The Chapter and the Royal Audience", "Political unease over the Spanish monarchy and the rights of citizens born in the Americas had been feeling all over Spanish colonies in America, and it was expressed in New Granada in many different ways, accelerating the movement to independence. One of the most transcendent was the, a riot by the locals that started in Villa del Socorro —current Department of Santander—in March 1781. Spanish authorities suppressed the riot, and José Antonio Galán, the leader, was executed. He left an imprint, though. One of the soldiers witnessing his execution was an intellectually curious, noble teenager named Antonio Nariño, who was deeply impressed by both the insurrection and the execution. Nariño went on to become a politician in Santafé, and he became acquainted with the liberal ideas in vogue in Europe. He started organizing clandestine meetings with other intellectuals and politicians to discuss", "President Rafael Núñez declared the end of Federalism, and in 1886 the country became a centralist republic ruled by the constitution in force – save some amendments – up to 1981. In the middle", "Early in the 20th century, Colombia had to face devastating consequences from the One Thousand Days War, which lasted from 1899 to 1902, and the loss of Panama. Between 1904 and 1909, the lawfulness of the liberal party was re-established and President Rafael Reyes endeavored to implement a national government. Peace and state reorganization generated the increase of economic activities. Bogotá started deep architectural and urban transformation with significant industrial and artisan production increases. In 1910, the Industrial Exposition of the Century took place at Park of Independence. Stands built evidenced industrial, artisan work, beaux arts, electricity and machinery progress achieved. The period from 1910 to 1930 is designated conservative hegemony. Between 1924 and 1928, hard union struggles began, with oil fields and", "The city begins the 21st century with important changes in its urban space and public transport, looking to plan a demographic and economic growth that would position it as a strategic hub for international business in Latin America. Some of the main interventions initiated in this century looked to develop projects contained in the Plan of Territorial Ordering (POT), which will guide the development of the city for the next two centuries. One of the most important interventions in the city for this time was its transportation system. In 1967, there were 2,679 urban buses in Bogotá that transported, on average, 1,629,254 passengers per day. The city had a little more than a million inhabitants and 8,000 hectares in length, the service was relatively reasonable and comfortable. But as the", "Bogotá is located in the southeastern part of the Bogotá savanna (\"Sabana de Bogotá\") at an average altitude of above sea level. The Bogotá savanna is popularly called \"savannah\" (\"sabana\"), but constitutes actually a high plateau in the Andes mountains, part of an extended region known as the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, which literally means \"high plateau of Cundinamarca and Boyacá\". Bogotá is the largest city in the world at its elevation; there is no urban area that is both higher and more populous than Bogotá. In the extreme south of Bogota's District, the world's largest continuous paramo ecosystem can be found; Sumapaz Páramo in the locality Sumapaz. The Bogotá River running NE-SW crosses the \"sabana\", forming Tequendama Falls (\"Salto del Tequendama\") to the south. Tributary rivers form valleys with flourishing villages, whose economy is based on agriculture, livestock raising and artisanal production. The \"sabana\" is bordered to the east by the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes mountain range. The Eastern Hills, which limit city growth, run from south to north, and form east of the center the Guadalupe and Monserrate mountains. The western city limit is the Bogotá River. The Sumapaz Paramo (moorland) borders the south and to the north Bogotá extends over the plateau up to the towns of Chía and Sopó. Most of the wetlands in the Bogota region have disappeared. They covered nearly 50,000 hectares in the 1960s, compared to only 727 in 2019, for a disappearance rate of 98%.", "Bogotá has a subtropical highland climate (Köppen \"Cfb\") bordering on a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (\"Csb\"). The average temperature is, varying from on sunny days to on rainy days. Dry and rainy seasons alternate throughout the year. The driest months are December, January, July and August. The warmest month is March, bringing a maximum of. The coolest nights occur in January, with an average of in", "Bogotá has 20 localities, or districts, forming an extensive network of neighborhoods. Areas of higher economic status tend to be located in the north, close to the Eastern Hills in the districts of Chapinero, Usaquén and the east of Suba. The lower middle class inhabit the central, western and northwestern parts of the city.. The working-class neighborhoods are located in the south, some of them squatter areas. The urban layout in the center of the city is based on the focal point of a square or plaza, typical of Spanish-founded settlements, but the layout", "The largest and most populous city in Colombia, Bogotá had 7,412,566 inhabitants within the city's limits (2018 census), with a population density of approximately 4,310 inhabitants per square kilometer. Only 25,166 people are located in rural areas of Capital District. 47.8% of the population are male and 52.2% women. In Bogotá, as in the rest of the country, urbanization has accelerated due to industrialization as well as complex political and social reasons such as poverty and violence, which led to migration from rural to urban areas throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. A dramatic example of this is the number of displaced people who have arrived in Bogotá due to the internal armed conflict. Some estimates show that Bogotá's floating population may be as high as 4 million people, most of them being migrant workers from other departments and displaced people. The majority of the displaced population lives in the Ciudad Bolívar, Kennedy, Usme, and Bosa sections.", "The ethnic composition of the city's population includes minorities of Afro-Colombian people (0.9%), and Indigenous Amerindians (0.3%); 98.8% of the population has no ethnic affiliation, but are mestizos and whites. The native population of Bogota (bogotanos), is composed of two large groups: rolos and cachacos, the first being descendants of people who are not native to Bogota and the second, children of bogotanos. In Bogotá, the accelerated urbanization process is not exclusively due to industrialization, since there are complex political and social reasons such as poverty and violence, which have", "Bogotá has gone to great lengths to change its formerly notorious crime rate and its image with increasing success after being considered in the 1990s to be one of the most violent cities in the world. In 1993 there were 4,352 murders at a rate of 81", "Bogotá is the capital of the Republic of Colombia, and houses the Congress, Supreme Court of Justice and the center of the executive administration as well as the residence of the President (Casa de Nariño). These buildings, along with the Office of the Mayor, the Lievano Palace (Palacio Liévano), are located within a few meters from each other on the Bolívar Square (Plaza de Bolívar). The square is located in the city's historical center, La Candelaria, which features architecture", "Bogotá is the main economic and industrial center of Colombia. The Colombian government fosters the import of capital goods, Bogotá being one of the main destinations of these imports. In 2016 the World Cities Study Group and Network (GaWC) from the United Kingdom ranked Bogotá as an Alpha−World City in the World Cities Study Group's inventory, a high-ranking. Alpha and Alpha- cities are important world cities that link major economic regions into the world economy.", "Travel & Tourism's share of the city's overall GDP stands at 2.5%. Bogotá is responsible for 56% of the tourism that arrives to Colombia and is home 1,423 multinational companies. Bogotá also ranked highly as a global city where business is done and meetings are held. Bogotá is a growing international meetings destination. During the last year, Bogotá has won 50 major international events, with 12 more world-class events in progress. The 16th World Summit of Nobel Peace Laureates took place from 2 to 5 February 2017 in Bogotá, Colombia. One Young World is the preeminent global forum for young leaders aged 18–30. Bogotá, Colombia is the host city for Summit 2017. The hotels in the historical center of La Candelaria and its surrounding areas cater to lovers of culture and the arts. This area also has the bulk of hostels in the city as well. In La Candelaria, there are many museums, including the Botero Museum and the Gold Museum. Close to La", "Bogotá's economy has been significantly boosted due to new shopping malls built within the", "Bogota is home to like Canal Capital and Citytv which are local stations, Canal 13 is a regional station, and is home to the national channels Caracol TV, RCN TV, Canal Uno, Canal Institucional, and Señal Colombia. It has multiple satellite television services like Telefónica, Claro and DirecTV and several satellite dishes which", "Energy and sewer bills are stratified based on the location of owner's residence, The system is the classification of the residential properties that should receive public services. Although the system does not consider the income per person and the rules", "Bogotá's growth has placed a strain on its roads and highways, but since 1998 significant efforts to upgrade the infrastructure have been undertaken. Private car ownership forms a major part of the congestion, in addition to taxis, buses and commercial vehicles. Buses remain the main means of mass transit. There are two bus systems: the traditional system and the TransMilenio. The traditional system runs a variety of bus types, operated by several companies on normal streets and avenues: \"Bus\" (large buses), \"Buseta\" (medium size buses) and \"Colectivo\" (vans or minivans). The bigger buses were divided into two categories: \"Ejecutivo\", which was originally to be a deluxe service and was not to carry standing passengers, and \"corriente\" or normal service. Since May 2008, all buses run as \"corriente\" services. Bogotá is a hub for domestic and international bus routes. The Bogotá terminal serves routes to most cities and towns in Colombia and is the largest in the country. There is international service to Ecuador, Perú and Venezuela. The TransMilenio system was created during Enrique Peñalosa's mayoral term, and is a form of bus rapid transit that has been deployed as a measure to compensate for the lack of a subway or rail system. TransMilenio combines articulated buses that operate on dedicated bus roads (busways) and smaller buses (feeders) that operate in residential areas, bringing passengers to the main grid. TransMilenio's main routes are: Caracas Avenue, Northern Highway (\"Autopista Norte\"), 80th Street, Americas Avenue, Jiménez Avenue, and 30th Avenue (also referred to as \"Norte Quito Sur\" or \"N.Q.S.\" for short). Routes for Suba Avenue and Southern Highway (\"Autopista Sur\"), the southern leg of the 30th Avenue, were opened in April 2006. The third phase of the system will cover 7th Avenue, 10th Avenue, and 26th Street (or \"Avenida El Dorado\"). The system is planned to cover the entire city by 2030. Although the Transmilenio carries commuters to numerous corners of the city, it is more expensive (US$0.80 or 2300 COP) than any public transport, except taxis. In addition to TransMilenio, the Peñalosa administration and voter-approved referenda helped to establish travel restrictions on cars with certain license plate numbers during peak hours called Pico y placa; of Ciclovía on Sundays and major holidays; a massive system ( ) of bicycle paths and segregated lanes called \"ciclorrutas\"; and the removal of thousands of parking spots in an attempt to make roads more pedestrian-friendly and discourage car use. \"Ciclorrutas\" is one of the most extensive dedicated bike path networks of any city in the world, with a total extension of. It extends from the north of the city, 170th Street, to the south, 27th Street, and from Monserrate on the east to the Bogotá River on the west. The \"ciclorruta\" was started by the 1995–1998 Antanas Mockus administration with a few kilometers, and considerably extended afterwards with the development of a Bicycle Master Plan and the addition of paths hundreds of kilometers in extent. Since the construction of the \"ciclorruta\" bicycle use in the city has increased, and a car free week was introduced in 2014.", "Known as the Athens of South America, Bogotá has an extensive educational system of both primary and secondary schools and colleges. Due to the constant migration of people into the nation's capital, the availability of quotas for access to education offered by the State free of charge is often insufficient. The city also has a diverse system of colleges and private schools. There are a number of universities, both public and private. In 2002, there were a total of 113", "Bogotá has many cultural venues including 58 museums, 62 art galleries, 33 library networks, 45 stage theaters, 75 sports and attraction parks, and over 150 national monuments. Many of these are renowned globally such as: The Luis Ángel Arango Library, the most important in the region which receives well over 6 million visitors a year; The Colombian National Museum, one of the oldest in the Americas, dating back to 1823; The Ibero-American Theater Festival, largest of its kind in the world, receives 2 million attendees enjoying over 450 performances across theaters and off the street; The Bogotá Philharmonic is the most important symphony orchestra in Colombia, with over 100 musicians and 140 performances a year. The city has been a member of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network in the category of music since March 2012. The Cristóbal Colón Theater, the country's oldest Opera House, opened in 1892. It is home to the National Symphony Association's major act, the National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia. Rock al Parque or Rock at the Park is an open air rock music festival. Recurring annually, it gathers over 320,000 music fans who can enjoy over 60 band performances for free during three days a year. The series have been so successful during its 15 years of operation that the city has replicated the initiative for other music genres, resulting in other recent festivals like Salsa at the Park, Hip Hop at the Park, Ballet at the Park, Opera at the Park, and Jazz at the Park. Kids' Choice Awards Colombia, are the most important awards given in the city by Nickelodeon and the first ceremony was given in 2014 by the singer Maluma and in Corferias the ceremony has been the home of shows given by artists like Austin Mahone, Carlos Peña, Don Tetto and Riva among others. Bogotá has worked in recent years to position itself as leader in cultural offerings in South America, and it is increasingly being recognized worldwide as a hub in the region for the development of the arts. In 2007, Bogotá was awarded the title of Cultural Capital of Ibero-America by the UCCI (Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities), and it became the only city to have received the recognition twice, after being awarded for the first time in 1991.", "Bogotá gave the Spanish-speaking world José Asunción Silva (1865–1896), Modernism pioneer. His poetic work in the novel \"De sobremesa\"", "The urban morphology and typology of colonial buildings in Bogotá have been maintained since the late nineteenth century, long after the independence of Colombia (1810). This persistence of the colonial setting is still visible, particularly in La Candelaria, the historical center of Bogotá. Also kept up are the colonial houses of two stories, with courtyards, gabled roofs, ceramic tiles and balconies. In some cases, these balconies were enclosed with glass windows during the Republican period, a distinguishing feature of the architecture of the sector (for example, the House of", "In 2007 Bogotá was named World Book Capital by UNESCO. Bogotá is the first Latin American city to receive this recognition, and the second one in the Americas after Montreal. It stood out in programs, the library network and the presence of organizations that, in a coordinated manner, are working to promote books and reading in the city. Several specific initiatives for the World Book Capital program have been undertaken with the commitment of groups, both public and private, engaged in the book sector. The city is home to the Biblored, an institution which administers 16 small and four large public libraries (Biblioteca Virgilio Barco, Biblioteca El Tintal, Biblioteca El Tunal and Biblioteca Julio Mario Santodomingo). It also has six branches of the Library Network of the Family Compensation Fund Colsubsidio and libraries and documentation centers attached to institutions like the Museo Nacional de Colombia (specializing in old books, catalogs and art), Museum of Modern Art, the Alliance Française, and the Centro Colombo Americano. Another set of libraries are the new collaborative initiatives between the state, city and international agencies. Examples are the Cultural Center", "The city offers 58 museums and over 70 art galleries. The Colombian National Museum has acquisitions divided into four collections: art, history, archeology and ethnography. The Gold Museum, with 35,000 pieces of tumbaga gold, along with 30,000 objects in ceramic, stone and textiles, represents the largest collection of pre-Columbian gold in the world. The Botero Museum has 123 works of Fernando Botero and 87 works by international artists. The Museum of Modern Art in Bogotá has a collection of graphic arts, industrial design and photography. The Museum of Colonial Art is home to", "Besides the Ibero-American Theater Festival, the largest theater festival in the world, the city has forty-five theaters; the principal ones are the Colon Theater, the newly built, the National Theater with its two venues, the traditional TPB Hall, the Theater of La Candelaria, the Camarin del Carmen (over 400 years old, formerly a convent), the Colsubsidio, and a symbol of the city, the renovated, León de Greiff Auditorium (home of the Bogotá Philharmonic Orchestra), and the Open Air Theater \"La Media", "Before the Spanish conquest, the beliefs of the inhabitants of Bogotá formed part of the Muisca religion. From the colonial period onwards, the city has been predominantly Roman Catholic. Proof of this religious tradition is the number of churches built in the historic city center. The city has been seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bogotá since 22 March 1564. The seat of the Archbishop is the Primatial Cathedral of Bogotá; the archdiocese itself is located in new buildings in the north of the city. However a large group of the population nowadays declares itself non-practicing. The city has a mosque located in the area of Chapinero called", "There is a broad array of restaurants in Bogotá that serve typical and international food. Parque de la 93, Usaquén, Zona T, The G Zone, La Macarena, La Candelaria, The parkway and the International Center are some of the main sectors where a number of international restaurants are found, ranging from Argentinian, Peruvian, Venezuelan, Brazilian, Mexican, American establishments to Arabic, Asian, French, Italian, Russian and British bistros, rotisseries, steakhouses and pubs, just to name a few. Typical dishes of Bogotá include", "There are numerous parks in Bogotá, many", "The District Institute for Recreation and Sport promotes recreation, sports and use of the parks in Bogotá. Football has been declared a symbol of Bogotá, and is widely played in the city. There are three professional clubs in the city, Santa Fe, Millonarios, and La Equidad. The main stadium in the city is The Campín Stadium (Estadio Nemesio Camacho El Campín) home of the local teams Santa Fe and Millonarios, In 2001 The Campín Stadium has been the place for the 2001 Copa América final between the Colombia national football and the Mexico national football, final score 1–0 in favor of", "The flag originated with the insurgency movement against the colonial authorities which began on 20 July 1810, during which the rebels wore armbands with yellow and red bands, as these colours were those of the Spanish flag used as the flag for the New Kingdom of Granada. On 9 October 1952, exactly 142 years after these events, decree 555 of 1952 officially adopted the patriotic armband as the flag of Bogotá. The flag of Cundinamarca follows the same pattern, plus a light blue tile which represents the Virgin Mary's cape. The flag itself is a yellow band above a red one. The yellow denotes the gold from the earth, as well as the virtues of justice, clemency, benevolence, the so-called \"mundane qualities\" (defined as nobility, excellence, richness, generosity, splendour, health, steadfastness, joy and prosperity), long life, eternity,", "", "Bogotá is", "Bogotá is part of the Union of Ibero-American", "Other forms of cooperation and" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Significance of 613.", "Dissent and difficulties.", "Works enumerating the commandments.", "Maimonides' list." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "According to the Talmud, is to be interpreted to mean that Moses transmitted the \"Torah\" from God to the Israelites: \"Moses commanded us the Torah as an inheritance for the community of Jacob\". The Talmud notes that the Hebrew numerical value (\"gematria\") of the word \"Torah\" is 611, and combining Moses's 611 commandments with the first two of the Ten Commandments which were the only ones heard directly from God, adds up to 613. The Talmud attributes the number 613 to Rabbi Simlai, but other classical sages who hold this view include Rabbi Simeon ben Azzai and Rabbi Eleazar ben Yose the Galilean. It is quoted in Midrash Shemot Rabbah 33:7, Bamidbar Rabbah 13:15–16; 18:21 and Talmud Yevamot 47b. Many Jewish philosophical and mystical works (e.g. by Baal HaTurim, the Maharal of Prague and leaders of Hasidic Judaism) find allusions and inspirational calculations relating to the number of commandments. The \"tzitzit\" (\"knotted fringes\") of the \"tallit\" (\"[prayer] shawl\") are connected to the 613 commandments by interpretation: principal Torah commentator Rashi bases the number of knots on a \"gematria\": the word tzitzit (Hebrew: ציצת (Biblical), ציצית, in its Mishnaic spelling) has the value 600. Each tassel has eight threads (when doubled over) and five sets of knots, totalling 13. The sum of all numbers is 613. This reflects the concept that donning a garment with tzitzit reminds its wearer of all Torah commandments.", "Rabbinic support for the number of commandments being 613 is not without dissent. For example, Ben Azzai held that there exist 300 positive mitzvot. Also, even as the number gained acceptance, difficulties arose in elucidating the list. Some rabbis declared that this count was not an authentic tradition, or that it was not logically possible to come up with a systematic count. No early work of Jewish law or Biblical commentary depended on the 613 system, and no early systems of Jewish principles of faith made acceptance of this Aggadah (non-legal Talmudic statement) normative. A number of classical authorities denied that it was normative: Even when rabbis attempted to compile a list of the 613 commandments, they were faced with a number of difficulties: Ultimately, though, the concept of 613 commandments has become accepted as normative amongst practicing Jews and today it is still common practice to refer to the total system of commandments within the Torah as the \"613 commandments\", even among those who do not literally accept this count as accurate. However, the 613 mitzvot do not constitute a formal code of present-day halakha. Later codes of law such as the Shulkhan Arukh and Kitzur Shulkhan Arukh do not refer to it. However, Maimonides' Mishneh Torah is prefaced by a count of the 613 mitzvot.", "There is no single definitive list that explicates the 613 commandments. Lists differ, for example, in how they interpret passages in the Torah that may be read as dealing with several cases under a single law or several separate laws. Other \"commandments\" in the Torah are restricted as one-time acts, and would not be considered as \"mitzvot\" binding on other persons. In rabbinic literature, Rishonim and later scholars composed to articulate and justify their enumeration of the commandments:", "The following are the 613 commandments and the source of their derivation from the Hebrew Bible as enumerated by Maimonides:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Chinese equivalent.", "Modern unit.", "Origin of the modern unit.", "Modern measurement enactment.", "Lumber koku.", "Historic use.", "Feudal Japan.", "As measure of cargo ship class.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The Chinese shi or dan is equal to 10 \"dou\" () \"pecks\", 100 \"sheng\" () \"pints\". While the current \"shi\" is 103 liters in volume, the \"shi\" of the Tang Dynasty period equalled 59.44 liters.", "The exact modern \"koku\" is calculated to be 180.39 liters, 100 times the capacity of a modern \"shō\". This modern \"koku\" is essentially defined to be the same as the \"koku\" from the Edo Period, namely 100 times the \"shō\" equal to 64827 cubic \"bu\" in the traditional \"shakkanhō\" measuring system.", "The, the semi-official one \"shō\" measuring box since the late 17th century under Nobunaga, began to be made in a different (larger) size in the early Edo Period, sometime during the 1620s. Its dimensions, given in the traditional Japanese \"shaku\" length unit system, were 4 \"sun\" 9 \"bu\" square times 2 \"sun\" 7 \"bu\" depth. Its volume, which could be calculated by multiplication was: 1 koku = 100 \"shō\"= 100 × (49 \"bu\"×49 \"bu\"×27 \"bu\") = 100 × 64827 cubic \"bu\" Although this was referred to as \"shin kyō-masu\" or the \"new\" measuring cup in its early days, its use supplanted the old measure in most areas in Japan, until the only place still left using the old cup (\"\"edo-masu\"\") was the city of Edo, and the Edo government passed an edict declaring the \"kyō-masu\" the official nationwide measure standard in 1669 (Kanbun 9).", "When the 1891 Japanese was promulgated, it defined the \"shō\" unit as the capacity of the standard \"kyo-masu\" of 64827 cubic \"bu\". The same act also defined the \"shaku\" length as 10/33 metre. Thus the metric equivalent of the modern \"shō\" can be calculated arithmetically, and the result is 2401/1331000m. The modern \"koku\" is therefore 2401/1331 litres, or 1.8039 litres. The modern \"shaku\" defined here is set to equal the so-called \"setchū-shaku\" (\"setchū-jaku\" or \"compromise shaku\"), measuring 302.97 mm, a middle-ground value between two different \"kane-jaku\" standards. A researcher has pointed out that the (\"shin\") cups ought to have used \"take-jaku\" which were 0.2% longer. However, the actual measuring cups in use did not quite attain the \"take shaku\" metric, and when the Japanese Ministry of Finance had collected actual samples of \"masu\" from the (measuring-cup guilds) of both eastern and western Japan, they found that the measurements were close to the average of \"take-jaku\" and \"kane-jaku\".", "The \"lumber \"koku\"\" or \"maritime \"koku\"\" is defined as equal to 10 cubic \"shaku\" in the lumber or shipping industry, compared with the standard \"koku\" measures 6.48 cubic \"shaku\". A lumber \"koku\" is conventionally accepted as equivalent to 120 board feet, but in practice may convert to less. In metric measures 1 lumber \"koku\" is about.", "The exact measure now in use originates in, devised around the 1620s, but not officially adopted for all of Japan until the Kanbun era (1660s).", "Under the Tokugawa shogunate of the Edo period (1603–1868) of Japanese history, each feudal domain had an assessment of its potential income known as \"kokudaka\" which in part determined its order of precedence at the Shogunal court. The smallest \"kokudaka\" to qualify the fief-holder for the title of \"daimyō\" was 10,000 \"koku\" (worth ¥705,528,600 in 2016) and Kaga han, the largest (other than that of the \"shōgun\"), was called the \"million-\"koku\" domain\". Its holdings totaled around 1,025,000 \"koku\" (worth ¥72.3 billion in 2016). Many samurai, including \"hatamoto\", received stipends in \"koku\", while a few received salaries instead. The production yield (\"koku-daka\") was reported in terms of brown rice (\"genmai\") in most places, with the exception of Satsuma clan which reported in terms of unhusked or non-winnowed rice (). Since this practice had persisted, past Japanese rice production statistics need to be adjusted for comparison with other countries that report production by milled or polished rice. Even in certain parts of the Tōhoku region or Ezo (Hokkaidō) where rice could not be grown, the economy was still measured in terms of \"koku\", with other crops and produce converted to their equivalent value in terms of rice. The \"kokudaka\" was not adjusted from year to year, and thus some fiefs had larger economies than their nominal \"koku\" indicated due to land reclamation and new rice field development, which allowed them to fund development projects.", "\"Koku\" was also used to measure how much a ship could carry when all its loads were rice. Smaller ships carried 50 \"koku\" () while the biggest ships carried over 1,000 \"koku\" (). The biggest ships were larger than military vessels owned by the Shogunate.", "The Hyakumangoku Matsuri (Million-\"Koku\" Festival) in Kanazawa, Japan celebrates the arrival of \"daimyō\" Maeda Toshiie into the city in 1583, although Maeda's income was not raised to over a million \"koku\" until after the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The concept of the Near East.", "Periodization.", "History.", "Chalcolithic.", "Early Mesopotamia.", "Bronze Age.", "Early Bronze Age.", "Sumer and Akkad.", "Elam.", "The Amorites.", "Late Bronze Age.", "Bronze Age collapse.", "Iron Age.", "Religions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "4", "4", "4", "3", "4", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The phrase \"ancient Near East\" denotes the 19th-century distinction between Near East and Far East as global regions of interest to the British Empire. The distinction began during the Crimean War. The last major exclusive partition of the east between these two terms was current in diplomacy in the late 19th century, with the Hamidian Massacres of the Armenians and Assyrians by the Ottoman Empire in 1894–1896 and the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895. The two theatres were described by the statesmen and advisors of the British Empire as \"the Near East\" and \"the Far East\". Shortly after, they were to share the stage with Middle East, which came to prevail in the 20th century and continues in modern times. As \"Near East\" had meant the lands of the Ottoman Empire at roughly its maximum extent, on the fall of that empire, the use of Near East in diplomacy was reduced significantly in favor of the Middle East. Meanwhile, the ancient Near East had become distinct. The Ottoman rule over the Near East ranged from Vienna (to the north) to the tip of the Arabian Peninsula (to the south), from Egypt (in the west) to the borders of Iraq (in the east). The 19th-century archaeologists added Iran to their definition, which was never under the Ottomans, but they excluded all of Europe and, generally, Egypt, which had parts in the empire.", "Ancient Near East periodization is the attempt to categorize or divide time into discrete named blocks, or eras, of the Near East. The result is a descriptive abstraction that provides a useful handle on Near East periods of time with relatively stable characteristics.", "", "", "The Uruk period (c. 4000 to 3100 BC) existed from the protohistoric Chalcolithic to the Early Bronze Age period in the history of Mesopotamia, following the Ubaid period. Named after the Sumerian city of Uruk, this period saw the emergence of urban life in Mesopotamia. It was followed by the Sumerian civilization. The late Uruk period (34–32 centuries) saw the gradual emergence of the cuneiform script and corresponds to the Early Bronze Age.", "", "", "Sumer, located in southern Mesopotamia, is the earliest known civilization in the world. It lasted from the first settlement of Eridu in the Ubaid period (late 6th millennium BC) through the Uruk period (4th millennium BC) and the Dynastic periods (3rd millennium BC) until the rise of Assyria and Babylon in the late 3rd millennium BC and early 2nd millennium BC respectively. The Akkadian Empire, founded by Sargon the Great, lasted from the 24th to the 21st century BC, and was regarded by many as the world's first empire. The Akkadians eventually fragmented into Assyria and Babylonia.", "Ancient Elam lay to the east of Sumer and Akkad, in the far west and southwest of modern-day Iran, stretching from the lowlands of Khuzestan and Ilam Province. In the Old Elamite period, c. 3200 BC, it consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau, centered on Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered on Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Elam was absorbed into the Assyrian Empire in the 9th to 7th centuries BC; however, the civilization endured up until 539 BC when it was finally overrun by the Iranian Persians. The Proto-Elamite civilization existed from c. 3200 BC to 2700 BC, when Susa, the later capital of the Elamites, began to receive influence from the cultures of the Iranian plateau. In archaeological terms, this corresponds to the late Banesh period. This civilization is recognized as the oldest in Iran and was largely contemporary with its neighbour, the Sumerian civilization. The Proto-Elamite script is an Early Bronze Age writing system briefly in use for the ancient Elamite language (which was a Language isolate) before the introduction of Elamite Cuneiform.", "The Amorites were a nomadic Semitic people who occupied the country west of the Euphrates from the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. In the earliest Sumerian sources, beginning about 2400 BC, the land of the Amorites (\"the \"Mar.tu\" land\") is associated with the West, including Syria and Canaan, although their ultimate origin may have been Arabia. They ultimately settled in Mesopotamia, ruling Isin, Larsa, and later Babylon.", "The Hurrians lived in northern Mesopotamia and areas to the immediate east and west, beginning approximately 2500 BC. They probably originated in the Caucasus and entered from the north, but this is not certain. Their known homeland was centred on Subartu, the Khabur River valley, and later they established themselves as rulers of small kingdoms throughout northern Mesopotamia and Syria. The largest and most influential Hurrian nation was the kingdom of Mitanni. The Hurrians played a substantial part in the history of the Hittites. Ishuwa was an ancient kingdom in Anatolia. The name is first attested in the second millennium BC, and is also spelled Išuwa. In the classical period, the land was a part of Armenia. Ishuwa was one of the places where agriculture developed very early on in the Neolithic. Urban centres emerged in the upper Euphrates river valley around 3500 BC. The first states followed in the third millennium BC. The name Ishuwa is not known until the literate period of the second millennium BC. Few literate sources from within Ishuwa have been discovered and the primary source material comes from Hittite texts. To the west of Ishuwa lay the kingdom of the Hittites, and this nation was an untrustworthy neighbour. The Hittite king Hattusili I (c. 1600 BC) is reported to have marched his army across the Euphrates river and destroyed the cities there. This corresponds well with burnt destruction layers discovered by archaeologists at town sites in Ishuwa of roughly the same date. After the end of the Hittite empire in the early 12th century BC a new state emerged in Ishuwa. The city of Malatya became the centre of one of the so-called Neo-Hittite kingdom. The movement of nomadic people may have weakened the kingdom of Malatya before the final Assyrian invasion. The decline of the settlements and culture in Ishuwa from the 7th century BC until the Roman period was probably caused by this movement of people. The Armenians later settled in the area since they were natives of the Armenian Plateau and related to the earlier inhabitants of Ishuwa. Kizzuwatna is the name of an ancient kingdom of the second millennium BC. It was situated in the highlands of southeastern Anatolia, near the Gulf of İskenderun in modern-day Turkey. It encircled the Taurus Mountains and the Ceyhan river. The centre of the kingdom was the city of Kummanni, situated in the highlands. In a later era, the same region was known as Cilicia. Luwian is an extinct language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family. Luwian speakers gradually spread through Anatolia and became a contributing factor to the downfall, after c. 1180 BC, of the Hittite Empire, where it was already widely spoken. Luwian was also the language spoken in the Neo-Hittite states of Syria, such as Melid and Carchemish, as well as in the central Anatolian kingdom of Tabal that flourished around 900 BC. Luwian has been preserved in two forms, named after the writing systems used to represent them: Cuneiform Luwian, and Hieroglyphic Luwian. Mari was an ancient Sumerian and Amorite city, located 11 kilometres north-west of the modern town of Abu Kamal on the western bank of Euphrates river, some 120 km southeast of Deir ez-Zor, Syria. It is thought to have been inhabited since the 5th millennium BC, although it flourished from 2900 BC until 1759 BC, when it was sacked by Hammurabi. Mitanni was a Hurrian kingdom in northern Mesopotamia from c. 1500 BC, at the height of its power, during the 14th century BC, encompassing what is today southeastern Turkey, northern Syria and northern Iraq (roughly corresponding to Kurdistan), centred on the capital Washukanni whose precise location has not yet been determined by archaeologists. The Mitanni kingdom is thought to have been a feudal state led by a warrior nobility of Indo-Aryan descent, who invaded the Levant region at some point during the 17th century BC, their influence apparent in a linguistic superstratum in Mitanni records. The spread to Syria of a distinct pottery type associated with the Kura-Araxes culture has been connected with this movement, although its date is somewhat too early. Yamhad was an ancient Amorite kingdom. A substantial Hurrian population also settled in the kingdom, and the Hurrian culture influenced the area. The kingdom was powerful during the Middle Bronze Age, c. 1800–1600 BC. Its biggest rival was Qatna further south. Yamhad was finally destroyed by the Hittites in the 16th century BC. The Aramaeans were a Semitic (West Semitic language group), semi-nomadic and pastoralist people who had lived in upper Mesopotamia and Syria. Aramaeans have never had a unified empire; they were divided into independent kingdoms all across the Near East. Yet to these Aramaeans befell the privilege of imposing their language and culture upon the entire Near East and beyond, fostered in part by the mass relocations enacted by successive empires, including the Assyrians and Babylonians. Scholars even have used the term 'Aramaization' for the Assyro-Babylonian peoples' languages and cultures, that have become Aramaic-speaking. The Sea peoples is the term used for a confederacy of seafaring raiders of the second millennium BC who sailed into the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, caused political unrest, and attempted to enter or control Egyptian territory during the late 19th dynasty, and especially during Year 8 of Ramesses III of the 20th Dynasty. The Egyptian Pharaoh Merneptah explicitly refers to them by the term \"the foreign-countries (or 'peoples') of the sea\" in his Great Karnak Inscription. Although some scholars believe that they \"invaded\" Cyprus, Hatti and the Levant, this hypothesis is disputed.", "The \"Bronze Age collapse\" is the name given by those historians who see the transition from the Late Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age as violent, sudden and culturally disruptive, expressed by the collapse of palace economies of the Aegean and Anatolia, which were replaced after a hiatus by the isolated village cultures of the Dark Age period in history of the ancient Middle East. Some have gone so far as to call the catalyst that ended the Bronze Age a \"catastrophe\". The Bronze Age collapse may be seen in the context of a technological history that saw the slow, comparatively continuous spread of iron-working technology in the region, beginning with precocious iron-working in what is now Romania in the 13th and 12th centuries. The cultural collapse of the Mycenaean kingdoms, the Hittite Empire in Anatolia and Syria, and the Egyptian Empire in Syria and Palestine, the scission of long-distance trade contacts and sudden eclipse of literacy occurred between 1206 and 1150 BC. In the first phase of this period, almost every city between Troy and Gaza was violently destroyed, and often left unoccupied thereafter (for example, Hattusas, Mycenae, Ugarit). The gradual end of the Dark Age that ensued saw the rise of settled Neo-Hittite and Aramaean kingdoms of the mid-10th century BC, and the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.", "During the Early Iron Age, from 911 BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire arose, vying with Babylonia and other lesser powers for dominance of the region, though not until the reforms of Tiglath-Pileser III in the 8th century BC, did it become a powerful and vast empire. In the Middle Assyrian period of the Late Bronze Age, Assyria had been a kingdom of northern Mesopotamia (modern-day northern Iraq), competing for dominance with its southern Mesopotamian rival Babylonia. From 1365–1076 it had been a major imperial power, rivaling Egypt and the Hittite Empire. Beginning with the campaign of Adad-nirari II, it became a vast empire, overthrowing 25th dynasty Egypt and conquering Egypt, the Middle East, and large swaths of Asia Minor, ancient Iran, the Caucasus and east Mediterranean. The Neo-Assyrian Empire succeeded the Middle Assyrian period (14th to 10th century BC). Some scholars, such as Richard Nelson Frye, regard the Neo-Assyrian Empire to be the first real empire in human history. During this period, Aramaic was also made an official language of the empire, alongside the Akkadian language. The states of the Neo-Hittite kingdoms were Luwian, Aramaic and Phoenician-speaking political entities of Iron Age northern Syria and southern Anatolia that arose following the collapse of the Hittite Empire around 1180 BC and lasted until roughly 700 BC. The term \"Neo-Hittite\" is sometimes reserved specifically for the Luwian-speaking principalities like Melid (Malatya) and Karkamish (Carchemish), although in a wider sense the broader cultural term \"Syro-Hittite\" is now applied to all the entities that arose in south-central Anatolia following the Hittite collapse – such as Tabal and Quwê – as well as those of northern and coastal Syria. Urartu was an ancient kingdom of Armenia and North Mesopotamia which existed from c. 860 BC, emerging from the Late Bronze Age until 585 BC. The Kingdom of Urartu was located in the mountainous plateau between Asia Minor, the Iranian Plateau, Mesopotamia, and the Caucasus mountains, later known as the Armenian Highland, and it centered on Lake Van (present-day eastern Turkey). The name corresponds to the Biblical \"Ararat\". The term Neo-Babylonian Empire refers to Babylonia under the rule of the 11th (\"Chaldean\") dynasty, from the revolt of Nabopolassar in 623 BC until the invasion of Cyrus the Great in 539 BC (Although the last ruler of Babylonia (Nabonidus) was in fact from the Assyrian city of Harran and not Chaldean), notably including the reign of Nebuchadrezzar II. Through the centuries of Assyrian domination, Babylonia enjoyed a prominent status, and revolted at the slightest indication that it did not. However, the Assyrians always managed to restore Babylonian loyalty, whether through the granting of increased privileges, or militarily. That finally changed in 627 BC with the death of the last strong Assyrian ruler, Ashurbanipal, and Babylonia rebelled under Nabopolassar the Chaldean a few years later. In alliance with the Medes and Scythians, Nineveh was sacked in 612 and Harran in 608 BC, and the seat of empire was again transferred to Babylonia. Subsequently, the Medes controlled much of the ancient Near East from their base in Ecbatana (modern-day Hamadan, Iran), most notably most of what is now Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and the South Caucasus. Following the fall of the Medes, the Achaemenid Empire was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over most of the Near East and far beyond, and the second great Iranian empire (after the Median Empire). At the height of its power, encompassing approximately 7.5 million square kilometers, the Achaemenid Empire was territorially the largest empire of classical antiquity, and the first world empire. It spanned three continents (Europe, Asia, and Africa), including apart from its core in modern-day Iran, the territories of modern Iraq, the Caucasus (Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Dagestan, Abkhazia), Asia Minor (Turkey), Thrace, Bulgaria, Greece, many of the Black Sea coastal regions, northern Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Afghanistan, Central Asia, parts of Pakistan, and all significant population centers of ancient Egypt as far west as Libya. It is noted in western history as the foe of the Greek city states in the Greco-Persian Wars, for freeing the Israelites from their Babylonian captivity, and for instituting Aramaic as the empire's official language.", "Ancient civilizations in the Near East were deeply influenced by their spiritual beliefs, which generally did not distinguish between heaven and Earth. They believed that divine action influenced all mundane matters, and also believed in divination (ability to predict the future). Omens were often inscribed in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, as were records of major events." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Early life.", "Initial expansion.", "Death.", "After death.", "Retainers.", "Shingen-ko Festival.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Shingen was called \"Tarō\" (a commonly used pet name for the eldest son of a Japanese family) or Katsuchiyo (勝千代) during his childhood. When he celebrated his coming of age, he was given the formal name Harunobu (晴信), which included a character from the name of Ashikaga Yoshiharu (足利義晴), the 12th Ashikaga \"shōgun\". It was a common practice in feudal Japan for a higher-ranked warrior to bestow a character from his own name to his inferiors as a symbol of recognition. From the local Lord's perspective, it was an honour to receive a character from the shogunate, although the authority of the latter had greatly degenerated in the mid-16th century. Both the Ashikaga and the Takeda clans descended from the Minamoto (源) clan. Technically, Harunobu, as well as his forefathers, had borne the surname of Minamoto. Therefore, Harunobu would be referred to as \"Minamoto-no Harunobu\" (源晴信) in official records kept by the Imperial Court when he was conferred the official title of \"Daizen Dayu\" (大膳大夫). The Imperial Court had maintained a system of ritsuryō (律令) that was parallel to the shogunate apparatus. In February 1559 Harunobu chose to live a \"pabbajja\" life as a Buddhist novitiate and received a dharma name, Shingen (信玄), from his Buddhist master. The kanji of \"Shingen\" can also be pronounced as \"Nobuharu\", which is the inversion of his official name, Harunobu. In ancient times, such religious names of recognized Japanese aristocrats would be read in \"on'yomi\" (音読み), the Chinese-style pronunciation, instead of \"kun'yomi\" (訓読み), the indigenous Japanese pronunciation. Although widely known by the dharma name, Takeda Shingen's formal name remained \"Harunobu\" throughout the rest of his life. Shingen is sometimes referred to as \"The Tiger of Kai\" (甲斐の虎) for his martial prowess on the battlefield. His primary rival, Uesugi Kenshin (上杉謙信), was often called \"The Dragon of Echigo\" (越後の龍) or also \"The Tiger of Echigo\" (越後の虎). \"These two seemed to have enjoyed meeting in battle.\" They fought several times at Kawanakajima.", "Takeda Shingen was the first-born son of Takeda Nobutora (武田信虎), leader of the Takeda clan, and \"daimyō\" of the province of Kai. He had been an accomplished poet in his youth. He assisted his father with the older relatives and vassals of the Takeda family, and became quite a valuable addition to the clan at a fairly young age. In 1536, at the age of 15, he was instrumental in helping his father win the Battle of Un no Kuchi. At some point in his life after his \"coming of age\" ceremony, the young man decided to rebel against Nobutora. He finally succeeded in 1540, successfully taking control of the clan. Events regarding this change of leadership are not entirely clear, but it is thought that Nobutora had planned to name the second son, Nobushige, as his heir instead of Shingen. The end result was a miserable retirement that was forced upon him by Shingen and his supporters: he was sent to Suruga Province, on the southern border of Kai, to be kept in custody under the scrutiny of the Imagawa clan, led by his son-in-law Imagawa Yoshimoto (今川義元), the \"daimyō\" of Suruga. For their help in this bloodless coup, an alliance was formed between the Imagawa and the Takeda clans.", "Shingen's first act was to gain a hold of the area around him. His goal was to conquer Shinano Province (信濃). A number of the major warlords in the Shinano region marched on the border of Kai Province, hoping to neutralize the power of the still-young Shingen before he had a chance to expand into their lands. However, planning to beat him down at Fuchu (where word had it Shingen was gathering his forces for a stand), they were unprepared when Takeda forces suddenly came down upon them at the Battle of Sezawa. Taking advantage of their confusion, Shingen was able to win a quick victory, which set the stage for his drive into Shinano lands that same year and his successful Siege of Uehara. The young warlord made considerable advances into the region, conquering the Suwa headquarters in the Siege of Kuwabara before moving into central Shinano with the defeat of both Tozawa Yorichika and Takato Yoritsugu in the Siege of Fukuyo and Battle of Ankokuji. In 1543, he captured Nagakubo castle, Kojinyama in 1544, and then Takatō and Ryūgasaki in 1545. In 1546 he took Uchiyama and won the Battle of Odaihara. In 1547, he took Shika. However, the warlord was checked at Uedahara by Murakami Yoshikiyo, losing two of his generals in a heated battle which Murakami won. Shingen managed to avenge this loss and the Murakami clan was eventually defeated in the Sieges of Toishi. Murakami fled the region, eventually coming to plead for help from the Province of Echigo (越後). In 1548, Shingen defeated Ogasawara Nagatoki in the Battle of Shiojiritoge and then took Fukashi in 1550. After conquering Shinano, Shingen faced another rival, Uesugi Kenshin of Echigo. The feud between them became legendary, and they faced each other on the battlefield five times in the Battles of Kawanakajima. These battles were generally confined to controlled skirmishes, neither \"daimyō\" willing to devote himself entirely to a single all-out attempt. The conflict between the two that had the fiercest fighting, and might have decided victory or defeat for one side or the other, was the fourth battle, during which the famous tale arose of Uesugi Kenshin's forces clearing a path through the Takeda troops and Kenshin engaging Shingen in single combat. The tale has Kenshin attacking Shingen with his sword while Shingen defends with his iron war fan or tessen. Both lords lost many men in this fight, and Shingen in particular lost two of his main generals, Yamamoto Kansuke and his younger brother Takeda Nobushige. After the fourth battle of Kawanakajima, the Takeda clan suffered two internal setbacks. Shingen uncovered two plots on his life, the first from his cousin Suwa Shigemasa (whom he ordered to commit seppuku), and the second, a few years later, from his own son Takeda Yoshinobu (武田義信). His son was confined to the Toko temple, where he died two years later; it is not known whether his death was natural or ordered by his father. After this incident, Shingen designated his fourth son, Takeda Katsuyori (武田勝頼), as the acting leader of the clan after himself until Katsuyori's son came of age. In 1553, he captured Katsurao, Wada, Takashima and Fukuda. In 1554 he took Fukushima, Kannomine, Matsuo and Yoshioka. In 1563, allied with Hōjō Ujiyasu, he captured Matsuyama Castle in Musashi Province. Takeda Shingen then took Kuragano in 1565 and Minowa Castle. He then moved against the Hojo by attacking Hachigata Castle then engaged in the Siege of Odawara (1569). He successfully withdrew after Hōjō Ujiteru and Hōjō Ujikuni failed to stop him in the Battle of Mimasetoge. The death of Yoshinobu is believed to have much to do with the change in Shingen's Imagawa policy. After Imagawa Yoshimoto's death in a battle against Oda Nobunaga (織田信長) in 1560, Shingen had started to plan an invasion of Suruga, a territory now controlled by Yoshimoto's son Ujizane. Yoshinobu, however, had strongly opposed such a plan because his wife was the daughter of late Yoshimoto. By 1567, nonetheless, after Shingen had successfully kept the forces led by Uesugi Kenshin out of the northern boundaries of Shinano, taken over a strategically important castle in western Kōzuke, and suppressed internal objection to his plans to take advantage of the weakened Imagawa clan, he was ready to carry out his planned Suruga invasion. During this time Shingen also ordered the damming project of the Fuji River, which was one of the major domestic activities of the time. Shingen and Tokugawa Ieyasu (徳川家康) \"came to terms\" and occupied the \"former Imagawa territory.\" They both fought against Yoshimoto's heir, Imagawa Ujizane. After defeating the intervention forces commanded by Hōjō Ujimasa (北條氏政) of Sagami, Shingen finally secured the Suruga, formerly base of the prestigious Imagawa clan, as a Takeda asset in 1569. Upon securing Takeda control over Suruga, northern Shinano, and western Kōzuke, Shingen moved to challenge the Oda-Tokugawa alliance on the Battle of Mikatagahara, leading a formidable force of over 30,000 into the latter's territories in Tōtōmi, Mikawa, and Mino in 1572.", "The exact circumstances surrounding Takeda Shingen's death are not known. There are many different stories, some of which are as follows. When Takeda Shingen was 49 years old, he was the only \"daimyō\" with the necessary power and tactical skill to stop Oda Nobunaga's rush to rule Japan. He engaged Tokugawa Ieyasu's forces in 1572 and captured Futamata, and in January engaged in the Battle of Mikatagahara, where he defeated, but not decisively, a small combined army of Nobunaga and Ieyasu. After defeating Tokugawa Ieyasu, Shingen stopped his advance temporarily due to outside influences, which allowed the Tokugawa to prepare for battle again. He entered Mikawa Province, but soon died in the camp. Some accounts say he succumbed to an old war wound, some say a sniper wounded him earlier, and some accounts say he died of pneumonia. He was buried at Erin temple in what is now Kōshū, Yamanashi. The film \"Kagemusha\", by director Akira Kurosawa, loosely depicts a well-known version of his death in which a single sniper shot him at night. The other aspects of his death depicted in the film were artistic liberties taken by the director.", "Takeda Katsuyori became the \"daimyō\" of the Takeda clan. Katsuyori was ambitious and desired to continue the legacy of his father. He moved on to take Tokugawa forts. However an allied force of Tokugawa Ieyasu and Oda Nobunaga dealt a crushing blow to the Takeda in the Battle of Nagashino. Here Oda Nobunaga's matchlock-armed infantry destroyed the Takeda cavalry. Ieyasu seized the opportunity and defeated the weak Takeda led by Takeda Katsuyori in the battle of Tenmokuzan. Katsuyori committed suicide after the battle, and the Takeda clan never recovered. Upon Shingen's death, Kenshin reportedly cried at the loss of one of his strongest and most deeply respected rivals. One of the most lasting tributes to Shingen's prowess was that of Tokugawa Ieyasu himself, who is known to have borrowed heavily from the old Takeda leader's governmental and military innovations after he had taken leadership of Kai during Toyotomi Hideyoshi's rise to power. Many of these designs were put to use in the Tokugawa shogunate. While the Takeda were for the most part destroyed by the loss of Shingen's heir, Katsuyori, Shingen had a profound effect on the period in Japan. He influenced many lords with his law, tax, and administration systems, and many tales were told about him. Although aggressive towards military enemies he was probably not as cruel as other warlords. His war banner contained the famous phrase, taken from Sun Tzu's \"The Art of War\". This phrase refers to the idea of \"Swift as the Wind, Silent as a Forest, Fierce as Fire and Immovable as a Mountain\". The motto applied to Shingen's policies and his military strategy.", "During the Edo period, 24 retainers who served under Shingen were chosen as a popular topic for ukiyo-e and bunraku. The names vary from work to work and the following list is the widely agreed version of retainers. They had not worked together, as some had died before others served, but they were noted for their exceptional contributions to Shingen and the Takeda family. Of his retainers, Kōsaka Masanobu stands out as being one of Shingen's better known beloveds, in the style of the Japanese shudō tradition. The two entered into the relationship when Shingen was 22 and Masanobu 16. The love pact signed by the two, in Tokyo University's Historical Archive, documents Shingen's pledge that he was not involved in, nor had any intentions of entering into, a sexual relationship with a certain other retainer, and asserts that \"since I want to be intimate with you\" he will in no way harm the boy, and calls upon the gods to be his guarantors. (Leupp, pp. 53–54) Twenty-Four Generals of Takeda Shingen Other Generals", "The is held annually on the first or second weekend of April in Kōfu, Yamanashi Prefecture. It celebrates the legacy of daimyō Takeda Shingen. The festival is 3 days long. Usually a famous Japanese celebrity plays the part of Takeda Shingen. There are several parades going to and from the Takeda Shrine and Kofu Castle. These parades are very theatrical involving serious re-enactors who practice the rest of the year for this one weekend in April. The parades reflect the different comings and goings of Takeda Shingen during his life.", "Takeda's battles with Kagetora were dramatized in the movie \"Heaven and Earth\". Takeda Shingen's death is fictionalized in Akira Kurosawa's film \"Kagemusha\". He is mentioned on episode 31 of the Tokusatsu 1988 series Sekai Ninja Sen Jiraiya. The focus of this episode is the alleged missing Takeda Shingen's famous sword Nobutora, and its discovery in France. His life is the subject of a historical novel by Jirou Nitta, which was adapted for television in the 1988 NHK Taiga drama \"Takeda Shingen\", starring Kiichi Nakai, distributed internationally under the title \"Shingen\". \"Shingen the Ruler\" (Takeda Shingen 2 in Japan) is a turn-based strategy game for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), produced by Hot B in 1989, and released in North America in 1990. Takeda Shingen has appeared in the highly popular Samurai Warriors and Sengoku Basara video game franchises, and in the anime. He is a character in all of the games of the Warriors Orochi series. He is a playable character in \"Pokémon Conquest\" (Pokémon + Nobunaga's Ambition in Japan), with his partner Pokémon being Rhyperior and Groudon. In \"Samurai Champloo\", the character Jin Has the Takeda mon on his keikogi. Video game music composer Ryu Umemoto (1974–2011) was a descendant of Takeda. Takeda Shingen was mentioned in episode 10 of \"The Tatami Galaxy\" when the protagonist noted that a 4.5 tatami room is perfect, and if a room were to be larger than that, it would end up being \"as spacious as Takeda Shingen's lavatory, and one might even get lost\". He is a main character in the anime \"\" and \"\". He was shown with a superhuman strength, able to use a large ax with effortless precision, ride two horses in standing position, even riding up walls vertically. In \"\", He appeared as hotheaded woman's who committed nothing to obtain power of the red armored. In the eroge \"Commander Babes\", Shingen is portrayed as a young woman with whom the player's character engages in sexual intercourse." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Ecology.", "Climate.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Europa is in diameter, with a maximum altitude of, and has of coastline. It is surrounded by coral beaches and a fringing reef and encloses a mangrove lagoon of around and open to the sea on one side. There are no ports or harbours but anchorage is possible offshore. Its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), contiguous with that of Bassas da India, is. The airstrip is metres long.", "The island is a nature reserve. Its vegetation consists of dry forest, scrub, Euphorbia, the mangrove swamp, and the remains of a sisal plantation. It is one of the world's largest nesting sites for green sea turtles. It is also home to goats introduced by settlers in the late 18th century. The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports a large and diverse population of breeding seabirds and other waterbirds. It is the only known breeding site outside Aldabra and Madagascar for Malagasy pond herons. Seabirds include the second largest colony in the western Indian Ocean of great frigatebirds (with up to 1100 pairs), Audubon's shearwaters (up to 100 pairs, probably of the subspecies \"Puffinus lherminieri bailloni\" previously considered endemic to the Mascarene Islands), dimorphic egrets and Caspian terns. The island is also home to an endemic subspecies of white-tailed tropicbird (\"Phaethon lepturus europae\"). There are three species of landbirds present, one of which is an endemic subspecies of the Malagasy white-eye (\"Zosterops maderaspatanus voeltzkowi\"). Additionally, the island is also home to its own species of hissing cockroach.", "Climate is affected by the Agulhas Current with water temperatures usually above 30 °C, southeast trade winds during the (austral) winter and occasional cyclones.", "While the island has probably been sighted by navigators since at least the 16th century, it takes its name from the British ship \"Europa\", which visited it in December 1774. Ruins and graves on Europa island attest to several attempts at settlement from the 1860s to the 1920s. For example, the French Rosiers family moved to the island in 1860, but subsequently abandoned it." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Modern era.", "Use.", "Other uses.", "Components.", "Wax.", "Wick.", "Characteristics.", "Light.", "Temperature.", "Candle flame.", "History of study.", "Hazards.", "Regulation.", "Accessories.", "Candle holders.", "Candle followers.", "Candle snuffers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The word candle comes from Middle English \"candel\", from Old English and from Anglo-Norman \"candele\", both from Latin \"candēla\", from \"candēre\", to shine.", "Prior to the candle, people used oil lamps in which a lit wick rested in a container of liquid oil. Liquid oil lamps had a tendency to spill, and the wick had to be advanced by hand. Romans began making true dipped candles from tallow, beginning around 500 BC. European candles of antiquity were made from various forms of natural fat, tallow, and wax. In Ancient Rome, candles were made of tallow due to the prohibitive cost of beeswax. It is possible that they also existed in Ancient Greece, but imprecise terminology makes it difficult to determine. The earliest surviving candles originated in Han China around 200 BC. These early Chinese candles were made from whale fat. During the Middle Ages, tallow candles were most commonly used. By the 13th century, candle making had become a guild craft in England and France. The candle makers (chandlers) went from house to house making candles from the kitchen fats saved for that purpose, or made and sold their own candles from small candle shops. Beeswax, compared to animal-based tallow, burned cleanly, without smoky flame. Beeswax candles were expensive, and relatively few people could afford to burn them in their homes in medieval Europe. However, they were widely used for church ceremonies. In the 18th and 19th centuries, spermaceti, a waxy substance produced by the sperm whale, was used to produce a superior candle that burned longer, brighter and gave off no offensive smell. Later in the 18th century, colza oil and rapeseed oil came into use as much cheaper substitutes.", "The manufacture of candles became an industrialized mass market in the mid 19th century. In 1834, Joseph Morgan, a pewterer from Manchester, England, patented a machine that revolutionised candle making. It allowed for continuous production of molded candles by using a cylinder with a moveable piston to eject candles as they solidified. This more efficient mechanized production produced about 1,500 candles per hour. This allowed candles to be an affordable commodity for the masses. Candlemakers also began to fashion wicks out of tightly braided (rather than simply twisted) strands of cotton. This technique makes wicks curl over as they burn, maintaining the height of the wick and therefore the flame. Because much of the excess wick is incinerated, these are referred to as \"self-trimming\" or \"self-consuming\" wicks. In the mid-1850s, James Young succeeded in distilling paraffin wax from coal and oil shales at Bathgate in West Lothian and developed a commercially viable method of production. Paraffin could be used to make inexpensive candles of high quality. It was a bluish-white wax, which burned cleanly and left no unpleasant odor, unlike tallow candles. By the end of the 19th century, candles were made from paraffin wax and stearic acid. By the late 19th century, Price's Candles, based in London, was the largest candle manufacturer in the world. Founded by William Wilson in 1830, the company pioneered the implementation of the technique of steam distillation, and was thus able to manufacture candles from a wide range of raw materials, including skin fat, bone fat, fish oil and industrial greases. Despite advances in candle making, the candle industry declined rapidly upon the introduction of superior methods of lighting, including kerosene and lamps and the 1879 invention of the incandescent light bulb. From this point on, candles came to be marketed as more of a decorative item.", "Before the invention of electric lighting, candles and oil lamps were commonly used for illumination. In areas without electricity, they are still used routinely. Until the 20th century, candles were more common in northern Europe. In southern Europe and the Mediterranean, oil lamps predominated. In the developed world today, candles are used mainly for their aesthetic value and scent, particularly to set a soft, warm, or romantic ambiance, for emergency lighting during electrical power failures, and for religious or ritual purposes.", "With the fairly consistent and measurable burning of a candle, a common use of candles was to tell the time. The candle designed for this purpose might have time measurements, usually in hours, marked along the wax. The Song dynasty in China (960–1279) used candle clocks. By the 18th century, candle clocks were being made with weights set into the sides of the candle. As the candle melted, the weights fell off and made a noise as they fell into a bowl. In the days leading to Christmas, some people burn a candle a set amount to represent each day, as marked on the candle. The type of candle used in this way is called the \"Advent candle\", although this term is also used to refer to a candle that decorates an Advent wreath.", "", "For most of recorded history candles were made from tallow (rendered from beef or mutton-fat) or beeswax. From the mid 1800s they were also made from spermaceti, a waxy substance derived from the Sperm whale, which in turn spurred demand for the substance. Candles were also made from stearin (initially manufactured from animal fats but now produced almost exclusively from palm waxes). Today, most candles are made from paraffin wax, a byproduct of petroleum refining. Candles can also be made from microcrystalline wax, beeswax (a byproduct of honey collection), gel (a mixture of polymer and mineral oil), or some plant waxes (generally palm, carnauba, bayberry, or soybean wax). The size of the flame and corresponding rate of burning is controlled largely by the candle wick. Production methods utilize extrusion moulding. More traditional production methods entail melting the solid fuel by the controlled application of heat. The liquid is then poured into a mould, or a wick is repeatedly immersed in the liquid to create a dipped tapered candle. Often fragrance oils, essential oils or aniline-based dye is added.", "A candle wick works by capillary action, drawing (\"wicking\") the melted wax or fuel up to the flame. When the liquid fuel reaches the flame, it vaporizes and combusts. The candle wick influences how the candle burns. Important characteristics of the wick include diameter, stiffness, fire-resistance, and tethering. A candle wick is a piece of string or cord that holds the flame of a candle. Commercial wicks are made from braided cotton. The wick's capillarity determines the rate at which the melted hydrocarbon is conveyed to the flame. If the capillarity is too great, the molten wax streams down the side of the candle. Wicks are often infused with a variety of chemicals to modify their burning characteristics. For example, it is usually desirable that the wick not glow after the flame is extinguished. Typical agents are ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate.", "", "Based on measurements of a taper-type, paraffin wax candle, a modern candle typically burns at a steady rate of about 0.1 g/min, releasing heat at roughly 80 W. The light produced is about 13 lumens, for a luminous efficacy of about 0.16 lumens per watt (luminous efficacy of a source) – almost a hundred times lower than an incandescent light bulb. The luminous intensity of a typical candle is approximately one candela. The SI unit, candela, was in fact based on an older unit called the \"candlepower\", which represented the luminous intensity emitted by a candle made to particular specifications (a \"standard candle\"). The modern unit is defined in a more precise and repeatable way, but was chosen such that a candle's luminous intensity is still about one candela.", "The hottest part of a candle flame is just above the very dull blue part to one side of the flame, at the base. At this point, the flame is about. However note that this part of the flame is very small and releases little heat energy. The blue color is due to chemiluminescence, while the visible yellow color is due to radiative emission from hot soot particles. The soot is formed through a series of complex chemical reactions, leading from the fuel molecule through molecular growth, until multi-carbon ring compounds are formed. The thermal structure of a flame is complex, hundreds of degrees over very short distances leading to extremely steep temperature gradients. On average, the flame temperature is about. The color temperature is approximately 1000 K.", "A candle flame is formed because wax vaporizes on burning. A candle flame is widely recognized as having between three and five regions or \"zones\": The main determinant of the height of a candle flame is the diameter of the wick. This is evidenced in tealights where the wick is very thin and the flame is very small. Candles whose main purpose is illumination use a much thicker wick.", "One of Michael Faraday's significant works was \"The Chemical History of a Candle\", where he gives an in-depth analysis of the evolutionary development, workings and science of candles.", "According to the U.S. National Fire Protection Association, candles are a leading source of residential fires in the United States with almost 10% of civilian injuries and 6% of fatalities from fire attributed to candles. A candle flame that is longer than its laminar smoke point will emit soot. Proper wick trimming will reduce soot emissions from most candles. The liquid wax is hot and can cause skin burns, but the amount and temperature are generally rather limited and the burns are seldom serious. The best way to avoid getting burned from splashed wax is to use a candle snuffer instead of blowing on the flame. A candle snuffer is usually a small metal cup on the end of a long handle. Placing the snuffer over the flame cuts off the oxygen supply. Snuffers were common in the home when candles were the main source of lighting before electric lights were available. Ornate snuffers, often combined with a taper for lighting, are still found in those churches which regularly use large candles. Glass candle-holders are sometimes cracked by thermal shock from the candle flame, particularly when the candle burns down to the end. When burning candles in glass holders or jars, users should avoid lighting candles with chipped or cracked containers, and stop use once 1/2 inch or less of wax remains. A former worry regarding the safety of candles was that a lead core was used in the wicks to keep them upright in container candles. Without a stiff core, the wicks of a container candle could sag and drown in the deep wax pool. Concerns rose that the lead in these wicks would vaporize during the burning process, releasing lead vapors — a known health and developmental hazard. Lead core wicks have not been common since the 1970s. Today, most metal-cored wicks use zinc or a zinc alloy, which has become the industry standard. Wicks made from specially treated paper and cotton are also available.", "International markets have developed a range of standards and regulations to ensure compliance, while maintaining and improving safety, including:", "", "Decorative candleholders, especially those shaped as a pedestal, are called candlesticks; if multiple candle tapers are held, the term \"candelabrum\" is also used. The root form of \"chandelier\" is from the word for candle, but now usually refers to an electric fixture. The word \"chandelier\" is sometimes now used to describe a hanging fixture designed to hold multiple tapers. Many candle holders use a friction-tight socket to keep the candle upright. In this case, a candle that is slightly too wide will not fit in the holder, and a candle that is slightly too narrow will wobble. Candles that are too big can be trimmed to fit with a knife; candles that are too small can be fitted with aluminium foil. Traditionally, the candle and candle holders were made in the same place, so they were appropriately sized, but international trade has combined the modern candle with existing holders, which makes the ill-fitting candle more common. This friction tight socket is only needed for the federals and the tapers. For tea light candles, there is a variety of candle holders, including small glass holders and elaborate multi-candle stands. The same is true for votives. Wall sconces are available for tea light and votive candles. For pillar-type candles, the assortment of candle holders is broad. A fireproof plate, such as a glass plate or small mirror, can be a candle holder for a pillar-style candle. A pedestal of any kind, with the appropriate-sized fireproof top, is another option. A large glass bowl with a large flat bottom and tall mostly vertical curved sides is called a hurricane. The pillar-style candle is placed at the bottom center of the hurricane. A hurricane on a pedestal is sometimes sold as a unit. A bobèche is a drip-catching ring, which may also be affixed to a candle holder, or used independently of one. Bobèches can range from ornate metal or glass to simple plastic, cardboard, or wax paper. Use of paper or plastic bobèches is common at events where candles are distributed to a crowd or audience, such as Christmas carolers or people at other concerts/festivals.", "These are glass or metal tubes with an internal stricture partway along, which sit around the top of a lit candle. As the candle burns, the wax melts and the follower holds the melted wax in, whilst the stricture rests on the topmost solid portion of wax. Candle followers are often deliberately heavy or weighted to ensure they move down as the candle burns lower, maintaining a seal and preventing wax escape. The purpose of a candle follower is threefold: Candle followers are often found in churches on altar candles.", "Candle snuffers are instruments used to extinguish burning candles by smothering the flame with a small metal cup that is suspended from a long handle, and thus depriving it of oxygen. An older meaning refers to a scissor-like tool used to trim the wick of a candle. With skill, this could be done without extinguishing the flame. The instrument now known as a candle snuffer was formerly called an \"extinguisher\" or \"douter\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Fictional history.", "Before the world's creation.", "Sauron's fall in the First Age.", "Servant of Aulë.", "Lieutenant of Morgoth.", "The Rings of Power in the Second Age.", "Destruction of Númenor.", "War against the Last Alliance.", "Third Age.", "The Necromancer of Dol Guldur.", "The War of the Ring.", "Appearance.", "Physical body.", "Eye of Sauron.", "Concept and creation.", "Interpretations.", "Wholly evil will.", "Destructive Dracula-figure.", "Celtic Balor of the Evil Eye.", "Adaptations.", "Film.", "Video games.", "In culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The \"Ainulindalë\", the cosmological myth prefixed to \"The Silmarillion\", explains how the supreme being Eru initiated his creation by bringing into being innumerable good, immortal, angelic spirits, the Ainur, including Sauron, one of the lesser Ainur, the Maiar. In his origin, Sauron therefore perceived the Creator directly. He was of a \"far higher order\" than the Maiar who later came to Middle-earth as the Wizards. The Vala Melkor (later called Morgoth) rebelled against Eru, breaking the cosmic Music with discord. So began \"the evils of the world\", which Sauron followed.", "", "Sauron served Aulë the Vala Smith, acquiring much knowledge; he was at first called \"Mairon\" (Quenya for \"the Admirable\") until he joined Melkor. In Beleriand, he was called in Sindarin \"Gorthu\" \"Mist of Fear\" and \"Gorthaur\" \"The Cruel\". Sauron was drawn to the power of Melkor, who attracted him by seeming to have power to \"effect his designs quickly and masterfully\", as Sauron hated disorder. Sauron became a spy for Melkor in Almaren. Melkor soon destroyed Almaren, and the Valar moved to the Uttermost West: the Blessed Realm of Valinor, still not perceiving Sauron's treachery. Sauron left the Blessed Realm and went to Middle-earth, the central continent of Arda, where Melkor had established his stronghold. Sauron openly joined the Valar's enemy, now renamed Morgoth.", "Sauron became Morgoth's capable servant, helping him in all the \"deceits of his cunning\". By the time Elves awoke in the world, Sauron had become Melkor's lieutenant and was given command over the new stronghold of Angband. The Valar made war on Melkor and captured him, but Sauron escaped. He hid in Middle-earth, repaired Angband, and began breeding Orcs. Melkor escaped back to Middle-earth with the Silmarils. Sauron directed the war against the Elves, conquering the Elvish fortress of Minas Tirith on the isle of Tol Sirion in Beleriand. Lúthien and Huan the Wolfhound came to this fallen stronghold to save the imprisoned Beren, Lúthien's lover. Sauron, transformed into a werewolf, battled Huan who took him by the throat; he was defeated and left as a huge vampire bat. Lúthien destroyed the tower and rescued Beren from the dungeons. Eärendil sailed to the Blessed Realm, and the Valar moved against Morgoth in the War of Wrath; he was defeated and cast into the Outer Void beyond the world, but again Sauron escaped.", "About 500 years into the Second Age, Sauron reappeared. He planned to take over Middle-earth and rule as a God-King. To seduce the Elves into his service, Sauron assumed a fair appearance as \"Annatar,\" \"Lord of Gifts\", befriended the Elven-smiths of Eregion, led by Celebrimbor, and counselled them in arts and magic. With Sauron's assistance, the Elven-smiths forged the Rings of Power. He then secretly forged the One Ring, to rule all other rings, in the volcanic Mount Doom in Mordor. The Elves detected his influence when he put on the One Ring, and removed their Rings. Enraged, Sauron initiated a great war and conquered much of the land west of Anduin. Sauron overran Eregion, killed Celebrimbor, and seized the Seven and the Nine Rings of Power. The Three Rings were saved by the Elves, specifically Gil-galad, Círdan, and Galadriel. Sauron besieged Imladris, battled Khazad-dûm and Lothlórien, and pushed further into Gil-galad's realm. The Elves were saved when a powerful army from Númenor arrived to their aid, defeating Sauron's forces and driving the remnant back to Mordor. Sauron fortified Mordor and completed the Dark Tower of Barad-dûr. He distributed the remaining rings of the Seven and the Nine to lords of Dwarves and Men. Dwarves proved too resilient to bend to his will, but the Men were enslaved by Sauron as the Nazgûl, his most feared servants. Orcs and Trolls became his servants, with Easterlings and men of Harad.", "Toward the end of the Second Age, Ar-Pharazôn, king of Númenor, led a massive army to Middle-earth. Sauron surrendered, to corrupt Númenor from inside. With the One Ring, Sauron soon dominated the Númenóreans. He used his influence to undermine the religion of Númenor, making people worship Melkor with human sacrifice; Sauron was his high priest. Sauron convinced Ar-Pharazôn to attack Aman by sea to steal immortality from the Valar. The Valar laid down their guardianship of the world and appealed to Eru. Eru destroyed the attacking fleet and armies, but also drowned Númenor, which was removed from the physical world, and destroyed Sauron's body, with his ability to appear beautiful.", "Led by Elendil, nine ships carrying faithful Númenóreans were saved from the Downfall; they founded the kingdoms of Gondor and Arnor in Middle-earth. Sauron returned to Mordor; Mount Doom again erupted. Sauron captured Minas Ithil and destroyed the White Tree; Isildur escaped down the Anduin. Anárion defended Osgiliath and for a time drove Sauron's forces back to the mountains. Isildur and Anárion formed an alliance and defeated Sauron at Dagorlad. They invaded Mordor and laid siege to Barad-dûr for seven years. Sauron was killed by Gil-galad and Elendil, who perished in the act. When Elendil fell, his sword Narsil broke beneath him. Isildur took up the hilt-shard of Narsil and cut the One Ring from Sauron's hand, vanquishing Sauron. Elrond and Círdan, Gil-galad's lieutenants, urged Isildur to destroy the Ring by casting it into Mount Doom, but he refused and kept it for his own.", "Sauron spent a thousand years as a shapeless, dormant evil. A few years after the War of the Last Alliance, Isildur's army was ambushed by Orcs at the Gladden Fields. Isildur put on the Ring and attempted to escape by swimming across Anduin, but the Ring, trying to return to Sauron, slipped from his finger. Isildur was killed by Orc archers.", "Sauron concealed himself in the south of Mirkwood as the Necromancer, in the stronghold of Dol Guldur, \"Hill of Sorcery\". The Valar sent five Maiar as Wizards to oppose the darkness, supposing it was a Nazgûl rather than Sauron himself. The chief of the Nazgûl, the Witch-king of Angmar, repeatedly attacked the northern realm of Arnor, destroying it. When attacked by Gondor, the Witch-king retreated to Mordor, gathering the Nazgûl there. The Nazgûl captured Minas Ithil, which was renamed Minas Morgul, and seized its \"palantír\", one of the seven seeing stones brought from Númenor. Gollum's friend Déagol found the One Ring in the River Anduin, Gollum killed Déagol to get it, and was swiftly corrupted by it. Banished, he went to hide in the Misty Mountains. The Wizards discovered Sauron in Dol Guldur, and drove Sauron from Mirkwood; he returned to Mordor, openly declared himself, rebuilt Barad-dûr, and bred armies of specially large Orcs, Uruks.", "Gandalf identified Gollum's ring as Sauron's One Ring. Saruman, seeking power, used Orthanc's \"palantír\", and was corrupted by Sauron. Sauron captured Gollum and learnt that the Ring had been found by a Hobbit named \"Baggins\". Sauron sent the Nazgûl to the Shire; they pursued the ring-bearer Frodo, who escaped to Rivendell. There, Elrond convened a council. It determined that the Ring should be destroyed in Mount Doom, and formed the Fellowship of the Ring to achieve this. Saruman attempted to capture the Ring; his army was destroyed and his stronghold at Isengard was overthrown. The \"palantír\" of Orthanc fell into the hands of the Fellowship; Aragorn used it to show himself to Sauron as if he held the Ring. Sauron, troubled by this revelation, attacked Minas Tirith sooner than he had planned. His army was destroyed at the Battle of the Pelennor Fields. Meanwhile, Frodo and Sam entered Mordor through the pass of Cirith Ungol. Aragorn diverted Sauron's attention with an attack on the Black Gate of Mordor. Frodo and Sam reached Mount Doom; Gollum seized the Ring and fell into the Cracks of Doom, destroying the Ring. Thus Sauron was utterly defeated, and vanished from Middle-earth.", "", "Tolkien never describes Sauron's appearance in detail, though \"\" includes Tolkien's own watercolour illustration of Sauron. He was initially able to change his appearance at will, but when he became Morgoth's servant, he took a sinister shape. In the First Age, Gorlim was brought into \"the dreadful presence of Sauron\", who has daunting eyes. In the battle with Huan, the hound of Valinor, Sauron took the form of a werewolf. Then he assumed a serpent-like form, and finally changed back \"from monster to his own accustomed [human-like] form\". He took on a beautiful appearance at the end of the First Age to charm Eönwë, near the beginning of the Second Age when appearing as Annatar to the Elves, and again near the end of the Second Age to corrupt the men of Númenor. He appeared then \"as a man, or one in man's shape, but greater than any even of the race of Númenor in stature... And it seemed to men that Sauron was great, though they feared the light of his eyes. To many he appeared fair, to others terrible; but to some evil.\" After the destruction of his fair form in the fall of Númenor, Sauron always took the shape of a terrible dark lord.", "Throughout \"The Lord of the Rings\", \"the Eye\" (the Red Eye, the Evil Eye, the Lidless Eye, the Great Eye) is the image most often associated with Sauron. Sauron's Orcs bore the symbol of the Eye on their helmets and shields, and referred to him as the \"Eye\" because he did not allow his name to be written or spoken, according to Aragorn (a notable exception to this rule was his emissary, the Mouth of Sauron). Also, the Lord of the Nazgûl threatened Éowyn with torture before the \"Lidless Eye\" at the Battle of the Pelennor Fields. Frodo had a vision of the Eye in the Mirror of Galadriel: Later, Tolkien writes as if Frodo and Sam really glimpse the Eye directly. The mists surrounding Barad-dûr are briefly withdrawn, and: This raises the question of whether an \"Eye\" was Sauron's actual manifestation, or whether he had a body beyond the Eye. Gollum (who was tortured by Sauron in person) tells Frodo that Sauron has, at least, a \"Black Hand\" with four fingers. The missing finger was cut off when Isildur took the Ring, and the finger was still missing when Sauron reappeared centuries later. Tolkien writes in \"The Silmarillion\" that \"the Eye of Sauron the Terrible few could endure\" even \"before\" his body was lost in the War of the Last Alliance. In the draft text of the climactic moments of \"The Lord of the Rings\", \"the Eye\" stands for Sauron's very person, with emotions and thoughts: Christopher Tolkien comments: \"The passage is notable in showing the degree to which my father had come to identify the Eye of Barad-dûr with the mind and will of Sauron, so that he could speak of 'its wrath, its fear, its thought'. In the second text... he shifted from 'its' to 'his' as he wrote out the passage anew.\"", "Since the earliest versions of \"The Silmarillion\" legendarium as detailed in the \"History of Middle-earth\" series, Sauron underwent many changes. The prototype or precursor Sauron-figure was a giant monstrous cat, the Prince of Cats. Called \"Tevildo\", \"Tifil\" and \"Tiberth\" among other names, this character played the role later taken by Sauron in the earliest version of the story of Beren and Tinúviel in \"The Book of Lost Tales\". The Prince of Cats was later replaced by \"Thû\", the Necromancer. The name was then changed to \"Gorthû\", \"Sûr\", and finally to Sauron. \"Gorthû\", in the form \"Gorthaur,\" remained in \"The Silmarillion\"; both \"Thû\" and \"Sauron\" name the character in the \"Lay of Leithian\". The story of Beren and Lúthien also features the heroic hound Huan and involved the subtext of cats versus dogs in its earliest form. Later the cats were changed to wolves or werewolves, with the Sauron-figure becoming the Lord of Werewolves. Prior to the publication of \"The Silmarillion\" (1977), Sauron's origins and true identity were unclear to those without full access to Tolkien's notes. In early editions of Robert Foster's \"The Complete Guide to Middle-earth\", Sauron is described as \"probably of the Eldar elves\". Other critics came closer to the mark; as early as 1967, the poet W. H. Auden conjectured that Sauron might have been one of the Valar.", "", "Tolkien stated in his \"Letters\" that although he did not think \"Absolute Evil\" could exist as it would be \"Zero\", \"in my story Sauron represents as near an approach to the wholly evil will as is possible.\" He explained that like \"all tyrants\" Sauron had started well but gone to the bad, and that he \"went further than human tyrants in pride and the lust for domination, being in origin an immortal (angelic) spirit. He began as Morgoth's servant; became his representative, in his absence in the Second Age; and at the end of the Third Age actually claimed to be \"Morgoth returned\".", "Gwenyth Hood, writing in \"Mythlore\", compares Sauron to Bram Stoker's 1897 \"Dracula\". In her view, both of these monstrous antagonists seek to destroy, are linked to powers of darkness, are parasitical on created life, and are undead. Both control others psychologically and have \"hypnotic eyes\". Control by either of them represents \"high spiritual terror\" as it is a sort of \"damnation-on-earth\".", "Edward Lense, also writing in \"Mythlore\", identifies a figure from Celtic mythology, Balor of the Evil Eye, as a possible source for the Eye of Sauron. Balor's evil eye, in the middle of his forehead, was able to overcome a whole army. He was king of the evil \"Fomoire\", who like Sauron were evil spirits in hideously ugly bodies. Lense further compares Mordor to \"a Celtic hell\", just as the Undying Lands of Aman resemble the Celtic Earthly Paradise of \"Tir na nOg\" in the furthest (Atlantic) West; and Balor \"ruled the dead from a tower of glass\".", "", "In film versions of \"The Lord of the Rings\", Sauron has been portrayed as a humanoid creature, as in Ralph Bakshi's 1978 animated version, or as a disembodied Eye, as in the 1980 animated Rankin/Bass \"The Return of the King\". In the 2001–2003 film trilogy directed by Peter Jackson, Sauron is voiced by Alan Howard. He is shown as a large humanoid when he forges and possesses the Ring, but appears only as the disembodied Eye throughout the rest of the storyline. In earlier versions of Jackson's script, Sauron does battle with Aragorn, as shown in the extended DVD version of the third movie. The scene was removed as too large a departure from Tolkien's text. Sauron appears as The Necromancer and one of the main antagonists in Jackson's \"The Hobbit\" film adaptations, where he is voiced by Benedict Cumberbatch.", "Sauron appears in the merchandise of the Jackson films, including computer and video games. These include \"\", \"\", and \"\". Sauron is a playable character in games such as \"\", voiced by Jon Olson. He is alluded to in \"\" as the Black Hand of Sauron, the aspect that resided within the hand cut off by Isildur during the War of the Last Alliance. While Sauron was voiced by Steve Blum, the Black Hand of Sauron was voiced by Nolan North. Sauron appears as a boss in \"Lego Dimensions\" with his voice provided by Steve Blum once again.", "The Eye of Sauron is mentioned in \"The Stand\", a post-apocalyptic novel written by Stephen King. The villain Randall Flagg possesses an astral body in the form of an \"Eye\" akin to the Lidless Eye. The novel itself was conceived by King as a \"fantasy epic like \"The Lord of the Rings\", only with an American setting\". The idea of Sauron as a sleepless eye that watches and seeks the protagonists also influenced King's epic fantasy series \"The Dark Tower\"; its villain, the Crimson King, is a similarly disembodied evil presence whose icon is also an eye. In the Marvel Comics Universe, the supervillain Sauron, an enemy of the X-Men, names himself after the Tolkien character. In the comic series \"Fables\", by Bill Willingham, one character is called \"The Adversary\", an ambiguous figure of immense evil and power believed to be responsible for much of the misfortune in the Fables' overall history. Willingham has stated \"The Adversary\", in name and in character, was inspired by Sauron. Ainur Sauron and Ainur Narsil, a Russian based Android audio modification tool, were named after Sauron and Narsil. In astronomy, the SAURON project is an integral-field spectrograph for the William Herschel Telescope with \"a large field of view and high throughput\" for study of \"nearby early-type galaxies\". In zoology, the \"Sauron\" genus of Linyphiid sheet weaver spiders is named after him." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Club career.", "Personal life.", "Honours.", "Club.", "International." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Born in Sabadell, Barcelona, Catalonia, Roger was a product of local FC Barcelona's youth ranks. He made his debut for the first team in the 1994–95 season, going on to appear in 33 games in the following campaign while scoring his first goal in a 1–1 away draw against Real Madrid, on 30 September 1995. After two seasons where he appeared sparingly in back-to-back La Liga conquests, Roger moved to neighbouring RCD Espanyol also in the top division, where he was a starter for much of his stay. In his last year, he netted a career-best nine goals (third-best in the squad) while the side barely avoided relegation. Roger then spent three seasons with Villarreal CF, playing only one match in his second year due to a serious injury. During a 12-month period (2002–03, one with each club), he scored three goals while still in his own half of the field. In 2006, Roger signed with Eredivisie giants AFC Ajax, joining former \"Barça\" teammate Gabri, but retired after just one season due to persistent injuries. At the Amsterdam Arena he became the last player to wear number 14, as it was subsequently retired in honor of club legend Johan Cruyff, his coach at Barcelona. Roger had his first coaching experience in 2010–11, assisting former Barcelona teammate Lluís Carreras at CE Sabadell FC and attaining promotion to the second division.", "Roger's brothers, Óscar and Genís, were also footballers. All youth products of Barcelona, they had however different fates as professionals (especially the latter). On 17 June 1997, during the final of the Copa Catalunya, all three appeared with the first team in a 1–3 loss to CE Europa.", "", "Barcelona Espanyol Villarreal", "Spain U21" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Club career.", "Ajax.", "Willem II (loan).", "Return to Ajax.", "Feyenoord.", "Club Brugge (loan).", "Los Angeles FC.", "International career.", "Netherlands youth teams.", "Netherlands Olympic team.", "Netherlands first team.", "Honours.", "Club.", "International." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Vermeer started relatively late in his youth as a goalkeeper, having started as an outfield player. He was scouted as a keeper by Ajax from FC Blauw-Wit Amsterdam. He went through the various youth squads at the Ajax Academy before ending up in Jong Ajax, where he often trained with the first squad. In the 2006–07 season, Vermeer became Ajax's third keeper, making his first team debut in a UEFA Cup match against IK Start.", "In February 2007, Vermeer extended his contract with Ajax until June 2010. Vermeer's opportunities in the first squad were limited due to the presence of Maarten Stekelenburg and Dennis Gentenaar, so Vermeer was loaned out for the 2007–08 season to Willem II to gain Eredivisie experience. Due to an injury for teammate Maikel Aerts, Vermeer started as first-choice goalkeeper for Willem II, and made his Eredivisie debut for the club. After Aerts recovered he was once again first choice. Aerts was once again injured in a match against Ajax, and Vermeer ended the season as first-choice keeper for the club.", "At the start of the 2008–09 season, Vermeer returned to Ajax and was included in the squad by new manager Marco van Basten, once again behind Stekelenburg and Gentenaar. During the season, he would pass Gentenaar to establish as the second choice keeper behind Stekelenburg. After Stekelenburg was injured in September 2008, Vermeer finally made his Eredivisie debut for Ajax, in a match against SC Heerenveen. Although Ajax lost the match 5–2, Vermeer's performance was seen as positive. Vermeer would play every game until the winter break, making a good impression. After Stekelenburg's recovery after the winter break he reestablished himself as first keeper. After Stekelenburg was once again injured in February 2009, Vermeer was once again first keeper, and would keep that position even after Stekelenburg was fit again, finishing the season as first keeper. At the start of the 2009–10 season, Martin Jol was appointed as new manager, and Vermeer was once again Stekelenburg's understudy, playing only one Eredivisie match in the entire season. Vermeer was seriously injured in the 2010–11 pre-season, tearing his achilles tendon, and he would only return to the squad in April 2011. Stekelenburg was injured, so Vermeer was immediately in the starting line-up for his first game back, a match against Heracles Almelo. Vermeer would play every remaining game that season as Ajax clinched their 30th Eredivisie title under new manager Frank de Boer. Prior to the 2011–12 season, Stekelenburg was sold to A.S. Roma, so Vermeer started the season as first keeper, with deputies Jasper Cillessen and Jeroen Verhoeven. Although he had a rocky start to the season by conceding six goals in a game at Utrecht and a weak shot in a match against Roda, Vermeer has rebounded well and has made the net his own following the departure of Maarten Stekelenburg. He was especially sharp in a game against Olympique Lyonnais in the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League as he successfully kept a clean sheet in France. Helping Ajax to consecutive league titles, Vermeer's deputy Jeroen Verhoeven departed ahead of the 2012–13 campaign who was then replaced by Mickey van der Hart, who had impressed the previous season during the club's NextGen Series campaign. In April 2012, Ajax announced the extension of Vermeer's contract for 2 more years, binding him to the club until the summer of 2015. On 20 January 2013, during the Klassieker match against arch-rivals Feyenoord, Vermeer helped Ajax to a 3–0 victory at home, keeping a clean sheet while saving a penalty kick from Lex Immers in the 64th minute of the game. On 17 February 2013, Vermeer was admitted to the illustrious Club van 100 of Ajax, making his 100th career appearance for the club in the away match against RKC Waalwijk, he then stopped another penalty shot in this match from Robert Braber. Vermeer was sent off in a home match against Heracles Almelo, after he erroneously brought down Geoffrey Castillion. While injuring himself in the process, Vermeer would miss the impending Topper away match against PSV on 14 April 2013 due to his red card. He finished the season as first choice keeper once more helping Ajax to win their third consecutive league title, a feat the club had not achieved since 1967 when they were last able to secure three national titles in a row. On 27 July 2013, Vermeer helped Ajax to win the Dutch Super Cup (Johan Cruijff Shield) in a match that went into overtime against neighboring AZ from Alkmaar, with the match ending in a 3–2 win for the Amsterdammers. With Vermeer remaining the first choice keeper at the start of the 2013–14 season, the club was off to a rough start after the departure of vice captain and defender Toby Alderweireld, as well as the departure of Christian Eriksen. During the transition period, Ajax would concede four goals in two scoreless losses each only four days apart, with the first incident occurring on 18 September 2013 in the 2013–14 UEFA Champions League group stage match against FC Barcelona at Camp Nou, and the second incident only four days later at the Philips Stadion in the Topper match against PSV. This was a club record, with the defeat to Barcelona only being the fifth ever match that Ajax would lose by such a margin on a continental level. Following these events, Ajax manager Frank de Boer announced that he would give the precedence to the then second choice keeper Jasper Cillessen, while Vermeer could focus on his training and conditioning in order to obtain his form he had previously displayed. On 28 October 2013, Vermeer made his debut in the Eerste Divisie, the second tier of professional football in the Netherlands when he appeared in goal for newly promoted Jong Ajax in the 4–0 loss at home against FC Dordrecht. On 26 July 2014, Vermeer helped Ajax to a win the seventh edition of the Eusébio Cup at the Estádio da Luz in Lisbon, Portugal. Helping his side to secure a 1–0 victory over hosts S.L. Benfica when he saved a penalty by Francisco Jara, after a slight foul by Nick Viergever in the closing minutes of the match. Over the years, Vermeer has become known as somewhat of a 'penalty killer' having saved 10 out of 15 penalty attempt on his goal since playing for the first team of Ajax. He saved 7 in a row by the end of the 2013–14 season, without conceding a penalty since 29 January 2012, when John Guidetti of Feyenoord managed to secure one for his side.", "On 31 August 2014, during a press conference following a 2–0 loss to FC Groningen for Ajax, it was announced by Frank de Boer that Vermeer would transfer to the rival club for a reported fee of €1 million, with Vermeer signing a four-year contract with the club from Rotterdam. The move was seen as such a shock, because of the intense rivalry, known as De Klassieker, that the two clubs share. Manchester United, under newly appointed manager Louis van Gaal had made a last-minute attempt to sign Vermeer, but his move to Feyenoord had already been completed, thus preventing a move to Old Trafford. He made his first appearance for his new club on 13 September 2014 at De Kuip in a 2–1 home loss against Willem II. He made his continental debut for his new club in Spain during the 2014–15 UEFA Europa League group stage in a 2–0 loss against Sevilla FC. On 21 September 2014, Vermeer played in his first Klassieker match against his former club. Although Feyenoord played the better match, it ended in a 1–0 loss at home with Ajax narrowly securing a victory and Vermeer suffering defeats in his first three consecutive matches playing for his new club.", "On 19 January 2018, it was announced that Vermeer would join Belgian side Club Brugge KV on a six-month loan. He was given the number 32 shirt, serving his loan spell as second keeper behind Vladimir Gabulov with Club Brugge leading the Belgian First Division A table by 11 points going into the second half of the season.", "On 15 January 2020, Major League Soccer club Los Angeles FC acquired Vermeer using Targeted Allocation Money. On 25 January 2020, Vermeer made his LAFC debut in a preseason friendly against Uruguayan club Peñarol, which LAFC won 2-0. Vermeer was named man of the match by fans. On March 1, 2020, Vermeer made his MLS debut against inaugural club Inter Miami CF, which Los Angeles FC won 1-0. He was named man of the match, making key saves throughout the match.", "", "Vermeer was born in the Netherlands to Surinamese parents. Because of Suriname's rules against dual citizenship, players who take Dutch citizenship are no longer eligible to represent the Netherlands' former colony. He has represented the Netherlands, his country of birth at various youth levels, making his international debut on 25 October 2001 while playing for the Netherlands under-16 squad at the Walker Crisp Tournament in England in a 2–1 loss against Germany U-16. He also appeared in the 2002 Aegean Cup in Turkey for the under-16 team, making a total of four appearances while keeping a clean sheet once. On 10 October 2002, Vermeer made his debut and only appearance for the Netherlands U-17 side in a friendly match against Portugal U-17. He made his first and only appearance for the Netherlands under-18 squad in a friendly match against Greece U-18, keeping a clean sheet in the 1–0 victory as well. On 4 September 2004, Vermeer made his debut for the Netherlands U-19 in a friendly match against Greece U-19 which ended in a 1–0 win, and also made three appearances in the qualification process for the 2005 UEFA European Under-19 Championship. Although failing to qualify, he was able to keep a clean sheet in three of his appearances for the under-19 side. In 2005, Vermeer played for the Netherlands U-20 team at the 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship that was hosted in the Netherlands. He was the first choice keeper for the Dutch, while the team exited at quarter-finals by penalties (9–10) against Nigeria U-20. Vemeer scored a penalty for the Dutch in this match, while keeping a clean sheet against the Australian, Beninois and Chilean under 20 teams during the course of the tournament. At age 20 he was called up to play for the Netherlands under-21 squad, making his debut on 24 May 2006 in the opening match of the 2006 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship against Ukraine U-21. Although the Netherlands lost the opening fixture 2–1, the Dutch would eventually win the tournament, marking the nation's first U-21 European Championship as they defeated the Ukraine U-21 by score of 3–0 in the final. Remaining in the under-21 team the following year, Vermeer helped his team to secure their second consecutive Under-21 Championship after the Dutch defeated Serbia U-21 4–1 in the final.", "In 2008, Vermeer was selected by Foppe de Haan for the Netherlands Olympic football team to compete in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. On 2 August 2008, he made his debut for the Netherlands Olympic squad in a friendly match against Ivory Coast in preporation for the Summer games. In total Vermeer competed in 5 matches for the Olympic team, with four caps during Olympic games, where the Netherlands were defeated by Argentina 2–1 in the quarter-final by goals from Lionel Messi and Ángel Di María.", "On 5 October 2012, Vermeer received his first call-up from head coach Louis van Gaal for the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifying matches against Andorra and Romania as a replacement for the injured Tim Krul. Remaining on the bench for the duration of both fixtures as the second choice keeper, Vermeer did not make his debut for the Netherlands first team until 14 November 2012, when he was declared first choice keeper in a friendly match against Germany which ended in a 0–0 deadlock at the Amsterdam Arena. On 6 February 2013, he was called up once more for a friendly fixture against Italy, where he remained on the bench as second choice keeper behind Tim Krul. He was then called up once more the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifying matches against Estonia and Romania. He was the first choice keeper in both fixtures, while Maarten Stekelenburg remained on the bench as second choice keeper, both matches were won with Vermeer keeping a clean sheet in each game while playing the full 90 minutes. On 11 June 2013, Vermeer became the record holder for the Netherlands national football team, for the longest streak as a goalkeeper without conceding a goal. The record was broken after the 23rd minute during a friendly encounter against Indonesia, when Vermeer broke the record previously held by Ronald Waterreus. The match ended a 3–0 win for the Netherlands, bringing Vermeer's tally to four consecutive matches in goal for the Netherlands without conceding a goal, having not conceded since his debut keeping for the Netherlands. The four fixtures in which Vermeer kept his clean sheets, were against Germany, Estonia, Romania and Indonesia. Despite Dutch national team manager Louis van Gaal's repeated interest in calling on Vermeer for his selection ahead of the 2014 FIFA World Cup finals, Vermeer would eventually be replaced by Jasper Cillessen as first choice keeper, with Vermeer being cut from the squad after the team's training camp in Portugal ahead of the final tournament. Louis van Gaal later insisted that Vermeer would have indeed been a better fit for his game plan, but that due to Cillessen showing better form, he opted for the latter instead. On 31 March 2015, Vermeer played the full 90 minutes of the friendly match against Spain. The match ended in a 2–0 victory for the Netherlands, with Vermeer extending his national team record of five matches without conceding a goal.", "", "Ajax Feyenoord Club Brugge", "Netherlands U-21" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Founding and \"Half-Life\" (1996–2003).", "Expansion, Source engine, and Steam (2003–2013).", "Transition to services, VR, and Source 2 (2014–present).", "Products.", "Games.", "Steam.", "Steam Machine.", "Virtual Reality.", "Other projects.", "PowerPlay.", "Pipeline.", "Legal disputes.", "\"Valve Corporation v. Vivendi Universal Games\".", "\"Valve Corporation v. Activision Blizzard\".", "\"Dota\" intellectual property ownership.", "\"ACCC v. Valve Corporation\".", "\"UFC Que Choisir v. Valve Corporation\".", "Skins gambling.", "Anti-competitive practices.", "\"Valve Time\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Valve was founded in 1996 by former longtime Microsoft employees Gabe Newell and Mike Harrington. Newell had spent the prior 13 years at Microsoft developing Windows. Wanting to move onto a new venture using their shared wealth, they founded Valve, L.L.C. in Kirkland, Washington (about five miles from the Microsoft campus in Redmond), on August 24, 1996, Newell's wedding day. Alternative names considered by Newell and Harrington include \"Fruitfly Ensemble\" and \"Rhino Scar\". Valve's first product was \"Half-Life\", a first-person shooter (FPS) with elements of the horror genre. The development was aided by access to the \"Quake\" engine by id Software; Valve modified this engine into their GoldSrc engine. After struggling to find a publisher, Valve eventually signed with Sierra On-Line. \"Half-Life\" was released in November 1998, and was a critical and commercial success. According to IGN in 2014, the history of the FPS genre \"breaks down pretty cleanly into pre-\"Half-Life\" and post-\"Half-Life\" eras.\" Valve enlisted Gearbox Software to develop three expansions for \"Half-Life\". They acquired TF Software, a group that made a popular \"Team Fortress\" mod for \"Quake\", and remade the mod for GoldSrc as \"Team Fortress Classic\", released in 1999. The company released the software development kit (SDK) for the GoldSrc engine, facilitating numerous user-created mods. One of these, \"Counter-Strike\", became one of the most popular mods, and Valve acquired the mod and hired its developers to create the standalone \"Counter-Strike\" game. Harrington left the company in 2000.", "In 2003, Valve moved to Bellevue, Washington, and re-incorporated as Valve Corporation. In 2010, the office moved again to a larger location in Bellevue. In 2016, Valve signed a nine-floor lease in the Lincoln Square complex in downtown Bellevue, doubling the size of their offices. After the success of \"Half-Life\", the team worked on mods, spin-offs, and sequels, including \"Half-Life 2\", using its new Source engine, improving upon its GoldSrc engine. \"Team Fortress 2\" was a reworked version of \"Team Fortress Classic\" developed in the Source engine. To expand on \"Half-Life 2\", Valve had planned on releasing three episodes to extend its story prior to a planned \"Half-Life 3\". With the second episode, Valve also packaged the game for consoles in \"The Orange Box\", which included \"Half-Life 2\" and both episodes, \"Team Fortress 2\", and \"Portal\", an experimental game developed by a student team hired into Valve from their work on \"Narbacular Drop\". Of the \"Orange Box\" games, \"Portal\" proved a critical success, and later, Valve developed \"Portal 2\", hiring in another student team from the game \"\" to incorporate those mechanics. Alongside developing games, Valve developed Steam, a digital storefront and delivery platform. The concept of Steam bore out of Valve trying to maintain patches for games like \"Counter-Strike\" so that all players were up-to-date. Failing to gain help from other third-party developers, Valve took it on themselves to build out Steam, which was first introduced in 2002, and eventually became mandatory by the time of \"Half-Life 2\" release. Steam initially offered only Valve's games, but they soon allowed third-parties to sell on the service with Valve taking a cut of the revenues for maintaining the storefront and content delivery. Steam eventually became the most significant ways gamers on the personal computer platform acquired digital games, with Steam accounting for up to 70% of all digital sales. In January 2008, they announced the acquisition of Turtle Rock Studios, which would be renamed Valve South. Turtle Rock developed \"Left 4 Dead\" and \"Left 4 Dead 2\" while associated with Valve. Turtle Rock Studios later spun out of Valve again in March 2010. Valve hired IceFrog, the developer of \"Defense of the Ancients\", a \"\" mod. IceFrog led the development of a sequel not associated with the \"Warcraft\" elements, \"Dota 2\". In December 2012, Valve acquired Star Filled Studios, a two-man gaming company, to open a San Francisco office. However, Valve ended the operation in August 2013 when they decided there was little benefit coming from the arrangement. At the 2013 D.I.C.E. Summit, Newell announced that he and film director J. J. Abrams were collaborating to produce a \"Half-Life\" or \"Portal\" film, as well as a possible new game.", "Valve's activities as a game developer has slowed significantly since 2013, around the same time that Valve started to reduce its involvement in curation on Steam via Steam Greenlight, allowing for a larger influx of titles and gain its dominate position as the primary digital storefront for PC gaming. Between 2014 and 2019, Valve has only developed one game, \"Artifact\". However, Valve has also looked at other projects, including Steam Machine consoles, and developing virtual reality hardware in association with HTC in the HTC Vive and later in its own Valve Index hardware. It has been argued that the transition from game developer to service provider has been driven by the economics in Steam, which is estimated to bring in more revenue than Valve's own game sales; in 2017, Steam Spy estimated that Valve has received in its revenues from Steam sales. In contrast, Valve had estimated to have had only hundreds of millions of dollars in revenue around 2010 and 2011 with a net worth estimated between two and four billion dollars. Many players have been waiting in anticipation of either the final episode of \"Half-Life 2\", or a potential \"Half-Life 3\", and while word of several potential starts on these have been mentioned by former Valve employees or other companies, they remain in limbo as of 2019. Some consider these projects to be canceled due to the departure of some of the lead talent involved in earlier games. The change in Valve's approach has also been attributed to its use of a flat organization structure that was adopted as the company expanded. When founded, Valve used a hierarchical structure more typical of other development firms, driven by the nature of physical game releases through publishers that required tasks to be completed by given deadlines. However, as Valve became its own publisher via Steam, it transitioned to a looser, flat structure, which was formally in place by 2012. Outside of executive management, Valve does not have bosses, and the company used an open allocation system, allowing employees to move between departments at will. This approach allows employees to work on whatever interests them, but requires them to take ownership of their product and mistakes they may make, according to Newell. Newell recognized that this structure works well for some but that \"there are plenty of great developers for whom this is a terrible place to work\". Many outside observers believe the lack of organization structure has led to frequent cancellations of potential games as it can be difficult to convince other employees to work on such titles. Valve announced the Source 2 engine in March 2015, later porting the entirety of \"Dota 2\" to the engine in September of that year. The company bought Impulsonic, a developer of 3D audio software, in January 2017 and integrated it with its Bellevue offices. In April 2018, Valve acquired the independent developer Campo Santo, known for the 2016 adventure game \"Firewatch\". Campo Santo will continue to develop its own games under Valve. In November 2018, Valve released \"Artifact\", a digital collectible card game based on \"Dota 2\". The game was considered a flop, losing 95% of players months after release. In June 2019, Valve released \"Dota Underlords\" into early access. It is based on \"Dota Auto Chess\", a popular \"Dota 2\" community-created auto battler game mode. In March 2020, Valve released \"\", a virtual reality game. According to members of the development team, much of its early development was honing the Source 2 engine. Along with that they had developed a number of game prototypes, but which never got to a state that made sense to release for a game. Since 2015, Valve had been working to develop their own virtual reality headset, the Valve Index, which was released in June 2019. Many asked during this type what Valve had planned to release as a flagship game for their VR hardware as to justify an investment into the hardware, leading Valve to examine other possible prototypes before falling onto a new \"Half-Life\" game to serve this role.", "", "Valve is the main developer and publisher of the single-player \"Half-Life\" and \"Portal\" games and the multiplayer games \"Counter-Strike,\" \"Team Fortress 2\", \"Dota 2\", and \"Artifact\". Valve also published the multiplayer game \"Left 4 Dead\" and developed and published \"Left 4 Dead 2.\" On November 18, 2019, Valve announced \"Half-Life: Alyx\", a virtual reality game, which released on March 23, 2020. Unreleased and canceled Valve games include a fantasy role-playing game \"Prospero.\" Valve worked with Arkane Studios on \"The Crossing\", which was canceled in May 2009. Arkane tried to develop \"Return to Ravenholm\" without consent by Valve, which was also canceled.", "Valve announced Steam, its digital distribution service, at the 2002 Game Developers Conference. It was launched in September 2003 and was first used to deliver patches and other updates to Valve's online games. On August 1, 2012, Valve announced revisions to the Steam Subscriber Agreement (SSA) to prohibit class action lawsuits by users against the service provider. By July 2014, there were over 3,400 games available on Steam, with over 150 million registered accounts by January 2018. Alongside these changes to the SSA, the company also declared publicly the incorporation of Valve S.a.r.l., a subsidiary based in Luxembourg. Valve set up a physical office in Luxembourg Kirchberg. According to Valve's project manager Mike Dunkle, the location was chosen for eCommerce capabilities and infrastructure, talent acquisition, tax advantages and central geographic location – most major partners are accessible, 50% within driving distance. Valve S.a.r.l. was used to sell games to UK users to avoid paying the full 20% value-added tax (VAT). The tax loophole was expected to close on January 1, 2015. In December 2015, the French consumer group UFC Que Choisir initiated a lawsuit against Valve for several of their Steam policies that conflict or run afoul of French law. One of the reasons was for using the tax loophole. Valve S.a.r.l. ceased business on January 1, 2017, with the main company taking over EU sales again. In August 2017, Valve announced that Steam had reached over 67 million monthly and 33 million daily active users on the platform.", "Newell has been critical of the direction that Microsoft has taken with making Windows a closed architecture similar to Apple's products, and has stated that he believes that the changes made in Windows 8 are \"a catastrophe for everyone in the PC space\". Newell identified the open-source Linux platform as an ideal platform for Steam, and said the only thing holding back its adoption is the lack of games. In 2012, Valve announced that they were working on a console/PC hybrid for the living room, dubbed by media as the \"Steam Box\". A precursor to such a unit is SteamOS, a freely available Linux-based operating system that builds upon the Steam client functionality that includes media services, live streaming across home networks, game sharing within families, and parental controls. SteamOS was officially announced in September 2013 as the first of several announcements related to the Steam Machine platform as well as their unique game controller. In May 2014, Valve announced that the company's own SteamOS-powered Steam Machine would be delayed until 2015 due to problems with the game controller. In 2015, Alienware, ZOTAC, and CyberPowerPC launched their versions of the Steam Machine. By June 2016, fewer than half a million had been sold. While the Steam Machine line has been effectively canceled, Valve continued to manufacture and sell Steam Controllers until late November 2019, and publishes both mobile apps and software for the Steam Link, allowing in-home streaming.", "At the Game Developers Conference in March 2015, Valve and Taiwanese electronics company HTC unveiled SteamVR and the HTC Vive—a virtual reality platform and a virtual reality headset. The platform would be distinguished by its \"Lighthouse\" motion tracking system, where sensors on the headset and its included motion controllers read the position of two base station devices mounted in the play area. This would allow for \"room-scale\" VR experiences, where the player would not be required to remain in a stationary position in front of a camera, and would be able to freely walk around the space. In November 2017, Microsoft added beta support for the SteamVR service for Windows Mixed Reality headsets. In June 2019, Valve released their own VR headset, known as the Index, positioned as a higher-end device with wider field of view and higher refresh rate. They were accompanied by updated motion controllers, which are strapped against the user's palms and have sensors for detecting input pressure and individual fingers.", "", "PowerPlay was a technological initiative headed by Valve and Cisco Systems to decrease the latency for online computer games. Gabe Newell, the managing director of Valve, announced the project in January 2000 and after 12 months the project was quietly abandoned. PowerPlay was described as a set of protocols and deployment standards at the router level to improve performance. It was claimed that a player with 1000 ms ping was able to play against another player on a LAN connection with no noticeable disadvantage. Initially the protocol was to be released with PowerPlay 1.0 focusing on Quality of Service (QoS) and later a revision, PowerPlay 2.0 that would focus on functionality. Cisco and Valve intended to deliver a single dial-up service in Q1 2000 in the United States with a 30-day free trial with a bundled copy of \"Team Fortress\" modified to support PowerPlay. Despite never deploying the dial-up plan featuring PowerPlay 1.0, Valve announced in January 2001 that the standard had indeed been finalized. The standard was to involve purchasing PowerPlay approved Cisco hardware and infrastructure that had adequate bandwidth and QoS standards that prioritize PowerPlay gaming packets at the expense of all others. Gabe Newell conceded that Internet service providers (ISPs) would bear the brunt of this expense: \"The ISPs are going to need to spend a fair amount of money to be compliant with PowerPlay. But how they get that back is up to them. Some will have a tiered service, and some will just try to recoup their investment through reduced customer churn and customer acquisition.\"", "In July 2013, Valve announced Pipeline, an intern project consisting of ten high school students working together to learn how to create video game content. Pipeline serves to discuss and answer questions that teenagers often ask about the video game industry, and see if it is possible to train a group of teenagers with minimal work experience to work for a company like Valve. The latter purpose breaks Valve's tradition of employing experienced developers, as the company is not good at \"teaching people straight out of school\".", "", "Between 2002 and 2005, Valve was involved in a complex legal dispute with its publisher, Vivendi Universal Games (under Vivendi's brand Sierra Entertainment). It officially began on August 14, 2002, when Valve sued Sierra for copyright infringement, alleging that the publisher had illegally distributed copies of their games to Internet cafes. They later added claims of breach of contract, accusing their publisher of withholding royalties and delaying the release of \"\" until after the holiday season. Vivendi fought back, saying that Gabe Newell and marketing director Doug Lombardi had misrepresented Valve's position in meetings with the publisher. Vivendi later countersued, claiming that Valve's Steam content distribution system attempted to circumvent their publishing agreement. Vivendi sought intellectual property rights to \"Half-Life\" and a ruling preventing Valve from using Steam to distribute \"Half-Life 2\". On November 29, 2004, Judge Thomas Samuel Zilly of the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Washington ruled in favor of Valve. Specifically, the ruling stated that Vivendi Universal and its affiliates (including Sierra) were not authorized to distribute Valve games, either directly or indirectly, through cyber cafés to end users for pay-to-play activities pursuant to the parties' publishing agreement. In addition, Judge Zilly ruled that Valve could recover copyright damages for infringements without regard to the publishing agreement's limitation of liability clause. Valve posted on the Steam website that the two companies had come to a settlement in court on April 29, 2005. Electronic Arts announced on July 18, 2005, that they would be teaming up with Valve in a multi-year deal to distribute their games, replacing Vivendi Universal from then onwards. As a result of the trial, the arbitrator also awarded Valve $2,391,932.", "In April 2009, Valve sued Activision Blizzard, which acquired Sierra Entertainment after a merger with its parent company, Vivendi Universal Games. Activision had allegedly refused to honor the \"Valve v. Vivendi\" arbitration agreement. Activision had only paid Valve $1,967,796 of the $2,391,932 award, refusing to pay the remaining $424,136, claiming it had overpaid that sum in the past years.", "\"Defense of the Ancients\" (DotA) was a landmark mod first released in 2003 that created the basis of the genre of multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA). It was originally developed by \"Eul\" within Blizzard Entertainment's \"\" via its world editor, and spawned several similar efforts, notably \"DotA-Allstars\". While there had been several that contributed to \"DotA-Allstars\", the project was managed primarily by Steve \"Guinsoo\" Feak, and later by \"IceFrog\". IceFrog was eventually hired by Valve in 2009, with the rights to the \"DotA\" intellectual property being sold to Valve the following year. Eul was also hired into Valve by 2010. Valve then subsequently filed trademarks towards a sequel to \"DotA\", titled \"Dota 2\". DotA-Allstars, LLC, a group of former contributors to the \"DotA-Allstars\" project, filed an opposing trademark in August 2010 to contest Valve's claim it owned the property rights. DotA-Allstars, LLC was eventually acquired by Blizzard to start development of \"Blizzard All-Stars\". Blizzard took over the trademark challenge. The United States Patent & Trademark Office initially ruled in Valve's favor. By this point, Riot Games had hired Guinsoo to help develop their own MOBA, \"League of Legends\". As with IceFrog, Feak transferred his rights to the \"Dota\" property to Riot, who in turn sold those to Blizzard. Blizzard filed a lawsuit against Valve to challenge Valve's ownership, pitting the rights assigned through IceFrog to Guinsoo at odds. The case \"Blizzard Entertainment v. Valve Corporation\" was settled out of court in May 2012; Valve retained the right to use \"Dota\" commercially, while Blizzard reserved the right for fans to use \"Dota\" non-commercially. Blizzard changed the names of its own projects to remove the \"Dota\" term, and renamed \"Blizzard All-Stars\" as \"Heroes of the Storm\". Valve's \"Dota 2\" was released in 2013. In 2014, mobile developers Lilith and uCool released their games \"Dota Legends\" and \"Heroes Charge\", respectively. Both were influenced by \"Dota\" and the sequels. In 2017, Valve and Blizzard took joint action against these companies, citing copyright issues related to the \"Dota\" names. uCool argued that the \"Dota\" games were a collective work and could not be copyrighted by anyone in particular, but the presiding judge, Charles R. Breyer, felt that, due to the trio's actions as maintainers of the \"Dota\" mods, they had a rightful copyright claim to this. Separately, Lilith and uCool argued that Eul had, in a forum post dated September 2004, assigned an open-source copyright license to \"Dota\", which would make Valve and Blizzard's copyright claims void. The case was later heard by a jury.", "The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) announced it was taking action against Valve in 2014. On March 29, 2016, Valve was found guilty of breaching Australian consumer law because: During the prosecution of this case, Valve implemented a refund policy for Steam purchases, but the case still reviewed Valve's actions prior to the onset of the lawsuit. The court overseeing the case sided with the ACCC in assigning a (about ) fine against Valve in December 2016, as well as requiring Valve to inform Australian consumers of their rights when purchasing games from Steam. Valve appealed the court's determination that it \"engaged in misleading or deceptive conduct and made false or misleading representations about consumer guarantees\", as well as seeking to appeal the fine, but the Australian higher courts rejected the appeals in December 2017. In January 2018, Valve filed for a \"special leave\" of the court's decision, appealing to the High Court of Australia. The High Court dismissed this claim in April 2018, asserting that Valve still was liable under Australian law since it sold products directly to its citizens.", "Consumer rights group UFC Que Choisir, based in France, filed a lawsuit against Valve in December 2015, claiming users should be able to resell their software. The High Court of Paris ruled in favor of UFC Que Choisir in September 2019, stating that Valve must allow the resale of Steam games. Valve stated it will appeal the decision.", "Valve was named as a defendant in two lawsuits in June and July 2016 related to third-party gambling sites that use the Steamworks API to allow betting with the virtual currency of cosmetic weapon replacement textures, better known as \"skins\", from \"\", which through these sites can be converted from or to real-world money. Both suits assert Valve aiding in underaged gambling. Valve subsequently stated it has no commercial ties with these sites, and that it would demand these sites cease their use of the Steamworks API as they violate the authorized use policies. In October 2016, the Washington State Gambling Commission required Valve to stop the use of virtual skins for gambling on Steam, stating they would face legal repercussions if they failed to co-operate. On October 17, 2016, Valve sent a letter to the Washington State Gambling Commission stating that they had \"no business relationship with such gambling sites\", asserting that they come into existence, operate, and go out of existence without their knowledge and consent, adding that they were not aware of any such law that Steam or any of their games were violating.", "In February 2017, the European Commission began investigating Valve and five other publishers—Bandai Namco Entertainment, Capcom, Focus Home Interactive, Koch Media and ZeniMax Media—for anti-competitive practices, specifically the use of geo-blocking through the Steam storefront and Steam product keys to prevent access to software to citizens of certain countries. Such practices would be against the Digital Single Market initiative by the European Union. While the other five companies named are in stages of settling with the EU as of August 2019, Valve has stated it plans to fight the charges, asserting that geo-blocking affects less than 3% of its games, and that it had turned off such geo-blocking within the EU in 2015.", "\"Valve Time\" is an industry term used jokingly with game releases from Valve, used to acknowledge the difference between the \"promised\" date for released content stated by Valve and to the \"actual\" release date; \"Valve Time\" includes predominant delays but also includes some content that was released earlier than expected. Valve itself has fully acknowledged the term, including tracking known discrepancies between ideal and actual releases on their public development wiki and using it in announcements about such delays. Valve ascribes delays to their mentality of team-driven initiatives over corporate deadlines to make sure they provide a high-quality product to their customers. Valve's former business development chief Jason Holtman stated that the company sees themselves as an \"oddity\" in an industry that looks towards punctual delivery of products; instead, Valve \"[tries] as hard as we can to make the best thing possible in the right time frame and get people content they want to consume. And if that takes longer, that's fine\". For that, Valve takes the concept of \"Valve Time\" as a compliment, and that \"having customers consistently looking at our property or something you've done and saying, can you give me more\" is evidence that they are making the right decisions with their game releases, according to Holtman. The company does try to avoid unintentional delays of their projects, and believes that the earlier occurrences of \"Valve Time\" delays, primarily from \"Half-Life\" development, has helped them improve their release schedules." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Terminology.", "Etymology.", "History.", "Origin of erotic manga.", "Origin of erotic anime.", "Origin of erotic games.", "Censorship.", "Demographics.", "Classification." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Hentai\" is a kanji compound of (\"hen\"; \"change\", \"weird\", or \"strange\") and (\"tai\"; \"appearance\" or \"condition\"). It also means \"perversion\" or \"abnormality\", especially when used as an adjective. It is the shortened form of the phrase which means \"sexual perversion\". The character \"hen\" is catch-all for queerness as a peculiarity—it does not carry an explicit sexual reference. While the term has expanded in use to cover a range of publications including homosexual publications, it remains primarily a heterosexual term, as terms indicating homosexuality entered Japan as foreign words. Japanese pornographic works are often simply tagged as, meaning \"prohibited to those not yet 18 years old\", and. Less official terms also in use include,, and the English initialism AV (for \"adult video\"). Usage of the term \"hentai\" does not define a genre in Japan. \"Hentai\" is defined differently in English. The \"Oxford Dictionary Online\" defines it as \"a subgenre of the Japanese genres of manga and anime, characterized by overtly sexualized characters and sexually explicit images and plots.\" The origin of the word in English is unknown, but AnimeNation's John Oppliger points to the early 1990s, when a \"Dirty Pair\" erotic \"doujinshi\" (self-published work) titled \"H-Bomb\" was released, and when many websites sold access to images culled from Japanese erotic visual novels and games. The earliest English use of the term traces back to the rec.arts.anime boards; with a 1990 post concerning Happosai of \"Ranma 1⁄2\" and the first discussion of the meaning in 1991. A 1995 glossary on the rec.arts.anime boards contained reference to the Japanese usage and the evolving definition of hentai as \"pervert\" or \"perverted sex\". \"The Anime Movie Guide\", published in 1997, defines as the initial sound of hentai (i.e., the name of the letter \"H\", as pronounced in Japanese); it included that ecchi was \"milder than hentai\". A year later it was defined as a genre in \"Good Vibrations Guide to Sex\". At the beginning of 2000, \"hentai\" was listed as the 41st most-popular search term of the internet, while \"anime\" ranked 99th. The attribution has been applied retroactively to works such as \"Urotsukidōji\", \"La Blue Girl\", and \"Cool Devices\". \"Urotsukidōji\" had previously been described with terms such as \"Japornimation\", and \"erotic grotesque\", prior to being identified as hentai.", "The history of the word \"hentai\" has its origins in science and psychology. By the middle of the Meiji era, the term appeared in publications to describe unusual or abnormal traits, including paranormal abilities and psychological disorders. A translation of German sexologist Richard von Krafft-Ebing's text \"Psychopathia Sexualis\" originated the concept of \"hentai seiyoku\", as a \"perverse or abnormal sexual desire\". Though it was popularized outside psychology, as in the case of Mori Ōgai's 1909 novel \"Vita Sexualis\". Continued interest in \"hentai seiyoku\" resulted in numerous journals and publications on sexual advice which circulated in the public, served to establish the sexual connotation of \"hentai\" as perverse. Any perverse or abnormal act could be hentai, such as committing \"shinjū\" (love suicide). It was Nakamura Kokyo's journal \"Abnormal Psychology\" which started the popular sexology boom in Japan which would see the rise of other popular journals like \"Sexuality and Human Nature\", \"Sex Research\" and \"Sex\". Originally, Tanaka Kogai wrote articles for \"Abnormal Psychology\", but it would be Tanaka's own journal \"Modern Sexuality\" which would become one of the most popular sources of information about erotic and neurotic expression. \"Modern Sexuality\" was created to promote fetishism, S&M, and necrophilia as a facet of modern life. The ero-guro movement and depiction of perverse, abnormal and often erotic undertones were a response to interest in \"hentai seiyoku\". Following World War II, Japan took a new interest in sexualization and public sexuality. Mark McLelland puts forth the observation that the term \"hentai\" found itself shortened to \"H\" and that the English pronunciation was \"etchi\", referring to lewdness and which did not carry the stronger connotation of abnormality or perversion. By the 1950s, the \"hentai seiyoku\" publications became their own genre and included fetish and homosexual topics. By the 1960s, the homosexual content was dropped in favor of subjects like sadomasochism and stories of lesbianism targeted to male readers. The late 1960s brought a sexual revolution which expanded and solidified the normalizing the terms identity in Japan that continues to exist today through publications such as \"Bessatsu Takarajima\"s \"Hentai-san ga iku\" series.", "With the usage of \"hentai\" as any erotic depiction, the history of these depictions is split into their media. Japanese artwork and comics serve as the first example of hentai material, coming to represent the iconic style after the publication of Azuma Hideo's \"Cybele\" in 1979. Japanese animation (anime) had its first hentai, in both definitions, with the 1984 release of Wonderkid's \"Lolita Anime\", overlooking the erotic and sexual depictions in 1969's \"One Thousand and One Arabian Nights\" and the bare-breasted Cleopatra in 1970's \"Cleopatra\" film. Erotic games, another area of contention, has its first case of the art style depicting sexual acts in 1985's \"Tenshitachi no Gogo\". In each of these mediums, the broad definition and usage of the term complicates its historic examination.", "Depictions of sex and abnormal sex can be traced back through the ages, predating the term \"hentai\". \"Shunga\", a Japanese term for erotic art, is thought to have existed in some form since the Heian period. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, \"shunga\" works were suppressed by \"shōguns\". A well-known example is \"The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife\", which depicts a woman being stimulated by two octopuses. \"Shunga\" production fell with the introduction of pornographic photographs in the late 19th century. To define erotic manga, a definition for manga is needed. While the \"Hokusai Manga\" uses the term \"manga\" in its title, it does not depict the story-telling aspect common to modern manga, as the images are unrelated. Due to the influence of pornographic photographs in the 19th and 20th centuries, the manga artwork was depicted by realistic characters. Osamu Tezuka helped define the modern look and form of manga, and was later proclaimed as the \"God of Manga\". His debut work \"New Treasure Island\" was released in 1947 as a comic book through Ikuei Publishing and sold over 400,000 copies, though it was the popularity of Tezuka's \"Astro Boy\", \"Metropolis\", and \"Jungle Emperor\" manga that would come to define the media. This story-driven manga style is distinctly unique from comic strips like \"Sazae-san\", and story-driven works came to dominate \"shōjo\" and \"shōnen\" magazines. Adult themes in manga have existed since the 1940s, but some of these depictions were more realistic than the cartoon-cute characters popularized by Tezuka. Early well-known \"\"ero-gekiga\"\" releases were \"Ero Mangatropa\" (1973), \"Erogenica\" (1975), and \"Alice\" (1977). The distinct shift in the style of Japanese pornographic comics from realistic to cartoon-cute characters is accredited to Hideo Azuma, \"The Father of Lolicon\". In 1979, he penned \"Cybele\", which offered the first depictions of sexual acts between cute, unrealistic Tezuka-style characters. This would start a pornographic manga movement. The lolicon boom of the 1980s saw the rise of magazines such as the anthologies \"Lemon People\" and \"Petit Apple Pie\". The publication of erotic materials in the United States can be traced back to at least 1990, when IANVS Publications printed its first \"Anime Shower Special\". In March 1994, Antarctic Press released \"Bondage Fairies\", an English translation of \"Insect Hunter\".", "Because there are fewer animation productions, most erotic works are retroactively tagged as \"hentai\" since the coining of the term in English. \"Hentai\" is typically defined as consisting of excessive nudity, and graphic sexual intercourse whether or not it is perverse. The term \"ecchi\" is typically related to fanservice, with no sexual intercourse being depicted. Two early works escape being defined as hentai, but contain erotic themes. This is likely due to the obscurity and unfamiliarity of the works, arriving in the United States and fading from public focus a full 20 years before importation and surging interests coined the Americanized term \"hentai\". The first is the 1969 film \"One Thousand and One Arabian Nights\", which faithfully includes erotic elements of the original story. In 1970, \"\", was the first animated film to carry an X rating, but it was mislabeled as erotica in the United States. The \"Lolita Anime\" series is typically identified as the first erotic anime and original video animation (OVA); it was released in 1984 by Wonder Kids. Containing eight episodes, the series focused on underage sex and rape, and included one episode containing BDSM bondage. Several sub-series were released in response, including a second \"Lolita Anime\" series released by Nikkatsu. It has not been officially licensed or distributed outside of its original release. The \"Cream Lemon\" franchise of works ran from 1984 to 2005, with a number of them entering the American market in various forms. \"The Brothers Grime\" series released by Excalibur Films contained \"Cream Lemon\" works as early as 1986. However, they were not billed as anime and were introduced during the same time that the first underground distribution of erotic works began. The American release of licensed erotic anime was first attempted in 1991 by Central Park Media, with \"I Give My All\", but it never occurred. In December 1992, \"Devil Hunter Yohko\" was the first risque (\"ecchi\") title that was released by A.D. Vision. While it contains no sexual intercourse, it pushes the limits of the \"ecchi\" category with sexual dialogue, nudity and one scene in which the heroine is about to be raped. It was Central Park Media's 1993 release of \"Urotsukidoji\" which brought the first hentai film to American viewers. Often cited for inventing the tentacle rape subgenre, it contains extreme depictions of violence and monster sex. As such, it is acknowledged for being the first to depict tentacle sex on screen. When the film premiered in the United States, it was described as being \"drenched in graphic scenes of perverse sex and ultra-violence\". Following this release, a wealth of pornographic content began to arrive in the United States, with companies such as A.D. Vision, Central Park Media and Media Blasters releasing licensed titles under various labels. A.D. Vision's label SoftCel Pictures released 19 titles in 1995 alone. Another label, Critical Mass, was created in 1996 to release an unedited edition of \"Violence Jack\". When A.D. Vision's hentai label SoftCel Pictures shut down in 2005, most of its titles were acquired by Critical Mass. Following the bankruptcy of Central Park Media in 2009, the licenses for all Anime 18-related products and movies were transferred to Critical Mass.", "The term \"eroge\" (erotic game) literally defines any erotic game, but has become synonymous with video games depicting the artistic styles of anime and manga. The origins of \"eroge\" began in the early 1980s, while the computer industry in Japan was struggling to define a computer standard with makers like NEC, Sharp, and Fujitsu competing against one another. The PC98 series, despite lacking in processing power, CD drives and limited graphics, came to dominate the market, with the popularity of \"eroge\" games contributing to its success. Because of vague definitions of what constitutes an \"erotic game\", there are several possible candidates for the first \"eroge\". If the definition applies to adult themes, the first game was \"Softporn Adventure\". Released in America in 1981 for the Apple II, this was a text-based comedic game from On-Line Systems. If \"eroge\" is defined as the first graphical depictions or Japanese adult themes, it would be Koei's 1982 release of \"Night Life\". Sexual intercourse is depicted through simple graphic outlines. Notably, \"Night Life\" was not intended to be erotic so much as an instructional guide \"to support married life\". A series of \"undressing\" games appeared as early as 1983, such as \"Strip Mahjong\". The first anime-styled erotic game was \"Tenshitachi no Gogo\", released in 1985 by JAST. In 1988, ASCII released the first erotic role-playing game, \"Chaos Angel\". In 1989, AliceSoft released the turn-based role-playing game \"Rance\" and ELF released \"Dragon Knight\". In the late 1980s, \"eroge\" began to stagnate under high prices and the majority of games containing uninteresting plots and mindless sex. ELF's 1992 release of \"Dōkyūsei\" came as customer frustration with \"eroge\" was mounting and spawned a new genre of games called dating sims. \"Dōkyūsei\" was unique because it had no defined plot and required the player to build a relationship with different girls in order to advance the story. Each girl had her own story, but the prospect of consummating a relationship required the girl growing to love the player; there was no easy sex. The term \"visual novel\" is vague, with Japanese and English definitions classifying the genre as a type of interactive fiction game driven by narration and limited player interaction. While the term is often retroactively applied to many games, it was Leaf that coined the term with their \"Leaf Visual Novel Series\" (LVNS) with the 1996 release of \"Shizuku\" and \"Kizuato\". The success of these two dark \"eroge\" games would be followed by the third and final installment of the LVNS, the 1997 romantic \"eroge\" \"To Heart\". \"Eroge\" visual novels took a new emotional turn with Tactics' 1998 release \"\". Key's 1999 release of \"Kanon\" proved to be a major success and would go on to have numerous console ports, two manga series and two anime series.", "Japanese laws have impacted depictions of works since the Meiji Restoration, but these predate the common definition of hentai material. Since becoming law in 1907, Article 175 of the Criminal Code of Japan forbids the publication of obscene materials. Specifically, depictions of male–female sexual intercourse and pubic hair are considered obscene, but bare genitalia is not. As censorship is required for published works, the most common representations are the blurring dots on pornographic videos and \"bars\" or \"lights\" on still images. In 1986, Toshio Maeda sought to get past censorship on depictions of sexual intercourse, by creating tentacle sex. This led to the large number of works containing sexual intercourse with monsters, demons, robots, and aliens, whose genitals look different from men's. While Western views attribute hentai to any explicit work, it was the products of this censorship which became not only the first titles legally imported to America and Europe, but the first successful ones. While uncut for American release, the United Kingdom's release of \"Urotsukidoji\" removed many scenes of the violence and tentacle rape scenes. It was also because of this law that the artists began to depict the characters with a minimum of anatomical details and without pubic hair, by law, prior to 1991. Part of the ban was lifted when Nagisa Oshima prevailed over the obscenity charges at his trial for his film \"In the Realm of the Senses\". Though not enforced, the lifting of this ban did not apply to anime and manga as they were not deemed artistic exceptions. Alterations of material or censorship and banning of works are common. The US release of \"La Blue Girl\" altered the age of the heroine from 16 to 18, removed sex scenes with a dwarf ninja named Nin-nin, and removed the Japanese blurring dots. \"La Blue Girl\" was outright rejected by UK censors who refused to classify it and prohibited its distribution. In 2011, the Liberal Democratic Party of Japan sought a ban on the subgenre \"lolicon\".", "The most prolific consumers of hentai are men. \"Eroge\" games in particular combine three favored media—cartoons, pornography and gaming—into an experience. The hentai genre engages a wide audience that expands yearly, and desires better quality and storylines, or works which push the creative envelope. Nobuhiro Komiya, a manga censor, states that the unusual and extreme depictions in hentai are not about perversion so much as they are an example of the profit-oriented industry. Anime depicting normal sexual situations enjoy less market success than those that break social norms, such as sex at schools or bondage. According to clinical psychologist Megha Hazuria Gorem, \"Because toons are a kind of final fantasy, you can make the person look the way you want him or her to look. Every fetish can be fulfilled.\" Sexologist Narayan Reddy noted of \"eroge\", \"Animators make new games because there is a demand for them, and because they depict things that the gamers do not have the courage to do in real life, or that might just be illegal, these games are an outlet for suppressed desire.\"", "The hentai genre can be divided into numerous subgenres, the broadest of which encompasses heterosexual and homosexual acts. Hentai that features mainly heterosexual interactions occur in both male-targeted (\"ero\" or \"dansei-muke\") and female-targeted (\"ladies' comics\") form. Those that feature mainly homosexual interactions are known as \"yaoi\" or \"Boys' Love\" (male–male) and \"yuri\" (female–female). Both \"yaoi\" and, to a lesser extent, \"yuri\", are generally aimed at members of the opposite sex from the persons depicted. While \"yaoi\" and \"yuri\" are not always explicit, their pornographic history and association remain. \"Yaoi\" pornographic usage has remained strong in textual form through fanfiction. The definition of \"yuri\" has begun to be replaced by the broader definitions of \"lesbian-themed animation or comics\". Hentai is perceived as \"dwelling\" on sexual fetishes. These include dozens of fetish and paraphilia related subgenres, which can be further classified with additional terms, such as heterosexual or homosexual types. Many works are focused on depicting the mundane and the impossible across every conceivable act and situation, no matter how fantastical. One subgenre of hentai is \"futanari\" (hermaphroditism), which most often features a female with a penis or penis-like appendage in place of, or in addition to, a vulva. Futanari characters are primarily depicted as having sex with other women and will almost always be submissive with a male; exceptions include Yonekura Kengo's work, which features female empowerment and domination over males." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Calibration of lamps.", "Modern use." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The term candlepower was originally defined in the United Kingdom, by the Metropolitan Gas Act 1860, as the light produced by a pure spermaceti candle that weighs and burns at a rate of. Spermaceti is a material from the heads of sperm whales, and was once used to make high-quality candles. At the time the UK established candlepower as a unit, the French standard of light was based on the illumination from a Carcel burner. They defined the unit was that illumination that emanates from a lamp burning pure colza oil (obtained from the seed of the plant \"Brassica campestris\") at a defined rate. Ten standard candles equaled about one Carcel burner. In 1909, several agencies met to establish an international standard. It was attended by representatives of the \"Laboratoire Central de l’Electricité\" (France), the National Physical Laboratory (UK), the Bureau of Standards (United States), and the \"Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt\" (Germany). The majority redefined the candle in term of an electric lamp with a carbon filament. The Germans, however, dissented and decided to use a definition equal to 9/10 of the output of a Hefner lamp. In 1921, the \"Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage\" (International Commission for Illumination, commonly referred to as the CIE) redefined the international candle again in terms of a carbon filament incandescent lamp. In 1937, the international candle was redefined again—against the luminous intensity of a blackbody at the freezing point of liquid platinum which was to be 58.9 international candles per square centimetre. In 1948, the international unit (SI) candela replaced candlepower. One \"candlepower\" unit is about 0.981 candela. In general modern use, a \"candlepower\" now equates directly (1:1) to the number of candelas—an implicit increase from its old value.", "To measure the candlepower of a lamp, a person judged by eye the relative brightness of adjacent surfaces—one illuminated only by a standard lamp (or candle) and the other only by the lamp under test. They adjusted the distance of one of the lamps until the two surfaces appeared to be of equal brightness. Then they calculated the candlepower of the lamp under test from the two distances and the inverse square law.", "\"Candlepower\" is largely an obsolete term. However, people still sometimes use it to describe the luminous intensity of high powered flashlights and spotlights. Narrow-beamed lights of all sorts can have very high candlepower specifications, because candlepower measures the intensity of the light on a target, rather than the total amount of light it emits. A given lamp has a higher candlepower rating if its light is more tightly focused. Only a few artificial light sources, such as military photoflash bombs, have the very high candlepower ratings characteristic of narrow-beamed spotlights but, simultaneously, a wide unfocused distribution of light." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Japan." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Chamberlain was born in Southsea (a part of Portsmouth) on the south coast of England, the son of an Admiral William Charles Chamberlain and his wife Eliza Hall, the daughter of the travel writer Basil Hall. His younger brother was Houston Stewart Chamberlain. He was brought up speaking French as well as English, even before moving to Versailles to live with his maternal grandmother in 1856 upon his mother's death. Once in France he acquired German as well. Chamberlain had hoped to study at Oxford, but instead started work at Barings Bank in London. He was unsuited to the work and soon had a nervous breakdown. It was in the hope of a full recovery that he sailed out of Britain, with no clear destination in mind.", "Chamberlain landed in Japan on 29 May 1873, employed by the Japanese government as an \"o-yatoi gaikokujin\". He taught at the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy in Tokyo from 1874 to 1882. His most important position, however, was as professor of Japanese at Tokyo Imperial University beginning in 1886. It was here that he gained his reputation as a student of Japanese language and literature. (He was also a pioneering scholar of the Ainu and Ryukyuan languages.) His many works include the first translation of the \"Kojiki\" into English (1882), \"A Handbook of Colloquial Japanese\" (1888), \"Things Japanese\" (1890), and \"A Practical Guide to the Study of Japanese Writing\" (1905). A keen traveller despite chronic weak health, he cowrote (with W. B. Mason) the 1891 edition of \"A Handbook for Travellers in Japan\", of which revised editions followed. Chamberlain was a friend of the writer Lafcadio Hearn, once a colleague at the University, but the two became estranged over the years. Percival Lowell dedicated his travelogue \"Noto: An Unexplored Corner of Japan\" (1891) to Chamberlain. Chamberlain sent many Japanese artifacts to the Pitt Rivers Museum at Oxford. He left Japan in 1911 and moved to Geneva, where he lived until his death in 1935." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Environmental philosophy.", "Judeo-Christian tradition.", "Human rights.", "Animal rights.", "Cognitive psychology.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Anthropocentrism, also known as homocentricism or human supremacism, has been posited by some environmentalists, in such books as \"Confessions of an Eco-Warrior\" by Dave Foreman and \"Green Rage\" by Christopher Manes, as the underlying (if unstated) reason why humanity dominates and sees the need to \"develop\" most of the Earth. Anthropocentrism is believed by some to be the central problematic concept in environmental philosophy, where it is used to draw attention claims of a systematic bias in traditional Western attitudes to the non-human world. Val Plumwood has argued that anthropocentrism plays an analogous role in green theory to androcentrism in feminist theory and ethnocentrism in anti-racist theory. Plumwood calls human-centredness \"anthrocentrism\" to emphasise this parallel. One of the first extended philosophical essays addressing environmental ethics, John Passmore's \"Man's Responsibility for Nature\" has been criticised by defenders of deep ecology because of its anthropocentrism, often claimed to be constitutive of traditional Western moral thought. Indeed, defenders of anthropocentrism concerned with the ecological crisis contend that the maintenance of a healthy, sustainable environment is necessary for human well-being as opposed to for its own sake. The problem with a \"shallow\" viewpoint is not that it is human-centred but that according to William Grey: \"What's wrong with shallow views is not their concern about the well-being of humans, but that they do not really consider enough in what that well-being consists. According to this view, we need to develop an enriched, fortified anthropocentric notion of human interest to replace the dominant short-term, sectional and self-regarding conception.\" In turn, Plumwood in \"Environmental Culture: The Ecological Crisis of Reason\" argued that Grey's anthropocentrism is inadequate. It is important to take note that many devoted environmentalists encompass a somewhat anthropocentric-based philosophical view supporting the fact that they will argue in favor of saving the environment for the sake of human populations. Grey writes: \"We should be concerned to promote a rich, diverse, and vibrant biosphere. Human flourishing may certainly be included as a legitimate part of such a flourishing.\" Such a concern for human flourishing amidst the flourishing of life as a whole, however, is said to be indistinguishable from that of deep ecology and biocentrism, which has been proposed as both an antithesis of anthropocentrism. and as a generalised form of anthropocentrism.", "Maimonides, a scholar of the Torah who lived in the 12th century AD, was noted for being decidedly anti-anthropocentric. Maimonides called man \"a mere 'drop of the bucket'\" and \"not 'the axle of the world'\". He also claimed that anthropocentric thinking is what causes humans to think that evil things exist in nature. According to Rabbi Norman Lamm, Maimonides \"thus deflate[d] man's extravagant notions of his own importance and urge[d] us to abandon these illusions.\" In the 1985 CBC series \"A Planet For the Taking\", Dr. David Suzuki explored the Old Testament roots of anthropocentrism and how it shaped our view of non-human animals. Some Christian proponents of anthropocentrism base their belief on the Bible, such as the verse 1:26 in the Book of Genesis: The use of the word \"dominion\" in the \"Genesis\" is controversial. Many Biblical scholars, especially Roman Catholic and other non-Protestant Christians, consider this to be a flawed translation of a word meaning \"stewardship\", which would indicate that mankind should take care of the earth and its various forms of life.", "Anthropocentrism is the grounding for some naturalistic concepts of human rights. Defenders of anthropocentrism argue that it is the necessary fundamental premise to defend universal human rights, since what matters morally is simply being human. For example, noted philosopher Mortimer J. Adler wrote, \"Those who oppose injurious discrimination on the moral ground that all human beings, being equal in their humanity, should be treated equally in all those respects that concern their common humanity, would have no solid basis in fact to support their normative principle.\" Adler is stating here, that denying what is now called human exceptionalism could lead to tyranny, writing that if we ever came to believe that humans do not possess a unique moral status, the intellectual foundation of our liberties collapses: \"Why, then, should not groups of superior men be able to justify their enslavement, exploitation, or even genocide of inferior human groups on factual and moral grounds akin to those we now rely on to justify our treatment of the animals we harness as beasts of burden, that we butcher for food and clothing, or that we destroy as disease-bearing pests or as dangerous predators?\" Author and anthropocentrism defender Wesley J. Smith from the Discovery Institute has written that human exceptionalism is what gives rise to human duties to each other, the natural world, and to treat animals humanely. Writing in \"A Rat is a Pig is a Dog is a Boy\", a critique of animal rights ideology, \"Because we \"are\" unquestionably a unique species—the only species capable of even contemplating ethical issues and assuming responsibilities—we uniquely are capable of apprehending the difference between right and wrong, good and evil, proper and improper conduct toward animals. Or to put it more succinctly if being human isn't what requires us to treat animals humanely, what in the world does?\"", "Anthropocentrism has been criticised by animal rights and welfare advocates, who contend that the belief that humans are more important than other animals is false and that like humans, non-human animals have intrinsic value. One of the earliest of these critics was the zoologist and philosopher J. Howard Moore, who in \"The Universal Kinship\" (1906) argued that Charles Darwin's \"On the Origin of Species\" (1859) \"sealed the doom of anthropocentricism\" and that:The supposed psychical gulf between human and non-human beings has no more existence, outside the flamboyant imagination of man, than has the once-supposed physical gulf. It is pure fiction. The supposition is a relic of the rapidly dwindling vanity of anthropocentricism, and is perpetuated from age to age by human selfishness and conceit. It has no foundation either in science or in common-sense. Man strives to lessen his guilt by the laudation of himself and the disparagement and degradation of his victims.Philosophers such as Peter Singer and David Pearce have argued against anthropocentric ethics, instead advocating for antispeciesist or Sentientist ethics, which rather than giving more value to humans based on their species membership, assert that \"other things being equal, equally strong interests should count equally.\" This utilitarian principle is based on the dictum \"everybody to count for one, nobody for more than one\" attributed to Jeremy Bentham by John Stuart Mill in \"Utilitarianism\" (1876).", "In cognitive psychology, anthropocentric thinking can be defined as \"the tendency to reason about unfamiliar biological species or processes by analogy to humans.\" Reasoning by analogy is an attractive thinking strategy, and it can be tempting to apply our own experience of being human to other biological systems. For example, because death is commonly felt to be undesirable, it may be tempting to form the misconception that death at a cellular level or elsewhere in nature is similarly undesirable (whereas in reality programmed cell death is an essential physiological phenomenon, and ecosystems also rely on death). Conversely, anthropocentric thinking can also lead people to underattribute human characteristics to other organisms. For instance, it may be tempting to wrongly assume that an animal that is very different from humans, such as an insect, will not share particular biological characteristics, such as reproduction or blood circulation. Anthropocentric thinking has predominantly been studied in young children (mostly up to the age of 10) by developmental psychologists interested in its relevance to biology education. Children as young as 6 have been found to attribute human characteristics to species unfamiliar to them (in Japan), such as rabbits, grasshoppers or tulips. Although relatively little is known about its persistence at a later age, evidence exists that this pattern of human exceptionalist thinking can continue through young adulthood at least, even among students who have been increasingly educated in biology. The notion that anthropocentric thinking is an innate human characteristic has been challenged by study of American children raised in urban environments, among whom it appears to emerge between the ages of 3 and 5 years as an acquired perspective. Children's recourse to anthropocentric thinking seems to vary with their experience of nature, and cultural assumptions about the place of humans in the natural world. For example, whereas young children who kept goldfish were found to think of frogs as being more goldfish-like, other children tended to think of frogs in terms of humans. More generally, children raised in rural environments appear to use anthropocentric thinking less than their urban counterparts because of their greater familiarity with different species of animals and plants. Studies involving children from some of the indigenous peoples of the Americas have found little use of anthropocentric thinking. Study of children among the Wichí people in South America showed a tendency to think of living organisms in terms of their perceived taxonomic similarities, ecological considerations, and animistic traditions, resulting in a much less anthropocentric view of the natural world than is experienced by many children in Western societies.", "In fiction from all eras and societies, there is fiction treating as normal the actions of humans to ride, eat, milk, and otherwise treat animals as separate species. There are occasional exceptions, such as talking animals, but they are generally treated as exceptions, as aberrations to the rule distinguishing people from animals. In science fiction, \"humanocentrism\" is the idea that humans, as both beings and as a species, are the superior sentients. Essentially the equivalent of racial supremacy on a galactic scale, it entails intolerant discrimination against sentient non-humans, much like race supremacists discriminate against those not of their race. A prime example of this concept is utilized as a story element for the \"Mass Effect\" series. After humanity's first contact results in a brief war, many humans in the series develop suspicious or even hostile attitudes towards the game's various alien races. By the time of the first game, which takes place several decades after the war, many humans still retain such sentiments in addition to forming 'pro-human' organizations. This idea is countered by anti-humanism. At times, this ideal also includes fear of and superiority over strong AIs and cyborgs, downplaying the ideas of integration, cybernetic revolts, machine rule and Tilden's Laws of Robotics. Mark Twain mocked the belief in human supremacy in \"Letters from the Earth\" (written c. 1909, published 1962). The Planet of the Apes franchise focuses on the analogy of apes becoming the dominant species in society and the fall of humans (see also human extinction). In the 1968 film, Taylor, a human states \"take your stinking paws off me, you damn dirty ape!\". In the 2001 film, this is contrasted with Attar (a gorilla)'s quote \"take your stinking hands off me, you damn dirty human!\". This links in with allusions that in becoming the dominant species apes are becoming more like humans (anthropomorphism). In the film Battle for the Planet of the Apes, Virgil, an orangutan states \"ape has never killed ape, let alone an ape child. Aldo has killed an ape child. The branch did not break. It was cut with a sword.\" in reference to planned murder; a stereotypical human concept. Additionally, in Dawn of the Planet of the Apes, Caesar states \"I always think...ape better than human. I see now...how much like them we are\". In George Orwell's novel Animal Farm, this theme of anthropocentrism is also present. Whereas originally the animals planned for liberation from humans and animal equality, as evident from the \"seven commandments\" such as \"whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy.\", \"Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend\", \"All animals are equal.\"; the pigs would later abridge the commandments with statements such as \"All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.\" and \"Four legs good, two legs better.\" The 2012 documentary \"The Superior Human?\" systematically analyzes anthropocentrism and concludes that value is fundamentally an opinion, and since life forms naturally value their own traits, most humans are misled to believe that they are actually more valuable than other species. This natural bias, according to the film, combined with a received sense of comfort and an excuse for exploitation of non-humans cause anthropocentrism to remain in society." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Growth.", "Characteristics.", "Cultivation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "It is a large deciduous tree, reaching heights of tall by broad, with a trunk girth of nearly. The leaves are large, long, occasionally up to, variable in shape, divided into 6-10 very deep parallel lobes which are usually divided into sublobes. The leaf stalks are usually short, 2–6 mm (rarely to 22 mm) long. The leaves are widest close to the apex, which is broad and short pointed. The base of the leaf usually has auricles which sometimes overlap the twig. The light yellow green expanding leaves turn rich dark green by the beginning of summer. The leaves are covered with minute russet hairs, especially the lower surface. The leaves are concentrated at the ends of twigs. The leaves turn brown, russet or yellow in fall and sometimes remain attached to the twigs until the following spring. The buds are large, long and pointed, shiny russet or light brown in colour with minute tomentum. The twigs are stout and covered with russet upward pointed hairs. The light brown acorns mature in about 6 months. They are 15–35 mm long, egg shaped, usually with a blunt apex. The acorn cup is covered with long overlapping scales and russet hairs. The acorns tend to concentrate in groups of two to eight at the ends of twigs.", "The centre of the \"Quercus frainetto\" native range is in the Balkans. It is adapted to the subcontinental climate of southeastern Europe, but the main factor of its occurrence at a particular site is the soil. It is specially adapted to heavy acidic soils (cambisols and vertisols), typical of Serbia, Bulgaria and Romania. These soils are usually leached out, very dry in the summer and sometimes waterlogged in the spring. However, the Hungarian oak does not tolerate flooding or high water tables. It is also extremely sensitive to the presence of lime in the soil. Hence, in contradiction to its English vernacular name, which was assigned when Hungary was a much larger kingdom, the Hungarian oak is a very rare tree in modern Hungary, where the soils are generally very rich in lime. The Hungarian oak-Turkey oak forest (\"Quercetum frainetto-cerris\" Rud.) is the most widespread association of this oak in the Balkans, which is also the most common forest type in Serbia (see also Balkan mixed forests).", "This tree is cultivated in parks and large gardens, and the cultivar 'Hungarian Crown' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early and personal life.", "Career.", "1988–94: Early solo career and Praxis.", "1995–99: Collaboration work, movie soundtracks and Praxis.", "2000–04: Guns N' Roses and other projects.", "2005–06: Buckethead & Friends.", "2007–10: Continued solo work and Michael Jackson tribute.", "2011–15: Focus on solo \"Pikes\".", "2016–present: Continued \"Pikes\", return to touring, and reissues.", "Influences.", "Discography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Brian Patrick Carroll was born on May 13, 1969 to Tom (died 2014) and Nancy Carroll (died 2013) and is the youngest of five siblings along with Lynn, Lisa, Lori, and John. His father was the Athletic Director at Damien High School from 1973 until his retirement in 2013. Carroll grew up in a Southern California suburb not far from Disneyland. In his youth, he was an introverted child and spent most of his time in his room, which was filled with comic books, games, martial-arts movie memorabilia, and toys. He also spent a lot of time at Disneyland. Carroll began playing guitar at the age of 12. He learned how to play from an elderly man who lived down the road, who died before Carroll moved. He had been quoted as saying, however, that he did not become serious until a year later when he moved from Huntington Beach, California to Claremont. His playing began improving by taking private lessons from various teachers at a local music store. His early teachers included Max McGuire, Johnny Fortune, Mark Hammond, Pebber Brown, Joey Tafolla and Paul Gilbert. Buckethead played a tribute to all his early teachers when the Deli Creeps played a show at Styles Music's 25th anniversary. He then began making demo recordings of both his playing as well as his writing styles, which would later be released in 2007–2008. The Buckethead persona came to be when Carroll saw the 1988 horror movie \"\" and was inspired by the film. He went out right after seeing it and bought a Michael Myers-like white mask. The bucket idea came later that night while eating chicken: In October 2017, Carroll gave a rare out-of-character interview discussing all ranges of his life, the Buckethead character, his parents' deaths, his health problems, and how he copes with overcoming fear. During the podcast, he revealed he has been diagnosed with the potentially life-threatening condition of heart arrhythmia. He stated he had a cardiac ablation performed and uses medicine to control the problem.", "", "In 1988 after leaving the band Class-X, Carroll entered a song called \"Brazos\" into a \"Guitar Player\" magazine contest. It was a runner-up, with editors writing: In the same year, the magazine's editor, Jas Obrecht, came to know of Buckethead when Carroll and his parents left a demo recording at the magazine's reception desk for Obrecht. Impressed with this demo, he rushed into the restaurant where Buckethead and his parents were having lunch and encouraged him to make the most of his talent. They soon became friends. In 1989 a song called \"Soowee\" by Buckethead got honorable mention in another song contest. In 1991, Buckethead moved into Obrecht's basement. The song \"Brazos\" was eventually released on the 1991 demo tape of his band Deli Creeps, titled \"Tribal Rites,\" and again as bonus material in Buckethead's \"Secret Recipe\" DVD in 2006. Luke Sacco was his teacher. In 1991 Buckethead contributed to Derek Bailey's Company project alongside, among others, John Zorn and Alexander Bălănescu, resulting in a triple album called \"Company 91\". After his first two demo tapes, called \"Giant Robot\" and \"Bucketheadland Blueprints\", Buckethead released \"Bucketheadland\" on John Zorn's Japanese Avant record label in 1992. Though available only as a pricey import, the record received positive reviews and earned some attention. At about this time, Buckethead fell into the orbit of prolific bassist/producer Bill Laswell, himself an occasional Zorn collaborator; Buckethead (as a performer, producer, or composer) was introduced to Laswell with the help of Limbomaniacs drummer Bryan \"Brain\" Mantia, who gave Laswell a video of Buckethead playing in his room. Buckethead soon became Laswell's second staple guitar player, besides Nicky Skopelitis. In 1992, Buckethead, with Bill Laswell, Bernie Worrell, Bootsy Collins, and Bryan \"Brain\" Mantia, formed the supergroup Praxis. Their first album, \"Transmutation (Mutatis Mutandis)\", released the same year, was well received. The project was Bill Laswell's concept, and has since involved other guests such as Serj Tankian of System of a Down, among many others. Buckethead participated in every release except the initial \"1984\" release and \"Mold\" (1998). In 1993, Buckethead auditioned to play for the Red Hot Chili Peppers. The band eventually ended up with Arik Marshall, and later Dave Navarro. After some legal complications with Sony Music Entertainment, Buckethead decided to release his 1994 album \"Dreamatorium\" under the name of Death Cube K (an anagram). Buckethead released a second studio album that year, \"Giant Robot\", which features many guest appearances by artists such as Iggy Pop and Bill Moseley. The name of the album came from the Japanese series \"Johnny Sokko and his Flying Robot\", of which Buckethead is a fan. He also released two other albums with Praxis, their second and third studio efforts: \"Sacrifist\" and \"Metatron\".", "In 1995, Buckethead did not release any solo albums but collaborated with several artists like Jonas Hellborg and Michael Shrieve (\"Octave of the Holy Innocents\"). He also contributed to several movie soundtracks, such as \"Johnny Mnemonic\" and \"Mortal Kombat\". Later, in 1996, Buckethead released his solo album \"The Day of the Robot\" with the help of English producer DJ Ninj and Laswell, plus another album with Brain and keyboardist Pete Scaturro on the small Japanese label NTT Records, called \"Giant Robot\". Both albums were printed only in small quantities and are collectors' items now. A second demo tape by the Deli Creeps was also recorded. Also in 1996 several Sega Saturn television ads featuring a screaming mask-like face pressing through the blue orb of the Saturn logo was released, with music by Buckethead. In 1997, Buckethead began working on the album \"Buckethead Plays Disney\", but the album has not yet been released. According to his Web page: Also in 1997, Buckethead continued to contribute to movie soundtracks, appearing on \"Beverly Hills Ninja\" and \"\", the sequel to \"Mortal Kombat\". Further releases were Arcana's second and final studio album \"Arc of the Testimony\" in which he played with noted drummer Tony Williams and the one-off project \"Pieces\", with Brain. Two live albums by Praxis, called \"Transmutation Live\" and \"Live in Poland\" (featuring recordings from European concerts) were also issued. Death Cube K released an album that year called \"Disembodied\". In 1998, Buckethead released \"Colma\", an album dedicated to his mother, who at the time was suffering from colon cancer. The same year saw a compilation album by Praxis called \"Collection\". In 1999, Buckethead released his fifth album, a collaboration with Les Claypool from the band Primus, titled \"Monsters and Robots\" — currently the best-selling album of his career. This album includes the song \"The Ballad of Buckethead,\" for which his first music video ever was made. Buckethead began three new projects that year, the first being the band Cornbugs, a collaboration with actor Bill Moseley, drummer Pinchface, and later keyboardist Travis Dickerson. Another project, Cobra Strike with an album called \"The 13th Scroll\", featured Pinchface, Bryan \"Brain\" Mantia, DJ Disk, and Bill Laswell. Buckethead also began a collaboration with actor Viggo Mortensen, whom he first met through a recording project called \"Myth: Dreams of the World\" in 1996. Together they released \"One Man's Meat\", \"One Less Thing to Worry About\", and \"The Other Parade\". Buckethead contributed to the 1999 album Devil Dub by the San Francisco Bay Area band Ben Wa consisting of \"Dr. Ware\" and \"House\"(Limbomaniacs, Tommy Guerrero, Buckethead's Giant Robot, MCM & the Monster).", "Buckethead achieved a higher public profile as lead guitarist for Guns N' Roses from 2000 to 2004. He recorded the often-delayed album \"Chinese Democracy\" with the band and appeared live on stage in 2001 and 2002, including \"Rock in Rio 3\", MTV's \"Video Music Awards\", and parts of the Chinese Democracy Tour. Despite being a member of GN'R, Buckethead released his sixth studio album, called \"Somewhere Over the Slaughterhouse\" in 2001, and also his only EP, called \"KFC Skin Piles\". He also released two albums with his band Cornbugs, and a third under his 'Death Cube K' pseudonym. In 2000, Buckethead released the second and last album by Cobra Strike, called \"Cobra Strike II - Y, Y+B, X+Y\". He joined two new projects during this period. The first was the progressive rock band Thanatopsis (named after a poem by William Cullen Bryant) with Travis Dickerson and drummer Ramy Antoun; this group went on to release four albums. Some Thanatopsis material has also appeared on albums released by Buckethead and Dickerson. Buckethead's second side project during this period was with Bill Laswell and Japanese producer Shin Terai, released as the album \"Unison\". In 2002, Buckethead released three studio albums: \"Funnel Weaver\", a collection of 49 short tracks, \"Bermuda Triangle\", and finally, \"Electric Tears\", a calming album that is similar to his earlier release, \"Colma\". When Laswell was not able to play with Praxis at the Bonnaroo Music and Arts festival, Les Claypool asked to jam with Brain, Bernie Worrell, and Buckethead, forming a new supergroup called Colonel Claypool's Bucket of Bernie Brains. The jamband experiment was successful enough to do some further live dates. Later, in 2003, marking the release of his tenth studio album, Buckethead released the sequel of his debut \"Bucketheadland\", simply called \"Bucketheadland 2\". Together with actor Viggo Mortensen, he did \"Pandemoniumfromamerica\", and with Thanatopsis, its second release, called \"Axiology\". Buckethead's relationship with Guns N' Roses was somewhat erratic in its last year, despite contractual obligations. According to an interview with Rose, he seemingly 'left' the band in January 2004 without telling anyone, and'rejoined' in a similar manner in February. \"His transient lifestyle has made it impossible for even his closest friends to have nearly any form of communication with him whatsoever.\" In March 2004, Buckethead left Guns N' Roses. His manager cited Guns' inability to complete an album or tour. Since that time, his cult following in the underground music communities has steadily increased. He frequently performs at festivals and in clubs nationwide and often tours as the feature performer. The year 2004 saw the release of three new studio albums: \"Island of Lost Minds\", which was his first tour-only album being later re-released by TDRS Music; \"Population Override\", a blues-rock tour de force with Dickerson; and \"The Cuckoo Clocks of Hell\", considered his heaviest effort to date. The latter includes \"Spokes for the Wheel of Torment,\" for which Syd Garon and Eric Henry made a music video based on the famous triptychs by Hieronymus Bosch. Buckethead also recorded the final two albums by the Cornbugs, \"Brain Circus\" and \"Donkey Town\" as well as another release with Viggo Mortensen called \"Please Tomorrow\" and a second with Shin Terai, titled \"Heaven & Hell\". C2B3 also released their only album, \"The Big Eyeball in the Sky\", and toured it in North America. In an interview with \"Revolver\", Ozzy Osbourne stated that he had offered to have Buckethead play guitar in his band at Ozzfest, but changed his mind after meeting with him and realizing that he would not remove his costume:", "In 2005, Buckethead released the album \"Enter the Chicken\" through Serj Tankian's record label, Serjical Strike. The album features Tankian himself, Maximum Bob (of the Deli Creeps), Death by Stereo singer Efrem Shulz, Bad Acid Trip and others. It is marked by its leaning toward more traditional song structures while still featuring typical Buckethead guitar skills. \"We Are One\" was released as a single and also appeared on the soundtrack of \"Masters of Horror\". \"Three Fingers\" was used for the soundtrack of the horror movie \"Saw II\". The final track, \"Nottingham Lace,\" was first made public via his home page and soon became a concert staple and one of his most popular songs. Buckethead also released two further solo albums in 2005, \"Kaleidoscalp\" and \"Inbred Mountain\"—the latter being the first album as a solo artist released on the label TDRS Music. Both albums originally were sold exclusively at concerts and only later got an official release through the label's website. Buckethead released albums with other bands that year: with Cornbugs, he released two compilation albums, called \"Rest Home for Robots\" and \"Skeleton Farm\". Gorgone's \"self titled album\" was released that year' itself based upon recording sessions from the album \"Population Override\" that Buckethead released in 2004. In 2006 the cross-console video game \"Guitar Hero II\" was launched, featuring Buckethead's song \"Jordan\" as an unlockable bonus track. Although the song has been performed live in the past, the video game version is the only known studio recording of the song. When playing it live, Buckethead would almost always simply perform the verse and chorus of \"Jordan\" before transitioning into the next song. However, the \"Guitar Hero II\" version contains a special solo created specifically for the game. Also the same year, Buckethead released two DVDs, titled \"Young Buckethead Vol. 1\" and \"Young Buckethead Vol. 2\", featuring rare footage from 1990 and 1991. The DVD also contains three complete Deli Creeps shows, a sound check, backstage footage, and solo footage of just Buckethead. He also released the albums \"The Elephant Man's Alarm Clock\" and \"Crime Slunk Scene\", both sold on his tours but later sold on the TDRS Music website. The last album has the song \"Soothsayer (Dedicated to Aunt Suzie)\"; this song (along with \"Jordan\" and \"Nottingham Lace\") is one of his most popular songs and is often played live. Buckethead released his final compilation album with the band Cornbugs, called \"Celebrity Psychos\". He also released an album with Travis Dickerson, called \"Chicken Noodles\", a move that would see the start of a four-year long collaboration with the keyboardist. Buckethead's band Thanatopsis would also release \"Anatomize\" that year.", "In 2007, Buckethead released an unprecedented amount of new material. In February, a box set titled \"In Search of The\", containing 13 albums of original material, was released. It was handcrafted, numbered, and monogrammed by Buckethead and contained over nine hours of music. A regular solo album, called \"Pepper's Ghost\", was released in March. A disc of acoustic improvisations called \"Acoustic Shards\" was also released, becoming the twentieth studio album that the artist had released so far in his solo career. In midyear, he reissued his demo tape \"Bucketheadland Blueprints\", with two alternative album covers: a special edition with a hand-drawn cover made by him, or a standard edition with the original cover art. In October, he released his final two albums of the year, called \"Decoding the Tomb of Bansheebot\" and \"Cyborg Slunks\". The latter again came in both a hand-drawn limited edition and (some weeks later) as a normal CD. Buckethead wrote three songs dedicated to Aunt Suzie in 2006-07: the aforementioned “Soothsayer” (Crime Slunk Scene), “Aunt Suzie” (Cyborg Slunks), and “Sail On Soothsayer”, (Decoding The Tomb Of Bansheebot). As \"Death Cube K\", Buckethead released two albums in 2007: an album called DCK, limited to 400 hand-numbered copies and released in August; and in December, the 5-CD box set \"Monolith\", which consisted of one unbroken track per CD. During 2007, Buckethead also collaborated and appeared on numerous albums with other artists. The sequel to \"Chicken Noodles\" (a collaboration with Travis Dickerson), simply called \"Chicken Noodles II\", was issued by TDRS in December. A live record by Praxis, titled \"Tennessee 2004\"; the third album with Shin Terai, called \"Lightyears\"; and another album with drummer Bryan Mantia, called \"Kevin's Noodle House\", were also released through the year. That same year, it was revealed that Buckethead joined a project by the name of Science Faxtion, a band featuring bassist Bootsy Collins and drummer Bryan \"Brain\" Mantia, with Greg Hampton supplying lead vocals. Their first album, called \"Living on Another Frequency\", was delayed several times and was finally released in November 2008. On January 1, 2008, the band Praxis released the long-awaited album \"Profanation (Preparation for a Coming Darkness)\" in Japan. The album had actually been recorded in 2005, but had to be put on hold when the original label went bankrupt. That year Buckethead released \"From the Coop\" through the label Avabella (where he released \"Acoustic Shards\"), consisting of the demos Buckethead gave to Jas Obrecht back in 1988. This CD also included the first ever \"official\" biography of/by the artist. Later that same year, he announced the release of the album called \"Albino Slug\" (a tour-only CD until official release on December of the same year). Along with this album, he appeared on the album \"The Dragons of Eden\", with Dickerson and Mantia, and in collaboration with That 1 Guy as the \"Frankenstein Brothers\", an album called \"Bolt on Neck\" was released. That 1 Guy and Buckethead toured together through fall 2008, playing songs from this album. Buckethead also appeared in the documentary \"\", in which he appears only playing. Serj Tankian's label, Serjical Strike, reissued the album \"Enter the Chicken\" with an extra song. Furthermore, Buckethead contributed to one track of actor Viggo Mortensen's album \"At All\", and with Travis Dickerson and filmmaker Alix Lambert on the album \"Running After Deer\". Buckethead appeared with Bootsy Collins in Cincinnati, Ohio, to promote the vote for the 2008 United States presidential election for the organization Rock the Vote. He also joined Collins on \"Fallen Soldiers Memorial\", an album with proceeds going to the \"National Fallen Heroes Foundation\". More than four years after his departure from the band Guns N' Roses, \"Chinese Democracy\" was made available. Buckethead appears on all but two songs and was given writing credits on \"Shackler's Revenge\" (which appeared in the popular video game \"Rock Band 2\"); \"Scraped\"; and \"Sorry,\" which features guest singer Sebastian Bach. The album features eleven of Buckethead's guitar solos. On December 30, 2008, Buckethead released two new tracks via his website to honor the 24th birthday of basketball player LeBron James. These tracks were later made available on the album, \"Slaughterhouse on the Prairie\", which was released a month later through TDRS Music. In 2009 he released the albums \"A Real Diamond in the Rough\", and \"Forensic Follies\", which was first sold at some of his tour dates but later released on TDRS. That year he also released the track \"The Homing Beacon\", a tribute to Michael Jackson, who had been an early influence on him. The song was later included on his 2012 album \"Electric Sea\". On February 5, 2010, Buckethead released an album called \"Shadows Between the Sky\" and later that month, Gibson released the Buckethead Signature Les Paul guitar. On April 29, 2010, Buckethead's website was updated<ref name=\"http://www.bucketheadland.com\"></ref> with a picture with the message \"Greetings from Bucketheadland... Buckethead wants you to know he appreciates your support all these years, it means so much to him. Buckethead is having some animatronic parts replaced, Slip Disc snuck into the park and caused some mayhem.\" The mention of Slip Disc is a reference to a Bucketheadland nemesis found on the \"Bucketheadland\" album. Bootsy Collins continued to update his Twitter Web site about Buckethead's condition, stating that he had recently gone into therapy for a few months. Nevertheless, after return from injury, on July 15, 2010, Buckethead, along with Brain and Melissa Reese, has released the first volume out of three 5-CD box sets called \"Best Regards\". On August 25, 2010, Buckethead announced his 28th studio album titled \"Spinal Clock\", which showcases his banjo skills. In October, two albums in collaboration with Brain were released, the first called \"Brain as Hamenoodle\", and the second installment of the \"Regards\" series with Brain and Melissa Reese called, \"Kind Regards\". Eventually, both projects were released on October 13. That month also saw a new solo album titled \"Captain EO's Voyage\" first available only on iTunes. It was later announced that a physical edition will be released on December 1. This, along with Buckethead's final Travis Dickerson album were released on November 29. In May 2010, Buckethead started to release albums under the concept of a kiosk within Buckethead's fictional \"abusement\" park called \"Buckethead Pikes\". The albums released within this concept were to resemble a comic book style and be shorter in length than his previous works at around half an hour in length.", "Buckethead left Praxis in 2011, the Frankenstein Brothers in 2012, and Brain in 2013. He contributed to two tracks on Lawson Rollins's album \"Elevation\" in 2011. He also departed from his live touring schedule, with his final performance taking place on December 31, 2012. During his absence from touring and other projects, Buckethead's solo release schedule increased speed dramatically- reaching a peak in 2015 with 118 albums, around one every three days on average. Notably, the cover of \"Pike 13\" contains a photograph of Buckethead unmasked; the first such image released to the public. The cover of \"Pike 13\" does not feature the common elements of the Pikes series, and is simply a photograph of Buckethead during his teenage years, carrying an acoustic guitar and hugging his father. Buckethead continued to release albums throughout the year, breaking the numerical order occasionally (for example, Pike 34 \"Pikes\" was released three weeks after Pike 35 \"Thank you Ohlinger's\"). The final album of the year \"Wishes\" was released on December 24, free of charge for a limited time. During 2014, Buckethead continued releasing albums at an even faster pace. Sixty albums were released throughout the year, averaging one album every six days. The sixty-fifth installment, \"Hold Me Forever (In memory of my mom Nancy York Carroll)\", honored Buckethead's mother, who had recently died. The final release of the year, Pike 101 \"In the Hollow Hills\", took place on December 31. Buckethead's release schedule increased in speed again, almost doubling his output during 2015. The 150th release in the series and 180th overall, \"Heaven is your Home (For my Father, Thomas Manley Carroll)\", was released free on June 21 (Father's Day) and in dedication to his late father. On October 1, Buckethead started \"The Silver Shamrock Series\", a Halloween-themed series in which the guitarist released one dark ambient album per day. Starting with Pike 176, \"31 Days Til Halloween: Visitor From The Mirror\", each subsequent album continued the countdown to Halloween's eve culminating with Pike 206, \"Happy Halloween: Silver Shamrock\". Buckethead's next release, \"365 Days Til Halloween: Smash\" (released on November 1) referenced the countdown, but is not considered part of series. A physical edition of the series was released in October 2017 on a pumpkin-themed USB key that contains all 31 albums on it. The last album of the year was Pike 219, \"Rain Drops on Christmas\". The album originally released as a free digital download on December 24 (Christmas Eve), included a dedication \"to those who lost loved ones\" in the title track.", "Throughout 2016, Buckethead's release output declined sharply, with only 24 albums being released. Pike 226, \"Happy Birthday MJ 23\" was released on the 53rd birthday of basketball player Michael Jordan. 2016 also saw Buckethead return to touring, after a four-year absence. 2017 saw a slight increase in pace compared to the previous year, with 30 albums being released in total. In addition, Buckethead began to repress part of his older catalogue in vinyl format, the first time in over a decade that his albums have been pressed in a physical format other than CD. Inbred Mountain, The Elephant Man's Alarm Clock, Crime Slunk Scene, Decoding the Tomb of Bansheebot, Albino Slug, Slaughterhouse on the Prairie, A Real Diamond in the Rough, and Shadows Between the Sky have all been announced so far. Several reissues come in a variety of different packages, unique to each release. Some of these included signed copies, limited-edition posters or photographs, personalized recordings, among other things. As part of these reissues, the albums Albino Slug and Decoding the Tombs of Bansheebot underwent major changes with songs being re-recorded, and their album cover and title changed as well. Pike 241 \"Sparks in the Dark\" has also been announced on vinyl. Also announced was the release of \"Bucketheadland 5-13 10-31\", an entirely new album to be released on Halloween exclusively on vinyl. It is the first album since 2012's Electric Sea not to be a part of the Pike series. In addition, Bootsy Collins announced he is working with Buckethead once again on a collaborative album set to be released in the year. In August 2017, Buckethead announced his fall US tour to take place in September and October. Buckethead played with a live band consisting of Bryan \"Brain\" Mantia on drums and Dan Monti on bass during the tour, departing from his traditional touring routine in which Buckethead was the only performer on stage. Shortly after the tour announcement, Buckethead also announced the release of \"Live from Bucketheadland\", his first live album, was released on vinyl in January 2018. Buckethead's tour continued in 2018, reverting to a solo show. Buckethead also toured in 2019 across the United States.", "Buckethead cites a wide variety of musical influences, including Michael Jackson, Parliament-Funkadelic, Shawn Lane, Michael Schenker, Uli Jon Roth, Paul Gilbert, Yngwie Malmsteen, Eddie Hazel, Randy Rhoads, Larry LaLonde, Mike Patton, James Cutri, Louis Johnson, Jimi Hendrix, Jennifer Batten, The Residents, Eddie Van Halen and Angus Young, as well as the many artists he has collaborated with over the years. In addition to his musical influences, Buckethead cites a diverse range of non-musical influences manifested on several ways out of which dedicated songs to said inspirations have been a staple of Buckethead's discography with particular attention to basketball players like Michael Jordan (songs \"Jordan\" and \"Jump Man\", album \"Happy Birthday MJ 23\"), George Gervin (on \"Iceman\"), Blake Griffin (on \"Crack the Sky\" and \"Griffin's Spike\"), \"Pistol\" Pete Maravich (on \"The Mark of Davis\"), LeBron James (with four songs dedicated to him), and Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (album \"Kareem's Footprint\"). Other influences include martial artist and actor Bruce Lee (on \"The Game of Death\" song and inspiration behind the use of nunchakus on stage), author H. P. Lovecraft (on the \"Lurker at the Threshold\" suite, and his 55th Pike, \"The Miskatonic Scale\"), numerous science fiction and horror TV shows and movies including \"Little House on the Prairie\", Alejandro Jodorowsky's \"The Holy Mountain\" (on Kaleidoscalp), and \"Giant Robot\" (mentioned on several songs, albums, and episodes shown on stage). Disney and Disneyland are also major influences on Buckethead's career. Buckethead is also inspired by Japanese filmmaker Takashi Miike, to whom a song on Pepper's Ghost is dedicated. \"The Texas Chain Saw Massacre\" franchise of movies is also a big inspiration to him and he has written many songs such as Jowls, which are heavily inspired by those movies. The song \"To Infinity and Beyond\" from \"Out Orbit\" was dedicated to then-recently deceased basketball reporter Craig Sager.", "Buckethead has released 31 regular solo albums, as well as 276 albums in the \"Pikes Series\", for 308 albums overall. \"Buckethead Pikes\" are mini-albums, with 276 of them released since 2011. They have an average runtime of 30 minutes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Background and analysis.", "Real-life imitations.", "Origins.", "Adaptations and influences." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The story starts in London on Wednesday, 2 October 1872. Phileas Fogg is a rich British gentleman living in solitude. Despite his wealth, Fogg lives a modest life with habits carried out with mathematical precision. Very little can be said about his social life other than that he is a member of the Reform Club, where he spends much of every day. Having dismissed his former valet, James Forster, for bringing him shaving water at instead of, Fogg hires Frenchman Jean Passepartout as a replacement. At the Reform Club, Fogg gets involved in an argument over an article in \"The Daily Telegraph\" stating that with the opening of a new railway section in India, it is now possible to travel around the world in 80 days. He accepts a wager for £20,000 (£2,242,900 in 2019), half of his total fortune, from his fellow club members to complete such a journey within this time period. With Passepartout accompanying him, Fogg departs from London by train at 8:45 p.m. on 2 October; in order to win the wager, he must return to the club by this same time on 21 December, 80 days later. They take the remaining £20,000 of Fogg's fortune with them to cover expenses during the journey. Fogg and Passepartout reach Suez in time. While disembarking in Egypt, they are watched by a Scotland Yard detective, Detective Fix, who has been dispatched from London in search of a bank robber. Since Fogg fits the vague description Scotland Yard was given of the robber, Detective Fix mistakes Fogg for the criminal. Since he cannot secure a warrant in time, Fix boards the steamer (the \"Mongolia\") conveying the travelers to Bombay. Fix becomes acquainted with Passepartout without revealing his purpose. Fogg promises the steamer engineer a large reward if he gets them to Bombay early. They dock two days ahead of schedule. After reaching India, they take a train from Bombay to Calcutta. Fogg learns that the \"Daily Telegraph\" article was wrong; a 50-mile stretch of track from Kholby to Allahabad has not yet been built. Fogg purchases an elephant, hires a guide, and starts toward Allahabad. They come across a procession in which a young Indian woman, Aouda, is to undergo sati. Since she is drugged with opium and hemp and is obviously not going voluntarily, the travelers decide to rescue her. They follow the procession to the site, where Passepartout takes the place of Aouda's deceased husband on the funeral pyre. During the ceremony he rises from the pyre, scaring off the priests, and carries Aouda away. The twelve hours gained earlier are lost, but Fogg shows no regret. The travelers hasten to catch the train at the next railway station, taking Aouda with them. At Calcutta, they board a steamer (the \"Rangoon\") going to Hong Kong, with a day's stopover in Singapore. Fix has Fogg and Passepartout arrested. They jump bail and Fix follows them to Hong Kong. He shows himself to Passepartout, who is delighted to again meet his travelling companion from the earlier voyage. In Hong Kong, it turns out that Aouda's distant relative, in whose care they had been planning to leave her, has moved to Holland, so they decide to take her with them to Europe. Still without a warrant, Fix sees Hong Kong as his last chance to arrest Fogg on British soil. Passepartout becomes convinced that Fix is a spy from the Reform Club. Fix confides in Passepartout, who does not believe a word and remains convinced that his master is not a bank robber. To prevent Passepartout from informing his master about the premature departure of their next vessel, the \"Carnatic,\" Fix gets Passepartout drunk and drugs him in an opium den. Passepartout still manages to catch the steamer to Yokohama, but neglects to inform Fogg that the steamer is leaving the evening before its scheduled departure date. Fogg discovers that he missed his connection. He searches for a vessel that will take him to Yokohama, finding a pilot boat, the \"Tankadere\", that takes him and Aouda to Shanghai, where they catch a steamer to Yokohama. In Yokohama, they search for Passepartout, believing that he may have arrived there on the \"Carnatic\" as originally planned. They find him in a circus, trying to earn the fare for his homeward journey. Reunited, the four board a paddle-steamer, the \"General Grant,\" taking them across the Pacific to San Francisco. Fix promises Passepartout that now, having left British soil, he will no longer try to delay Fogg's journey, but instead support him in getting back to Britain so he can arrest Fogg in Britain itself. In San Francisco they board a transcontinental train to New York, encountering a number of obstacles along the way: a massive herd of bison crossing the tracks, a failing suspension bridge, and the train being attacked by Sioux warriors. After uncoupling the locomotive from the carriages, Passepartout is kidnapped by the Indians, but Fogg rescues him after American soldiers volunteer to help. They continue by a wind powered sledge to Omaha, where they get a train to New York. In New York, having missed the ship \"China,\" Fogg looks for alternative transport. He finds a steamboat, the \"Henrietta,\" destined for Bordeaux, France. The captain of the boat refuses to take the company to Liverpool, whereupon Fogg consents to be taken to Bordeaux for $2,000 ($207,540 in 2017) per passenger. He then bribes the crew to mutiny and make course for Liverpool. Against hurricane winds and going on full steam, the boat runs out of fuel after a few days. Fogg buys the boat from the captain and has the crew burn all the wooden parts to keep up the steam. The companions arrive at Queenstown (Cobh), Ireland, take the train to Dublin and then a ferry to Liverpool, still in time to reach London before the deadline. Once on English soil, Fix produces a warrant and arrests Fogg. A short time later, the misunderstanding is cleared up – the actual robber, an individual named James Strand, had been caught three days earlier in Edinburgh. However, Fogg has missed the train and arrives in London five minutes late, certain he has lost the wager. The following day Fogg apologises to Aouda for bringing her with him, since he now has to live in poverty and cannot support her. Aouda confesses that she loves him and asks him to marry her. As Passepartout notifies a minister, he learns that he is mistaken in the date – it is not 22 December, but instead 21 December. Because the party had travelled eastward, their days were shortened by four minutes for each of the 360 degrees of longitude they crossed; thus, although they had experienced the same amount of time abroad as people had experienced in London, they had seen 80 sunrises and sunsets while London had seen only 79. Passepartout informs Fogg of his mistake, and Fogg hurries to the Reform Club just in time to meet his deadline and win the wager. Having spent almost £19,000 of his travel money during the journey, he divides the remainder between Passepartout and Fix and marries Aouda.", "\"Around the World in Eighty Days\" was written during difficult times, both for France and for Verne. It was during the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) in which Verne was conscripted as a coastguard; he was having financial difficulties (his previous works were not paid royalties); his father had died recently; and he had witnessed a public execution, which had disturbed him. Despite all this, Verne was excited about his work on the new book, the idea of which came to him one afternoon in a Paris café while reading a newspaper. The technological innovations of the 19th century had opened the possibility of rapid circumnavigation and the prospect fascinated Verne and his readership. In particular, three technological breakthroughs occurred in 1869–70 that made a tourist-like around-the-world journey possible for the first time: the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in America (1869), the linking of the Indian railways across the sub-continent (1870), and the opening of the Suez Canal (1869). It was another notable mark in the end of an age of exploration and the start of an age of fully global tourism that could be enjoyed in relative comfort and safety. It sparked the imagination that anyone could sit down, draw up a schedule, buy tickets and travel around the world, a feat previously reserved for only the most heroic and hardy of adventurers. Verne's works began receiving more serious reviews in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, with new translations appearing. Post-Colonial readings of the novel elucidate Verne's role as propagandist for European global dominance. Verne's novel, one of the most widely read of the 19th century, played a major role in shaping European attitudes of the colonized lands. The closing date of the novel, 21 December 1872, was the same date as the serial publication. As it was being published serially for the first time, some readers believed that the journey was actually taking place – bets were placed, and some railway companies and ship liner companies lobbied Verne to appear in the book. It is unknown if Verne submitted to their requests, but the descriptions of some rail and shipping lines leave some suspicion he was influenced. Although a journey by balloon has become one of the images most strongly associated with the story, it does not appear in the book – the idea is proposed in Chapter 32, but dismissed, as it \"would have been highly risky and, in any case, impossible.\" However, the 1956 movie adaptation \"Around the World in Eighty Days\" used the balloon idea, and it has now become a part of the mythology of the story, even appearing on book covers. This plot element is reminiscent of Verne's earlier \"Five Weeks in a Balloon,\" which first made him a well-known author. Concerning the final \"coup de théâtre\", Fogg had thought it was one day later than it actually was, because he had forgotten that during his journey, he had added a full day to his clock, at the rate of an hour per fifteen degrees of longitude crossed. At the time of publication and until 1884, a \"de jure\" International Date Line did not exist. If it did, he would have been made aware of the change in date once he reached this line. Thus, the day he added to his clock throughout his journey would be removed upon crossing this imaginary line. However, in the real world, Fogg's mistake would not have occurred because a \"de facto\" date line did exist. The UK, India and the US had the same calendar with different local times. He would have noticed, when he arrived in San Francisco, that the local date was actually one day earlier than shown in his travel diary. As a consequence, it is unlikely he would fail to notice that the departure dates of the transcontinental train in San Francisco and of the China steamer in New York were actually one day earlier than his personal travel diary. He would also somehow have to avoid looking at any newspapers. Additionally, in \"Who Betrays Elizabeth Bennet?\", John Sutherland points out that Fogg and company would have to be \"deaf, dumb and blind\" not to notice how busy the streets were on an apparent \"Sunday\", with the Sunday Observance Act 1780 still in effect.", "Following publication in 1873, various people attempted to follow Fogg's fictional circumnavigation, often within self-imposed constraints:", "The idea of a trip around the world within a set period had clear external origins and was popular before Verne published his book in 1873. Even the title \"Around the World in Eighty Days\" is not original. Several sources have been hypothesized as the origins of the story. Greek traveller Pausanias (c. 100 AD) wrote a work that was translated into French in 1797 as \"Voyage autour du monde\" (\"Around the World\"). Another early reference comes from the Italian traveler Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri. He wrote a book in 1699 that was translated into French: Voyage around the World or \"Voyage du Tour du Monde\" (1719, Paris). The novel documents his trip as one of the first Europeans to circle the world for pleasure rather than profit, using publicly available transportation. Gemelli Careri provides rich accounts of seventeenth-century civilization outside of Europe. These include Persia during the Ottoman Empire, Hindustan during the reign of Aurungzebe, the Chinese Lantern Festival and the Great Wall, and the native people of Meso-America. References to his books can be found in other historical publications like the \"Calcutta Review\". Verne's friend Jacques Arago had written a very popular \"Voyage autour du monde\" in 1853. In 1869–70 the idea of travelling around the world reached critical popular attention when three geographical breakthroughs occurred: the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in America (1869), the linking of the Indian railways across the sub-continent (1870), and the opening of the Suez Canal (1869). In 1871 appeared \"Around the World by Steam, via Pacific Railway,\" published by the Union Pacific Railroad Company, and an \"Around the World in A Hundred and Twenty Days\" by Edmond Planchut. In early 1870, the Erie Railway Company published a statement of routes, times, and distances detailing a trip around the globe of 23,739 miles in seventy-seven days and twenty-one hours. American William Perry Fogg traveled the world, describing his tour in a series of letters to \"The Cleveland Leader newspaper\", entitled, \"Round the World: Letters from Japan, China, India, and Egypt\" (1872). In 1872, Thomas Cook organised the first around-the-world tourist trip, leaving on 20 September 1872 and returning seven months later. The journey was described in a series of letters that were published in 1873 as \"Letter from the Sea and from Foreign Lands, Descriptive of a tour Round the World.\" Scholars have pointed out similarities between Verne's account and Cook's letters, although some argue that Cook's trip happened too late to influence Verne. Verne, according to a second-hand 1898 account, refers to a Cook advertisement as a source for the idea of his book. In interviews in 1894 and 1904, Verne says the source was \"through reading one day in a Paris cafe\" and \"due merely to a tourist advertisement seen by chance in the columns of a newspaper.\" \"Around the World\" itself says the origins were a newspaper article. All of these point to Cook's advert as being a probable spark for the idea of the book. The periodical \"Le Tour du monde\" (3 October 1869) contained a short piece titled \"Around the World in Eighty Days\", which refers to \"140 miles\" of railway not yet completed between Allahabad and Bombay, a central point in Verne's work. But even the \"Le Tour de monde\" article was not entirely original; it cites in its bibliography the \"Nouvelles Annales des Voyages, de la Géographie, de l'Histoire et de l'Archéologie\" (August, 1869), which also contains the title \"Around the World in Eighty Days\" in its contents page. The \"Nouvelles Annales\" were written by Conrad Malte-Brun (1775–1826) and his son Victor Adolphe Malte-Brun (1816–1889). Scholars believe that Verne was aware of the \"Le Tour de monde\" article, the \"Nouvelles Annales,\" or both, and that he consulted it and/or them, noting that the \"Le Tour du monde\" even included a trip schedule very similar to Verne's final version. A possible inspiration was the traveller George Francis Train, who made four trips around the world, including one in 80 days in 1870. Similarities include the hiring of a private train and being imprisoned. Train later claimed, \"Verne stole my thunder. I'm Phileas Fogg.\" Regarding the idea of gaining a day, Verne said of its origin: \"I have a great number of scientific odds and ends in my head. It was thus that, when, one day in a Paris café, I read in the \"Siècle\" that a man could travel around the world in 80 days, it immediately struck me that I could profit by a difference of meridian and make my traveller gain or lose a day in his journey. There was a dénouement ready found. The story was not written until long after. I carry ideas about in my head for years – ten, or 15 years, sometimes – before giving them form.\" In his April 1873 lecture, \"The Meridians and the Calendar\", Verne responded to a question about where the change of day actually occurred, since the international date line had only become current in 1880 and the Greenwich prime meridian was not adopted internationally until 1884. Verne cited an 1872 article in \"Nature,\" and Edgar Allan Poe's short story \"Three Sundays in a Week\" (1841), which was also based on going around the world and the difference in a day linked to a marriage at the end. Verne even analysed Poe's story in his \"Edgar Poe and His Works\" (1864). Poe's story \"Three Sundays in a Week\" was clearly the inspiration for the lost day plot device.", "The book has been adapted or reimagined many times in different forms." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Relationship with animals and environment.", "History and development.", "In law.", "In religion.", "Islam.", "Hinduism.", "Jainism.", "Buddhism.", "Criticism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The term biocentrism encompasses all environmental ethics that \"extend the status of moral object from human beings to all living things in nature\". Biocentric ethics calls for a rethinking of the relationship between humans and nature. It states that nature does not exist simply to be used or consumed by humans, but that humans are simply one species amongst many, and that because we are part of an ecosystem, any actions which negatively affect the living systems of which we are a part adversely affect us as well, \"whether or not\" we maintain a biocentric worldview. Biocentrists observe that all species have inherent value, and that humans are not \"superior\" to other species in a moral or ethical sense. The four main pillars of a biocentric outlook are:", "Biocentrism views individual species as parts of the living biosphere. It observes the consequences of reducing biodiversity on both small and large scales and points to the inherent value all species have to the environment. The environment is seen for what it is; the biosphere within which we live and depend on its diversity for our health. From these observations the ethical points are raised.", "Biocentric ethics differs from classical and traditional ethical thinking. Rather than focusing on strict moral rules, as in Classical ethics, it focuses on attitudes and character. In contrast with traditional ethics, it is nonhierarchical and gives priority to the natural world rather than to humankind exclusively. Biocentric ethics includes Albert Schweitzer's ethics of \"Reverence for Life\", Peter Singer's ethics of Animal Liberation and Paul W. Taylor's ethics of biocentric egalitarianism. Albert Schweitzer's \"reverence for life\" principle was a precursor of modern biocentric ethics. In contrast with traditional ethics, the ethics of \"reverence for life\" denies any distinction between \"high and low\" or \"valuable and less valuable\" life forms, dismissing such categorization as arbitrary and subjective. Conventional ethics concerned itself exclusively with human beings—that is to say, morality applied only to interpersonal relationships—whereas Schweitzer's ethical philosophy introduced a \"depth, energy, and function that differ[s] from the ethics that merely involved humans\". \"Reverence for life\" was a \"new ethics, because it is not only an extension of ethics, but also a transformation of the nature of ethics\". Similarly, Peter Singer argues that non-human animals deserve the same equality of consideration that we extend to human beings. His argument is roughly as follows: Singer's work, while notable in the canon of environmental ethics, should not be considered as fully biocentric however. Singer's ethics is extended from humans to nonhuman animals because the criterion for moral inclusion (sentience) is found in both humans and nonhuman animals, thus it would be arbitrary to deny it to nonhuman animals simply because they were not human. However, not all biological entities are sentient, consider: algae, plants and trees, fungi, lichens, mollusks, protozoa, for example. For an ethical theory to be biocentric, it must have a reason for extending ethical inclusion to the entire biosphere (as in Taylor and Schweitzer). The requirement for environmental ethics to move beyond sentience as criteria for inclusion in the moral realm is discussed in Regan. Biocentrism is most commonly associated with the work of Paul W. Taylor, especially his book \"Respect for Nature: A Theory of Environmental Ethics\" (1986). Taylor maintains that biocentrism is an \"attitude of respect for nature\", whereby one attempts to make an effort to live one's life in a way that respects the welfare and inherent worth of all living creatures. Taylor states that: Historian Donald Worster traces today's biocentric philosophies, which he sees as part of a recovery of a sense of kinship between man and nature, to the reaction by the British intelligencia of the Victorian era against the Christian ethic of dominion over nature. He has pointed to Charles Darwin as an important spokesman for the biocentric view in ecological thought and quotes from Darwin's \"Notebook on Transmutation of Species\" (1837): If we choose to let conjecture run wild, then animals, our fellow brethren in pain, diseases, death, suffering and famine—our slaves in the most laborious works, our companions in our amusement—they may partake of our origin in one common ancestor—we may be all netted together. In 1859, Charles Darwin published his book \"On the Origin of Species\". This publication sparked the beginning of biocentrist views by introducing evolution and \"its removal of humans from their supernatural origins and placement into the framework of natural laws\". The work of Aldo Leopold has also been associated with biocentrism. The essay \"The Land Ethic\" in Leopold's book \"Sand County Almanac\" (1949) points out that although throughout history women and slaves have been considered property, all people have now been granted rights and freedoms. Leopold notes that today land is still considered property as people once were. He asserts that ethics should be extended to the land as \"an evolutionary possibility and an ecological necessity\". He argues that while people's instincts encourage them to compete with others, their ethics encourage them to co-operate with others. He suggests that \"the land ethic simply enlarges the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively: the land\". In a sense this attitude would encourage humans to co-operate with the land rather than compete with it. Outside of formal philosophical works biocentric thought is common among pre-colonial tribal peoples who knew no world other than the natural world.", "The paradigm of biocentrism and the values that it promotes are beginning to be used in law. In recent years, cities in Maine, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire and Virginia have adopted laws that protect the rights of nature. The purpose of these laws is to prevent the degradation of nature; especially by corporations who may want to exploit natural resources and land space, and to also use the environment as a dumping ground for toxic waste. The first country to include rights of nature in its constitution is Ecuador (See 2008 Constitution of Ecuador). Article 71 states that nature \"has the right to integral respect for its existence and for the maintenance and regeneration of its life cycles, structure, functions and evolutionary processes\".", "", "In Islam: In Islam, biocentric ethics stem from the belief that all of creation belongs to Allah (God), not humans, and to assume that non-human animals and plants exist merely to benefit humankind leads to environmental destruction and misuse. As all living organisms exist to praise God, human destruction of other living things prevents the earth's natural and subtle means of praising God. The Qur'an acknowledges that humans are not the only all-important creatures and emphasizes a respect for nature. Muhammad was once asked whether there would be a reward for those who show charity to nature and animals, to which he replied, \"for charity shown to each creature with a wet heart [i.e. that is alive], there is a reward.\"", "In Hinduism: Hinduism contains many elements of biocentrism. In Hinduism, humans have no special authority over other creatures, and all living things have souls ('atman'). Brahman (God) is the \"efficient cause\" and Prakrti (nature), is the \"material cause\" of the universe. However, Brahman and Prakrti are not considered truly divided: \"They are one in [sic] the same, or perhaps better stated, they are the one in the many and the many in the one.\" However, while Hinduism does not give the same direct authority over nature that the Judeo-Christian God grants, they are subject to a \"higher and more authoritative responsibility for creation\". The most important aspect of this is the doctrine of Ahimsa (non-violence). The Yājñavalkya Smṛti warns, \"the wicked person who kills animals which are protected has to live in hell fire for the days equal to the number of hairs on the body of that animal\". The essential aspect of this doctrine is the belief that the Supreme Being incarnates into the forms of various species. The Hindu belief in Saṃsāra (the cycle of life, death and rebirth) encompasses reincarnation into non-human forms. It is believed that one lives 84,000 lifetimes before one becomes a human. Each species is in this process of samsara until one attains moksha (liberation). Another doctrinal source for the equal treatment of all life is found in the Rigveda. The Rigveda states that trees and plants possess divine healing properties. It is still popularly believed that every tree has a Vriksa-devata (a tree deity).Trees are ritually worshiped through prayer, offerings, and the sacred thread ceremony. The Vriksa-devata worshiped as manifestations of the Divine. Tree planting is considered a religious duty.", "In Jainism: The Jaina tradition exists in tandem with Hinduism and shares many of its biocentric elements. Ahimsa (non-violence), the central teaching of Jainism, means more than not hurting other humans. It means intending not to cause physical, mental or spiritual harm to any part of nature. In the words of Mahavira: ‘You are that which you wish to harm.’ Compassion is a pillar of non-violence. Jainism encourages people to practice an attitude of compassion towards all life. The principle of interdependence is also very important in Jainism. This states that all of nature is bound together, and that \"if one does not care for nature one does not care for oneself.\". Another essential Jain teaching is self-restraint. Jainism discourages wasting the gifts of nature, and encourages its practitioners to reduce their needs as far as possible. Gandhi, a great proponent of Jainism, once stated \"There is enough in this world for human needs, but not for human wants.\"", "In Buddhism: The Buddha's teachings encourage people \"to live simply, to cherish tranquility, to appreciate the natural cycle of life\". Buddhism emphasizes that everything in the universe affects everything else. \"Nature is an ecosystem in which trees affect climate, the soil, and the animals, just as the climate affects the trees, the soil, the animals and so on. The ocean, the sky, the air are all interrelated, and interdependent—water is life and air is life.\" Although this holistic approach is more ecocentric than biocentric, it is also biocentric, as it maintains that all living things are important and that humans are not above other creatures or nature. Buddhism teaches that \"once we treat nature as our friend, to cherish it, then we can see the need to change from the attitude of dominating nature to an attitude of working with nature—we are an intrinsic part of all existence rather than seeing ourselves as in control of it.\"", "Biocentrism has faced criticism for a number of reasons. Some of this criticism grows out of the concern that biocentrism is an anti-human paradigm and that it will not hesitate to sacrifice human well-being for the greater good. Biocentrism has also been criticized for its individualism; emphasizing too much on the importance of individual life and neglecting the importance of collective groups, such as an ecosystem. A more complex form of criticism focuses on the contradictions of biocentrism. Opposed to anthropocentrism, which sees humans as having a higher status than other species, biocentrism puts humans on a par with the rest of nature, and not above it. In his essay \"A Critique of Anti-Anthropocentric Biocentrism\" Richard Watson suggests that if this is the case, then \"Human ways—human culture—and human actions are as natural as the ways in which any other species of animals behaves\". He goes on to suggest that if humans must change their behavior to refrain from disturbing and damaging the natural environment, then that results in setting humans apart from other species and assigning more power to them. This then takes us back to the basic beliefs of anthropocentrism. Watson also claims that the extinction of species is \"Nature's way\" and that if humans were to instigate their own self-destruction by exploiting the rest of nature, then so be it. Therefore, he suggests that the real reason humans should reduce their destructive behavior in relation to other species is not because we are equals but because the destruction of other species will also result in our own destruction. This view also brings us back to an anthropocentric perspective." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins.", "Industrial Revolution.", "The modern era.", "Governance.", "Politics.", "Coat of arms.", "Freedom of the City.", "Geography.", "Wards and districts.", "Climate.", "Demography.", "Religion.", "Economy.", "Regeneration.", "Infrastructure.", "Leisure.", "Residential.", "Commercial.", "Transport.", "Aviation.", "Bus.", "Rail.", "Modernisation.", "Services.", "Road.", "M4 Motorway.", "Routes.", "City centre.", "Bridges in Newport.", "Notable buildings and structures.", "Shopping.", "City centre.", "Retail parks.", "Education.", "Culture and arts.", "Music and nightlife.", "Parks and playing fields.", "Walking, cycling and leisure sports.", "Sport.", "Rugby.", "Football.", "Golf.", "Cycling.", "Tennis.", "Other sports.", "Annual sporting events.", "Local media.", "Twinning.", "Former relations.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Bronze Age fishermen settled around the fertile estuary of the River Usk and later the Celtic Silures built hillforts overlooking it. In AD 75, on the very edge of their empire, the Roman legions built a Roman fort at Caerleon to defend the river crossing. According to legend, in the late 5th century Saint Gwynllyw (Woolos), the patron saint of Newport and King of Gwynllwg founded the church which would become Newport Cathedral. The church was certainly in existence by the 9th century", "As the Industrial Revolution took off in Britain in the 19th century, the South Wales Valleys became key suppliers of coal from the South Wales Coalfield, and iron. These were transported down local rivers and the new canals to ports such as Newport, and Newport Docks grew rapidly as a result. Newport became one of the largest towns in Wales and the focus for the new industrial eastern valleys of South Wales. By 1830 Newport was Wales' leading coal port, and until the 1850s it was larger than Cardiff. The Newport Rising in 1839 was the last large-scale armed rebellion against authority in mainland Britain. John Frost and 3,000 other Chartists marched on the Westgate Hotel at the centre of the town. The march was met with an attack by militia, called to", "Compared to many Welsh towns, Newport's economy had a broad base, with foundries, engineering works, a cattle market and shops that served much of Monmouthshire. However, the docks were in decline even before the Great Depression, and local unemployment peaked at 34.7% in 1930: high, but not as bad as the levels seen in the mining towns of the South Wales Valleys. Despite the economic conditions, the council re-housed over half the population in the 1920s and 1930s. In 1930 the Town Dock was filled in. The post-war years saw renewed prosperity, with Saint Woolos Cathedral (now Newport Cathedral) attaining full cathedral status in 1949, the opening of the modern", "Newport has long been the largest town in the historic county of Monmouthshire and a county borough between 1891 and 1974. The Local Government Act 1972 removed ambiguity about the legal status of the area by including the administrative county of Monmouthshire and the county borough of Newport into all acts pertaining to Wales. In 1974, the borough was incorporated into the new local government county of Gwent until Newport became a unitary authority again in 1996. Gwent remains in use for ceremonial functions as a preserved county.", "The city is historically industrialised with a large working-class population and a strong support for the Labour Party. Labour lost control of Newport City council in the 2008 local elections to a Conservative/Liberal Democrat coalition but the Labour Party regained an overall majority of councillors in the 2012 election. The City of Newport is divided between the UK Parliamentary constituencies of Newport West and Newport East and elects one Member of Parliament (MP) in each constituency. The two constituencies cover a similar area to that of the city area controlled by Newport City Council. The city formerly had only one constituency until 1983 when the city was split into Newport West and", "The official blazon of the armorial bearings is: \"(arms) Or, a chevron reversed gules, the shield ensigned by a", "The title of Freedom of Newport is a ceremonial honour, given by the Newport council to those who have served", "Newport is located west of London and east of Cardiff. It is the largest urban area within the historic county boundaries of Monmouthshire and the preserved county of Gwent. The City of Newport, which includes rural areas as well as the built up area, is the seventh most populous unitary authority in Wales. The city is largely low-lying, but with a few hilly areas. (Wentwood reaches 310 metres above sea level). Areas in the south and east of the city tend to be flat and fertile with some housing estates and industrial areas reclaimed from marshland. Areas near the banks of the River Usk, such as Caerleon, are also low-lying. The eastern outskirts of the city are characterised by the gently rolling hills of the Vale of Usk and Christchurch has panoramic views of the Vale of Usk and the Bristol Channel. Ridgeway at Allt-yr-yn also has good views of the surrounding areas and Bristol Channel. Brynglas has views over the city centre and Twmbarlwm to the west. The suburbs of the city have grown outwards from the inner-city, mostly near the main roads, giving the suburban sprawl of the city an irregular shape. The urban area is continuing to expand rapidly with new housing estates continuing to be built. The city boundaries include a number of villages in the Newport Built-up area.", "The city is divided into 20 wards. Most of these wards are coterminous with communities (parishes) of the", "Newport has a moderate temperate climate, with the weather rarely staying the same for more than a few days at a time. The city is one of the sunnier locations in Wales and its sheltered location tends to protect it from extreme weather. Like the whole of the British Isles, Newport benefits from the warming effect of the Gulf Stream. Newport has mild summers and cool winters. Thunderstorms may occur intermittently at any time of year, but are", "People from Newport are known as \"Newportonians\". In the 2011 census, 89.9% described themselves as White, 5.5% Asian, 1.7% Black, 1.1% Mixed White/Black, 0.5% Mixed White/Asian and 1.4% as other ethnic groups.", "In 1929 St Woolos Church became the Pro-Cathedral of the Diocese of Monmouth, becoming a full cathedral in 1949. When Rowan Williams was appointed Archbishop of Wales in 2000, the Cathedral became the Metropolitan Cathedral of Wales. In 1850 Newport was recognised as the chief centre of Roman Catholicism in Wales when the town became the seat of the Bishop of Newport and Menevia; however Newport lost its bishop with the creation of the Archdiocese of Cardiff in 1916. Between", "Newport's Travel to Work Area incorporates much of south Monmouthshire; the new 2001-based area also includes Cwmbran. The city itself has three major centres for employment: the city centre, and business parks clustered around the M4 motorway junctions 24 in the east and 28 in the west. Organisations based in the city include Airbus Defence and Space; the headquarters of the Office for National Statistics; the headquarters of the United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office (formerly known as the Patent Office); the General Insurance Division of Lloyds TSB; a large Panasonic manufacturing plant; a manufacturing plant for International Rectifier; the headquarters of insurance comparison site Gocompare; the headquarters of Wales and West Utilities; the shared-service centre for HM Prison Service; the Passport Office for much of the south and west of the UK; and the Wales headquarters of the Charity Commission and British Red Cross. In 2014 Admiral Insurance", "The city has seen major regeneration projects being undertaken in recent years.", "The first stage of regeneration involved improving the city centre road network, turning Kingsway and Queensway into boulevards. The Southern Distributor Road to the south of the city opened in 2004, including the new City Bridge over the River Usk, improving access and opening up new areas for development. The Newport City footbridge opened in 2006 linking the east and west banks of the river for pedestrians and cyclists. Newport railway station was expanded in 2007 to four full size platforms capable of receiving 10 car Intercity Express Programme services to and from London Paddington. In 2010 a new station building was finished, carried out by engineering firm Atkins. During construction it was Wales' most environmentally friendly station work, using a hypermodern green ETFE structure similar to the materials used in the Eden Project and the Beijing Olympics’ ‘Water Cube’. In 2019 railway electrification and resigning work will be completed, completing the 21st-century modernisation of the Great Western main line and", "The Riverfront Arts Centre was the first structure to be built as part of Newport's regeneration by Newport City Council in 2004. It stands on Kingsway", "As a result of the removal of the Severn Bridge toll, Newport has witnessed the fastest growth in property values in the UK, as residents in expensive areas of Bristol have shifted away from South Gloucestershire, to take advantage of the cheaper property. As part of the city's master plan, the city centre has been expanded to take in areas of the River Usk east bank, with the area of land between Newport Bridge and George Street Bridge part of an ongoing a £43 million high-density combined commercial and", "The Newport retail environment faced challenges following the late-2000s recession, with major redevelopment projects were heavily delayed. Friars Walk shopping complex was first planned as a £210m development ahead of the 2010 Ryder Cup, but faced numerous setbacks. The site opened to the public in November 2015 helped by £90m of assistance from Newport Council to the developers, with the Debenhams flagship store. As well as 30 new shops, there are a dozen restaurants and an eight-screen Cineworld multiplex cinema. Plans for redevelopment of the smaller Cambrian Centre were approved in 2012. Building on hosting the Ryder Cup in 2010", "For those travelling west from England into Wales, Newport is the first major urban area one passes through. As a result, it is a convergence point for national road, bus, and rail routes.", "The nearest airport with scheduled domestic and international flights is Cardiff Airport, south west of Newport. The airport is a 35-minute drive away from the city, or a 55 minutes train journey which involves changing at Cardiff Central for Vale of Glamorgan", "Newport bus station is the largest bus interchange in the county, with 24 stands. It was built as part of the adjacent Friars Walk shopping centre and the station opened in December 2015. Bus services are primarily provided by", "Newport is the easternmost Welsh city on the United Kingdom rail network and has close proximity to major economic centres in Cardiff and Bristol. Newport railway station is the third-busiest station in Wales, and due to its interchange options it serves as a major transfer station. The Great Western main railway line connects the city with termini at Bristol, London Paddington, and Pembroke Dock; the Welsh Marches line connects with Holyhead, Manchester Piccadilly, and Llanelli; and the Gloucester line connects the borders region including Cheltenham. The Wessex Main Line also provides an hourly service from the city to Portsmouth. The station has four platforms and is a mandatory stop on all express services to and from London Paddington. The city is well linked with the nearby Welsh capital Cardiff, with approximately six rail and five bus services between the cities every hour. Services to/from Bristol stop at Newport on average 2-3 times per hour while there are nearly 4 services to/from London each hour.", "Rogerstone railway station on the Ebbw Valley Railway reopened in 2008. Services currently run between Ebbw Vale and Cardiff via Rogerstone. Transport for Wales are scheduled to run direct services between Newport and Ebbw Vale by 2021. The current station was built in 2010 in a hypermodern green ETFE structure, after a £22 million refurbishment programme, introducing the futuristic new passenger terminal and bridge, whilst restoring the 19th-century features of the site. The new complex, west of the old station entrance, includes two terminals, four full size platforms, new terminal buildings and a public footbridge, a new passenger footbridge, a", "The services calling at Newport are:", "", "The M4 motorway junctions in and near the city area: The Brynglas Tunnels", "The major west–east A roads are:", "The Old Green Interchange is an elevated roundabout over the A4042 (Heidenheim Drive) at the western end of Newport Bridge. Newport's pedestrianised High Street runs southwest from the interchange through Westgate Square to the pedestrianised Commercial Street. Queensway passes Newport railway station and links the Old Green Interchange to Newport Civic Centre via Clytha Park Road. Kingsway/Usk Way is a boulevard on the west bank of the River Usk linking the Old Green Interchange to the Southern Distributor Road at the western end of City Bridge and to Newport Transporter Bridge. Corporation Road follows the east bank of the River Usk, but with limited views of the river. It links Newport Bridge to George Street Bridge, Newport City Bridge and, via Stephenson Road, Newport Transporter Bridge.", "Newport has twelve public bridges spanning the River Usk, connecting the east and west of the city. From north to south they are: Caerleon Bridge, St. Julian's railway bridge, M4 motorway Usk bridge, Great Western Railway Usk bridge, Newport Bridge,", "\"See the following categories:\" Many of the landmarks of Newport are in Newport city centre", "", "The main shopping streets of Newport city centre are pedestrianised with High Street and Commercial Street forming the north /south axis plus adjoining roads including Newport Arcade, Market Arcade, Skinner Street, Bridge Street, Upper Dock Street, Market Street, Griffin Street, Corn Street, Cambrian Road, Hill Street and Llanarth Street. The five roads of Commercial Street, Stow", "Outside of the city centre large", "The University of South Wales campus is on the west bank of the river Usk in Newport city centre. The university can trace its roots to the founding of the Newport Mechanics Institute in 1841. Newport School of Art, Media and Design was one of the first Art Schools to be awarded degree status in 1973 and enjoyed a high reputation in painting, Fine Art, and sculpture throughout the 1960s and 1970s. It is still highly regarded however, especially in documentary photography. The Fine Art course closed in 2013, its final degree show entitled 'depARTure'. Newport also has the further-education Coleg Gwent City of Newport Campus, informally known as Nash College, in Lliswerry. Brynglas House is currently", "Newport Transporter Bridge is one of the few remaining working bridges of its type in the world and featured in the film Tiger Bay. Visitors can travel on the suspended cradle most days and can walk over the top of the steel framework on bank holidays. The only other British example is Middlesbrough Transporter Bridge. Open days are occasionally held to view the renovation of the historically important Newport Ship. Newport has a modern purpose-built theatre and arts venue, the Riverfront Arts Centre and regular productions at the Dolman Theatre. The city has many works of civic art including: Newport has three major museums: Newport Museum in the city centre and at Caerleon the National Roman Legion Museum and Roman Baths Museum. Newport Central Library is located within Newport Museum. In July each year an Arts festival is held in Caerleon and Roman Military re-enactment in the amphitheatre, the largest restored amphitheatre in Britain. The remains of the Roman baths, barracks and fortress walls of Isca Augusta can be seen at Caerleon. Caerleon also has literary associations to the legend of King Arthur through Geoffrey of Monmouth and later Arthur Machen (who was born in Caerleon) and Alfred Lord Tennyson wrote his Idylls of the King in Caerleon. The Newport Festival runs", "The city centre has many pubs, bars and nightclubs, mostly in the vicinity of High Street. The most famous of these was TJ's, an alternative music club where it is claimed that Kurt Cobain of Nirvana proposed to Courtney Love, which closed in 2010. TJ's was voted one of the top 50 'Big Nights Out' in the world by FHM in December 1997 Newport Centre and the Riverfront Arts Centre are popular concert venues. Other live music venues in the city centre include NEON, Six Feet Under, Le Pub,", "The main municipal parks in Newport are Tredegar Park, Belle Vue Park and Beechwood Park.", "To the south of the city lies the extensive Caldicot and Wentloog Levels and Newport Wetlands Reserve. The Wetlands reserve opened in March 2000 as a mitigation for the loss of mudflats caused by the building of the Cardiff Bay Barrage. A Local Nature Reserve is established at Allt-yr-yn. Newport City footbridge is a cycle and pedestrian bridge in Newport city centre linking the east and west banks of the River Usk. A cycle and pedestrian walkway on the west bank of the River Usk links Newport city centre", "", "The exploits of Newport RFC were world-renowned. One of the few clubs to have beaten all the major southern hemisphere touring sides, they were the only side to beat the Invincible All Blacks of 1963–64. Amongst the names associated with the club are Arthur 'Monkey' Gould, the first rugby union superstar, and David Watkins, the only man to have captained Great Britain at rugby union and rugby league.", "Newport's best known association football club is Newport County, who were formed in 1912 and joined the English Football League in 1920. Newport County have played in the second tier of English football and spent over 60 seasons in the Football League, reached the last 16 of the FA Cup, won the Welsh Cup in 1980 and subsequently reached the quarter-finals of the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1981. They were relegated from the Football League in 1988 and went bankrupt the following year. The club re-formed in 1989. They secured promotion back to the Football League for the 2013–14 season after a 25-year", "The city is home to the Celtic Manor Resort, a five-star conference resort and home of the Wales Open, the annual European Tour golf tournament. The resort was the venue for the All*Star Cup celebrity golf tournament in 2005 and for the 2010 Ryder", "The Newport International Sports Village at Lliswerry", "Newport was a key venue for British Tennis. The 'World Group' Ties", "The Newport International Sports Village has been home to Newport Cricket Club since moving from Rodney Parade in 1990. For many years the city had a motorcycle speedway team Newport Wasps but the team was disbanded in 2012. Newport is one of three main cities where British baseball is still played – the others are Cardiff and Liverpool – and the city hosts an international match every four years at Coronation Park. South East Wales Regional Swimming Pool is located at Newport International Sports Village. Newport Tennis Centre is also located at the complex and is a", "The city is currently home", "Newport's local newspaper is the South Wales Argus, which is published in the city and distributed throughout the city and surrounding area. Local analogue radio broadcasting licences cover the Cardiff/Newport area; the FM licence is held by Cardiff", "Newport has two international twinning links, and one which has been made defunct:", "Newport City Council voted unanimously on 23 July 2019 to effectively end relations with the Guangxi Province region of China. 38,000 people had petitioned the Council to end its twinning", "United Kingdom" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Etymology.", "Ancient interpretations.", "Theology and functions.", "God of beginnings and passages.", "God of change.", "Position in the pantheon.", "Structural peculiarity theory.", "Solar god theories.", "Temples.", "Cult epithets.", "Carmen Saliaref.", "Other sources.", "Pater.", "Geminus.", "Patulcius and Clusivius the 1st.", "Quirinus.", "Ποπάνων (Popanon, Libo?).", "Iunonius.", "Consivius.", "Κήνουλος (Coenulus).", "Curiatius.", "Rites.", "Beginning of the year.", "Beginning of the month.", "Beginning of the day.", "Space.", "Rites of the Salii.", "Tigillum Sororium.", "Myths.", "Origin, legends, and history.", "Distant origin hypothesis.", "2. Religious quality of trees.", "3. The depiction of Janus and Boreas as bifrons.", "4. The sites of the cults of Janus at Rome.", "Relationship with other gods.", "Janus and Juno.", "Janus and Quirinus.", "Janus and Portunus.", "Janus and Vesta.", "Janus in Etruria.", "Association with non-Roman gods.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The name of the god \"Iānus\", meaning in Latin 'arched passage, doorway', stems from Proto-Italic \"*iānu\" ('door'), ultimately from Proto-Indo-European \"*ieh2nu\" ('passage'). It is cognate with Sanskrit \"yāti\" ('to go, travel'), Lithuanian \"jóti\" ('to go, ride'), or Serbo-Croatian \"jàhati\" ('to go').", "Three etymologies were proposed by ancient erudites, each of them bearing implications about the nature of the god. The first one is based on the definition of Chaos given by Paul the Deacon: \"hiantem\", \"hiare\", “be open”, from which the word \"Ianus\" would derive by the loss of the initial aspirate. In this etymology, the notion of Chaos would define the primordial nature of the god. Another etymology proposed by Nigidius Figulus is related by Macrobius: \"Ianus\" would", "While the fundamental nature of Janus is debated, in most modern scholars' view the god's functions may be seen as being organized around a single principle: presiding over all beginnings and transitions, whether abstract or concrete, sacred or profane. Interpretations concerning the god's fundamental nature either limit it to this general function or emphasize a concrete or particular aspect of it (identifying him with light the sun, the moon, time, movement, the year, doorways, bridges etc.) or else see in the god a sort of cosmological principle, interpreting him as a uranic deity. Almost all of these modern explanations were originally formulated by the ancients.", "His function as god of beginnings has been clearly expressed in numerous ancient sources, among them most notably Cicero, Ovid, and Varro. As a god of motion, Janus looks after passages, causes actions to start and presides over all beginnings. Since movement and change are interconnected, he has a double nature, symbolised in his two headed image. He has under his tutelage the stepping in and out of the door of homes, the \"ianua\", which took its name from him, and not vice versa. Similarly, his tutelage extends to the covered passages named \"iani\" and foremost to the gates of the city, including the cultic gate of the \"Argiletum\", named \"Ianus Geminus\" or \"Porta Ianualis\" from which he protects Rome against the Sabines. He is also present at the Sororium Tigillum, where he guards the terminus of the ways into", "Janus frequently symbolized change and transitions such as the progress of past to future, from one condition to another, from one vision to another, and young people's growth to adulthood. He represented time, because he could see into the past", "Leonhard Schmitz suggests that he was likely the most important god in the Roman archaic \"pantheon\". He was often invoked together with \"Iuppiter\" (Jupiter).", "In one of his works G. Dumézil has postulated the existence of a structural difference in level between the Indo-European gods of beginning and ending and the other gods who fall into a tripartite structure, reflecting the most ancient organization of society. So in IE religions there is an introducer god (as Vedic Vâyu and Roman Janus) and a god of ending, a nurturer goddess and a genie of fire (as Vedic Saraswati and Agni, Avestic Armaiti, Anâitâ and Roman Vesta) who show a sort of mutual solidarity: the concept of 'god of ending' is defined in connection to the human referential, i.e. the current situation of man in the universe, and not to endings as transitions, which are under the jurisdiction of", "According to Macrobius who cites Nigidius Figulus and Cicero, \"Janus\" and \"Jana\" (Diana) are a pair of divinities, worshipped as Apollo or the sun and moon, whence Janus received sacrifices before all the others, because through him is apparent the way of access to the desired deity. A similar solar interpretation has been offered by A. Audin who interprets the god as the issue of a long process of development, starting with the Sumeric cultures, from the two solar pillars located on the eastern side of temples, each of them", "Numa built the \"Ianus geminus\" (also \"Janus Bifrons\", \"Janus Quirinus\" or \"Portae Belli\"), a passage ritually opened at times of war, and shut again when Roman arms rested. It formed a walled enclosure with gates at each end, situated between the old Roman Forum and that of Julius Caesar, which had been consecrated by Numa Pompilius himself. About the exact location and aspect of the temple there has been much debate among scholars. In wartime the gates of the Janus were opened, and in its interior sacrifices and \"vaticinia\" were held, to forecast the outcome of military deeds. The doors were closed only during peacetime, an extremely rare event. The function of the Ianus Geminus was supposed to be a sort of good omen: in time of peace it", "Another way of investigating the complex nature of Janus is by systematically analysing his cultic epithets: religious documents may preserve a notion of a deity's theology more accurately than other literary sources. The main sources of Janus's cult epithets are the fragments of the Carmen Saliare preserved by Varro in his work De Lingua Latina, a list preserved in a passage of Macrobius's Saturnalia (I 9, 15–16), another in a passage of Johannes Lydus's De Mensibus (IV 1), a list in Cedrenus's \"Historiarum Compendium\" (I p. 295 7 Bonn), partly dependent on Lydus's, and one in Servius Honoratus's commentary to the \"Aeneis\" (VII 610). Literary works also preserve some of Janus's cult epithets, such as Ovid's long passage of the \"Fasti\" devoted to Janus at the beginning of Book I (89–293), Tertullian, Augustine and Arnobius.", "As may be expected the opening verses of the Carmen, are devoted to honouring Janus, thence were named \"versus ianuli\". Paul the Deacon mentions the \"versus ianuli, iovii, iunonii, minervii\". Only part of the \"versus ianuli\" and two of the \"iovii\" are preserved. The manuscript has: (paragraph 26): \"\"cozeulodorieso. omia ũo adpatula coemisse./ ian cusianes duonus ceruses. dun; ianusue uet põmelios eum recum\"\"; (paragraph 27): \"\"diuum êpta cante diuum deo supplicante.\"\" \"\"ianitos\"\". Many reconstructions have been proposed: they vary widely in dubious", "The above-mentioned sources give: \"Ianus Geminus, I. Pater, I. Iunonius, I. Consivius, I. Quirinus, I. Patulcius and Clusivius\" (Macrobius above I 9, 15): Ι. Κονσίβιον, Ι. Κήνουλον, Ι. Κιβουλλιον, I. Πατρίκιον, I. Κλουσίβιον, I. Ιουνώνιον, I. Κυρινον, I. Πατούλκιον, I. Κλούσιον, I. Κουριάτιον (Lydus above IV 1); I. Κιβούλλιον, I. Κυρινον, I. Κονσαιον, I. Πατρίκιον (Cedrenus \"Historiarum Compendium\" I p. 295 7 Bonn); \"I. Clusiuius, I. Patulcius, I. Iunonius, I. Quirinus\" (Servius \"Aen.\" VII 610). Even though the lists overlap to a certain extent (five", "\"Pater\" is perhaps the most frequent epithet of Janus, found also in the composition \"Ianuspater\". While numerous gods share this cultic epithet it seems the Romans felt it was typically pertinent to Janus. When invoked along with other gods, usually only he is called pater. For Janus the title is not just a term of respect; principally it marks his primordial role. He is", "\"Geminus\" is the first epithet in Macrobius's list. Although the etymology of the word is unclear, it is certainly related to his most typical character, that of having two faces or heads. The proof are the numerous equivalent expressions. The origin of this epithet might be either concrete, referring directly to the image of the god reproduced on coins and supposed to have been introduced by king Numa in the sanctuary at the lowest point", "\"Patulcius\" and \"Clusivius\" or \"Clusius\" are epithets related to an inherent quality and function of doors, that of standing open or shut. Janus as the Gatekeeper has jurisdiction over every kind of door and passage and the power of opening or closing them. Servius interprets Patulcius in the same way. Lydus gives an incorrect translation, \"αντί του οδαιον\" which however reflects one of the attributes of the god, that of being the protector of roads. Elsewhere Lydus cites the epithet", "\"Quirinus\" is a debated epithet. According to some scholars, mostly Francophone, it looks to be strictly related to the ideas of the passage of the Roman people from war back to peace, from the condition of \"miles\", soldier, to that of \"quiris\", citizen occupied in peaceful business, as the rites of the \"Porta Belli\" imply. This is in fact the usual sense of the word \"quirites\" in Latin. Other scholars, mainly Germanophone, think it is related on the contrary to the martial character of the god Quirinus, an interpretation supported by numerous ancient sources: Lydus, Cedrenus, Macrobius, Ovid, Plutarch and Paul the Daecon. Schilling and Capdeville counter that it is his function of presiding over the return to peace that gave Janus this epithet, as confirmed by his association on 30 March with Pax, Concordia and Salus, even though it is true that", "The epithet \"Ποπάνων (Popanōn)\" is attested only by Lydus, who cites Varro as stating that on the day of the kalendae he was offered a cake which earned him this title. There is no surviving evidence", "Janus owes the epithet \"Iunonius\" to his function as patron of all kalends, which are also associated with Juno. In Macrobius's explanation: \"\"Iunonium, as it were, not only does he hold the entry to January, but to all the months: indeed all the kalends are under the jurisdiction of Juno\"\". At the time when the rising of the new moon was observed by the pontifex minor the rex sacrorum assisted by him offered a sacrifice to Janus in the \"Curia Calabra\" while the regina sacrorum sacrificed to Juno in the regia. Some scholars have maintained that Juno was the primitive paredra of the god. This point bears on the nature of Janus", "\"Consivius\", sower, is an epithet that reflects the tutelary function of the god at the first instant of human life and of life in general, conception. This function is a particular case of his function of patron of beginnings. As far as man is concerned it is obviously of the greatest importance, even though both Augustine and some modern scholars see it as minor. Augustine shows astonishment at the fact that some of the dii selecti may be engaged in such tasks: \"\"In fact Janus himself first, when pregnancy is conceived,... opens the way to receiving the semen\"\". Varro on the other hand had clear the relevance of the function of starting a new life by opening the way to the semen and", "\"Κήνουλος (Coenulus) \"and \"Κιβουλλιος (Cibullius)\" are not attested by Latin sources. The second epithet is not to be found in Lydus's manuscripts and is present in Cedrenus along with its explanation concerning food and nurture. The editor of Lydus R. Wünsch has added Cedrenus's passage after Lydus's own explanation of Coenulus", "The epithet \"Curiatius\" is found in association with \"Iuno Sororia\" as designating the deity to which one of the two altars behind the Tigillum Sororium was dedicated. Festus and other ancient authors explain Curiatius by the aetiological legend of the Tigillum: the expiation undergone by P. Horatius after his victory over the Alban Curiatii for the murder of his own sister, by walking under a beam with his head veiled. Capdeville sees this epithet as related exclusively to the characters of the legend and the rite itself: He cites the analysis by Dumézil as his authority. Schilling supposes it was probably a \"sacrum\" originally entrusted to the \"gens Horatia\" that allowed the desacralisation of the \"iuvenes\"", "The rites concerning Janus were numerous. Owing to the versatile and far reaching character of his basic function marking all beginnings and transitions, his presence was ubiquitous and fragmented. Apart from the rites solemnizing the beginning of the new year and of every month, there were the special times of the year which marked the beginning and closing of the military season, in March and October respectively. These included the rite of the \"arma movēre\" on 1 March and that of the \"arma condĕre\" at the end of the month performed by the Salii, and the \"Tigillum Sororium\" on 1 October. Janus Quirinus was closely associated with the anniversaries of the dedications of the temples of Mars on 1 June (a date that corresponded with the festival of Carna, a deity associated with Janus: see below) and of that of Quirinus on 29 June (which was the last day of the month in the pre-Julian calendar). These important rites are discussed in detail below. Any rite or religious act whatever required the invocation of Janus first, with a corresponding invocation to Vesta at the end (\"Janus primus\" and \"Vesta extrema\"). Instances are to be found in the \"Carmen Saliare\", the formula of the devotio, the lustration of the fields and the sacrifice of the \"porca praecidanea\", the \"Acta\" of the Arval Brethren. Although Janus had no flamen, he was closely associated with the rex sacrorum who performed his sacrifices and took part in most of his rites: the \"rex\" held the first place in the ordo sacerdotum, hierarchy of priests. The flamen of Portunus performed the ritual greasing of the spear of the god Quirinus on 17 August, day of the Portunalia, on the same date that the temple of Janus in the Forum Holitorium had been consecrated by consul Gaius Duilius in 260 BC.", "The winter solstice was thought to occur on December 25. On 1 January was new year day: the day was consecrated to Janus since it was the first of the new year and of the month (kalends) of Janus: the \"feria\" had an augural character as Romans believed the beginning of anything was an omen for the whole. Thus on that day it was customary to exchange cheerful words of good wishes. For the same reason everybody devoted a short time", "At the kalends of each month the rex sacrorum and the pontifex minor offered", "Morning belonged to Janus: men started their daily activities and business. Horace calls him \"Matutine", "Janus was also involved in spatial transitions, presiding over home doors, city gates and boundaries. Numerous toponyms of places located at the boundary between the territory of two communities, especially Etrurians and Latins or Umbrians, are named after the god. The most notable instance is the Ianiculum which marked the access to Etruria from Rome. Since borders often coincided with rivers and the border of Rome (and other Italics) with Etruria was the Tiber, it has been argued that its crossing had a religious connotation; it would have involved a set of rigorous apotropaic practices and a devotional attitude. Janus would have", "The rites of the Salii marked the springtime beginning of the war season in March and its closing in October. The structure of the patrician sodalitas, made up by the two groups of the Salii Palatini, who were consecrated to Mars and whose institution was traditionally ascribed to Numa (with headquarter on the Palatine), and the Salii Collini or Agonales, consecrated to Quirinus and whose foundation was ascribed to Tullus Hostilius, (with headquarter on the Quirinal) reflects in its division the dialectic symbolic role they played in the rites of the opening and closing of the military season. So does the legend of their foundation itself: the peace-loving king Numa instituted the Salii of Mars Gradivus, foreseeing the future wars of the", "This rite was supposed to commemorate the expiation of the murder of his own sister by Marcus Horatius. The young hero with his head veiled had to pass under a beam spanning an alley. The rite was repeated every year on 1 October. The \"tigillum\" consisted of a beam on two posts. It was kept in good condition at public expenses to the time of Livy. Behind the \"tigillum\", on opposite sides of the alley, stood the two altars of Janus Curiatius and Juno Sororia. Its location was on the vicus leading to the Carinae, perhaps at the point of the crossing of", "In discussing myths about Janus, one should be careful in distinguishing those which are ancient and originally Latin and those others which were later attributed to him by Greek mythographers. In the \"Fasti\" Ovid relates only the myths that associate Janus with Saturn, whom he welcomed as a guest and with whom he eventually shared his kingdom in reward for teaching the art of agriculture, and to the nymph Crane Grane or Carna, whom Janus raped and made the goddess of hinges as Cardea, while in the \"Metamorphoses\" he records his fathering with Venilia the nymph Canens, loved by Picus, first legendary king of the Aborigines. The myth of Crane has been studied by M. Renard and G. Dumezil. The first scholar sees in it a sort of parallel with the theology underlying the rite of the Tigillum Sororium. Crane is a nymph of the sacred wood of Helernus, located at the issue of the Tiber, whose festival of 1 February corresponded with that of Juno Sospita: Crane might be seen as a minor \"imago\" of the goddess. Her habit of deceiving her male pursuers by hiding in crags in the soil reveals her association not only with vegetation but also with rocks, caverns, and underpassages. Her nature looks to be also associated with vegetation and nurture: G. Dumezil has proved that Helernus was a god of vegetation, vegetative lushness and orchards, particularly associated with vetch. As Ovid writes in his \"Fasti\", 1 June was the festival day of Carna, besides being the kalendary festival of the month of Juno and the festival of Juno Moneta. Ovid seems to purposefully conflate and identify Carna with Cardea in the aetiologic", "In accord with his fundamental character of being the Beginner, Janus was considered by Romans the first king of Latium, sometimes along with Camese. He would have received hospitably the god Saturn, who, expelled from Heaven by Jupiter, arrived on a ship to the Janiculum. Janus would have also effected the miracle of turning the waters of the spring at the foot of the Viminal from cold to scorching hot in order to fend off the assault of the Sabines of king Titus Tatius, come to avenge the kidnapping of their daughters by the Romans. His temple named Janus Geminus had to stand open in times of war. It was said to have been built by king Numa Pompilius, who kept it always shut during his reign as there were no wars. After him it was closed very few times, one after the end of the first Punic War, three times under Augustus and once by Nero. It is recorded that emperor Gordianus III opened the Janus Geminus. It is a noteworthy curiosity that the opening of the Janus was perhaps the last act connected to the ancient religion in Rome: Procopius writes that in 536, during the Gothic War, while general Belisarius was under siege in Rome, at night somebody opened the Janus Geminus stealthily, which had stayed closed since the 390 edict of Theodosius I that banned the ancient cults. Janus was faithful to his liminal role also in the marking of this last act.", "The uniqueness of Janus in Latium has suggested to L. Adams Holland and J. Gagé the hypothesis of a cult brought from far away by sailors and strictly linked to the amphibious life of the primitive communities living on the banks of the Tiber. In the myth of Janus, the ship of Saturn, as well as the myth of Carmenta and Evander are remininscent of an ancient pre-Roman sailing life. The elements that seem to connect Janus to sailing are presented in two articles by J. Gagé summarised here below.", "Trees as the wild olive, and the Greek or Italic lotus (\"Celtis Australis\"), have analogous religious qualities to those of corniolum", "The depiction of both Janus", "The sites of the cults of Janus at Rome and his associations in ancient Latium.", "", "The relationship between Janus and Juno is defined by the closeness of the notions of beginning and transition and the functions of", "Quirinus is a god that incarnates the \"quirites\", i.e. the Romans in their civil capacity of producers and fathers. He is surnamed \"Mars tranquillus\" (peaceful Mars), \"Mars qui praeest paci\" (Mars who presides on peace). His function of \"custos\" guardian is highlighted by the location of his temple inside the pomerium but not far from the gate of Porta Collina or Quirinalis, near the shrines of Sancus and Salus. As a protector", "Portunus may be defined as a sort of duplication inside the scope of the powers and attributes of Janus. His original definition shows he was the god of gates and doors and of harbours. In fact it is debated whether his original function was only that of god of gates and the function of god of harbours was a later addition: Paul the Deacon writes: \"... he is depicted holding a key", "The relationship between Janus and Vesta touches on the question of the nature and function of the gods of beginning and ending in Indo-European religion. While Janus has the first place Vesta has the last, both in theology and in ritual (\"Ianus primus, Vesta extrema\"). The last place implies a direct connexion with the situation of the worshipper, in space and in time. Vesta is thence the goddess of the hearth of", "It has long been believed that Janus was present among the theonyms on the outer rim of the Piacenza Liver in case 3 under the name of Ani. This fact created a problem as the god of beginnings looked to be located in a situation other than the initial, i.e. the first case. After the new readings proposed by A. Maggiani, in case 3 one should read TINS: the difficulty has thus dissolved. Ani has thence been eliminated from Etruscan theology as this was his only attestation. Maggiani remarks that this earlier identification was in contradiction with the testimony ascribed to Varro by Johannes Lydus that Janus was named \"caelum\" among the Etruscans. On the other hand, as expected Janus is present in region I of Martianus Capella's division of Heaven and in region XVI, the last one, are to be found the \"Ianitores terrestres\" (along with Nocturnus), perhaps to be identified in Forculus, Limentinus and Cardea, deities strictly related to Janus as his auxiliaries (or perhaps even no more than concrete subdivisions of his functions) as the meaning of their names implies: Forculus is the god of the \"forca\", a \"iugum\", low passage, Limentinus the guardian of the \"limes\", boundary, Cardea the goddess of hinges, here", "Roman and Greek authors maintained Janus was an exclusively Roman god. This claim is excessive according to R. Schilling, at least as far as iconography is concerned. A god with two faces appears repeatedly in Sumerian and Babylonian art. The ancient Sumerian deity Isimud was commonly portrayed with two faces facing in opposite directions. Sumerian depictions of Isimud are often very similar to the typical portrayals of Janus in ancient Roman art. Unlike Janus, however, Isimud is not a god of doorways. Instead, he is the messenger of Enki, the ancient Sumerian god of water and civilization. Reproductions of the image of Isimud, whose Babylonian name was Usimu, on cylinders in Sumero-Accadic art can to be found in H. Frankfort's work \"Cylinder seals\" (London 1939) especially in plates at p. 106, 123, 132, 133, 137, 165, 245, 247, 254. On plate XXI, c, Usmu is seen while introducing worshippers to a seated god. Janus-like heads of gods related to Hermes have been found in Greece, perhaps suggesting a compound god. William Betham argued that the cult arrived from the Middle East and that Janus corresponds to the \"Baal-ianus\" or Belinus of the Chaldeans, sharing a common origin with the Oannes of Berosus. P. Grimal", "In the Middle Ages, Janus was taken as the symbol of Genoa, whose Medieval Latin name was \"Ianua\", as well as of other European communes. The \"comune\" of Selvazzano di Dentro near Padua has a grove and an altar of Janus depicted on its standard, but their existence is unproved. In Act I Scene 1 of Shakespeare's \"Merchant of Venice\" Salarino refers to the two headed Janus while failing to find the reason of Antonio's melancholy. As well, in Act I Scene 2 of Shakespeare's \"Othello\", Iago invokes the name of Janus after the failure of his plot to undo the titular character. In her 1921 book \"The Witch-Cult In Western Europe\", folklorist Margaret Murray claimed that evidence found in records of the early modern witch trials showed the witches' god, usually identified in the records as the Devil, was in fact often a male priest dressed in a double mask representing Janus. Murray traced the presence of a man dressed with a mask on the back of his head at some witch meetings to confessions of accused witches in the Pyrenees region, and one statement in particular that the leader of the witches appeared \"\"comme le dieu Janus\"\" (\"as the god Janus\"). Via the etymology given by James Frazier, Murray further connected the figure on Janus or Dianus in the witch-cult with the more well known goddess of witchcraft, Diana. Both Murray's contemporaries and modern scholars have argued that Murray's hypothesis and the connections she drew between Janus and Diana, and linking the early modern witch trials with ancient pagan beliefs, are dubious. The Janus Society was an early homophile organization founded in 1962 and based in Philadelphia. It is notable as the publisher of \"DRUM\" magazine, one of the earliest gay-interest publications in the United States and most widely circulated in the 1960s, and for its role in organizing many of the nation's earliest gay rights demonstrations. The organization focused on a policy of militant respectability, a strategy demanding respect by showing the public gay individuals conforming to hetero-normative standards of dress at protests. The Society of Janus is the second BDSM organization founded in the United States (after The Eulenspiegel Society), and is a San Francisco, California based BDSM education and support group. It was founded in August 1974 by the late Cynthia Slater and Larry Olsen. According to the Leather Hall of Fame biography of Slater, she said of the Society of Janus, \"\"There were three basic reasons why we chose Janus. First of all, Janus has two faces, which we interpreted as the duality of SM (one’s dominant and submissive sides). Second, he’s the Roman god of portals, and more importantly, of beginnings and endings. To us, it represents the beginning of one’s acceptance of self, the beginning of freedom from guilt, and the eventual ending of self-loathing and fear over one’s SM desires. And third, Janus is the Roman god of war--the war we fight against stereotypes commonly held against us\".\" In the 1987 thriller novel \"The Janus Man\" by British novelist Raymond Harold Sawkins, Janus is used as a metaphor for a Soviet agent infiltrated into British Secret Intelligence Service – \"The Janus Man who faces both East and West\". In the 1995 spy film \"GoldenEye\" in the James Bond film series, main antagonist Alec Trevelyan calls himself code name \"Janus\" after he betrays Bond and subsequently M16 after learning he is a Lienz Cossack. Bond, portrayed by Pierce Brosnan, goes on to state \"Hence, Janus. The two-faced Roman god come to life\" after learning of Trevelyan's betrayal. The University of Maryland's undergraduate history journal, created in 2000, is named \"Janus\". Cats with the congenital disorder Diprosopus, which causes the face to be partly or completely duplicated on the head, are known as Janus cats. In 2020, the character Deceit from the series \"Sanders Sides\", created by Thomas Sanders, in the episode \"Putting Others First\", revealed his name to be Janus." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Historical context.", "Duke of Berry.", "Provenance.", "Recent history.", "Artists.", "The Limbourg brothers.", "Jean Colombe.", "The Intermediate Painter.", "Attribution of the calendar miniatures.", "Function.", "Calendar gallery.", "Technique.", "Vellum.", "Illustrations.", "Contents.", "Stylistic analysis." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The \"Golden Age\" of the book of hours in Europe took place from 1350–1480; the book of hours became popular in France around 1400 (Longnon, Cazelles and Meiss 1969). At this time many major French artists undertook manuscript illumination.", "John, Duke of Berry, is the French prince for whom the \"Très Riches Heures\" was made. Berry was the third son of the future king of France, John the Good, and the brother and uncle of the next two kings. Little is known of Berry’s education, but it is certain that he spent his adolescence among arts and literature (Cazelles and Rathofer 1988). The young prince lived an extravagant life, necessitating frequent loans. He commissioned many works of art, which he amassed in his Saint Chapelle mansion. Upon Berry’s death in 1416, a final inventory was done on his estate that described the incomplete and unbound gatherings of the book as the \"très riches heures\" (\"very rich[ly decorated] hours\") to distinguish it from the 15 other books of hours in Berry's collection, including the Belles Heures (\"beautiful hours\") and Petites Heures (\"little hours\") (Cazelles and Rathofer 1988).", "The Très Riches Heures has changed ownership many times since its creation. The gatherings were certainly in Berry's estate on his death in 1416, but after this little is clear until 1485. A good deal is known about the lengthy and messy disposal of Berry's goods to satisfy his many creditors, which was disrupted by the insanity of the king and the Burgundian and English occupation of Paris, but there are no references to the manuscript. It seems to have been in Paris for much of this period, and probably earlier; some borders suggest the style of the Parisian Bedford Master's workshop, and works from the 1410s to the 1440s by the Bedford workshop — later taken over by the Dunois Master — use border designs from other pages, suggesting that the manuscript was available for copying in Paris. Duke Charles I of Savoy acquired the manuscript, probably as a gift, and commissioned Jean Colombe to complete the manuscript around 1485–1489. Sixteenth-century Flemish artists imitated the figures or entire compositions found in the calendar (Cazelles and Rathofer 1988). The manuscript belonged to Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy (1480–1530), Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands from 1507 to 1515 and again from 1519 to 1530. After this its history is unknown until the 18th century, when it was given its present bookbinding with the arms of the Serra family of Genoa, Italy. It was inherited from the Serras by Baron Felix de Margherita of Turin and Milan. The French Orleanist pretender, Henri d'Orléans, Duke of Aumale, then in exile at Twickenham near London, bought it from the baron in 1856. On his return to France in 1871 Aumale placed it in his library at the Château de Chantilly, which he bequeathed to the Institut de France as the home of the Musée Condé.", "When Aumale saw the manuscript in Genoa he was able to recognize it as a commission of Berry, probably because he was familiar with a set of plates of other manuscripts of Berry published in 1834, and subsidized by the government of the duke's father, King Louis Philippe I. Aumale gave the German art historian Gustav Friedrich Waagen breakfast and a private view of the manuscript at Orleans House, just in time for a 10-page account to appear in Waagen's \"Galleries and Cabinets of Art in Great Britain\" in 1857, so beginning its rise to fame. He also exhibited it in 1862 to the members of the Fine Arts Club. The connection with the \"très riches heures\" listed in the 1416 inventory was made by Léopold Victor Delisle of the Bibliothèque nationale de France and communicated to Aumale in 1881, before being published in 1884 in the \"Gazette des Beaux-Arts\"; it has never been seriously disputed. The manuscript took pride of place in a three-part article on all of Berry's manuscripts then known, and was the only one illustrated, with four plates in heliogravure. However the manuscript was called the \"Grandes Heures du duc de Berry\" in this, a title now given to another manuscript, based on its larger page size. The name \"Heures de Chantilly\" was also used in the next decades. A monograph with 65 heliogravure plates was published by Paul Durrieu in 1904, to coincide with a major exhibition of French Gothic art in Paris where it was exhibited in the form of 12 plates from the Durrieu monograph, as the terms of Aumale's bequest forbade its removal from Chantilly. The work became increasingly famous, and increasingly reproduced. The first colour reproductions, using the technique of photogravure, appeared in 1940 in the French art quarterly \"Verve\". Each issue of this lavish magazine cost three hundred francs. In January 1948, the very popular American photo-magazine \"Life\" published a feature with full-page reproductions of the 12 calendar scenes, at a little larger than their actual size but at very low-quality. Catering to American sensibilities of the time, the magazine censored one of the images by retouching the genitals of the peasant in the February scene. The Musée Condé decided in the 1980s, somewhat controversially, to remove the manuscript completely both from public display and scholarly access, replacing it with copies of a complete modern facsimile. Michael Camille argues that this completes the logic of the reception history of a work that has almost entirely become famous through reproductions of its images, with the most famous images having been seen in the original by only a very small number of people.", "There has been much debate regarding the identity and number of artists who contributed to the Très Riches Heures.", "In 1884, Léopold Delisle correlated the manuscript with the description of an item in an inventory drawn up after Berry's death: \"several gatherings of a very rich book of hours [\"très riches heures\"], richly historiated and illuminated, that Pol [Paul] and his brothers made\". Delisle's resulting attribution to Paul de Limbourg and his two brothers, Jean and Herman, \"has received general acceptance and also provided the manuscript with its name.\" The three Limbourg brothers had originally worked under the supervision of Berry’s brother, Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, on a Bible Moralisée and had come to work for Berry after Philip’s death. By 1411, the Limbourgs were permanent members of Berry's household (Cazelles and Rathofer 1988). It is also generally agreed that another of Berry's books of hours, the Belles Heures, completed between 1408 and 1409, can also be attributed to the brothers. It is thought that the Limbourg contribution to the Très Riches Heures was between about 1412 and their deaths in 1416. Documentation from 1416 was found indicating that Jean, followed by Paul and Herman, had died. Jean de Berry died later that year (Cazelles and Rathofer 1988). Apart from the main campaign of illumination, the text, border decorations, and gilding were most likely executed by assistants or specialists who remain unknown. The choice of castles in the calendar is one factor in the dating of the brothers' contribution. The Château of Bicêtre, just outside Paris, was one of Berry's grandest residences, but does not appear in the calendar. It seems likely that this was because no image had been created by October 1411, when a large mob from Paris looted it and set it on fire in the Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War. However the châteaux at Dourdan (April) and Étampes (July) are both shown, although Berry lost them to the Burgundians at the end of 1411, with Étampes being badly damaged in the siege.", "Folio 75 of the Très Riches Heures includes Duke Charles I of Savoy and his wife. The two were married in 1485 and the Duke died in 1489, implying that it was not one of the original folios. The second painter was identified by Paul Durrieu as Jean Colombe, who was paid 25 gold pieces by the Duke to complete certain canonical hours (Cazelles and Rathofer 1988). There were some miniatures which were incomplete and needed filling in, for example, the foreground figures and faces of the miniature illustrating the Office of the Dead, known as the \"Funeral of \". There are other subtle differences between the miniatures created by the Limbourgs and Colombe. Colombe chose to set large miniatures in frames of marble and gold columns. His faces are less delicate, with more pronounced features. He also used a very intense blue paint that is seen in the landscape of some miniatures. Colombe is worked in his own style without attempting to imitate that of the Limbourgs (Cazelles and Rathofer 1988). In folio 75 he followed the Limbourgs by including a depiction of one of his patron's castles in the Duchy of Savoy in the landscape background.", "The \"intermediate painter\", also called the Master of the Shadows, as shadows are an element of his style, is often thought to be Barthélemy van Eyck (strictly the miniaturist known as the Master of René of Anjou, who is now normally identified with the documented painter Barthélemy van Eyck) who would probably have been at work in the 1440s. Other scholars put his work as early as the 1420s, though there is no documentation for this. At any rate, the intermediate artist is assumed to have worked on the manuscript sometime between 1416 and 1485. Evidence from the artistic style, as well as the details of costume, suggests that the Limbourgs did not paint some of the calendar miniatures. Figures in the miniatures for January, April, May, and August are dressed in styles from 1420. The figures strolling in October are dressed in a sober fashion indicative of the mid-fifteenth century. It is known that the gatherings fell into hands of King Charles VII after Berry's death, and it is assumed that the intermediate painter is associated with his court (Cazelles and Rathofer 1988). Catherine Reynolds, in an article of 2005, approached the dating of the \"intermediate painter\"'s work through the borrowings from it visible in the work of other Parisian illuminators, and placed it in the late 1430s or at the start of the 1440s. This is inconveniently early for what she describes as the \"generally accepted\" identification with Barthélemy van Eyck, and in any case she detects a number of stylistic differences between van Eyck and the \"intermediate painter.\" Jonathan Alexander sees no stylistic need to hypothesize an intermediate painter at all.", "The artists of the calendar miniatures have been identified as follows (Cazelles and Rathofer 1988): Pognon gives the following breakdown of the main miniatures in the Calendar, using more cautious stylistic names for the artists: In addition Pognon identifies the \"pious painter\" who painted many of the religious scenes later in the book during the initial campaign. The \"courtly\", \"rustic\" and \"pious\" painters would probably equate to the three Limbourg brothers, or perhaps other artists in their workshop. There are alternative analyses and divisions proposed by other specialists.", "A breviary consists of a number of prayers and readings in a short form, generally for use by the clergy. The book of hours is a simplified form of breviary designed for use by the laity where the prayers are intended for recital at the canonical hours of the liturgical day. Canonical hours refer to the division of day and night for the purpose of prayers. The regular rhythm of reading led to the term \"book of hours\".(Cazelles and Rathofer 1988) The book of hours consists of prayers and devotional exercises, freely arranged into primary, secondary and supplementary texts. Other than the calendar at the beginning, the order is random and can be customized for the recipient or region. The Hours of the Virgin were regarded as the most important, and therefore subject to the most lavish illustration. The Très Riches Heures is rare in that it includes several miracles performed before the commencement of the passion (Cazelles and Rathofer 1988).", "Fuller descriptions are available at a University of Chicago website.", "", "The parchment or vellum used in the 206 folios is fine quality calfskin. All bi-folios are complete rectangles and the edges are unblemished and therefore must have been cut from the centre of skins of sufficient size. The folios measure 30 cm in height by 21.5 cm in width, although the original size was larger as evidenced by several cuts into the miniatures. The tears and natural flaws in the vellum are infrequent and almost go unnoticed (Cazelles and Rathofer 1988).", "The ground colors were moistened with water and thickened with either gum Arabic or tragacanth gum. Approximately ten shades are used besides white and black. The detailed work required extremely small brushes and probably a lens (Longnon, Cazelles and Meiss 1969).", "The contents of the book are typical of those of a book of hours, though the quantity of illumination is extremely unusual.", "The Limbourg brothers had artistic freedom but worked within a framework of the religious didactic manuscript. Several artistic innovations by the Limbourg brothers can be noticed in the Très Riches Heures. In the October miniature, the study of light was momentous for Western painting (Cazelles and Rathofer 1988). People were shown reflected in the water, the earliest representation of this type of reflection known thus far. Miniature scenes had new informality, with no strong framing forms at the edges. This allowed for continuity beyond the frame of view to be vividly defined. The Limbourgs developed a more naturalistic mode of representation and developed portraiture of people and surroundings. Religious figures do not inhabit free open space and courtiers are framed by vegetation. This is reminiscent of a more classical representation (Longnon, Cazelles and Meiss 1969). Some conventions used by the Limbourgs, such as a diaper background or the portrayal of night, were influenced by artists such as Taddeo Gaddi. These conventions were transformed completely into the artist's unique interpretation (Longnon, Cazelles and Meiss 1969). Manion offers a stylistic analysis of the psalter specifically. The psalters offer a systematic program of illuminations corresponding to the individual psalms. These images are linked together, but are not in the numerical order of the psalter. This emphasizes the idea of the abbreviated psalter, where each psalm is illustrated once (Manion 1995). The miniatures are not modeled on any specific visual or literary precedence when compared with other fourteenth century psalters. The manuscript offers a literal interpretation of the words and lacks a selection of more personal prayers. This emphasizes the didactic use of the book of hours (Manion 1995)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Principles.", "Realisation.", "Base and derived unit structure.", "Decimal ratios.", "Prefixes for multiples and submultiples.", "Coherence.", "Rationalisation.", "Common metric systems.", "Gaussian second and the first mechanical system of units.", "Centimetre–gram–second systems.", "The EMU, ESU and Gaussian systems of electrical units.", "International System of Electrical and Magnetic Units.", "Other early electromagnetic systems of units.", "MKS and MKSA systems.", "Metre–tonne–second systems.", "Gravitational systems.", "International System of Units." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The French revolution (1789-99) provided an opportunity for the French to reform their unwieldy and archaic system of many local weights and measures. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand championed a new system based on natural units, proposing to the French National Assembly in 1790 that such a system be developed. Talleyrand had ambitions that a new natural and standardised system would be embraced worldwide, and was keen to involve other countries in its development. Great Britain ignored invitations to co-operate, so the French Academy of Sciences decided in 1791 to go it alone and they set up a commission for the purpose. The commission decided that the standard of length should be based on the size of the Earth. They defined that length to be the'metre' and its length as one ten-millionth of the length of a quadrant on the Earth's surface from the equator to the north pole. In 1799, after the length of that quadrant had been surveyed, the new system was launched in France. The units of the metric system, originally taken from observable features of nature, are now defined by seven physical constants being given exact numerical values in terms of the units. In the modern form of the International System of Units (SI), the seven base units are: \"metre\" for length, \"kilogram\" for mass, \"second\" for time, \"ampere\" for electric current, \"kelvin\" for temperature, \"candela\" for luminous intensity and \"mole\" for amount of substance. These, together with their derived units, can measure any physical quantity. Derived units may have their own unit name, such as the watt (J/s) and lux (cd/m), or may just be expressed as combinations of base units, such as velocity (m/s) and acceleration (m/s). The metric system was designed to have properties that make it easy to use and widely applicable, including units based on the natural world, decimal ratios, prefixes for multiples and sub-multiples, and a structure of base and derived units. It is also a coherent system, which means that its units do not introduce conversion factors not already present in equations relating quantities. It has a property called \"rationalisation\" that eliminates certain constants of proportionality in equations of physics. The metric system is extensible, and new derived units are defined as needed in fields such as radiology and chemistry. For example, the katal, a derived unit for catalytic activity equivalent to a one mole per second (1 mol/s), was added in 1999.", "Although the metric system has changed and developed since its inception, its basic concepts have hardly changed. Designed for transnational use, it consisted of a basic set of units of measurement, now known as base units. Derived units were built up from the base units using logical rather than empirical relationships while multiples and submultiples of both base and derived units were decimal-based and identified by a standard set of prefixes.", "The base units used in a measurement system must be realisable. Each of the definitions of the base units in the SI is accompanied by a defined \"mise en pratique\" [practical realisation] that describes in detail at least one way in which the base unit can be measured. Where possible, definitions of the base units were developed so that any laboratory equipped with proper instruments would be able to realise a standard without reliance on an artefact held by another country. In practice, such realisation is done under the auspices of a mutual acceptance arrangement. In the SI, the standard metre is defined as exactly 1/299,792,458 of the distance that light travels in a second. The realisation of the metre depends in turn on precise realisation of the second. There are both astronomical observation methods and laboratory measurement methods that are used to realise units of the standard metre. Because the speed of light is now exactly defined in terms of the metre, more precise measurement of the speed of light does not result in a more accurate figure for its velocity in standard units, but rather a more accurate definition of the metre. The accuracy of the measured speed of light is considered to be within 1 m/s, and the realisation of the metre is within about 3 parts in 1,000,000,000, or a proportion of 0.3x10:1. The kilogram was originally defined as the mass of a man-made artefact of platinum-iridium held in a laboratory in France, until the new definition was introduced in May 2019. Replicas made in 1879 at the time of the artefact's fabrication and distributed to signatories of the Metre Convention serve as \"de facto\" standards of mass in those countries. Additional replicas have been fabricated since as additional countries have joined the convention. The replicas were subject to periodic validation by comparison to the original, called the IPK. It became apparent that either the IPK or the replicas or both were deteriorating, and are no longer comparable: they had diverged by 50 μg since fabrication, so figuratively, the accuracy of the kilogram was no better than 5 parts in a hundred million or a proportion of 5x10:1. The accepted redefinition of SI base units replaced the IPK with an exact definition of the Planck constant, which defines the kilogram in terms of the second and metre.", "The metric system base units were originally adopted because they represented fundamental orthogonal dimensions of measurement corresponding to how we perceive nature: a spatial dimension, a time dimension, one for inertia, and later, a more subtle one for the dimension of an \"invisible substance\" known as electricity or more generally, electromagnetism. One and only one unit in each of these dimensions was defined, unlike older systems where multiple perceptual quantities with the same dimension were prevalent, like inches, feet and yards or ounces, pounds and tons. Units for other quantities like area and volume, which are also spatial dimensional quantities, were derived from the fundamental ones by logical relationships, so that a unit of square area for example, was the unit of length squared. Many derived units were already in use before and during the time the metric system evolved, because they represented convenient abstractions of whatever base units were defined for the system, especially in the sciences. So analogous units were scaled in terms of the units of the newly established metric system, and their names adopted into the system. Many of these were associated with electromagnetism. Other perceptual units, like volume, which were not defined in terms of base units, were incorporated into the system with definitions in the metric base units, so that the system remained simple. It grew in number of units, but the system retained a uniform structure.", "Some customary systems of weights and measures had duodecimal ratios, which meant quantities were conveniently divisible by 2, 3, 4, and 6. But it was difficult to do arithmetic with things like pound or foot. There was no system of notation for successive fractions: for example, of of a foot was not an inch or any other unit. But the system of counting in decimal ratios did have notation, and the system had the algebraic property of multiplicative closure: a fraction of a fraction, or a multiple of a fraction was a quantity in the system, like of which is. So a decimal radix became the ratio between unit sizes of the metric system.", "In the metric system, multiples and submultiples of units follow a decimal pattern. A common set of decimal-based prefixes that have the effect of multiplication or division by an integer power of ten can be applied to units that are themselves too large or too small for practical use. The concept of using consistent classical (Latin or Greek) names for the prefixes was first proposed in a report by the French Revolutionary Commission on Weights and Measures in May 1793. The prefix \"kilo\", for example, is used to multiply the unit by 1000, and the prefix \"milli\" is to indicate a one-thousandth part of the unit. Thus the \"kilogram\" and \"kilometre\" are a thousand grams and metres respectively, and a \"milligram\" and \"millimetre\" are one thousandth of a gram and metre respectively. These relations can be written symbolically as: In the early days, multipliers that were positive powers of ten were given Greek-derived prefixes such as \"kilo-\" and \"mega-\", and those that were negative powers of ten were given Latin-derived prefixes such as \"centi-\" and \"milli-\". However, 1935 extensions to the prefix system did not follow this convention: the prefixes \"nano-\" and \"micro-\", for example have Greek roots. During the 19th century the prefix \"myria-\", derived from the Greek word μύριοι (\"mýrioi\"), was used as a multiplier for. When applying prefixes to derived units of area and volume that are expressed in terms of units of length squared or cubed, the square and cube operators are applied to the unit of length including the prefix, as illustrated below. Prefixes are not usually used to indicate multiples of a second greater than 1; the non-SI units of minute, hour and day are used instead. On the other hand, prefixes are used for multiples of the non-SI unit of volume, the litre (l, L) such as millilitres (ml).", "Each variant of the metric system has a degree of coherence—the derived units are directly related to the base units without the need for intermediate conversion factors. For example, in a coherent system the units of force, energy and power are chosen so that the equations hold without the introduction of unit conversion factors. Once a set of coherent units have been defined, other relationships in physics that use those units will automatically be true. Therefore, Einstein's mass–energy equation,, does not require extraneous constants when expressed in coherent units. The CGS system had two units of energy, the erg that was related to mechanics and the calorie that was related to thermal energy; so only one of them (the erg) could bear a coherent relationship to the base units. Coherence was a design aim of SI, which resulted in only one unit of energy being defined – the joule.", "Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism contained a factor relating to steradians, representative of the fact that electric charges and magnetic fields may be considered to emanate from a point and propagate equally in all directions, i.e. spherically. This factor appeared awkwardly in many equations of physics dealing with the dimensionality of electromagnetism and sometimes other things.", "A number of different metric system have been developed, all using the \"Mètre des Archives\" and \"Kilogramme des Archives\" (or their descendants) as their base units, but differing in the definitions of the various derived units.", "In 1832, Gauss used the astronomical second as a base unit in defining the gravitation of the earth, and together with the gram and millimetre, became the first system of mechanical units.", "The centimetre–gram–second system of units (CGS) was the first coherent metric system, having been developed in the 1860s and promoted by Maxwell and Thomson. In 1874, this system was formally promoted by the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS). The system's characteristics are that density is expressed in, force expressed in dynes and mechanical energy in ergs. Thermal energy was defined in calories, one calorie being the energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 15.5 °C to 16.5 °C. The meeting also recognised two sets of units for electrical and magnetic properties – the electrostatic set of units and the electromagnetic set of units.", "Several systems of electrical units were defined following discovery of Ohm's law in 1824.", "The CGS units of electricity were cumbersome to work with. This was remedied at the 1893 International Electrical Congress held in Chicago by defining the \"international\" ampere and ohm using definitions based on the metre, kilogram and second.", "During the same period in which the CGS system was being extended to include electromagnetism, other systems were developed, distinguished by their choice of coherent base unit, including the Practical System of Electric Units, or QES (quad–eleventhgram–second) system, was being used. Here, the base units are the quad, equal to (approximately a quadrant of the earth's circumference), the eleventhgram, equal to, and the second. These were chosen so that the corresponding electrical units of potential difference, current and resistance had a convenient magnitude.", "In 1901, Giovanni Giorgi showed that by adding an electrical unit as a fourth base unit, the various anomalies in electromagnetic systems could be resolved. The metre–kilogram–second–coulomb (MKSC) and metre–kilogram–second–ampere (MKSA) systems are examples of such systems. The International System of Units (\"Système international d'unités\" or SI) is the current international standard metric system and is also the system most widely used around the world. It is an extension of Giorgi's MKSA system – its base units are the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, candela and mole. The MKS (metre–kilogram–second) system came into existence in 1889, when artefacts for the metre and kilogram were fabricated according to the Metre Convention. Early in the 20th century, an unspecified electrical unit was added, and the system was called MKSX. When it became apparent that the unit would be the ampere, the system was referred to as the MKSA system, and was the direct predecessor of the SI.", "The metre–tonne–second system of units (MTS) was based on the metre, tonne and second – the unit of force was the sthène and the unit of pressure was the pièze. It was invented in France for industrial use and from 1933 to 1955 was used both in France and in the Soviet Union.", "Gravitational metric systems use the kilogram-force (kilopond) as a base unit of force, with mass measured in a unit known as the hyl, \"Technische Masseneinheit\" (TME), mug or metric slug. Although the CGPM passed a resolution in 1901 defining the standard value of acceleration due to gravity to be 980.665 cm/s, gravitational units are not part of the International System of Units (SI).", "The International System of Units is the modern metric system. It is based on the metre–kilogram–second–ampere (MKSA) system of units from early in the 20th century. It also includes numerous coherent derived units for common quantities like power (watt) and irradience (lumen). Electrical units were taken from the International system then in use. Other units like those for energy (joule) were modelled on those from the older CGS system, but scaled to be coherent with MKSA units. Two additional base units, \"degree Kelvin\" equivalent to degree Celsius for thermodynamic temperature, and \"candela\", roughly equivalent to the international candle unit of illumination, were introduced. Later, another base unit, the \"mole\", a unit of mass equivalent to Avogadro's number of specified molecules, was added along with several other derived units. The system was promulgated by the General Conference on Weights and Measures (French: \"Conférence générale des poids et mesures\" – CGPM) in 1960. At that time, the metre was redefined in terms of the wavelength of a spectral line of the krypton-86 atom, and the standard metre artefact from 1889 was retired. Today, the International system of units consists of 7 base units and innumerable coherent derived units including 22 with special names. The last new derived unit, the \"katal\" for catalytic activity, was added in 1999. Some of the base units are now realised in terms of invariant constants of physics. As a consequence, the speed of light has now become an exactly defined constant, and defines the metre as of the distance light travels in a second. Until 2019, the kilogram was defined by a man-made artefact of deteriorating platinum-iridium. The range of decimal prefixes has been extended to those for 10, \"yotta\", and 10, \"yocto\", which are unfamiliar because nothing in our everyday lives is that big or that small. The International System of Units has been adopted as the official system of weights and measures by all nations in the world except for Myanmar, Liberia, and the United States, while the United States is the only industrialised country where the metric system is not the predominant system of units." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Principles.", "Development.", "Sources.", "Science.", "Philosophy.", "Aspects.", "Environmental education.", "Spirituality.", "Criticisms.", "Eurocentric bias.", "Knowledge of non-human interests.", "Deepness.", "Misanthropy, genocide.", "Sciencism.", "Links with other philosophies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In his original 1973 deep ecology paper, Arne Næss claims to have been inspired by scientists – ecologists – who were studying the ecosystems throughout the world. Three people in the 1960s who were considered foundational to the movement in a 2014 essay by George Sessions were author and conservationist Rachel Carson, environmentalist David Brower, and the biologist Paul R. Ehrlich. He considers the publication of Carson's 1962 book \"Silent Spring\" as the beginning of the contemporary deep ecology movement. Other events in the 1960s which have been proposed as foundational to the movement are the formation of Greenpeace, and the images of the Earth floating in space taken by the Apollo astronauts.", "Deep ecology borrows and redefines the word ecology to mean, not its conventional scientific meaning, but as a social movement based on a holistic vision of the world. Deep ecologists hold that the survival of any part is dependent upon the well-being of the whole. This offers a philosophical basis for environmentalism. Deep ecologists criticise the biblical assumption of human superiority over other life forms, and hold that this traditional idea that the environment exists to serve humanity is not traditional. Deep ecology repudiates an anthropocentric view. Proponents of deep ecology believe that the world does not exist as a natural resource to be freely exploited by humans. They believe a new economic system must replace modern capitalism because material goods do not guarantee happiness beyond a very moderate level, and over-consumption is endangering the environment. Deep ecologists hope to influence social and political change through their philosophy. Deep ecology claims that ecosystems can absorb only limited change, and contends that civilization threatens the \"natural\" state of the environment through biodiversity loss, climate change, and other influences. Næss proposed, as Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke writes in his work on neo-nazism, \"that the earth's human population should be reduced to about 100 million.\" Deep ecology is viewed as politically extreme. In 1985 Bill Devall and Sessions summed up their understanding of the concept of deep ecology with the following eight points: A more mainstream encyclopaedia of environmentalism describes the tenets of the movement as:", "The phrase \"deep ecology\" was adapted from a 1973 article by the Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss, who himself used the term ecosophy. Næss rejected the idea that beings can be ranked according to their relative value. For example, judgements on whether an animal has an eternal soul, whether it uses reason or whether it has consciousness or higher consciousness have all been used to justify the ranking of the human animal as superior to other animals. Næss states that from a Deep Ecological point of view \"the right of all forms [of life] to live is a universal right which cannot be quantified. No single species of living being has more of this particular right to live and unfold than any other species\". Several actors played a role in its development. Joseph W. Meeker introduced Sessions to the works of his acquaintance Arne Næss in 1973. Warwick Fox relates that \"one of the things that initially interested Sessions about Næss was Næss's strong interest in... Spinoza\". Sessions wrote to Næss, beginning a lifelong association.", "", "In their 1985 book Devall and Sessions identify the science of ecology as a source of deep ecology; they cite its contribution to the sense that \"everything is connected to everything else\". The Gaia hypothesis was also an influence on the deep ecology movement, though this hypothesis has little to no scientific support Apart from these simplistic associations, there appears to have been little influence of scientific sources on Deep Ecology.", "Arne Næss used Baruch Spinoza as a source, particularly his notion that everything that exists is part of a single reality. Others have copied Næss in this, including Eccy de Jonge and Brenden MacDonald.", "", "In 2010 Richard Kahn promoted the movement of ecopedagogy, proposing using radical environmental activism as an educational principle to teach students to support \"earth democracy\" which promotes the voting rights of animals, plants, fungi, algae and bacteria. In a 2015 article Helen Kopnina advocated teaching deep ecology principles as a form of ecopedagogy to promote patriotism and civic and environmental responsibility in the younger generation in most educational fields by promoting it as a healthy lifestyle. She states there is a global environmental crisis and calls for teaching students to renounce capitalist practices and granting electoral representation to non-humans to remedy this, and claiming her method works by challenging the way we see education. Kopnina advocates confronting students in such a way that they will be forced to consider the moral implications of humanity's destruction of habitats and biodiversity. She advocates forcing students to watch activist propaganda as a trigger, and grading students' individual writing assignments as to how well they have accepted the messaging.", "Næss criticised the Judeo-Christian tradition, stating the Bible's \"arrogance of stewardship consists in the idea of superiority which underlies the thought that we exist to watch over nature like a highly respected middleman between the Creator and Creation\". Næss further criticizes the reformation's view of creation as property to be put into maximum productive use.", "", "Guha and Martinez-Allier critique the four defining characteristics of deep ecology. First, because deep ecologists believe that environmental movements must shift from an anthropocentric to a biocentric approach, they fail to recognize the two most fundamental ecological crises facing the world today, 1) overconsumption in the global north and 2) increasing militarization. Second, deep ecology's emphasis on wilderness provides impetus for the imperialist yearning of the West. Third, deep ecology appropriates Eastern traditions, characterizes Eastern spiritual beliefs as monolithic, and denies agency to Eastern peoples. And fourth, because deep ecology equates environmental protection with wilderness preservation its radical elements are confined within the American wilderness preservationist movement.", "Animal rights activists state that for an entity to require intrinsic rights, it must have interests. Deep ecology is criticised for insisting they can somehow understand the thoughts and personal interests of non-humans such as plants or protists, which they claim thus proves that non-human lifeforms have conciousness. For example, a single-celled bacteria might move towards a certain chemical stimulation, although such movement might be rationally explained, a deep ecologist might say that this was all invalid because according to \"his\" better understanding of the situation that the intention formulated by this particular bacteria was informed by its deep desire to succeed in life. One criticism of this belief is that the interests that a deep ecologist attributes to non-human organisms such as survival, reproduction, growth, and prosperity are really human interests, which is known as anthropomorphism or a pathetic fallacy, in which \"the earth is endowed with 'wisdom', wilderness equates with 'freedom', and life forms are said to emit'moral' qualities\".", "When Arne Næss coined the term \"deep ecology\", he compared it favourably with \"shallow environmentalism\" which he criticized for its utilitarian and anthropocentric attitude to nature and for its materialist and consumer-oriented outlook. William D. Grey believes that developing a non-anthropocentric set of values is \"a hopeless quest\". He seeks an improved \"shallow\" view, writing, \"what's wrong with shallow views is not their concern about the well-being of humans, but that they do not really consider enough in what that well-being consists\"; he is in favour of \"an enriched, fortified, anthropocentric\" worldview.", "Some critics, particularly social ecologist Murray Bookchin, have interpreted deep ecology as being misanthropic, due in part to the characterization of humanity by some deep ecologists, such as David Foreman of Earth First!, as a pathological infestation on the Earth. Bookchin therefore asserts that \"deep ecology, formulated largely by privileged male white academics, has managed to bring sincere naturalists like Paul Shepard into the same company as patently antihumanist and macho mountain men like David Foreman who preach a gospel that humanity is some kind of cancer in the world of life\". Bookchin mentions that some, like Foreman, defend misanthropic measures such as organising the rapid genocide most of humanity and claiming the best solution to kill humans in the Third World is \"to just let nature seek its own balance, to let the people there just starve\". Fox rebuts that just because deep ecology criticizes anthropocentrism does not mean that deep ecology is misanthropic. Bookchin's second major criticism is that deep ecology fails to link environmental crises with authoritarianism and hierarchy. He suggests that deep ecologists fail to recognise the potential for human beings to solve environmental issues.", "Daniel Botkin concludes that although deep ecology challenges the assumptions of Western philosophy and must be taken seriously, like its antithesis, the wise use movement, they both \"misunderstand scientific information and then arrive at conclusions based on their misunderstanding, which are in turn used as justification for their ideologies. Both begin with an ideology and are political and social in focus\". Botkin has also criticized Næss's belief in the concept of some ideal \"balance of nature\", and the contradiction between his argument that all species are morally equal and his disparaging description of pioneering species.", "Peter Singer critiques anthropocentrism and advocates for animals to be given rights. However, Singer has disagreed with deep ecology's belief in the intrinsic value of nature separate from questions of suffering. Zimmerman groups deep ecology with feminism and civil rights movements. Nelson contrasts it with \"ecofeminism\". The links with animal rights are perhaps the strongest, as \"proponents of such ideas argue that 'all life has intrinsic value'\". David Foreman, the co-founder of the radical direct-action movement Earth First!, has said he is an advocate for deep ecology. At one point Arne Næss also engaged in direct action when he chained himself to rocks in front of Mardalsfossen, a waterfall in a Norwegian fjord, in a successful protest against the building of a dam. Some have linked the movement to anarchism as evidenced in a compilation of essays titled \"Deep Ecology & Anarchism\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Genealogy.", "Mythology.", "Origin.", "The \"Odyssey\".", "Jason and the Argonauts.", "The \"Aeneid\".", "Aesop." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The sea monster Charybdis was believed to live under a small rock on one side of a narrow channel. Opposite her was Scylla, another sea monster, that lived inside a much larger rock. The sides of the strait were within an arrow-shot of each other, and sailors attempting to avoid one of them would come in reach of the other. To be \"between Scylla and Charybdis\" therefore means to be presented with two opposite dangers, the task being to find a route that avoids both. Three times a day, Charybdis swallowed a huge amount of water, before belching it back out again, creating large whirlpools capable of dragging a ship underwater. In some variations of the story, Charybdis was simply a large whirlpool instead of a sea monster. The theoretical size of Charybdis remains unknown, yet in order to consume Greek ships the whirlpool can be estimated to about 23 meters (75 ft) across. Through the descriptions of Greek mythical chroniclers and Greek historians such as Thucydides, modern scholars generally agree that Charybdis was said to have been located in the Strait of Messina, off the coast of Sicily and opposite a rock on the mainland identified with Scylla. Were Charybdis to be located in the Strait of Messina, it would in fact have the size to accommodate the whirlpool. A whirlpool does exist there, caused by currents meeting, but it is dangerous only to small craft in extreme conditions.", "A later myth makes Charybdis the daughter of Poseidon and Gaia and living as a loyal servant to her father.", "", "Charybdis aided her father Poseidon in his feud with her paternal uncle Zeus and, as such, helped him engulf lands and islands in water. Zeus, angry over the land she stole from him, captured and chained her to the sea-bed. Charybdis was then cursed by the god and transformed into a hideous bladder of a monster, with flippers for arms and legs, and an uncontrollable thirst for the sea. As such, she drank the water from the sea thrice a day to quench it, which created whirlpools. She lingered on a rock with Scylla facing her directly on another rock, making a strait.", "Odysseus faced both Charybdis and Scylla while rowing through a narrow channel. He ordered his men to avoid Charybdis, thus forcing them to pass near Scylla, which resulted in the deaths of six of his men. Later, stranded on a raft, Odysseus was swept back through the strait and passed near Charybdis. His raft was sucked into her maw, but he survived by clinging to a fig tree growing on a rock over her lair. On the next outflow of water, when his raft was expelled, Odysseus recovered it and paddled away safely.", "The Argonauts were able to avoid both dangers because Hera ordered the Nereid nymph Thetis, Achilles' mother, to guide them through the perilous passage.", "In the \"Aeneid\" the Trojans are warned by Helenus of Scylla and Charybdis, and are advised to avoid them by sailing around Pachynus point (Cape Passero) rather than risk the Straits. Later however they find themselves passing Etna, and have to row for their lives to escape Charybdis.", "Aristotle mentions in his \"Meteorologica\" that Aesop once teased a ferryman by telling him a myth concerning Charybdis. With one gulp of the sea, she brought the mountains to view; islands appeared after the next. The third is yet to come and will dry the sea altogether, thus depriving the ferryman of his livelihood." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Operational history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Development of the DC-1 can be traced back to the 1931 crash of a TWA airliner, a Fokker F.10 Trimotor in which a wing failed, probably because water had seeped between the layers of the wood laminate and dissolved the glue holding the layers together. Following the accident, the Aeronautics Branch of the U.S. Department of Commerce placed stringent restrictions on the use of wooden wings on passenger airliners. Boeing developed an answer, the 247, a twin-engined all-metal monoplane with a retractable undercarriage, but their production capacity was reserved to meet the needs of United Airlines, part of United Aircraft and Transport Corporation which also owned Boeing. TWA needed a similar aircraft to respond to competition from the Boeing 247 and they asked five manufacturers to bid for construction of a three-engined, 12-seat aircraft of all-metal construction, capable of flying 1,080 mi (1,740 km) at 150 mph (242 km/h). The most demanding part of the specification was that the airliner would have to be capable of safely taking off from any airport on TWA's main routes (and in particular Albuquerque, at high altitude and with severe summer temperatures) with one engine non-functioning. Donald Douglas was initially reluctant to participate in the invitation from TWA. He doubted that there would be a market for 100 aircraft, the number of sales necessary to cover development costs. Nevertheless, he submitted a design consisting of an all-metal, low-wing, twin-engined aircraft seating 12 passengers, a crew of two and a flight attendant. The aircraft exceeded the specifications of TWA even with only two engines, principally through the use of controllable pitch propellers. It was insulated against noise, heated, and fully capable of both flying and performing a controlled takeoff or landing on one engine. Don Douglas stated in a 1935 article on the DC-2 that the first DC-1 cost $325,000 to design and build.", "Only one aircraft was produced. The prototype made its maiden flight on July 1, 1933, flown by Carl Cover. It was given the model name DC-1, derived from \"Douglas Commercial\". During a half-year of testing, it performed more than 200 test flights and demonstrated its superiority over the most-used airliners at that time, the Ford Trimotor and Fokker Trimotor. It was flown across the United States on February 19, 1934, making the journey in the record time of 13 hours 5 minutes. TWA accepted the aircraft on 15 September 1933 with a few modifications (mainly increasing seating to 14 passengers and adding more powerful engines) and subsequently ordered 20 examples of the developed production model which was named the Douglas DC-2. The DC-1 was sold to Lord Forbes in the United Kingdom in May 1938, who operated it for a few months before selling it in France in October 1938. It was then sold to \"Líneas Aéreas Postales Españolas\" (L.A.P.E.) in Spain in November 1938 and was also used by the Spanish Republican Air Force as a transport aircraft. Later operated by Iberia Airlines from July 1939 with the name \"Negron\", it force-landed at Málaga, Spain, in December 1940 and was damaged beyond repair." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Parentage.", "Narratives.", "Homer's \"Odyssey\".", "Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\".", "Keats' \"Endymion\".", "Paintings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The parentage of Scylla varies according to author. Homer, Ovid, Apollodorus, Servius, and a scholiast on Plato, all name Crataeis as the mother of Scylla. Neither Homer nor Ovid mentions a father, but Apollodorus says that the father was either Trienus (Triton?) or Phorcus (a variant of Phorkys). Similarly, the Plato scholiast, perhaps following Apollodorus, gives the father as Tyrrhenus or Phorcus, while Eustathius on Homer, \"Odyssey\" 12.85, gives the father as Triton. Other authors have Hecate as Scylla's mother. The Hesiodic \"Megalai Ehoiai\" gives Hecate and Phoebus Apollo as the parents of Scylla, while Acusilaus says that Scylla's parents were Hecate and Phorkys (so also schol. \"Odyssey\" 12.85). Perhaps trying to reconcile these conflicting accounts, Apollonius of Rhodes says that Crataeis was another name for Hecate, and that she and Phorcys were the parents of Scylla. Likewise, Semos of Delos (\"FGrHist\" 396 F 22) says that Crataeis was the daughter of Hecate and Triton, and mother of Scylla by Deimos. Stesichorus (alone) names Lamia as the mother of Scylla, possibly the Lamia who was the daughter of Poseidon, while according to Gaius Julius Hyginus, Scylla was the offspring of Typhon and Echidna.", "According to John Tzetzes and Servius' commentary on the \"Aeneid\", Scylla was a beautiful naiad who was claimed by Poseidon, but the jealous Nereid Amphitrite turned her into a terrible monster by poisoning the water of the spring where Scylla would bathe. A similar story is found in Hyginus, according to whom Scylla was loved by Glaucus, but Glaucus himself was also loved by the goddess sorceress Circe. While Scylla was bathing in the sea, the jealous Circe poured a baleful potion into the sea water which caused Scylla to transform into a frightful monster with four eyes and six long snaky necks equipped with grisly heads, each of which contained three rows of sharp shark's teeth. Her body consisted of 12 tentacle-like legs and a cat's tail, while six dog's heads ringed her waist. In this form, she attacked the ships of passing sailors, seizing one of the crew with each of her heads. In a late Greek myth, recorded in Eustathius' commentary on Homer and John Tzetzes, Heracles encountered Scylla during a journey to Sicily and slew her. Her father, the sea-god Phorcys, then applied flaming torches to her body and restored her to life.", "In Homer's \"Odyssey\" XII, Odysseus is advised by Circe to sail closer to Scylla, for Charybdis could drown his whole ship: \"Hug Scylla's crag—sail on past her—top speed! Better by far to lose six men and keep your ship than lose your entire crew.\" She also tells Odysseus to ask Scylla's mother, the river nymph Crataeis, to prevent Scylla from pouncing more than once. Odysseus successfully navigates the strait, but when he and his crew are momentarily distracted by Charybdis, Scylla snatches six sailors off the deck and devours them alive.", "According to Ovid, the fisherman-turned-sea god Glaucus falls in love with the beautiful Scylla, but she is repulsed by his piscine form and flees to a promontory where he cannot follow. When Glaucus goes to Circe to request a love potion that will win Scylla's affections, the enchantress herself becomes enamored with him. Meeting with no success, Circe becomes hatefully jealous of her rival and therefore prepares a vial of poison and pours it into the sea pool where Scylla regularly bathed, transforming her into a thing of terror even to herself.", "In John Keats' loose retelling of Ovid's version of the myth of Scylla and Glaucus in Book 3 of \"Endymion\" (1818), the evil Circe does not transform Scylla into a monster but merely murders the beautiful nymph. Glaucus then takes her corpse to a crystal palace at the bottom of the ocean where lie the bodies of all lovers who have died at sea. After a thousand years, she is resurrected by Endymion and reunited with Glaucus.", "At the Carolingian abbey of Corvey in Westphalia, a unique ninth-century wall painting depicts, among other things, Odysseus' fight with Scylla, an illustration not noted elsewhere in medieval arts. In the Renaissance and after, it was the story of Glaucus and Scylla that caught the imagination of painters across Europe. In Agostino Carracci's 1597 fresco cycle of \"The Loves of the Gods\" in the Farnese Gallery, the two are shown embracing, a conjunction that is not sanctioned by the myth. More orthodox versions show the maiden scrambling away from the amorous arms of the god, as in the oil on copper painting of Fillipo Lauri and the oil on canvas by Salvator Rosa in the Musée des Beaux-Arts de Caen. Other painters picture them divided by their respective elements of land and water, as in the paintings of the Flemish Bartholomäus Spranger (1587), now in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Some add the detail of Cupid aiming at the sea-god with his bow, as in the painting of Laurent de la Hyre (1640/4) in the J. Paul Getty Museum and that of Jacques Dumont le Romain (1726) at the Musée des beaux-arts de Troyes. Two cupids can also be seen fluttering around the fleeing Scylla in the late painting of the scene by J. M. W. Turner (1841), now in the Kimbell Art Museum. Peter Paul Rubens shows the moment when the horrified Scylla first begins to change, under the gaze of Glaucus (c.1636), while Eglon van der Neer's 1695 painting in the Rijksmuseum shows Circe poisoning the water as Scylla prepares to bathe. There are also two Pre-Raphaelite treatments of the latter scene by John Melhuish Strudwick (1886) and John William Waterhouse (\"Circe Invidiosa\", 1892)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Nature.", "Demographics.", "Administrative divisions.", "Sport.", "Investment potential.", "Culture.", "Tourism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The region occupies a very diverse range of geographic and climatic regions with the Altai Mountains in the east and the eastern margins of the Kazakh steppes in the west of the region.", "60,04% of the population is ethnic Kazakh and 35,11% is ethnic Russian.", "The region is administratively divided into fifteen districts and the cities of Oskemen (Ust-Kamenogorsk), Ayagoz, Kurchatov, Ridder, Semey (Semipalatinsk), and Zyryanovsk.", "The region sent a bandy team to the Spartakiade 2009 and finished third.", "619.4 billion tenge was invested in the regional economy, with an increase of 23.0%. One of the stimulating factors for this growth was the implementation of industrial-innovative and infrastructure projects. A significant increase in investment was observed in industry-30.6%, transport and warehousing-36.2%, agriculture-13.8%, construction-7.2%. Investments in fixed assets increased by 5.4% to 59.7 billion tenge. Business support card. Maintaining the growth dynamics of industrial development indicators in the region in the future for the next five years will primarily be affected by the introduction of new projects and reaching the design capacity of the introduced projects within the framework of the business support Map. As part of the state program of industrial and innovative development in the business support Map of the East Kazakhstan region, since 2010, 74 projects have been implemented with a total cost of 1.3 trillion tenge, creating 17.6 thousand jobs, including 3 projects of national significance. For the period from 2010 to 2019, 50 projects were commissioned for a total of 731.4 billion tenge, with the creation of 8.6 thousand jobs, including 4 projects in 2019, for a total of 24.1 billion tenge with the creation of 164 jobs. In 2020, it is planned to implement 5 projects totaling 16.0 billion tenge with the creation of 610 jobs. From 2021 to 2025, it is planned to implement 19 projects with a total investment of 555.0 billion tenge and the creation of 8.4 thousand new jobs. The most significant projects of industrial and innovative development are: - \"Construction of a full-cycle automobile plant and Technopark for the production of automotive components in Ust-Kamenogorsk\" (JSC \"Asia Auto Kazakhstan\") (2021); - \"Expansion of processing capacities of Aktogay GOK by duplicating the existing sulfide factory\" (KAZ Minerals Aktogay LLP) (2021). Improving the business climate and investment attractiveness In January-February 2020, 59.7 billion tenge was invested in the regional economy, with an increase of 105.4%. To improve the investment climate and attract investment in the region's economy, the following work is being carried out: - a Regional Council for attracting investors and improving the investment climate has been established; - as part of the implementation of the national Plan, the investor service Sector operates at the public service Center; -the investment portal of the East Kazakhstan region is functioning (invest.e-vko.kz), which contains the necessary information for the investor: contact information, information about industrial zones, investment projects, legislation, etc.; - approved an action Plan to attract investment in 2020, which provides for 25 events; - the project \"Protecting Business and Investments\" - anti-corruption support of investment projects is being implemented. The goal of the project is to create a favorable investment climate and increase the confidence of business and investors in the institutions of state power; - an Investment Center for \"point-based\" support of investors and investment projects has been opened.https://invest.e-vko.kz/en/", "The network of cultural and art organizations in the region is 632 units, including: 291 club institutions, 306 libraries, 10 museums, 2 theaters, 2 organizations that perform concert activities, 10 friendship houses, 6 organizations that perform film screenings - cinemas, 1-zoo, 3 parks, 1 institution for the protection of historical and cultural heritage. The network of cultural organizations and archives funded from the regional budget, as of January 1, 2020, is only 32 units, including: 10 museums, 1 institution for the protection of historical and cultural heritage, 2 theaters, 2 organizations engaged in concert activities, 4 libraries, 13 archival institutions.", "Within the framework of the State program of tourism development until 2025, 5 objects of East Kazakhstan were included in the map of the country's tourism development. First of all, this is lake Alakol, which is recognized as one of the 10 priority tourist sites of the national scale and entered the TOP 10. The coast of lake Alakol is a favorite place for tourists. Its color changes during the day, from azure-blue in the morning to purple-purple at sunset, on Sunny days the lake is filled with the brightest colors of summer, on cloudy days the water is gray-black. Over the past years, \"motley lake\" has attracted more and more tourists from different countries. The reason for the increase in tourist flow was the improvement of infrastructure and improvement of the coast, but also the most important - its medicinal properties. The unusual climate of the lake, the invigorating coolness of the purest healing salt water, the life-giving air filled with the aromas of steppe grasses, magically help to find peace of mind, restore strength, relieve fatigue, irritation, and calm. In addition, the priority regional tourist objects OF the top 50 of the touristic Map included the Altai ski cluster, Ridder and two objects of the Katon-Karagay district: lake Rakhmanovskoye and Katon-Karagay national Park. The landscape diversity, as well as the rich historical and cultural heritage of the region allows you to develop almost all types of tourism. East Kazakhstan is said to be the pearl of the country, a unique region with a variety of natural and climatic zones. Indeed, it is largely due to the charming beauty of nature that the region is becoming a promising tourist destination, which is known not only in Kazakhstan, but also abroad. https://toureast.kz/?lang=en Scientific research is conducted in four areas-natural science, archaeology, Ethnography, and history. Researchers work on scientific topics, and individual topics are included in the plans of international programs such as \" Scythian-Saka culture of the Kazakh Altai. Problems of Genesis and succession of cultures\", \"Copper and tin of the steppes of Central Asia\", \"Conservation and sustainable development of biodiversity of the Kazakh part of the Altai-Sayan Ecoregion\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Archipelago.", "Climate.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The archipelago consists of two islands, Grande Glorieuse () and Île du Lys, as well as eight rock islets (\"Roches Vertes\"): Wreck Rock (), South Rock () and Verte Rocks () and three other rocks that are unnamed. They form part of a coral reef and lagoon. Grande Glorieuses is roughly circular and measures about across. It is thickly vegetated, mainly by the remains of a coconut plantation and casuarina trees. Île du Lys, located at about northeast of Grande Glorieuses, is about long and consists of sand dunes and scrub with some mangroves. It was formerly quarried for phosphate (guano). The Glorieuses have an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of. There are anchorages offshore, and Grande Glorieuse has a long airstrip.", "The climate is tropical and the terrain is low and flat, varying in height from sea level to. Île de Lys in particular is a nesting ground for migratory seabirds, and turtles lay eggs on the beaches. In the ocean, migratory species such as humpback whales and whale sharks may appear.", "While possibly earlier known to Arab navigators, the Glorieuses were named and settled in 1880 by a Frenchman, Hippolyte Caltaux, who established a coconut plantation on Grande Glorieuse. The archipelago became a French possession in 1892 when Captain Richard of the \"Primauget\" made a formal claim. In 1895, the Glorioso Island became a part of the colony of Mayotte and dependencies. From 1914 to 1958 concessions to exploit the islands were given to Seychelles companies. The islands are today nature reserves with a meteorological station garrisoned by French troops (The French Foreign Legion). Despite Glorioso Islands never having been a part of Malagasy Protectorate but a part of the colony of Mayotte and dependencies, then a part of French Comoros, Madagascar has claimed sovereignty over the islands since 1972. The Comoros claims Mayotte and Glorioso Islands. The Seychelles claimed the islands too before the France–Seychelles Maritime Boundary Agreement. In 2012, France founded \"parc naturel marin des Glorieuses\", a marine protected area, to preserve the endangered flora and fauna of the islands." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "St. Martin's Hall Meeting, London, 1864.", "Internal tensions.", "Geneva Congress, 1866.", "Lausanne Congress, 1867.", "Brussels Congress, 1868.", "Basel Congress, 1869.", "Hague Congress, 1872.", "After 1872: two First Internationals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Following the January Uprising in Poland in 1863, French and British workers started to discuss developing a closer working relationship. Henri Tolain, Joseph Perrachon and Charles Limousin visited London in July 1863, attending a meeting in St. James's Hall in honour of the Polish uprising. They discussed the need for an international organisation, which would amongst other things prevent the import of foreign workers to break strikes. In September 1864, French and British delegates again met in London, this time to set up an organization for sharing labor information across borders.", "On 28 September an international crowd of workers gathered to welcome the French delegates in St. Martin’s Hall in London. Among the many European radicals were English Owenites, followers of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Louis Auguste Blanqui, Irish and Polish nationalists, Italian republicans and German socialists. Included among the last-mentioned of this eclectic band was a somewhat obscure 46-year-old émigré journalist Karl Marx, who would soon come to play a decisive role in the organisation. The positivist historian Edward Spencer Beesly, a professor at London University, was in the chair. His speech pilloried the violent proceedings of the governments and referred to their flagrant breaches of international law and advocated a union of the workers of the world for the realisation of justice on earth. George Odger, Secretary of the London Trades Council, read a speech calling for international co-operation. The meeting unanimously decided to found an international organisation of workers. The centre was to be in London, directed by a committee of 21, which was instructed to draft a programme and constitution. Most of the British members of the committee were drawn from the Universal League for the Material Elevation of the Industrious Classes and were noted trade-union leaders like Odger, George Howell (former secretary of the London Trades Council, which itself declined affiliation to the IWA, although remaining close to it), Cyrenus Osborne Ward and Benjamin Lucraft and included Owenites and Chartists. The French members were Denoual, Victor Le Lubez and Bosquet. Italy was represented by Fontana. Other members were Louis Wolff, Johann Eccarius and at the foot of the list Marx, who participated in his individual capacity and did not speak during the meeting. This executive committee in turn selected a subcommittee to do the actual writing of the organisational programme—a group which included Marx and which met at his home about a week after the conclusion of the St. Martin's Hall assembly. This subcommittee deferred the task of collective writing in favour of sole authorship by Marx and it was he who ultimately drew up the fundamental documents of the new organisation. On 5 October, the General Council was formed with co-opted additional members representing other nationalities. It was based at the headquarters of the Universal League for the Material Elevation of the Industrious Classes at 18 Greek Street. Different groups offered proposals for the organisation. Louis Wolff (Mazzini's secretary) offered a proposal based on the rules and constitution of the Italian Workingmen’s Association (a Mazzinist organisation) and John Weston, an Owenite, also tabled a programme. Wolff left for Italy and Lubez rewrote it in a way which appalled Marx. Marx then set about writing the Address to the Working Classes to which was attached a simplified set of rules.", "At first, the IWA had mostly male membership, although in April 1865 it was agreed that women could become members. The initial leadership was exclusively male. At the IWA General Council meeting on 16 April 1867, a letter from the secularist speaker Harriet Law about women's rights was read and it was agreed to ask her if she would be willing to attend council meetings. On 25 June 1867, Law was admitted to the General Council and for the next five years was the only woman representative. Due to the wide variety of philosophies present in the First International, there was conflict from the start. The first objections to Marx's influence came from the mutualists, who opposed communism and statism. However, shortly after Mikhail Bakunin and his followers (called collectivists while in the International) joined in 1868, the First International became polarised into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads. Perhaps the clearest differences between the groups emerged over their proposed strategies for achieving their visions of socialism. The anarchists grouped around Bakunin favoured (in Peter Kropotkin's words) \"direct economical struggle against capitalism, without interfering in the political parliamentary agitation\". Marxist thinking at that time focused on parliamentary activity. For example, when the new German Empire of 1871 introduced male suffrage, many German socialists became active in the Marxist Social Democratic Party of Germany.", "During the Geneva Congress, the Paris group of Proudhonians dominated the discussions. Six Blanquists from Paris came to the Congress to denounce the French representatives as emissaries of Napoleon III, but they were thrown out. A significant decision at this event was the adoption of the eight-hour work day as one of the IWA's fundamental demands.", "The Lausanne Congress of the International was held on 2–8 September 1867. Marx was unable to attend as he was working on the final proofs of \"Das Kapital\". The Congress was attended by 64 delegates from Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy and Switzerland. The reports delivered recorded the increased influence of the International on the working classes in various countries. The Proudhonist delegates, primarily from France, influenced the orientation of the International's activity and its programmatic principles. Despite the efforts of the General Council's delegates, they succeeded in revising the resolutions of the Geneva Congress, passing a number of their resolutions, in particular on cooperation and credit. The Lausanne Congress confirmed the Geneva Congress resolutions on the economic struggle and strikes and passed a resolution on political freedom which emphasised that the social emancipation of workers was inseparable from political liberation. The Proudhonists also failed to seize the leadership of the International as the Congress re-elected the General Council in its former composition and retained London as its seat. The Lausanne Congress ignored the General Council's resolution and resolved officially to take part in the Congress of the League of Peace and Freedom. However, this Congress was attended by several General Council and some other International members and failed to resolve its political differences.", "The Brussels Congress of the International in 1868 approved Marx's tactics in regard to the League, opposing official affiliation to the League, but calling upon the working class to combine efforts with all progressive anti-military forces.", "The Basel Congress took place on 6–12 September 1869. According to Yuri Mikhailovich Steklov's account: Seventy-five delegates assembled: from Great Britain, the 6 members of the General Council, Applegarth, Eccarius, Cowell Stepney, Lessner, Lucraft, and Jung; from France, which sent 26 delegates, among whom we may mention Dereure, Landrin, Chémalé, Murat, Aubry, Tolain, A. Richard, Palix, Varlin, and Bakunin: Belgium sent 5 delegates, among whom were Hins, Brismée, and De Paepe; Austria 2 delegates, Neumayer and Oberwinder; Germany sent 10 delegates, among whom were Becker, Liebknecht, Rittinghausen, and Hess; Switzerland had 22 representatives, among whom were Burkly, Greulich, Fritz Robert, Guillaume, Schwitzguébel, and Perret; Italy sent but one delegate, Caporusso; from Spain there came Farga-Pellicer and Sentinon; and the United States of America was represented by Cameron. Jung was elected chairman of the congress. The conference was mainly noted for the confrontation between the Proudhonist mutualists and the collectivist position, defended by Marx's envoy for the General Council and Bakunin both. However, the Belgian socialist de Paepe played a decisive role in bringing the Belgian delegation across to the collectivist side and isolating the mainly French Proudhonists.", "The fifth Congress of the IWA was held in early September 1872 in The Hague, the Netherlands. After the Paris Commune (1871), Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as authoritarian and argued that if a Marxist party came to power its leaders would end up as bad as the ruling class they had fought against (notably in his \"Statism and Anarchy\"). In 1872, the conflict in the First International climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the Hague Congress. This clash is often cited as the origin of the long-running conflict between anarchists and Marxists. The Hague Congress was notable for the attempted expulsion of Bakunin and Guillaume and for the decision to relocate the General Council to New York City. The main resolutions passed centred on committing the International to building political parties, aimed at capturing state power as an indispensable condition for socialist transformation.", "From then on, the Marxist and anarchist currents of socialism had distinct organisations, at various points including rival internationals. This split is sometimes called the \"red\" and \"black\" divide, red referring to the Marxists and black referring to the anarchists. Otto von Bismarck remarked upon hearing of the split at the First International that \"[c]rowned heads, wealth and privilege may well tremble should ever again the Black and Red unite!\". The anarchist wing of the First International held a separate congress in September 1872 at St. Imier, Switzerland. The anarchists rejected the claim that Bakunin and Guillaume had been expelled and repudiated The Hague Congress as unrepresentative and improperly conducted. Over two days on 15–16 September 1872 at Saint-Imier, they declared themselves to be the true heirs of the International (see Anarchist St. Imier International). Bakunin's programme was adopted, Marx was implicitly excluded and the anarchist First International ran until 1877, with some early growth in areas like Egypt and Turkey. The sixth Congress of the Marxist wing of the International was held in Geneva in September 1873, but it was generally considered to be a failure. The Marxist wing hobbled on until it disbanded three years later at the 1876 Philadelphia conference. Attempts to revive the organisation over the next five years failed. Since scholarship on the International is heavily shaped by different assessments of the importance and the effects of the Marx–Bakunin conflict, different accounts emphasise different wings of the International and give different dates of its final closure (1876 or 1877). The Second International was established in 1889 as a successor. Both anarchists and Marxists were involved in the new body in its early years. The International Working People's Association (the so-called Black International), an anarchist International, appeared in 1881, was mainly influential in the United States and Mexico and gradually disappeared after the late 1880s. At a congress in Berlin in 1922, the anarcho-syndicalists decided to re-found the First International as the International Workers' Association, which still exists." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "History.", "Wrecks.", "Geology.", "Important Bird Area." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Juan de Nova, about long and at its widest, is a nature reserve surrounded by reefs which enclose an area—not a true lagoon like in an atoll—of roughly. Forests, mainly of Casuarinaceae, cover about half the island. Sea turtles nest on the beaches around the island.", "The island is named after the Spanish version of a Galician admiral in the service of Portugal, João da Nova, who came across the island in 1501. The island had never been inhabited when it became a possession of France in 1897. In 1921, France decided to transfer the administration of Juan de Nova from Paris to Tananarive in its colony of Madagascar and Dependencies. Before the independence of Madagascar, France transferred the administration to Saint-Pierre on Réunion. Madagascar became independent in 1960, and claims sovereignty over the island since 1972. Guano deposits were exploited from the start of the 20th century until 1970. The island was abandoned during World War II and was visited by German submariners. Installations, including a hangar, rail lines, houses and a jetty are in ruins.", "The island lies on the sea route between South Africa and the northern tip of Madagascar. It is affected by strong currents and has become the site of numerous wrecks. Most visible are the remains of the which ran onto the southern fringing reef in 1911.", "", "The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because it supports a very large colony of sooty terns, with up to 100,000 breeding pairs. It also has a much smaller colony of greater crested terns – with at least 50 breeding pairs recorded in 1994. Of at least seven species of land birds present, most are probably introduced." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The first Rank 1 release was an EP containing \"The Citrus Juicer\" and \"Black Snow\". Their biggest hit commercially was the 1999 track that followed up to that EP called \"Airwave\", which reached No. 10 in the UK Singles Chart and No. 25 in the U.S. \"Billboard\" Hot Dance Club Play chart. This was later re-released by Rank 1 remixed with added vocals as \"Breathing (Airwave 2003)\", Ran3k 1 followed it up 11 years later with a modern style remix of Airwave in 2014 bringing the trance juggernaut into the 21st century. They also provided the base for a mash up with Donna Williams, as \"True Love Never Dies\", which was later vocally re-recorded using Kelly Llorenna, by Flip & Fill. In 2011, Airwave was voted the number 1 Trance Classic of all time in the Trance Top 1000 poll. In 2013, Airwave reached number 7. In September 2000, they performed the track \"Many Miles Too Soon\" live at Trance Energy as a tribute to the late Miles Stutterheim, younger brother to Duncan Stutterheim, one of the founders of the Dutch event organiser ID&T. A year later this track was released as \"Such Is Life\", with added vocals by Shanokee and chosen as the anthem of Sensation 2001, the first edition where visitors were asked to appear dressed in white. A year later they released \"Awakening\" as the single preceding their debut album \"Symsonic\". The album was released with a CD containing downtempo versions of Airwave and Such Is Life as well as a some brand new tracks including the title track, a short version of \"The Citrus Juicer\", \"T.T.C.\", \"Passage To The Unknown\", \"Still In My Mind\" and more. The album also included a DVD with a few videoclips of their singles up till then as well as their live performance at Trance Energy 2002. 2003 saw the re-release of Airwave with vocals by Aino Laos which were written by Jan Lochel. In a recorded interview, Benno explained that Breathing was released to back up the album release in Germany. By the end of the year, Rank 1 finally released their single Symsonic under the new title \"It's Up To You\", with added vocals by Shanokee. Unlike the classically inspired Album version, these mixes were produced in the more typical 4x4 driven uplifting Trance style, especially the \"Instrumental Dub\" and \"Dub Vocal Mix\". The next year saw the release of the Symsonic album sampler titled \"Unreleased Tracks\" which contained extended mixes of \"Conspiracy\", \"Cosmomatic\" and \"Down From The Deep\". Shortly thereafter, Rank 1 radically changed their trademark euphoric sound and released an EP containing \"Beats At Rank-1 Dotcom\", a brand new Tech Trance record which ID&T would later pick up as the Trance Energy 2005 Theme. The flipside contained \"After Me\", a breaks driven string-laced track. The male vocals on this track were rumored to have been performed by Benno de Goeij himself. This would be the start of Rank 1's radical sound shift every few years which would lead to some genre-blending releases. In February 2005, Rank 1 performed live at Trance Energy for the third time. During this live show they performed a track which was only made for the event. However, the crowd's reaction to it was so immense that Piet and Benno decided to release it as an official track called \"Top Gear\". This would happen over the summer with another two-track EP: \"Opus 17\" was present at the flipside and was a moody Trance track unlike its unique heavy Techno-Techtrance influenced B-side. In February 2006, Piet was interviewed for a WiLDCHiLD event. In this interview he stated that their second album was in progress and that they had made quite some diverse tunes for it, including a breaks track with the potential title \"2 Drunk 2 Funk\". As of 2017, this track has not been revealed yet. Piet also clarified about the mysterious unreleased and untitled \"Rank 1 vs. Marco V\" collaboration track that was also mentioned in the FAQ section of their old website. There were no official single releases during 2006 but in 2007 both \"This World Is Watching Me\" (with Armin van Buuren and Kush) and \"Life Less Ordinary\" (with Alex M.O.R.P.H.) were released. Both tracks mixed Electro-driven beats with Trancey strings and saw yet another sound shift from Rank 1. Life Less Ordinary also received an experimental Rank 1 interpretation in the guise of \"A Less Ordinary Rank 1 Remix\". Early 2008 saw them release another Electro-style collaboration, this time it was a collaboration with Jochen Miller, titled \"And Then...\". Rank 1 made an own version of the track which they titled \"Rank 1's Minimal Progressive Techno Electro Trance Mix\". It was darker and heavier than the original and had a more Techno-driven twist. The duos' track: \"L.E.D There Be Light\", was chosen as the Trance Energy 2009 Anthem, as well as the background track to the 2009 Electric Daisy Carnival commercial. This track combined the soft-loud synth dynamic from And Then with sweeping strings and more Trancey elements. It leaked out in late 2008, which led to the early release of the \"Special Download Mix\". The track was officially released in February 2009, with remixes by Wippenberg, Marcel Woods as well as an alternative \"Laserlight Rework\" by Rank 1 themselves. In 2010, the song was formally remixed by Cold Blank. It is the most successful remix to date, reaching No. 10 on Beatport's Top 100 Electro House Chart. It also landed a release on Ministry Of Sound's Trance Nation 2010 compilation. There were also released some another remixes by tyDi & Trent McDermott, Yvan & Dan Daniel and LoKo. Their next track, \"Symfo,\" was the self-titled Sunrise Festival Theme 2009 and was released only five months after L.E.D. There Be Light. This track received remixes by Marcus Schossow and The Prime Sins, as well as a more House-driven \"Rank 1's That Side Mix\". In 2010, Rank 1 and Miller released another collaboration which was chosen as the theme to the Polish Entrance 2010 event called \"The Great Escape\". Armin van Buuren even played it during his short satellite-connection gig during Trance Energy 2010. On February 11, Benno tweeted there would be an alternative non-Trance Rank 1 Remix of The Great Escape but as of 2017, this version has not been revealed yet. Whether it has been cancelled or not remains unclear. Two weeks later, Benno tweeted that they would start their own radioshow. Indeed, April 6 saw the start of their monthly one-hour radioshow \"Rank 1's Radio Rush\" on Afterhours FM, which is aired every first Tuesday of the month between 20:00 - 21:00 CET. A forum on the Rank 1 Hyve contains an updated track list of all the episodes, as well as a list of the (old) Rank 1 Classics played so far. As the summer approached, another collaboration saw the light of day, this time Rank 1 teamed up with Nic Chagall and Wippenberg to release \"100\", the self-explanatory track to celebrate High Contrast Recordings reaching the 100th milestone release. The vinyl release of the track was a limited edition pressed on gold. Similar to 2006, 2011 saw no official single releases. The two singles to follow this \"radio silence\" were released in February and March respectively, with the Trouse driven \"Wild And Perfect Day\" providing their third collaboration with Jochen Miller (with vocal support by Sarah Bettens) whilst \"Witness\" was their vocal Trance collaboration in tandem with Cerf, Mitiska & Jaren. On April 23 the guys announced they had almost finished a brand new track, so far without vocals. After various cryptic Facebook and Twitter updates alike, on the 15th of October they finally revealed that their third 2012 release would be a Rank 1 solo track called \"7 Instead Of 8\". The single's title refers to its 7/8 time signature. On December 21, they revealed a 30-second snippet of their collaboration 'Elements Of Nature' with Belgium Trance artist M.I.K.E.. This collaboration was initiated by a Twitter user under the name 'Ramballo'. This single was released by the end of January 2013 and received much positive feedback for its Classic Trance vibe and was even rated an 8.5/10 by the DJ Mag. On March 13, Conjure One revealed that a Rank 1 Remix for his new single \"Under The Gun\" would debut during Rank 1's set at ASOT #600 in Mumbai. Just one day later, Rank 1 themselves announced a brand new single 'Floorlifter' to debut on the very same event. A month later the Rank 1 Remix for Italian Trance artist Giuseppe Ottaviani's single 'Love Will Bring It All Around' was released. Over the course of the summer, Rank 1 announced to be working on a third single. As October passed by, they revealed their new single titled '13.11.11' which combined the track's duration with its release date and tempo. Their first 2014 single was released on March 17, a collaboration with the German producer Dennis Sheperd titled 'Freudenrausch'. On August 8, their track Airwave was re-released in a modern 129 BPM rework to celebrate 15 years of the Rank 1 project: 'Airwave (21st Century Mix)' peaked at #4 in the BeatPort Trance Top 100 chart. On December 16, DI.FM aired the 56th Radio Rush episode, which was also the radioshow's finale. Early 2015 saw M.I.K.E. share an instagram picture of a project he was working on: the title of the project read \"MIKEPush vs Rank1 - #JUNO Tracks\". On June 18, this collaboration was revealed as the guys' newest collaboration \"Juno\". It debuted on episode #718 of Armin van Buuren's A State Of Trance Radioshow as 'Tune Of The Week'. On September 13 both Rank 1 and M.I.K.E. tweeted the same cryptic message: a google search of the sentences they both used seemed to be referring to zenith. A couple of weeks later it turned out that the guys had indeed teamed up again for a third collaboration which they named \"Zenith\": it was premiered by Markus Schulz on his Global DJ Broadcast radioshow. It would go on to garner massive support from Markus throughout the next few months. At the end of May 2016, Rank 1 used a cryptic tweet to reveal a new single: it merely read \"03.06.2016\" and was accompanied by coverart depicting a highway at dawn. In the following days, they revealed they had finished a brand new rework of their old 2000 Remix for Cygnus X - Superstring. Armin van Buuren granted them Tune Of The Week status once more on ASOT #766 and during the episode, Benno gave a short background story on the track: the piano they used in Superstring was the same one that Armin used to play as a child. A few silent months followed. Then, on July 7, 2017, Rank 1 revealed that they would be part of the Dreamstate SoCal line-up, a multi-day Trance event that would take place in the final weekend of November. On Saturday November 25th their first live performance in 4,5 years time took place and the guys seized the opportunity to showcase four brand new tracks alongside the untitled track they performed over various festivals during summer '12. As of December 9, no new material has been released. On July 27 2018, Cosmic Gate released their remix of L.E.D. There Be Light, but other than that there were no new releases that year. When 2019 had gotten underway, the guys released a brand new single at last: for this occasion they finally delivered a long-await collaboration with Marco V which they titled \"We Finally Met\". It was premiered on ASOT episode #902 on February 21st and was made Tune Of The Week by Armin. It was the only release they put out in 2019. For the celebration of the 950th episode of his radioshow, Armin decided he wanted to do something special so he asked Piet & Benno if they were interested in doing a liveshow at the Jaarbeurs to which they agreed.. Two and a half years onward from Dreamstate the guys went live again, albeit this time they combined the live playing with some mega-mixing tricks to fit 11 tracks into 30 minutes: they played two brand new untitled tracks, as well as two tracks from their Dreamstate show." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Description.", "Fauna and Flora.", "Important Bird Area.", "History.", "Wreck of the ship \"Utile\".", "Expedition \"Forgotten slaves\".", "Sovereignty claims." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The island is named in honour of Jacques Marie Boudin de Tromelin de La Nuguy, captain of the French corvette \"Dauphine\". He arrived at the island on 29 November 1776, and rescued eight stranded enslaved Malagasy people who had been on the island for 15 years.", "Tromelin is situated in the Mascarene Basin and is part of the Iles Eparses. It is currently only high. It formed as a volcano, now eroded, and developed an atoll ring of coral. Tromelin is about long and wide, with an area of 80 ha (200 acres), covered in scrub dominated by octopus bush and surrounded by coral reefs. Access by sea is quite difficult as there are no harbours and the only anchorage, to the northwest of the island, is poorly situated. The best, but by no means ideal, landing area is on the east side of the northern peninsula. A 1,200-metre airstrip provides a link with the outside world.", "Flora is poorly developed due to weather conditions and lack of fresh water. With the exception of two or three months in summer, this flat island is swept day and night by heavy winds that are sustained in winter. In summer, it can suffer the onslaught of cyclones and tropical storms. There is only grass and brush (low shrubs) present on the island. Veloutaries (Heliotropium foertherianum) and purslane (Portulaca oleracea), with growth shaped by a dominant east winds are present everywhere on the island. The fauna consists mainly of hermit crabs (Paguroidea), seabirds and sea turtles for which the island is an important nesting place. The green turtle (Chelonia mydas), also known as the freshwater turtle, is mainly encountered and, to a lesser extent, the tortoiseshell turtle, better known as the caret. The waters are rich with fish. The French Coral Reef Initiative (IFRECOR) has identified 26 species of corals. Allochthonous species were introduced on the island during the various shipwrecks: rats, mice and rabbits. The latter were decimated in 1986 by cyclone Erinesta.", "The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because of its significance as a seabird breeding site. Both masked (with up to 250 pairs) and red-footed boobies (up to 180 pairs) nesting there. Sulidae populations have seriously declined in the western Indian Ocean with those on Tromelin among the healthiest remaining. The island's masked boobies are of the western Indian Ocean subspecies (\"Sula dactylatra melanops\"), of which Tromelin is a stronghold. The red-footed boobies constitute the only polymorphic population in the region, indicating its biogeographical isolation. Both great and lesser frigatebirds used to nest on the island. The breeding populations of both birds have since been extirpated, although they continue to use the island for roosting. There are no resident landbirds.", "The island was discovered by France in 1720s. It was recorded by the French navigator Jean Marie Briand de la Feuillée and named \"Île des Sables\" ('Isle of Sand').", "On 31 July 1761 the French ship \"Utile\" (\"Useful\"), a frigate of the French East India Company, chartered by Jean-Joseph de Laborde and commanded by Captain Jean de La Fargue, transporting slaves from Madagascar to Mauritius in contravention of Mauritian law, ran onto the reefs of the island. The ship had departed Bayonne in France with 142 men. After a stopover on the Isle de France (present-day Mauritius), the ship embarked 160 Malagasy men, women and children at Foulpointe, on the east coast of Madagascar, to bring them into slavery on Mauritius, despite the prohibition of trafficking decreed by the governor. A navigation error, due to the use of two conflicting charts, caused the vessel to wreck on the reefs of Tromelin Island (then known as the Isle of Sand). The ship was a frigate, not a slave ship, and thus was not equipped with the shackles and chains usually found on slave ships. After the wreck, the crew and about 60 Malagasy people managed to reach the island, but the rest of the slaves, locked in the hold, drowned. The crew retrieved various equipment, food and wood from the wreckage. They dug a well, providing drinking water, and fed on salvaged food, turtles and seabirds. Captain Jean de Lafargue, having lost his mind as a result of the wreck, was replaced by his first lieutenant, second-in-command, Barthelemy Castellan du Vernet who lost his brother Leon in the shipwreck. Castellan built two camps, one for the crew and one for the slaves, a forge and an oven, and, with the materials recovered from the wreckage, began construction of a boat. On 27 September 1761, a contingent of 122 French sailors (crew and officers) left Tromelin aboard the \"Providence\". They left the surviving slaves—60 Malagasy men and women—on the desert island, promising to return and rescue them. The sailors reached Madagascar in just over four days and, after a stopover in Foulpointe, where men died of tropical diseases, were transferred to Bourbon Island (now Réunion Island), and then to the Isle de France (now Mauritius). When the crew of the ship reached Mauritius, they requested that colonial authorities send a ship to rescue the Malagasy slaves on the island. However, they met with a categorical refusal from the governor, with the justification that France was fighting the Seven Years' War and thus no ship could be spared, the island of Mauritius being itself under threat of attack from British India. Castellan left the Isle de France to return to France in 1762 and never gave up hope to one day return to the Isle of Sand to save the Malagasy people. The news of the castaway slaves got published and stirred the Parisian intellectual milieu; later, the episode was all but forgotten with the end of the Seven Years' War and the bankruptcy of the East India Company. In 1773, a ship passing close to Tromelin Island located the slaves and reported them to the authorities of Isle de France. A boat was sent, but this first rescue failed, as the ship couldn't approach the island. A year later, a second ship, \"Sauterelle\", also failed to reach the island. During this second failed rescue, a sailor managed to swim to the island, but he had to be abandoned by the ship due to bad weather. This sailor remained on Tromelin Island and, some time later, probably around 1775, built a raft on which he embarked with three men and three women, but which disappeared at sea. It was not until 29 November 1776, 15 years after the sinking, that Ensign Tromelin-Lanuguy, captain of the corvette \"Dauphine\", reached Tromelin Island and rescued the survivors—seven women and an eight-month-old child. Upon arriving there, Tromelin-Lanuguy discovered that the survivors were dressed in plaited feather clothes and that they had managed, during all these years, to keep a fire lit (the island does not have a single tree). The Malagasy people, who had been left on the bleak little island, built a shed with coral stones, for most of the wood had been used in the construction of the raft for the crew. They also built a lookout on the highest point of the island in order not to miss the ship that would, they hoped, come to their rescue. They were all from the Central Highlands of Madagascar, and had no knowledge of how to produce food in the coastal environment. Most had died within the first few months on the island. The survivors remained with Jacques Maillart, governor of the Isle de France, who declared them free and offered to bring them back to Madagascar, which they refused. Maillart decided to baptize the child Jacques Moyse (Moses), on the day of his arrival in Port-Louis on 15 December 1776, and to rename his mother Eve (her Malagasy name was Semiavou) and to do the same with the child's grandmother, whom he called Dauphine after the name of the corvette that rescued them. The trio was welcomed in the house of the intendant of the Isle of France. Tromelin was the first to precisely describe the island that now bears his name. The Marquis de Condorcet, advocating the abolition of slavery in his book \"Reflections on the Slavery of Negroes\" published in 1781, recounted the tragedy of the castaways of Tromelin to illustrate the inhumanity of the slave trade.", "An archeological expedition entitled \"Forgotten Slaves\", led by Max Guérout, a former French naval officer and director of operations of the Naval Archeology Research Group, and Thomas Romon, archaeologist at INRAP (National Institute for Preventive Archaeological Research), took place from October to November 2006, under the patronage of UNESCO and the French Committee for the History and Remembrance of Slavery (CPMHE). The results of the research were made public on January 17, 2007. The ten members of the expedition probed the wreck of \"Utile\", and searched the island for traces of shipwreck, in order to better understand the living conditions of the Malagasy people during these fifteen years. According to Max Guérout, head of the mission, \"In three days, a well 5 meters deep was dug. This represented a considerable effort. We found many bones of birds, turtles, and fish.\" One does not have the impression that these people were crushed by their condition. They tried to survive with order and method.\" An anonymous logbook, attributed to a writer of the crew, was found. Basements made of beach sandstone and coral were also found (the survivors thus transgressed a Malagasy custom according to which stone constructions were reserved for tombs). There were also six copper bowls and a pebble used to sharpen knives. The fire was maintained for fifteen years, thanks to the wood from the wreck, the island being devoid of trees. A second expedition, organized in November 2008, did not reveal the burials observed in 1851 by an English naval officer. However, the remains of two bodies displaced during the digging of the foundations of a building of the weather station have been uncovered. Three buildings built with coral blocks have been discovered, including the kitchen, which was still equipped with kitchen utensils, and in particular copper containers that had been repaired several times, testifying to the slaves' determination to survive. A third archaeological mission took place in November 2010. It allowed the discovery of three new buildings and many objects, including two lighters and flints, which elucidated the technique used by the castaways to rekindle the fire. The fourth expedition, took place in September / October 2013. It lasted for 45 days, and enabled to identify many tools, shelters and to understand the layout of the site. In 2016, an exhibition presenting the results of the various excavation campaigns, entitled \"Tromelin, the island of forgotten slaves\", was presented jointly in metropolitan France and in the DROM: at the Stella Matutina museum in Saint-Leu (La Réunion), the castle of the Dukes of Brittany in Nantes, the House of Agglomeration of Lorient, the Aquitaine Museum in Bordeaux, the departmental museum of archeology and prehistory of Martinique in Fort-de-France, and finally to the Basque Museum of the History of Bayonne from June to November 2017.", "The French claim to sovereignty dates from 29 November 1776, the date that the ship \"Dauphine\" arrived. The Mauritian claim to sovereignty is based on the fact that the island must have been ceded to United Kingdom by the treaty of Paris in 1814 and should not continue to be administered by France as a dependency of Réunion. The United Nations never recognized the Mauritian sovereignty over Tromelin. In 1954, France constructed a meteorological station and a landing strip on the island. It is a matter of dispute whether the building agreement transferred sovereignty of Tromelin from one to the other, and Mauritius claims the island as part of its territory, on the grounds that France has not retained its sovereignty over island in 1814 which was \"de facto\" part of the colony of Mauritius at the time of independence. Indeed, as early as 1959, even before independence, Mauritius informed the World Meteorological Organization that it considered Tromelin to be part of its territory. A co-management treaty was reached by France and Mauritius in 2010, but has not been ratified. Tromelin has an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of, contiguous with that of Réunion. The island's weather station, which warns of cyclones, is still operated by France and is staffed by meteorologists from Réunion." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Waterway.", "Route.", "Sailing conditions.", "Profile.", "Construction.", "Organization and management.", "Working conditions.", "The canal and Russian writers.", "History of usage.", "In 1930s.", "In World War II.", "Postwar years.", "Canal use.", "Oil product shipping.", "Military use.", "Hydroelectric stations.", "Commemoration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The total length of the waterway is, of which are man-made. The current flows north from Lake Onega to the White Sea, and all navigation marks are set according to it. Once in Lake Onega, ships can exit the southwest shore through the Svir River (and its two locks) to reach Lake Ladoga and then proceed down the Neva River to Saint Petersburg and the Baltic Sea. Alternatively, from Lake Onega river ships can sail eastward into the Volga–Baltic Waterway.", "The canal begins near Povenets settlement in Povenets bay of Lake Onega. After Povenets there are seven locks close together, forming the \"Stairs of Povenets\". These locks are the southern slope of the canal. The canal summit pond at 103 meters elevation is long between locks 7 & 8. The northern slope has twelve locks numbered 8–19. The route of the northern slope runs through five large lakes; Lake Matkozero between locks 8 & 9, Lake Vygozero between locks 9 & 10, Lake Palagorka between locks 10 & 11, Lake Voitskoye between locks 11 & 12 and Lake Matkozhnya between locks 13 & 14. The canal empties out into the Soroka Bay of the White Sea at Belomorsk. The settlements of Povenets, Segezha, Nadvoitsy, Sosnovets, and Belomorsk are located along the canal.", "Minimum lock dimensions are wide by long. The navigable channel is wide and deep, with a radius of curvature of. Speed is limited to in all artificial portions. In conditions of low visibility (less than one kilometer) navigation is halted. For the navigation seasons of 2008 to 2010, the canal locks were scheduled to operate from 20 May to 15–30 October, giving 148–163 navigation days per year.", "The following illustration depicts the profile of the White Sea–Baltic Canal. The horizontal axis is the length of the canal. The vertical axis is the elevation of the canal segments above mean sea level.", "The Soviet Union presented the canal as an example of the success of the first five-year plan. Its construction was completed four months ahead of schedule, though it was entirely too shallow for the planned use. The entire canal was constructed in twenty months, between 1931 and 1933, almost entirely by manual labor. The canal was the first major project constructed in the Soviet Union using forced labor. BBLAG, the Directorate of the BBK Camps, managed the construction, supplying a workforce of an estimated 100,000 convicts, at the cost of huge casualties. Although prison labor camps were usually kept secret, the White Sea Canal was a propaganda showcase of convicts \"reforging\" themselves in through useful labor (Soviet concept of \"perekovka\", reforging or rehabilitation). Marshall Berman states that \"The canal was a triumph of publicity; but if half the care that went into the public relations campaign had been devoted to the work itself, there would have been far fewer victims and far more development.\" In particular, he emphasizes that politics and public relations ruined the usefulness of the canal:", "The workforce for the Canal was supplied by the Belbaltlag camp directorate (White Sea–Baltic Corrective Labor Camp Directorate, WSBC) of the OGPU GULAG. Genrikh Yagoda, Deputy Chairman of the OGPU, as well as Berman, Firin, Kogan, and Rappoport were awarded medals for the completion of the canal by the Politburo on July 15, 1933.", "The Soviets portrayed the project as evidence of the efficiency of the Gulag. Supposedly \"reforging class enemies\" (political prisoners) through \"corrective labor\", the working conditions at the BBK Camp were brutal, with the prisoners given only primitive hand tools to carry out the massive construction project. The mortality rate was about 8.7%, with many more sick and disabled. The workforce was organized into brigades of 25–30, which made up phalanges of 250–300. There were norms for labor, for example of hand-dug stone per day per brigade. At other times these teams were pitted to compete against each other in surpassing the norms, and promises were made of shortened sentences, food and cash bonuses for the champions. After the successful construction, 12,484 prisoners were freed as reward, and for 59,516 prison terms were shortened. At least 12,000 workers died during the building process, according to the official records, while Anne Applebaum's estimate is 25,000 deaths.", "A carefully prepared visit in August 1933 to the White Sea–Baltic Canal may have hidden the worst of the brutality from a group of 120 Russian writers and artists, the so-called Writers Brigade, including Maxim Gorky, Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy, Viktor Shklovsky, and Mikhail Zoshchenko, who compiled a work in praise of the project, the 600-page \"The I.V. Stalin White Sea – Baltic Sea Canal\" (), published at the end of 1934. Shklovsky visited the White Sea Canal on his own rather than with the group. Gorky, who had previously visited the Solovetski Islands labor camp in 1929 and written about it in the Soviet journal \"Our Accomplishments,\" organized the White Sea trip, but did not himself join it. It is likely that at least some of the visiting writers were aware of the brutality of camp life. In fact, one of the contributors, Sergei Alymov, was a prisoner at the camp and editor of the camp newspaper \"Perekovka\" (\"Reforging\"). Similarly, Aleksandr Avdeenko's account of Belomor includes conversations between OGPU chief Semyon Firin and Prince Mirsky that reveal at least some of the writers were aware of its true nature.", "", "After the canal had been completed and opened for navigation, the Belbaltlag (White Sea-Baltic Camp) was reorganized into the White Sea-Baltic Combine (Baltiysko-Belomorsky Kombinat [BBK]), still within the NKVD system, by an order of the Council of People's Commissars of August 17, 1933. The Combine was charged with operating the canal and managing the economic development of the adjacent areas, including 2.8 million hectares of forest lands and the industrial facilities that had been constructed along the route. A major part of the Combine's workforce consisted of 75-85 thousand Beltbaltlag prisoners. In addition, the Combine included 21 \"special settlements\" (\"spetsposyolok\") with some 30 thousand residents, mostly dispossessed farm families transported to Karelia from the USSR's warmer regions. In addition to convicts and \"special settlers\", the Combine employed about 4500 free employees and a paramilitary security force. In all, the Combine's employees accounted for about 25% of the population of the Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Until 1936, all financial transactions of the Combine were exempt from taxes and duties. The BBK led to the development of Belomorsk as a major industrial city. New cities and urban-type settlements developed along the route of the canal, such as Medvezhyegorsk, Segezha, Nadvoitsy. Povenets, which had been demoted from a town to a village in the 1920s, now became a town again, and a large port. As is discussed further below, during the 1930s a number of smaller naval vessels were transferred from the Baltic to the White Sea to provide warships for the Soviet Northern Naval Flotilla, which became the Northern Fleet in 1937.", "There was no action near the White Sea–Baltic Canal during the Winter War of 1939-1940, when the USSR invaded Finland. With Germany's full-scale invasion of the USSR in 1941, supported by Finland in the Continuation War, the canal route became the front line. On June 23, 1941, the day after the German invasion, 16 Finnish commandos were ferried to the canal by two German Heinkel He 115 seaplanes from Oulujärvi. The commandos were Finnish volunteers recruited by the German Major Schaller, and were equipped with German uniforms and weapons, as the Finnish General Staff wanted no responsibility for the operation. The commandos were to blow up the canal locks, but they failed due to heightened security. On June 28, the canal was bombed for the first time by the Finnish Air Force, targeting Locks No. 6, 7, 8, and 9, followed the next day by Finnish troops advancing along the Finland-USSR border. The air bombings of the Povenets lock ladder succeeded in interrupting boat traffic on the canal only from June 28 to August 6, and then again from 13 to 24 August 1941. On August 28, the fifth and final bombing raid of the 1941 navigation season took place against Lock No. 7, but it did no damage. In August, the management of the BBK and most of the 800 canal staff were evacuated from Medvezhyegorsk to Lock No. 19 in Belomorsk, with only 80 left at their stations. In November, a caravan of passenger vessels evacuating families of Povenets canal workers and residents, along with equipment, froze into the ice of Lake Vygozero. On the night of November 12/13, another boat caravan froze in Zaonezhsky Bay near Megostrov Island, and was later captured by Finnish troops. On December 5, Finnish troops entered Medvezhyegorsk. On December 6 in a -37 °C frost, Finnish troops captured Povenets, the southern entrance to the BBK. On the same day, Soviet troops started demolishing canal structures. Lock No. 1 was the first to be blown up. By the morning of December 8, Locks No 1 to 6, and dams No. 4 and 20 had all been demolished. At the same time, heavy fighting took place near the Povenets Lock Ladder (Locks No. 1 to 7). The Finns crossed the canal and captured Gabselga village to the east, but after a few days of fighting they were pushed back to the canal's western side. Soviet sappers blew up Lock No. 7 on December 11 after the Red Army had retreated. Once the locks of the Povenets Ladder had been destroyed, water from the watershed lakes poured freely into Lake Onega through Povenets village, which was nearly completely destroyed by the flood. The route of the BBK had become the front line, separating the Finnish troops on the canal's western bank from the Soviet forces on its eastern bank. The opposing armies held these positions until June 1944.", "After Finland left the war in September 1944, the damage to the canal, including the complete destruction of its southern section and the town of Povenets and damage to lighthouses and other structures, was repaired. Rebuilding was completed by July 1946, with navigation through the canal restored on July 28, 1946. On February 2, 1950, the RSFSR Council of Ministers issued an order for the overhaul and reconstruction of the BBK's structures, with gradual electrification of the canal's structures and machinery. In 1953, the locks' staff hired electricians; by 1957, the electrification of the locks of the northern slope was completed; and by 1959 all coastal and floating navigation lights were switched to electric power. The importance of BBK for the national economy greatly increased after the commissioning of the modern Volga-Baltic Waterway in 1964. Canal capacity and the annual volume of freight traffic increased several-fold. Another upgrade took place in the 1970s. During the reconstruction, the guaranteed depth of the fairway was increased to 4 meters, and the channel became part of the Unified Deep Water System of European Russia.", "Cargo tonnage peaked in 1985, with 7.3 million tonnes transported. Tonnage remained high until 1990, then declined after the fall of the Soviet Union. Usage rose gradually in the 21st century, but remained well below the Soviet-era peak, with just 0.3 million tonnes in 2002. During the 2007 season, the canal carried 0.4 million tonnes of cargo along with 2,500 passengers. It is now operated by the White Sea and Lake Onega Waterways and Shipping Administration (Беломорско-Онежское государственное бассейновое управление водных путей и судоходства), which is also responsible for shipping on Lake Onega and in the Belomorsk harbor area (but not in the open waters of the White Sea). The canal was seemingly a small part of the agency's overall shipping business, which in 2007 amounted to 4.6 million tonnes and 155,000 passengers. According to official statistics, a total of 193 million tonnes of cargo was transported over the canal over its first 75 years (1933–2008). The canal makes it possible to ship heavy and bulky items from Russia's industrial centers to the White Sea, and then by sea-going vessels to Siberia's northern ports. For example, in the summer of 2007, a large piece of equipment for Rosneft's Siberian Vankor Oil Field was delivered by the \"Amur-1516\" from Dzerzhinsk on the Oka River, via the Volga–Baltic Waterway and the White Sea Canal to Arkhangelsk, and from there by the ocean-going SA-15 class Arctic cargo ship \"Kapitan Danilkin\" to Dudinka on the Yenisei River. In 2011, heavy equipment for the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydro power plant was shipped from Saint Petersburg via the canal, the Arctic Sea, and the Yenisei River.", "In Soviet times, the canal was used for shipping oil products from refineries on the Volga River to consumers in the Murmansk Oblast and overseas. Russia's Volgotanker Company, with a fleet of suitably sized petroleum tankers and ore-bulk-oil carriers, pioneered this route starting August 1970, when \"Nefterudovoz-3\" delivered a cargo of fuel oil to the White Sea port of Kandalaksha. After many years of interruption, Volgotanker resumed the canal route in 2003. The company had plans to carry 800,000 tonnes of fuel oil over the canal during 2003, and to increase the volume to in 2004. The fuel was transferred from Volgotanker river tankers to Latvian seagoing tankers at a floating transfer station near the Osinki Island in the Onega Bay on the White Sea, northeast of the port of Onega. Transfer operations began 24 June 2003, but on 1 September a low-speed collision between Volgotanker's \"Nefterudovoz-57M\" and the Latvian \"Zoja-I\" during a transfer caused a crack in the \"Nefterudovoz's\" hull, with a subsequent oil spillage estimated at, of which only were recovered. Volgotanker's alleged failure to contain the spill resulted in the Arkhangelsk Oblast authorities shutting down the oil transfer operation with only 220,000 tonnes exported. The company was fined and future operations were refused.", "Russian (and later Soviet) naval strategists long believed that a well-designed canal system could help establish contact among the separate fleets based on Russia's Black Sea, Baltic, Arctic, Pacific, and Caspian coasts. The White Sea Canal was also constructed with this military use in mind, and early in its history the Northern Fleet's first warships sailed along the canal to the White Sea from the Baltic, Before World War II, the canal was used for the transfer of military vessels between the two seas on 17 occasions. During World War II, in August–September 1941, the canal was used to move a number of submarines from the Baltic Fleet to the White Sea, including submarines K-3, S-101 and S-102, L-22. Some unfinished submarines from Leningrad's Baltic Shipyard and Gorky's Krasnoye Sormovo shipyard sailed to the new Sevmash shipyard in Severodvinsk. Since then, the canal has been regularly used for delivering submarines by transporter dock from the Baltic Shipyard and Krasnoye Sormovo to Sevmash for completion.", "The canal system includes five hydroelectric power plants with total production capacity of 240 MW.", "The canal gave its name to the Belomorkanal Soviet cigarette brand. There is a monument at Povenets for the prisoners who perished during the construction, and a smaller memorial in Belomorsk near the White Sea end. There was even a comedic play written about the canal by Nikolay Pogodin. The canal project also gave the Russian language the slang word \"\"zeka\"\", \"\"zek\", \"z/k\"\" for \"inmate\". In Russian, \"inmate\", \"incarcerated\" is (), usually abbreviated to \"\" in paperwork, and pronounced as \"\" (, \"zeh-KA\"), which gradually transformed into \"\" and \"\", \"zek\" (both pronounced as ). The word is still in colloquial use. Originally the abbreviation stood for (), literally \"incarcerated canal-army-man\". The latter term coined in an analogy with the words meaning \"member of the Red Army\" or (member of a labor army). According to the Soviet account, in 1932 when Anastas Mikoyan visited the \"Belomorstroy\" construction site, Lazar Kogan asked, \"Comrade Mikoyan, what shall we call them? (...) I thought up the word:. What do you think?\" Mikoyan approved." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Use.", "Implementing nondeterministic algorithms with deterministic ones." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Often in computational theory, the term \"algorithm\" refers to a deterministic algorithm. A nondeterministic algorithm is different from its more familiar deterministic counterpart in its ability to arrive at outcomes using various routes. If a deterministic algorithm represents a single path from an input to an outcome, a nondeterministic algorithm represents a single path stemming into many paths, some of which may arrive at the same output and some of which may arrive at unique outputs. This property is captured mathematically in \"nondeterministic\" models of computation such as the nondeterministic finite automaton. In some scenarios, all possible paths are allowed to run simultaneously. In algorithm design, nondeterministic algorithms are often used when the problem solved by the algorithm inherently allows multiple outcomes (or when there is a single outcome with multiple paths by which the outcome may be discovered, each equally preferable). Crucially, every outcome the nondeterministic algorithm produces is valid, regardless of which choices the algorithm makes while running. In computational complexity theory, nondeterministic algorithms are ones that, at every possible step, can allow for multiple continuations (imagine a person walking down a path in a forest and, every time they step further, they must pick which fork in the road they wish to take). These algorithms do not arrive at a solution for every possible computational path; however, they are guaranteed to arrive at a correct solution for some path (i.e., the person walking through the forest may only find their cabin if they pick some combination of \"correct\" paths). The choices can be interpreted as guesses in a search process. A large number of problems can be conceptualized through nondeterministic algorithms, including the most famous unresolved question in computing theory, P vs NP.", "One way to simulate a nondeterministic algorithm \"N\" using a deterministic algorithm \"D\" is to treat sets of states of \"N\" as states of \"D\". This means that \"D\" simultaneously traces all the possible execution paths of \"N\" (see powerset construction for this technique in use for finite automata). Another is randomization, which consists of letting all choices be determined by a random number generator. The result is called a probabilistic deterministic algorithm." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Formal definition.", "What makes algorithms non-deterministic?", "Disadvantages of Determinism.", "Determinism categories in languages.", "Mercury.", "Haskell.", "ML family and derived languages." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Deterministic algorithms can be defined in terms of a state machine: a \"state\" describes what a machine is doing at a particular instant in time. State machines pass in a discrete manner from one state to another. Just after we enter the input, the machine is in its \"initial state\" or \"start state\". If the machine is deterministic, this means that from this point onwards, its current state determines what its next state will be; its course through the set of states is predetermined. Note that a machine can be deterministic and still never stop or finish, and therefore fail to deliver a result. Examples of particular abstract machines which are deterministic include the deterministic Turing machine and deterministic finite automaton.", "A variety of factors can cause an algorithm to behave in a way which is not deterministic, or non-deterministic: Although real programs are rarely purely deterministic, it is easier for humans as well as other programs to reason about programs that are. For this reason, most programming languages and especially functional programming languages make an effort to prevent the above events from happening except under controlled conditions. The prevalence of multi-core processors has resulted in a surge of interest in determinism in parallel programming and challenges of non-determinism have been well documented. A number of tools to help deal with the challenges have been proposed to deal with deadlocks and race conditions.", "It is advantageous, in some cases, for a program to exhibit nondeterministic behavior. The behavior of a card shuffling program used in a game of blackjack, for example, should not be predictable by players — even if the source code of the program is visible. The use of a pseudorandom number generator is often not sufficient to ensure that players are unable to predict the outcome of a shuffle. A clever gambler might guess precisely the numbers the generator will choose and so determine the entire contents of the deck ahead of time, allowing him to cheat; for example, the Software Security Group at Reliable Software Technologies was able to do this for an implementation of Texas Hold 'em Poker that is distributed by ASF Software, Inc, allowing them to consistently predict the outcome of hands ahead of time. These problems can be avoided, in part, through the use of a cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator, but it is still necessary for an unpredictable random seed to be used to initialize the generator. For this purpose a source of nondeterminism is required, such as that provided by a hardware random number generator. Note that a negative answer to the P=NP problem would not imply that programs with nondeterministic output are theoretically more powerful than those with deterministic output. The complexity class NP (complexity) can be defined without any reference to nondeterminism using the verifier-based definition.", "", "This logic-functional programming language establish different determinism categories for predicate modes as explained in the ref.", "Haskell provides several mechanisms:", "As seen in Standard ML, OCaml and Scala" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Modern releases.", "Gameplay." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In subsequent years the game has been released in various languages, including English, German and Italian.", "In the modern release, \"Have You Herd?\", the goal is to get one of each of the farm animals: rabbit, sheep, pig, cow, and horse. Each player begins the game with a single rabbit (though, it is suggested by Winning Moves to start with a rabbit and sheep for a faster game). On their turn, a player performs three steps. First, they see if they can trade by consulting a chart. They can turn in sets of animals to get a tile of a different animal (for example, 5 rabbits can be traded for 1 sheep tile). After trading, the player rolls the two 12-sided dice. If they roll an animal that matches a tile they have, they get another tile of that type (for example, a player has a rabbit and rolls one. That player would get a rabbit tile). If the player rolls doubles, they get to roll again. There are a number of special events on the dice as well, such as the wolf (causes you to be unable to multiply and causes the player to roll the two dice and lose the animals shown unless they have a guard dog), the fox (cannot multiply animals, eats all but one rabbit unless you have the guard dog), the guard dog (protects you from a future wolf and foxes), the skunk (allows you to cause another player to miss their next turn), and the trade \"T\" (allows you to only trade with opponents instead of the bank). The game ends once one player has a rabbit, sheep, pig, cow, and horse." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The entrance to the cave was always known locally, with the first written mention coming from 1669. The cave was visited by two European monarchs: on 7.9.1804 the Holy Roman Emperor Francis II and on another occasion Alois I, Prince of Liechtenstein. During 1867-1873, the part named \"Předsíně\" was explored by the archaeologist Jindřich Wankel, who discovered a Palaeolithic settlement from around 100,000 - 10,000 BCE. Later, a statuette of a bronze bull was found, and starting in 1872 a large Hallstatt culture site had been excavated. The site contained animal and material offerings, crops, textiles, ceramic and sheet-metal vessels, jewellery, glass and amber beads. According to Wankel, the skeletons of one man and forty young women were found. Some women were beheaded, some missing legs or hands. On a small \"altar\" a skull and severed hands were placed. Wankel's romantic interpretation was that he had discovered the grave of a nobleman, accompanied by ritually killed women. Other theories suggest the death of people hiding in the cave during a war or from an explosion of a gas or dust. Later research identified seventeen skeletons as men; the people ranged from children up to adults of 50–60 years old. In 1920, when water was pumped out, another cave was discovered, the \"Nová býčí skála\" (The New Bull Rock Cave), with the Jedovnický brook (\"Jedovnický potok\") running through it. During World War II, the Nazis built an underground factory in the cave, damaging the entrance area. After the war, a few more caves have been discovered (\"Sobolova (Barová)\", \"Májová\", \"Prolomená\" and \"Proplavaná\"). In 1992, exploration of the brook was completed. The cave contains a Neolithic picture, currently the oldest cave painting known in the Czech Republic. It depicts a geometrical shape resembling a grill with a size of 30x40 cm, painted in charcoal on the cave wall. The carbon was dated with the C14 radio-carbon method to be 5,200 years old. The pattern resembles the decorations on some ceramic vessels from that period." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Politics.", "Maritime boundary case.", "Geography.", "Environment.", "Climate.", "Economy.", "Demographics.", "Ethnography.", "Languages.", "Religion.", "Culture.", "Transportation.", "Communications.", "Education.", "Health.", "Fire services." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "is French for Saint Peter, the patron saint of fishermen. The present name of was first noted in the form of \"Micquelle\" in the French Basque sailor Martin de Hoyarçabal's navigational pilot for Newfoundland. It has been claimed that the name \"Miquelon\" is a Basque form of Michael; \"Mikel\" and \"Mikels\" are usually named \"Mikelon\" in the Basque Country. Therefore, from \"Mikelon\" it may have been written in the French way with a \"q\" instead of a \"k\". The Basque Country is divided between Spain and France, and most Basques live south of the border, so Miquelon may have been influenced by the Spanish name, an augmentative form of Miguel meaning \"big Michael\". The adjoined island's name of \"Langlade\" is said to be an adaptation of (Englishman's Island).", "Archaeological evidence indicates that native peoples, such as the Beothuk, visited St Pierre and Miquelon; however, it is not thought that they settled on the islands permanently. The Portuguese explorer João Álvares Fagundes is thought to be have been the first European to have landed on the islands; he visited them on 21 October 1520 and named the St. Pierre island group the 'Eleven Thousand Virgins', as the day marked the feast day of St. Ursula and her virgin companions. They were made a French possession in 1536 by Jacques Cartier on behalf of the King of France. Though already frequented by Mi'kmaq people and Basque and Breton fishermen, the islands were not permanently settled until the end of the 17th century: four permanent inhabitants were counted in 1670, and 22 in 1691. In 1670, during Jean Talon's tenure as Intendant of New France, a French officer annexed the islands when he found a dozen French fishermen camped there. The British Royal Navy soon began to harass the French settlers, pillaging their camps and ships. By the early 1700s, the islands were again uninhabited, and were ceded to the British by the Treaty of Utrecht which ended the War of the Spanish Succession in 1713. The British renamed St Pierre to 'St Peter', and small numbers of British and American settlers began arriving. Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1763), which put an end to the Seven Years' War, France ceded all its North American possessions, but Saint-Pierre and Miquelon were returned to France. France also maintained fishing rights on the coasts of Newfoundland (French Shore). With France being allied with the Americans during the American Revolutionary War, Britain invaded and razed the colony in 1778, sending the entire population of 2,000 back to France. In 1793 the British landed in Saint-Pierre and, the following year, expelled the French population, and tried to install British settlers. The British colony was in turn sacked by French troops in 1796. The Treaty of Amiens of 1802 returned the islands to France, but Britain reoccupied them when hostilities recommenced the next year. The Treaty of Paris (1814) gave the islands back to France, though Britain occupied them yet again during the Hundred Days War. France then reclaimed the now uninhabited islands in which all structures and buildings had been destroyed or fallen into disrepair. The islands were resettled in 1816. The settlers were mostly Basques, Bretons and Normans, who were joined by various other peoples, particularly from the nearby island of Newfoundland. Only around the middle of the century did increased fishing bring a certain prosperity to the little colony. In 1903 the colony toyed with the idea of joining the United States, but in the end nothing came of the idea. During the early 1910s the colony suffered severely as a result of unprofitable fisheries, and large numbers of its people emigrated to Nova Scotia and Quebec. The draft imposed on all male inhabitants of conscript age after the beginning of World War I crippled the fisheries, which could not be processed by the older men or the women and children. About 400 men from the colony served in the French military during World War I, 25% of whom died. The increase in the adoption of steam trawlers in the fisheries also contributed to the reduction in employment opportunities. Smuggling had always been an important economic activity in the islands, but it became especially prominent in the 1920s with the institution of prohibition in the United States. In 1931 the archipelago was reported to have imported of whisky from Canada in 12 months, most of it to be smuggled into the United States. The end of prohibition in 1933 plunged the islands once more into economic depression. During World War II, despite opposition from Canada, Britain, and the United States, Charles de Gaulle seized the archipelago from Vichy France, to which the local government had pledged its allegiance. In a referendum on December 26, 1941, the population endorsed the takeover by Free France by a vote of 63 for Free France with 3 ballots voided. After the 1958 French constitutional referendum, Saint Pierre and Miquelon was given the option of becoming fully integrated with France, becoming a self-governing state within the French Community, or preserving the status of overseas territory; it decided to remain a territory.", "Since March 2003, Saint Pierre and Miquelon has been an overseas collectivity with a special status. The archipelago became an overseas territory in 1946, then an overseas department in 1976, before acquiring the status of territorial collectivity in 1985. The archipelago has two communes: Saint-Pierre and Miquelon-Langlade. A third commune, Isle-aux-Marins, existed until 1945, when it was absorbed by the municipality of Saint-Pierre. The inhabitants possess French citizenship and suffrage. Saint Pierre and Miquelon sends a senator and a deputy to the National Assembly of France in Paris and enjoys a degree of autonomy concerning taxes, customs, and excise. France appoints the Prefect of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, who represents the national government in the territory. The Prefect is in charge of national interests, law enforcement, public order, and, under the conditions set by the statute of 1985, administrative control. Since January 2018, the current Prefect is Thierry Devimeux. The local legislative body, the Territorial Council (), has 19 members: four councillors from Miquelon-Langlade and 15 from Saint-Pierre. The President of the Territorial Council is the head of a delegation of \"France in the name of Saint Pierre and Miquelon\" for international events such as the annual meetings of NAFO and ICCAT. France is responsible for the defence of the islands. The has maintained a patrol boat, the, on the islands since 1997. Law enforcement in Saint Pierre and Miquelon is the responsibility of a branch of the French Gendarmerie Nationale. There are two police stations in the archipelago.", "France claimed a exclusive economic zone for Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, and in August 1983 the naval ship \"Lieutenant de vaisseau Le Hénaff\" and the seismic ship \"Lucien Beaufort\" were sent to explore for oil in the disputed zone. In addition to the potential oil reserves, cod fishing rights on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland were at stake in the dispute. In the late 1980s, indications of declining fish stocks began to raise serious concern over the depletion of the fishery. In 1992, an arbitration panel awarded the islands an exclusive economic zone of to settle a longstanding territorial dispute with Canada, although it represents only 25% of what France had sought. The 1992 decision fixed the maritime boundaries between Canada and the islands, but did not demarcate the continental shelf.", "Located off the western end of the Newfoundland's Burin Peninsula, the archipelago of Saint Pierre and Miquelon is composed of eight islands, totalling, of which only two are inhabited. The islands are bare and rocky, with steep coasts, and only a thin layer of peat to soften the hard landscape. The islands are geologically part of the northeastern end of the Appalachian Mountains along with Newfoundland. , whose area is smaller,, is the most populous and the commercial and administrative center of the archipelago. Saint-Pierre Airport has been in operation since 1999 and is capable of accommodating long-haul flights from France. , the largest island, is in fact composed of two islands; Miquelon Island (also called, ) is connected to Langlade Island (, ) by the \"\" (also known as the ), a long sandy tombolo. A storm had severed them in the 18th century, separating the two islands for several decades, before currents reconstructed the isthmus., the highest point in the territory at 240m, is located on Grande Miquelon. The waters between Langlade and Saint-Pierre were called \"the Mouth of Hell\" () until about 1900, as more than 600 shipwrecks have been recorded in that point since 1800. In the north of Miquelon Island is the village of Miquelon-Langlade (710 inhabitants), while Langlade Island was almost deserted (only one inhabitant in the 1999 census). A third, formerly inhabited island,, known as until 1931 and located a short distance from the port of Saint-Pierre, has been uninhabited since 1963. The other main islands are, and.", "Seabirds are the most common fauna. Seals and other wildlife can be found in the Grand Barachois Lagoon of Miquelon. Every spring, whales migrating to Greenland are visible off the coasts of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon. Trilobite fossils have been found on Langlade. The stone pillars off the island coasts called \"L'anse aux Soldats\" eroded away and disappeared in the 1970s. The rocky islands are barren, except for scrubby yews and junipers and thin volcanic soil. The forest cover of the hills, except in parts of Langlade, had been removed for fuel long ago.", "In spite being located at a similar latitude to the Bay of Biscay, the archipelago is characterized by a cold borderline humid continental/subarctic climate, under the influence of polar air masses and the cold Labrador Current. The mild winters for being a subarctic climate also means it has influences of subpolar oceanic climate, thus being at the confluence of three climatic types. The February mean is just below the isotherm for that classification. Due to just three months being above 10 °C (50 °F) in mean temperatures and winter lows being so mild, Saint Pierre and Miquelon has a Köppen Climate Classification of \"Dfc\", if bordering on \"Cfc\" due to the mildness of the winter and either \"Dfb\" or \"Cfb\" due to the closeness of the fourth-and fifth-warmest months to having mean temperatures at or above 10 °C (50 °F). Typical maritime seasonal lag is also strong with September being warmer than June and March being colder than December. The average temperature is, with a temperature range of between the warmest ( in August) and coldest months ( in February). Precipitation is abundant ( per year) and regular (146 days per year), falling as snow and rain. Because of its location at the confluence of the cold waters of the Labrador Current and the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, the archipelago is also crossed a hundred days a year by fog banks, mainly in June and July. Two other climatic elements are remarkable: the extremely variable winds and haze during the spring to early summer.", "The inhabitants have traditionally earned their livelihood by fishing and by servicing the fishing fleets operating off the coast of Newfoundland. The climate and the small amount of available land militate against activities such as farming and livestock raising (weather conditions are severe, confining the growing season to a few weeks, and the soil contains significant peat and clay and is largely infertile). Since 1992 the economy has been in steep decline, following the depletion of fish stocks due to overfishing, the limitation of fishing areas and the ban imposed on all cod fishing by the Canadian Government. The rise in unemployment has been countered by state financial aid for the retraining of businesses and individuals. The construction of the airport in 1999 helped sustain activity in the construction industry and public works. Fish farming, crab fishing and agriculture are being developed to diversify the local economy. The future of Saint Pierre and Miquelon rests on tourism, fisheries and aquaculture. Explorations are under way to exploit deposits of oil and gas. Tourism relies on the proximity to Canada, while commerce and crafts make up the bulk of the business sector. The labour market is characterised by high seasonality, due to climatic hazards. Traditionally, the inhabitants suspended all outdoor activities (construction, agriculture, etc.) between December and April. In 1999 the unemployment rate was 12.8%, and a third of the employed worked in the public sector. The employment situation was worsened by the complete cessation of deep-sea fishing, the traditional occupation of the islanders, as the unemployment rate in 1990 was lower at 9.5%. The unemployment for 2010 shows a decrease from 2009, from 7.7% to 7.1%. Exports are very low (5.1% of GDP) while imports are significant (49.1% of GDP). About 70% of the islands' supplies are imported from Canada or from other parts of France via Nova Scotia. The euro functions as the official currency of Saint Pierre and Miquelon. The Canadian dollar is also widely accepted and used, but change is usually given in euros. The \"Institut d'émission des départements d'outre-mer\" (IEDOM), the French public institution responsible for issuing currency in the overseas territories that use the euro on behalf of the Bank of France, has had an agency in Saint Pierre since 1978. The islands have issued their own stamps from 1885 to the present, except for a period between 1 April 1978 and 3 February 1986 when French stamps not specific to Saint Pierre and Miquelon were used.", "The total population of the islands at the January 2016 census was 6,008, of which 5,412 lived in Saint-Pierre and 596 in Miquelon-Langlade. At the time of the 1999 census 76% of the population was born on the archipelago, while 16.1% were born in metropolitan France, a sharp increase from the 10.2% in 1990. In the same census, less than 1% of the population reported being a foreign national. The archipelago has a high emigration rate, especially among young adults, who often leave for their studies without returning afterwards. Even at the time of the great prosperity of the cod fishery, the population growth had always been constrained by the geographic remoteness, harsh climate and infertile soils.", "While some ruins show a presence of indigenous American people on the archipelago, it is unlikely that there were year-round settlements beyond occasional fishing and hunting expeditions. The current population is the result of inflows of settlers from the French ports, mostly Normans, Basques, Bretons and Saintongeais, and also from the historic area of Acadia in Canada (Gaspé Peninsula, parts of New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Cape Breton) as well as Francophones who settled on the Port au Port Peninsula on Newfoundland.", "The inhabitants speak French; their customs and traditions are similar to the ones found in metropolitan France. The French spoken on the archipelago is closer to Metropolitan French than to Canadian French but maintains a number of unique features. Basque, formerly spoken in private settings by people of Basque ancestry, had disappeared from the islands by the late 1950s.", "The population is overwhelmingly Christian, with the majority being Roman Catholic. The Roman Catholic Vicariate Apostolic of Iles Saint-Pierre and Miquelon used to manage the local church until it was merged into the French diocese of La Rochelle and Saintes in 2018.", "Every summer there is a Basque Festival, which has demonstrations of \"harrijasotzaile\" (stone heaving), \"aizkolari\" (lumberjack skills), and Basque pelota. The local cuisine is mostly based on seafood such as lobster, snow crab, mussels, and especially cod. Ice hockey is very popular in Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, with local teams often competing in Newfoundland-based leagues. Several players from the islands have played on French and Canadian teams and even participated on France men's national ice hockey team in the Olympics. Street names are not commonly used on the islands. Directions and locations are commonly given using nicknames and the names of nearby residents. The only time the guillotine was used in North America was on Saint-Pierre in the late 19th century. Joseph Néel was convicted of killing Mr Coupard on Île aux Chiens on 30 December 1888, and subsequently executed by guillotine on 24 August 1889. The device had to be shipped from Martinique and it did not arrive in working order. It was very difficult to get anyone to perform the execution; finally a recent immigrant was coaxed into doing the job. This event was the inspiration for the 2000 film \"The Widow of Saint-Pierre\". The guillotine is now in a museum in Saint-Pierre.", "For many years there was no direct air link between Saint Pierre and mainland France. Although the 1999 opening of the Saint-Pierre Airport was intended to overcome this problem, a direct air link was not established until Air Saint-Pierre announced it would conduct direct seasonal flights from Paris in the summer of 2018. Until then, all flights from and to Saint-Pierre passed through Canada. Air Saint-Pierre's ATR 42 aircraft flies seasonally from the Canadian airports of Sydney and Stephenville, and year-round from Halifax, Montreal, and St John's. A smaller airport on Miquelon provides inter-island flights. Ferry services operated by SPM Ferries connect St Pierre with Miquelon and the Newfoundland town of Fortune. In the summer, additional services operate between St Pierre and Langlade and between Miquelon and Fortune. The ferries are capable of carrying up to 18 vehicles. However, continuing delays in building suitable port facilities in Fortune mean only foot passengers are transported between Fortune and St Pierre or Fortune and Miquelon.", "Saint-Pierre and Miquelon have four radio stations; all stations operate on the FM band, with the last stations converted from the AM band in 2004. Three of the stations are on Saint-Pierre, two of which are owned by Outre-Mer 1ère, along with one 1ère station on Miquelon. At night, these stations broadcast France-Inter. The other station (Radio Atlantique) is an affiliate of Radio France Internationale. The nation is linked to North America and Europe by satellite communications for telephone and television service. The department of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon is served by three television stations: Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon 1ère (call letters FQN) on Channel 8, with a repeater on Channel 31, and France Ô on Channel 6. While Saint-Pierre and Miquelon use the French SECAM-K1 standard for television broadcasts, the local telecommunications provider (SPM Telecom) carries many North American television stations and cable channels, converted from North America's NTSC standard. In addition, Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon 1ère is carried on Shaw Direct satellite and most digital cable services in Canada, converted to NTSC. SPM Telecom is also the department's main Internet Service Provider, with its internet service being named \"Cheznoo\" (a play on Chez-Nous, French for \"Our Place\"). SPM Telecom also offers cellular phone and mobile phone service (for phones that adhere to the GSM standard). SPM Telecom uses the GSM 900 MHz band, which is different from the GSM 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands used in the rest of North America. The islands are treated as a separate country-level entity among radio amateurs, identifiable with ITU prefix \"FP\". Visiting radio amateurs, mainly from the US, activate Saint-Pierre and Miquelon every year on amateur radio frequencies. The islands are well known among radio amateurs, who collect contacts with these stations for Islands on the Air and DX Century Club awards; the geographic location of Saint Pierre and Miquelon gives a very good takeoff for shortwave communication all over the world.", "The archipelago has four primary schools (Saint Odile, Henriette Bonin, Feu Rouge, les Quatre-Temps), one middle school (Collège de Miquelon/College Saint-Christophe) with an annex in Miquelon, one state (government) high school (Lycée-collège d’Etat Emile Letournel) and one vocational high school. The students who wish to further their studies after high school are granted access to scholarships to study overseas. Many students go to metropolitan France, although some go to Canada (mainly in Quebec and New Brunswick), and the United States. Saint Pierre's institute for higher learning is the Institut Frecker, which is associated with Memorial University of Newfoundland. Since 2000 Frecker had been operated by the Government of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, with support of the federal government of Canada and the provincial government of Newfoundland and Labrador.", "Saint-Pierre and Miquelon's health care system is entirely public and free. In 1994 France and Canada signed an agreement allowing the residents of the archipelago to be treated in St. John's. In 2015 St-Pierre and Miquelon indicated that they would start looking for a new healthcare provider as recent rate increases by Eastern Health in Newfoundland were too expensive (increasing to $3.3 million in 2014 from $2.5 million in 2010). Currently Halifax, Nova Scotia and Moncton, New Brunswick have been mooted as possible locations. Since 1985 Hôpital François Dunan provides basic care and emergency care for residents of both islands. The island's first hospital was military in 1904 and became a civilian facility in 1905. L’Hôpital-Hospice-Orphelinat opened in 1937.", "There are four fire stations in St Pierre and Miquelon: While most apparatus are older second–hand units from North America, St Pierre acquired an aerial ladder from France in 2016." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Sexual assaults.", "Scarborough Rapist.", "Investigation and release.", "Jane Doe.", "\"Schoolgirl Killer\" murders.", "Tammy Homolka.", "Leslie Mahaffy.", "Kristen French.", "Other victims.", "Investigation and arrest.", "Arrest.", "Publication ban.", "Trial, conviction, and incarceration.", "Law-enforcement review.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Paul Bernardo's father, Kenneth, fondled a girl and was charged with child molestation in 1975, and he also sexually abused his daughter. Bernardo's mother, depressed about her husband's abuse, withdrew from family life and lived in the basement of their home in Scarborough, in eastern Metropolitan Toronto. In his book \"Lethal Marriage\", Nick Pron describes the young Bernardo: \"He was always happy. A young boy who smiled a lot. And he was so cute; with his dimpled good looks and sweet smile, that many of the mothers just wanted to pinch him on the cheek whenever they saw him. He was the perfect child they all wanted; polite, well mannered, doing well in school, so sweet in his Boy Scout uniform.\" Beneath the charming facade, however, Bernardo had developed dark sexual fantasies and enjoyed humiliating women in public and beating women he dated. When Bernardo was 16, his mother told him that he was conceived illegitimately during an extramarital affair. Disgusted, he began openly insulting her. Bernardo attended Sir Wilfrid Laurier Collegiate Institute in Scarborough, and then went to University of Toronto Scarborough in 1982, and worked for Amway, whose sales culture deeply affected him: \"He bought the books and tapes of famous motivational get-rich-and-famous experts.\" Bernardo and his friends practised pickup techniques on young women they met in bars, and were fairly successful. In October 1987, he met Karla Homolka, and they were sexually attracted to each other almost immediately. Unlike the other women he knew, she encouraged his sadistic sexual behaviour. Bernardo was keenly interested in the 1991 Bret Easton Ellis novel, \"American Psycho\", and \"read it as his Bible\".", "", "Bernardo committed multiple sexual assaults, escalating in viciousness, in and around Scarborough. He attacked most of his victims after stalking as they got off buses late in the evening. Known incidents are:", "From May to September 1990, police submitted more than 130 suspects' samples for DNA testing when they received two reports that the person they were seeking was Bernardo. The first, in June, had been filed by a bank employee. The second was from Tina Smirnis, wife of one of the three Smirnis brothers who were among Bernardo's closest friends. Smirnis told detectives that Bernardo \"had been 'called in' on a previous rape investigation – once in December, 1987 – but he had never been interviewed\". He frequently talked about his sex life to Smirnis and said that he liked rough sex, anal sex, and anilingus. Smirnis's phrasing, awkward and stilted, left detectives uncertain whether to take her seriously. However, after cross-checking several files they decided to interview Bernardo. The November 20, 1990 interview lasted 35 minutes, and Bernardo voluntarily provided samples for forensic testing. When the detectives asked Bernardo why he thought he was being investigated for the rapes, he admitted that he resembled the composite. According to the detectives, he \"was far more credible than Smirnis who, with her awkward, strange way of speaking, might just be trying to collect the reward\". Bernardo was released the next day.", "When she worked at a pet shop two years earlier, Homolka befriended a 15-year-old girl. On June 7, 1991, Homolka invited the girl, known as \"Jane Doe\" in the trials, for a \"girls' night out\". After an evening of shopping and dining, Homolka plied \"Jane Doe\" with alcohol laced with Halcion. When the girl lost consciousness, Homolka called Bernardo to tell him that his surprise wedding gift was ready. They undressed \"Jane Doe\", and Bernardo videotaped Homolka raping the girl before he penetrated her vaginally and anally. The next morning, \"Jane Doe\" was nauseated; she thought that her vomiting was from drinking alcohol for the first time, and did not realize that she had been sexually assaulted. \"Jane Doe\" was invited back to Port Dalhousie in August to \"spend the night\". In a replay of what happened to Karla's sister, Tammy Homolka, \"Jane Doe\" (whose identity is protected by law) stopped breathing after she was drugged and Bernardo began to rape her. Homolka called 911 for help, but called back a few minutes later to say that \"everything is all right\". The ambulance was recalled without follow-up. \"Jane Doe\" survived.", "", "By 1990, Bernardo was spending long periods of time with Homolka's family, who liked him. Although he was engaged to Karla, he flirted with her younger sister Tammy. Bernardo had not told them that he had lost his job as an accountant and was smuggling cigarettes across the nearby Canada–United States border. He had become obsessed with Tammy, peering into her window and entering her room to masturbate while she slept. Homolka helped Bernardo by breaking the windows in her sisters' room, allowing him access. In July, he took Tammy across the border to get beer for a party; Bernardo later told his fiancée that \"they got drunk and began making out\". According to Bernardo's testimony at his trial, Homolka laced spaghetti sauce with crushed valium she had stolen from her employer at Martindale Animal Clinic. She served it to her sister, who soon lost consciousness. Bernardo then raped Tammy while Karla watched. Over the summer, he supplied Tammy and her friends with gifts, food and soft drinks with \"a film and a few white flecks on the top\". Six months before their 1991 wedding, Homolka stole the anaesthetic agent halothane from the clinic. On December 23, 1990, Homolka and Bernardo administered sleeping pills to the 15-year-old in a rum-and-eggnog cocktail. When Tammy lost consciousness, Homolka and Bernardo undressed her and Karla applied a Halothane-soaked cloth to her sister's nose and mouth. Homolka wanted to \"give Tammy's virginity to Bernardo for Christmas\"; according to her, Bernardo was disappointed that he was not Karla's first sex partner. With Tammy's parents sleeping upstairs, they videotaped themselves raping her in the basement. Tammy began to vomit; they tried to revive her and called 911 after hiding evidence, dressing Tammy and moving her into her bedroom. A few hours later, Tammy was pronounced dead at St. Catharines General Hospital without regaining consciousness. Despite their behaviour (vacuuming and washing laundry in the middle of the night) and despite a chemical burn on Tammy's face, the Regional Municipality of Niagara coroner and the Homolka family accepted Bernardo and Homolka's version of events. The official cause of Tammy Homolka's death was accidental: choking on vomit after consumption of alcohol. Bernardo and Homolka subsequently videotaped themselves, with Karla wearing Tammy's clothing and pretending to be her. They moved out of the Homolka house to a rented Port Dalhousie bungalow to allow Homolka's parents to grieve.", "Early in the morning on June 15, 1991, Bernardo detoured through Burlington (halfway between Toronto and St. Catharines) to steal licence plates and found Leslie Mahaffy. The 14-year-old had missed her curfew after attending a friend's wake and was locked out of her house. Bernardo left his car and approached Mahaffy, saying that he wanted to break into a neighbour's house. Unfazed, she asked if he had any cigarettes. When Bernardo led her to his car he blindfolded her, forced her into the car, drove her to Port Dalhousie and informed Homolka that they had a victim. Bernardo and Homolka videotaped themselves torturing and sexually abusing Mahaffy while they listened to Bob Marley and David Bowie. At one point Bernardo said, \"You're doing a good job, Leslie, a damned good job\", adding: \"The next two hours are going to determine what I do to you. Right now, you're scoring perfect.\" On another segment of tape played at Bernardo's trial, the assault escalated. Mahaffy cried out in pain, and begged Bernardo to stop. In the Crown description of the scene, he was sodomizing her while her hands were bound with twine. Mahaffy later told Bernardo that her blindfold seemed to be slipping, which signaled the possibility that she could identify her attackers if she lived. The following day, Bernardo claimed, Homolka fed her a lethal dose of Halcion; Homolka claimed that Bernardo strangled her. They put Mahaffy's body in their basement, and the day after that the Homolka family had dinner at the house. After the Homolkas and their remaining daughter Lori left, Bernardo and Homolka decided that the best way to dispose of the evidence would be to dismember Mahaffy and encase each part of her remains in cement. Bernardo bought a dozen bags of cement at a hardware store the following day; he kept the receipts, which were damaging at his trial. Bernardo used his grandfather's circular saw to dismember Mahaffy. Bernardo and Homolka made a number of trips to dump the cement blocks in Lake Gibson, south of Port Dalhousie. At least one of the blocks weighed 90 kg (200 pounds) and was beyond their ability to sink. It lay near the shore, where it was found by Michael Doucette and his son Michael Jr while on a fishing expedition on June 29, 1991. Mahaffy's orthodontic appliance was instrumental in identifying her. Homolka was released from prison on July 4, 2005. Several days before, Bernardo was interviewed by police and his lawyer Tony Bryant. According to Bryant, Bernardo said that he had always intended to free the girls he and Homolka kidnapped. However, when Mahaffy's blindfold fell off (allowing her to see Bernardo's face) Homolka was concerned that Mahaffy would identify Bernardo and report them to the police. Bernardo claimed that Homolka planned to murder Mahaffy by injecting an air bubble into her bloodstream, triggering an embolism.", "During the after-school hours of April 16, 1992 (Maundy Thursday), Bernardo and Homolka drove through St. Catharines to look for potential victims. Although students were still going home, the streets were generally empty. As they passed Holy Cross Secondary School, a Catholic high school in the city's north end, they spotted 15-year-old Kristen French walking briskly to her nearby home. They pulled into the parking lot of nearby Grace Lutheran Church and Homolka got out of the car, map in hand, pretending to need assistance. When French looked at the map Bernardo attacked from behind, brandishing a knife and forcing her into the front seat of their car. From the back seat, Homolka controlled the girl by pulling her hair. French took the same route home every day, taking about 15 minutes to get home and care for her dog. Soon after she should have arrived, her parents became convinced that she met with foul play and notified police. Within 24 hours the Niagara Regional Police Service (NRP) assembled a team, searched French's route and found several witnesses who had seen the abduction from different locations (giving police a fairly-clear picture). French's shoe, recovered from the parking lot, underscored the seriousness of the abduction. Over the Easter weekend Bernardo and Homolka videotaped themselves torturing, raping and sodomizing French, forcing her to drink large amounts of alcohol and submit to Bernardo. At his trial, Crown prosecutor Ray Houlahan said that Bernardo always intended to kill her because she was never blindfolded and could identify her captors. The following day, Bernardo and Homolka murdered French before going to the Homolkas' for Easter dinner. Homolka testified at her trial that Bernardo strangled French for seven minutes while she watched. Bernardo said that Homolka beat French with a rubber mallet because she tried to escape, and French was strangled with a noose around her neck which was secured to a hope chest; Homolka then went to fix her hair. French's nude body was found on April 30, 1992, in a ditch in Burlington, about 45 minutes from St. Catharines and a short distance from the cemetery where Mahaffy is buried. She had been washed, and her hair was cut off. Although it was thought that French's hair was removed as a trophy, Homolka testified that it was cut to impede identification.", "Shortly after Tammy Homolka's funeral her parents left town and Lori visited her grandparents in Mississauga, leaving the house empty. According to author Stephen Williams, during the weekend of January 12, 1991, Bernardo abducted a girl, took her to the house, raped her while Homolka watched and dropped her off on a deserted road near Lake Gibson. Bernardo and Homolka called her \"January girl\". At about 5:30 a.m. on April 6, 1991, Bernardo abducted a 14-year-old who was warming up as coxswain for a local rowing team. The girl was distracted by a blonde woman who waved at her from her car, enabling Bernardo to drag her into the shrubbery near the rowing club. He sexually assaulted her and forced her to remove her clothes and wait five minutes (during which he disappeared). Derek Finkle's 1997 book \"No Claim to Mercy\" presented evidence tying Bernardo to the murder of Elizabeth Bain, who disappeared on June 19, 1990 (three weeks after the last known attack of the Scarborough Rapist). Bain told her mother that she was going to \"check the tennis schedule\" at the University of Toronto Scarborough; three days later, her car was found with a large bloodstain on the back seat. Robert Baltovich, who has consistently maintained his innocence, was convicted of second-degree murder in the death of his girlfriend on March 31, 1992. At trial, his lawyers suggested that the then-unidentified Scarborough Rapist was responsible for the crime. Baltovich served eight years of a life sentence before he was released pending appeal. In September 2004 his appeal was processed, with his lawyers alleging that he had been wrongfully convicted and Bernardo was guilty of the murder. The Court of Appeal for Ontario set aside Baltovich's conviction on December 2, 2004, but on July 15, 2005, the Attorney General of Ontario announced that he would face a new trial. On April 22, 2008, after a series of pretrial motions (including the presentation of evidence implicating Bernardo in Bain's murder), Crown prosecutor Philip Kotanen told the court that he would call no evidence and asked the jury to find Baltovich not guilty of second-degree murder. On March 29, 1992, Bernardo stalked and videotaped two sisters from his car and followed them to their parents' house; the sisters incorrectly recorded his licence-plate number. One sister reported the incident to the NRP on March 31, 1992, and received an incident number to report further information. With French under Homolka's guard on April 18, 1992, Bernardo went out to buy dinner and rent a movie. He was spotted by one of the sisters, who attempted to track him to his house. Although she lost him, she got a better description of his licence plate and car and reported them to police. Her information was mishandled by police, falling into the \"black hole\" to which Judge Archie Campbell referred in the Campbell Report of 1996 (an inquiry into police mishandling of evidence in the case). In 2006, Bernardo confessed to at least 10 more sexual assaults dating to March 1986, including the 1987 assault of a 15-year-old girl. Another man, Anthony Hanemaayer, had been convicted of the assault and served a full sentence for it. On June 25, 2008, the Court of Appeal for Ontario overturned the conviction and exonerated Hanemaayer.", "Homolka and Bernardo were questioned by police several times in connection with the Scarborough Rapist investigation, Tammy Homolka's death, and Bernardo's stalking of other women before the death of French. The officer filed a report, and on 12 May 1992 an NRP sergeant and constable briefly interviewed Bernardo. The officers decided that he was an unlikely suspect, although Bernardo admitted that he had been questioned in connection with the Scarborough rapes. Three days later, the Green Ribbon Task Force was created to investigate the murders of Mahaffy and French. Bernardo and Homolka had applied to have their names legally changed to Teale, which Bernardo had taken from the serial killer in the 1988 film \"Criminal Law\". At the end of May, John Motile (an acquaintance of Smirnis and Bernardo) reported Bernardo as a possible murder suspect. In December 1992, the Centre of Forensic Sciences finally began testing DNA samples provided by Bernardo two years earlier. On 27 December, he severely beat Homolka on the limbs, head and face with a flashlight. Claiming that she had been in an automobile accident, the severely-bruised Homolka returned to work on 4 January 1993. Her skeptical co-workers called her parents, and although they rescued her the following day by physically removing her from the house, Homolka went back in, frantically searching for something. Her parents took her to St. Catharines General Hospital, where she gave a statement to the NRP that she was a battered spouse and filed charges against Bernardo. He was arrested, and later released on his own recognizance. A friend who found Bernardo's suicide note intervened, and Homolka moved in with relatives in Brampton.", "Twenty-six months after Bernardo submitted a DNA sample, Toronto police were informed that it matched that of the Scarborough Rapist and immediately placed him under 24-hour surveillance. Metro Toronto Sexual Assault Squad investigators interviewed Homolka on February 9, 1993. Despite hearing their suspicions about Bernardo, Homolka focused on his abuse of her. Later that night she told her aunt and uncle that Bernardo was the Scarborough Rapist, that she and Bernardo were involved in the rape and murder of Mahaffy and French and that the rapes were recorded on videotape. The NRP reopened its investigation of Tammy Homolka's death. Two days later Homolka met with Niagara Falls lawyer George Walker, who sought legal immunity from Houlahan in exchange for her cooperation. She was also placed under 24-hour surveillance. The couple's name change was approved on February 13, 1993. The next day, Walker met with Crown Criminal Law Office director Murray Segal. After Walker told Segal about the videotapes of the rapes, Segal advised him that, due to Homolka's involvement in the crimes, full immunity was not a possibility. On February 17, Metro Sexual Assault Squad and Green Ribbon Task Force detectives arrested Bernardo on several charges and obtained a search warrant. Because his link to the murders was weak, the warrant was limited; no evidence which was not expected and documented in the warrant could be removed from the premises, and all videotapes found by police had to be viewed in the house. Damage had to be kept to a minimum; police could not tear down walls looking for the videotapes. The search of the house (including updated warrants) lasted 71 days, and the only tape found by police had a brief segment of Homolka performing oral sex on \"Jane Doe\". On May 5, Walker was informed that the government was offering Homolka a plea bargain of 12 years which she had one week to accept. If she declined, the government would charge her with two counts of first-degree murder, one count of second-degree murder and other crimes. Walker accepted the offer, and Homolka later agreed to it. On May 14 Homolka's plea bargain was finalized, and she began giving statements to police investigators. She told police that Bernardo boasted that he had raped as many as 30 women (twice as many as the police suspected), calling him \"the happy rapist\".", "Citing the need to protect Bernardo's right to a fair trial, a publication ban was imposed on Homolka's preliminary inquiry. The Crown had applied for the ban, which was imposed on July 5 by Francis Kovacs of the Ontario Court of Justice (General Division). Homolka, through her lawyers, supported the ban; Bernardo's lawyers argued that he would be prejudged by the ban, since Homolka had been portrayed as his victim. Four media outlets and one author also opposed the ban. Some lawyers argued that rumours could damage the future trial process more than the publication of evidence. In February 1994, Homolka divorced Bernardo. Public access to the Internet effectively nullified the court's order, as did proximity to the American border (since the ban was only in effect in Ontario). US journalists, not subject to the publication ban, published details of Homolka's testimony which were distributed by \"electronic ban-breakers\". Newspapers in Buffalo, Detroit, Washington, D.C., New York City and the United Kingdom, as well as radio and television stations along the Canadian-U.S. border, reported details gleaned from Homolka's trial. The syndicated series \"A Current Affair\" aired two programs on the crimes. Canadians brought copies of \"The Buffalo News\" across the border, prompting orders to the NRP to arrest all those with more than one copy at the border; extra copies were confiscated. Copies of other newspapers, including \"The New York Times\", were turned back at the border or not accepted by distributors in Ontario. Gordon Domm, a retired police officer who defied the publication ban by distributing details from foreign media, was convicted of two counts of contempt of court.", "Bernardo was tried for the murders of French and Mahaffy in 1995, and his trial included detailed testimony from Homolka and videotapes of the rapes. Bernardo testified that the deaths were accidental, later claiming that his wife was the actual killer. On September 1, 1995, Bernardo was convicted of a number of offences, including the two first-degree murders and two aggravated sexual assaults, and sentenced to life in prison without parole for at least 25 years. He was designated a dangerous offender, making him unlikely to ever be released. In a plea bargain (a 12-year sentence for manslaughter), Homolka testified against Bernardo in his murder trial. The plea bargain was criticized by many Canadians, since Bernardo's first defence lawyer (Ken Murray) withheld videotapes for 17 months. They were considered crucial evidence, and prosecutors said that they would never have agreed to the plea bargain if they had seen the tapes. Murray was later acquitted of obstruction of justice and faced a disciplinary hearing by the Law Society of Upper Canada. Although Bernardo was kept in the segregation unit at Kingston Penitentiary for his own safety, he was attacked and harassed; he was punched in the face by another inmate when he returned from a shower in 1996. In June 1999, five convicts tried to storm his segregation range and a riot squad used gas to disperse them. The \"Toronto Star\" reported on February 21, 2006, that Bernardo admitted sexually assaulting at least 10 other women in attacks not previously attributed to him. Most were in 1986, a year before what police called the reign of terror by the Scarborough Rapist. Authorities suspected Bernardo in other crimes, including a string of rapes in Amherst, New York, and the drowning of Terri Anderson in St. Catharines, but he has never acknowledged his involvement. Bernardo's lawyer, Anthony G. Bryant, reportedly forwarded the information to legal authorities in November 2005. In 2006, Bernardo gave a prison interview suggesting that he had reformed and would make a good parole candidate. He became eligible to petition a jury to be allowed to apply for early parole in 2008 under the faint hope clause (since he committed multiple murders before the 1997 criminal-code amendment), but did not do so. In 2015, Bernardo became eligible (and applied) for day parole in Toronto. According to the victims' lawyer, Tim Danson, it is unlikely that Bernardo will ever be released from prison because of his dangerous offender status. In September 2013, he was moved from Kingston Penitentiary (which was closing) to Millhaven Institution in Bath, Ontario, where he is reportedly segregated from the other inmates. Bernardo scored 35 out of 40 on the Psychopathy Checklist, a psychological assessment tool used to assess the presence of psychopathy in individuals. This is classified as clinical psychopathy. In November 2015, Bernardo self-published \"A MAD World Order\", a violent, fictional, 631-page e-book on Amazon. By November 15, the book was reportedly an Amazon bestseller, but was removed from the website due to a public outcry. In October 2018, Bernardo had been set to go to trial for possession of a \"shank\" weapon while incarcerated (a 5 cm long screw attached to a pen). However, the prosecution dropped the charges due to their determination that there was no reasonable probability of conviction. Bernardo became eligible for parole in February 2018. On 17 October 2018, he was denied day and full parole by the Parole Board of Canada.", "After Bernardo's 1995 conviction, the Ontario lieutenant governor appointed Archie Campbell to review the roles played by the police services during the investigation. In his 1996 report, Campbell found that lack of coordination, cooperation and communications by police and other elements of the judicial system contributed to a serial predator \"falling through the cracks\". One of Campbell's key recommendations was for an automated case-management system for Ontario’s police services to use in investigations of homicides and sexual assaults. Ontario is the only place in the world with this type of computerized case-management network. Since 2002, all municipal police services and the Ontario Provincial Police have had access to PowerCase.", "Episodes of \"Law & Order\" (\"Fools for Love\", season 10), \"\" (\"Damaged\", ), \"Close to Home\" (\"Truly, Madly, Deeply\", ) and \"The Inspector Lynley Mysteries\" (2007's \"Know Thine Enemy\") were inspired by the case. Under the Canadian publication ban in force at the time, \"Fools for Love\" could not be shown on Canadian television when it aired on February 23, 2000. The second episode of \"The Mentalist\" concerned a respectable, murderous husband-and-wife team. The \"Criminal Minds\" episode \"Mr. and Mrs. Anderson\" contains a serial-killer couple loosely based on Bernardo and Homolka, and the Bernardo case was mentioned by the Behavioral Analysis Unit team when they delivered their profile to the local police. \"Dark Heart, Iron Hand\", an MSNBC documentary rebroadcast as \"To Love and To Kill\" on \"MSNBC Investigates\", concerned the case. In 2004, producers from Quantum Entertainment (a Los Angeles-based production company) announced the release of \"Karla\", with the working title \"Deadly\". The 1993 Rush song \"Nobody's Hero\" references the murder of a young girl in Port Dalhousie, drummer Neil Peart's hometown." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Victims.", "Aftermath.", "Publication ban.", "Plea bargain controversy.", "Trial.", "Arraignment.", "Hearing.", "Evidence.", "Appeal and inquest.", "Prison.", "Release.", "Psychoanalysis.", "Freedom and relocation to Guadeloupe; subsequent return to Canada.", "Possibility of pardon.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "During the summer of 1990, according to Homolka, Bernardo became attracted to her younger sister, Tammy Homolka. Homolka hatched a plan to frame Bernardo for drugging Tammy, seeing an opportunity to \"minimise risk, take control, and keep it all in the family.\" In July, \"according to Bernardo's testimony, he and Karla served Tammy a spaghetti dinner spiked with Valium stolen from Karla's workplace. Bernardo raped Tammy for about a minute before she started to wake up.\" Homolka later stole the anesthetic agent halothane from the Martindale Veterinarian Clinic where she worked. On December 23, 1990, after a Homolka family Christmas party, Bernardo and Karla Homolka drugged Tammy Homolka with the animal tranquilizers. Bernardo and Karla Homolka raped Tammy while she was unconscious. Tammy later choked on her own vomit and died. Before calling 911, they hid the evidence, redressed Tammy, who had a chemical burn on her face, and moved her into her basement bedroom. A few hours later, Tammy was pronounced dead at St. Catharines General Hospital without having regained consciousness. Bernardo told police he tried to revive her, but failed, and her death was ruled an accident.", "", "Citing the need to protect Bernardo's right to a fair trial, a publication ban was imposed on Homolka's preliminary inquiry. The Crown had applied for the ban imposed on July 5, 1993, by Mr. Justice Francis Kovacs of the Ontario Court (General Division). Homolka, through her lawyers, supported the ban, whereas Bernardo's lawyers argued that he would be prejudiced by the ban since Homolka previously had been portrayed as his victim. Four media outlets and one author also opposed the application. Some lawyers argued that rumours could be doing more damage to the future trial process than the publication of the actual evidence. Public access to the Internet effectively nullified the court's order, however; as did proximity to the Canada–US border, since a publication ban by an Ontario Court cannot apply in New York, Michigan, or anywhere else outside of Ontario. American journalists cited the First Amendment in editorials and published details of Homolka's testimony, which were widely distributed by many Internet sources, primarily on the alt.fan.karla-homolka Usenet newsgroup. Information and rumours spread across myriad electronic networks available to anyone in Canada with a computer and a modem. Moreover, many of the Internet rumours went beyond the known details of the case. Newspapers in Buffalo, Detroit, Washington, New York City and even Britain, together with border radio and television stations, reported details gleaned from sources at Homolka's trial. The syndicated series \"A Current Affair\" aired two programs on the crimes. Canadians bootlegged copies of \"The Buffalo Evening News\" across the border, prompting orders to the Niagara Regional Police Service to arrest all those with more than one copy at the border. Extra copies were confiscated. Copies of other newspapers, including \"The New York Times\", were either turned back at the border or were not accepted by distributors in Ontario. Gordon Domm, a retired police officer who defied the publication ban by distributing details from the foreign media, was charged and convicted of disobeying a lawful court order.", "Jamie Cameron, Professor of Law at Osgoode Hall, noted that \"at the time of the Homolka trial, three features of the case worried and concerned the public. Little was known about the respective roles Homolka and Bernardo played in their actions and the killing of their victims. By spring, 1993, it was clear that the Crown's case against Bernardo depended on Homolka's evidence. In simple terms, to secure a conviction against him, her story had to be believed. Yet on no view of the facts then known could she be exculpated; by casting her as a victim of his predatory behaviour, her responsibility for the crimes that were committed could be diminished and her credibility as a witness preserved.\"", "", "On May 18, 1993, Homolka was arraigned on two counts of manslaughter. Bernardo was charged with two counts each of kidnapping, unlawful confinement, aggravated sexual assault and first-degree murder as well as one of dismemberment. Coincidentally, that day Bernardo's original lawyer, Ken Murray, first watched the rape videotapes. Murray decided to hold onto the tapes and use them to impeach Homolka on the stand during Bernardo's trial. Neither Murray nor Carolyn MacDonald, the other lawyer on the defence team, were deeply experienced in criminal law and it was only over time that their ethical dilemma showed itself also to be a potentially criminal matter, for they were withholding evidence. By October 1993, he and his law partners had studied over 4,000 documents from the Crown. Murray has said he was willing to hand over the tapes to the Crown if they had let him cross-examine Homolka in the anticipated preliminary hearing. The hearing was never held.", "Homolka was tried on June 28, 1993, though the publication ban the court had imposed limited the details released to the public, who were barred from the proceedings.", "Murray said the videotapes showed Homolka sexually assaulting four female victims, having sex with a female prostitute in Atlantic City, and at another point, drugging an unconscious victim. In February 1994, Homolka divorced Bernardo. During the summer of 1994, Murray had become concerned about serious ethical problems that had arisen in connection with the tapes and his continued representation of Bernardo. He consulted his own lawyer, Austin Cooper, who asked the Law Society of Upper Canada's professional-conduct committee for advice. \"The law society directed Murray in writing to seal the tapes in a package and turn them over to the judge presiding at Bernardo's trial. The law society further directed him to remove himself as Bernardo's counsel and to tell Bernardo what he had been instructed to do,\" Murray said in a statement released through Cooper in September 1995. On September 12, 1994, Cooper attended Bernardo's trial and advised Justice Patrick LeSage of the Ontario Court's General Division, lawyer John Rosen, who replaced Murray as Bernardo's defence counsel, and the prosecutors about what the law society had directed Murray to do. Rosen argued that the tapes should have been turned over to the defence first. Murray handed the tapes, along with a detailed summary, to Rosen, who \"kept the tapes for about two weeks and then decided to turn them over to the prosecution.\" The revelation that a key piece of evidence had been kept from police for so long created a furor, especially when the public realized that Homolka had been Bernardo's willing accomplice. The tapes were not allowed to be shown to the spectators; only the audio portion was available to them. Moreover, Bernardo has always claimed that, while he raped and tortured Leslie Mahaffy and Kristen French, Homolka actually killed them. After the videotapes had been found, rumours spread that Homolka was an active participant of the crimes. The public grew incensed as the full extent of Homolka's role in the case was finally exposed and the plea agreement now seemed unnecessary. However, as was provided in the plea bargain, Homolka had already disclosed sufficient information to the police and the Crown found no grounds to break the agreement and reopen the case.", "Homolka's plea bargain had been offered before the contents of the videotapes were available for review. Anne McGillivray, Associate Professor of Law at the University of Manitoba, explained the continuing public antagonism against Homolka: There was widespread belief that she had known where the videotapes were hidden, that she wilfully concealed the Jane Doe incidents and, most centrally, that her claims of being under Bernardo's control – a central tenet of the plea bargain – were dubious. Speculation was fed by a publicity ban on the plea bargain which stood until Bernardo's trial. \"Print and website sources imagined demonic duos, vampirism, Barbie and Ken perfect-couple perfect murderers [sic], sexy 'Killer Karla', the comic 'Karla's Web' featuring Homolka's psy confessions. \"The gaze centres, always, on Homolka\" (italics added)... That [Bernardo] would be incarcerated for his mortal lifespan seemed a foregone conclusion. Homolka, in the popular view, should have taken her seat beside him in the prisoner's box and seat of ultimate evil... Homolka promised full disclosure and testimony against Bernardo in return for reduced charges... and a joint sentencing recommendation. In so doing, she escaped central blame for the deaths.\" Although the contents of the videotapes would likely have led to a conviction of murder for Homolka, an inquiry into the conduct of the prosecutors who had made the plea bargain found their behaviour \"professional and responsible\" and the \"resolution agreement\" that they had established with Homolka \"unassailable\" under the Criminal Code. Judge Patrick T. Galligan, reporting to the Attorney General on the matter, indicated that in his opinion \"the Crown had no alternative but to...[negotiate with the accomplice] in this case\" as \"the 'lesser of two evils' to deal with an accomplice rather than to be left in a situation where a violent and dangerous offender cannot be prosecuted.\" In December 2001, Canadian authorities determined that there was no possible future use of the videotapes. The six videotapes depicting the torture and rape of Bernardo's and Homolka's victims were destroyed. The disposition of the tapes of Homolka watching and commenting on the tapes remains sealed.", "After her 1995 testimony against Bernardo, when Homolka returned to Kingston's Prison For Women, her mother, Dorothy Homolka, started to suffer annual breakdowns between Thanksgiving and Christmas. The collapses were severe enough that she was hospitalized, sometimes for months at a time. While at Kingston Homolka began correspondence courses in sociology through nearby Queen's University which initially caused a media storm. Homolka was required to pay all fees, as well as her personal needs, from her fortnightly income of about $69, although, she told author Stephen Williams in a subsequent letter, \"I did get some financial assistance\". Homolka later graduated with a Bachelor's degree in Psychology from Queen's. News of Homolka's educational efforts were greeted in the media with disdain: \"Nothing has changed. Concepts of remorse, repentance, shame, responsibility and atonement have no place in the universe of Karla. Perhaps she simply lacks the moral gene,\" wrote \"Globe\" columnist, Margaret Wente. Homolka was moved from Kingston in the summer of 1997 to Joliette Institution (a medium security prison in Joliette, Quebec, 80 km northeast of Montreal), a facility called \"Club Fed\" by its critics. In 1999, \"Toronto Star\" reporter Michelle Shephard came into possession of copies of her application to transfer to the \"Maison Thérèse-Casgrain\", run by the Elizabeth Fry Society, and published the story noting the halfway house's proximity to local schools, hours before the Canadian courts issued a publication ban on the information. Homolka sued the government after her transfer to a Montreal halfway house was denied. In Joliette, Homolka had a sexual affair with Lynda Véronneau, who was serving time for a series of armed robberies and who reoffended so that she could be sent back to Joliette to be with Homolka, according to the \"Montreal Gazette\". Her letters to Véronneau, wrote Christie Blatchford in her column in \"The Globe and Mail\", were \"in French and on the same sort of childish, puppy-dog-decorated paper she once wrote to her former husband... the same kind of girlish love notes she sent to him.\" Her language, Blatchford noted, was \"equally juvenile\". Homolka gave her the incentive to finish her schooling, Véronneau said. Véronneau, who identified as a man and was scheduled to undergo gender reassignment surgery, said Homolka \"liked to be tied up, something that disturbed Véronneau, who was serving a sentence for robbery. She said one game seemed to simulate rape,\" the \"Post\" reported. This article, along with numerous others, whipped up public opinion as the date of Homolka's release neared. While being evaluated in 2000, Homolka told psychiatrist Robin Menzies that she did not consider the relationship to be homosexual, as Véronneau \"saw herself as a man and planned to undergo a sex operation in due course,' the psychiatrist wrote.\" Psychiatrist Louis Morisette, meanwhile, noted in his report that Homolka \"was ashamed of the relationship and hid it from her parents and the experts who examined her. The psychiatrist mentions in his report that under the circumstances, the relationship was not abnormal.\" In 2001, Homolka was transferred to the Ste-Anne-des-Plaines Institution, a maximum security prison in Quebec.\"The Toronto Sun\" reported that, while there, Homolka began a sexual relationship with Jean-Paul Gerbet, a convicted murderer being held in the men's unit of the facility. According to former inmate and Homolka confidante Chantel Meuneer, the \"Sun\" reported, Homolka and the inmate stripped at a flimsy fence, touched one another sexually and exchanged underwear. At the same time, Meuneer told the \"Sun\", Homolka was still in a same-sex relationship with Lynda Véronneau, who had spent $3,000 on her at Victoria's Secret. On December 6, 2001, only seven days before Homolka dumped Véronneau, Meuneer said she asked Homolka why she continued her lesbian relationship while being in love with a man. Meuneer recalls Homolka saying, \"I don't let go right now because I want my clothes and I want my computer.\" In a 2008 letter of apology to her family, she continued to blame Bernardo for her misdeeds: \"He wanted me to get sleeping pills from work... threatened me and physically and emotionally abused me when I refused... I tried so hard to save her.\" Tim Danson, lawyer for the victims' families, has said that she has never apologized to them. During Homolka's release hearing (under section 810.2 of the Criminal Code), Morrisette said the then-35-year-old did not represent a threat to society. Various hearings over the years have left a mixture of opinions. If she posed any kind of danger, said Dr. Hubert Van Gijseghem, a forensic psychologist for Correctional Services Canada, it lay in the ominous but not unlikely possibility of her linking up with another sexual sadist like Bernardo. \"She is very attracted to this world of sexual psychopaths. It's not for nothing that she did what she did with Bernardo,\" he told the \"National Post\" after reviewing her file. A scheduled newspaper interview with Homolka was quashed by her lawyer. It was not just the facts of the case that shredded Homolka's cloak of victimization. Her demeanour on the witness stand had been at times \"indifferent, haughty and irritable\". Where other inmates might apply for parole at the first opportunity, Homolka refrained from doing so. \"Because she was deemed a risk to reoffend, she was denied statutory release two-thirds of the way through her sentence,\" \"Maclean's\" reported in explaining what had exempted Homolka from the parole restrictions meant to ease an offender's integration into mainstream society. In 2004, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation noted that \"The National Parole Board has ruled that Karla Homolka must stay in prison for her full sentence, warning that she remains a risk to commit another violent crime.\" While the NPB noted that she had made some progress toward rehabilitation it expressed concern regarding her relationship with convicted murderer Jean-Paul Gerbet. The NPB reprimanded Homolka: \"you have secretly undertaken an emotional relationship with another inmate, and evidence gathered seems to indicate that this relationship rapidly became sexual,\" the panel stated. As a result it decided to keep her in prison.", "A rumour that Homolka intended to settle in Alberta caused an uproar in that province. \"Maclean's\" weighed in with a series of possible scenarios: \"The most educated speculation has Homolka staying in Quebec, where language and cultural differences supposedly muted the media coverage of her case, and where she'll be less recognizable. Another rumour suggests she will flee overseas, restarting in a country where her case is unknown. Or sneak into the United States, using an illegal identity to cross the border and living out her life under a pseudonym.\" Michael Bryant, Ontario's Attorney General fought to get Homolka on the agenda at a meeting of Canada's justice ministers. \"He wants the federal government to expand the category of dangerous offenders to catch those slipping between the cracks.\" \"Bilingual and armed with a bachelor's degree in psychology from Queen's University, Homolka may choose to try to live a quiet life in Quebec, where her crimes are not as well known as they are in English-speaking Canada,\" reported CTV in May 2005. On June 2, 2005, the network said, \"the Ontario Crown will ask a Quebec judge to impose conditions under Section 810 of Criminal Code on Homolka's release.\" \"The French and Mahaffy families want even tighter restrictions on Homolka, including asking that she submit to electronic monitoring or yearly psychological and psychiatric assessment,\" CTV said. These conditions are not allowed under Section 810 because they cross the line between preventive justice versus punitive measures, but \"that's why [Toronto lawyer Tim Danson, acting on their behalf] believes the families want the government to amend the Section.\" A two-day hearing was held before Judge Jean R. Beaulieu in June 2005. He ruled that Homolka, upon her release on July 4, 2005, would still pose a risk to the public-at-large. As a result, using section 810.2 of the Criminal Code, certain restrictions were placed on Homolka as a condition of her release: There was a penalty of a maximum two-year prison term for violating such an order. While this reassured the public that Homolka would find it difficult to offend again, it was felt by the court that it might be detrimental to her as well, because public hostility and her high profile might endanger her upon release. On June 10, 2005, Senator Michel Biron declared that the conditions placed on Homolka were \"totalitarian\", according to an interview with CTV Newsnet. Two weeks later, Biron apologized. Homolka then filed a request in the Quebec Superior Court for a wide-ranging injunction aimed at preventing the press from reporting about her following her release. While at Joliette Institution, Homolka received death threats and was transferred to Ste-Anne-des-Plaines prison north of Montreal. On July 4, 2005, Homolka was released from Ste-Anne-des-Plaines prison. She granted her first interview to Radio-Canada television, speaking entirely in French. Homolka told interviewer Joyce Napier that she chose Radio Canada because she had found it to be less sensationalist than the English-language media. She said that she had likewise found Quebec to be more accepting of her than Ontario. She affirmed that she would be living within the province but refused to say where. She said she had paid her debt to society legally, but not emotionally or socially. She refused to speak about her alleged relationship with Jean-Paul Gerbet, a convicted murderer serving a life sentence at Ste-Anne-des-Plaines. During the interview, her solicitor, Sylvie Bordelais, sat beside Homolka; however, she did not speak. Homolka's mother was also present but off-screen, and was acknowledged by Homolka.", "Before her imprisonment, Homolka had been evaluated by numerous psychiatrists, psychologists, and other mental health and court officials. Homolka, reported one, \"remains something of a diagnostic mystery. Despite her ability to present herself very well, there is a moral vacuity in her which is difficult, if not impossible, to explain.\" As Homolka proceeded through the Canadian prison system there was further evidence to illuminate this perception. Homolka participated in every treatment program recommended by prison authorities, until she was asked to participate in a program that had been designed for male sex offenders. She refused, on the grounds that she was neither male nor a convicted sex offender. Her former veterinary clinic co-worker and friend, Wendy Lutczyn, the \"Toronto Sun\" declared, \"now believes Homolka's actions were those of a psychopath, not of an abused, controlled woman\". Lutczyn said thar Homolka had promised \"she would explain herself\", yet when the women exchanged \"a series of letters while Homolka was... waiting to testify at Bernardo's trial\" and after she had completed her testimony, Homolka never did try to explain to Lutczyn \"why she did what she did\". On January 11, 2008, the \"Canadian Press\" reported that letters written by Homolka to Lutczyn had been pulled from eBay, where they had reached $1,600 with a week to go. Lutczyn said she did not want them any more. The complexities and challenges of completing behavioural studies of women who are suspected of having psychopathic traits have been noted in the forensic literature. The various different masks that the female psychopathic killer displays at different times often have more to do with the audience and the manipulation at that moment that will benefit the individual wearing the mask than the true nature of the individual wearing the mask. Dr. Graham Glancy, a forensic psychiatrist hired by Bernardo's chief defence lawyer, John Rosen, had offered an alternative theory to explain Homolka's behaviour, noted Williams in \"Invisible Darkness\", his first book on the case. \"She appears to be a classic example of hybristophilia, an individual who is sexually aroused by a partner's violent sexual behaviour, Dr. Glancy suggested.\" Williams later reversed his opinion about her and began corresponding with her. This formed the basis for his second book, \"Karla – a Pact with the Devil\". In her letters Homolka also disparaged a number of the professionals who had examined her and said she did not care \"what conditions I would receive upon release. I would spend three hours a day standing on my head should that be required.\" Upon her release Homolka vigorously fought a string of conditions imposed upon her by a court.", "The national media reported in July 2005 that Homolka had relocated to the Island of Montreal. On August 21, 2005, \"Le Courrier du Sud\" reported that she had been sighted in the South Shore community of Longueuil, across the St. Lawrence River from Montreal. On November 30, 2005, Quebec Superior Court Judge James Brunton lifted all restrictions imposed on Homolka, saying there was not enough evidence to justify them. On December 6, 2005, the Quebec Court of Appeal upheld Brunton's decision. The Quebec Justice Department decided not to take the case to the Supreme Court, despite Ontario's urging. TVA reported on June 8, 2006 that Homolka's request to have her name changed was rejected. She had attempted to change her name legally to Emily Chiara Tremblay (Tremblay being one of the most common surnames in Quebec). \"Sun Media\" reported in 2007 that Homolka had given birth to a baby boy. Quebec Children's Aid said that despite Homolka's past, the new mother would not automatically be scrutinized. Several nurses had refused to care for Homolka before she gave birth. On December 14, 2007, \"CityNews\" reported that Homolka had left Canada for the Antilles so that her then one-year-old could lead a \"more normal life.\" On Friday October 17, 2014, the jury in the first degree murder trial of Luka Magnotta heard that Homolka was living in Quebec. A poll of 9,521 voters concluded that 63.27% believed that the public had the right to know Homolka's location, 18.57% of voters believed that she deserved anonymity, and 18.16% believed that Homolka should be permitted to receive anonymity in about 50 years. News reports as of April 20, 2016, placed Homolka as living with her children in Châteauguay, Quebec. Homolka was reportedly angry with reporters' attempts to speak with her. Parents of children attending the same school as Homolka's children expressed great concern, despite reassurances from the school and the school board. As of 2020, she lives in Salaberry-de-Valleyfield without her husband and her children.", "On April 19, 2010, \"The Vancouver Sun\" reported that Homolka would be eligible to seek pardon for her crimes in the summer of 2010. Offenders convicted of first- or second-degree murder or with indeterminate sentences cannot apply for a pardon due to the fact that their sentences are for life, but Homolka was convicted of manslaughter, and received less than the maximum life sentence, making her eligible. If she is successful her criminal record will not be erased but will be covered up in background checks, except those required for working with children or other vulnerable persons. The Canadian government introduced legislation later in the year to make pardons more difficult to get. On June 16, 2010, Public Safety Minister Vic Toews said an agreement had been reached between all federal parties to pass a bill that would prevent notorious offenders like Karla Homolka from obtaining a pardon.", "In 1997, Lynn Crosbie, Canadian poet, novelist and cultural critic, published \"Paul's Case\", termed a \"theoretical fiction\". After systematically analyzing the couple's crimes, it provided an examination of the cultural effects of the shocking revelations and controversy surrounding their trial. A 2000 episode of \"Law & Order\" (Season 10 Episode 15, \"Fools For Love\") was inspired by this case. The MSNBC documentary series \"Dark Heart, Iron Hand\" devoted an episode to the case, which was later rebroadcast as an episode of the series \"MSNBC Investigates\", retitled \"To Love and To Kill\". In 2004, Quantum Entertainment released the film \"Karla\" (which had the working title \"Deadly\"), starring Laura Prepon as Homolka and Misha Collins as Bernardo. Tim Danson, lawyer for the French and Mahaffy families, was given a private screening, and announced that the families had no objection to the film's release. Nevertheless, Ontario Premier Dalton McGuinty called for a boycott. The film was given a limited release in Canada by Christal Films. Lynda Véronneau together with writer Christiane Desjardins, wrote \"Lynda Véronneau: Dans L'Ombre de Karla\", on the topic of her relationship with Homolka while in prison, published in 2005 by Les Éditions Voix Parallèles. An episode of \"Murder Made Me Famous\" on the Reelz Television Network, airing December 8, 2018, chronicled the case." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Primary sources.", "Roman Antiquities (Dionysius).", "Ab Urbe Condita (Livy).", "Life of Romulus (Plutarch).", "Fasti (Ovid).", "Roman History (Dio).", "Origo Gentis Romanae (Unknown).", "Modern scholarship.", "Historicity.", "Iconography.", "Depictions in art.", "Palazzo Magnani.", "Fresco of Palazzo Trinci." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Romulus and Remus were born in Alba Longa, one of the ancient Latin cities near the future site of Rome. Their mother, Rhea Silvia was a vestal virgin and the daughter of the former king, Numitor, who had been displaced by his brother Amulius. In some sources, Rhea Silvia conceived them when their father, the god Mars, visited her in a sacred grove dedicated to him. Seeing them as a possible threat to his rule, King Amulius ordered them to be killed and they were abandoned on the bank of the river Tiber to die. They were saved by the god Tiberinus, Father of the River, and survived with the care of others, at the site of what would eventually become Rome. In the most well-known episode, the twins were suckled by a she-wolf, in a cave now known as the Lupercal. Eventually, they were adopted by Faustulus, a shepherd. They grew up tending flocks, unaware of their true identities. Over time, they became natural leaders and attracted a company of supporters from the community. When they were young adults, they became involved in a dispute between supporters of Numitor and Amulius. As a result, Remus was taken prisoner and brought to Alba Longa. Both his grandfather and the king suspected his true identity. Romulus, meanwhile, had organized an effort to free his brother and set out with help for the city. During this time they learned of their past and joined forces with their grandfather to restore him to the throne. Amulius was killed and Numitor was reinstated as king of Alba. The twins set out to build a city of their own. After arriving back in the area of the seven hills, they disagreed about the hill upon which to build. Romulus preferred the Palatine Hill, above the Lupercal; Remus preferred the Aventine Hill. When they could not resolve the dispute, they agreed to seek the gods' approval through a contest of augury. Remus first saw 6 auspicious birds but soon afterward, Romulus saw 12, and claimed to have won divine approval. The new dispute furthered the contention between them. In the aftermath, Remus was killed either by Romulus or by one of his supporters. Romulus then went on to found the city of Rome, its institutions, government, military and religious traditions. He reigned for many years as its first king.", "The origins of the different elements in Rome's foundation myth are a subject of ongoing debate. They may have come from the Romans' own Italic origins, or from Hellenic influences that were included later. Definitively identifying those original elements has so far eluded classicists. Roman historians dated the founding of Rome around 753 BC, but the earliest known written account of the myth is from the late 3rd century BC There is an ongoing debate about how and when the \"complete\" fable came together. Some elements are attested to earlier than others, and the storyline and the tone were variously influenced by the circumstances and tastes of the different sources as well as by contemporary Roman politics and concepts of propriety. Whether the twins' myth was an original part of Roman myth or a later development is the subject of an ongoing debate. Sources often contradict one another. They include the histories of Livy, Plutarch, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and Tacitus as well as the work of Virgil and Ovid. Quintus Fabius Pictor's work became authoritative to the early books of Livy's \"Ab Urbe Condita\", Dionysius of Halicarnassus's \"Roman Antiquities\", and Plutarch's \"Life of Romulus\". These three works have been among the most widely read versions of the myth. In all three works, the tales of the lupercal and the fratricide are overshadowed by that of the twins' lineage and connections to Aeneas and the deposing of Amulius. The latter receives the most attention in the accounts. Plutarch dedicates nearly half of his account to the overthrow of their uncle.", "Dionysius cites, among others, the histories of Pictor, Lucius Calpurnius Piso, Cato the Elder, Lucius Cincius Alimentus. The first book of Dionysius' twenty-volume history of Rome does not mention Remus until page 235 (chapter 71). After spending another 8 chapters discussing the background of their birth in Alba, he dedicates a total of 9 chapters to the tale (79–87). Most of that is spent discussing the conflict with Amulius. He goes on to discuss the various accounts of the city's founding by others, and the lineage and parentage of the twins for another 8 chapters until arriving at the tale of their abandonment by the Tiber. He spends the better part of the chapter 79 discussing the survival in the wild. Then the end of 79 through 84 on the account of their struggle with Amulius. 84 with the non-fantastical account of their survival 294. Finally 295 is the augury 85–86, 87–88 the fratricide.303", "Livy discusses the myth in chapters 4, 5, and 6 of his work's first book. p. 7 parentage 4 p. 8 survival. p. 8 the youth. 5 9–10 the struggle with Amulius. 6 p. 11 (the beginning only) the augury and fratricide.", "Plutarch relates the legend in chapters 2–10 of \"the Life of Romulus\". He dedicates the most attention, nearly half the entire account, to conflict with Amulius.", "\"Fasti\", the epic Latin poem by Ovid from the early 1st century contains a complete account of the twins' tale. Notably, it relates a tale wherein the ghost of Remus appears to Faustulus and his wife, whom the poet calls \"Acca\". In the story, Remus appears to them while in bed and expresses his anger at Celer for killing him and his own, as well as Romulus' unquestioned fraternal love.", "\"Roman History\" by Cassius Dio survives in fragment from various commentaries. They contain a more-or-less complete account. In them, he mentions an oracle that had predicted Amulius' death by a son of Numitor as the reason the Alban king expelled the boys. There is also a mention of \"another Romulus and Remus\" and another Rome having been founded long before on the same site.", "This work contains a variety of versions of the story. In one, there is a reference to a woodpecker bringing the boys food during the time they were abandoned in the wild. In one account of the conflict with Amulius, the capture of Remus is not mentioned. Instead, Romulus, upon being told of his true identity and the crimes suffered by him and his family at the hands of the Alban king, simply decided to avenge them. He took his supporters directly to the city and killed Amulius, afterwards restoring his grandfather to the throne.", "Modern scholarship approaches the various known stories of Romulus and Remus as cumulative elaborations and later interpretations of Roman foundation-myth. Particular versions and collations were presented by Roman historians as authoritative, an official history trimmed of contradictions and untidy variants to justify contemporary developments, genealogies and actions in relation to Roman morality. Other narratives appear to represent popular or folkloric tradition; some of these remain inscrutable in purpose and meaning. Wiseman sums the whole as the mythography of an unusually problematic foundation and early history. The three canonical accounts of Livy, Dionysius, and Plutarch provide the broad literary basis for studies of Rome's founding mythography. They have much in common, but each is selective to its purpose. Livy's is a dignified handbook, justifying the purpose and morality of Roman traditions of his own day. Dionysius and Plutarch approach the same subjects as interested outsiders, and include founder-traditions not mentioned by Livy, untraceable to a common source and probably specific to particular regions, social classes or oral traditions. A Roman text of the late Imperial era, \"Origo gentis Romanae\" (The origin of the Roman people) is dedicated to the many \"more or less bizarre\", often contradictory variants of Rome's foundation myth, including versions in which Remus founds a city named Remuria, five miles from Rome, and outlives his brother Romulus. Roman historians and Roman traditions traced most Roman institutions to Romulus. He was credited with founding Rome's armies, its system of rights and laws, its state religion and government, and the system of patronage that underpinned all social, political and military activity. In reality, such developments would have been spread over a considerable span of time. Some were much older and others much more recent. To most Romans, the evidence for the veracity of the legend and its central characters seemed clear and concrete, an essential part of Rome's sacred topography. One could visit the Lupercal, where the twins were suckled by the she-wolf, or offer worship to the deified Romulus-Quirinus at the \"\"shepherd's hut\"\", or see it acted out on stage, or simply read the Fasti. The legend as a whole encapsulates Rome's ideas of itself, its origins and moral values. For modern scholarship, it remains one of the most complex and problematic of all foundation myths, particularly in the manner of Remus's death. Ancient historians had no doubt that Romulus gave his name to the city. Most modern historians believe his name a back-formation from the name Rome; the basis for Remus's name and role remain subjects of ancient and modern speculation. The myth was fully developed into something like an \"official\", chronological version in the Late Republican and early Imperial era; Roman historians dated the city's foundation to between 758 and 728 BC, and Plutarch reckoned the twins' birth year as 771 BC. A tradition that gave Romulus a distant ancestor in the semi-divine Trojan prince Aeneas was further embellished, and Romulus was made the direct ancestor of Rome's first Imperial dynasty. Possible historical bases for the broad mythological narrative remain unclear and disputed. The image of the she-wolf suckling the divinely fathered twins became an iconic representation of the city and its founding legend, making Romulus and Remus preeminent among the feral children of ancient mythography.", "Although a debate continues, current scholarship offers little evidence supporting the Roman foundation myth, including a historical Romulus or Remus. Starting with Pictor, the written accounts must have reflected the commonly-held history of the city to some degree, as were not free to make things up. The archaeologist Andrea Carandini is one of the very few modern scholars who accept Romulus and Remus as historical figures, based on the 1988 discovery of an ancient wall on the north slope of the Palatine Hill in Rome. Carandini dates the structure to the mid-8th century BC and names it the \"Murus Romuli\". In 2007, archaeologists reported the discovery of the Lupercal beneath the home of Emperor Augustus, but a debate over the discovery continues.", "Ancient pictures of the Roman twins usually follow certain symbolic traditions, depending on the legend they follow: they either show a shepherd, the she-wolf, the twins under a fig tree, and one or two birds (Livy, Plutarch); or they depict two shepherds, the she-wolf, the twins in a cave, seldom a fig tree, and never any birds (Dionysius of Halicarnassus). The twins and the she-wolf were featured on what might be the earliest silver coins ever minted in Rome. The Franks Casket, an Anglo-Saxon ivory box (early 7th century AD) shows Romulus and Remus in an unusual setting, two wolves instead of one, a grove instead of one tree or a cave, four kneeling warriors instead of one or two gesticulating shepherds. According to one interpretation, and as the runic inscription (\"far from home\") indicates, the twins are cited here as the \"Dioscuri\", helpers at voyages such as Castor and Polydeuces. Their descent from the Roman god of war predestines them as helpers on the way to war. The carver transferred them into the Germanic holy grove and has Woden's second wolf join them. Thus the picture served — along with five other ones — to influence \"wyrd\", the fortune and fate of a warrior king.", "The myth has been an inspiration to artists throughout the ages. Particular focus has been paid to the rape of Ilia by Mars and the suckling of the twins by the she-wolf.", "In the late 16th century, the wealthy Magnani family from Bologna commissioned a series of artworks based on the Roman foundation myth. The artists contributing works included a sculpture of Hercules with the infant twins by Gabriele Fiorini, featuring the patron's own face. The most important works were an elaborate series of frescoes collectively known as \"Histories of the Foundation of Rome\" by the Brothers Carracci: Ludovico, Annibale, and Agostino Carracci.", "The \"Loggia di Romolo e Remo\" is an unfinished, 15th century fresco by Gentile da Fabriano depicting episodes from the legend in the Palazzo Trinci." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Owari is mentioned in records of the Nara period, including the \"Kujiki\", although the area has been settled since at least the Japanese Paleolithic period, as evidenced by numerous remains found by archaeologists. Early records mention a powerful “Owari clan”, vaguely related to, or allied with the Yamato clan, who built massive kofun burial mounds in several locations within the province, from which archaeologists have recovered bronze artifacts and mirrors dating from the 4th century. Atsuta Shrine is of very ancient origin, ranking with Ise Shrine in importance, and is the repository of one of the Imperial Regalia of Japan, the \"Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi\". Under the \"Engishiki\" classification system, Owari was divided into eight counties, which persisted as administrative units into the Edo period. The exact location of the provincial capital is not known, but is traditionally considered to have been located in what is now the city of Inazawa, although the \"Ichinomiya\" of the province is located in what is now Ichinomiya. During the Heian period, the province was divided into numerous \"shōen\" controlled by local samurai clans. However, by the Sengoku period, the province had fragmented into many small territories largely dominated by the Oda clan. Under Oda Nobunaga, the province was reunified. Nobunaga began his campaign to reunify Japan from his stronghold at Kiyosu Castle. and many of his retainers (who later became \"daimyōs\" under the Tokugawa shogunate) were natives of Owari, including Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Katō Kiyomasa. Under Tokugawa Ieyasu, the province was assigned as a feudal domain to his ninth son, Tokugawa Yoshinao with official revenues of 619,500 \"koku\", the largest domain in the Tokugawa clan holdings outside of the shogunate itself. Yoshinao was founder of the Owari Tokugawa clan, one of the \"Gosanke\", which had the hereditary right of succession to the position of \"shōgun\" should the main line fail. The castle town of Nagoya prospered during this period, and Owari Province was especially known for its ceramics industry. Following the abolition of the han system in 1871 after the Meiji Restoration, former Owari Domain and Inuyama Domain were transformed into short-lived prefectures, which were joined with Nukata Prefecture, which was the former Mikawa Province, to form the new Aichi Prefecture in January 1872. At the same time, the province continued to exist for some purposes. For example, Owari is explicitly recognized in treaties in 1894 (a) between Japan and the United States and (b) between Japan and the United Kingdom." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Topography.", "Climate.", "Cityscape and neighbourhoods.", "Architecture.", "Public spaces.", "Rural area.", "Urban area.", "Regional centre.", "Culture.", "Demographics.", "Religion.", "Economy.", "Government.", "Education.", "Transportation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Halifax is located within the traditional ancestral lands of the Mi'kmaq indigenous peoples, known as \"Mi'kma'ki\". The Mi'kmaq have resided in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island since prior to European landings in North America in the 1400s and 1500s to set up fisheries. The Mi'kmaq name for Halifax is \"K'jipuktuk\", pronounced \"che-book-took\". The first permanent European settlement in the region was on the Halifax Peninsula. The establishment of the \"Town of Halifax\", named after the 2nd Earl of Halifax, in 1749 led to the colonial capital being transferred from Annapolis Royal. The establishment of Halifax marked the beginning of Father Le Loutre's War. The war began when Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 transports and a sloop of war on June 21, 1749. By unilaterally establishing Halifax, the British were violating earlier treaties with the Mi'kmaq (1726), which were signed after Father Rale's War. Cornwallis brought along 1,176 settlers and their families. To guard against Mi'kmaq, Acadian and French attacks on the new Protestant settlements, British fortifications were erected in Halifax (Citadel Hill) (1749), Bedford (Fort Sackville) (1749), Dartmouth (1750), and Lawrencetown (1754), all areas within the modern-day Regional Municipality. St. Margaret's Bay was first settled by French-speaking Foreign Protestants at French Village, Nova Scotia who migrated from Lunenburg, Nova Scotia during", "Unlike most municipalities with a sizeable metropolitan area, the Halifax Regional Municipality's suburbs have been completely incorporated into the \"central\" municipality, often by referendum. For example, the community of Spryfield, in the Mainland South area, voted to amalgamate with Halifax in 1968. The most recent amalgamation, which brought the entirety of Halifax County into the Municipality, has created a situation where a large \"rural commutershed\" area encompasses almost half the municipality's landmass.", "The Halifax Regional Municipality occupies an area of which is approximately 10% of the total land area of Nova Scotia. The land area of HRM is comparable in size to the total land area of the province of Prince Edward Island, and measures approximately in length between its eastern and western-most extremities, excluding Sable Island. The nearest point of land to Sable Island is not in HRM, but rather in adjacent Guysborough County. However, Sable", "Halifax has a humid continental climate (Köppen \"Dfb\"), bordering on an oceanic climate, with warm summers and relatively mild winters, which is due to Gulf Stream moderation. The weather is usually milder in the winter or cooler in the summer than areas at similar latitudes inland, with the temperature remaining (with occasional notable exceptions) between about. January is the coldest month, being the only month with a high that is slightly below freezing at, while August is the warmest.", "The Halifax Regional Municipality is an amalgamation of four municipal governments in the urban and rural areas. There are over 200 official rural and urban communities within Halifax County that have maintained their original geographic names, including the dissolved cities of Halifax and Dartmouth and the town of Bedford. These community names are used on survey and mapping documents, for 9-1-1 service, municipal planning, and postal service. The Halifax Regional Municipality is divided into eighteen community planning areas which are further divided into neighbourhoods or villages. The regional municipality has taken steps to reduce duplicate street names for its 9-1-1 emergency dispatch services; at the time of amalgamation, some street names were duplicated several times throughout the municipality. Halifax is famed for the quality of several of its neighbourhoods. Spring Garden, adjacent to downtown Halifax, is a lively mixed-use neighbourhood with a variety of shopping and entertainment options as well as the new Halifax Central Library. The area has seen an uptick in development over the past few years, with new housing being built on most of the surface parking lots. The North End is a multicultural and artistic neighbourhood with a long history centred on several community nodes including the venerable Gottingen Street and Hydrostone commercial areas. The Quinpool District forms the community centre of the West End. Downtown Dartmouth offers dining and shopping, and has also been subject to revitalization with the redevelopment of the Dartmouth Marine Slips as the King's Wharf housing area. North Preston, just outside Dartmouth, is Canada's largest and oldest black community. Halifax is also known for its high walkability, particularly on the Halifax Peninsula, where 25-50% of residents regularly walk to work. Unlike numerous other North American cities, expressways were never built in the urban core (with the exception of the truncated Harbour Drive), resulting in high pedestrian connectivity. Peninsular Halifax is also mixed-use, contributing to an elevated quality of urban convenience and vibrancy as compared to suburban districts with highly segregated land use and car-oriented transportation networks. In recent years, the city has also begun to place increased emphasis on developing bicycling infrastructure.", "Halifax's urban core is home to a number of regional landmark buildings and retains significant historic buildings and districts. Downtown office towers are overlooked by the fortress of Citadel Hill with its iconic Halifax Town Clock. The architecture of Halifax's South End is renowned for its grand Victorian houses while the West End and North End, Halifax have many blocks of well-preserved wooden residential", "The Halifax area has a variety of public spaces, ranging from urban gardens, public squares, expansive forested parks, and historic sites. The original grid plan devised when Halifax was founded in 1749 included a central military parade square, the Grand Parade. The square hosts the City Hall at one end, and is a popular site for concerts, political demonstrations, as well as the annual Remembrance Day ceremony at the central cenotaph. Another popular downtown public space is the timber Halifax Boardwalk, which stretches approximately and is integrated with several squares and monuments. The Halifax Common, granted for the use of citizens in 1763, is Canada's oldest public park. Centrally located on the Halifax peninsula, the wide fields are a popular location for sports. The slopes of Citadel Hill, overlooking downtown, are favoured by sunbathers and kite-flyers. The Halifax Public Gardens, a short walk away, are Victorian era public gardens formally established in 1867 and designated", "Halifax is centred on the urban core and surrounded by areas of decreasing population density. Rural areas lie to the east, west and north of the urban core. The Atlantic Ocean lies to the south. Certain rural communities on the urban fringe function as suburban or exurban areas, with the majority of those residents commuting to and working in the urban core. Farther away, rural communities in the municipality function like any resource-based area in Nova Scotia, being sparsely populated and their local economies developing around four major resource industries: agriculture, in the Musquodoboit Valley, fishing, along the coast, mining, in the Musquodoboit Valley and in Moose River Gold", "Metropolitan Halifax is the urban concentration surrounding Halifax Harbour, including the Halifax Peninsula, the core of Dartmouth, and the Bedford-Sackville areas. It is the Statistics Canada \"population centre\" of Halifax, which spans, and has 316,701 people. The dense urban core is centred on the Halifax Peninsula and the area of Dartmouth inside of the Circumferential Highway. The suburban area stretches into areas known as Mainland Halifax to", "As of 2019, the Halifax regional centre includes the Halifax Peninsula, and Dartmouth inside the Circumferential Highway. The new inner-urban-area covers and has", "Halifax is a major cultural centre within the Atlantic provinces. The city has maintained many of its maritime and military traditions, while opening itself to a growing multicultural population. The municipality's urban core also benefits from a large population of post-secondary students who strongly influence the local cultural scene. Halifax has a number of art galleries, theatres and museums, as well as most of the region's national-quality sports and entertainment facilities. Halifax is also the home to many of the region's major cultural attractions, such as Halifax Pop Explosion, Symphony Nova Scotia, the Art Gallery of Nova Scotia, The Khyber, the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic and the Neptune Theatre. The region is noted for the strength of its music scene and nightlife, especially in the central urban core. See List of musical groups from Halifax, Nova Scotia for a partial list. Halifax hosts a wide variety of festivals that take place throughout the year, including the Atlantic Film Festival, the Royal Nova Scotia International Tattoo, the Halifax International Busker Festival, Greekfest, the Atlantic Jazz Festival, the Multicultural Festival, the largest Canada Day celebration east of Ottawa, Natal Day, the Halifax Pop Explosion, periodic Tall Ship events, Nocturne Festival, and Shakespeare by the Sea, to name a few. Halifax Pride is the largest LGBT event in Atlantic Canada and one of the largest in the country. Many of Halifax's festivals and annual events have become world-renowned over the past several years. Halifax is home to many performance venues, namely the Rebecca Cohn Auditorium, the Neptune Theatre, and The Music Room. The Neptune Theatre, a 43-year-old establishment located on Argyle Street, is Halifax's largest theatre. It performs an assortment of professionally produced plays year-round. The Shakespeare by the Sea theatre company performs at nearby Point Pleasant Park. Eastern Front Theatre performs at Alderney Landing in Downtown Dartmouth which can easily be accessed via the Halifax Transit ferry service. There are smaller performance venues at the Halifax Central Library, Citadel High School (Spatz Theatre), and Halifax West High School (Bella Rose Arts Centre). Halifax has also become a significant film production centre, with many American and Canadian filmmakers using the streetscapes, often to stand in for other cities that are more expensive to work in. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation has its Atlantic Canada production centres (radio and television) based in Halifax, and quite a number of radio and television programs are made in the region for national broadcast. The new Halifax Central Library on Spring Garden Road has received accolades for its architecture and has been described as a new cultural locus, offering many community facilities including a 300-seat auditorium.", "In the 2016 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the Halifax Regional Municipality recorded a population of 403,131 living in 173,324 of its 187,338 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2011 population of 390,086. With a land area of, it had a population density of in 2016. In 2016, 15% of the population was 14 years old or younger, while 16% were 65 and older. Mother tongue language (2016)", "Halifax is a religiously diverse city with such landmark religious institutions as the New Horizons Baptist Church, St. George’s (Round) Church, United Rockingham Church, St. Andrew's United Church, the Ummah", "The urban area of Halifax is a major economic centre in eastern Canada with a large concentration of government services and private sector companies. Halifax serves as the business, banking, government and cultural centre for the Maritime region. The largest employment sectors in the city include trade (36,400 jobs), health care and social assistance (31,800 jobs), professional services (19,000 jobs), education (17,400 jobs), and public administration (15,800 jobs). The Halifax economy is growing, with the Conference Board of Canada predicting strong 3.0% GDP growth for 2015. Major employers and economic generators include the Department of National Defence, the Port of Halifax, Irving Shipbuilding, the Nova Scotia Health Authority, IMP Group, Bell Aliant, Emera, the Bedford Institute of Oceanography, government, banks, and universities. The municipality has a growing concentration of manufacturing", "The Halifax Regional Municipality is governed by a mayor (elected at large) and a sixteen-person council. Councillors are elected by geographic district, with municipal elections occurring every four years. The current mayor of Halifax is Mike Savage. The Halifax Regional Council is responsible for all facets of municipal government, including the Halifax Regional Police, Halifax Public Libraries, Halifax Fire and Emergency, Halifax Regional Water Commission, parks and recreation, civic addressing, public works, waste management, and planning and development. The provincial legislation that provides", "Halifax has a well-developed network of public and private schools, providing instruction from grade primary to grade twelve; 136 public schools are administered by the Halifax Regional School Board, while six public schools are administered by the Conseil scolaire acadien provincial. The city's fourteen private schools are operated independently. The municipality is also home to the following post-secondary educational institutions: Dalhousie University, Saint Mary's University, Mount Saint", "Halifax Harbour is a major port used by numerous shipping lines, administered by the Halifax Port Authority. The Royal Canadian Navy and the Canadian Coast Guard have major installations along prominent sections of coastline in both Halifax and Dartmouth. The harbour is also home to a public ferry service connecting downtown Halifax to two locations in Dartmouth. Sheet Harbour is the other major port in the municipality and serves industrial users on the Eastern Shore. The Halifax Port Authority's various shipping terminals constitute the eastern terminus of Canadian National Railway's transcontinental network. Via Rail Canada provides overnight passenger rail service from the Halifax Railway Station three days a week to Montreal with the \"Ocean\", a train equipped with sleeper cars that stops in major centres along the way, such as Moncton. The Halifax Railway Station also serves as the terminus for Maritime Bus, which serves destinations across the Maritimes. Halifax Stanfield International Airport serves Halifax and most of the province, providing scheduled flights to domestic and international destinations. The airport served 4,083,188 passengers in 2017, making it Canada's eighth busiest airport by passenger traffic. Shearwater, part of CFB Halifax, is the air base for maritime helicopters employed by the Royal Canadian Navy and is located on the eastern side of Halifax Harbour. The urban core is linked by the Angus L. Macdonald and A. Murray MacKay suspension bridges, as well as the network of 100-series highways which function as expressways. The Armdale traffic circle is an infamous choke point for vehicle movement in the western part of the urban core, especially at rush hour. Public transit is provided by Halifax Transit, which operates standard bus routes, regional express bus routes, as well as the pedestrian-only Halifax-Dartmouth Ferry Service. Established in 1752, the municipality's ferry service is the oldest continuously running salt water ferry service in North America." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Distribution.", "Taxonomy.", "Description.", "Role in ecosystem.", "Uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Pitch pine is found mainly in the southern areas of the northeastern United States, from coastal Maine and Ohio to Kentucky and northern Georgia. A few stands occur in southern Quebec and Ontario. It is known as a pioneer species and is often the first tree to vegetate a site after it has been cleared away. In extreme conditions, it is a climax vegetation type. But in most cases, it is replaced by oaks and other hardwoods. This pine occupies a variety of habitats from dry acidic sandy uplands to swampy lowlands, and can survive in very poor conditions; it is the primary tree of the New Jersey Pine Barrens.", "It was given its scientific name, \"Pinus rigida\", by British botanist Philip Miller. It belongs to the family Pinaceae and the subgenus \"Pinus\" (formerly \"Diploxylon\") along with other hard pines.", "It is irregular in shape, branches are usually twisted and it does a poor job at self-pruning. The needles are in fascicles (bundles) of three, about in length, and are stout (over broad) and often slightly twisted. The cones are long and oval with prickles on the scales. Trunks are usually straight with a slight curve to them, they are covered in irregular, thick, large plates of bark. Pitch pine has an exceptionally high regenerative ability; if the main trunk is cut or damaged by fire it can re-sprout using epicormic shoots. This is one of its many adaptations to fire, which also includes a thick bark to protect the sensitive cambium layer from heat. Burnt trees often form stunted, twisted trees with multiple trunks as a result of the resprouting. This characteristic also makes it a popular species for bonsai. Pitch pine is rapid-growing when young, gaining around one foot of height per year under optimal conditions until the tree is 50–60 years old, whereupon growth slows. By 90 years of age, the amount of annual height gain is minimal. Open-growth trees begin bearing cones in as little as three years, with shade-inhabiting pines taking a few years longer. Cones take two years to mature and seed dispersal occurs over the fall and winter and trees cannot self-pollinate. The total lifespan of pitch pine is about 200 years or longer", "Pitch pine provides a habitat and offers food for many wildlife species. They are used as cover and nesting for birds such as the pine warbler, wild turkey, red-cockaded woodpecker, great-crested flycatchers, blue jays, black-capped chickadees, black-and-white warblers, Nashville warblers, and chestnut-sided warblers. Deer consume seedlings and new sprouts, and small mammals and birds eat the seeds.", "Pitch pine is not a major timber tree due to the frequency of multiple or crooked trunks; nor is it as fast-growing as other eastern American pines. However, it grows well on unfavorable sites. In the past, it was a major source of pitch and timber for ship building, mine timbers, and railroad ties because the wood's high resin content preserves it from decay. Therefore it was also used for elaborate wood constructions, e. g. radio towers. Pitch pine is currently used mainly for rough construction, pulp, crating, and fuel. However, due to its uneven growth, quantities of high quality can be very sought after, and large lengths of pitch pine can be very costly. Archaeology indicates that the Iroquois, Shinnecock, and Cherokee all utilized pitch pine. The Iroquois used the pitch to treat rheumatism, burns, cuts, and boils. Pitch also worked as a laxative. A pitch pine poultice was used by both the Iroquois and the Shinnecock to open boils and to treat abscesses. The Cherokee used pitch pine wood in canoe construction and for decorative carvings. pitch pine is know to cross with pond loblolly and shortleaf pines one of those crosses is the pitlolly pine (pinus x rigitaeda) a natural hybrid between the loblolly pine and the pitch pine. this hybrid combines the tall size of the loblolly pine and the cold hardiness of the pitch pine.this hybrid was used as substitute of loblolly pine and has been extensively planted in south korea." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Historic use.", "England.", "Scots.", "In literature." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In England, the ell was usually, or a yard and a quarter. It was mainly used in the tailoring business but is now obsolete. Although the exact length was never defined in English law, standards were kept; the brass ell examined at the Exchequer by Graham in the 1740s had been in use \"since the time of Queen Elizabeth\".", "The Scottish ell () is approximately. The Scottish ell was standardised in 1661, with the exemplar to be kept in the custody of Edinburgh. It comes from Middle English. It was used in the popular expression The Ell Shop (1757) in Dunkeld, Perth and Kinross (National Trust for Scotland), is so called from the 18th-century iron ell-stick attached to one corner, once used to measure cloth and other commodities in the adjacent market-place. The shaft of the 17th-century Kincardine mercat cross stands in the square of Fettercairn, and is notched to show the measurements of an ell. Scottish measures were made obsolete, and English measurements made standard in Scotland, by act of parliament in 1824.", "Ells are used for measuring the length of rope in J. R. R. Tolkien's \"The Lord of the Rings\". In the epic poem Sir Gwaine and the Green Knight, the Green Knight's axe head was an ell (45 inches) wide. Ells were also used in The Farce of Master Pathelin to measure the size of the clothing Pierre Pathelin bought" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Applications.", "Examples.", "Parallel-resistance/thin-lens.", "Chi-squared test computation.", "Food risk assessment.", "Sample size estimation.", "Other quick nomograms." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "A nomogram for a three-variable equation typically has three scales, although there exist nomograms in which two or even all three scales are common. Here two scales represent known values and the third is the scale where the result is read off. The simplest such equation is \"u\" + \"u\" + \"u\" = 0 for the three variables \"u\", \"u\" and \"u\". An example of this type of nomogram is shown on the right, annotated with terms used to describe the parts of a nomogram. More complicated equations can sometimes be expressed as the sum of functions of the three variables. For example, the nomogram at the top of this article could be constructed as a parallel-scale nomogram because it can be expressed as such a sum after taking logarithms of both sides of the equation. The scale for the unknown variable can lie between the other two scales or outside of them. The known values of the calculation are marked on the scales for those variables, and a line is drawn between these marks. The result is read off the unknown scale at the point where the line intersects that scale. The scales include 'tick marks' to indicate exact number locations, and they may also include labeled reference values. These scales may be linear, logarithmic, or have some more complex relationship. The sample isopleth shown in red on the nomogram at the top of this article calculates the value of \"T\" when \"S\" = 7.30 and \"R\" = 1.17. The isopleth crosses the scale for \"T\" at just under 4.65; a larger figure printed in high resolution on paper would yield \"T\" = 4.64 to three-digit precision. Note that any variable can be calculated from values of the other two, a feature of nomograms that is particularly useful for equations in which a variable cannot be algebraically isolated from the other variables. Straight scales are useful for relatively simple calculations, but for more complex calculations the use of simple or elaborate curved scales may be required. Nomograms for more than three variables can be constructed by incorporating a grid of scales for two of the variables, or by concatenating individual nomograms of fewer numbers of variables into a compound nomogram.", "Nomograms have been used in an extensive array of applications. A sample includes", "", "The nomogram below performs the computation This nomogram is interesting because it performs a useful nonlinear calculation using only straight-line, equally graduated scales. While the diagonal line has a scale formula_2 times larger than the axes scales, the numbers on it exactly match those directly below or to its left, and thus it can be easily created by drawing a straight line diagonally on a sheet of graph paper. \"A\" and \"B\" are entered on the horizontal and vertical scales, and the result is read from the diagonal scale. Being proportional to the harmonic mean of \"A\" and \"B\", this formula has several applications. For example, it is the parallel-resistance formula in electronics, and the thin-lens equation in optics. In the example, the red line demonstrates that parallel resistors of 56 and 42 ohms have a combined resistance of 24 ohms. It also demonstrates that an object at a distance of 56 cm from a lens whose focal length is 24 cm forms a real image at a distance of 42 cm.", "The nomogram below can be used to perform an approximate computation of some values needed when performing a familiar statistical test, Pearson's chi-squared test. This nomogram demonstrates the use of curved scales with unevenly spaced graduations. The relevant expression is The scale along the top is shared among five different ranges of observed values: A, B, C, D and E. The observed value is found in one of these ranges, and the tick mark used on that scale is found immediately above it. Then the curved scale used for the expected value is selected based on the range. For example, an observed value of 9 would use the tick mark above the 9 in range A, and curved scale A would be used for the expected value. An observed value of 81 would use the tick mark above 81 in range E, and curved scale E would be used for the expected value. This allows five different nomograms to be incorporated into a single diagram. In this manner, the blue line demonstrates the computation of and the red line demonstrates the computation of In performing the test, Yates's correction for continuity is often applied, and simply involves subtracting 0.5 from the observed values. A nomogram for performing the test with Yates's correction could be constructed simply by shifting each \"observed\" scale half a unit to the left, so that the 1.0, 2.0, 3.0,... graduations are placed where the values 0.5, 1.5, 2.5,... appear on the present chart.", "Although nomograms represent mathematical relationships, not all are mathematically derived. The following one was developed graphically to achieve appropriate end results that could readily be defined by the product of their relationships in subjective units rather than numerically. The use of non-parallel axes enabled the non-linear relationships to be incorporated into the model. The numbers in square boxes denote the axes requiring input after appropriate assessment. The pair of nomograms at the top of the image determine the probability of occurrence and the availability, which are then incorporated into the bottom multistage nomogram. Lines 8 and 10 are ‘tie lines’ or ‘pivot lines’ and are used for the transition between the stages of the compound nomogram. The final pair of parallel logarithmic scales (12) are not nomograms as such, but reading-off scales to translate the risk score (11, remote to extremely high) into a sampling frequency to address safety aspects and other ‘consumer protection’ aspects respectively. This stage requires political ‘buy in’ balancing cost against risk. The example uses a three-year minimum frequency for each, though with the high risk end of the scales different for the two aspects, giving different frequencies for the two, but both subject to an overall minimum sampling of every food for all aspects at least once every three years. This risk assessment nomogram was developed by the UK Public Analyst Service with funding from the UK Food Standards Agency for use as a tool to guide the appropriate frequency of sampling and analysis of food for official food control purposes, intended to be used to assess all potential problems with all foods, although not yet adopted.", "This nomogram can be used to estimate the sample size requirements for statistical analyses. It uses four parameters: \"α\" (fixed), effect size (\"ρ\" or \"δ\"), statistical power, and number of cases \"N\" (two scales for \"α\" =.05 (liberal) or.01 (conservative)). The hypothesized effect size in the population can either be expressed as a correlation coefficient (\"ρ\") or a normalized difference in means (\"δ\") for a T-test. The normalized difference is equal to the absolute value of the difference between two population means (\"μ\"1 − \"μ\"2), divided by the pooled standard deviation (\"s\"). The statistical power desired is estimated by 1 − \"β\", where \"β\" is equal to the probability of making a type II error. A \"type II\" error is failing to reject the statistical null hypothesis (i.e., \"ρ\" or \"δ\" is zero), when in fact the null hypothesis is false in the population and should be rejected. Cohen (1977) recommends using power equal to 0.80 or 80%, for a \"β\" = 0.20. The sample size or number of cases required is reported for two standard levels of statistical significance (\"α\" = 0.01 or 0.05). The value of \"α\" is the probability of making a type I error. A \"type I\" error is rejecting the statistical null hypothesis (i.e., claiming that either \"ρ\" or \"δ\" is zero), when in fact it \"is\" true (the value \"is\" zero) in the population and should \"not\" be rejected. The most commonly used values of α are 0.05 or 0.01. To find the sample size requirements for a given statistical analysis, estimate the effect size expected in the population (\"ρ\" or \"δ\") on the left hand axis, select the desired level of power on the right hand axis, and draw a line between the two values. Where the line intersects with either the \"α\" = 0.05 or \"α\" = 0.01 middle axis will indicate the sample size required to achieve statistical significance of \"α\" less than 0.05 or 0.01, respectively (for the previously given parameters). For instance, if one estimates the population correlation (\"ρ\") to be 0.30, and desires statistical power equal to 0.80, then to obtain a significance level of \"α\" less than 0.05, the sample size requirement would be \"N\" = 70 cases rounded up (more precisely approximately 68 cases using interpolation).", "Using a ruler, one can readily read the missing term of the law of sines or the roots of the quadratic and cubic equation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Performance implications.", "Multiple TLBs.", "TLB-miss handling.", "Typical TLB.", "Address-space switch.", "Virtualization and x86 TLB." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A TLB has a fixed number of slots containing page-table entries and segment-table entries; page-table entries map virtual addresses to physical addresses and intermediate-table addresses, while segment-table entries map virtual addresses to segment addresses, intermediate-table addresses and page-table addresses. The virtual memory is the memory space as seen from a process; this space is often split into pages of a fixed size (in paged memory), or less commonly into segments of variable sizes (in segmented memory). The page table, generally stored in main memory, keeps track of where the virtual pages are stored in the physical memory. This method uses two memory accesses (one for the page-table entry, one for the byte) to access a byte. First, the page table is looked up for the frame number. Second, the frame number with the page offset gives the actual address. Thus any straightforward virtual memory scheme would have the effect of doubling the memory access time. Hence, the TLB is used to reduce the time taken to access the memory locations in the page-table method. The TLB is a cache of the page table, representing only a subset of the page-table contents. Referencing the physical memory addresses, a TLB may reside between the CPU and the CPU cache, between the CPU cache and primary storage memory, or between levels of a multi-level cache. The placement determines whether the cache uses physical or virtual addressing. If the cache is virtually addressed, requests are sent directly from the CPU to the cache, and the TLB is accessed only on a cache miss. If the cache is physically addressed, the CPU does a TLB lookup on every memory operation, and the resulting physical address is sent to the cache. In a Harvard architecture or modified Harvard architecture, a separate virtual address space or memory-access hardware may exist for instructions and data. This can lead to distinct TLBs for each access type, an \"instruction translation lookaside buffer\" (ITLB) and a \"data translation lookaside buffer\" (DTLB). Various benefits have been demonstrated with separate data and instruction TLBs. The TLB can be used as a fast lookup hardware cache. The figure shows the working of a TLB. Each entry in the TLB consists of two parts: a tag and a value. If the tag of the incoming virtual address matches the tag in the TLB, the corresponding value is returned. Since the TLB lookup is usually a part of the instruction pipeline, searches are fast and cause essentially no performance penalty. However, to be able to search within the instruction pipeline, the TLB has to be small. A common optimization for physically addressed caches is to perform the TLB lookup in parallel with the cache access. Upon each virtual-memory reference, the hardware checks the TLB to see whether the page number is held therein. If yes, it is a TLB hit, and the translation is made. The frame number is returned and is used to access the memory. If the page number is not in the TLB, the page table must be checked. Depending on the CPU, this can be done automatically using a hardware or using an interrupt to the operating system. When the frame number is obtained, it can be used to access the memory. In addition, we add the page number and frame number to the TLB, so that they will be found quickly on the next reference. If the TLB is already full, a suitable block must be selected for replacement. There are different replacement methods like \"least recently used\" (LRU), \"first in, first out\" (FIFO) etc.; see the address translation section in the cache article for more details about virtual addressing as it pertains to caches and TLBs.", "The CPU has to access main memory for an instruction-cache miss, data-cache miss, or TLB miss. The third case (the simplest one) is where the desired information itself actually \"is\" in a cache, but the information for virtual-to-physical translation is not in a TLB. These are all slow, due to the need to access a slower level of the memory hierarchy, so a well-functioning TLB is important. Indeed, a TLB miss can be more expensive than an instruction or data cache miss, due to the need for not just a load from main memory, but a page walk, requiring several memory accesses. The flowchart provided explains the working of a TLB. If it is a TLB miss, then the CPU checks the page table for the page table entry. If the \"present bit\" is set, then the page is in main memory, and the processor can retrieve the frame number from the page-table entry to form the physical address. The processor also updates the TLB to include the new page-table entry. Finally, if the present bit is not set, then the desired page is not in the main memory, and a page fault is issued. Then a page-fault interrupt is called, which executes the page-fault handling routine. If the page working set does not fit into the TLB, then TLB thrashing occurs, where frequent TLB misses occur, with each newly cached page displacing one that will soon be used again, degrading performance in exactly the same way as thrashing of the instruction or data cache does. TLB thrashing can occur even if instruction-cache or data-cache thrashing are not occurring, because these are cached in different-size units. Instructions and data are cached in small blocks (cache lines), not entire pages, but address lookup is done at the page level. Thus even if the code and data working sets fit into cache, if the working sets are fragmented across many pages, the virtual-address working set may not fit into TLB, causing TLB thrashing. Appropriate sizing of the TLB thus requires considering not only the size of the corresponding instruction and data caches, but also how these are fragmented across multiple pages.", "Similar to caches, TLBs may have multiple levels. CPUs can be (and nowadays usually are) built with multiple TLBs, for example a small L1 TLB (potentially fully associative) that is extremely fast, and a larger L2 TLB that is somewhat slower. When instruction-TLB (ITLB) and data-TLB (DTLB) are used, a CPU can have three (ITLB1, DTLB1, TLB2) or four TLBs. For instance, Intel's Nehalem microarchitecture has a four-way set associative L1 DTLB with 64 entries for 4 KiB pages and 32 entries for 2/4 MiB pages, an L1 ITLB with 128 entries for 4 KiB pages using four-way associativity and 14 fully associative entries for 2/4 MiB pages (both parts of the ITLB divided statically between two threads) and a unified 512-entry L2 TLB for 4 KiB pages, both 4-way associative. Some TLBs may have separate sections for small pages and huge pages.", "Two schemes for handling TLB misses are commonly found in modern architectures: The Itanium architecture provides an option of using either software- or hardware-managed TLBs. The Alpha architecture's TLB is managed in PALcode, rather than in the operating system. As the PALcode for a processor can be processor-specific and operating-system-specific, this allows different versions of PALcode to implement different page-table formats for different operating systems, without requiring that the TLB format, and the instructions to control the TLB, to be specified by the architecture.", "These are typical performance levels of a TLB: If a TLB hit takes 1 clock cycle, a miss takes 30 clock cycles, and the miss rate is 1%, the effective memory cycle rate is an average of (1.30 clock cycles per memory access).", "On an address-space switch, as occurs on a process switch but not on a thread switch, some TLB entries can become invalid, since the virtual-to-physical mapping is different. The simplest strategy to deal with this is to completely flush the TLB. This means that after a switch, the TLB is empty, and \"any\" memory reference will be a miss, so it will be some time before things are running back at full speed. Newer CPUs use more effective strategies marking which process an entry is for. This means that if a second process runs for only a short time and jumps back to a first process, it may still have valid entries, saving the time to reload them. For example, in the Alpha 21264, each TLB entry is tagged with an \"address space number\" (ASN), and only TLB entries with an ASN matching the current task are considered valid. Another example in the Intel Pentium Pro, the page global enable (PGE) flag in the register CR4 and the global (G) flag of a page-directory or page-table entry can be used to prevent frequently used pages from being automatically invalidated in the TLBs on a task switch or a load of register CR3. Since the 2010 Westmere microarchitecture Intel 64 processors also support 12-bit \"process-context identifiers\" (PCIDs), which allow retaining TLB entries for multiple linear-address spaces, with only those that match the current PCID being used for address translation. While selective flushing of the TLB is an option in software-managed TLBs, the only option in some hardware TLBs (for example, the TLB in the Intel 80386) is the complete flushing of the TLB on an address-space switch. Other hardware TLBs (for example, the TLB in the Intel 80486 and later x86 processors, and the TLB in ARM processors) allow the flushing of individual entries from the TLB indexed by virtual address. Flushing of the TLB can be an important security mechanism for memory isolation between processes to ensure a process can't access data stored in memory pages of another process. Memory isolation is especially critical during switches between the privileged operating system kernel process and the user processes – as was highlighted by the Meltdown security vulnerability. Mitigation strategies such as kernel page-table isolation (KPTI) rely heavily on performance-impacting TLB flushes and benefit greatly from hardware-enabled selective TLB entry management such as PCID.", "With the advent of virtualization for server consolidation, a lot of effort has gone into making the x86 architecture easier to virtualize and to ensure better performance of virtual machines on x86 hardware. Normally, entries in the x86 TLBs are not associated with a particular address space; they implicitly refer to the current address space. Hence, every time there is a change in address space, such as a context switch, the entire TLB has to be flushed. Maintaining a tag that associates each TLB entry with an address space in software and comparing this tag during TLB lookup and TLB flush is very expensive, especially since the x86 TLB is designed to operate with very low latency and completely in hardware. In 2008, both Intel (Nehalem) and AMD (SVM) have introduced tags as part of the TLB entry and dedicated hardware that checks the tag during lookup. Even though these are not fully exploited, it is envisioned that in the future, these tags will identify the address space to which every TLB entry belongs. Thus a context switch will not result in the flushing of the TLB – but just changing the tag of the current address space to the tag of the address space of the new task." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Pronunciation.", "Program origins and objectives.", "Team.", "Spacecraft.", "Reentry module.", "Adapter module.", "Retro module.", "Equipment module.", "Launch vehicle.", "Astronauts.", "Crew selection.", "Missions.", "Gemini-Titan launches and serial numbers.", "Program cost.", "Proposed extensions and applications.", "Advanced Gemini.", "Big Gemini.", "Military applications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The constellation for which the project was named is commonly pronounced, the last syllable rhyming with \"eye\". However, staff of the Manned Spacecraft Center, including the astronauts, tended to pronounce the name, rhyming with \"knee\". NASA's public affairs office issued a statement in 1965 declaring \"Jeh-mih-nee\" the \"official\" pronunciation. Gus Grissom, acting as Houston capsule communicator when Ed White performed his spacewalk on Gemini 4, is heard on flight recordings pronouncing the spacecraft's call sign \"Jeh-mih-nee 4\", and the NASA pronunciation is used in the film \"First Man\".", "The Apollo program was conceived in early 1960 as a three-man spacecraft to follow Project Mercury. Jim Chamberlin, the head of engineering at the Space Task Group (STG), was assigned in February 1961 to start working on a bridge program between Mercury and Apollo. He presented two initial versions of a two-man spacecraft, then designated Mercury Mark II, at a NASA retreat at Wallops Island in March 1961. Scale models were shown in July 1961 at the McDonnell Aircraft Corporation's offices in St. Louis. After Apollo was chartered to land men on the Moon by President John F. Kennedy on May 25, 1961, it became evident to NASA officials that a follow-on to the Mercury program was required to develop certain spaceflight capabilities in support of Apollo. NASA approved the two-man / two-vehicle program rechristened Project Gemini (Latin for \"twins\"), in reference to the third constellation of the Zodiac with its twin stars Castor and Pollux, on December 7, 1961. McDonnell Aircraft was contracted to build it on December 22, 1961. The program was publicly announced on January 3, 1962, with these major objectives:", "Chamberlin designed the Gemini capsule, which carried a crew of two. He was previously the chief aerodynamicist on Avro Canada's Avro Arrow fighter interceptor program. Chamberlin joined NASA along with 25 senior Avro engineers after cancellation of the Arrow program, and became head of the U.S. Space Task Group's engineering division in charge of Gemini. The prime contractor was McDonnell Aircraft Corporation, which was also the prime contractor for the Project Mercury capsule. Astronaut Gus Grissom was heavily involved in the development and design of the Gemini spacecraft. What other Mercury astronauts dubbed \"Gusmobile\" was so designed around Grissom's 5'6\" body that, when NASA discovered in 1963 that 14 of 16 astronauts would not fit in the spacecraft, the interior had to be redesigned. Grissom wrote in his posthumous 1968 book \"Gemini!\" that the realization of Project Mercury's end and the unlikelihood of his having another flight in that program prompted him to focus all his efforts on the upcoming Gemini program. The Gemini program was managed by the Manned Spacecraft Center, located in Houston, Texas, under direction of the Office of Manned Space Flight, NASA Headquarters, Washington, D.C. Dr. George E. Mueller, Associate Administrator of NASA for Manned Space Flight, served as acting director of the Gemini program. William C. Schneider, Deputy Director of Manned Space Flight for Mission Operations served as mission director on all Gemini flights beginning with Gemini 6A. Guenter Wendt was a McDonnell engineer who supervised launch preparations for both the Mercury and Gemini programs and would go on to do the same when the Apollo program launched crews. His team was responsible for completion of the complex pad close-out procedures just prior to spacecraft launch, and he was the last person the astronauts would see prior to closing the hatch. The astronauts appreciated his taking absolute authority over, and responsibility for, the condition of the spacecraft and developed a good-humored rapport with him.", "NASA selected McDonnell Aircraft, which had been the prime contractor for the Project Mercury capsule, in 1961 to build the Gemini capsule, the first of which was delivered in 1963. The spacecraft was long and wide, with a launch weight varying from. The Gemini crew capsule (referred to as the Reentry Module) was essentially an enlarged version of the Mercury capsule. Unlike Mercury, the retrorockets, electrical power, propulsion systems, oxygen, and water were located in a detachable Adapter Module behind the Reentry Module. A major design improvement in Gemini was to locate all internal spacecraft systems in modular components, which could be independently tested and replaced when necessary, without removing or disturbing other already tested components.", "Many components in the capsule itself were reachable through their own small access doors. Unlike Mercury, Gemini used completely solid-state electronics, and its modular design made it easy to repair. Gemini's emergency launch escape system did not use an escape tower powered by a solid-fuel rocket, but instead used aircraft-style ejection seats. The tower was heavy and complicated, and NASA engineers reasoned that they could do away with it as the Titan II's hypergolic propellants would burn immediately on contact. A Titan II booster explosion had a smaller blast effect and flame than on the cryogenically fueled Atlas and Saturn. Ejection seats were sufficient to separate the astronauts from a malfunctioning launch vehicle. At higher altitudes, where the ejection seats could not be used, the astronauts would return to Earth inside the spacecraft, which would separate from the launch vehicle. The main proponent of using ejection seats was Chamberlin, who had never liked the Mercury escape tower and wished to use a simpler alternative that would also reduce weight. He reviewed several films of Atlas and Titan II ICBM failures, which he used to estimate the approximate size of a fireball produced by an exploding launch vehicle and from this he gauged that the Titan II would produce a much smaller explosion, thus the spacecraft could get away with ejection seats. Maxime Faget, the designer of the Mercury LES, was on the other hand less-than-enthusiastic about this setup. Aside from the possibility of the ejection seats seriously injuring the astronauts, they would also only be usable for about 40 seconds after liftoff, by which point the booster would be attaining Mach 1 speed and ejection would no longer be possible. He was also concerned about the astronauts being launched through the Titan's exhaust plume if they ejected in-flight and later added, \"The best thing about Gemini was that they never had to make an escape.\" The Gemini ejection system was never tested with the Gemini cabin pressurized with pure oxygen, as it was prior to launch. In January 1967, the fatal Apollo 1 fire demonstrated that pressurizing a spacecraft with pure oxygen created an extremely dangerous fire hazard. In a 1997 oral history, astronaut Thomas P. Stafford commented on the Gemini 6 launch abort in December 1965, when he and command pilot Wally Schirra nearly ejected from the spacecraft: Gemini was the first astronaut-carrying spacecraft to include an onboard computer, the Gemini Guidance Computer, to facilitate management and control of mission maneuvers. This computer, sometimes called the Gemini Spacecraft On-Board Computer (OBC), was very similar to the Saturn Launch Vehicle Digital Computer. The Gemini Guidance Computer weighed. Its core memory had 4096 addresses, each containing a 39-bit word composed of three 13-bit \"syllables\". All numeric data was 26-bit two's-complement integers (sometimes used as fixed-point numbers), either stored in the first two syllables of a word or in the accumulator. Instructions (always with a 4-bit opcode and 9 bits of operand) could go in any syllable. Unlike Mercury, Gemini used in-flight radar and an artificial horizon, similar to those used in the aviation industry. Like Mercury, Gemini used a joystick to give the astronauts manual control of yaw, pitch, and roll. Gemini added control of the spacecraft's translation (forward, backward, up, down, and sideways) with a pair of T-shaped handles (one for each crew member). Translation control enabled rendezvous and docking, and crew control of the flight path. The same controller types were also used in the Apollo spacecraft. The original intention for Gemini was to land on solid ground instead of at sea, using a Rogallo wing rather than a parachute, with the crew seated upright controlling the forward motion of the craft. To facilitate this, the airfoil did not attach just to the nose of the craft, but to an additional attachment point for balance near the heat shield. This cord was covered by a strip of metal which ran between the twin hatches. This design was ultimately dropped, and parachutes were used to make a sea landing as in Mercury. The capsule was suspended at an angle closer to horizontal, so that a side of the heat shield contacted the water first. This eliminated the need for the landing bag cushion used in the Mercury capsule.", "The adapter module in turn was separated into a Retro module and an Equipment module.", "The Retro module contained four solid-fuel TE-M-385 Star-13E retrorockets, each spherical in shape except for its rocket nozzle, which were structurally attached to two beams that reached across the diameter of the retro module, crossing at right angles in the center. Re-entry began with the retrorockets firing one at a time. Abort procedures at certain periods during lift-off would cause them to fire at the same time, thrusting the Descent module away from the Titan rocket.", "Gemini was equipped with an Orbit Attitude and Maneuvering System (OAMS), containing sixteen thrusters for translation control in all three perpendicular axes (forward/backward, left/right, up/down), in addition to attitude control (pitch, yaw, and roll angle orientation) as in Mercury. Translation control allowed changing orbital inclination and altitude, necessary to perform space rendezvous with other craft, and docking with the Agena Target Vehicle (ATV), with its own rocket engine which could be used to perform greater orbit changes. Early short-duration missions had their electrical power supplied by batteries; later endurance missions used the first fuel cells in crewed spacecraft. Gemini was in some regards more advanced than Apollo because the latter program began almost a year earlier. It became known as a \"pilot's spacecraft\" due to its assortment of jet fighter-like features, in no small part due to Gus Grissom's influence over the design, and it was at this point where the US crewed space program clearly began showing its superiority over that of the Soviet Union with long duration flight, rendezvous, and extravehicular capability. The Soviet Union during this period was developing the Soyuz spacecraft intended to take cosmonauts to the Moon, but political and technical problems began to get in the way, leading to the ultimate end of their crewed lunar program.", "The Titan II had debuted in 1962 as the Air Force's second-generation ICBM to replace the Atlas. By using hypergolic fuels, it could be stored longer and be easily readied for launch in addition to being a simpler design with fewer components, the only caveat being that the propellant mix (nitrogen tetroxide and hydrazine) was extremely toxic compared to the Atlas's liquid oxygen/RP-1. However, the Titan had considerable difficulty being man-rated due to early problems with pogo oscillation. The launch vehicle used a radio guidance system that was unique to launches from Cape Kennedy.", "Deke Slayton, as director of flight crew operations, had primary responsibility for assigning crews for the Gemini program. Each flight had a primary crew and backup crew, and the backup crew would rotate to primary crew status three flights later. Slayton intended for first choice of mission commands to be given to the four remaining active astronauts of the Mercury Seven: Alan Shepard, Grissom, Cooper, and Schirra. (John Glenn had retired from NASA in January 1964 and Scott Carpenter, who was blamed by some in NASA management for the problematic reentry of \"Aurora 7\", was on leave to participate in the Navy's SEALAB project and was grounded from flight in July 1964 due to an arm injury sustained in a motorbike accident. Slayton himself continued to be grounded due to a heart problem.) Titles used for the left-hand (command) and right-hand seat crew positions were taken from the U.S. Air Force pilot ratings, \"Command Pilot\" and \"Pilot\". Sixteen astronauts flew on 10 crewed Gemini missions:", "In late 1963, Slayton selected Shepard and Stafford for Gemini 3, McDivitt and White for Gemini 4, and Schirra and Young for Gemini 5 (which was to be the first Agena rendezvous mission). The backup crew for Gemini 3 was Grissom and Borman, who were also slated for Gemini 6, to be the first long-duration mission. Finally Conrad and Lovell were assigned as the backup crew for Gemini 4. Delays in the production of the Agena Target Vehicle caused the first rearrangement of the crew rotation. The Schirra and Young mission was bumped to Gemini 6 and they became the backup crew for Shepard and Stafford. Grissom and Borman then had their long-duration mission assigned to Gemini 5. The second rearrangement occurred when Shepard developed Ménière's disease, an inner ear problem. Grissom was then moved to command Gemini 3. Slayton felt that Young was a better personality match with Grissom and switched Stafford and Young. Finally, Slayton tapped Cooper to command the long-duration Gemini 5. Again for reasons of compatibility, he moved Conrad from backup commander of Gemini 4 to pilot of Gemini 5, and Borman to backup command of Gemini 4. Finally he assigned Armstrong and Elliot See to be the backup crew for Gemini 5. The third rearrangement of crew assignment occurred when Slayton felt that See wasn't up to the physical demands of EVA on Gemini 8. He reassigned See to be the prime commander of Gemini 9 and put Scott as pilot of Gemini 8 and Charles Bassett as the pilot of Gemini 9. The fourth and final rearrangement of the Gemini crew assignment occurred after the deaths of See and Bassett when their trainer jet crashed, coincidentally into a McDonnell building which held their Gemini 9 capsule in St. Louis. The backup crew of Stafford and Cernan was then moved up to the new prime crew of Gemini 9A. Lovell and Aldrin were moved from being the backup crew of Gemini 10 to be the backup crew of Gemini 9. This cleared the way through the crew rotation for Lovell and Aldrin to become the prime crew of Gemini 12. Along with the deaths of Grissom, White, and Roger Chaffee in the fire of Apollo 1, this final arrangement helped determine the makeup of the first seven Apollo crews, and who would be in position for a chance to be the first to walk on the Moon.", "In 1964 and 1965 two Gemini missions were flown without crews to test out systems and the heat shield. These were followed by ten flights with crews in 1965 and 1966. All were launched by Titan II launch vehicles. Some highlights from the Gemini program: Rendezvous in orbit is not a straightforward maneuver. Should a spacecraft increase its speed to catch up with another, the result is that it goes into a higher and slower orbit and the distance thereby increases. The right procedure is to go to a lower orbit first and which increases relative speed, and then approach the target spacecraft from below and decrease orbital speed to meet it. To practice these maneuvers special rendezvous and docking simulators were built for the astronauts.", "The Gemini-Titan II launch vehicle was adapted by NASA from the U.S. Air Force Titan II ICBM. (Similarly, the Mercury-Atlas launch vehicle had been adapted from the USAF Atlas missile.) The Gemini-Titan II rockets were assigned Air Force serial numbers, which were painted in four places on each Titan II (on opposite sides on each of the first and second stages). USAF crews maintained Launch Complex 19 and prepared and launched all of the Gemini-Titan II launch vehicles. Data and experience operating the Titans was of value to both the U.S. Air Force and NASA. The USAF serial numbers assigned to the Gemini-Titan launch vehicles are given in the tables above. Fifteen Titan IIs were ordered in 1962 so the serial is \"62-12XXX\", but only \"12XXX\" is painted on the Titan II. The order for the last three of the 15 launch vehicles was canceled on July 30, 1964, and they were never built. Serial numbers were, however, assigned to them prospectively: \"12568\" - GLV-13; \"12569\" - GLV-14; and \"12570\" - GLV-15.", "From 1962 to 1967, Gemini cost $1.3 billion in 1967 dollars ($ in ). In January 1969, a NASA report to the US Congress estimating the costs for Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo (through the first crewed Moon landing) included $1.2834 billion for Gemini: $797.4 million for spacecraft, $409.8 million for launch vehicles, and $76.2 million for support.", "", "McDonnell Aircraft, the main contractor for Mercury and Gemini, was also one of the original bidders on the prime contract for Apollo, but lost out to North American Aviation. McDonnell later sought to extend the Gemini program by proposing a derivative which could be used to fly a cislunar mission and even achieve a crewed lunar landing earlier and at less cost than Apollo, but these proposals were rejected by NASA. A range of applications were considered for Advanced Gemini missions, including military flights, space station crew and logistics delivery, and lunar flights. The Lunar proposals ranged from reusing the docking systems developed for the Agena Target Vehicle on more powerful upper stages such as the Centaur, which could propel the spacecraft to the Moon, to complete modifications of the Gemini to enable it to land on the lunar surface. Its applications would have ranged from crewed lunar flybys before Apollo was ready, to providing emergency shelters or rescue for stranded Apollo crews, or even replacing the Apollo program. Some of the Advanced Gemini proposals used \"off-the-shelf\" Gemini spacecraft, unmodified from the original program, while others featured modifications to allow the spacecraft to carry more crew, dock with space stations, visit the Moon, and perform other mission objectives. Other modifications considered included the addition of wings or a parasail to the spacecraft, in order to enable it to make a horizontal landing.", "Big Gemini (or \"Big G\") was another proposal by McDonnell Douglas made in August 1969. It was intended to provide large-capacity, all-purpose access to space, including missions that ultimately used Apollo or the Space Shuttle. The study was performed to generate a preliminary definition of a logistic spacecraft derived from Gemini that would be used to resupply an orbiting space station. Land-landing at a preselected site and refurbishment and reuse were design requirements. Two baseline spacecraft were defined: a nine-man minimum modification version of the Gemini B called Min-Mod Big G and a 12-man advanced concept, having the same exterior geometry but with new, state-of-the-art subsystems, called Advanced Big G. Three launch vehicles-Saturn IB, Titan IIIM, and Saturn INT-20 (S-IC/S-IVB) were investigated for use with the spacecraft.", "The Air Force had an interest in the Gemini system, and decided to use its own modification of the spacecraft as the crew vehicle for the Manned Orbital Laboratory. To this end, the Gemini 2 spacecraft was refurbished and flown again atop a mockup of the MOL, sent into space by a Titan IIIC. This was the first time a spacecraft went into space twice. The USAF also had the notion of adapting the Gemini spacecraft for military applications, such as crude observation of the ground (no specialized reconnaissance camera could be carried) and practicing making rendezvous with suspicious satellites. This project was called Blue Gemini. The USAF did not like the fact that Gemini would have to be recovered by the US Navy, so they intended for Blue Gemini eventually to use the airfoil and land on three skids, carried over from the original design of Gemini. At first some within NASA welcomed sharing of the cost with the USAF, but it was later agreed that NASA was better off operating Gemini by itself. Blue Gemini was canceled in 1963 by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, who decided the NASA Gemini flights could conduct necessary military experiments. MOL was canceled by Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird in 1969, when it was determined that uncrewed spy satellites could perform the same functions much more cost-effectively." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Names.", "Etymology.", "In-universe names.", "Characteristics.", "Fictional biography.", "Valinor.", "Middle-earth.", "The White Council.", "The Quest of Erebor.", "\"The Hobbit\".", "\"The Lord of the Rings\".", "Gandalf the Grey.", "Gandalf the White.", "Concept and creation.", "Appearance.", "Name.", "Guide.", "Christ-figure.", "Adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Tolkien derived the name \"Gandalf\" from \"Gandálfr\", a dwarf in the Völuspá's \"Dvergatal\", a list of dwarf-names. In Old Norse, the name means \"staff-elf\". This is reflected in his name \"Tharkûn\", which is \"said to mean 'Staff-man'\" in Khuzdul, one of Tolkien's invented languages.", "Gandalf is given several names and nicknames in Tolkien's writings. Gandalf himself says, \"Many are my names in many countries. Mithrandir among the Elves, Tharkûn to the Dwarves, Olórin I was in my youth in the West that is forgotten, in the South Incánus, in the North \"Gandalf\"; to the East I go not.\" In an early manuscript version of \"The Hobbit\", he is called Bladorthin. Each Wizard is distinguished by the colour of his cloak. For most of his manifestation as a wizard, Gandalf's cloak is grey, hence the names Gandalf \"the Grey\", and Greyhame. \"Mithrandir\" is a name in Sindarin meaning \"the Grey Pilgrim\" or \"the Grey Wanderer\". Midway through \"The Lord of the Rings\", Gandalf becomes the head of the order of Wizards, and is renamed Gandalf the White. This change in status (and clothing) introduces another name for the wizard: the White Rider. However, characters who speak Elvish still refer to him as \"Mithrandir\". At times in \"The Lord of the Rings\", other characters address Gandalf by disparaging nicknames: Stormcrow, \"Láthspell\" (\"Ill-news\" in Old English), and \"Grey Fool\".", "Tolkien describes Gandalf as the last of the wizards to appear in Middle-earth, one who \"seemed the least, less tall than the others, and in looks more aged, grey-haired and grey-clad, and leaning on a staff\". Yet the Elf Círdan who met him on arrival nevertheless considered him \"the greatest spirit and the wisest\" and gave him the Elven Ring of Power called Narya, the Ring of Fire, containing a \"red\" stone for his aid and comfort. Tolkien explicitly links Gandalf to the element fire later in the same essay:", "", "In Valinor, Gandalf was called \"Olórin\". He was one of the Maiar of Valinor, specifically, of the people of the Vala Manwë; and was said to be the wisest of the Maiar. He was also closely associated with two other Valar: Irmo, in whose gardens he lived, and Nienna, the patron of mercy, who gave him tutelage. When the Valar decided to send the order of the Wizards (Istari) across the Great Sea to Middle-earth in order to counsel and assist all those who opposed Sauron, Olórin was proposed by Manwë. Olórin initially begged to be excused as he feared Sauron and lacked the strength to face him, but Manwë replied that that was all the more reason for him to go. As one of the Maiar, Gandalf was not a mortal Man but an angelic being who had taken human form. As one of those spirits, Olórin was in service to the Creator (Eru Ilúvatar) and the Creator's 'Secret Fire'. Along with the other Maiar who entered into the world as the five Wizards, he took on the specific form of an aged old man as a sign of his humility. The role of the wizards was to advise and counsel but never to attempt to match Sauron's strength with their own, and hopefully the kings and lords of Middle-earth would be more receptive to the advice of a humble old man than a more glorious form giving them direct commands.", "The Istari arrived in Middle-earth separately, early in the Third Age; Gandalf was the last, landing in the Havens of Mithlond. He seemed the oldest and least in stature, but Círdan the Shipwright felt that he was the greatest on their first meeting in the Havens, and gave him Narya, the Ring of Fire. Saruman, the chief Wizard, learned of the gift and resented it. Gandalf hid the ring well, and it was not widely known until he left with the other ring-bearers at the end of the Third Age that he, and not Círdan, was the holder of the third of the Elven-rings. Gandalf's relationship with Saruman, the head of their Order, was strained. The Wizards were commanded to aid Men, Elves, and Dwarves, but only through counsel; it was forbidden to use force to dominate them—an injunction that Saruman increasingly disregarded.", "Gandalf suspected early on that an evil presence, the Necromancer of Dol Guldur, was not a Nazgûl but Sauron himself. He went to Dol Guldur to discover the truth, but the Necromancer withdrew before him. The Necromancer returned to Dol Guldur with greater force, and the White Council was formed in response. Galadriel had hoped Gandalf would lead the Council, but he refused, declining to be bound by any but the Valar who had sent him. Saruman was chosen instead, as the most knowledgeable about Sauron's work in the Second Age. Gandalf returned to Dol Guldur \"at great peril\" and learned that the Necromancer was indeed Sauron returned. The following year the White Council was summoned, and Gandalf urged that Sauron be driven out. Saruman, however, reassured the Council that Sauron's evident effort to find the One Ring would fail, as the Ring would long since have been carried by the river Anduin to the Sea; and the matter was allowed to rest. But at this time, Saruman himself began actively seeking the Ring near the Gladden Fields where Isildur had been killed.", "\"The Quest of Erebor\" in \"Unfinished Tales\" elaborates upon the story behind \"The Hobbit\". It tells of a chance meeting between Gandalf and Thorin Oakenshield, a Dwarf-king in exile, in the inn of the \"Prancing Pony\" in Bree. Gandalf had for some time foreseen the coming war with Sauron, and knew that the North was especially vulnerable. If Rivendell were to be attacked, the dragon Smaug could cause great devastation. He persuaded Thorin that he could help him regain his lost territory of Erebor from Smaug, and so the quest was born.", "Gandalf meets with Bilbo in the opening of \"The Hobbit\". He arranges for a tea party, to which he also invites the thirteen dwarves and thus arranges the traveling group central to the novel's narrative. Gandalf contributes the map and key to Erebor to assist the quest. On this quest Gandalf finds his sword, \"Glamdring\", in a troll's treasure hoard. Elrond informs them this sword was made in Gondolin, a city where Elrond's father lived as a child before its destruction. After escaping from the Misty Mountains pursued by goblins and wargs, the party is carried to safety by the Great Eagles. Gandalf then persuades Beorn to house and provision the company for the trip through Mirkwood. Gandalf leaves the company before they enter Mirkwood, saying that he had pressing business to attend to. He turns up again, however, before the walls of Erebor disguised as an old man, revealing himself when it seems the Men of Esgaroth and the Mirkwood Elves will fight Thorin and the dwarves over Smaug's treasure. The Battle of Five Armies ensues when hosts of goblins and wargs attack all three parties. After the battle, Gandalf accompanies Bilbo back to the Shire, revealing at Rivendell what his pressing business had been: Gandalf had once again urged the Council to evict Sauron, since quite evidently Sauron did not require the One Ring to continue to attract evil to Mirkwood. Then the Council \"put forth its power\" and drives Sauron from Dol Guldur. Sauron, however, has anticipated this and withdraws as a feint, only to reappear in Mordor.", "", "As explained in \"The Fellowship of the Ring\", Gandalf spends the years between \"The Hobbit\" and \"The Lord of the Rings\" traveling Middle-earth in search of information on Sauron's resurgence and Bilbo Baggins's mysterious ring, spurred particularly by Bilbo's initial misleading story of how he had obtained it as a \"present\" from Gollum. During this period, he befriends Aragorn and first becomes suspicious of Saruman. He spends as much time as he can in the Shire, strengthening his friendship with Bilbo and Frodo, Bilbo's orphaned cousin and adopted heir. Gandalf returns to the Shire for Bilbo's \"eleventy-first\" (111th) birthday party, bringing many fireworks for the occasion. After Bilbo, as a prank on his guests, puts on the Ring and disappears, Gandalf strongly encourages his old friend to leave the ring to Frodo, as they had planned. Bilbo becomes hostile and accuses Gandalf of trying to steal the ring. Alarmed, Gandalf impresses on Bilbo the foolishness of this accusation. Coming to his senses, Bilbo admits that the ring has been troubling him, and leaves it behind for Frodo as he departs for Rivendell. Over the next 17 years, Gandalf travels extensively, searching for answers on the ring. He finds some answers in Isildur's scroll, in the archives of Minas Tirith. He also wants to question Gollum, who had borne the ring for many years. Gandalf searches long and hard for Gollum, and often has the assistance of Aragorn. Aragorn eventually succeeds in finding Gollum. Gandalf questions Gollum, threatening him with fire when he proves unwilling to speak. Gandalf learns that Sauron has forced Gollum under torture in Barad-dûr to tell what he knows of the ring. This reinforces Gandalf's growing suspicion that Bilbo's ring is the One Ring. Returning to the Shire, Gandalf confirms his suspicions by throwing the Ring into Frodo's hearth-fire and reading the writing that appears on the Ring's surface. He tells Frodo the history of the Ring, and urges him to take it to Rivendell, for he will be in grave danger if he stays in the Shire. Gandalf says he will attempt to return for Frodo's 50th birthday party, to accompany him on the road; and that meanwhile Frodo should arrange to leave quietly, as the servants of Sauron will be searching for him. Outside the Shire, Gandalf encounters Radagast the Brown, another wizard, who brings the news that the Nazgûl have ridden forth out of Mordor—and a request from Saruman that Gandalf come to Isengard. Gandalf leaves a letter to Frodo (urging his immediate departure) with Barliman Butterbur at an inn in Bree, and heads towards Isengard. There Saruman reveals his true intentions, urging Gandalf to help him obtain the Ring for his own use. Gandalf refuses, and Saruman imprisons him at the top of his tower. Eventually Gandalf is rescued by Gwaihir the Eagle. Gwaihir sets Gandalf down in Rohan, where Gandalf appeals to King Théoden for a horse. Théoden, under the evil influence of Gríma Wormtongue, Saruman's spy and servant, tells Gandalf to take any horse he pleases, but to leave quickly. It is then that Gandalf meets the great horse Shadowfax, one of the \"mearas\", who will be his mount and companion for much of the Lord of the Rings. Gandalf then rides hard for the Shire, but does not reach it until Frodo has already set out. Knowing that Frodo and his companions will be heading for Rivendell, Gandalf makes his own way there. He learns at Bree that the Hobbits have fallen in with Aragorn. He faces the Nazgûl at Weathertop but escapes after an all-night battle, drawing four of them northward. Frodo, Aragorn and company face the remaining five on Weathertop a few nights later. Gandalf reaches Rivendell just before Frodo's arrival. In Rivendell, Gandalf helps Elrond drive off the Nazgûl pursuing Frodo and plays a great part in the following council as the only person who knows the full history of the Ring. He also reveals that Saruman has betrayed them and is in league with Sauron. When it is decided that the Ring has to be destroyed, Gandalf volunteers to accompany Frodo—now the Ring-bearer—in his quest. He also persuades Elrond to let Frodo's cousins Merry and Pippin join the Fellowship. Taking charge of the Fellowship (comprising nine representatives of the free peoples of Middle-earth, \"set against the Nine Riders\"), Gandalf and Aragorn lead the Hobbits and their companions south. After an unsuccessful attempt to cross Mount Caradhras in winter due to harsh conditions, they cross under the mountains through the Mines of Moria, though only Gimli the Dwarf is enthusiastic about that route. In Moria, they discover that the dwarf colony established there earlier by Balin has been annihilated by orcs. The Fellowship fights with the orcs and trolls of Moria and escape them. At the Bridge of Khazad-dûm, they encounter \"Durin's Bane\", a fearsome Balrog from ancient times. Gandalf faces the Balrog to enable the others to escape. After a brief exchange of blows, Gandalf breaks the bridge beneath the Balrog with his staff. As the Balrog falls, it wraps its whip around Gandalf's legs, dragging him over the edge. Gandalf falls into the abyss, crying \"Fly, you fools!\". Gandalf and the Balrog fall into a deep subterranean lake in Moria's underworld. Gandalf pursues the Balrog through the tunnels for eight days until they climb to the peak of Zirakzigil. Here they fight for two days and nights. In the end, the Balrog is defeated and cast down onto the mountainside. Gandalf too dies shortly afterwards, and his body lies on the peak while his spirit travels \"out of thought and time\".", "Gandalf is \"sent back\" as Gandalf the White, and returns to life on the mountain top. Gwaihir, lord of eagles, carries him to Lothlórien, where he is healed of his injuries and re-clothed in white robes by Galadriel. He travels to Fangorn Forest, where he encounters Aragorn, Gimli, and Legolas (who are tracking Merry and Pippin). They mistake him for Saruman, but he stops their attacks and reveals himself. They travel to Rohan, where Gandalf finds that king Théoden has been further weakened by Wormtongue's influence. He breaks Wormtongue's hold over Théoden, and convinces the king to join in the fight against Sauron. Gandalf then sets off to gather Erkenbrand of the Westfold and his warriors to assist Théoden in the coming battle with Saruman. Gandalf arrives just in time to shatter Saruman's attack on Helm's Deep. After the Battle of Helm's Deep, Gandalf and the King ride to Isengard, which in the interim has itself been attacked and conquered by Treebeard and the Ents, along with Merry and Pippin. Gandalf breaks Saruman's staff and expels him from the White Council and the Order of Wizards. Gandalf then assumes Saruman's place as head of both. Wormtongue makes an attempt to kill Gandalf or Saruman with the \"palantír\" of Orthanc, but misses both. Pippin retrieves the \"palantír\", but Gandalf quickly takes it, passing it to Aragorn. After the group leaves Isengard, Pippin takes the palantír from a sleeping Gandalf, looks into it, and comes face to face with Sauron himself. Gandalf then takes the chastened Pippin with him to Minas Tirith to keep the young hobbit out of further trouble. Gandalf arrives in time to help put in order the defences of Minas Tirith. His presence is resented by Denethor, the Steward of Gondor; but when his son Faramir is gravely wounded in battle, Denethor sinks into despair and madness. Together with Prince Imrahil, Gandalf lead the defenders during the siege of the city. When the forces of Mordor break the main gate, Gandalf alone on Shadowfax confronts the Lord of the Nazgûl. At that moment the Rohirrim arrived, compelling the Nazgûl to withdraw and engage them. Gandalf is required to save Faramir from Denethor, who seeks in desperation to burn himself and his son on a funeral pyre. Aragorn and Gandalf lead the final campaign against Sauron's forces at the Black Gate, in an effort to distract the Dark Lord's attention from Frodo and Sam, who are at that moment scaling Mount Doom to destroy the One Ring. In a parley before the battle, Gandalf and the other leaders of the West meet the Sauron's chief Lieutenant who shows them Frodo's \"mithril\" shirt and other items from the Hobbits' equipment. Gandalf rejects Mordor's terms of surrender, and the forces of the West faced the full might of Sauron's armies, until the Ring was destroyed in Mount Doom. Gandalf then leads the Eagles to rescue Frodo and Sam from the erupting mountain. After the war, Gandalf crowns Aragorn as King Elessar, and helps him find a sapling of the White Tree of Gondor. He accompanies the Hobbits back to the borders of the Shire, before leaving to visit Tom Bombadil. Two years later, Gandalf departs Middle-earth for ever. He boards the Ringbearers' ship in the Grey Havens and sets sail to return across the sea to the Undying Lands; with him are his friends Frodo, Bilbo, Galadriel, and Elrond, and his horse Shadowfax.", "", "Tolkien's biographer Humphrey Carpenter relates that Tolkien owned a postcard entitled \"Der Berggeist\" (\"the mountain spirit\"), which he labelled \"the origin of Gandalf\". It shows a white-bearded man in a large hat and cloak seated among boulders in a mountain forest. Carpenter said that Tolkien recalled buying the postcard during his holiday in Switzerland in 1911. Manfred Zimmerman, however, discovered that the painting was by the German artist Josef Madlener and dates from the mid-1920s. Carpenter acknowledged that Tolkien was probably mistaken about the origin of the postcard. Throughout the early drafts, and through to the first edition of \"The Hobbit\", Bladorthin/Gandalf is described as being a \"little old man\", distinct from a dwarf, but not of the full human stature that would later be described in \"The Lord of the Rings\". Even in \"The Lord of the Rings\", Gandalf was not tall; shorter, for example, than Elrond or the other wizards.", "When writing \"The Hobbit\" in the early 1930s Tolkien gave the name \"Gandalf\" to the leader of the Dwarves, the character later called Thorin Oakenshield. The name is taken from the same source as all the other Dwarf names (save Balin) in \"The Hobbit\": the \"\" in the \"Völuspá\". The Old Norse name'incorporates the words'meaning \"wand\", \"staff\" or (especially in compounds) \"magic\" and \"\" \"elf\". The name \"Gandalf\" is found in at least one more place in Norse myth, in the semi-historical Heimskringla, which briefly describes Gandalf Alfgeirsson, a legendary Norse king from eastern Norway and rival of Halfdan the Black. Gandalf is also the name of a Norse sea-king in Henrik Ibsen's second play, \"The Burial Mound\". The name \"Gandolf\" occurs as a character in William Morris' 1896 fantasy novel \"The Well at the World's End\", along with the horse \"Silverfax\", adapted by Tolkien as Gandalf's horse \"Shadowfax\". Morris' book, inspired by Norse myth, is set in a pseudo-medieval landscape; it deeply influenced Tolkien. The wizard that became Gandalf was originally named \"Bladorthin\". Tolkien came to regret his \"ad hoc\" use of Old Norse names, referring to a \"rabble of eddaic-named dwarves,... invented in an idle hour\" in 1937. But the decision to use Old Norse names came to have far-reaching consequences in the composition of \"The Lord of the Rings\"; in 1942, Tolkien decided that the work was to be a purported translation from the fictional language of Westron, and in the English translation Old Norse names were taken to represent names in the language of Dale. \"Gandalf\", in this setting, is thus a representation in English (anglicised from Old Norse) of the name the Dwarves of Erebor had given to Olórin in the language they used \"externally\" in their daily affairs, while \"Tharkûn\" is the (untranslated) name, presumably of the same meaning, that the Dwarves gave him in their native Khuzdul language.", "Gandalf's role and importance was substantially increased in the conception of \"The Lord of the Rings\", and in a letter of 1954, Tolkien refers to Gandalf as an \"angel incarnate\". In the same letter Tolkien states he was given the form of an old man in order to limit his powers on Earth. Both in 1965 and 1971 Tolkien again refers to Gandalf as an angelic being. In a 1946 letter, Tolkien stated that he thought of Gandalf as an \"Odinic wanderer\". Other commentators have similarly compared Gandalf to the Norse god Odin in his \"Wanderer\" guise—an old man with one eye, a long white beard, a wide brimmed hat, and a staff, or likened him to Merlin of Arthurian legend or the Jungian archetype of the \"Wise old man\". The Tolkien scholar Charles W. Nelson described Gandalf as a \"guide who.. assists a major character on a journey or quest.. to unusual and distant places\". He noted that in both \"The Fellowship of the Ring\" and \"The Hobbit\", Tolkien presents Gandalf in these terms. Immediately after the Council of Elrond, Gandalf tells the Fellowship: Nelson notes the similarity between this and Thorin's statement in \"The Hobbit\": Nelson gives as examples of the guide figure the Cumaean Sibyl who assisted Aeneas on his journey through the underworld in Virgil's tale \"The Aeneid\", and then Virgil himself in Dante's \"Inferno\", directing, encouraging, and physically assisting Dante as he travels through hell. In English literature, Nelson notes, Thomas Malory's \"Le Morte d'Arthur\" has the wizard Merlin teaching and directing Arthur to begin his journeys. Given these precedents, Nelson remarks, it was unsurprising that Tolkien should make use of a guide figure, endowing him, like these predecessors, with power, wisdom, experience, and practical knowledge, and \"aware[ness] of [his] own limitations and [his] ranking in the order of the great\". Other characters who act as wise and good guides include Tom Bombadil, Elrond, Aragorn, Galadriel—who he calls perhaps the most powerful of the guide figures—and briefly also Faramir. Nelson writes that there is equally historical precedent for wicked guides, such as Edmund Spenser's \"evil palmers\" in \"The Faerie Queene\", and suggests that Gollum functions as an evil guide, contrasted with Gandalf, in \"Lord of the Rings\". He notes, too, that both Gollum and Gandalf are servants of The One, Eru Ilúvatar, in the struggle against the forces of darkness, and \"ironically\" all of them, good and bad, are necessary to the success of the quest.", "The critic Anne C. Petty, writing about \"Allegory\" in the \"J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia\", discusses Gandalf's death and reappearance in Christian terms. She cites Michael W. Maher, S.J.: \"who could not think of Gandalf's descent into the pits of Moria and his return clothed in white as a death-resurrection motif?\" She at once notes, however, that \"such a narrow [allegorical] interpretation\" limits the reader's imagination by demanding a single meaning for each character and event. The philosopher Peter Kreeft, like Tolkien a Roman Catholic, observes that there is no one complete, concrete, visible Christ figure in \"The Lord of the Rings\" comparable to Aslan in C. S. Lewis's Chronicles of Narnia series. However, Kreeft and Jean Chausse have identified reflections of the figure of Jesus Christ in three protagonists of \"The Lord of the Rings\": Gandalf, Frodo and Aragorn. While Chausse found \"facets of the personality of Jesus\" in them, Kreeft wrote that \"they exemplify the Old Testament threefold Messianic symbolism of prophet (Gandalf), priest (Frodo), and king (Aragorn).\"", "In the BBC Radio dramatizations, Gandalf has been voiced by Norman Shelley in \"The Lord of the Rings\" (1955–1956), Heron Carvic in \"The Hobbit\" (1968), Bernard Mayes in \"The Lord of the Rings\" (1979), and Sir Michael Hordern in \"The Lord of the Rings\" (1981). John Huston voiced Gandalf in the animated films \"The Hobbit\" (1977) and \"The Return of the King\" (1980) produced by Rankin/Bass. William Squire voiced Gandalf in the animated film \"The Lord of the Rings\" (1978) directed by Ralph Bakshi. Ivan I. Krasko played Gandalf in the Soviet film adaptation \"The Hobbit\" (1985). Gandalf was portrayed by Vesa Vierikko in the Finnish television miniseries \"Hobitit\" (1993). Sir Ian McKellen portrayed Gandalf in \"The Lord of the Rings\" film series (2001–2003), directed by Peter Jackson, after Sean Connery and Patrick Stewart both turned down the role. According to Jackson, McKellen based his performance as Gandalf on Tolkien himself: McKellen received widespread acclaim for his portrayal of Gandalf, particularly in \"\", for which he received a Screen Actors Guild Award and an Academy Award nomination, both for best supporting actor. \"Empire\" named Gandalf, as portrayed by McKellen, the 30th greatest film character of all time. He later reprised the role in \"The Hobbit\" film series (2012–2014), claiming that he enjoyed playing Gandalf the Grey more than Gandalf the White. McKellen has also provided the voice of Gandalf for video games based on the films, including \"\" and \"\". Charles Picard portrayed Gandalf in the 1999 stage production of \"The Two Towers\" at Chicago's Lifeline Theatre. Brent Carver portrayed Gandalf in the 2006 musical production \"The Lord of the Rings\", which opened in Toronto. Gandalf appears in \"The Lego Movie\", voiced by Todd Hanson. Gandalf is a main character in the video game \"Lego Dimensions\" and is voiced by Tom Kane." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Work.", "Intentionality.", "Theory of perception.", "Theory of judgment.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Brentano was born at, near Boppard. He was the son of Christian Brentano, the brother of Lujo Brentano, and the nephew of Clemens Brentano and Bettina von Arnim. He studied philosophy at the universities of Munich, Würzburg, Berlin (with Adolf Trendelenburg) and Münster. He had a special interest in Aristotle and scholastic philosophy. He wrote his dissertation in 1862 at Tübingen under the title \"Von der mannigfachen Bedeutung des Seienden nach Aristoteles\" (\"On the Several Senses of Being in Aristotle\"). His thesis advisor was Franz Jakob Clemens. Subsequently, he began to study theology and entered the seminary in Munich and then Würzburg. He was ordained a Catholic priest on 6 August 1864. In 1865/66 he wrote and defended his habilitation thesis, \"Die Psychologie des Aristoteles, insbesondere seine Lehre vom Nous Poietikos\" (\"The Psychology of Aristotle, in Particular His Doctrine of the Active Intellect\"), and began to lecture at the University of Würzburg. His students in this period included, among others, Carl Stumpf and Anton Marty. Between 1870 and 1873 Brentano was heavily involved in the debate on papal infallibility. A strong opponent of such dogma, he eventually gave up his priesthood and his tenure in 1873 and in 1879 left the church altogether. He remained, however, deeply religious and dealt with the topic of the existence of God in lectures given at the Universities of Würzburg and Vienna. In 1874 Brentano published his major work, \"Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint\". From 1874 to 1895 he taught at the University of Vienna; among his students were Edmund Husserl, Sigmund Freud, Tomáš Masaryk, Rudolf Steiner, Alexius Meinong, Carl Stumpf, Anton Marty, Kazimierz Twardowski, and Christian von Ehrenfels and many others (see School of Brentano for more details). While he began his career as a full ordinary professor, he was forced to give up both his Austrian citizenship and his professorship in 1880 in order to marry, but he was permitted to stay at the university only as a \"Privatdozent\". After the departure of Twardowski back to Lvov and the death of his wife in 1894, Brentano retired and moved to Florence in Italy, transferring to Zürich at the outbreak of the First World War, where he died in 1917.", "", "Brentano is best known for his reintroduction of the concept of intentionality—a concept derived from scholastic philosophy—to contemporary philosophy in his lectures and in his work \"Psychologie vom empirischen Standpunkt\" (\"Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint\"). While often simplistically summarised as \"aboutness\" or the relationship between mental acts and the external world, Brentano defined it as the main characteristic of \"mental phenomena\", by which they could be distinguished from \"physical phenomena\". Every mental phenomenon, every psychological act has content, is directed at an object (the \"intentional object\"). Every belief, desire etc. has an object that they are about: the believed, the desired. Brentano used the expression \"intentional inexistence\" to indicate the status of the objects of thought in the mind. The property of being intentional, of having an intentional object, was the key feature to distinguish psychological phenomena and physical phenomena, because, as Brentano defined it, physical phenomena lacked the ability to generate \"original intentionality\", and could only facilitate an intentional relationship in a second-hand manner, which he labeled \"derived intentionality\". Brentano introduced a distinction between genetic psychology (\"genetische Psychologie\") and descriptive psychology (\"beschreibende\" or \"deskriptive Psychologie\"): in his terminology, genetic psychology is the study of psychological phenomena from a third-person point of view, which involves the use of empirical experiments (satisfying, thus, the scientific standards we nowadays expect of an empirical science). (This concept is roughly equivalent to what is now called empirical psychology, cognitive science, or \"heterophenomenology\", an explicitly third-person, scientific approach to the study of consciousness.) The aim of descriptive psychology, on the other hand, is to describe consciousness from a first-person point of view. The latter approach was further developed by Husserl and the phenomenological tradition.", "He is also well known for claiming that \"Wahrnehmung ist Falschnehmung\" ('perception is misception') that is to say perception is erroneous. In fact he maintained that external, sensory perception could not tell us anything about the \"de facto\" existence of the perceived world, which could simply be illusion. However, we can be absolutely sure of our internal perception. When I hear a tone, I cannot be completely sure that there is a tone in the real world, but I am absolutely certain that I do hear. This awareness, of the fact that I hear, is called internal perception. External perception, sensory perception, can only yield hypotheses about the perceived world, but not truth. Hence he and many of his pupils (in particular Carl Stumpf and Edmund Husserl) thought that the natural sciences could only yield hypotheses and never universal, absolute truths as in pure logic or mathematics. However, in a reprinting of his \"Psychologie vom Empirischen Standpunkte\" (\"Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint\"), he recanted this previous view. He attempted to do so without reworking the previous arguments within that work but it has been said that he was wholly unsuccessful. The new view states that when we hear a sound, we hear something from the external world; there are no physical phenomena of internal perception.", "Brentano has a theory of judgment which is different from what is currently the predominant (Fregean) view. At the centre of Brentano's theory of judgment lies the idea that a judgment depends on having a presentation, but this presentation does not have to be predicated. Even stronger: Brentano thought that predication is not even necessary for judgment, because there are judgments without a predicational content. Another fundamental aspect of his theory is that judgments are always existential. This so-called existential claim implies that when someone is judging that S is P he/she is judging that some S that is P exists. (Note that Brentano denied the idea that all judgments are of the form: S is P [and all other kinds of judgment which combine presentations]. Brentano argued that there are also judgments arising from a single presentation, e.g. “the planet Mars exists” has only one presentation.) In Brentano's own symbols, a judgment is always of the form: ‘+A’ (A exists) or ‘–A’ (A does not exist). Combined with the third fundamental claim of Brentano, the idea that all judgments are either positive (judging that A exists) or negative (judging that A does not exist), we have a complete picture of Brentano's theory of judgment. So, imagine that you doubt whether midgets exist. At that point you have a presentation of midgets in your mind. When you judge that midgets do not exist, then you are judging that the presentation you have does not present something that exists. You do not have to utter that in words or otherwise predicate that judgment. The whole judgment takes place in the denial (or approval) of the existence of the presentation you have. The problem of Brentano's theory of judgment is not the idea that all judgments are existential judgments (though it is sometimes a very complex enterprise to transform an ordinary judgment into an existential one), the real problem is that Brentano made no distinction between object and presentation. A presentation exists as an object in your mind. So you cannot really judge that A does not exist, because if you do so you also judge that the presentation is not there (which is impossible, according to Brentano's idea that all judgments have the object which is judged as presentation). Kazimierz Twardowski acknowledged this problem and solved it by denying that the object is equal to the presentation. This is actually only a change within Brentano's theory of perception, but has a welcome consequence for the theory of judgment, viz. that you can have a presentation (which exists) but at the same time judge that the object does not exist.", "The young Martin Heidegger was very much inspired by Brentano's early work \"On the Several Senses of Being in Aristotle\". Brentano's focus on conscious (or phenomenal) intentionality was inherited by Carl Stumpf's Berlin School of experimental psychology, Anton Marty's Prague School of linguistics, Alexius Meinong's Graz School of experimental psychology, Kazimierz Twardowski's Lwów School of philosophy, and Edmund Husserl's phenomenology. Brentano's work also influenced George Stout, the teacher of G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell at Cambridge University." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Takeda retainer.", "Tenshō-Jingo Conflict.", "Confrontation with the Tokugawa.", "Under Toyotomi regime.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1553, at seven years old, he was sent to the Takeda clan's headquarters in Kai as a hostage. There he becomes part of the \"Okukinjūshū\" (奥近習衆), a group of six young servants close to Takeda Shingen. According to the \"Kōyō Gunkan\", Shingen favoured him as he soon recognized that Masayuki's talents and insight rivaled those of his father Yukitaka. As such, he is sometimes included among the Twenty Four Generals, alongside his father and two older brothers. In 1558, he became the foster son of the Mutō family, a branch of the Ōi clan, of which Shingen's mother descended from, and adopted the name Mutō Kihei (武藤喜兵衛). Towards 1564, he married Yamanote-dono (山手殿), a daughter of Uda Yoritada, who was a local lord of Tōtōmi Province. Later she gave birth to his two sons Nobuyuki and Nobushige. During this period, he participated in many battles under the Takeda clan, including the Fourth Battle of Kawanakajima (1561) and the Battle of Mimasetōge (1569). Also most importantly, from 1572 onwards, he joined Shingen in his campaign towards Kyoto against the Oda and Tokugawa clans and took part in the Battle of Mikatagahara (1573). In May 1573, Shingen died amidst his campaign and so Masayuki continued to serve his heir Takeda Katsuyori. In 1574, his father Yukitaka died. At that point, his eldest brother Sanada Nobutsuna had already succeeded his father as the head of the Sanada clan. However, during the disastrous Battle of Nagashino (1575) against the Oda clan, both his older brothers, Nobutsuna and Masateru, were killed, so he came back to Sanada clan and claimed his inheritance. In this, Masayuki supposedly had the support of Kōsaka Masanobu, who held Kaizu Castle in Northern Shinano and was also a chief retainer of the Takeda clan. Katsuyori accepted his claim without any qualms. In 1579, a year after Uesugi Kenshin's death, an alliance between the Takeda and Uesugi clans was established. The following year, ordered by Takeda Katsuyori, Masayuki invaded western Kōzuke, which was a Hojō domain at the time, and seized Numata Castle, putting it under control of the Takeda clan. The same year, he was appointed the title of \"Awa-no-kami\" (従五位下・安房守). In 1581, he was ordered by Katsuyori to supervise the construction of the new Shinpu Castle at Nirasaki. In the same year, Numata Kageyoshi, former lord of Numata Castle, attempted to retake his old fief, but Masayuki schemed to assassinate him and thwarted his plans. In April 1582, Oda and Tokugawa allied forces started an invasion of the Takeda territory. It is said that Masayuki had intended to shelter Katsuyori and advised him to abandon Kai Province and flee towards Sanada's domain in Kōzuke(Iwabitsu Castle). Instead, Katsuyori decided to take shelter at Oyamada Nobushige's Iwadono Castle, but was betrayed and ultimately died at Tenmokuzan. After the fall of the Takeda clan, Masayuki yielded to Oda Nobunaga and was put under the orders of one of Nobunaga's chief commanders, Takigawa Kazumasu. Masayuki managed to retain most of his domain, but had to abdicate Numata Castle to Takigawa Masushigue, Kazumasu's relative.", "However, Nobunaga soon died at the Incident at Honnō-ji on June 21st, 1582. Upon Nobunaga's death, Oda clan's grasp over former Takeda territories weakened. Amidst the chaos, Oda retainers who were assigned by Nobunaga to govern those territories, such as Mori Nagayoshi and Kawajiri Hidetaka amongst others, either fled or were killed by local insurrection. Seeing this, neighboring Tokugawa, Hōjō and Uesugi clans all started to contest this vacuum of power in Shinano, Kōzuke and Kai provinces. This was called the Tenshō-Jingo Conflict. On July 5th, Takigawa Kazumasu lost decisively against the invading Hōjō army at the Battle of Kannagawa. In that occasion, Masayuki actually escorted back Kazumasu's remaining forces through Suwa, in Shinano. Though, seeing this chance, Masayuki sent his uncle Yazawa Yoritsuna and took back Numata Castle. Also, he put his oldest son Nobuyuki in charge of Iwabitsu Castle, further reinforcing eastern Kōzuke. On July 10th, Uesugi Kagekatsu invaded Northern Shinano. Masayuki sided with the Uesugi initially, but a couple of weeks later he defected to Hōjō's side. Both Uesugi and Hojo's armies came to face each other at Kawanakajima on July 30th, but direct combat was avoided as the Hōjō army turned back and advanced south towards Kai province, which was in turn invaded by Tokugawa forces. Meanwhile, one of Uesugi clan's major retainer, Shibata Shigeie, revolted and Uesugi's forces also had to turn back from Northern Shinano to deal with it. At one point, the Hōjō had come close to controlling most of Shinano province, but then in October, Masayuki suddenly betrayed them, providing help to Yoda Nobushige, a local lord who had been resisting against Hōjō's advances under the Tokugawa banner at Kasuga Castle. He then officially defected to the Tokugawa's side. Faced with this development, Hōjō Ujinao saw his position in the conflict weaken and decided for a peace treaty and further alliance with the Tokugawa clan. This event marked the end of the conflict which lasted for roughly 5 months after Nobunaga's death. Masayuki was now a vassal of Tokugawa Ieyasu.", "In 1583, Masayuki started the construction of Ueda Castle and the surrounding town. It became the headquarters of the Sanada clan in the following years. In 1584, Tokugawa Ieyasu lead his army west towards Owari province in the Battle of Komaki and Nagakute against Hashiba Hideyoshi. Masayuki was left in northern Shinano to keep the Uesugi clan in check and took this opportunity to subjugate small, neighboring landlords and consolidate his power in the region. In December, as Ieyasu made peace with Hideyoshi and returned to his territory, he was pressed by Hōjō Ujinao to act on the terms of their treaty. In that treaty, among other terms, Tokugawa Ieyasu agreed to transfer Numata Castle and its adjacent lands in Kōzuke province to the Hōjō clan. In April 1585, Ieyasu advanced his army into Kai province in a move to pressure Masayuki into abdicating Numata Castle. Masayuki however, resisted having to hand it over, having conquered it with great effort years before. Ultimately, he decided to cut relations with Tokugawa Ieyasu and once more switched allegiances by sending his second son Nobushige to Uesugi Kagekatsu as a hostage. With this move, he effectively joined Hashiba Hideyoshi's side, which opposed the Tokugawa-Hōjō alliance. Months later, Tokugawa forces invaded Sanada clan's territory in northern Shinano province with 7,000 men and laid siege to Ueda Castle, which was defended by only 1,200 soldiers. However, Masayuki was able to inflict 1,300 casualties on Tokugawa's side and won a decisive victory. Meanwhile, Hōjō Ujinao attacked Numata Castle, but was also rebuffed by Sanada forces. This was the First Battle of Ueda Castle, a victory that earned Masayuki national prominence. Following this, Masayuki went from being just a former Takeda retainer to become recognized as an independent \"daimyō\".", "Following his victory over the Tokugawa clan, Masayuki became a vassal to Toyotomi Hideyoshi. In doing so, he sent his son Nobushige (at the time a hostage to Uesugi clan) as a hostage to Osaka. In 1586, the Hōjō clan try to take Numata Castle once more, but again are repelled. Tokugawa forces also gather and march towards Ueda Castle again, but Toyotomi Hideyoshi interposes. At this point, Hideyoshi's political presence in Japan is too strong for the Tokugawa clan to oppose, and at his mediation, the attack is called off. However, he also designates Masayuki as a back-up power to the bigger Tokugawa forces in the region. This effectively means that Masayuki now responds to Tokugawa Ieyasu in all military matters. The following year, 1587, sees Masayuki travelling to Sunpu to meet with Tokugawa Ieyasu. Then, he goes to Osaka to be received in audience by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and thus formally become a vassal of the Toyotomi regime. Two more years would pass until the dispute between the Sanada and Hōjō clans involving Numata Castle and adjacent areas would be mediated by Hideyoshi and resolved. In 1589, Hideyoshi decides the Sanada clan would relinquish all of its domain east of Tone River, including Numata Castle, to the Hōjō clan. In turn, he granted them some territory in southern Shinano. However, by the end of that year, Inomata Kuninori, a retainer from the Hōjō clan who was now holding Numata Castle, is deceived into attacking the nearby Nagurumi Castle, located west of Tone River and defended by Sanada forces. The attack is successful and the castle is seized by Hōjō forces, but by this time, Toyotomi Hideyoshi had sanctioned a rule which prohibited \"daimyōs\" from engaging in battle over private disputes. This incident fully breached this rule and it would go on to become the reason of the Siege of Odawara in 1590, and the subsequent fall of the Hōjō clan. After Hideyoshi's death in 1598, Masayuki joined Ishida Mitsunari's side during the Battle of Sekigahara. Masayuki sent his eldest son, Nobuyuki, to the eastern side, while Masayuki and his younger son, Nobushige, fought on the western side, a move that ensured the Sanada clan's survival. Fortifying Ueda Castle, Masayuki fought against Tokugawa Hidetada's 38,000 men with only 2,000 soldiers. This was the Second Battle of Ueda Castle, and, whilst it was not exactly a victory, Masayuki was able to deliver a heavy blow to Hidetada and delay his forces for long enough that they were unable to show up at the main battlefield on time. However, the western side, led by Ishida Mitsunari, lost the main battle, and the victorious Tokugawa Ieyasu was able to redistribute fiefs at will. Masayuki and Nobushige were initially going to be executed, but, given Nobuyuki's participation in the eastern army, they were instead exiled to Kudoyama in Kii province. The Sanada clan was inherited by Sanada Nobuyuki. Sanada Masayuki died of an illness in Kudoyama in 1611.", "Even though Masayuki was never able to expand his territories as well as other \"daimyōs\", he is nevertheless often considered a talented \"daimyō\", doomed by misfortune and the inconvenient terrains which surrounded his home domain. Toyotomi Hideyoshi had called Masayuki a person whose inside did not match his outside, that his allegiance was fickle and not to be trusted. Nevertheless, it was exactly his drifting alliances that helped the Sanada clan survive the onslaught of hostile clans, and, since the Edo period, he has been more extolled than vilified." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Behaviour.", "Food and feeding.", "Breeding.", "Conservation status.", "In aviculture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "German physician and ornithologist Philipp Jakob Cretzschmar described Meyer's parrot in 1827. The name commemorates the German ornithologist Bernhard Meyer. The six subspecies are: Subspecies \"P. m. damarensis\" and \"P. m. reichenowi\" lack yellow markings on the head, while \"P. m. transvaalensis\" may have little to no yellow on the head. Belly and rump colours vary according to subspecies from turquoise to blue.", "Meyer's parrots are native to the plateau woodlands of sub-Saharan Africa where they occur in several woodland types including miombo, savanna woodlands, wooded grasslands and forests bordering watercourses or agricultural land. They are found in high densities in the Okavango Delta region of Botswana. They are also found in southern and central Africa (Chad, Sudan, South Sudan, Ethiopia, Congo, Angola, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Namibia.", "", "Their wild diet includes fruit, seeds, nuts, berries and cultivated crops. Seeds of the various leguminous trees of the African woodlands are especially favoured, providing their staple food in some areas. Although they normally travel in pairs or small flocks, wild Meyer's parrots may gather in much larger numbers where food is plentiful. In drought years they wander in search of food.", "The Meyer's parrot nests in tree cavities. The eggs are white and there are usually three or four in a clutch. The female incubates the eggs for about 28 days and the chicks leave the nest about 60 days after hatching.", "Meyer's parrots are still common in the wild, although numbers have decreased locally following destruction of woodlands. It is generally not considered to be at risk, as their large population, limited pressure from trade and hunting, and 6,000,000 km2 home range make these birds unlikely to face extinction in the near future. Trade in Meyer's parrots that have been bred in aviculture is legal. Meyer's parrots are listed on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna. Appendix II listing means the species can also be taken from the wild and traded in 'limited' numbers.", "Meyer's parrots are commonly bred for the pet trade. They are relatively quiet and small and are able to learn dozens of words." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Mastaba.", "\"The Maxims of Ptahhotep\".", "Modern influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Ptahhotep was the city administrator and vizier (first minister) during the reign of Pharaoh Djedkare Isesi in the Fifth Dynasty. He is credited with authoring \"The Maxims of Ptahhotep\", an early piece of Egyptian \"wisdom literature\" meant to instruct young men in appropriate behavior. He had a son named Akhethetep, who was also a vizier. He and his descendants were buried at Saqqara. However, some believe he was instead buried near the tomb of Cleopatra. Ptahhotep's tomb is located in a mastaba in North Saqqara (Mastaba D62), where he was laid to rest by himself. His grandson Ptahhetep Tshefi, who lived during the reign of Unas, was buried in the mastaba of his father (Mastaba 64). Their tomb is famous for its outstanding depictions. Next to the vizier's titles he hold many other important positions, such as \"overseer of the treasury\", \"overseer of scribes of the king's document\", \"overseer of the double granary\" and \"overseer of all royal works\".", "His mastaba is located at Saqqara. The entrance is on the South-east and decorated with two pillars. It follows a room with two further rooms on each side. The middle of the complex is occupied by a court with ten pillars. Going further north, several other rooms follow with one containing the false door of Ptahhotep and an offering table in front of it. Most walls of the mastaba are decorated with reliefs, but mostly only the lower parts of the scenes are preserved. They are mainly showing offerings bearers. The only family member preserved in the tomb decoration is the son Akhhotep. The name of the wife is not preserved.", "For a long time it was believed by many scholars that Ptahhotep wrote the first book in history. His book was entitled \"The Maxims of Ptahhotep\". As the Vizier, he wrote on a number of topics in his book that were derived from the central concept of Egyptian wisdom and literature which came from the goddess Maat. She was the daughter of the primordial and symbolized both cosmic order and social harmony. Ptahhotep’s instruction was written as advice to his people in the hopes of maintaining this said \"social order\". He wrote perspicacious advice covering topics from table manners and proper conduct for success in court circles to handy hints to the husband for preserving his wife’s beauty. Ptahhotep also wrote more social instructions such as ways to avoid argumentative persons and cultivate self-control. There are authors who date the Maxims of Ptahhotep much earlier than the 25th century BC. For instance, Pulitzer Prize winning historian Will Durant dates these writings as early as 2880 BC within \"The Story of Civilization: Our Oriental History\", which was published in 1935. Durant claims that Ptahhotep could be considered the very first philosopher in virtue of having the earliest surviving fragments of moral philosophy (i.e., \"The Maxims of Ptah-Hotep\"). Ptahhotep's grandson, Ptahhotep Tshefi, is traditionally credited with being the author of the collection of wise sayings known as \"The Maxims of Ptahhotep\", whose opening lines attribute authorship to the vizier Ptahhotep: \"Instruction of the Mayor of the city, the Vizier Ptahhotep, under the Majesty of King Isesi\". They take the form of advice and instructions from a father to his son and are said to have been assembled during the late Old Kingdom. However, their oldest surviving copies are written in Middle Egyptian dating to the late First Intermediate Period of the Middle Kingdom. That means that the book was more likely composed in the Middle Kingdom and the authorship is fictional. The 1906 translation by Battiscombe Gunn, published as part of the \"Wisdom of the East\" series, was made directly from the Prisse papyrus in Paris, rather than from copies, and is still in print. A manuscript copy, the Prisse Papyrus, is on display at the Louvre.", "In the popular 1960 book \"Initiation\", Hungarian author and spiritual teacher, Elisabeth Haich, makes the claim that in a past life she was the disciple and niece of Ptahhotep. Also, in an episode of \"Quantum Leap\" called \"The Curse of Ptah-Hotep\", Sam Beckett leaps into an archeologist named Dale Conway as he and a colleague uncover the tomb of Ptah-Hotep, although he is incorrectly referred to as a king rather than a vizier." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Periodization.", "Metalwork and trade.", "Housing.", "Villanovan settlements." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"Villanovan\" of the early phases of the Etruscan civilization comes from the site of the first archaeological finds relating to this advanced culture, which were remnants of a cemetery found near \"Villanova\" (Castenaso, 12 kilometres south-east of Bologna) in northern Italy. The excavation lasting from 1853 to 1855 was done by the scholar and site owner, count Giovanni Gozzadini, and involved 193 tombs, six of which were separated from the rest as if to signify a special social status. The \"well tomb\" pit graves lined with stones contained funerary urns. These had been only sporadically plundered and most were untouched. In 1893, a chance discovery unearthed another distinctive Villanovan necropolis at Verucchio overlooking the Adriatic coastal plain. The burial characteristics relate the Villanovan culture to the Central European Urnfield culture (c. 1300–750 BC) and Celtic Hallstatt culture that succeeded the Urnfield culture. It is not possible to tell these apart in their earlier stages. Cremated remains were placed in cinerary urns, specifically in biconical urns and then buried. The urns were a form of Villanovan pottery known as \"impasto.\" A custom believed to originate with the Villanovan culture is the usage of hut-shaped urns, which were cinerary urns fashioned like the huts in which the villagers lived. Typical \"sgraffito\" decorations of swastikas, meanders, and squares were scratched with a comb-like tool. Urns were accompanied by simple bronze fibulae, razors and rings.", "The Villanovan culture is broadly divided into Villanovan I from c. 960 BC to c. 801 BC and the Villanovan II from c. 800 BC to 720 BC. The later phase (Villanovan II) saw radical changes, evidence of contact with Hellenic civilization and trade with the north along the Amber Road. This evidence takes the form glass and amber necklaces for women, armor and horse harness fittings of bronze, and the development of elite graves in contrast to the earlier egalitarian culture. Chamber tombs and inhumation (burial) practices were developed side-by-side with the earlier cremation practices. With the last phase of Villanovan II the Etruscans, in particular Southern Etruria, entered the Orientalizing period. The northernmost areas of the Etruscan world, such as Etruria Padana, continued in their development as Villanovan III (750–680 BC) and Villanovan IV (680–540 BC).", "The metalwork quality found in bronze and pottery demonstrate the skill of the Villanovan artisans. Some grave goods from burial sites display an even higher quality, suggesting the development of societal elites within Villanovan culture. Tools and items were placed in graves suggesting a belief in an afterlife. Men's graves contained weapons, armor, while those for women included weaving tools. A few graves switched or mixed these, indicating the possibility that some women employed tools and that some men made clothing. During the Villanovan period Etruscans traded with other states from the Mediterranean such as Greeks, Balkans, and Sardinia. Trade brought about advancement in metallurgy, and Greek presence influenced Villanovan pottery.", "Buildings were rectangular in shape. The people lived in small huts, made of wattle and daub with wooden poles for support. Within the huts, cooking stands, utensils and charred animal bones give evidence about the family life of early inhabitants in Italy. Some huts contained large pottery jars for food storage sunk into their floors. There was also a rock cut drain to channel rainwater to communal reservoirs.", "Generally speaking, Villanovan settlements were centered in the Adriatic Etruria, in Emilia Romagna (in particular, in Bologna and in Verucchio, near Rimini), in Marche (Fermo), and in the Tyrrhenian Etruria, in Tuscany and Lazio. Further south, Villanovan cremation burials are to be found in Campania, at Capua, at the \"princely tombs\" of Pontecagnano near Salerno, at Capo di Fiume, at Vallo di Diano and at Sala Consilina. Small scattered Villanovan settlements have left few traces other than their more permanent burial sites, which were set somewhat apart from the settlements—largely because the settlement sites were built over in Etruscan times. Modern opinion generally follows Massimo Pallottino in regarding the Villanovan culture as ancestral to the Etruscan civilization." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Military career.", "World War II.", "Korean War.", "Test pilot.", "NASA career.", "Selection.", "\"Friendship 7\" flight.", "Comments about women in space.", "Political campaigning.", "1964 Senate campaign.", "1970 Senate campaign.", "1974 Senate campaign.", "1976 vice-presidential campaign.", "1980 Senate campaign.", "1984 presidential campaign.", "1986 Senate campaign.", "1992 Senate campaign.", "Senate career.", "Committee on Governmental Affairs.", "Other committees and activities.", "Keating Five.", "Retirement.", "Return to space.", "Personal life.", "Public appearances.", "Illness and death.", "Awards and honors.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "John Herschel Glenn Jr. was born on July 18, 1921, in Cambridge, Ohio, the son of John Herschel Glenn Sr. (1895–1966), who worked for a plumbing firm, and Clara Teresa (; 1897–1971), a teacher. His parents had married shortly before John Sr., a member of the American Expeditionary Force, left for the Western Front during World War I. The family moved to New Concord, Ohio, soon after his birth, and his father started his own business, the Glenn Plumbing Company. Glenn Jr. was only a toddler when he met Anna Margaret (Annie) Castor, whom he would later marry. The two would not be able to recall a time when they did not know each other. He first flew in an airplane with his father when he was eight years old. He became fascinated by flight, and", "", "When the United States entered World War II, Glenn quit college to enlist in the U.S. Army Air Corps. He was not called to duty by the Army, and enlisted as a U.S. Navy aviation cadet in March 1942. Glenn attended the University of Iowa in Iowa City for pre-flight training and made his first solo flight in a military aircraft at Naval Air Station Olathe in Kansas, where he went for primary training. During advanced training at Naval Air Station Corpus Christi in Texas, he", "Glenn moved his family back to New Concord during a short period of leave, and after two and a half months of jet training at Cherry Point, was ordered to South Korea in October 1952, late in the Korean War. Before he set out for Korea in February 1953, he applied to fly the F-86 Sabre jet fighter-interceptor through an inter-service exchange position with the U.S. Air Force (USAF). In preparation, he arranged with Colonel Leon W. Gray to check out the F-86 at Otis Air Force Base in Massachusetts. Glenn reported to K-3, an airbase in South Korea, on February 3, 1953, and was assigned to be the operations officer for VMF-311, one of two Marine fighter squadrons there while he waited for the exchange assignment to go through. VMF-311 was equipped with the F9F Panther jet fighter-bomber. Glenn's first mission was a reconnaissance flight on February 26. He flew 63 combat missions in Korea with VMF-311, and was nicknamed \"Magnet Ass\" because of the number of flak hits he took on low-level close air support missions; twice, he returned to base with over 250 holes in his plane. He flew for a time", "With combat experience as a fighter pilot, Glenn applied for training as a test pilot while still in Korea. He reported to the U.S. Naval Test Pilot School at NAS Patuxent River in Maryland in January 1954, and graduated in July. At Patuxent River the future Medal of Honor recipient, James Stockdale tutored him in physics and math. Glenn's first flight test assignment, testing the FJ-3 Fury, nearly killed him when its cockpit depressurized and its oxygen system failed. He also tested the armament of aircraft such as the Vought F7U Cutlass and F8U Crusader. From November 1956 to April 1959, he was assigned to the Fighter Design Branch of the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics in Washington, D.C., and attended", "", "On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite. This damaged American confidence in its technological superiority, creating a wave of anxiety known as the Sputnik crisis. In response, President Dwight D. Eisenhower launched the Space Race. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was established on October 1, 1958, as a civilian agency to develop space technology. One of its first initiatives was announced on December 17, 1958. This was Project Mercury, which aimed to launch a man into Earth orbit, return him safely to the Earth, and evaluate his capabilities in space. While Glenn was on duty at Patuxent and in Washington, he read everything he could find about space. His office was asked to send a test pilot to Langley Air Force Base in Virginia to make runs on a spaceflight simulator, as part of research by the newly formed NASA into re-entry vehicle shapes. The pilot would also be sent to the", "Glenn was the backup pilot for Shepard and Grissom on the first two crewed Project Mercury flights, the sub-orbital missions Mercury-Redstone 3 and Mercury-Redstone 4. Glenn was selected for Mercury-Atlas 6, NASA's first crewed orbital flight, with Carpenter as his backup. Putting a man in orbit would achieve one of Project Mercury's most important goals. Shepard and Grissom had named their spacecraft \"Freedom 7\" and \"Liberty Bell 7\". The numeral 7 had originally been the production number of Shepard's spacecraft, but had come to represent the Mercury 7. Glenn named his spacecraft, number 13, \"Friendship 7\", and had the name hand-painted on the side like the one on his F-86 had been. Glenn and Carpenter completed their training for the mission in January 1962,", "In 1962, NASA contemplated recruiting women to the astronaut corps, but Glenn gave a speech before the House Space Committee detailing his opposition to sending women into space, in which he said: NASA had no official policy prohibiting women, but the requirement that astronauts had to be test pilots effectively excluded", "", "At 42, Glenn was the oldest member of the astronaut corps and would likely be close to 50 by the time the lunar landings took place. During Glenn's training, NASA psychologists determined that he was the astronaut best suited for public life. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy suggested to Glenn and his wife in December 1962 that he run for the U.S. Senate for Ohio in 1964, challenging aging incumbent Stephen M. Young (1889–1984) in the Democratic primary election. As it seemed unlikely that he would be selected for Project", "Glenn remained close to the Kennedy family, and campaigned for Robert F. Kennedy during his 1968 presidential campaign. In 1968, Glenn was in Kennedy's hotel suite when Kennedy heard he had won California. Glenn was supposed to go with him to celebrate, but decided not to as there would be many people there. Kennedy went downstairs to make his victory speech and was assassinated. Glenn and Annie went with them to the hospital, and the next morning took Kennedy's children home to Virginia. Glenn was later a pallbearer at the funeral in New York. In 1970, Young did not seek reelection and the seat was open. Businessman Howard Metzenbaum, Young's former campaign manager, was backed by the", "In 1973, President Nixon ordered Attorney General Elliot Richardson to fire Watergate special prosecutor Archibald Cox. Richardson refused and resigned in protest, triggering the Saturday Night massacre. Ohio Senator William Saxbe, elected in 1968, was appointed attorney general. Both Glenn and Metzenbaum sought the vacated seat, which was to be filled by Governor John Gilligan. Gilligan was planning on a presidential or vice-presidential run in the near future, and offered Glenn the lieutenant governor position, with the thought that Glenn would ascend to governor when Gilligan was elected to a higher position. The Ohio Democratic party backed this solution to avoid what was expected to be a divisive primary battle between Metzenbaum and Glenn. He declined, denouncing their attempts as \"bossism\" and \"blackmail\". Glenn's counteroffer suggested that Gilligan fill the position with someone other than Metzenbaum or Glenn", "In the 1976 presidential election, Jimmy Carter was the presumptive Democratic nominee for president. Glenn was reported to be in consideration for the vice-presidential nomination because he was a senator in a pivotal state and for his fame and straightforwardness. Some thought he was too much like Carter, partially because they both had military backgrounds, and that he did not have enough experience to", "In his first reelection campaign, Glenn ran opposed in the primary for the 1980 Senate election. His opponents, engineer Francis Hunstiger and ex-teacher Frances Waterman, were not well-known and poorly funded. His opponents spent only a few thousand dollars on the campaign, while Glenn spent $700,000. Reporters noted that for a race he was likely to win, Glenn was spending a lot of time and money on the campaign. His chief strategist responded to the remarks saying, \"It's the way he", "Glenn was unhappy with how divided the country was, and thought labels like conservative and liberal increased the divide. He considered himself a centrist. Glenn thought a more centrist president would help unite the country. Glenn believed his experience as a senator from Ohio was ideal, due to the state's diversity. Glenn thought that Ted Kennedy could win the election, but after Kennedy's announcement in late 1982 that he would not seek the presidency, Glenn thought he had a much better chance of winning. He hired a media consultant to help him with his speaking style. Glenn announced his candidacy for president on April 21, 1983, in the John Glenn High School gymnasium. He started out the campaign out-raising the front-runner, Mondale. He also polled the highest of any Democrat against Reagan. During the fall of 1983, \"The Right Stuff\",", "Glenn's Senate seat was challenged by Thomas Kindness. Kindness was unopposed in his primary, while Glenn faced Lyndon LaRouche supporter Don Scott. LaRouche supporters had been recently elected in Illinois, but the Ohio Democratic Party chairman did not think it was likely they would see the same success in Ohio. LaRouche was known for his fringe theories, such as the queen of England being a drug dealer. Kindness spoke to his supporters and", "In 1992, Republican Mike DeWine won the Republican primary and challenged Glenn in the Senate election. Glenn ran unopposed in the primary. DeWine's campaign focused on the need for change and for term limits for senators. This would be Glenn's fourth term as senator. DeWine also criticized Glenn's campaign debts, using a bunny dressed as an astronaut beating a drum, with an announcer saying, \"He", "", "Glenn requested to be assigned to two committees during his first year as senator: the Government Operations Committee (later known as the Committee on Governmental Affairs), and the Foreign Relations Committee. He was immediately assigned to the Government Operations Committee, and waited for a seat on the Foreign Relations Committee. In 1977, Glenn wanted to chair the Energy, Nuclear Proliferation, and Federal Services Subcommittee of the Governmental Affairs Committee. Abraham Ribicoff, chair of the Governmental Affairs Committee, said he could chair the subcommittee if he also chaired the less popular Federal Services Subcommittee, which was in", "Glenn's father spent his retirement money battling cancer, and would have lost his house if Glenn had not intervened. His father-in-law also had expensive treatments for Parkinson's disease. These health and financial issues motivated him to request a seat on the Special Committee on Aging. Glenn was considered an expert in matters of science and technology due to his background. He was a supporter of continuing the B-1 bomber program, which he considered successful. This conflicted with President Carter's desire to fund the B-2 bomber program. Glenn did not fully support development of the B-2 because he had doubts about the feasibility of the stealth technology. He drafted a proposal to slow down the development of the B-2, which could have potentially saved money, but the measure was rejected. Glenn joined the Foreign Relations Committee in 1978.", "Glenn was one of the Keating Five—the U.S. Senators involved with the savings and loan crisis—after Glenn accepted a $200,000 campaign contribution from Lincoln Savings and Loan Association head Charles Keating. During the crisis, the senators were accused of delaying the seizure of Keating's S&L, which cost taxpayers an additional $2 billion. The combination of perceived political pressure and Keating's monetary contributions to the senators led to an investigation. The Ethics Committee's outside counsel, Robert Bennett, wanted to eliminate Republican senator John McCain and Glenn from the investigation. The Democrats did not want to exclude McCain, as he was the only Republican being investigated, which means", "On February 20, 1997, which was the 35th anniversary of his Friendship 7 flight, Glenn announced that his retirement from", "In 1995, Glenn was reading \"Space Physiology and Medicine\", a book written by NASA doctors. He realized that many changes that occur to physical attributes during space flight, such as loss of bone and muscle mass and blood plasma, are the same as changes that occur due to aging. Glenn thought NASA should send an older person on a shuttle mission, and that it should be him. Starting in 1995, he began lobbying NASA director Dan Goldin for the mission. Goldin said he would consider it if there was a scientific reason, and if Glenn could pass the same physical examination the younger astronauts took. Glenn performed research on the subject, and passed the physical examination. On January 16, 1998, NASA Administrator Dan Goldin announced that Glenn would be part of the STS-95 crew; this made him, at age 77, the oldest person to fly in space. NASA and the National Institute of Aging (NIA) planned to use Glenn as a test subject for research, with biometrics taken before, during and after his flight. Some experiments (in circadian rhythms, for example) compared him with the younger crew members. In addition to these", "Glenn and Annie had two children—John David and Carolyn Ann—and two grandchildren, and remained married for 73 years until his death. A Freemason, Glenn was a member of Concord Lodge No. 688 in New Concord, Ohio. He received all his degrees in full in a Mason at Sight ceremony from the Grand Master of Ohio in 1978, 14 years after petitioning his lodge. In 1999, Glenn became a 33rd-degree Scottish Rite Mason in the Valley of Cincinnati (NMJ). As an adult, he was honored as part of the DeMolay Legion of Honor by DeMolay International,", "Glenn was an honorary member of the International Academy of Astronautics and a member of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots, Marine Corps Aviation Association, Order of Daedalians, National Space Club board of trustees, National Space Society board of governors, International Association of Holiday Inns, Ohio Democratic Party, State Democratic Executive Committee, Franklin County (Ohio) Democratic Party and the 10th District (Ohio) Democratic Action Club. In 2001 he guest-starred as himself on the American television sitcom \"Frasier\". On September 5, 2009, John and", "Glenn was in good health for most of his life. He retained a private pilot's license until 2011 when he was 90. In June 2014, Glenn underwent successful heart valve replacement surgery at the Cleveland Clinic. In early December 2016, he was hospitalized at the James Cancer Hospital of Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center in Columbus. According to a family source, Glenn had been in declining health, and his condition was grave; his wife and their children and grandchildren were at the hospital. Glenn died on December 8, 2016, at the OSU Wexner Medical Center; he was 95 years old. No cause of death was disclosed. After his death, his body lay in state at the Ohio Statehouse. There was a memorial service at Mershon Auditorium at Ohio State University. Another memorial service was performed at Kennedy Space Center near the Heroes and Legends building. His body was interred at Arlington National Cemetery on April 6, 2017.", "Glenn was awarded the John J. Montgomery Award in 1963. Glenn received National Geographic Society's Hubbard Medal in 1962. Glenn, along with 37 other space race astronauts, received the Ambassador of Space Exploration Award in 2006. He was also awarded the General Thomas D. White National Defense Award, and the Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation. In 1964, Glenn received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. In 2004, he received the Woodrow Wilson Award for Public Service from the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institution, and was awarded the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Theodore Roosevelt Award for 2008. Glenn earned the Navy's astronaut wings and the Marine Corps' Astronaut Medal. He was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in 2011 and was among the first group of astronauts to be granted the distinction. In 2012, President Barack Obama presented Glenn with the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Glenn was the seventh astronaut to receive this distinction. The Congressional Gold Medal and the Presidential Medal of Freedom are considered the two most prestigious awards that can be bestowed on a civilian. The Society of Experimental Test Pilots awarded Glenn the Iven C. Kincheloe award in 1963, and he was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame in 1968, National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1976, the International Space Hall of Fame in 1977, and the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1990. In 2000, he received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for", "Glenn's public life and legacy began when he received his first ticker tape parade for breaking the transcontinental airspeed record. As a senator, he used his military background to write legislation to reduce nuclear proliferation. He also focused on reducing government waste. Buzz Aldrin wrote that Glenn's Friendship 7 flight, \"... helped to galvanize the country's will and resolution to surmount significant technical challenges of human spaceflight.\" President Barack Obama said, \"With John's passing, our nation has lost an icon and Michelle and I have lost a friend. John spent his life breaking barriers, from defending our freedom as a decorated Marine Corps fighter pilot in World War II and Korea, to setting a transcontinental speed record, to becoming, at age 77, the oldest human to touch the stars.\" NASA administrator Charles Bolden said: \"Senator Glenn's legacy is one of risk and accomplishment, of history created and duty to country carried out under great pressure with the whole world watching\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary.", "Influences.", "Film.", "Comics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The story begins with strange lights and sounds, including blaring trumpet music, reported in the skies all over the world. The events are capped by the mysterious appearance of black flags with gold suns atop tall historic landmarks such as the Statue of Liberty in New York, the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, and the Eiffel Tower in Paris. These events are all the work of the mysterious Robur (the specific epithet for the English oak (\"Quercus robur\") and figuratively taken to mean \"strength\"), a brilliant inventor who intrudes on a meeting of a flight-enthusiasts' club called the Weldon Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Members of the Weldon Institute are all firm believers that mankind shall master the skies using \"lighter than air\" craft, and that \"heavier than air\" craft such as airplanes and helicopters would be unfeasible. The institute has been constructing a giant dirigible called the \"Go-ahead\", and are having a heated discussion of where to place its propeller (in front to pull it, or behind to push it) when Robur appears at the meeting and is admitted to speak to them. He chastises the group for being balloon-boosters when \"heavier than air\" flying apparatuses are the future. When asked if Robur himself has \"made conquest of the air,\" he states that he has, leading to him accepting the title \"Robur the Conqueror\". During his short time at the Weldon Institute, Robur so incites the members that they chase him outside. Just as they are about to attack him, Robur appears to vanish into the mob, but he has actually been borne away by a flying machine. Later that night Robur kidnaps the Weldon Institute's secretary, president, and the president's valet. He takes them on board his ship, a huge, battery-powered, multirotor gyrodyne called the \"Albatross\", which has many vertical airscrews to provide lift, and two horizontal airscrews in a push-pull configuration to drive the vessel forward. It bears the same black flag with golden sun that has been sighted on so many landmarks, and the music in the sky is explained to be one of the crewmen playing a trumpet. To demonstrate the vessel's superiority, Robur takes his captives around the world in the course of three weeks. The president and secretary are angry at Robur for kidnapping them and unwilling to admit that the \"Albatross\" is a fantastic vessel, or that their notions of \"lighter than air\" superiority are wrong. They demand that Robur release them, but he is aloof and always says that they shall remain as long as he desires it. Fearing they will be held captive forever, the two formulate plans to both escape and destroy the \"Albatross\". After the horizontal propellers are damaged in a storm, the \"Albatross\" is anchored over the Chatham Islands for repairs. While the crew is busy at work, the two Weldon Institute members light a fuse and make their escape. They try to bring the valet with them but cannot find him, only later discovering that he had already escaped without them. The \"Albatross\" explodes and its wreckage, along with Robur and his crew, plunge into the ocean. Meanwhile, the three escapees are safe on a small but inhabited island and are later rescued by a ship, then make a long journey back to Philadelphia. The Weldon Institute members return, and rather than describe their adventures or admit that Robur had created a flying machine greater than their expectations of the \"Go-ahead\", they simply conclude the argument the group was having during their last meeting. Rather than have only one propeller to their dirigible, they decide to have one propeller in front and another behind, similar to Robur's design. Seven months after their return the \"Go-ahead\" is completed and making its maiden voyage with the president, secretary, and an aeronaut. The speed and maneuverability of the dirigible marvels a huge crowd, but are trivial compared to Robur's \"Albatross\". Suddenly, out of the sky there appears the \"Albatross\". It is revealed that when the \"Albatross\" exploded, enough of it was intact so that at least some of the propellers operated and slowed its descent, saving the crew. The crew used the remains of the \"Albatross\" as a raft until they were rescued by a ship. Later, Robur and the crew made it back to his secret X Island, where the original \"Albatross\" had been built. Robur has built a new \"Albatross\" and now intends to exact revenge by showing that it is superior to the Weldon Institute's \"Go-ahead\". The entirety of the final scene is described from the crowd's point of view. The \"Albatross\" begins circling the \"Go-ahead\"; the \"Go-ahead\" drops ballast and rises to fourteen thousand feet. The \"Albatross\" follows, still a circling menace. The \"Go-ahead\" is at the mercy of the \"Albatross\" because the \"Albatross\" is both faster and more maneuverable. Finally, the \"Go-ahead\" exceeds her pressure height limit, whereupon her gas bags rupture. Losing her buoyancy gas, the \"Go-ahead\" drops out of the sky like a rapidly descending kite. The \"Albatross\" stays alongside of the \"Go-ahead\" as she falls, signalling the pilot and passengers of the \"Go-ahead\" to come on board the \"Albatross\". They refuse, but then the crew of the \"Albatross\" again seizes them and brings them aboard. Having demonstrated his rule over the skies, Robur returns the three men to the ground. In a short speech, Robur says that nations are not yet fit for union. He cautions the crowd that it is \"evolution\", not revolution, that they should be seeking. He leaves with the promise that he will one day return to reveal his secrets of flight. The people of Philadelphia subject Prudent and Evans to unrelenting ridicule for the rest of their lives.", "", "The story was made into a 1961 movie, \"Master of the World\", with Vincent Price as Robur. The movie kept the basic concept but added elements of intrigue and a romance to the plot. In this version, Robur is an idealist who plans to conquer the world in order to put an end to tyranny and war. Using the \"Albatross\" he plans to bomb the nations of the world until he is acknowledged its ruler. (In contrast, the novel's Robur has no such aims, and bombs only one ground target: an African coronation where a mass human sacrifice is about to take place.) Instead of the Weldon Institute members, he kidnaps Mr. Prudent of Philadelphia, an armaments manufacturer, along with his daughter Dorothy and her fiancé Phillip Evans. Charles Bronson plays Strock, the reluctant hero who comes to admire Robur, but not enough to let him carry out his plans. The name \"Albatross\" is retained, though the novel's description and early illustrations that suggest a flush-decked clipper ship with propellers on its masts instead of sails, is replaced by a more contemporary design resembling a classic airship, or dirigible; though still given propellers for lift. The vessel is described in the film as being a 'heavier than air machine of several tons,' a statement later explained as the vessel 'is made entirely of straw paper, mixed with dextrin and clay, and squeezed in a hydraulic press...' This construction also enables the \"Albatross\" to fly high enough to be impervious to contemporary weapons fire. When flown low to the ground, though, \"Albatross\" was heavily damaged while within the blast radius of one of its own bombs, and was finally damaged beyond repair and sank into the ocean when the gunpowder in its armory exploded due to sabotage by the passengers.", "In it, Robur (who is also an alias of Captain Nemo) is the leader of the resistance when H. G. Wells' Selenites invade the Earth. Other fictional characters which appear in the series include Fantômas, Josephine Balsamo, The Shadow and Professor Cavor." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Site.", "City of Veii.", "Piazza d'Armi.", "History.", "Early history.", "Conflict with Rome.", "Roman and later history.", "Ager Veientanus." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The city of Veii lies mainly on a tuff plateau in area. The Valchetta flows a few miles eastward to join the Tiber River on the south side of Labaro along the Via Flaminia and Veii's territory included this area. Its proximity to the Tiber and the trade route to the interior, which became the Via Flaminia, augmented its prosperity but also placed it in competition with Rome for the domination of Latium. The temple of Juno was the greatest and most honoured in the city. The largest visible monument is the sanctuary of Minerva from the 7th c. BC, situated along an important route just outside the city (at modern Portonaccio). The sanctuary was one of the oldest and most revered in Etruria, standing out for its sumptuous polychrome terracotta decorations, many of which can be seen today in the Villa Giulia. The sanctuary included the temple of Apollo of about 510 BC to which belonged the Apollo of Veii (now in the National Etruscan Museum). The impressive thermal baths and the forum built under Augustus have been partially excavated in recent years. Many rich \"Tumuli\" and chamber tombs have been found. The most famous is the Grotta Campana uncovered in 1843, a chamber tomb with the oldest known Etruscan frescoes. There are also long tunnels leading into the plateau of the city, which may corroborate Livy's account of the Roman victory in the Battle of Veii. The walls of Veii, of which small sections remain, bordered the two intersecting streams using the streambeds as a ditch, with a wall across the plateau closing the triangle.", "Every Etruscan stronghold was built on an elevation, and Veii was no exception. Its \"arx\", or citadel, was placed on a bluff delineated by cliffs within the angle of confluence of the two streams, nearly separated from the main ridge by a gully, through which ran a road in the Roman period. An archaeological site, Piazza d'Armi (\"military square\"), marks the location today.", "", "The earliest evidence of occupation by demographic analysis, including that of the cemeteries, dates from the 10th century BC in the Late Bronze Age. Small settlements were scattered over a wider area than the plateau and the population of the plateau at Veii is estimated to have been stable at about 1000. In the 9th century BC, the Early Iron Age (Villanovan culture), the finds are localised to the plateau but appear to be associated with independent settlements, each with its own cemetery. Occupation gradually intensified in the 8th (remainder of Villanovan) and 7th (Orientalising Period) centuries BC, by conurbation of the settlements as the site assumed an urban appearance with city blocks in a grid pattern arranged around a central square containing a water cistern. That evidence suggests that the city of Veii was shaped into its classical form in the 7th century BC by a population, presumably Etruscan, first settling there in the 10th century BC. The population of the early Veii practised both inhumation and cremation within the same family. The proportion was 50% in the 9th century BC, after a predomination of cremation (90%) earlier. In the 8th century, inhumation rose to 70%, which may be attributable to an influence from Latium, where inhumation prevailed in the 9th century BC. During the 9th and 8th centuries BC, the population density and grave goods were on the increase: more and wealthier people and also more of a disparity in wealth: the rise of a richer class. In the 8th century BC, both the potter's wheel and writing were introduced from Greece. During the entire period, the settlements translocated around the plateau; however, a settlement (Casale del Fosso) maintained a cemetery to the north of the plateau continuously from the late 9th century BC to the early 6th century BC.", "The documented history of Veii, like that of all Italian cities in their early centuries, is sparse and unreliable. According to Livy (writing 700 years later) the Fidenates and the Veientes were defeated in a war with Rome during the reign of Rome's mythical first king, Romulus, in the 8th century BC. Plutarch (writing even later in the 1st C. AD) says of them:The first (to oppose Romulus) were the Veientes, a people of Tuscany (the site is now in Lazio), who had large possessions, and dwelt in a spacious city; they took occasion to commence a war, by claiming Fidenae as belonging to them... Fidenae and Veii were said to have again been defeated by Rome in the 7th century BC during the reign of Rome's third king Tullus Hostilius. In the 6th century BC Rome's sixth king Servius Tullius warred against Veii (after the expiry of an earlier truce) and the Etruscans. He is said to have shown valour in the campaign, and to have routed a great army of the enemy. The war helped him to cement his position at Rome. In 509 BC, after the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, the family of Tarquinius Superbus went into exile in Caere in Etruria. Tarquin sought to regain the throne, at first by the Tarquinian conspiracy and, when that failed, by force of arms. He convinced the cities of Tarquinii and Veii to support him, and led their armies against Rome in the Battle of Silva Arsia. The Roman army was victorious, and it is recorded by Livy that although the forces of Tarquinii fought well on the right wing, initially pushing back the Roman left wing, the Veientes on the left wing faltered and fled the battle, because they were accustomed to defeat at the hands of the Romans. After the loss of the battle the forces of Veii returned home. Livy writes that later in 509 BC, consul Publius Valerius Publicola returned to fight the Veientes. The most famous king of Veii was Lars Tolumnus whose family was part of the Veientine aristocracy and who instigated a war with Rome in 438 BC. The nearby Roman colony of Fidenae revolted against Rome and allied itself with Veii, giving Tolumnus control of the Fidenate army. The Romans sent four envoys to demand an explanation but they were murdered. Rome declared war against Veii and sent Lucius Sergius with an army who won the battle but the Roman losses were so high that a state of emergency was declared. A subsequent fiercely-fought battle with Veii in 437 BC reinforced by a contingent from Falerii was indecisive until the tribune Aulus Cornelius Cossus unhorsed Tolumnus and killed him with his spear. In 406 BC, Rome declared war against Veii, still powerful and well-fortified, and her allies Falerii and Capena which required the Romans to commence a siege lasting many years. As Plutarch says: Veii had been the capital of Etruria, not inferior to Rome, either in number of arms or multitude of soldiers, so that relying on her wealth and luxury, and priding herself upon her refinement and sumptuousness, she had engaged in many honourable contests with the Romans for glory and empire... as the city was furnished with all sorts of weapons, offensive and defensive, likewise with corn and all manner of provisions, they cheerfully endured a siege After ten years, in 396 BC, the Romans appointed Camillus as \"dictator\". After defeating both Falerii and Capena at Nepete, Camillus commanded the final strike against Veii. He dug into the soft tuff rock below the walls whilst distracting the Veiians with attacks on the walls and infiltrated the city's drainage system to emerge in the citadel, leading to their defeat. Not interested in surrender but only in Veii's complete destruction, the Romans slaughtered the entire adult male population and made slaves of all the women and children. The plunder was very rich and extensive including the statue of Juno taken to Rome. Camillus supported the patricians in opposing the plebeian plan to populate Veii with half of the city of Rome designed to resolve poverty and space issues. Camillus deliberately protracted the project until its abandonment.", "The city was soon assimilated under Roman control and is termed \"Roman Veii\" as opposed to \"Etruscan Veii\" by scholarly literature. Under the empire the Romans called the city the \"Municipium Augustum Veiens\". The city never recovered its former wealth or its population after the Roman conquest. Nevertheless, after Rome's defeat in the battle of the Allia, many Roman soldiers fled there, and a project was proposed for abandoning Rome for Veii; this project was successfully opposed by Camillus. The Romans built wealthy villas in the region and Livia had an estate there, according to Suetonius. Veii was eventually abandoned after Roman times, and everything of value or utility was removed by anyone with access to the site. Finally it was filled and smoothed for ploughland and was forgotten until its rediscovery in the 17th century by the antiquarian Raffaello Fabretti.", "The territory of a city-state anywhere within the Roman domain was, in Roman legal terminology, an \"ager\". The law made a number of fine distinctions, but by \"ager\" it meant primarily \"ager publicus\", \"public territory\", the land belonging to the state, which in those times was primarily agricultural (\"ager\" is \"field\"). The \"ager Veientanus\" (i.e. of Veii) covered the entire region between the right bank of the lower Tiber river and the coast; that is all of southern Etruria. The northwest border was probably as far west as the Monti Sabatini and Lake Bracciano in the north. In Etruscan times the \"ager Veiantanus\" shared the countryside with the \"Silva Ciminia\", the remnant of an ancient forest, of which the Romans stood in superstitious dread. The \"ager Veiantanus\" remained for the most part agrarian until it became evident after World War II that the city of Rome was going to expand into and develop that area as a suburb. Moreover, a new method of ploughing was turning over the soil a metre deep, destroying all surface evidence. John Bryan Ward-Perkins, then Director of the British School at Rome, set into motion the South Etruria Survey (1954–1968), which cataloged all the visible antiquities in the \"ager Veientanus\". It was published in 1968. Nearly 30 years later, in 1997, the Italian government moved to protect a part of that area, creating the Veio Regional Natural Park of between the Via Cassia on the west, the Via Flaminia on the east, the Via Campagnanese on the north and the city of Rome on the south. Within the park are the comuni of Campagnano di Roma, Castelnuovo di Porto, Formello, Magliano Romano, Mazzano Romano, Morlupo, Riano, Sacrofano and Municipio XX of the city of Rome." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Literature.", "Fictional etymology.", "Fictional geography.", "Country.", "Capital, Minas Tirith.", "Fictional history.", "Pre-Númenórean.", "Númenórean kingdom.", "Third Age, under the Stewards.", "War of the Ring and restoration.", "Concept and creation.", "Influences.", "In film." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Tolkien intended the name \"Gondor\" to be Sindarin for \"land of stone\". This is echoed in the text of \"The Lord of the Rings\" by the name for Gondor among the Rohirrim, Stoningland. Tolkien's early writings suggest that this was a reference to the highly developed masonry of Gondorians in contrast to their rustic neighbours. This view is supported by the Drúedain terms for Gondorians and Minas Tirith—Stonehouse-folk and Stone-city. Tolkien denied that the name \"Gondor\" had been inspired by the ancient Ethiopian citadel of Gondar, stating that the root \"Ond\" went back to an account he had read as a child mentioning \"ond\" (\"stone\") as one of only two words known of the pre-Celtic languages of Britain. Gondor is also called the South-kingdom or Southern Realm, and together with Arnor as the Númenórean Realms in Exile. Researchers Wayne G. Hammond and Christina Scull have proposed a Quenya translation of \"Gondor\": \"Ondonórë\". The Men of Gondor are nicknamed \"Tarks\" (from Quenya \"tarkil\" \"High Man\", Numenorean) by the orcs of Mordor.", "", "Gondor's geography is illustrated in the maps for \"The Lord of the Rings\" and \"Unfinished Tales\" made by Christopher Tolkien on the basis of his father's sketches, and geographical accounts in \"The Rivers and Beacon-Hills of Gondor\", \"Cirion and Eorl\", and \"The Lord of the Rings\". Gondor lies in the west of Middle-earth, on the northern shores of Anfalas and the Bay of Belfalas with the great port of Pelargir near the river Anduin's delta in the fertile and populous region of Lebennin, stretching up to the White Mountains (Sindarin: \"Ered Nimrais\", \"Mountains of White Horns\"). Near the mouths of Anduin was the island of Tolfalas. To the north-west of Gondor lies Arnor; to the north, Gondor is neighboured by Wilderland and Rohan; to the north-east, by Rhûn; to the east, by Mordor; to the south, by the deserts of northern Harad. To the west lies the Great Sea. Gondor's land area was estimated by Karen Wynn Fonstad from Tolkien's maps at. The hot and dry region of South Gondor was by the time of the War of the Rings \"a debatable and desert land\", contested by the men of Harad. The region of Lamedon and the uplands of the prosperous Morthond, with the desolate Hill of Erech, lay to the south of the White Mountains, while the populous valleys of Lossarnach were just south of Minas Tirith. Ringló Vale lay between Lamedon and Lebennin. The regions of Anórien, with its capital Minas Anor, and Calenardhon, with fortresses at Isengard and Helm's Deep, lie to the north of the White Mountains. Calenardhon was granted independence as the kingdom of Rohan. To the northeast, by the river Anduin, are the Emyn Muil, with watchtowers on the hills of Amon Hen and Amon Lhaw on opposite banks of the river, and the Gates of Argonath at the northern entrance into the straits of Anduin as a warning to trespassers. Further down the river are the hills of Emyn Arnen.", "The capital, Minas Tirith, lay at the eastern end of the White Mountains, built around a shoulder of Mount Mindolluin. It had seven walls, the gates facing alternately somewhat north or south, so the main street up to the citadel wound in zigzags up the hill, each time passing through a tunnel in the central spur of rock. In the citadel, atop the spur, were the Court of the Fountain with the White Tree and the White Tower. This was the seat of the Kings or Stewards of Gondor. Behind the tower, reached from the sixth level, was a saddle leading to the necropolis of the Kings and Stewards. Tolkien's map-notes for the illustrator Pauline Baynes indicate that the city had the latitude of Ravenna, a city on the Mediterranean sea, though it lay \"900 miles east of Hobbiton more near Belgrade\". The Warning beacons of Gondor were atop a line of foothills running back west from Minas Tirith towards Rohan.", "", "The first people in the region were the Drúedain, a hunter-gatherer people of Men who arrive in the First Age. They were pushed aside by later settlers and came to live in the pine-woods of the Druadan Forest by the north-eastern White Mountains. The next people settled in the White Mountains, and became known as the Men of the Mountains. They built a megalithic subterranean complex at Dunharrow, later known as the Paths of the Dead, which extended through the mountain-range from north to south. They became subject to Sauron in the Dark Years. Fragments of pre-Númenórean languages survive in later ages in place-names such as \"Erech\", \"Arnach\", and \"Umbar\".", "The shorelands of Gondor were widely colonized by the Númenóreans from the middle of the Second Age, especially by Elf-friends loyal to Elendil. His sons Isildur and Anárion landed in Gondor after the drowning of Númenor, and co-founded the Kingdom of Gondor. Isildur brought with him a seedling of Nimloth the fair, the white tree from Númenór, and it appeared on the coat of arms of Gondor. Elendil, who founded the Kingdom of Arnor to the north, was held to be the High King of all the lands of the Dúnedain. Within the South-kingdom, the hometowns of Isildur and Anárion were Minas Ithil and Minas Tirith respectively, and the capital city was Osgiliath. Sauron survived the destruction of Númenor and secretly returned to his realm of Mordor, soon launching a war against the Númenórean kingdoms. He captured Minas Ithil, but Isildur escaped by ship to Arnor; meanwhile, Anárion was able to defend Osgiliath. Elendil and the Elven-king Gil-galad formed the Last Alliance of Elves and Men, and together with Isildur and Anárion, they besieged and defeated Mordor. Sauron was overthrown; but the One Ring that Isildur took from him was not destroyed, and thus Sauron continued to exist. Both Elendil and Anárion were killed in the war, so Isildur conferred rule of Gondor upon Anárion's son Meneldil, retaining suzerainty over Gondor as High King of the Dúnedain. Isildur and his three elder sons were ambushed and killed by Orcs in the Gladden Fields. Isildur's remaining son Valandil did not attempt to claim his father's place as Gondor's monarch; the kingdom is ruled solely by Meneldil and his descendants until their line dies out.", "During the early years of the Third Age, Gondor was victorious and wealthy, and kept a careful watch on Mordor, but the peace ended with Easterling invasions. Gondor established a powerful navy and captured the southern port of Umbar from the Black Númenóreans, becoming very rich. As time went by, Gondor neglected the watch on Mordor. There was a civil war, giving Umbar the opportunity to declare independence. The kings of Harad grew stronger, leading to fighting in the south. With a Great Plague the population began a steep decline. The capital was moved from Osgiliath to the less affected Minas Anor and evil creatures returned to the mountains bordering Mordor. There was war with the Easterling Wainriders, and Gondor lost its line of kings. The Ringwraiths captured and occupied Minas Ithil which became Minas Morgul, the Tower of Sorcery. Minas Anor was renamed Minas Tirith, the Tower of Guard. Without kings, Gondor was ruled by stewards for many generations, father to son; despite their exercise of power and hereditary status, they were never accepted as kings, or sat in the high throne. After several attacks by evil forces the province of Ithilien and the city of Osgiliath were abandoned. Later the forces of Gondor, led by Aragorn under an alias, attacked Umbar and destroyed the Corsair fleet, allowing Denethor II to devote his attention to Mordor.", "Denethor sent his son Boromir to Rivendell for advice as war loomed. There, Boromir attended the Council of Elrond, saw the One Ring, and suggested it be used as a weapon to save Gondor. Elrond rebuked him, explaining the danger of such use, and instead, the hobbit Frodo was made ring-bearer, and a Fellowship, including Boromir, was sent on a quest to destroy the Ring. Growing in strength, Sauron attacked Osgiliath, forcing the defenders to leave, destroying the last bridge across the Anduin behind them. Minas Tirith then faced direct land attack from Mordor, combined with naval attack by the Corsairs of Umbar. The hobbits Frodo and Sam travelled through Ithilien, and were captured by Faramir, Boromir's brother, who held them at the hidden cave of Henneth Annûn, but aided them to continue their quest. Aragorn summoned the Dead of Dunharrow to destroy the forces from Umbar, freeing men from the southern provinces of Gondor such as Dol Amroth to come to the aid of Minas Tirith. Gondor, with the Riders of Rohan as cavalry, defeated the army of Mordor in the Battle of the Pelennor Fields. Aragorn led a smaller army to the Black Gate of Mordor to distract Sauron from the hobbits' quest to destroy the One Ring in Mount Doom. The hobbits succeeded, and Sauron was defeated. The war and the Third Age over, Aragorn was crowned King of both Gondor and Arnor, the sister kingdom in the north.", "Tolkien's original thoughts about the later ages of Middle-earth are outlined in his first sketches for the legend of Númenor made in the mid-1930s, and already contain conceptions resembling that of Gondor. The appendices to \"The Lord of the Rings\" were brought to a finished state in 1953–54, but a decade later, during preparations for the release of the Second Edition, Tolkien elaborated the events that had led to Gondor's civil war, and introduced the regency of Rómendacil II. The final development of the history and geography of Gondor took place around 1970, in the last years of Tolkien's life, when he invented justifications for the place-names and wrote full narratives for the stories of Isildur's death and of the battles with the Wainriders and the Balchoth (published in \"Unfinished Tales\"). The critic Tom Shippey compares Tolkien's characterisation of Gondor with that of Rohan. He notes that men from the two countries meet or behave in contrasting ways several times in \"The Lord of the Rings\": when Éomer and his Riders of Rohan twice meet Aragorn's party in the Mark, and when Faramir and his men imprison Frodo and Sam at Henneth Annun in Ithilien. Shippey notes that while Éomer is \"compulsively truculent\", Faramir is courteous, urbane, civilised: the people of Gondor are self-assured, and their culture is higher than that of Rohan. The same is seen, Shippey argues, in the comparison between the mead hall of Meduseld in Rohan, and the great hall of Minas Tirith in Gondor. Meduseld is simple, but brought to life by tapestries, a colourful stone floor, and the vivid picture of the rider, his bright hair streaming in the wind, blowing his horn. The Steward Denethor's hall is large and solemn, but dead, colourless, in cold stone. Rohan is, Shippey suggests, the \"bit that Tolkien knew best\", Anglo-Saxon, full of vigour; Gondor is \"a kind of Rome\", over-subtle, selfish, calculating. The critic Jane Chance Nitzsche contrasts the \"good and bad Germanic lords Théoden and Denethor\", noting that their names are almost anagrams. She writes that both men receive the allegiance of a hobbit, but very differently: Denethor, Steward of Gondor, undervalues Pippin because he is small, and binds him with a formal oath, whereas Théoden, King of Rohan, treats Merry with love, which the hobbit responds to.", "The scholar of Germanic studies Sandra Ballif Straubhaar notes in the \"J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia\" that readers have debated the real-world prototypes of Gondor. She writes that like the Normans, their founders the Numenoreans arrived \"from across the sea\", and that Prince Imrahil's armour with a \"burnished vambrace\" recalls late-medieval plate armour. Against this theory, she notes Tolkien's direction of readers to Egypt and Byzantium. Recalling that Tolkien located Minas Tirith at the latitude of Florence, she states that \"the most striking similarities\" are with ancient Rome. She identifies several parallels: Aeneas, from Troy, and Elendil, from Numenor, both survive the destruction of their home countries; the brothers Romulus and Remus found Rome, while the brothers Isildur and Anárion found the Numenorean kingdoms in Middle-earth; and both Gondor and Rome experienced centuries of \"decadence and decline\". The scholar of fantasy and children's literature Dimitra Fimi draws a parallel between the seafaring Numenoreans and the Vikings of the Norse world, noting that in \"The Lost Road and Other Writings\", Tolkien describes their ship-burials, matching those in \"Beowulf\" and the \"Prose Edda\". She notes that Boromir is given a boat-funeral in \"The Two Towers\". Fimi further compares the helmet and crown of Gondor with the romanticised \"headgear of the Valkyries\", despite Tolkien's denial of a connection with Wagner's \"Ring\" cycle, noting the \"likeness of the wings of a sea-bird\" in his description of Aragorn's coronation, and his drawing of the crown in an unused dust jacket design. The classical scholar Miryam Librán-Moreno writes that Tolkien drew heavily on the general history of the Goths, Langobards and the Byzantine Empire, and their mutual struggle. Historical names from these peoples were used in drafts or the final concept of the internal history of Gondor, such as Vidumavi, wife of king Valacar (in Gothic). The Byzantine Empire and Gondor were both, in Librán-Moreno's view, only echoes of older states (the Roman Empire and the unified kingdom of Elendil), yet each proved to be stronger than their sister-kingdoms (the Western Roman Empire and Arnor, respectively). Both realms were threatened by powerful eastern and southern enemies: the Byzantines by the Persians and the Muslim armies of the Arabs and the Turks, as well as the Langobards and Goths; Gondor by the Easterlings, the Haradrim, and the hordes of Sauron. Both realms were in decline at the time of a final, all-out siege from the East; however, Minas Tirith survived the siege whereas Constantinople did not. In a 1951 letter, Tolkien himself wrote about \"the Byzantine City of Minas Tirith.\" Tolkien visited the Malvern Hills with C. S. Lewis, and recorded excerpts from \"The Hobbit\" and \"The Lord of the Rings\" in Malvern in 1952, at George Sayer's home. Sayer wrote that Tolkien relived the book as they walked, comparing the Malvern Hills to the White Mountains of Gondor.", "Gondor as it appeared in Peter Jackson's film adaptation of \"The Lord of the Rings\" has been compared to the Byzantine Empire. The production team noted this in DVD commentary, explaining their decision to include Byzantine domes into Minas Tirith's architecture and to have civilians wear Byzantine-styled clothing. However, the appearance and structure of the city was based upon the inhabited tidal island and abbey of Mont Saint-Michel, France. In the films, the towers of the city, designed by the artist Alan Lee, are equipped with trebuchets. The film critic Roger Ebert called the city a \"spectacular achievement\". He praised the filmmakers' ability to blend digital and real sets." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Move to Germany.", "Involvement in World War I.", "The interrupter gear.", "Other works on aircraft armament.", "Return to the Netherlands.", "Personal life.", "Move to the US and death.", "Popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Anthony (Tony) Fokker was born in Blitar, Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), to Herman Fokker, a Dutch coffee plantation owner. Some sources say that he was born in Kediri. At that time, Blitar was a part of the \"Kediri Residency\", a colonial administrative division the capital of which was Kediri. When Fokker was four, the family returned to the Netherlands and settled in Haarlem in order to provide Fokker and his older sister, Toos, with a Dutch upbringing. Fokker was not a studious boy and did not complete his high school education. However, he showed an early interest in mechanics, and preferred making things, playing with model trains and steam engines, and experimenting with model aeroplane designs. He devoted considerable effort to the development of a wheel that would not suffer from punctures, basically a wheel with a perimeter formed by a series of metal plates. This idea had been experimented with elsewhere and was already patented.", "Fokker's first interest in flight stemmed from Wilbur Wright's exhibition flights in France in the summer and fall of 1908. In 1910, aged 20, Fokker was sent by his father to Germany to receive training as an automobile mechanic at Bingen Technical school, but his interest was in flying, so he transferred to the Erste deutsche Automobil-Fachschule in Mainz. That same year Fokker built his first aircraft \"\"de Spin\"\" (\"the Spider\"), which was destroyed by his business partner who flew it into a tree. He gained his flying certificate in his second \"\"Spin\"\" aircraft, which shortly thereafter was also destroyed by the same business partner, prompting Fokker to end their cooperation. In his own country, he became a celebrity by flying around the tower of the Grote or St.-Bavokerk in Haarlem on 1 September 1911, with the third version of the \"\"Spin\"\". One day earlier, on Queen's Day (31 August, Queen Wilhelmina's birthday), Fokker had already taken the opportunity to make a couple of demonstration flights in Haarlem in the same aircraft. In 1912, Fokker moved to Johannisthal near Berlin where he founded his first own company, \"Fokker Aeroplanbau\". In the following years he constructed a variety of airplanes. He relocated his factory to Schwerin where it was renamed \"Fokker Flugzeugwerke GmbH\", and later shortened to \"Fokker Werke GmbH\".", "At the outbreak of World War I the German government took control of the factory. Fokker remained as director and alleged designer of many aircraft for the Imperial German Army Air Service (\"Luftstreitkräfte\"), including the Fokker \"Eindecker\" and the Fokker Dr.I, the triplane made famous in the hands of aces such as Manfred von Richthofen (the Red Baron). In all, his company delivered about 700 military planes to the German air force as well as supplying the German navy and Austria-Hungary. Fokker himself was a skilled pilot, demonstrating his aircraft on many occasions. On 13 June 1915, Fokker demonstrated the new \"Eindecker\" (monoplane) at Stenay in the German 5th Army Sector in front of the German Crown Prince and other VIPs. Fokker worked closely with an accomplished military pilot, Otto Parschau, to bring the Eindecker into military use and on this occasion both men demonstrated the aircraft. Max Immelmann, later to become a high-scoring Flying Ace with the \"Eindecker\", commented in a letter written shortly after this event on 25 June 1915 that: \"Fokker, especially, amazed us with his skill\". Author A.R. Weyl (Fokker: the creative years, Putnam 1965) says that, while Fokker was a talented and bold pilot, his business character was more flawed. He failed to reinvest war profits back into his factory which consequently struggled to fulfill war contracts as the factory floor was often muddled with prototype development and production taking place at the same time. Fokker distrusted qualified engineers (which he was not) and resented frequent German insistence on carrying out stringent structural tests to ensure prototype aircraft were fit for combat. He could be bad tempered and insensitive as when he verbally abused his dying designer Martin Kreuzer on the evening of 27 June 1916, after Kreuzer had crashed the prototype Fokker D.I. The rudder jammed but Kreuzer was able to give a verbal report on the accident before he died. \"Fokker hurried to the scene and shouted reproaches at the mortally injured man\". Weyl says this incident was witnessed by Reinhold Platz, who succeeded Kreuzer. While Weyl's biography paints an unpleasant picture of Fokker as a businessman, he was a popular and charismatic figure with service pilots and could charm even senior officers. This charm enabled him to deal with the first major crisis of his German career when his newly delivered Fokker Dr.I triplanes began to experience sudden fatal accidents in late 1917 and the type was temporarily grounded as too dangerous to fly. The triplanes' top wings frequently ripped off under aerobatic conditions and even Lothar von Richthofen (brother of Manfred) was lucky to survive one such crash. Fokker was able to prove to the German high command that the basic design was not at fault but the German military inquiry concluded that shoddy workmanship due to poor supervision and quality control at the Fokker factory were to blame. Fokker received a stern warning about future conduct. Unfortunately the same scenario repeated itself again, a few months later, with the introduction of his E.V/D.VIII monoplane in mid-1918. A further high level German inquiry revealed more production and workmanship issues. Weyl asserts that the German authorities were now willing to file criminal charges against Fokker and might have done so, had he not returned to the Netherlands shortly after the end of World War I. Fokker's own account of the D.VIII places the blame on officious German Air Force inspectors requiring an ill-conceived design change. \"When the first D-8[sic] was submitted to the engineering division to be sandload tested, the wings proved to be sufficiently strong, but the regulations called for a proportionate strength in the rear spar compared to the front spar... Complying with the government's edict, we strengthened the rear spar and started to produce in quantity...\" The D.VIII's immediately ran into trouble with the wing collapsing at high speed. Fokker recalled the aircraft for further testing, and successfully demonstrated that the reinforced rear spar caused the wings to flex unevenly at speed, increasing the angle of attack at the wing tips and causing the wing to shear apart under the increased loads. The problem was resolved by restoring the rear spar to its original specifications. Weyl also discusses claims of Fokker's outright plagiarism or taking sole credit for the work of his staff, first designer Martin Kreuzer and later Reinhold Platz. For example, contemporary German documents for the E.V/D.VIII refer to Fokker as 'the designer' but Weyl and other authors now suggest that Platz was the real design genius behind the Dr.I, D.VII and D.VIII. There may be some truth in this as Platz recalled to Weyl that he attended high level meetings alongside Fokker but was never introduced or referred-to as the designer and often never even spoke. Yet when Fokker fled Germany it was Platz who immediately took over the German works on Fokker's behalf. Fokker later moved Platz to the Netherlands, as head designer, when the post-war German operation collapsed which indicates Platz really did play a greater design role than Fokker admits. Weyl uncharitably suggests that Platz's role at the Fokker D.VIII crisis meetings was to take the blame if anything was wrong and not receive credit. How much of this interpretation is based on the fact that Platz was still alive to tell his side of the story in 1965, and Fokker was not, is unclear. Another book by Henri Hegener (who knew both Fokker and Platz personally) depicts a rather different story, saying that Platz, while a skilled craftsman (and excellent welder), had received no formal technical training, and that his contributions to the Fokker designs are exaggerated, although Hegener grants that Platz was a good \"rule of thumb\" designer. Hegener also contradicts the claims that Platz was treated badly by Fokker, at least not financially because Platz's year-end bonuses often exceeded his yearly salary.", "Fokker is often credited with having invented the synchronization device which enabled World War I aircraft to fire through the spinning propeller. His role was certainly significant, but there were a number of prior developments before the result was achieved for which Fokker is commonly credited. The famous French pilot Roland Garros was shot down on 18 April 1915. His aircraft had been fitted with a deflector device, whereby metal deflector wedges were fitted to the airscrew. Garros was able to set fire to the airframe before being taken prisoner but the aircraft's gun and the armoured propeller remained intact and came into German hands. This initiated a phase of consideration of the interrupter gear concept in the Imperial German Army Air Service (\"Luftstreitkräfte\"). Fokker was heavily involved in this process but the story of his conception, development and installation of a synchronization device in a period of 48 hours (first found in an authorized biography of Fokker written in 1929) has been shown to be not factual. The available evidence points to a synchronisation device having been in development with Fokker's company for perhaps six months prior to the capture of Garros' machine. Additionally there were patents filed in France, Germany and Austria-Hungary as far back as 1910 which show a very similar device to that pioneered by Fokker. Author A. J. Weyl suggests that Fokker – or more probably someone on his production team – was aware of these patents. One patentee, Franz Schneider and his employer LVG, later sued Fokker in the German courts and won their case; but Fokker (by now in America) refused to pay up. However the final result of the development was Fokker's pushrod control mechanism, \"Gestängesteuerung\", which allowed the aircraft's forward-firing machine gun to fire only when the propeller was out of the line of fire. As incorporated into the famous Fokker \"Eindecker\", its use directly led to a phase of German air superiority known as the Fokker Scourge. Despite its shock effect on the enemy, the first Fokker interrupters remained unreliable and were prone to failures. Both Oswald Boelcke and Max Immelmann survived failures which resulted in propellers being shot off and even engines pulled out of their mountings due to the engine becoming unbalanced by the loss of the propeller. Immelmann's eventual death in combat has also been attributed to interrupter gear failure as the aircraft was seen to break up in mid-air while engaged against a Royal Flying Corps F.E.2b.", "Fokker and his armament team, including Lübbe and Leimberger, also worked on lesser known projects, including a multi-barrelled machine gun, known as the Fokker-Leimberger. Although superficially similar to a Gatling, the action of the Fokker-Leimberger was substantially different. Problems with the gun, especially with ruptured cases, prevented its adoption into production during the war. After moving to the US, Fokker continued to work on the design, but he was ultimately unsuccessful—properly sealing the rotary split-breech was apparently very difficult. A single surviving prototype is known today at the Kentucky Military Treasures.", "After the war's end, the terms of the Treaty of Versailles forbade Germany to build any aircraft or aircraft engines. The Armistice, not the Treaty of Versailles, singled out the Fokker D.VII for destruction or confiscation, the only aircraft to be so named. In 1919 Fokker returned to the Netherlands and started a new aircraft company, the \"Nederlandse Vliegtuigenfabriek\" (Dutch Aircraft Factory), predecessor to the Fokker Aircraft Company. Despite the strict disarmament conditions in the Treaty, Fokker did not return home empty-handed: he managed to smuggle six goods trains' worth of D.VII and C.I military planes and spare parts out of Germany across the German-Dutch border. Author Weyl says that Fokker used 350 railway wagons and made sure that each train was too long to fit into the railway sidings where trains were normally checked for contraband. Weyl quotes Fokker himself as saying that he paid 20,000 Dutch guilders in bribes. The trains included 220 aeroplanes, more than 400 aero engines and much other material. This initial stock enabled him to quickly set up shop, but his focus shifted from military to civil aircraft such as the very successful Fokker F.VII trimotor. Fokker's admitted bribery has contributed to his reputation for sharp business practices. Weyl also points out that – in addition to possible criminal charges for the Fokker D.VIII fatal crashes – Fokker also failed to pay taxes to German authorities and actually owed more than 14 million marks. Fokker's autobiography tells a similar story, but focuses on the rampant corruption, hyper-inflation, economic meltdown, and violent revolutionary forces of the pre-Weimar days. According to Fokker's account, as WWI progressed, the German High Command became increasingly brazen, even forcing Fokker into German citizenship against his will. Fokker describes his escape from Germany as a harrowing tale in which he protected as many workers as possible and escaped with less than a quarter of his net worth. He takes pains to rebuff the claim that he left the country owing any taxes.", "On 25 March 1919, Fokker married Sophie Marie Elisabeth von Morgen in Haarlem. This marriage ended in divorce in 1923. In 1927, he married Canadian Violet Eastman in New York City. On 8 February 1929, she died in a fall from their hotel suite window. The original police report said her death was a suicide, but this was later changed to'vertigo victim' at the request of her husband's staff. On the subject of his marriages, Fokker wrote, \"I have always understood airplanes much better than women. I had more love affairs in my life, and they ended just like the first one, really, because I thought there was nothing that could be more important than my airplanes... I have now learned, by bitter experience, that one must give a little too; in love one has to use one's brain just as much as in business, and perhaps even more\".<ref name=\"HegenerFOKKER1961/2\"></ref>", "In or about 1926 or 1927, Fokker moved to the United States. Here he established the North American branch of his company, the Atlantic Aircraft Corporation. The company gained high visibility in daring exploits by pilots. The Fokker F-VII airplane was used by pilot Richard E. Byrd and Machinist Floyd Bennett to fly over or near the North Pole on 9 May 1926. In June 1928 Amelia Earhart crossed the Atlantic to Wales in a Fokker trimotor (details here), and in 1930 Charles Kingsford Smith circumnavigated the globe in another. However the reputation was hurt when the famous Notre Dame University football coach Knute Rockne was killed in a crash of a Fokker F-10A in March 1931. Fokker's Dutch and American companies were at the peak of their success in the late 1920s but he lost control by going public to sell stock. In 1929 General Motors took over Fokker Aircraft Corporation of America, and merged it in the General Aviation Corporation. Fokker was appointed director of engineering. He resigned in 1931. Fokker designs were increasing outdated and in 1934 General Aviation discontinued their production. They were still built in the Netherlands. Neville Shute in 1934 negotiated with Fokker for a manufacturing licencing agreement for Airspeed Ltd (England), and found him \"genial, shrewd and helpful\" but \"already a sick man\"; and he was difficult to deal with as \"his domestic life was irregular\". He worked \"at all hours and in strange places\". Frequently \"his very efficient legal advisor and secretary could not tell us where he was\". Shute said he was \"a good chooser of men\" and had a \"most efficient staff of Dutchmen and ex-Germans\". Fokker died at age 49 in New York in 1939 from pneumococcal meningitis, after a three-week-long illness. In 1940, his ashes were brought to Westerveld Cemetery in Driehuis, North Holland, where they were buried in the family grave. In 1970, Fokker was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame.", "Fokker's nickname was \"The Flying Dutchman\". In popular media, Hurd Hatfield portrayed him in the 1971 film \"Von Richthofen and Brown\" and the character Roy Fokker from the animated series Macross was named in honor of Anthony Fokker. Fokker is portrayed by Craig Kelly in the \"Young Indiana Jones Chronicles: Attack of the Hawkmen\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "History.", "Education.", "International schools." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The Kansai region is a cultural center and the historical heart of Japan, with 11% of the nation's land area and 22,757,897 residents as of 2010. The Osaka Plain with the cities of Osaka and Kyoto forms the core of the region. From there the Kansai area stretches west along the Seto Inland Sea towards Kobe and Himeji, and east encompassing Lake Biwa, Japan's largest freshwater lake. In the north, the region is bordered by the Sea of Japan, to the south by the Kii Peninsula and the Pacific Ocean, and to the east by the Ibuki Mountains and Ise Bay. Four of Japan's national parks lie within its borders, in whole or in part. The area also contains six of the seven top prefectures in terms of national treasures. Other geographical features include Amanohashidate in Kyoto Prefecture and Awaji Island in Hyōgo. The Kansai region is often compared with the Kantō region, which lies to its east and consists primarily of Tokyo and the surrounding area. Whereas the Kantō region is symbolic of standardization throughout Japan, the Kansai region displays many more idiosyncrasies – the culture in Kyoto, the mercantilism of Osaka, the history of Nara, or the cosmopolitanism of Kobe – and represents the focus of counterculture in Japan. This East-West rivalry has deep historical roots, particularly from the Edo period. With a samurai population of less than 1% the culture of the merchant city of Osaka stood in sharp contrast to that of Edo, the seat of power for the Tokugawa shogunate. Many characteristic traits of Kansai people descend from Osaka merchant culture. Catherine Maxwell, an editor for the newsletter \"Omusubi\", writes: \"Kansai residents are seen as being pragmatic, entrepreneurial, down-to-earth and possessing a strong sense of humor. Kantō people, on the other hand, are perceived as more sophisticated, reserved and formal, in keeping with Tokyo’s history and modern status as the nation’s capital and largest metropolis.\" Kansai is known for its food, especially Osaka, as supported by the saying. Popular Osakan dishes include takoyaki, okonomiyaki, kitsune udon and kushikatsu. Kyoto is considered a mecca of traditional Japanese cuisine like kaiseki. Kansai has many wagyu brands such as Kobe beef and Tajima cattle from Hyōgo, Matsusaka beef from Mie and Ōmi beef from Shiga. Sake is another specialty of the region, the areas of Nada-Gogō and Fushimi produce 45% of all sake in Japan. As opposed to food from Eastern Japan, food in the Kansai area tends to be sweeter, and foods such as nattō tend to be less popular. The dialects of the people from the Kansai region, commonly called \"Kansai-ben\", have their own variations of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. Kansai-ben is the group of dialects spoken in the Kansai area, but is often treated as a dialect in its own right. Kansai is one of the most prosperous areas for baseball in Japan. Two Nippon Professional Baseball teams, Hanshin Tigers and Orix Buffaloes, are based in Kansai. Koshien Stadium, the home stadium of the Hanshin Tigers, is also famous for the nationwide high school baseball tournaments. In association football, the Kansai Soccer League was founded in 1966 and currently has 16 teams in two divisions. Cerezo Osaka, Gamba Osaka, and Vissel Kobe belong to J. League Division 1 and Kyoto Sanga F.C. belongs to J. League Division 2, the top professional leagues in Japan.", "The terms,, and have a very deep history, dating back almost as far as the nation of Japan itself. As a part of the Ritsuryō reforms of the seventh and eighth centuries, the Gokishichidō system established the provinces of Yamato, Yamashiro, Kawachi, Settsu and Izumi. Kinai and Kinki, both roughly meaning \"the neighbourhood of the capital\", referred to these provinces. In common usage, Kinai now refers to the Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto (Keihanshin) area, the center of the Kansai region. Kansai (literally \"west of the tollgate\") in its original usage refers to the land west of the Ousaka Tollgate (), the border between Yamashiro Province and Ōmi Province (present-day Kyoto and Shiga prefectures). During the Kamakura period, this border was redefined to include Ōmi and Iga Provinces. It is not until the Edo period that Kansai came to acquire its current form. (\"see Kamigata\") Like all regions of Japan, the Kansai region is not an administrative unit, but rather a cultural and historical one, which emerged much later during the Heian Period after the expansion of Japan saw the development of the Kantō region to the east and the need to differentiate what was previously the center of Japan in Kansai emerged. The Kansai region lays claim to the earliest beginnings of Japanese civilization. It was Nara, the most eastern point on the Silk Road, that became the site of Japan's first permanent capital. This period (AD 710–784) saw the spread of Buddhism to Japan and the construction of Tōdai-ji in 745. The Kansai region also boasts the Shinto religion's holiest shrine at Ise Shrine (built in 690 AD) in Mie prefecture. The Heian period saw the capital moved to Heian-kyō (, present-day Kyoto), where it would remain for over a thousand years until the Meiji Restoration. During this golden age, the Kansai region would give birth to traditional Japanese culture. In 788, Saicho, the founder of the Tendai sect of Buddhism established his monastery at Mount Hiei in Shiga prefecture. Japan's most famous tale, and some say the world's first novel, \"The Tale of Genji\" was penned by Murasaki Shikibu while performing as a lady-in-waiting in Heian-kyo. Noh and Kabuki, Japan's traditional dramatic forms both saw their birth and evolution in Kyoto, while Bunraku, Japanese puppet theater, is native to Osaka. Kansai's unique position in Japanese history, plus the lack of damage from wars or natural disasters, has resulted in Kansai region having more UNESCO World Heritage Listings than any other region of Japan. The five World Heritage Listings include: Buddhist Monuments in the Hōryū-ji Area, Himeji Castle, Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto (Kyoto, Uji and Otsu Cities), Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara, and Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range.", "", "International schools have served expatriates in the Kansai region since 1909. Outside of Tokyo and Yokoyama, Kansai has the largest number of international schools. In 1909, Deutsche Schule Kobe was founded to serve German, Austrian and German-speaking Swiss expatriates, traders and missionaries living in the Kobe area. After a long history of teaching a German curriculum, the school changed to The Primary Years Programme (PYP) in 2002. Today, Deutsche Schule Kobe/European School provides curriculum in three languages: German, English, and Japanese. In 1913, Canadian Methodist Academy opened its doors to sixteen children. The school, renamed Canadian Academy in 1917, served children of missionary parents from grade one through high school and offered boarding facilities for students from throughout Asia. Today, the day and boarding school offers a PreK to Grade 12 education on the campus on Rokkō Island, a man-made island. The school, which is no longer affiliated with Canada or the church, is the largest school for expatriates in Kansai. The school is approved by the Japanese Ministry of Education and accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges(WASC) and the Council of International Schools. The school awards both the International Baccalaureate (IB) and U.S. high school diplomas. The number of international schools burgeoned after World War II. In 1946, St. Michael's International School was established by Anglican Bishop Michael Yashiro and Miss Leonora Lee, a British missionary. Today, the school offers a distinctive British-style primary education based on the National Curriculum of England and Wales. The school has joint accreditation from the Council of International Schools and the Western Association of Schools and Colleges. Brother Charles Fojoucyk and Brother Stephen Weber founded Marist Brothers International School in 1951 after communist authorities pressured them to leave Tientsin, China. Today, the international Montessori - Grade 12 school enrolls approximately 300 students. The school is accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges. In 1957, a missionary homeschooled her son, his best friend and another student in their home. The next year, the home turned into Kyoto Christian Day School and a full-time teacher was hired. The school was renamed Kyoto International School in 1966. Today, the school serves students from two to fourteen years old. The school has bee accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) since 1992 and authorized by the International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO) since 2006. Kansai is also served by Osaka International School, Lycée français international de Kyoto as well as Chinese and Korean schools." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Length.", "Volume.", "Weight/mass.", "Ordinary system.", "Apothecaries' system.", "Idiomatic expressions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The basic unit is the Russian cubit, called the \"arshin\", which has been in use since the 16th century. It was standardized by Peter the Great in the 18th century to measure exactly twenty-eight English inches (). Thus, 80 vershoks = 20 piads = 5 arshins = 140 English inches (). A \"pyad\" (, “palm”, “five”) or \"chetvert\" (, “quarter”) is a hand span, the distance between ends of the spread thumb and index finger. Alternative units:", "As in many ancient systems of measurement the Russian distinguishes between dry and liquid measurements of capacity. Note that the \"chetvert\" appears in both lists with vastly differing values.", "Two systems of weight were in use, an ordinary one in common use, and an apothecaries' system.", "The pood was first mentioned in a number of documents of the twelfth century. It may still be encountered in documents dealing with agricultural production (especially with reference to cereals), and has been revived in determining weights when casting bells in belfries following the rebirth of the Orthodox Churches in the former Soviet lands. It is also popular in the modern fitness industry of the 21st century, as the pood is used when referencing the weight of a kettlebell, a Russian invention, especially in CrossFit.", "The Imperial Russian apothecaries' weight was defined by setting the grain () to be exactly seven-fifths of a \"dolya\". The only unit name shared between the two was the \"funt\" (pound), but the one in the apothecaries' system is exactly seven-eighths of the ordinary \"funt\".", "The obsolete units of measurement survived in Russian culture in a number of idiomatic expressions and proverbs, for example:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Reception.", "Board game." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As the book opens, a dwarf demagogue, Grag Hamcrusher, is apparently murdered. Ethnic tensions between Ankh-Morpork's troll and dwarf communities mount in the build-up to the anniversary of the Battle Of Koom Valley, an ancient battle where trolls and dwarfs seemingly ambushed each other. Lord Vetinari persuades Commander Vimes to interview a vampire applicant to the Ankh-Morpork City Watch. The new recruit, Lance-Constable Salacia \"Sally\" von Humpeding, along with Sergeant Angua and Captain Carrot, is attached to the investigation surrounding Hamcrusher's death. Meanwhile, Corporal Nobbs and Sergeant Colon begin an investigation into the theft of the fifty-foot painting, \"The Battle of Koom Valley\" by the insane artist Methodia Rascal, from a city art gallery. Most of the populace believe the painting holds clues to a treasure hidden in Koom Valley. Nobbs has a new girlfriend, exotic dancer Tawneee; Nobby first caught her eye when slipping an IOU into her garter. Other subplots involve the tension between vampires and werewolves (new recruit Lance-Constable von Humpeding and Sergeant Angua), and the presence of Vetinari's auditor, A.E. Pessimal, in the Watch House. Vimes finds himself pressured by Lord Vetinari to solve the murder quickly, before inter-species war erupts in Ankh-Morpork. Vimes and Sergeant Angua visit the dwarves' under-city mine, where a nervous dwarf named Helmclever draws a mysterious sign in the spilled coffee on his desk. In a fit of his particular brand of omnidirectional anger, Vimes veers off into the mine where he cuts himself, he supposes, on a locked door. Later, he persuades the deep down dwarves to allow Captain Carrot to be the \"\"smelter\"\" who looks for the truth of the murder. When Carrot tries to find that truth, however, he is shown a body that was mutilated after death, and a confusing patch of clues. Angua discovers that a troll really \"was\" in the mine at the time of the murder, much to the consternation and fear of the dwarves who claimed a troll did the killing. This troll turns out to be Brick, who is a gutter troll of the lowest sort, addicted to Troll drugs beginning with \"S,\" (such as Slab, Scrape, Slice, Slide etc.) and who becomes the protégé of Sergeant Detritus. Angua and Sally soon discover four more bodies in the mine, dwarves clearly murdered by other dwarves. One of these dwarves used his own blood to scrawl yet another mysterious rune on the back of a door in the mine—the same door that Commander Vimes accidentally 'cut' himself on the other side of. The Deep-Downers flee for the mountains, taking the talking cube they found at the bottom of Methodia Rascal's well, and the painting of Koom Valley. As a parting shot, they send a squad of their guards to invade the Vimes/Ramkin family mansion and attempt to murder Lady Sybil Ramkin and Young Sam. The two survive unharmed, thanks to the fighting talents of Vimes and the family butler, Willikins, as well as a dwarf being foolish enough to provoke Sybil's dragons. Vimes, along with family and several members of the Watch, travels to Koom Valley. He believes he is pursuing justice, but an astute troll king named Mr. Shine and a bright young grag named Bashfulsson know that Vimes is carrying the Summoning Dark, the quasi-demonic entity that wreaks vengeance on dwarves who have done evil in the sight of other dwarves. Vimes acquired the Summoning Dark when he touched the cursed door in the city mine, but his own internal watchman proves stronger than it is. Vimes soon discovers the real secret of Koom Valley: the trolls and dwarves did not intend war, but had originally come to Koom Valley to broker peace. Weather conspired against them and after a thick fog caused a \"\"double ambush\"\", a flash flood carried them into the caverns below. The Deep-Downers intended to destroy the evidence of this attempt at peace to continue the war between troll and dwarf and had sought out the cave where the surviving trolls and dwarfs had been washed. Preserved as a form of stalagmite, troll and dwarf had died as friends in the cavern while the ancient troll king and dwarf king played a game of Thud. As the book ends, the tomb of the dead trolls and dwarves is opened to the public, in the hope that the two races will learn to end their centuries of animosity. Back in Ankh-Morpork the equipment that the Deep-Downers had abruptly left behind in their haste has been confiscated, under the clause of eminent domain by Lord Vetinari, seeing them as useful for his future \"\"Undertaking\"\" project.", "\"Strange Horizons\" found it to be \"(l)ess-than-transcendent Pratchett\", but noted that this meant it was \"still better and more enjoyable, more worth reading than almost anything but more Pratchett\", and expressed concern that Vimes' \"immensely satisfying\" victory over the Summoning Dark was at the expense of \"the compelling contradiction in his nature\", thereby making him a less unpredictable character. \"Kirkus Reviews\" found it \"(b)itingly relevant and laugh-out-loud funny,\" while assessing that Pratchett \"loses his way a bit towards the end.\" \"Grumpy Old Bookman\" declared it to be one of Pratchett's \"funniest\" — although \"not the strongest (...) in the last five years [2000-2005]\" and considered that it would make a better film than most Discworld novels.", "Thud! is named after, and heavily features, the boardgame Thud. The game was developed earlier as a piece of Discworld merchandise and was inspired by the Discworld novels rather than originating in them. A new edition of the game was released at the same time as the book with a new game variation called 'Koom Valley Thud'." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Characteristics.", "Train schedule.", "Track.", "Distinction between other modes of rail.", "Metro.", "S-Trains.", "Regional rail.", "Inter-city rail.", "High-speed rail.", "Train types.", "Multiple unit type.", "Locomotive hauled services.", "Seat plans.", "Commuter rail systems around the world.", "Africa.", "Asia.", "East Asia.", "Southeast Asia.", "South Asia.", "West Asia.", "Europe.", "Americas.", "North and Central America.", "Central America.", "South America.", "Oceania." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "Most commuter (or suburban) trains are built to main line rail standards, differing from light rail or rapid transit (metro rail) systems by:", "Compared to rapid transit (or metro rail), commuter/suburban rail often has lower frequency, following a schedule rather than fixed intervals, and fewer stations spaced further apart. They primarily serve lower density suburban areas (non inner-city), and often share right-of-way with intercity or freight trains. Some services operate only during peak hours and others uses fewer departures during off peak hours and weekends. Average speeds are high, often 50 km/h (30 mph) or higher. These higher speeds better serve the longer distances involved. Some services include express services which skip some stations in order to run faster and separate longer distance riders from short-distance ones. The general range of commuter trains' distance varies between 15 and 200 km (10 and 125 miles). Sometimes long distances can be explained by that the train runs between two or several cities (e.g. S-Bahn in the Ruhr area of Germany). Distances between stations may vary, but are usually much longer than those of urban rail systems. In city centers the train either has a terminal station or passes through the city centre with notably fewer station stops than those of urban rail systems. Toilets are often available on-board trains and in stations.", "Their ability to coexist with freight or intercity services in the same right-of-way can drastically reduce system construction costs. However, frequently they are built with dedicated tracks within that right-of-way to prevent delays, especially where service densities have converged in the inner parts of the network. Most such trains run on the local standard gauge track. Some systems may run on a narrower or broader gauge. Examples of narrow gauge systems are found in Japan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Switzerland, in the Brisbane (Queensland Rail's City network) and Perth (Transperth) systems in Australia, in some systems in Sweden, and on the in Italy. Some countries and regions, including Finland, India, Pakistan, Russia, Brazil and Sri Lanka, as well as San Francisco (BART) in the US and Melbourne and Adelaide in Australia, use broad gauge track.", "", "Metro rail or rapid transit usually covers a smaller inner-urban area ranging outwards to between 12 km to 20 km (or 8 to 14 miles), has a higher train frequency and runs on separate tracks (underground or elevated), whereas commuter rail often shares tracks, technology and the legal framework within mainline railway systems. However, the classification as a metro or rapid rail can be difficult as both may typically cover a metropolitan area exclusively, run on separate tracks in the centre, and often feature purpose-built rolling stock. The fact that the terminology is not standardised across countries (even across English-speaking countries) further complicates matters. This distinction is most easily made when there are two (or more) systems such as New York's subway and the LIRR and Metro-North Railroad, Paris' Métro and RER along with Transilien, London's tube lines of the Underground and the Overground, (future) Crossrail, Thameslink along with other commuter rail operators, Madrid's Metro and Cercanías, Barcelona's Metro and Rodalies, and Tokyo's subway and the JR lines along with various privately owned and operated commuter rail systems.", "An S-Train is a type of hybrid urban-suburban rail serving a metropolitan region, most often in the German-speaking countries. The most well-known S-train systems are the S-Bahn systems in Germany and Austria with other well-known examples being the S-tog in Copenhagen and S-Bahn/RER systems in Switzerland. In Germany, the S-Bahn is regarded as a train category of its own, and exists in many large cities and in some other areas, with differing service and technical standards from city to city. Most S-Bahns typically behave like commuter rail with most trackage not separated from other trains, and long lines with trains running between cities and suburbs rather than within a city. The distances between stations however, are usually short. In larger systems there is usually a high frequency metro-like central corridor in the city center into which all the lines converge. Typical examples of large city S-Bahns include Munich and Frankfurt. S-Bahns also exist in some mid-size cities like Rostock and Magdeburg but behave more like typical commuter rail with lower frequencies and very little exclusive trackage. In Berlin, the S-Bahn systems arguably fulfill all considerations of a true metro system (despite the existence of U-Bahns as well) – the trains run on tracks that are entirely separated from other trains, there are short distances between stations, the trains are high frequency, and use tunnels but do run a bit further out from the city centre compared with U-Bahn. In Hamburg and Copenhagen, other, diesel driven trains, do continue where the S-Bahn ends (\"A-Bahn\" in Hamburg area, and \"L-tog\" in Copenhagen).", "Regional rail usually provides rail services between towns and cities, rather than purely linking major population hubs in the way inter-city rail does. Regional rail operates outside major cities. Unlike Inter-city, it stops at most or all stations between cities. It provides a service between smaller communities along the line, and also connections with long-distance services at interchange stations located at junctions or at larger towns along the line. Alternative names are \"local train\" or \"stopping train\". Examples include the former BR's Regional Railways, France's TER (\"Transport express régional\"), Germany's DB Regio and South Korea's Tonggeun services. Regional rail does not exist in this sense in the United States, so the term \"regional rail\" has become synonymous with commuter rail there, although the two are more clearly defined in Europe.", "In some European countries the distinction between commuter trains and long-distance/intercity trains is very hard to make, because of the relatively short distances involved. For example, so-called \"intercity\" trains in Belgium and the Netherlands carry many commuters and their equipment, range and speeds are similar to those of commuter trains in some larger countries. In the United Kingdom there is no real division of organisation and brand name between commuter, regional and inter-city trains, making it hard to categorize train connections. Russian commuter trains, on the other hand, frequently cover areas larger than Belgium itself, although these are still short distances by Russian standards. They have a different ticketing system from long-distance trains, and in major cities they often operate from a separate section of the train station. The easiest way to identify these \"inter-city\" services is that they tend to operate as express services - only linking the main stations in the cities they link, not stopping at any other stations. However, this term is used in Australia (Sydney for example) to describe the regional trains operating beyond the boundaries of the suburban services, even though some of these \"inter-city\" services stop all stations similar to German regional services. In this regard, the German service delineations and corresponding naming conventions are clearer and better used for academic purposes.", "Sometimes high-speed rail can serve daily use of commuters. The Japanese Shinkansen high speed rail system is heavily used by commuters in the Greater Tokyo Area. They commute between 100 and 200 km by Shinkansen. To meet the demand of commuters, JR sells commuter discount passes and operates 16-car bilevel E4 Series Shinkansen trains at rush hour, providing a capacity of 1,600 seats. Several lines in China, such as the Beijing–Tianjin Intercity Railway and the Shanghai–Nanjing High-Speed Railway, serve a similar role with many more under construction or planned. The high-speed services linking Zürich, Bern and Basel in Switzerland () have brought the Central Business Districts (CBDs) of these three cities within 1 hour of each other. This has resulted in unexpectedly high demand for new commuter trips between the three cities and a corresponding increase in suburban rail passengers accessing the high-speed services at the main city-centre stations (or Hauptbahnhof). The Regional-Express commuter service between Munich and Nuremberg in Germany go in () along a 300 km/h high-speed line. The regional trains Stockholm–Uppsala, Stockholm–Västerås, Stockholm–Eskilstuna and Gothenburg–Trollhättan in Sweden reach and have many daily commuters.", "Commuter/suburban trains are usually optimized for maximum passenger volume, in most cases without sacrificing too much comfort and luggage space, though they seldom have all the amenities of long-distance trains. Cars may be single- or double-level, and aim to provide seating for all. Compared to intercity trains, they have less space, fewer amenities and limited baggage areas.", "Commuter rail trains are usually composed of multiple units, which are self-propelled, bidirectional, articulated passenger rail cars with driving motors on each (or every other) bogie. Depending on local circumstances and tradition they may be powered either by diesel engines located below the passenger compartment (diesel multiple units) or by electricity picked up from third rails or overhead lines (electric multiple units). Multiple units are almost invariably equipped with control cabs at both ends, which is why such units are so frequently used to provide commuter services, due to the associated short turn-around time.", "Locomotive hauled services are used in some countries or locations. This is often a case of asset sweating, by using a single large combined fleet for intercity and regional services. Loco hauled services are usually run in push-pull formation, that is, the train can run with the locomotive at the \"front\" or \"rear\" of the train (pushing or pulling). Trains are often equipped with a control cab at the other end of the train from the locomotive, allowing the train operator to operate the train from either end. The motive power for locomotive-hauled commuter trains may be either electric or diesel-electric, although some countries, such as Germany and some of the former Soviet-bloc countries, also use diesel-hydraulic locomotives.", "In the US and some other countries, a three-and-two seat plan is used. However, few people sit in the middle seat on these trains because they feel crowded and uncomfortable. In Japan and South Korea, longitudinal (sideways window-lining) seating is widely used in many commuter rail trains to increase capacity in rush hours. Carriages are usually not organized to increase seating capacity (although in some trains at least one carriage would feature more doors to facilitate easier boarding and alighting and bench seats so that they can be folded up during rush hour to provide more standing room) even in the case of commuting longer than 50 km and commuters in the Greater Tokyo Area and the Seoul metropolitan area have to stand in the train for more than an hour.", "", "Currently there are not many examples of commuter rail in Africa. Metrorail operates in the major cities of South Africa, and there are some commuter rail services in Algeria, Botswana, Kenya, Morocco, Egypt and Tunisia. In Algeria, SNTF operates commuter rail lines between the capital Algiers and its southern and eastern suburbs. They also serve to connect Algiers' main universities to each other. The Dar es Salaam commuter rail offers intracity services in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. In Botswana, the (Botswana Railways) \"BR Express\" has a commuter train between Lobatse and Gaborone.", "", "In Japan, commuter rail systems have extensive network and frequent service and are heavily used. In many cases, Japanese commuter rail is operationally more like a typical metro system (with very high operating frequencies, an emphasis on standing passengers, short station spacing) than it is like commuter rail in other countries. Japanese commuter rail also tends to be heavily interlined with subway lines, with commuter rail trains continuing into the subway network, and then out onto different commuter rail systems on the other side of the city. Many Japanese commuter systems operate several levels of express trains to reduce the travel time to distant locations, often using station bypass tracks instead of dedicated express tracks. It is notable that the larger Japanese commuter rail systems are owned and operated by for-profit private railway companies, without public subsidy. Commuter rail systems have been inaugurated in several cities in China such as Beijing, Shanghai, Zhengzhou, Wuhan, Changsha and the Pearl River Delta. With plans for large systems in northeastern Zhejiang, Jingjinji, and Yangtze River Delta areas. The level of service varies considerably from line to line ranging high to near high speeds. More developed and established lines such as the Guangshen Railway have more frequent metro like service. Hong Kong MTR's East Rail Line, West Rail Line and Tung Chung Line were built to commuter rail standards but are operated as a metro system. In Taiwan, Western Line in Taipei-Taoyuan Metropolitan Area, Taichung Metropolitan Area, Tainan-Kaohsiung Metropolitan Area as well as Neiwan-Liujia Line in Hsinchu Area is considered commuter rail. Other examples in East Asia include Seoul Metropolitan Subway of which some lines are suburban lines operated by Korail in South Korea.", "In Indonesia, the KRL Commuterline is the largest commuter rail system in the country, serving Jakarta metropolitan area. It connects the Jakarta city center with surrounding cities and sub-urbans in Banten and West Java provinces, including Depok, Bogor, Tangerang, Bekasi, Serpong and Maja. In July 2015, KA Commuter Jabodetabek served more than 850,000 passengers per day, which is almost triple of the 2011 figures, but still less than 3.5% of all Jabodetabek commutes. Other commuter rail systems in Indonesia include the Metro Surabaya Commuter Line, Prambanan Ekspres Commuter, Solo Ekspres, Kedung Sepur, Greater Bandung Commuter, and Cut Meutia. In the Philippines, the Philippine National Railways has two commuter rail systems currently operational; the PNR Metro Commuter Line in the Greater Manila Area and the PNR Bicol Commuter in the Bicol Region. A new commuter rail line in Metro Manila, the North–South Commuter Railway, is currently under construction. Its North section is set to be partially opened by 2021. In Malaysia, the KTM Komuter serves Kuala Lumpur and the surrounding Klang Valley area. In Thailand, the Greater Bangkok Commuter rail and the Airport Rail Link serve the Bangkok Metropolitan Region. The SRT Red Lines, a new commuter line in Bangkok, started construction in 2009. It is currently slated to be opened by 2020. Another commuter rail system in Southeast Asia is the Yangon Circular Railway in Myanmar.", "In India, commuter rail systems are present in major cities. Mumbai Suburban Railway, the oldest suburban rail system in Asia, carries more than 7.24 million commuters on a daily basis which constitutes more than half of the total daily passenger capacity of the Indian Railways itself. Kolkata Suburban Railway is the biggest Suburban Railway network in India covering 348 stations carries more than 3.5 million commuters per day. The Chennai Suburban Railway along with MRTS is another railway of comparison where more than 1 million people travel daily to different areas in Chennai. Other commuter railways in India include Hyderabad MMTS, Delhi Suburban Railway, Pune Suburban Railway and Lucknow-Kanpur Suburban Railway. Delhi Regional Rapid Transit System(RRTS) is under construction on 3 routes in Delhi NCR.The rotes have planned according to RER suburban lines in Paris.", "In Iran, SYSTRA has done a \"Tehran long term urban rail study\". SYSTRA proposed 4 express lines similar to RER suburban lines in Paris. Tehran Metro is going to construct express lines. For instance, the Rahyab Behineh, a consultant for Tehran Metro, is studying Tehran Express Line 2. Tehran Metro currently has a commuter line between Tehran and Karaj. Isfahan has two lines to its suburbs Baharestan and Fuladshahr under construction, and a third line to Shahinshahr is planned.", "Major metropolitan areas in most European countries are usually served by extensive commuter/suburban rail systems. Well-known examples include BG Voz in Belgrade (Serbia), S-Bahn in Germany and German-speaking areas of Switzerland and Austria, Proastiakos in Greece, RER in France and Belgium, suburban lines in Milan (Italy), Cercanías and Rodalies (Catalonia) in Spain, CP Urban Services in Portugal, Esko in Prague and Ostrava (Czech Republic), HÉV in Budapest (Hungary) and DART in Dublin (Ireland). In Russia, Ukraine and some other countries of the former Soviet Union, electrical multiple unit passenger suburban trains called Elektrichka are widespread. In Sweden, electrified commuter rail systems known as \"Pendeltåg\" are present in the cities of Stockholm and Gothenburg. The Stockholm commuter rail system, which began in 1968, is similar to the S-Bahn train systems of Munich and Frankfurt such that it may share railway tracks with inter-city trains and freight trains, but for the most part run on its own dedicated tracks, and that it is primarily used to transport passengers from nearby towns and other suburban areas into the city centre, not for transportation inside the city centre. The Gothenburg commuter rail system, which began in 1960, is similar to the Stockholm system, but does fully share tracks with long-distance trains. Other train systems that are also considered as commuter rail but not counted as \"pendeltåg\" include Roslagsbanan and Saltsjöbanan in Stockholm, Mälartåg in the Mälaren Valley, Östgötapendeln in Östergötland County, Upptåget in Uppsala County, Norrtåg in northern Norrland and Skåne Commuter Rail in Skåne County. Skåne Commuter Rail (\"Pågatågen\") acts also as a regional rail system, as it serves cities over 100 km (62 miles) and over one hour from the principal city of Malmö. In Norway, the Oslo commuter rail system mostly shares tracks with more long-distance trains, but also runs on some local railways without other traffic. Oslo has the largest commuter rail system in the Nordic countries in terms of line lengths and number of stations. But some lines have travel times (over an hour from Oslo) and frequencies (once per hour) which are more like regional trains. Also Bergen, Stavanger and Trondheim have commuter rail systems. These have only one or two lines each and they share tracks with other trains. In Finland, the Helsinki commuter rail network runs on dedicated tracks from Helsinki Central railway station to Leppävaara and Kerava. The Ring Rail Line serves Helsinki Airport and northern suburbs of Vantaa and is exclusively used by the commuter rail network. On 15 December 2019 Tampere got its own commuter rail service. In Poland, commuter rail systems exist in Tricity, Warsaw, Krakow and Katowice. There is also a similar system planned in Wrocław and Łódź. In Romania, the first commuter trains were introduced in December 2019. They operate currently between Bucharest and Funduea or Buftea.", "", "In the United States, Canada, Costa Rica, El Salvador and Mexico regional passenger rail services are provided by governmental or quasi-governmental agencies, with a limited number of metropolitan areas served. Eight commuter rail systems in the United States carried over ten million trips in 2018, those being in descending order: Other commuter rail systems in the United States (not in ridership order) are: North American commuter rail systems outside of the United States include:", "", "Examples include an commuter system in the Buenos Aires metropolitan area, the long Supervia in Rio de Janeiro, the Metrotrén in Santiago, Chile, and the Valparaíso Metro in Valparaíso, Chile. Another example is Companhia Paulista de Trens Metropolitanos (CPTM) in Greater São Paulo, Brazil. CPTM has 94 stations with seven lines, numbered starting on 7 (the lines 1 to 6 and the line 15 belong to the São Paulo Metro), with a total length of.", "The five major cities in Australia have suburban railway systems in their metropolitan areas. These networks have frequent services, with frequencies varying from every 10 to every 30 minutes on most suburban lines, and up to 3–5 minutes in peak on bundled underground lines in the city centres of Sydney, Brisbane, Perth and Melbourne. The networks in each state developed from mainline railways and have never been completely operationally separate from long distance and freight traffic, unlike metro systems in some comparable countries, but nevertheless have cohesive identities and are the backbones of their respective cities' public transport system. The suburban networks are almost completely electrified. The main suburban rail networks in Australia are: New Zealand has two frequent suburban rail services comparable to those in Australia: the Auckland rail network is operated by Transdev Auckland and the Wellington rail network is operated by Transdev Wellington." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Identity and culture.", "Language.", "Religion.", "National symbols.", "Diaspora.", "Canada.", "France & The Netherlands.", "United Kingdom.", "United States." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The sense of \"Flemish\" identity increased significantly after the Belgian Revolution. Prior to this, the term \"Flemings\" in the Dutch language was in first place used for the inhabitants of the former County of Flanders. Flemish however had been used since the 14th century to refer to the language and dialects of both the peoples of Flanders and the Duchy of Brabant. The modern Belgian province of Limburg was not part of the treaty, and only came to be considered \"Flemish\" in the 19th century. In 1830 the southern provinces of the United Netherlands proclaimed their independence. French-dialect speaking population, as well as the administration and elites, feared the loss of their status and autonomy under Dutch rule while the rapid industrialization in the south highlighted economic differences between the two. Under French rule (1794–1815), French was enforced as the only official language in public life, resulting in a Frenchification of the elites and, to a lesser extent, the middle classes. The Dutch king allowed the use of both Dutch and French dialects as administrative languages in the Flemish provinces. He also enacted laws to reestablish Dutch in schools. The language policy was not the only cause of the secession; the Roman Catholic majority viewed the sovereign, the Protestant William I, with suspicion and were heavily stirred by the Roman Catholic Church which suspected William of wanting to enforce Protestantism. Lastly, Belgian liberals were dissatisfied with William for his allegedly despotic behaviour. Following the revolt, the language reforms of 1823 were the first Dutch laws to be abolished and the subsequent years would see a number of laws restricting the use of the Dutch language. This policy led to the gradual emergence of the Flemish Movement, that was built on earlier anti-French feelings of injustice, as expressed in writings (for example by the late 18th-century writer, Jan Verlooy) which criticized the Southern Francophile elites. The efforts of this movement during the following 150 years, have to no small extent facilitated the creation of the \"de jure\" social, political and linguistic equality of Dutch from the end of the 19th century. After the Hundred Years War many Flemings migrated to the Azores. By 1490 there were 2,000 Flemings living in the Azores. Willem van der Haegen was the original sea captain who brought settlers from Flanders to the Azores. Today many Azoreans trace their genealogy from present day Flanders. Many of their customs and traditions are distinctively Flemish in nature such as Windmills used for grain, São Jorge cheese and several religious events such as the imperios and the feast of the Cult of the Holy Spirit.", "Within Belgium, Flemings form a clearly distinguishable group set apart by their language and customs. However, when compared to the Netherlands most of these cultural and linguistic differences quickly fade, as the Flemish share the same language, similar or identical customs and (though chiefly with the southern part of today's Netherlands) traditional religion with the Dutch. However, the popular perception of being a single polity varies greatly, depending on subject matter, locality and personal background. Generally, Flemings will seldom identify themselves as being Dutch and vice versa, especially on a national level. This is partly caused by the popular stereotypes in the Netherlands as well as Flanders which are mostly based on the 'cultural extremes' of both Northern and Southern culture. But also in great part because of the history of emancipation of their culture in Belgium, which has left many Flemings with a high degree of national consciousness, which can be very marked among some Dutch-speaking Belgians. Alongside this overarching political and social affiliation, there also exists a strong tendency towards regionalism, in which individuals greatly identify themselves culturally through their native province, city, region or dialect they speak.", "Flemings speak Dutch (specifically its southern variant, which is often colloquially called 'Flemish'). It is the majority language in Belgium, being spoken natively by three-fifths of the population. Its various dialects contain a number of lexical and a few grammatical features which distinguish them from the standard language. As in the Netherlands, the pronunciation of Standard Dutch is affected by the native dialect of the speaker. At the same time East Flemish forms a continuum with both Brabantic and West Flemish. Standard Dutch is primarily based on the Hollandic dialect (spoken in the northwestern Netherlands) and to a lesser extent on Brabantic, which is the most dominant Dutch dialect of the Southern Netherlands and Flanders.", "Approximately 75% of the Flemish people are by baptism assumed Roman Catholic, though a still diminishing minority of less than 8% attends Mass on a regular basis and nearly half of the inhabitants of Flanders are agnostic or atheist. A 2006 inquiry in Flanders, showed 55% chose to call themselves religious, 36% believe that God created the universe.", "The official flag and coat of arms of the Flemish Community represents a black lion with red claws and tongue on a yellow field (\"or a lion rampant sable armed and langued gules\"). A flag with a completely black lion had been in wide use before 1991 when the current version was officially adopted by the Flemish Community. That older flag was at times recognized by government sources (alongside the version with red claws and tongue). Today, only the flag bearing a lion with red claws and tongue is recognized by Belgian law, while the flag with the all black lion is mostly used by Flemish separatist movements. The Flemish authorities also use two logos of a highly stylized black lion which show the claws and tongue in either red or black. The first documented use of the Flemish lion was on the seal of Philip d'Alsace, count of Flanders of 1162. As of that date the use of the Flemish coat of arms (\"or a lion rampant sable\") remained in use throughout the reigns of the d'Alsace, Flanders (2nd) and Dampierre dynasties of counts. The motto \"Vlaanderen de Leeuw\" (Flanders the lion) was allegedly present on the arms of Pieter de Coninck at the Battle of the Golden Spurs on July 11, 1302. After the acquisition of Flanders by the Burgundian dukes the lion was only used in escutcheons. It was only after the creation of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands that the coat of arms (surmounted by a chief bearing the Royal Arms of the Netherlands) once again became the official symbol of the new province East Flanders.", "", "The first sizeable wave of Flemish migration to Canada occurred in the 1870s, when Saint Boniface proved a popular destination for work in local flour mills, brick yards and railway yards. Similarly, Flemish were drawn to smaller villages in Manitoba, where jobs in farming were available. In the early 20th Century, Flemish settled in significant numbers across Ontario, particularly attracted by the tobacco growing industry, in the towns of Chatham, Leamington, Tillsonburg, Wallaceburg, Simcoe, Sarnia and Port Hope.", "The original County of Flanders encompassed areas which today belong to France and The Netherlands, but are still host to people of Flemish descent and some continued use of Flemish Dutch. Namely, these are Zeelandic Flanders and the Arrondissement of Dunkirk (historically known as French Westhoek). The people of North Brabant also share related ancestry.", "Prior to the 1600s, there were several substantial waves of Flemish migration to the United Kingdom. Today, numerous towns in England and Wales boast large or majority populations with Flemish ancestry as a result. The first wave fled to England in the early 12th Century, escaping damages from a storm across the coast of Flanders, where they were largely resettled in Pembrokeshire by Henry I. They changed the culture and accent in south Pembrokeshire to such an extent, that it led to the area receiving the name Little England beyond Wales. Haverfordwest and Tenby consequently grew as important settlements for the Flemish settlers. In the 14th Century, encouraged by King Edward III and perhaps in part due to his marriage to Philippa of Hainault, another wave of migration to England occurred when skilled cloth weavers from Flanders were granted permission to settle there and contribute to the then booming cloth and woollen industries. These migrants particularly settled in the growing Lancashire and Yorkshire textile towns of Manchester, Bolton, Blackburn, Liversedge, Bury, Halifax and Wakefield. Demand for Flemish weavers in England occurred again in both the 15th and 16th Centuries, but this time particularly focused on towns close to the coastline of East Anglia and South East England. Many from this generation of weavers went to Colchester, Sandwich and Braintree. In 1582, it was estimated that there could have been around 1600 Flemish in Sandwich, today almost half of its total population. London, Norwich and North Walsham, however, were the most popular destinations, and the nickname for Norwich City F.C. fans, Canaries, is derived from the fact that many of the Norfolk weavers kept pet canaries. The town of Whitefield, near Bury, also claims to owe its name to Flemish cloth weavers that settled in the area during this era, who would lay their cloths out in the sun to bleach them.", "In the United States, the cities of De Pere and Green Bay in Wisconsin attracted many Flemish and Walloon immigrants during the 19th Century. The small town of Belgique was settled almost entirely by Flemish immigrants, although a significant number of its residents left after the Great Flood of 1993." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Life and work.", "\"Aegyptiaca\".", "Transmission and Reception.", "Sources and methods.", "King lists.", "Transcriptions of Pharaonic names.", "Content.", "Similarities with Berossos.", "Effect of \"Aegyptiaca\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The original Egyptian version of Manetho's name is lost, but some speculate it means \"Truth of Thoth\", \"Gift of Thoth\", \"Beloved of Thoth\", \"Beloved of Neith\", or \"Lover of Neith\". Less accepted proposals are \"Myinyu-heter\" (\"Horseherd\" or \"Groom\") and \"Ma'ani-Djehuti\" (\"I have seen Thoth\"). In the Greek language, the earliest fragments (the inscription of uncertain date on the base of a marble bust from the temple of Serapis at Carthage and the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus of the 1st century AD) writes his name as Μανέθων \"Manethōn\", so the Latinised rendering of his name here is given as Manetho. Other Greek renderings include \"Manethōs\", \"Manethō\", \"Manethos\", \"Manēthōs\", \"Manēthōn\", and \"Manethōth\". In Latin it is written as \"Manethon\", \"Manethos\", \"Manethonus\", and \"Manetos\".", "Although no sources for the dates of his life and death remain, Manetho is associated with the reign of Ptolemy I Soter (323–283 BC) by Plutarch (c. 46–120 AD) while George Syncellus links Manetho directly with Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–246 BC). If the mention of someone named Manetho in the \"Hibeh Papyri\", dated to 241/240 BC, is in fact the celebrated author of the \"Aegyptiaca\", then Manetho may well have been working during the reign of Ptolemy III Euergetes (246–222 BC) as well but at a very advanced age. Though the historicity of Manetho of Sebennytus was taken for granted by Josephus and later authors the question as to whether he actually existed remains problematic. The Manetho of the \"Hibeh Papyri\" has no title and this letter deals with affairs in Upper Egypt not Lower Egypt where our Manetho is thought to have functioned as a chief priest. The name Manetho is rare but there is no reason \"a priori\" to assume that the Manetho of the \"Hibeh Papyri\" is the historian from Sebennytus who is thought to have authored the \"Aegyptiaca\" for Ptolemy Philadelphus. Manetho is described as a native Egyptian and Egyptian would have been his mother tongue. Though the topics he supposedly wrote about dealt with Egyptian matters, he is said to have written exclusively in the Greek language for a Greek-speaking audience. Other literary works attributed to him include \"Against Herodotus\", \"The Sacred Book\", \"On Antiquity and Religion\", \"On Festivals\", \"On the Preparation of Kyphi\", and the \"Digest of Physics\". The treatise \"Book of Sothis\" has also been attributed to Manetho. It is important to note that not one of these works are actually attested during the Ptolemaic period when Manetho of Sebennytus is said to have lived. In fact, they are not mentioned in any source prior to the 1st century AD. This would be a gap of three centuries between the time the \"Aegyptiaca\" was supposedly composed and its first attestation. The gap is even larger for the other works attributed to Manetho such as \"The Sacred Book\" which is mentioned for the very first time by Eusebius in the 4th century AD. If Manetho of Sebennytus was an historical figure he was probably a priest of the sun-god Ra at Heliopolis (according to George Syncellus, he was the chief priest). He was considered by Plutarch to be an authority on the cult of Serapis (a derivation of Osiris and Apis). Serapis itself was a Greco-Macedonian version of the Egyptian cult, probably started after Alexander the Great's establishment of Alexandria in Egypt. A statue of the god was imported in 286 BC by Ptolemy I Soter (or in 278 BC by Ptolemy II Philadelphus) as Tacitus and Plutarch attest. There was also a tradition in antiquity that Timotheus of Athens (an authority on Demeter at Eleusis) directed the project together with Manetho, but the source of this information is not clear and it may originate from one of the literary works attributed to Manetho, in which case it has no independent value and does not corroborate the historicity of Manetho the priest-historian of the early 3rd century BC.", "The \"Aegyptiaca\" (, \"Aigyptiaka\"), the \"History of Egypt\", may have been Manetho's largest work, and certainly the most important. It was organised chronologically and divided into three volumes, and his division of rulers into dynasties was an innovation. However, he did not use the term in the modern sense, by bloodlines, but rather, introduced new dynasties whenever he detected some sort of discontinuity whether geographical (Dynasty IV from Memphis, Dynasty V from Elephantine), or genealogical (especially in Dynasty I, he refers to each successive Pharaoh as the \"son\" of the previous to define what he means by \"continuity\"). Within the superstructure of a genealogical table, he fills in the gaps with substantial narratives of the Pharaonic kings. Some have suggested that \"Aegyptiaca\" was written as a competing account to Herodotus' \"Histories,\" to provide a national history for Egypt that did not exist before. From this perspective, \"Against Herodotus\" may have been an abridged version or just a part of \"Aegyptiaca\" that circulated independently. Unfortunately, neither survives in its original form today.", "The problem with a close study of Manetho, despite the reliance of Egyptologists on him for their reconstructions of the Egyptian dynasties, is that not only was \"Aegyptiaca\" not preserved as a whole, but it also became involved in a rivalry among advocates of Egyptian, Jewish and Greek histories in the form of supporting polemics. During this period, disputes raged concerning the oldest civilizations, and so Manetho's account was probably excerpted during this time for use in this argument with significant alterations. Material similar to Manetho's has been found in Lysimakhos of Alexandria, a brother of Philo, and it has been suggested that this was inserted into Manetho. We do not know when this might have occurred, but scholars specify a \"terminus ante quem\" at the 1st century AD, when Josephus began writing. The earliest surviving attestation to Manetho is that of Josephus' \"Contra Apionem\" (\"Against Apion\") nearly four centuries after \"Aegyptiaca\" was composed. Even here, it is clear that Josephus did not have the originals, and constructed a polemic against Manetho without them. Avaris and Osarseph are both mentioned twice (1.78, 86–87; 238, 250). \"Apion\" 1.95–97 is merely a list of kings with no narratives until 1.98, while running across two of Manetho's dynasties without mention (Dynasties XVIII and XIX). Contemporaneously or perhaps after Josephus wrote, an \"Epitome\" of Manetho's work must have been circulated. This would have involved preserving the outlines of his dynasties and a few details deemed significant. For the first ruler of the first Dynasty, Menes, we learn that \"he was snatched and killed by a hippopotamus\". The extent to which the epitome preserved Manetho's original writing is unclear, so caution must be exercised. Nevertheless, the epitome was preserved by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius of Caesarea. Because Africanus predates Eusebius, his version is usually considered more reliable, but there is no assurance that this is the case. Eusebius in turn was preserved by Jerome in his Latin translation, an Armenian translation, and by George Syncellus. Syncellus recognized the similarities between Eusebius and Africanus, so he placed them side by side in his work, \"Ecloga Chronographica\". These last four copies are what remains of the epitome of Manetho. Other significant fragments include Malalas's \"Chronographia\" and \"Excerpta Latina Barbari\" (\"Excerpts in Bad Latin\").", "Manetho's methods involved the use of king-lists to provide a structure for his history. There were precedents to his writing available in Egypt (plenty of which have survived to this day), and his Hellenistic and Egyptian background would have been influential in his writing. Josephus records him admitting to using \"nameless oral tradition\" (1.105) and \"myths and legends\" (1.229) for his account, and there is no reason to doubt this, as admissions of this type were common among historians of that era. His familiarity with Egyptian legends is indisputable, but how he came to know Greek is more open to debate. He must have been familiar with Herodotus, and in some cases, he even attempted to synchronize Egyptian history with Greek (for example, equating King Memnon with Amenophis, and Armesis with Danaos). This suggests he was also familiar with the Greek Epic Cycle (for which the Ethiopian Memnon is slain by Achilles during the Trojan War) and the history of Argos (in Aeschylus's \"Suppliants\"). However, it has also been suggested that these were later interpolations, particularly when the epitome was being written, so these guesses are at best tentative. At the very least, he wrote in fluent \"Koinê\" Greek.", "The king-list that Manetho had access to is unknown to us, but of the surviving king-lists, the one most similar to his is the Turin Royal Canon (or \"Turin Papyrus\"). The oldest source with which we can compare to Manetho are the \"Old Kingdom Annals\" (c. 2500-2200 BC). From the New Kingdom are the list at Karnak (constructed by order of Thutmose), two at Abydos (by Seti I and Ramesses II— the latter a duplicate but updated version of the former), and the Saqqara list by the priest Tenry. The provenance of the \"Old Kingdom Annals\" is unknown, surviving as the Palermo Stone. The differences between the \"Annals\" and Manetho are great. The \"Annals\" only reach to the fifth dynasty, but its pre-dynastic rulers are listed as the kings of Lower Egypt and kings of Upper Egypt. By contrast, Manetho lists several Greek and Egyptian gods beginning with Hephaistos and Helios. Secondly, the \"Annals\" give annual reports of the activities of the kings, while there is little probability that Manetho would have been able to go into such detail. The New Kingdom lists are each selective in their listings: that of Seti I, for instance, lists seventy-six kings from Dynasties I to XIX omitting the Hyksos rulers and those associated with the heretic Akhenaten. The Saqqara list, contemporaneous with Ramesses II, has fifty-eight names, with similar omissions. If Manetho used these lists at all, he would have been unable to get all of his information from them alone, due to the selective nature of their records. Verbrugghe and Wickersham argue: These large \"stelae\" stand in contrast to the Turin Royal Canon (like Saqqara, contemporaneous with Ramesses II), written in hieratic script. Like Manetho, it begins with the gods, and seems to be an epitome very similar in spirit and style to Manetho. Interestingly, the opposite side of the papyrus includes government records. Verbrugghe and Wickersham suggest that a comprehensive list like this would be necessary for a government office \"to date contracts, leases, debts, titles, and other instruments (2000:106)\" and so could not have been selective the way the king-lists in temples were. Despite numerous differences between the Turin Canon and Manetho, the format must have been available to him. As a priest (or chief priest), he would have had access to practically all written materials in the temple. While the precise origins for Manetho's king-list are unknown, it was certainly a Northern Lower Egyptian one. This can be deduced most noticeably from his selection of the kings for the Third Intermediate Period. Manetho consistently includes the Tanite Dynasty 21 and Dynasty 22 lineage in his \"Epitome\" such as Psusennes I, Amenemope and even such short-lived kings like Amenemnisu (5 years) and Osochor (6 years). In contrast, he ignores the existence of Theban kings such as Osorkon III, Takelot III, Harsiese A and Pinedjem I and kings from Middle Egypt like Peftjaubast of Herakleopolis. This implies that Manetho derived the primary sources for his \"Epitome\" from a local city's temple library in the region of the River Nile Delta which was controlled by the Tanite-based Dynasty 21 and Dynasty 22 kings. The Middle and Upper Egyptian Pharaohs did not have any effect upon this specific region of the Delta; hence their exclusion from Manetho's king-list.", "By the Middle Kingdom, Egyptian kings each had five different names, the \"Horus\" name; the \"Two Ladies\" name; the \"Gold Horus\" name; the \"praenomen\" or \"throne name\"; and a \"nomen\", the personal name given at birth (also called a \"Son of Ra\" name as it was preceded by \"Sa Re'\"). Some Pharaohs also had multiple examples within these names, such as Ramesses II who used six Horus names at various times. Because Manetho's transcriptions agree with many king-lists, it is generally accepted that he was reliant on one or more such lists, and it is not clear to what extent he was aware of the different pharaonic names of rulers long past (and he had alternate names for some). Not all the different names for each king have been uncovered. Manetho did not choose consistently from the five different types of names, but in some cases, a straightforward transcription is possible. Egyptian \"Men\" or \"Meni\" (Son of Ra and king-list names) becomes \"Menes\" (officially, this is Pharaoh I.1 Narmer—\"I\" represents Dynasty I, and \"1\" means the first king of that dynasty), while \"Menkauhor\"/\"Menkahor\" (Throne and king-list names, the Horus names is \"Menkhau\" and the Son of Ra name is \"Kaiu Horkaiu[...]\") is transcribed as \"Menkheres\" (V.7 Menkauhor). Others involve a slight abbreviation, such as \"A'akheperen-Re'\" (Throne and king-list names) becoming \"Khebron\" (XVIII.4 Thutmose II). A few more have consonants switched for unknown reasons, as for example \"Tausret\" becoming \"Thouoris\" (XIX.6 Twosre/Tausret). One puzzle is in the conflicting names of some early dynastic kings— though they did not have all five titles, they still had multiple names. I.3/4 Djer, whose Son of Ra name is \"Itti\" is considered the basis for Manetho's I.2 Athothis. I.4 Oenephes then is a puzzle unless it is compared with Djer's Gold Horus name, \"Ennebu\". It may be that Manetho duplicated the name or he had a source for a name unknown to us. Finally, there are some names where the association is a complete mystery to us. V.6 Rhathoures/Niuserre's complete name was \"Set-ib-tawi Set-ib-Nebty Netjeri-bik-nebu Ni-user-Re' Ini Ni-user-Re'\", but Manetho writes it as Rhathoures. It may be that some pharaohs were known by names other than even just the five official ones. Thus, how Manetho transcribed these names varies, and as such we cannot reconstruct the original Egyptian forms of the names. However, because of the simplicity with which Manetho transcribed long names (see above), they were preferred until original king-lists began to be uncovered in Egyptian sites, translated, and corroborated. Manetho's division of dynasties, however, is still used as a basis for all Egyptian discussions.", "Volume 1 begins from the earliest times, listing gods and demigods as kings of Egypt. Stories of Isis, Osiris, Set, or Horus might have been found here. Manetho does not transliterate either, but gives the Greek equivalents by a convention that predates him: (Egyptian) Ptah = (Greek) Hephaistos; Isis = Demeter; Thoth = Hermes; Horus = Apollo; Seth = Typhon; etc. This is one of the clues as to how syncretism developed between seemingly disparate religions. He then proceeds to Dynastic Egypt, from Dynasty I to XI. This would have included the Old Kingdom, the First Intermediate Period, and the early Middle Kingdom. Volume 2 covers Dynasties XII–XIX, which includes the end of the Middle Kingdom and the Second Intermediate Period (XV–XVII—the Hyksos invasion), and then their expulsion and the establishment of the New Kingdom (XVIII onward). The Second Intermediate Period was of particular interest to Josephus, where he equated the Hyksos or \"shepherd-kings\" as the ancient Israelites who eventually made their way out of Egypt (\"Apion\" 1.82–92). He even includes a brief etymological discussion of the term \"Hyksos\". Volume 3 continues with Dynasty XX and concludes with Dynasty XXX (or XXXI, see below). The Saite Renaissance occurs in Dynasty XXVI, while Dynasty XXVII involves the Achaemenid interruption of Egyptian rule. Three more local dynasties are mentioned, though they must have overlapped with Persian rule. Dynasty XXXI consisted of three Persian rulers, and some have suggested that this was added by a continuator. Both Moses of Chorene and Jerome end at Nectanebo II (\"last king of the Egyptians\" and \"destruction of the Egyptian monarchy\" respectively), but Dynasty XXXI fits within Manetho's schemata of demonstrating power through the \"dynasteia\" well. The Thirty-second dynasty would have been the Ptolemies.", "Most of the ancient witnesses group him together with Berossos, and treat the pair as similar in intent, and it is not a coincidence that those who preserved the bulk of their writing are largely the same (Josephus, Africanus, Eusebius, and Syncellus). Certainly, both wrote about the same time, and both adopted the historiographical approach of the Greek historians Herodotus and Hesiod, who preceded them. While the subjects of their history are different, the form is similar, using chronological royal genealogies as the structure for the narratives. Both extend their histories far into the mythic past, to give the gods rule over the earliest ancestral histories. Syncellus goes so far as to insinuate that the two copied each other: While this does seem an incredible coincidence, the reliability of the report is unclear. The reasoning for assuming they started their histories in the same year involved some considerable contortions. Berossos dated the period before the Flood to 120 \"saroi\" (3,600 year periods), giving an estimate of 432,000 years before the Flood. This was unacceptable to later Christian commentators, so it was assumed he meant solar days. 432,000 divided by 365 days gives a rough figure of 1,1831⁄2 years before the Flood. For Manetho, even more numeric contortions ensued. With no flood mentioned, they assumed that Manetho's first era describing the gods represented the ante-diluvian age. Secondly, they took the spurious \"Book of Sothis\" for a chronological count. Six dynasties of gods totalled 11,985 years, while the nine dynasties with demigods came to 858 years. Again, this was too long for the Biblical account, so two different units of conversion were used. The 11,985 years were considered to be months of 291⁄2 days each (a conversion used in antiquity, for example by Diodorus Siculus), which comes out to 969 years. The latter period, however, was divided into seasons, or quarters of a year, and reduces to 2141⁄2 years (another conversion attested to by Diodorus). The sum of these comes out to 1,1831⁄2 years, equal to that of Berossos. Syncellus rejected both Manetho's and Berossos' incredible time-spans, as well as the efforts of other commentators to harmonise their numbers with the Bible. Ironically as we see, he also blamed them for the synchronicity concocted by later writers.", "It is speculated that Manetho wrote at the request of Ptolemy I or II to give an account of the history of Egypt to the Greeks from a native's perspective. However, there is no evidence for this hypothesis. If such were the case, \"Aegyptiaca\" was a failure, since Herodotus' \"Histories\" continued to provide the standard account in the Hellenistic world. It may also have been that some nationalistic sentiments in Manetho provided the impetus for his writing, but that again is conjecture. It is clear, however, that when it was written, it would have proven to be the authoritative account of the history of Egypt, superior to Herodotus in every way. The completeness and systematic nature in which he collected his sources was unprecedented. Syncellus similarly recognised its importance when recording Eusebius and Africanus, and even provided a separate witness from the \"Book of Sothis\". Unfortunately, this material is likely to have been a forgery or hoax of unknown date. Every king in \"Sothis\" after Menes is irreconcilable with the versions of Africanus and Eusebius. Manetho should not be judged on the factuality of his account, but on the method he used to record history, and in this, he was as successful as Herodotus and Hesiod. Finally, in modern times, the effect is still visible in the way Egyptologists divide the dynasties of the pharaohs. The French explorer and Egyptologist Jean-François Champollion reportedly held a copy of Manetho's lists in one hand as he attempted to decipher the hieroglyphs he encountered (though it probably gave him more frustration than joy, considering the way Manetho transcribed the names). Most modern scholarship that mentions the names of the pharaohs will render both the modern transcription and Manetho's version, and Manetho's names are even preferred to more authentic ones in some cases. Today, his division of dynasties is used universally, and this has permeated the study of nearly all royal genealogies by the conceptualization of succession in terms of dynasties or houses." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Names.", "History.", "Soviet and Romanian administration.", "Secession.", "Transnistria War.", "Further negotiations.", "Geography.", "Administrative divisions.", "Political status.", "International relations.", "Government and politics.", "Transnistria border customs dispute.", "Russian military presence in Transnistria.", "Military.", "Demographics.", "2015 Census.", "2004 Census.", "1989 Census.", "Religion.", "Economy.", "Economic history.", "Macroeconomics.", "External trade.", "Economic sectors.", "Human rights.", "Media.", "Moldovan schools.", "Arms control and disarmament." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The region can also be referred to in English as \"Trans-Dniestr\" or \"Transdniestria\". These names are adaptations of the Romanian colloquial name of the region, \"Transnistria\" meaning \"beyond the River Dniester\". The documents of the government of Moldova refer to the region as (in full,", "", "Transnistria became an autonomous political entity in 1924 with the proclamation of the Moldavian ASSR, which included today's Transnistria (4,000 km, 1,600 sq. mi.) and an adjacent area (9,000 km, 3,500 sq. mi.) around the city of Balta in modern-day Ukraine, but nothing from Bessarabia, which at the time formed part of Romania. One of the reasons for the creation of the Moldavian ASSR was the desire of the Soviet Union at the time to eventually incorporate Bessarabia. The Moldavian SSR, organised by a decision of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on 2 August 1940, was formed out of a part of Bessarabia (taken from Romania on 28 June, after the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact) and out of a part of the Moldavian ASSR roughly equivalent to present-day Transnistria. In 1941, after Axis forces invaded the Soviet Union during the Second World War, they defeated the Soviet troops", "In the 1980s, Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of perestroika and glasnost in the Soviet Union allowed political liberalisation at a regional level. This led to the creation of various informal movements all over the country, and to a rise of nationalism within most Soviet republics. In the Moldavian SSR in particular, there was a significant resurgence of pro-Romanian nationalism among ethnic Moldovans. The most prominent of these movements was the Popular Front of Moldova. In the spring of 1988, PFM demanded that the", "The Transnistria War followed armed clashes on a limited scale that broke out between Transnistrian separatists and Moldova as early as November 1990 at Dubăsari. Volunteers, including Cossacks, came from Russia to help the separatist side. In mid-April 1992, under the agreements on the split of the military equipment of the former Soviet Union negotiated between the former 15 republics in the previous months,", "The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is trying to facilitate a negotiated settlement. Under OSCE auspices, on 8 May 1997, Moldovan President Petru Lucinschi and Transnistrian president Igor Smirnov, signed the \"Memorandum on the principles of normalization of the relations between the Republic of Moldova and Transnistria\", also known as the \"Primakov Memorandum\", sustaining the establishment of legal and state relations, although the memorandum's provisions were interpreted differently by the governments of Moldova and Transnistria. In November 2003, Dmitry Kozak, a counselor of Russian president Vladimir Putin, proposed a memorandum on the creation of an asymmetric federal Moldovan state, with Moldova holding a majority and Transnistria being a", "Transnistria is landlocked and borders Bessarabia (i.e., the rest of Moldova, for 411 km, 255 miles) to the west, and Ukraine (for 405 km, 250 miles) to the east. It is a narrow valley stretching north-south along the bank of the Dniester river, which forms a natural boundary along most of the border with (the rest of) Moldova. The territory controlled by the PMR is mostly, but not completely, coincident with the left (eastern) bank of Dniester. It includes ten cities and towns, and 69 communes, with a total of 147 localities (counting the unincorporated ones as well). Six communes on the left bank (Cocieri, Molovata Nouă, Corjova, Pîrîta, Coșnița, and Doroțcaia) remained under the control of the Moldovan government after the War of Transnistria in 1992, as part of the Dubăsari District. They are situated north and south of the city of Dubăsari, which itself is under PMR control. The village of Roghi of Molovata Nouă Commune is also controlled by the PMR (Moldova controls the other nine of the ten", "Transnistria is subdivided into five districts (\"raions\") and one municipality, the City of Tiraspol (which is entirely surrounded by but administratively distinct from Slobozia District), listed below from north to south (Russian names and transliterations are appended in parentheses). In addition, another", "All UN member states consider Transnistria a legal part of the Republic of Moldova. Only the partially recognised states of South Ossetia, Artsakh, and Abkhazia have recognised Transnistria as a sovereign entity after it declared independence from Moldova in 1990 with Tiraspol as its declared capital. Between 1929 and 1940, Tiraspol functioned as the capital of the Moldavian ASSR, an autonomous republic that existed from 1924 to 1940 within the Ukrainian SSR. Although exercising no direct control over the territory of Transnistria, the Moldovan government passed the \"Law on Basic Provisions of the Special Legal Status of Localities from the Left Bank of the Dniester\" on 22 July 2005, which established part of Transnistria (territory of Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic without Bender and without territories, which are under control of Moldova) as an autonomous territorial unit within the Republic of Moldova. There are unsettled border issues between Transnistria and Moldova. Fifteen villages from the eleven communes of Dubăsari District, including Cocieri and Doroțcaia that geographically belong to Transnistria, have been under the control of the central government of Moldova after the involvement of local inhabitants on the side of Moldovan forces during the War of Transnistria. These villages, along with Varnița and Copanca, near Bender and Tiraspol, are claimed by the PMR. One city (Bender) and six villages on the west bank are controlled by the PMR, but are considered by Moldova as a separate municipality (Bender and village of Proteagailovca) or part of the Căușeni District (five villages in three communes). Tense situations have periodically surfaced due to these territorial disputes, such as in 2005, when Transnistrian forces entered Vasilievca, in 2006 around Varnița, and in 2007 in the Dubăsari-Cocieri area, when a confrontation between Moldovan and Transnistrian forces occurred, however without any casualties.", "Nina Shtanski served as Transnistria's Minister of", "Transnistria is a presidential democracy. The president is directly elected for a maximum of two-consecutive five-year terms. The current President is Vadim Krasnoselsky. The Supreme Council is a unicameral legislature. It has 43 members who are elected for 5-year terms. Elections take place within a multi-party system. The majority in the Parliament of Transnistria belongs to the Renewal movement that defeated the Republic party affiliated with Igor Smirnov in 2005 and performed even better in the 2010 and 2015 elections. Elections in Transnistria are not recognised by international bodies such as the European Union, as well as numerous individual countries, who called them a source of increased tensions. There is disagreement over whether elections in Transnistria are free and fair. The political regime has been described as one of \"super-presidentialism\". During the 2006 presidential election, the registration of opposition candidate Andrey Safonov was delayed until a few days before the vote, so that he had little time to conduct an election campaign. Some sources consider election results suspect. In 2001, in one region it was reported that Igor Smirnov collected 103.6% of the votes. The PMR government said \"the government of Moldova launched a campaign aimed at convincing international observers not to attend\" an election held on 11 December 2005 – but CIS election monitors had ignored that and had declared the ballot democratic. The opposition Narodovlastie party and Power to the People movement were outlawed at the beginning of 2000 and eventually dissolved. A list published by the European Union bans travel to the EU for some members of the Transnistrian leadership. In 2007, the registration of a Social Democratic Party was allowed. This party, led by former separatist leader and member of the PMR government Andrey Safonov, allegedly favours a union with Moldova. In September 2007, the leader of the Transnistrian Communist Party, Oleg Horjan, was sentenced to a suspended sentence of 11⁄2 years imprisonment for organising unsanctioned actions of protest. According to the 2006 referendum, carried out by the PMR government, 97.2% of the population voted in favour of \"independence from Moldova and free association with Russia.\" EU and several other countries refused to recognise the referendum results.", "On 3 March 2006, Ukraine introduced new customs regulations on its border with Transnistria. Ukraine declared that it would import goods from Transnistria only with documents processed by Moldovan customs offices as part of the implementation of the joint customs protocol agreed between Ukraine and Moldova on 30 December 2005. Transnistria and Russia termed the act an \"economic blockade\". The United States, the", "The 1992 cease-fire agreement between Moldova and Transnistria established a Russian peace-keeper presence in Transnistria and a 1,200 member Russian military contingent is present in Transnistria. Russian troops stationed in parts of Moldova except Transnistria since the time of the USSR were fully withdrawn to Russia by January 1993. In April 1995 the former Soviet 14th Guards Army became the Operational Group of Russian Forces, which by the 2010s had shrunk to two battalions and no more than 1,500 troops. On 21 October 1994, Russia and Moldova signed an agreement that committed Russia to the withdrawal of the troops in three years from the date of entry into force of the agreement; this did not come into effect, however, because the Russian Duma did not ratify it.", ", the armed forces and the paramilitary of Transnistria were composed of around 4,500–7,500 soldiers, divided into four motorised infantry brigades in Tiraspol, Bender, Rîbnița, and Dubăsari. They", "", "In October 2015, Transnistrian authorities organised a separate census from the 2014 Moldovan Census. According to the 2015 Census, the population of the region was 475,665, a 14.3% decrease from the figure recorded at the 2004", "In 2004, Transnistrian authorities organised a separate census from the 2004 Moldovan Census. As per 2004 census, in the areas controlled by the PMR government, there were 555,347 people, including 177,785 Moldovans (32.10%) 168,678 Russians (30.35%) 160,069 Ukrainians (28.81%) 13,858 Bulgarians (2.50%) 4,096 Gagauzians (0.74%), 1,791 Poles (0.32%), 1,259 Jews (0.23%), 507 Roma (0.09%) and 27,454 others (4.94%). Of these, 439,243 lived in Transnistria itself, and 116,104 lived in localities controlled by the PMR government, but formally belonging to other districts of Moldova: the city of Bender (Tighina), the communes of Proteagailovca, Gîsca, Chițcani, Cremenciug, and the village of \"Roghi\" of commune Molovata Nouă. Moldovans were the largest ethnic group, representing an overall majority in the two districts in the central Transnistria (Dubăsari District, 50.15%, and Grigoriopol District, 64.83%) a 47.82% relative majority in the northern Camenca District, and a 41.52% relative majority in the southern (Slobozia District). In Rîbnița District they were a 29.90% minority,", "At the census of 1989, the population was 679,000 (including all the localities in the security zone, even those under Moldovan control). The ethnic composition of the region has been unstable in recent history, with the most notable change being the decreasing share of", "PMR official statistics show that 91% of the Transnistrian population adhere to Eastern Orthodox Christianity, with 4% adhering to Roman Catholicism. Roman Catholics are mainly located in Northern Transnistria, where a notable Polish minority is living. Transnistria's government has", "Transnistria has a mixed economy. Following a large scale privatisation process in the late 90s, most of the companies in Transnistria are now privately owned. The economy is based on a mix of heavy industry (steel production), electricity production, and manufacturing (textile production), which together account for about 80% of the total industrial output. Transnistria has its own central bank, the Transnistrian Republican Bank, which issues its national currency, the Transnistrian ruble. It is convertible at a freely floating exchange rate but only in Transnistria. Transnistria's economy is frequently described as dependent on contraband and gunrunning, with some labelling it a mafia state. These allegations are denied by the Transnistrian government, and sometimes downplayed by the officials of Russia and Ukraine.", "After World War II, Transnistria was heavily industrialised, to the point that, in 1990, it was responsible for 40% of Moldova's GDP and 90% of its", "According to the government of Transnistria, the 2007 GDP was 6789 mln Transnistrian roubles (appx US$799 million) and the GDP per capita was about US$1,500. The GDP increased by 11.1% and inflation rate was 19.3% with the GDP per capita now being $2,140, higher than Moldova's GDP per capita that is $2,040. Transnistria's government budget for 2007 was US$246 million, with an estimated deficit of about US$100 million that the government planned to cover with income from privatisations. Budget for 2008 is US$331 million, with an estimated deficit of about US$80 million. In 2004, Transnistria had debts of US$1.2 billion (two-thirds are with Russia) that was", "In 2006, the Transnistrian Republican Bank reported exports of US$422.0 million and imports of US$738.4 million. Compared to a year prior, export decreased 27.2% and import decreased 13.7%. The trade deficit reached US$316.3 million. Over 50% of the export went to the CIS, mainly to Russia, but also to Belarus, Ukraine, and Moldova (which Transnistrian authorities consider foreign). Main non-CIS markets for the", "The leading industry is steel, due to the Moldova Steel Works (part of the Russian Metalloinvest holding) in Rîbnița, which accounts for about 60% of the budget revenue of Transnistria. The largest company in the textile industry is Tirotex, which claims to be the second largest textile company in Europe.", "The human rights record of Transnistria has been criticised by several governments and international organisations. The 2007 \"Freedom in the World\" report, published by the U.S.-based Freedom House, described Transnistria as a \"non-free\" territory, having an equally bad situation in both political rights and civil liberties. According to the US Department of State report referring to the year 2006:", "There is a regular mix of modern news media in Transnistria with a number of television stations, newspapers, and radio stations. According to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) the media climate in Transnistria is restrictive and the authorities continue a long-standing campaign to silence independent opposition voices and groups. According to a US Department of State report for 2006, \"Both of the region's major newspapers were controlled by", "Public education in the Romanian language (officially called Moldovan language in Transnistria) is done using the Soviet-originated Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet. The usage of the Latin script was restricted to only six schools. Four of these schools were forcibly closed by the authorities, who claimed this was due to the refusal of the schools to apply for official accreditation. These schools were later registered as private schools and reopened.", "Following the collapse of the former Soviet Union, the Russian 14th Army left 40,000 tonnes of weaponry and ammunition in Transnistria. In later years there were concerns that the Transnistrian authorities would try to sell these stocks internationally, and intense pressure was applied to have these removed by the Russian Federation. In 2000 and 2001, the Russian Federation withdrew by rail 141 self-propelled artillery pieces and other armoured vehicles and destroyed locally, 108 T-64 tanks and 139 other pieces of military equipment limited by the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE). During 2002 and 2003 Russian military officials destroyed a further 51 armoured vehicles, all of which were types not limited by the CFE Treaty. The OSCE also observed and verified the withdrawal of 48 trains with military equipment and ammunition in 2003. However, no further withdrawal activities have taken place since March 2004 and a further 20,000 tons of ammunition, as well as some remaining military equipment are still to be removed. In the autumn of 2006, the Transnistrian leadership agreed to let an OSCE inspectorate examine the munitions and further access was agreed moving forward. Recent weapons inspections were permitted by Transnistria and conducted by the OSCE. The onus of responsibility rests on the Russian Federation to remove the rest of the supplies. Transnistrian authorities declared that they are not involved in the manufacture or export of weapons. OSCE and European Union officials stated in 2005 that there is no evidence that Transnistria \"has ever trafficked arms or nuclear material\" and much of the alarm is due to the Moldovan government's attempts to pressure Transnistria. In 2007, foreign experts working on behalf of the United Nations said that the historically low levels of transparency and continued denial of full investigations to international monitors have reinforced negative perceptions of the Transnistrian government, although recent co-operation by Transnistrian authorities may have reflected a shift in the attitude of Transnistria. Their report stated that the evidence for the illicit production and trafficking of weapons into and from Transnistria, has in the past been exaggerated, although the trafficking of light weapons is likely to have occurred before 2001 (the last year when export data showed US$900,000 worth of 'weapons, munitions, their parts and accessories' exported from Transnistria). The report also states that the same holds true for the production of such weapons, which is likely to have been carried out in the 1990s, primarily to equip Transnistrian forces. The OSCE mission spokesman Claus Neukirch spoke about this situation: \"There is often talk about sale of armaments from Transnistria, but there is no convincing evidence.\" In 2010, Viktor Kryzhanovskyi, Ukraine's special envoy on Transnistria, stated that there was no ongoing arms trafficking or drug trafficking through the Transnistrian section of the Ukrainian-Moldovan border at the time." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography and environment.", "History.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Media.", "Culture, festivals, and traditions.", "Archeological sites." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Zacatecas is located in the center-north of Mexico, and covers an area of 75,284km2, the tenth largest state in the country. It borders the states of Jalisco, Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosí, Coahuila and Durango and is divided into fifty-eight municipalities and 4,882 towns, cities and other communities. The state has an average altitude of 2230 meters above sea level, with the capital at 2,496 masl. The state has three main geographical regions, the Sierra Madre Occidental in the west, the Mexican Plateau and the Sierra Madre Oriental. Most of it is in the Sierra Madre Occidental with highly rugged peaks of over 2,500 meters above sea level. The mountains of the southeast and northeast are lower but there are large valleys such as the Juchipila and Tlaltenango. Most of the territory has only small mesas and other areas of flat land. In the center of the state there is a small mountain chain called the Sierra de Fresnillo, from which much of the state's mineral wealth comes. In the extreme northwest there is another important mountain chain called the Sierra de Sombrerete, marked by a mountain called Sombreretillo, which is an important source of mineral wealth. Near this chain is another called the Sierra de Órganos. No major rivers run through the state and most of the waterways run only during the rainy season. The state is part of two water basins. The southeast of the state belongs to the Lerma River basin, which eventually empties in the Pacific Ocean. Rivers belonging to this basin include the San Pedro, Juchipila, Jerez and Tlaltenango. The other basin is smaller and endorheic, and does not empty into any ocean. The state has eighty dams with a total capacity of 595,337 million cubic meters. The largest of these are the Leobardo Reynoso in Fresnillo, Miguel Aleman in Tepechitlan and El Chique in Tabasco. Much of the state's water is underground divided into twenty hydraulic zones. These are accessed by over 5,800 wells, mostly for agricultural use. Most of the territory has a cool, dry climate, although areas in the south have more moisture, with most rain falling between June and September. The driest and coldest areas are in the northeast, known as the Salado because of its saltwater lakes. 75% of the state is arid or semi arid. 14% is arable and 79% is apt for the grazing of livestock. The average annual temperature is 16C with most of the state being temperate. The coldest months are from November to January, with frost not uncommon. The warmest month is June. The state gets an average rainfall of 400mm per year mostly in the summer, with the warmest and wettest part of the state is along the Sierra Madre Occidental. Ecosystems vary depending on relief, soil and temperature, leading to a wide variety of vegetation, including forests, scrub and grasslands. Arid areas are dominated by various species of cactus. In the far south there are deciduous trees that lose their leaves in winter and spring. Statewide the most common trees are mesquite, ironwood and palo verde (Parkinsonia). In the highest altitude, near the Jalisco border, there are mixed forests of pine and holm oak, with the latter dominating along the border with Durango and some along the border with San Luis Potosí. One interesting tree that occurs in Zacatecas is the elephant tree (\"Bursera microphylla\"). In the sierras there are many wild boar, white-tailed deer and hares; in the valleys and plains it is common to find coyote, badgers, quails and ducks. The extreme northern part of the state is the southern fringe of the Chihuahuan Desert and as such is rich and diverse in biology. This desert is home to a large amount of cacti and is one of the most ecologically diverse deserts on earth.", "The state name derives from the name of its capital, Zacatecas. This word is derived from Nahuatl and means \"where there is abundant zacate (grass)\". The state seal depicts the Cerro de la Bufa, a landmark of the capital, surrounded by the weapons of the original inhabitants. Above is the motto \"Work conquers all.\" Before the arrival of the Spanish, dominant ethnic groups included the Caxcans, Zacatecos, and Guachichils, with a probable rivalry between the Guachichils and the Caxcans. The history of these peoples is sketchy and it is not known when the first settlements were founded in the region. Between the fourth and tenth centuries in the Christian era, several large settlements developed such as Altavista, Chalchihuites and La Quemada, considered to be part of Greater Mesoamerica. Areas in the north of the state, without major settlements, were part of what is called Aridoamerica, where inhabitants lived off hunting and gathering. The first of the major population centers emerged along the Suchil, Graceros and Guadiana Rivers. The archaeological sites of today are all ceremonial centers and/or observatories in the center of metropolises. The first Spanish settlement in the state's current borders was in what is now Nochistlan in 1531, the original Guadalajara. This settlement was later moved to its current location in Jalisco because of water supply problems and indigenous attacks. The capital was founded by Juan de Tolosa with the support of Cristobal de Oñate and Pedro Almendez Chirinos in 1546, after the discovery of one of the world's richest silver veins. However, shortly afterwards most Spanish attention turned back south because of indigenous uprisings. The area remained dangerous for Spanish settlement because of the fierce opposition of the native peoples. In 1541, an indigenous leader named Tenamextle, also known as Francisco Tenamaztle and Diego the Aztec, rebelled, capturing and executing Spanish leader Miguel de Ibarra. The Spanish defeated the Caxcans during the Mixtón War in the 1540s. Tenamextle escaped the battle and continued to organize rebellions against the Spanish. However, the Spanish continued to push into Zacatecas because of its silver wealth, making it a province of New Galicia. Although able to establish mining towns, convoys transporting the metal were regularly attacked. Much of the state's colonial history to the present has been related to its mineral production, especially of silver. The first boom was from the Conquest to the mid 17th century. The riches drew settlers from the south, and in 1586, Phillip II gave the city the name of Noble and Loyal City of Nuestra Señora de los Zacatecas. In 1588, he authorized its coat of arms. Most of the state was evangelized by the Franciscans, who founded a hospice in the city in 1558 and by 1567 had built a large monastery. They officially took possession of its religious functions in 1603. Later other orders arrived, founding monasteries; but they did not evangelize the indigenous. The next boom was in the early 18th century, with the state producing one-fifth of the world's silver. These riches supported the establishment of new settlements along with the building of elegant churches and mansions as the area became one of the most important of New Spain. During the Mexican War of Independence, Miguel Hidalgo's troops marched through Zacatecas twice, once when they were attacking royalist troops and later when fleeing them. The war ended in 1821 and Zacatecas formally became a state in 1824, with the city of Zacatecas as its capital. Zacatecas continued to grow. The state's history during the rest of the 19th century was tumultuous, as it was in the rest of the country. From Independence until the 1860s, Liberal and Conservative elements occupied the capital at one time or another, until Liberal leader Jesús González Ortega seized control of the state permanently in 1859. This leader's decrees against Conservative sympathizers drove many Catholic priests out of the state. In 1861, French troops occupied Zacatecas but only for two years before being driven out. For the rest of the century, the state was mostly controlled by local strongmen, such as González Ortega, Trinidad García de la Cadena and Genero Codina. The fighting depressed silver production until near the end of the century, but it recovered enough to account for sixty percent of the state's export revenue. At the end of the century, technological innovations such as the telegraph, telephone, electricity and rail lines connected the state with the rest of Mexico. Trains provided direct links to Ciudad Juárez, Aguascalientes and Chihuahua, which led to emigration out of the state, primarily to the United States in the 20th century. Zacatecas was again a battleground with the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution in the early 20th century. One of the largest and most decisive battles of this conflict took place outside the capital and is called the Toma de Zacatecas (Taking of Zacatecas). This battle pitted the troops of Francisco Villa against those of Victoriano Huerta, resulting in the deaths of 7,000 soldiers and the wounding of 5,000. Civilian casualties were not recorded. The battle led to the naming of the city as a \"Ciudad Heroica\" (Heroic City). In 1993, UNESCO named the historic center of Zacatecas as a World Heritage Site. From 1998 to 2004, the state undertook a major project to expand the highway system.", "As of 2010, the state had a population of 1,490,668. Forty-one percent of the population lives in rural areas, with a population density of 18.13 per square kilometer. Fifty-nine percent of the population lives in urban areas such as Fresnillo (pop. 213,139), Guadalupe (159,991), Zacatecas (138,176), Pinos, and Sombrerete. 94% of the population is Roman Catholic. In the year 2008, Zacatecas had the smallest indigenous population percentage-wise in Mexico: 0.3%. Only the state of Aguascalientes has a smaller number of indigenous people. Only four in 1,000 speak an indigenous language, compared to the national average of 60/1000. Indigenous languages spoken in the state include Huichol (1000 speakers), Nahuatl (500), Tepehuan (just under 500) and Tlapanec (about 400). The population of Zacatecas has more than tripled in a century; in 1900 its population was 462,190. Since 1990, the state's population has grown by at least 1.3% per year. Average life expectancy is slightly above the national average at 74.1 years for men and 78.5 for women. Principal causes of death are heart problems, malignant tumors and diabetes. The average number of years of schooling is 7.9 (second year of middle school), below the national average of 8.6. 5.9% have had no schooling at all and 66.8% have finished primary school. Only 12.3% have finished university level studies. 6% are illiterate. Of those who leave the state permanently, most go to Aguascalientes, Jalisco and other northern states. Those who come to live in the state arrive from Jalisco, Aguascalientes and nearby northern states. It is estimated that half of the people from Zacatecas do not reside in the state. Mexico's National Population Council estimates that 600,000 natives of Zacatecas now live in the United States, a figure that is equivalent to 40 percent of the state's resident population of 1.5 million.", "As in the past, the state's dominant sector is mining, accounting for 13% of the state's GDP and.9% of the entire country's. The state is rich in mineral wealth include lead, zinc and copper with small quantities of gold and silver, along with non-metal mineral deposits such as kaolinite, wollastonite, fluorite and barite. The state has fifteen mining districts of which the most important are Fresnillo, Zacatecas, Concepción del Oro, Sombrerete and Chalchihuites, along with Nora de Angeles more recently. Zacatecas accounts for 21% of the country's gold production and 53.2% of its silver. Two of the largest silver mines in the world currently are operated in Zacatecas: former Peñoles subsidiary Fresnillo's Mina Proaño (also known as the Fresnillo Silver Mine), and the Peñasquito Polymetallic Mine. Zacatecas silver mostly accounts for Mexico's status as the world's largest producer of silver, accounting for 17% of the world's output. Zacatecas's economy used to be almost completely centered on mining but has since diversified into cattle raising, agriculture, communications, food processing, tourism and transportation. Zacatecas is Mexico's main producer of beans, chili peppers, guavas and nopal, along with significant grain, sugar cane, grape and peach crops. It is also a major producer of rum, pulque and mezcal and even produces red wine. These activities account for just over ten percent of the state's GDP. Manufacturing accounts for over twelve percent of the state's GDP and has attracted most of the state's foreign investment. Traditional handcrafts include weaving in Villa Garcia, saddles and jewelry in Jerez as well as furniture, leatherworking, miniatures, macramé, ironwork and pottery in various locations. Tourism includes the capital along with the designation of \"Pueblos Mágicos\" such as Jerez, Teul de Gonzalez Ortega and Sombrerete, along with the shrine of the Santo Niño de Atocha, which is visited by thousands every year. It also includes archeological sites such as Alta Vista and La Quemada along with thermal springs such as Paraíso Caxcan. Commerce and services accounts for over 53% of the GDP, mostly small scale operations.", "Newspapers of Zacatecas include: \"El Sol de Zacatecas\", \"La Jornada Zacatecas\", and \"Zacatecas en Imagen.\"", "Most of the state's festivities are in honor of local patron saints and many of the secular festivals have links to religious ones. Such festivals often focus on recitals of traditional dances such as the Mexicapan. Many of these are derived from waltzes and polkas because of the state's mining history. The Mexican Revolution took a toll on the state's local musical traditions, but one that has survived is the Tamborazo, especially in Jerez. In the state capital, September 8 is dedicated to the Virgen del Patrocinio on the Cerro de la Bufa, with various cultural and artistic events such as bullfighting, concerts, horse racing and culinary demonstrations. The last week of August is dedicated to the Morismas de Bracho, a theatrical production of the struggle between Moors and Christians. It hosts the International Folklore Festival in August, featuring dance and costumes from around the world. It is held during Holy Week, and features music, food, street performances, dancing and parties. Other major festivals include the Festival Cultural Zacatecas, the Feria Nacional de Zacatecas and the Internacional Festival de Teatro de Calle, Feria de Primavera de Jerez, the Feria del Libro, and the Cabalgata Turistica Revolucionaria. Traditional favorite foods include gorditas and panecillos, both made from corn and can be sweet or savory, depending on the filling. Wheat breads include panochas and semitas. Condoches are gorditas made with fresh corn cooked in corn husks. Gorditas de cuajada are representative of food on ranches. Meat is most typically prepared as part of a stew to which vegetables such as corn, chickpeas, squash, rice and more are added. One well-known meat preparation is asado de boda, which is pork in a sauce made with mild red chili peppers. Traditional beverages include pulque, aguamiel, aguardiente and mezcal as well as a purely local beverage called colonche, made by fermenting a cactus fruit.", "Altavista is located 229 km northwest of the city of Zacatecas. It was a ceremonial center, part of the Chalchihuite culture, active between 200 and 1000 CE. It is named after a local ranch, and was explored for the first time at the beginning of the 20th century by Manuel Gamio. Its main building is called the Labyrinth. La Quemada is located fifty km south of the city of Zacatecas, the state's largest pre Hispanic settlement. It developed between 500 and 900 CE and covered an area of over 70,000m2 at its height. Its name, which means \"the burnt\" comes from evidence that the city was burned and abandoned. Who occupied the city is not known, with speculation relating to Teotihuacan, the Purépecha and the Toltecs. El Teúl is on a large hill overlooking the modern town of Teúl de González Ortega (municipality). The name comes from Nahuatl and means \"of the gods.\" It was a ceremonial center, with residences located north of it. The site is noted for its pit burials as well as the oldest copper smelting facility in Mesoamerica. It was inhabited from 200 CE to 1531, when the Spanish destroyed it. It is one of several religious and population centers created by the Caxcans, who were semi nomadic, along with others in Tlaltenango, Juchipila and Teocaltiche." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Discovery and naming.", "Classification.", "Paleobiology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Anchisaurus\" was a rather small dinosaur, with a length of just over, which helps explain why it was once mistaken for human bones. It probably weighed around. However, Marsh's species \"A. major\" (also known as \"Ammosaurus\") was larger, from and some estimates give it a weight of up to. Gregory S. Paul estimated its length at 2.2 meters and its weight at 20 kg in 2010. According to the presence of cf Otozum tracks on the Connecticut Valley the size of this animal can be even bigger. Otozoum tracks were made by a semibipedal to quadrupedal sauropodomorph close to or on the line leading toward eusauropods. Anchisaurus is one of the 2 Sauropodomorphs recognised in the zone. Based on the four known specimens of Anchisaurus, Yates estimated that this animal ranged up to 4.9 meters in length. This matches well with the estimated average size of the adult Eubrontes track-maker in the Hartford and Deerfield basins. Based on the largest known Eubrontes footprint, exceptionally large individuals of Anchisaurus probably ranged up to 6.0 meters in length (0.442 m 13.5 1⁄4 6.0 m).", "Sauropodomorph remains were first documented in North America in 1818, when some bones were uncovered by Mr. Solomon Ellsworth, Jr. while excavating a well with gunpowder in East Windsor, Connecticut. At the time of their discovery it was thought that the bones might be those of a human, but the presence of tail vertebrae falsified that idea. They are now recognized as those of an indeterminate sauropodomorph, possibly more closely related to the plateosaurian prosauropods. In 1855, the original type specimen of \"Anchisaurus polyzelus\", AM 41/109, which is housed at the Amherst College Museum of Natural History, was found by William Smith in Springfield, Massachusetts during blasting a well for the waterhouse at the Springfield Armory. Unfortunately, both the East Windsor and Springfield specimens were severely damaged due to the blasting at the construction sites where they were found, and many of the bones were either accidentally thrown away by the workmen or kept by interested onlookers. As a result, these dinosaurs were only known from incomplete remains. In 1863, the son of the ichnologist Edward Hitchcock, Edward Hitchcock Jr, described the Springfield remains in a supplement to his father's work on fossil footprints, suggesting they could explain a certain mysterious kind of reptile tracks. He then contacted the British paleontologist Richard Owen. Owen advised him to name the finds as a new genus. Owen suggested the name \"Megadactylus\", \"large finger\" in Greek, in reference to the enormous thumb of the animal. Hitchcock Jr himself then chose the specific name \"polyzelus\", \"much sought for\" in Greek, referring to the fact that his father had for many years vainly sought to discover the identity of the track-maker. In 1877, Professor Othniel Charles Marsh had noted that the name \"Megadactylus\" had been preoccupied by \"Megadactylus\" Fitzinger 1843, a subgenus of the lizard genus \"Stellio\". In 1882, he replaced the name with \"Amphisaurus\", \"near saurian\", probably referring to Marsh's interpretation of it as intermediate between primitive dinosaurs — at the time the British \"Palaeosaurus\" was an example of what was thought to be a primitive dinosaur — and more derived dinosaurs. In 1885, Marsh had discovered that this name also had been preoccupied, by the athracosaurian \"Amphisaurus\" Barkas 1870, and again replaced it by \"Anchisaurus\", with the same meaning. Meanwhile, nearly complete specimens had been found in Manchester, Connecticut. In 1884, a series of bridges was built over the Hop Creek. Sandstone blocks were sawed out of Wolcott's Quarry north of Buckland Station. On 20 October, an amateur paleontologist, Charles H. Owen, observed that a block had been removed containing the hind part of a skeleton. He warned Marsh who, using T.A. Bostwick as an intermediary, acquired the piece from the quarry owner, Charles O. Wolcott. Marsh tried to secure the front half of the skeleton but it had already been used in a bridge abutment. The specimen, YPM 208, was named \"Anchisaurus major\", \"the larger one\", by Marsh in 1889. Eventually, when the bridge was demolished in August 1969, John Ostrom would save the front block. Subsequently, two other dinosaur fossils were located in the quarry. Six metres south of the original find a second skeleton was visible in the quarry face. It was removed as a single block and given the inventory number YPM 1883. In Yale, the part containing the skull was split off and became specimen YPM 40313. In 1891, Marsh made \"Anchisaurus major\" a separate genus, \"Ammosaurus\", the \"sand saurian\". In the same publication he named YPM 1883/YPM 40313 as a new species of \"Anchisaurus\", \"Anchisaurus colurus\", \"the mangled one\". They served as the templates from which O.C. Marsh in 1893 restored the skeleton. The Manchester specimens are now considered conspecific with \"Anchisaurus polyzelus\". The East Windsor and Manchester specimens are housed at the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University. The type species is Hitchcock's \"A. polyzelus\". Marsh's \"A. major\" (also known as \"Ammosaurus\"), \"A. solus\", and \"A. colurus\" (also known as \"Yaleosaurus\"), have since been recognized as synonyms of \"A. polyzelus\", their supposed differences being due to misinterpretation and different stages of growth. In 2015, the ICZN formally made the more complete type specimen of \"A. colurus\" the neotype of the genus \"Anchisaurus\" and the species \"A. polyzelus\", rendering \"A. polyzelus\" and \"A. colurus\" objective synonyms (both names being based on exactly the same fossil). Broom named \"Gyposaurus capensis\" in 1911, from bones discovered in South Africa but Peter Galton renamed these \"Anchisaurus capensis\" in 1976. This species has since been reclassified again and is probably a juvenile of \"Massospondylus carinatus\". \"G. sinensis\" was also referred here, but appears to be a distinct animal. The Navajo Sandstone of Arizona is the same age as the Portland Formation, and has produced prosauropod remains that have been referred to as \"Ammosaurus\". However, it is possible that these actually belong to the genus \"Massospondylus\", otherwise known only from South Africa. In the eastern Canadian province of Nova Scotia, scientists have unearthed prosauropods from the McCoy Brook Formation, which is about 200 to 197 million years old, from the Early Jurassic Hettangian stage. The Nova Scotia material provides clues about the diet of these animals. A large number of gastroliths, stones swallowed to grind up plant material in the gut, were found in the abdomen, as well as bone from the skull of a small sphenodont, \"Clevosaurus\". This indicates that these dinosaurs were omnivorous, with a diet mainly consisting of plants but with an occasional supplement of meat. However, these remains have never been fully described or illustrated and were only tentatively referred to \"Ammosaurus\". A further study identified them as a new taxon of sauropodomorph, \"Fendusaurus eldoni\".", "Due to its primitive appearance, \"Anchisaurus\" was previously classified as a prosauropod, a member of a group of animals related to or ancestral to the sauropods. Recent investigations show that a group of traditional prosauropods form a monophyletic sister-group to Sauropoda, and that \"Anchisaurus\" is instead closer to sauropods. The family Anchisauridae was first proposed by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1885 and later defined as a clade consisting of \"Anchisaurus\" and its nearest relatives. However, it is not clear which other genera are included in the family; many of the dinosaurs once included have since been moved elsewhere, and the group is not used in most current taxonomies.", "Fossils of \"Anchisaurus\" were originally discovered in the Portland Formation of the Newark Supergroup in the Connecticut River Valley. This formation preserves an arid environment with strong wet and dry seasons, from the Hettangian age into the Sinemurian age, between about 200 and 195 million years ago. Digesting plant matter is a much more intensive biochemical process than digesting meat. This herbivore swallowed gastroliths (gizzard stones) to help break down the food in its stomach. Herbivorous dinosaurs needed a huge gut. Since this had to be positioned in front of the pelvis, balancing on two legs became increasingly difficult, as dinosaurs became larger and they gradually evolved into the quadrupedal position that characterizes the later sauropods such as \"Diplodocus\". Prosauropods represented a middle phase between the earliest bipedal herbivores and the later giant sauropods. As a prosauropod, \"Anchisaurus\" was mostly typical of this group, which flourished briefly during the late Triassic and early Jurassic. \"Anchisaurus\" teeth, used to rip food, were shaped like spoons. It had fewer and more widely spaced teeth than true prosauropods, and as Peter Galton and Michael Cluver observed, narrower feet. \"Anchisaurus\" would have spent most of its time on four legs but could have reared up on its hind legs to reach higher plants. As a facultative biped, \"Anchisaurus\" had to have multi-purpose front legs. As 'hands', they could be turned inwards and be used for grasping. It had a simple reversible first 'finger', similar to a 'thumb'. As feet, the five toes could be placed flat against the floor and were strong at the ankle. This unspecialized design is typical of the early dinosaurs." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Design.", "Types.", "Trigger.", "Feed system.", "Mix point.", "Spray guns.", "Technique.", "Use.", "Art and illustration.", "Photo retouching.", "Murals.", "Hobby.", "Airbrush makeup application.", "Temporary airbrush tattoos (TATs).", "Airbrush tanning.", "Finger nail art.", "Clothing.", "Automotive.", "Planetary Cartography.", "Street artists.", "Safety." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The first airbrush, depending on the definition, was patented in 1876 (Patent Number 182,389) by Francis Edgar Stanley of Newton, Massachusetts. This worked akin to a diffuser / atomiser and did not have a continuous air supply. Stanley and his twin brother later invented a process for continuously coating photographic plates (Stanley Dry Plate Company) but are perhaps best known for their Stanley Steamer. No artistic images that used this 'paint distributor / atomiser' exist or are as yet known. The first instrument to be named the \"paint distributor\" was developed by Abner Peeler \"for the painting of watercolors and other artistic purposes\" and used a hand-operated compressor to supply continuous air. It was rather crude, being based on a number of spare parts in a jeweller's workshop such as old screwdrivers and welding torches. It took 4 years of further development before a working prototype was developed by Liberty Walkup of Mt. Morris, Illinois. Walkup repatented the work under the name of \"air-brush\", a name his wife Phoebe Walkup came up with. Thus the formal birth of the name 'Air Brush' can be traced to a stakeholders meeting of the new Air Brush Manufacturing Co. at 7pm on 6 October 1883, and the name was formally born. In modern times the date is used to celebrate airbrush art around the world, using the Twitter hashtag #airbrushartistday. Walkup's wife would later go on to be the founder of the Illinois Art School where airbrushing was taught to students from all over the world. In that same rented 4 story building Rockford Air-Brush would be established under Liberty Walkup. Amongst others, the Walkups taught airbrush technique to American Impressionist master Wilson Irvine at the Air Brush School in Rockford, Illinois. The first certain 'atomising' type airbrush was invented by Charles Burdick in 1893 and presented by Thayer and Chandler art materials company at the World Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Burdick founded the Fountain Brush Company in the US, and launched the first series of airbrushes onto the market. However, Burdick initially're-cased the Walkup design into finger operated instrument, and as many of his designs echoed those being developed by Walkup, a legal row resulted over the name Air Brush. This device was essentially the same as a modern airbrush, resembling a pen and working in a different manner than Peeler's device. Aerograph, Burdick's original company, still makes and sells airbrushes in England. Thayer and Chandler were acquired by Badger Air-Brush Co. in 2000. Badger Air-Brush continues the Thayer and Chandler tradition of manufacturing quality airbrush guns, tools and compressors out of Franklin Park, Illinois.", "An airbrush works by passing a stream of fast moving (compressed) air through a venturi, which creates a local reduction in air pressure (suction) that allows paint to be pulled from an interconnected reservoir at normal atmospheric pressure. The high velocity of the air atomizes the paint into very tiny droplets as it blows past a very fine paint-metering component. The paint is carried onto paper or other surfaces. The operator controls the amount of paint using a variable trigger which opens more or less a very fine tapered needle that is the control element of the paint-metering component. An extremely fine degree of atomization is what allows an artist to create such smooth blending effects using the airbrush. The technique allows for the blending of two or more colors in a seamless way, with one color slowly becoming another color. Freehand airbrushed images, without the aid of stencils or friskets, have a floating quality, with softly defined edges between colors, and between foreground and background colors. A skilled airbrush artist can produce paintings of photographic realism or can simulate almost any painting medium. Painting at this skill level involves supplementary tools, such as masks and friskets, and very careful planning. Some airbrushes use pressures as low as 20 psi (1.38 bar) while others use pressures in the region of 30-35 psi (2-2.4 bar). Larger \"spray guns\" as used for automobile spray-painting need 100 psi (6.8 bar) or more to adequately atomize a thicker paint using less solvent. They are capable of delivering a heavier coating more rapidly over a wide area. Even with small artist airbrushes using acrylic paint, artists must be careful not to breathe in the atomized paint, which floats in the air for minutes and can go deep into the lungs. With commercial spray guns for automobiles, it is vital that the painter have a clean air source to breathe, because automotive paint is far more harmful to the lungs than acrylic. Certain spray guns, called High-Volume Low-Pressure (HVLP) spray guns, are designed to deliver the same high volumes of paint without requiring such high pressures.", "Airbrushes are usually classified by three characteristics. The first characteristic is the action performed by the user to trigger the paint flow while the second is the mechanism for feeding the paint into the airbrush and the third is the point at which the paint and air mix.", "The simplest airbrushes work with a \"single-action\" mechanism where the depression of the trigger actuates air flow through the airbrush. The airbrush's color flow and spray pattern are adjusted separately from the trigger action. This is done through an adjustment of the airbrush's needle placement within its paint tip, by the turning of the paint tip on an external mix airbrush (Badger 350 or Paasche Model H are good examples of single-action external mix airbrushes) or the turning of a needle setting dial on an internal mix airbrush (Badger 200 or Iwata SAR are good examples of single-action internal mix airbrushes). The color volume and spray pattern are maintained at a fixed level until the airbrush user re-adjust the setting. Single-action airbrushes are simpler to use and generally less expensive, but they present limitations in applications in which the user wishes to do something more artistic than simply apply a good, uniform coat of color. \"Dual-action\" or \"double-action\" airbrushes enable the simultaneous adjustment of both air and color at the trigger, by allowing the user to actuate air by depressing the trigger and simultaneously adjust color by sliding the trigger back and forth. This ability to adjust color flow while spraying the airbrush, coupled with the users adjustment of distance from the sprayed surface allows for the variation of fine to wide lines without stopping to re-adjust the spray pattern as is necessary with a single-action airbrush. This allows for greater spray control and enables a wider variety of artistic effects. This type of airbrush requires some amount of practice to become proficient in triggering technique and control, but it offers greater artistic versatility to the artists once the triggering technique is learned. Dual-action airbrushes (Badger Patriot 105, Paasche VL, Iwata CM-C are all good examples of dual-action airbrushes) are of a more sophisticated design model than single-action airbrushes, which tends to make them the more expensive of the two.", "Paint can be fed by gravity from a paint reservoir sitting atop the airbrush (called \"gravity feed\") or siphoned from a reservoir mounted below (\"bottom feed\") or on the side (\"side feed\"). Each feed type carries unique advantages. Gravity feed instruments require less air pressure for suction as the gravity pulls the paint into the mixing chamber. Typically instruments with the finest mist atomization and detail requirements use this method since less air pressure allows for finer control paint flow and less overspray. Side- and bottom-feed instruments allow the artist to see over the top, with the former sometimes offering left-handed and right-handed options to suit the artist. A bottom feed airbrush typically holds a larger capacity of paint than the other types, and is often preferable for larger scale work such as automotive applications and tee-shirt design.", "With an \"internal mix\" airbrush the paint and air mix inside the airbrush (in the tip) creating a finer atomized \"mist\" of paint. With \"external mix\" the air and paint exit the airbrush before mixing with each other, which creates a larger coarser atomization pattern. External mix airbrushes are cheaper and more suited for covering larger areas with more viscous paints or varnishes.", "The airbrush led to the development of the spray gun; a similar device, that typically delivers a higher volume of paint and for painting larger areas. The first paint spraying machine was developed in 1887. Equipment by DeVilbiss and Binks is typical of modern sprayguns. The addition of a simple pistol grip adapter to an aerosol paint spray can create a cheap alternative to a spray gun.", "Airbrush technique is the freehand manipulation of the airbrush, medium, air pressure and distance from the surface being sprayed in order to produce a certain predictable result on a consistent basis with or without shields or stencils. Airbrush technique will differ with the type of airbrush being used (single-action or dual/double-action). Double-action airbrush technique involves depressing the trigger on the top of the airbrush with the index finger to release air only, and drawing it back gradually to the paint release threshold. The most important procedural dynamic is to always begin with air only and end with air only. By observing this rule, precise control of paint volume and line width and character can be achieved. The single most important airbrush stroke consistently utilized by professionals is the dagger stroke. This describes a stroke which begins wide and ends as a narrow line, created by starting with the brush far from the support and moving it evenly closer as the line is drawn. Single-action airbrush technique derives its name from the fact that only one action is required for operation. The single action of depressing the trigger releases a fixed ratio of paint to air. Achieving different line widths requires either changing the tip and nozzle combination or else adjusting the spray volume manually between spray width changes. The most important aspect of proper single-action airbrush technique is to keep the hand moving before the trigger is depressed and after the trigger is released. This avoids the \"bar bell\" line.", "", "Since the inception of airbrush technology, commercial artists and illustrators realized airbrushes allowed them to create highly rendered images and a high level of realism. Artists often use the airbrush in combination with cut stencils or items held freehand to block in controlled manner the flow of paint onto the paper (or digital alternatives) with fantasy and science fiction artists. Airbrush images can be found today in advertising, publishing (e.g., book covers), comic books and graphic novels.", "Airbrushing has long been used to alter photographs in the pre-digital era, and prior to airbrush a similar effect was achieved through the use of a pastel type of crayon. The very first design by Stanley alluded to this \"My invention relates to such improvements in atomizers that may be employed for finishing photographs in water-colors, india-ink, and crayon\". In skilled hands an airbrush can be used to help hide signs that an image has been extensively retouched or \"doctored\". In the 20th century Soviet Union, as a result of Stalin's purges and later destalinization, many photographs of officials from the periods show extensive airbrushing; often entire human figures have been removed. The term \"airbrushed out\" has come to mean rewriting history to pretend that something was never there. In contemporary academic discourse, the process of removing components from an image is formally known as \"object removal.\" The term \"airbrushed\" or \"airbrushed photo\" has also been used to describe glamour photos in which a model's imperfections have been removed, or in which their attributes have been enhanced. The term has often been applied in a pejorative manner to describe images of unrealistic female perfection and has been particularly common in reference to pictures in \"Playboy\", and later \"Maxim\". Using today's digital imaging technology, this kind of picture editing is now usually done with a raster image editor, which is capable of even more subtle work in the hands of a skilled touch-up artist. In the fine retouching industry, the airbrushing technique is often considered a low-end practice, with significantly inferior quality to that found in the most important fashion photography publications.", "Airbrushes are also suitable for painting murals.", "Airbrushes are commonly used by scale modeling enthusiasts because finer coats can be laid down, as well as opaque effects, like weathering, adding stains etc. The fine atomization of paint in modern airbrushes also makes it possible to accurately reproduce soft-edged mottled camouflage schemes, which are very hard to do convincingly by hand-brushing (Luftwaffe aircraft are a good example of this). Many radio-controlled model hobbyists also use the airbrush to create works of art on the Lexan bodies. The paint jobs range from a basic one-color paint job to fine detailed works of art.", "Though the earliest record of this type of cosmetic application dates back to the 1959 film version of Ben-Hur, it has recently been re-popularized by the advent of Hi-Definition Television and Digital Photography, wherein the camera sees more detail than ever before. Liquid Foundations that are high in coverage but thin in texture are applied with the airbrush for full coverage without a heavy build-up of product. It is also a highly popular technique for Special F/X Makeup as well as for the Funeral industry. Alcohol-based mediums are best suited for waterproof make-up; this makeup lasts longer, is smudge proof, is rich and opaque in colour. But alcohol based foundations can be too matte, and can lead to over-drying of the skin. They also can rub off due to excessive itching or fidgeting. Water based mediums, are great for clown make-up, i.e., for short term artistic or skin friendly make-ups, these are easy to apply, and easy to remove, with minimal damage to the skin, but water based make-up does not last a long while, and come off easily, even so with perspiration. Silicone Based airbrush Foundation, S/B foundation, are found in professional and premium retail airbrush brands, these are primarily for bridal make-ups, or mature skin. silicone based foundations have the advantage of being medium to high coverage. Silicone based airbrush foundation have another advantage of mimicking the skin texture, as to give no obvious sign of make-up, thereby giving a more natural look to the model. Silicone based airbrush foundations are comparatively water-resistant but not waterproof, they do not over dry the skin, and are relatively easy to apply and remove with a mild Make-up Remover.", "Airbrushes can also be used to apply temporary airbrush tattoos. An artist sprays ink onto the skin through a stencil. Often, the resulting design mirrors the look of a permanent tattoo, without any pain or discomfort. In the past, TATs might only last a week, but now, the best inks can last up to two weeks or longer.", "Airbrushes are used to apply special tanning solutions as a form of sunless tanning that simulates the appearance of a natural sun tan. It is promoted as a safer and healthier alternative to the damaging effects of long term exposure to the sun. It is often performed by companies also offering other sun tanning alternatives like sun beds.", "Airbrushes are also used to apply images onto human finger nails as well as synthetic ones that are later glued to the person's actual finger nail.", "T-shirt airbrushing is popular—many T-shirt airbrush shops offer to paint any textile that will hold paint, including jeans, denim jackets, leather apparel, pillow cases, and hoodies. One well known producer of airbrushed clothing is Marc Ecko, who used to airbrush T-shirts when he started his clothing company.", "Airbrushes are used to spray murals, graphics, and other artwork on automobiles, motorcycles and helmets. This art form has been around since at least the fifties, but more recently it has seen an increase in popularity thanks to such shows as \"Rides\" and \"American Chopper\". Most professionals prefer to use automotive grade bases through top of the line gravity fed airbrushes. The cost to hire a professional artist will vary from a few hundred to several thousand dollars, depending on location, skill level and reputation.", "Airbrush was a novel technique in the scientific portraying of the Moon and other planets in the 1960s. Airbrush maps were produced by USGS Astrogeology Branch to support the NASA Apollo missions.", "Many street artists use airbrushing to create names and pictures for tourists, such as around Jackson Square in New Orleans. In the mid-1970s, Panama City Beach, Florida was the airbrush capital of the world, with hundreds of artists painting custom designs on T-shirts.", "When inhaled, finely dispersed paint and solvents can produce serious health hazards. Regulatory provisions such as those issued by the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration dictate strict requirements to prevent unsafe use in work environments." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1939–1949.", "1950–1959.", "1960–1969.", "1970–1979.", "1980–1989.", "1990–1999.", "2000–2009.", "2010–2019.", "Locations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The company was established on 10 December 1939 by the armament company Oerlikon-Bührle, and construction of a new production building started in March 1940. The company was formed to do maintenance and repairs for the Swiss Air Force, the first work of the new company was assembly of EKW C-35 reconnaissance biplanes from spare parts, and overhaul work on other types. The first design project was a single-seat trainer, designated the P-1, although it was abandoned before being built. The next project was the construction of the SB-2 Pelican which had been designed by the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. The SB-2 first flew on 30 May 1944 only one of the five-seat light transports were built. In 1942, the company won a contract from the Swiss military to modify 33 EKW C-3603. Following on from the abandoned P-1 design, the company started again on the development of a two-seat trainer, designated the P-2. The P-2 first flew on 27 April 1945, and the company won an order for the Swiss Air Force. During 1945, the company produced a prototype single-engined light transport, designated the P-4; this aircraft made its first flight on 22 March 1948, but only the one P-4 was ultimately completed. During the late 1940s, the company produced a number of wooden glider designs; it also handled the production of fuselages and tail-booms for the licence-produced De Havilland Vampire and Venom.", "During 1951, the company worked on the P-5, a design project for an artillery observation aircraft; it was not built. The P-3 was put into quantity production for the Swiss Air Force; the company also achieved its first export order with the type, to deliver a batch of six P-3s to the Brazilian Navy. During 1958, Pilatus began design work on a short takeoff and landing (STOL) light civil transport aircraft which emerged as the PC-6 Porter; this aircraft first flew on 4 May 1959. The Porter was also manufactured under license by Fairchild Hiller in the United States. Roughly 100 of these licence-produced aircraft would be completed, being mainly purchased by civil operators within the US.", "The initial turbine-powered models of the PC-6 were equipped with the Astazou II powerplant, however complaints of the reliability of this engine were made. Another early turboprop powerplant that became available for the PC-6 was the Garrett Air Research TPE 331. Some operators such as Air America chose to retrofit their Astazou II-powered PC-6s with the TPE 331 engine in its place. Both the piston and turbine-engine versions of the PC-6 became quickly known for their Short Takeoff and Landing (STOL) capabilities, requiring only a very short takeoff run before being ready for rotation prior to taking off. Furthermore, during 1965, a twin-engined variant of the PC-6 was built as the PC-8 Twin Porter, although it first flew on 15 November 1967, the aircraft remained an experimental and one-off type, and development was stopped in 1972. Another project, the PC-10, a 16-passenger twin-engined transport, was also kicked off by the company; however, it was not ultimately put into production. In 1966, a turboprop-powered variant of the P-3 was flown, and was designated the PC-7. This aircraft was lost in a crash, leading to development of the type being put on hold until the 1970s. The termination of work was reportedly driven by a lack of market interest at that time.", "In a departure from the production of trainers and Porters, the company bought the rights to the all-metal B-4 glider; Pilatus re-designed the B-4 for easier production and redesignated at the B-4/PC-11. The PC-11 first flew on 5 May 1972 and the company went on to build 322. During 1973, it was decided to restart work on the PC-7 programme; factors for its revival had included the 1973 oil crisis, the launch of the rival Beechcraft T-34C Turbo-Mentor, and the increasing age of existing trainer aircraft. In 1975, a further PC-7 prototype was flown; following further development, it entered production as the PC-7 Turbo Trainer. On 12 August 1978, the first production standard aircraft made its first flight; on 5 December of that year, Switzerland's Federal Office of Civil Aviation (FOCA) issued civil certification for the PC-7. Over time, sales of the PC-7 generated considerable profits, allowing the company to finance the development of further types of aircraft. In 1979, Pilatus acquired Britten-Norman, constructor of the Britten-Norman Islander and Britten-Norman Defender aircraft; this move led to the business being restructured as the \"Pilatus Britten-Norman company\". Shortly thereafter, production activity on the Islander/Defender family was transferred to its Bembridge. Under the new company's direction, new features were installed upon the Islander over the years, such as the fitting of silencers upon both the aircraft's engine and propellers to better facilitate operations in noise-sensitive environments.", "During 1982, development of an improved variant of the PC-7 was started, it emerged as the Pilatus PC-9 in 1984. It retained the overall layout of its predecessor, but the aircraft had very little structural commonality with it. Amongst other improvements, the PC-9 features a larger cockpit with stepped ejection seats and also has a ventral airbrake. Certification was achieved in September 1985. Development of what was to become the company's best selling type, the Pilatus PC-12, was started in 1987, a single-engined turboprop transport that could carry up to twelve passengers or freight. In October 1989, Pilatus announced the development of the PC-12 at the annual convention of the National Business Aviation Association (NBAA).", "The prototype PC-12 was flown on 31 May 1991. On 30 March 1994, the Swiss Federal Office of Civil Aviation issued the type certificate for the PC-12; The first \"PC-12 Eagle\" surveillance aircraft was built in 1995, further developments led to the \"PC-12 Spectre\"; amongst other customers, it was adopted by the United States Air Force as the \"U-28A\". Since entering service, Pilatus developed a large number of improvements and options upon the original PC-12 model; changes include increases in the maximum takeoff weight, the use of increasingly powerful engines, the adoption of new avionics, noise-reduction measures, new propellers, speed and range increases, additional interiors and new inflight entertainment systems. During 1997, \"TSA Transairco SA\" of Geneva was acquired by Pilatus. In 1998, \"Pilatus Australia Pty Ltd\" was established, while Britten-Norman was sold.", "To further its family of military training aircraft, the turboprop PC-21 was developed and first flown in 2002. A key aim for the PC-21 was to allow jet aircraft pilots to perform the majority of their training using the type before converting to jet-powered types, allowing operators to make substantial savings. In order to achieve this aim, the new trainer was required to have an expanded performance envelope in terms of aerodynamics, cockpit equipment, flexibility, and ease of maintenance. In May 2002, Pilatus announced that it aimed for the PC-21 to capture 50% of the global trainer aircraft market between 2005 and 2030. In December 2000, the owners Unaxis (previously called Oerlikon-Bührle) sold Pilatus to a consortium of Swiss investors. During July 2010, the company delivered its 1,000 PC-12.", "In 2013, Pilatus created a new overseas entity, \"Pilatus Aircraft Industry (China) Co., Ltd\", to manufacture both the PC-6 and PC-12 aircraft in Chongqing, China; this company was ran as a joint partnership between Pilatus and Beijing Tian Xing Jian Yu Science Co., Ltd. In 2014, the majority of PC-6s delivered that year were to Chinese customers. By April 2016, around 20 PC-6s were in operation in the Chinese market; the type has often been used to replace the Antonov An-2, being reportedly cheaper to operate. The PC-24 was designed based on feedback from PC-12 customers, who desired increased range and speed, but wanted to retain the PC-12's ability to use very short runways. The design program was first mentioned by Pilatus in its May 2011 annual report. On 21 May 2013, the PC-24 was introduced to the public at the European Business Aviation Convention & Exhibition (EBACE) in Geneva. At the event, Pilatus chairman Oscar Schwenk claimed the PC-24 did not fit into any existing business jet categories, and stated that the aircraft was the only one that combined \"...the versatility of a turboprop with the cabin size of a medium light jet, and the performance of a light jet\". The rollout of the first PC-24, \"HB-VXA\", was on 1 August 2014, Switzerland's national day; the aircraft's first flight was on 11 May 2015. During 2018, Pilatus' general aviation division delivered 128 aircraft: 80 PC-12s, 27 PC-21s, 3 PC-6s and 18 PC-24s and its revenue was 1.1 billion Swiss francs (SFr.) ($1.0 billion) while order intake for the year was $980 million, boosting the company’s backlog to $2.07 billion. That same year, the company announced the closure of the orderbook for the PC-6 during summer 2018; the last example of the type was completed during early 2019 while parts production is set to continue for at least 20 years. In the year ended 31 December 2019, Pilatus Aircraft recorded revenues of Swfr1.2 billion on deliveries of 134 aircraft: 40 PC-24s, 83 PC-12NGs, and 11 PC-21s. This compared with revenues of Swfr1.1 billion in 2018 on deliveries of 128 aircraft: 18 PC-24s, 80 PC-12NGs, 27 PC-21s and three PC-6s. Pilatus ended production PC-6 in 2019 due to poor sales of the turboprop trainer. As of June 2020,the company's backlog stood at $2.1 billion.", "Pilatus Aircraft has its headquarters, along with a production plant, on the Buochs Airport in the Swiss canton of Nidwalden. The headquarters and plant are in the municipality of Stans. The company's wartime founding called for a location far from Switzerland's borders and right up against a ridge of Mount Pilatus. Original plans actually called for the factory to be built inside the mountain. Besides its day to day role as an aircraft factory, the Stans plant is perhaps best known for its use as a location for the film Goldfinger, and particularly the exterior shots where James Bond crashes his DB5 and is captured. Besides its Stans plant, the Pilatus group has plants at Adelaide in South Australia and in Broomfield, Colorado, United States." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "West Bank.", "Cisjordan.", "History.", "Jordanian West Bank.", "Israeli Military Governorate and Civil Administration.", "Early economic impact.", "Legal status.", "Political status.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Political geography.", "Palestinian administration.", "Areas annexed by Israel.", "Israeli settlements.", "Palestinian outposts.", "West Bank barrier.", "Administrative divisions.", "Crossing points.", "Economy.", "Consequences of occupation.", "Economic consequences.", "Water supply.", "Israeli garbage disposal.", "Palestinian garbage and sewage.", "Resource extraction.", "Loss of cultural property.", "Tourism.", "Demographics.", "Major population centers.", "Religion.", "Transportation and communications.", "Road system.", "Airports.", "Telecom.", "Radio and television.", "Higher education." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The name \"West Bank\" is a translation of the Arabic term \"ad-Diffah I-Garbiyyah\", given to the territory west of the Jordan River that fell, in 1948, under occupation and", "The neo-Latin name \"Cisjordan\" or \"Cis-Jordan\" (literally \"on this side of the River Jordan\") is the usual name for the territory in the Romance languages and. The name \"West Bank\", however, has become the standard usage for this geopolitical entity in English and some of the other Germanic languages since", "From 1517 through 1917, the area now known as the West Bank was under Ottoman rule as part of the provinces of Syria. At the 1920 San Remo conference, the victorious Allied powers (France, UK, USA, etc.) allocated the area to the British Mandate of Palestine (1920–47). The San Remo Resolution adopted on 25 April 1920 incorporated the Balfour Declaration of 1917. It and Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations were the basic documents upon which the British Mandate for Palestine was constructed. Faced with the determination of Emir Abdullah to unify Arab lands under the Hashemite banner, the British proclaimed Abdullah ruler of the three districts, known collectively as Transjordan. Confident that his plans for the unity of the Arab nation would eventually come to fruition, the emir established the first centralized governmental system in what is now modern Jordan on 11 April 1921. In 1947, it was subsequently designated as part of a proposed Arab state by the United Nations (UN) partition plan for Palestine. The resolution recommended partition of the British Mandate into a Jewish State, an Arab State, and an internationally administered enclave of Jerusalem; a broader region of the modern-day West Bank was assigned to the Arab State. The resolution designated the territory described as \"the hill country of Samaria and Judea\" (the area now known as the \"West Bank\") as part of the proposed Arab state, but following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War this area was captured by Transjordan (renamed Jordan three years after independence in 1946).", "The 1949 Armistice Agreements defined the interim boundary between Israel and Jordan (essentially reflecting the battlefield after the war). Following the December 1948 Jericho Conference, Transjordan annexed the area west of the Jordan River in 1950, naming it \"West Bank\" or \"Cisjordan\", and designated the area east of the river as \"East Bank\" or \"Transjordan\". Jordan (as it was now known) ruled over the West Bank from 1948 until 1967. Jordan's annexation was never formally recognized by the international community, with the exception of the United Kingdom and Iraq. A two-state option, dividing Palestine, as opposed to a binary solution arose during the", "In June 1967, the West Bank and East Jerusalem were captured by Israel as a result of the Six-Day War. With the exception of East Jerusalem and the former Israeli-Jordanian no man's land, the West Bank was not annexed by Israel; it remained under Israeli military control until 1982. Although the 1974 Arab League summit resolution at Rabat designated the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) as the \"sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people\", Jordan did not officially relinquish its claim to the area until 1988, when it severed all administrative and legal ties with the West Bank and eventually stripped West Bank Palestinians of Jordanian citizenship. In 1982, as a result of the IsraeliEgyptian peace treaty, the", "The Jordanians neglected to invest much in the area during their time governing the area, although there was some investment in the immediate vicinity of Jerusalem. Soon after the 1967 war, Yigal Allon produced the Allon Plan, which would have annexed a strip along the Jordan River valley and excluded areas closer to the pre-1967 border, which had a high density of Palestinians. Moshe Dayan proposed a plan which Gershom Gorenberg likens to a \"photo negative of Allon's.\" The Allon plan evolved over a period of time to include more territory. The final draft dating from 1970 would have", "From 1517 to 1917 the West Bank was part of the Ottoman Empire. Turkey, successor state to the Ottoman Empire, renounced its territorial claims in 1923, signing the Treaty of Lausanne, and the area now called the West Bank became an integral part of the British Mandate for Palestine. During the Mandate period Britain had no right of sovereignty, which was held by the people under the mandate. Nevertheless, Britain, as custodians of the land, implemented the land tenure laws in Palestine, which it had inherited from the", "The future status of the West Bank, together with the Gaza Strip on the Mediterranean shore, has been the subject of negotiation between the Palestinians and Israelis, although the 2002 Road Map for Peace, proposed by the \"Quartet\" comprising the United States, Russia, the European Union, and the United Nations, envisions an independent Palestinian state in these territories living side by side with Israel (see also proposals for a Palestinian state). However, the \"Road Map\" states that in the first phase, Palestinians must end all attacks on Israel, whereas Israel must dismantle all outposts. The Palestinian Authority believes that the West Bank ought to be a part of their sovereign nation, and that the presence of Israeli military control is a violation of their right to Palestinian Authority rule. The United Nations calls the West Bank and Gaza Strip \"Israeli-occupied territories\". The United States State Department also refers to the territories as \"occupied\". Palestinian public opinion opposes Israeli military and settler", "The West Bank has an area of, which comprises 21.2% of former Mandatory Palestine (excluding Jordan) and has generally rugged mountainous terrain. The total length of the land boundaries of the region are. The terrain is mostly rugged dissected upland, some vegetation in the west, but somewhat barren in the east. The elevation span between the shoreline of the Dead Sea at −408 m to the highest point at Mount Nabi Yunis, at 1,030 m (3,379 ft) above sea level. The area of West Bank is landlocked; highlands are main recharge area for Israel's coastal aquifers. There are few natural resources in the area except the highly arable land, which comprises 27% of the land area of the region. It is mostly used as permanent pastures (32% of arable land) and seasonal agricultural uses (40%). Forests and woodland comprise just 1%, with no permanent crops.", "The climate in the West Bank is mostly Mediterranean, slightly cooler at elevated areas compared with the shoreline,", "", "The 1993 Oslo Accords declared the final status of the West Bank to be subject to a forthcoming settlement between Israel and the Palestinian leadership. Following these interim accords, Israel withdrew its military rule from some parts of the West Bank, which was divided into three administrative divisions of the Oslo Accords: Area A, 2.7%, full civil control of the Palestinian Authority, comprises Palestinian towns, and some rural areas away from Israeli settlements in the north (between Jenin, Nablus, Tubas, and Tulkarm), the south (around Hebron), and one in the center south of Salfit. Area B, 25.2%, adds other populated rural areas, many closer to the center of the West Bank. Area C contains all the Israeli settlements (excluding settlements in East Jerusalem), roads used to access the settlements, buffer zones (near settlements, roads, strategic areas, and Israel), and almost all of the Jordan Valley and the Judean Desert. Areas A and", "Through the Jerusalem Law, Israel extended its administrative control over East Jerusalem. This has often been interpreted as tantamount to an official annexation, though Ian Lustick, in reviewing the legal status of Israeli measures, has argued that no such annexation ever took place. The Palestinian residents have legal permanent residency status. Rejecting the Jerusalem Law, the UN Security Council passed UN Security Council Resolution 478, declaring that the law was \"null and void\". Although permanent residents are permitted, if they wish,", "As of December 2010, 327,750 Israelis live in the 121 settlements in the West Bank officially recognised by the Israeli government, 192,000 Israelis live in settlements in East Jerusalem. There are approximately 100 further settlement outposts which are not officially recognized by the Israeli government and are illegal under Israeli law, but have been provided with infrastructure, water, sewage, and other services by the authorities. As a result of \"Enclave law\", large portions of Israeli civil law are applied to Israeli settlements and Israeli residents in the occupied territories. The international consensus is that all Israeli settlements on the West Bank beyond the Green Line are illegal under international law. In particular, the European Union as a whole considers the settlements to be illegal. Significant portions of the Israeli public similarly oppose the continuing presence of Jewish Israelis in the West Bank and have supported the 2005 settlement relocation. The majority of legal scholars also hold the settlements to violate international law, however individuals including Julius Stone, and Eugene Rostow have argued that they are legal under international law, on a number of different grounds. Immediately after", "The Haaretz published an article in December 2005 about demolition of \"Palestinian outposts\" in Bil'in, the demolitions sparked a political debate as according to \"PeaceNow\" it was a double standard (\"After what happened today in Bil'in, there is no reason that the state should defend its decision to continue the construction\" credited to Michael Sfard). In January 2012, the European Union approved the \"Area C and Palestinian state building\" report. The report said Palestinian presence in Area C has been continuously undermined by Israel and that state building efforts in Area C of the Palestinian Authority (PA) and the EU were of \"utmost importance in order to support the creation of a contiguous and viable Palestinian", "The Israeli West Bank barrier is a physical barrier ordered for construction by the Israeli Government, consisting of a network of fences with vehicle-barrier trenches surrounded by an on average wide exclusion area (90%) and up to high concrete walls (10%) (although in most areas the wall is not nearly that high). It is located mainly within the West Bank, partly along the 1949 Armistice line, or \"Green Line\" between the West Bank and Israel. As of April 2006 the length of the barrier as approved by the Israeli government is long. Approximately 58.4% has been constructed, 8.96% is under construction, and construction has not yet begun on 33% of the barrier. The space between the barrier and the green line is a closed military zone known as the Seam Zone, cutting off 8.5% of", "", "Allenby Bridge, or ‘King Hussein Bridge’, is the main port for the Palestinian in the West Bank to the Jordanian borders. This crossing point is controlled by Israel since 1967. It was inaugurated on 11 December 2011 under the military order \"175\" entitled ‘An order concerning transition station’. Later, Order ‘446’ was issued which annexed the Damia Bridge crossing point to the Allenby Bridge as a commercial", "As of the early-21st century, the economy of the Palestinian territories is chronically", "", "According to a 2013 World Bank report, Israeli restrictions hinder Palestinian economic development in Area C of the West Bank. A 2013 World Bank report calculates that, if", "Amnesty International has criticized the way that the Israeli state is dealing with the regional water resources: Israeli settlers in the West Bank have seized dozens of wells", "Israel ratified the international Basel Convention treaty on Israel on 14 December 1994, according to which, any transfer of waste must be performed with an awareness of the dangers posed to the disempowered occupied people. It forbids the creation among them of \"environmental sacrifice zones.\" Israel, it is argued, uses the West Bank as a \"sacrifice\" zone for placing 15 waste treatment plants, which are there under less stringent rules that those required in Israel because a different legal system has been organized regarding hazardous materials that can be noxious to local people and the environment. The military authorities do not render public the details of these operations. These materials consist of such things as sewage sludge, infectious medical waste, used oils, solvents, metals, electronic waste and batteries. In", "In 1995, the Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) was established by a presidential decree. One year later, its functions, objectives and responsibilities were defined through a by-law, giving the PWA the mandate to manage water resources and execute the water policy. About 90% of the Palestinians in the Territories had access to improved sanitation in", "Based on the number of quarries per km in Areas A and B, it is calculated that, were Israel to lift restrictions, a further 275 quarries could be opened in Area C. The World Bank estimates that Israel's virtual ban on issuing Palestinians permits for quarries there costs the Palestinian economy at least US$241 million per year. In International law drawing on the Hague Conventions (Article 55), it is established that an occupying power may reap some value from the resources of the country occupied but not deplete its assets, and that the usufruct must benefit the people under occupation. The Oslo Accords agreed to hand over mining rights to the Palestinian Authority. Israel licenses eleven settlement quarries in the West Bank and they sell 94% of their material to Israel, which arguably constitutes \"depletion\" and pays royalties to its West Bank military government and settlement municipalities. Thus the German cement firm quarrying at Nahal Raba paid out €430,000 ($479,000) in taxes to the Samaria Regional Council in 2014 alone. The Israeli High Court rejected a petition that such quarrying was", "Albert Glock argued that Israel is responsible for the disappearance of significant parts of the Palestinian cultural patrimony, by confiscating Arab cultural resources. In 1967 it appropriated the Palestine Archaeological Museum and its library in East Jerusalem. Often these losses are personal, as when homes are ransacked", "The Palestinian territories contain several of the most significant sites for Muslims, Christians and Jews, and are endowed with a world-class heritage highly attractive to tourists and pilgrims. The West Bank Palestinians themselves have difficulties in accessing the territory for recreation. Based on 1967 figures, the Palestinian Dead Sea Coastline is roughly 40 km in length, of which 15% (6 kilometres) could lend itself to the same tourist infrastructure developed by Jordan and Israel in their respective areas. Were Israel to permit a parallel development of this Palestinian sector, the World Bank estimates that 2,900 jobs would be added, allowing the Palestinian economy a potential value-added input of something like $126 million annually. It is also the only maritime recreational", "In December 2007, an official census conducted by the Palestinian Authority found that the Palestinian Arab population of the West Bank (including East Jerusalem) was 2,345,000. However, the World Bank and American-Israeli Demographic Research Group identified a 32% discrepancy between first-grade enrollment statistics documented by the Palestinian Ministry of Education and Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS)’ 2007 projections, with questions also raised about the PCBS’ growth assumptions for the period 1997–2003. The Israeli Civil Administration put the number of Palestinians in the West Bank at 2,657,029 as of May 2012. There are 389,250 Israeli settlers living in the West Bank excluding East Jerusalem, as well as around 375,000 living in Israeli-annexed East Jerusalem. There are also small ethnic groups, such as the Samaritans living in and around Nablus, numbering in the hundreds. As of October 2007, around 23,000 Palestinians in the West Bank worked in Israel every day, while another 9,200 worked in Israeli settlements. In addition, around 10,000 Palestinian traders from the West Bank were allowed to travel every day into Israel. By 2014, 92,000 Palestinians worked in Israel legally or illegally, twice as many as in 2010. In 2008, approximately 30% of Palestinians or 754,263 persons living in the West Bank were refugees or descendants of refugees from villages and towns located in what became Israel during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, according to UNRWA statistics. A 2011 EU report titled \"Area C and Palestinian State Building\" reported that before the Israeli occupation in 1967, between 200,000 and 320,000 Palestinians used to live in the Jordan Valley, 90% which is in Area C, but demolition of Palestinian homes and prevention of new buildings has seen the number drop to 56,000, 70% of which live in Area A, in Jericho. In a similar period, the Jewish population in Area C has grown from 1,200 to 310,000.", "The most densely populated part of the region is a mountainous spine, running north–south, where the cities of Jerusalem, Nablus, Ramallah, al-Bireh, Jenin, Bethlehem, Hebron and Yattah are located as well as the Israeli settlements of Ariel, Ma'ale Adumim and Beitar Illit. Ramallah, although relatively mid in population compared to other major cities as", "The population of the West Bank is 80–85% Muslim", "", "In 2010, the West Bank and Gaza Strip together had of roadways. It has been said that for \"Jewish settlers, roads \"connect\"; for Palestinians, they \"separate\".\" Between 1994 and 1997, the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) built 180 miles of bypass roads in the territories, on appropriated land because they ran close to Palestinian villages. The given aim was said to be to afford protection to settlers from Palestinian sniping, bombing, and drive-by shootings. For TAU emeritus professor of geography Elisha Efrat, they ignored the historical topography, road systems and environmental characteristics of the West Bank, and simply formed an apartheid network of \"octopus arms which hold a grip on Palestinian population centres\". A large number of embankments, concrete slabs and barriers impeded movement on primary and secondary roads. The result was to cantonize and fragment Palestinian townships, and cause endless obstacles", "The only airport in the West Bank is", "The Palestinian Paltel telecommunication companies provide communication services such as landline, cellular network and Internet in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Dialling code +970 is used in the West Bank", "The Palestinian Broadcasting Corporation broadcasts from an AM station in Ramallah on 675 kHz; numerous local privately owned stations are also in operation. Most Palestinian households have a radio and TV, and satellite dishes for receiving international coverage are widespread. Recently, PalTel announced and has begun implementing", "Seven universities are operating in the West Bank: Most universities in the West Bank have politically active student bodies, and elections of student council officers are normally along party affiliations. Although the establishment of the universities was initially allowed by the Israeli authorities, some were sporadically ordered closed by the Israeli Civil Administration during the 1970s and 1980s to prevent political activities and violence against the IDF. Some universities remained closed by military order for extended periods during years immediately preceding and following the first Palestinian Intifada, but have largely remained open since the signing of the Oslo Accords despite the advent of the Al-Aqsa Intifada (Second Intifada) in 2000. The founding of Palestinian universities has greatly increased education levels among the population in the West Bank. According to a Birzeit University study, the percentage of Palestinians choosing local universities as opposed to foreign institutions has been steadily increasing; as of 1997, 41% of Palestinians with bachelor's degrees had obtained them from Palestinian institutions. According to UNESCO, Palestinians are one of the most highly educated groups in the Middle East \"despite often difficult circumstances\". The literacy rate among Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip according to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) is 94.6% for 2009." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Background.", "Standardization.", "AAC's improvements over MP3.", "Functionality.", "Modular encoding.", "AAC error protection toolkit.", "Error Resilient (ER) AAC.", "AAC Low Delay.", "Licensing and patents.", "Extensions and improvements.", "Container formats.", "Products that support AAC.", "HDTV Standards.", "Japanese ISDB-T.", "International ISDB-Tb.", "DVB.", "Hardware.", "iTunes and iPod.", "Mobile phones.", "Software.", "Nero Digital Audio.", "FAAC and FAAD2.", "Fraunhofer FDK AAC.", "FFmpeg and Libav." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "", "The discrete cosine transform (DCT), a type of transform coding for lossy compression, was proposed by Nasir Ahmed in 1972, and developed by Ahmed with T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1973, publishing their results in 1974. This led to the development of the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT), proposed by J. P. Princen, A. W. Johnson and A. B. Bradley in 1987, following earlier work by Princen and Bradley in 1986. The MP3 audio coding standard introduced in 1994 used a hybrid coding algorithm that is part MDCT and part FFT. AAC uses a purely MDCT algorithm, giving it higher compression efficiency than MP3. AAC was developed with the cooperation and contributions of companies including Bell Labs, Fraunhofer IIS, Dolby Laboratories, LG Electronics, NEC, NTT Docomo, Panasonic, Sony Corporation, ETRI, JVC Kenwood, Philips, Microsoft, and NTT. It was officially declared an international standard by the Moving Picture Experts Group in April 1997. It is specified both as \"Part 7 of the MPEG-2 standard\", and \"Subpart 4 in Part 3 of the MPEG-4 standard\".", "In 1997, AAC was first introduced as \"MPEG-2 Part 7\", formally known as \"ISO/IEC 13818-7:1997\". This part of MPEG-2 was a new part, since MPEG-2 already included \"MPEG-2 Part 3\", formally known as \"ISO/IEC 13818-3: MPEG-2 BC\" (Backwards Compatible). Therefore, MPEG-2 Part 7 is also known as \"MPEG-2 NBC\" (Non-Backward Compatible), because it is not compatible with the MPEG-1 audio formats (MP1, MP2 and MP3). MPEG-2 Part 7 defined three profiles: \"Low-Complexity\" profile (AAC-LC / LC-AAC), \"Main\" profile (AAC Main) and \"Scalable Sampling Rate\" profile (AAC-SSR). AAC-LC profile consists of a base format very much like AT&T's Perceptual Audio Coding (PAC) coding format, with the addition of temporal noise shaping (TNS), the Kaiser window (described below), a nonuniform quantizer, and a reworking of the bitstream format to handle up to 16 stereo channels, 16 mono channels, 16 low-frequency effect (LFE) channels and 16 commentary channels in one bitstream. The Main profile adds a set of recursive predictors that are calculated on each tap of the filterbank. The SSR uses a 4-band PQMF filterbank, with four shorter filterbanks following, in order to allow for scalable sampling rates. In 1999, MPEG-2 Part 7 was updated and included in the MPEG-4 family of standards and became known as \"MPEG-4 Part 3\", \"MPEG-4 Audio\" or \"ISO/IEC 14496-3:1999\". This update included several improvements. One of these improvements was the addition of \"Audio Object Types\" which are used to allow interoperability with a diverse range of other audio formats such as TwinVQ, CELP, HVXC, Text-To-Speech Interface and MPEG-4 Structured Audio. Another notable addition in this version of the AAC standard is \"Perceptual Noise Substitution\" (PNS). In that regard, the AAC profiles (AAC-LC, AAC Main and AAC-SSR profiles) are combined with perceptual noise substitution and are defined in the MPEG-4 audio standard as Audio Object Types. MPEG-4 Audio Object Types are combined in four MPEG-4 Audio profiles: Main (which includes most of the MPEG-4 Audio Object Types), Scalable (AAC LC, AAC LTP, CELP, HVXC, TwinVQ, Wavetable Synthesis, TTSI), Speech (CELP, HVXC, TTSI) and Low Rate Synthesis (Wavetable Synthesis, TTSI). The reference software for MPEG-4 Part 3 is specified in MPEG-4 Part 5 and the conformance bit-streams are specified in MPEG-4 Part 4. MPEG-4 Audio remains backward-compatible with MPEG-2 Part 7. The MPEG-4 Audio Version 2 (ISO/IEC 14496-3:1999/Amd 1:2000) defined new audio object types: the low delay AAC (AAC-LD) object type, bit-sliced arithmetic coding (BSAC) object type, parametric audio coding using harmonic and individual line plus noise and error resilient (ER) versions of object types. It also defined four new audio profiles: High Quality Audio Profile, Low Delay Audio Profile, Natural Audio Profile and Mobile Audio Internetworking Profile. The HE-AAC Profile (AAC LC with SBR) and AAC Profile (AAC LC) were first standardized in ISO/IEC 14496-3:2001/Amd 1:2003. The HE-AAC v2 Profile (AAC LC with SBR and Parametric Stereo) was first specified in ISO/IEC 14496-3:2005/Amd 2:2006.<ref name=\"ISO 14496-3:2005/Amd.2\"></ref> The Parametric Stereo audio object type used in HE-AAC v2 was first defined in ISO/IEC 14496-3:2001/Amd 2:2004. The current version of the AAC standard is defined in ISO/IEC 14496-3:2009. AAC+ v2 is also standardized by ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) as TS 102005. The MPEG-4 Part 3 standard also contains other ways of compressing sound. These include lossless compression formats, synthetic audio and low bit-rate compression formats generally used for speech.", "Advanced Audio Coding is designed to be the successor of the \"MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3\", known as MP3 format, which was specified by ISO/IEC in 11172-3 (MPEG-1 Audio) and 13818-3 (MPEG-2 Audio). Blind tests in the late 1990s showed that AAC demonstrated greater sound quality and transparency than MP3 for files coded at the same bit rate. Improvements include: Overall, the AAC format allows developers more flexibility to design codecs than MP3 does, and corrects many of the design choices made in the original MPEG-1 audio specification. This increased flexibility often leads to more concurrent encoding strategies and, as a result, to more efficient compression. This is especially true at very low bit rates where the superior stereo coding, pure MDCT, and better transform window sizes leave MP3 unable to compete. While the MP3 format has near-universal hardware and software support, primarily because MP3 was the format of choice during the crucial first few years of widespread music file-sharing/distribution over the internet, AAC is a strong contender due to some unwavering industry support.", "AAC is a wideband audio coding algorithm that exploits two primary coding strategies to dramatically reduce the amount of data needed to represent high-quality digital audio: The actual encoding process consists of the following steps: The MPEG-4 audio standard does not define a single or small set of highly efficient compression schemes but rather a complex toolbox to perform a wide range of operations from low bit rate speech coding to high-quality audio coding and music synthesis. AAC encoders can switch dynamically between a single MDCT block of length 1024 points or 8 blocks of 128 points (or between 960 points and 120 points, respectively).", "AAC takes a modular approach to encoding. Depending on the complexity of the bitstream to be encoded, the desired performance and the acceptable output, implementers may create profiles to define which of a specific set of tools they want to use for a particular application. The MPEG-2 Part 7 standard (Advanced Audio Coding) was first published in 1997 and offers three default profiles: The MPEG-4 Part 3 standard (MPEG-4 Audio) defined various new compression tools (a.k.a. Audio Object Types) and their usage in brand new profiles. AAC is not used in some of the MPEG-4 Audio profiles. The MPEG-2 Part 7 AAC LC profile, AAC Main profile and AAC SSR profile are combined with Perceptual Noise Substitution and defined in the MPEG-4 Audio standard as Audio Object Types (under the name AAC LC, AAC Main and AAC SSR). These are combined with other Object Types in MPEG-4 Audio profiles. Here is a list of some audio profiles defined in the MPEG-4 standard: One of many improvements in MPEG-4 Audio is an Object Type called Long Term Prediction (LTP), which is an improvement of the Main profile using a forward predictor with lower computational complexity.", "Applying error protection enables error correction up to a certain extent. Error correcting codes are usually applied equally to the whole payload. However, since different parts of an AAC payload show different sensitivity to transmission errors, this would not be a very efficient approach. The AAC payload can be subdivided into parts with different error sensitivities.", "Error Resilience (ER) techniques can be used to make the coding scheme itself more robust against errors. For AAC, three custom-tailored methods were developed and defined in MPEG-4 Audio", "The audio coding standards MPEG-4 Low Delay, Enhanced Low Delay and Enhanced Low Delay v2 (AAC-LD, AAC-ELD, AAC-ELDv2) as defined in ISO/IEC 14496-3:2009 and ISO/IEC 14496-3:2009/Amd 3 are designed to combine the advantages of perceptual audio coding with the low delay necessary for two-way communication. They are closely derived from the MPEG-2 Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) format. AAC-ELD is recommended by GSMA as super-wideband voice codec in the IMS Profile for High Definition Video Conference (HDVC) Service.", "No licenses or payments are required for a user to stream or distribute content in AAC format. This reason alone might have made AAC a more attractive format to distribute content than its predecessor MP3, particularly for streaming content (such as Internet radio) depending on the use case. However, a patent license is required for all manufacturers or developers of AAC codecs. For this reason, free and open source software implementations such as FFmpeg and FAAC may be distributed in source form only, in order to avoid patent infringement. (See below under Products that support AAC, Software.) The AAC patent holders include Bell Labs, Dolby, Fraunhofer, LG Electronics, NEC, NTT Docomo, Panasonic, Sony Corporation, ETRI, JVC Kenwood, Philips, Microsoft, and NTT.", "Some extensions have been added to the first AAC standard (defined in MPEG-2 Part 7 in 1997):", "In addition to the MP4, 3GP and other container formats based on ISO base media file format for file storage, AAC audio data was first packaged in a file for the MPEG-2 standard using Audio Data Interchange Format (ADIF), consisting of a single header followed by the raw AAC audio data blocks. However, if the data is to be streamed within an MPEG-2 transport stream, a self-synchronizing format called an Audio Data Transport Stream (ADTS) is used, consisting of a series of frames, each frame having a header followed by the AAC audio data. This file and streaming-based format are defined in MPEG-2 Part 7, but are only considered informative by MPEG-4, so an MPEG-4 decoder does not need to support either format. These containers, as well as a raw AAC stream, may bear the.aac file extension. MPEG-4 Part 3 also defines its own self-synchronizing format called a Low Overhead Audio Stream (LOAS) that encapsulates not only AAC, but any MPEG-4 audio compression scheme such as TwinVQ and ALS. This format is what was defined for use in DVB transport streams when encoders use either SBR or parametric stereo AAC extensions. However, it is restricted to only a single non-multiplexed AAC stream. This format is also referred to as a Low Overhead Audio Transport Multiplex (LATM), which is just an interleaved multiple stream version of a LOAS.", "", "", "In December 2003, Japan started broadcasting terrestrial DTV ISDB-T standard that implements MPEG-2 video and MPEG-2 AAC audio. In April 2006 Japan started broadcasting the ISDB-T mobile sub-program, called 1seg, that was the first implementation of video H.264/AVC with audio HE-AAC in Terrestrial HDTV broadcasting service on the planet.", "In December 2007, Brazil started broadcasting terrestrial DTV standard called International ISDB-Tb that implements video coding H.264/AVC with audio AAC-LC on main program (single or multi) and video H.264/AVC with audio HE-AACv2 in the 1seg mobile sub-program.", "The ETSI, the standards governing body for the DVB suite, supports AAC, HE-AAC and HE-AAC v2 audio coding in DVB applications since at least 2004. DVB broadcasts which use the H.264 compression for video normally use HE-AAC for audio.", "", "In April 2003, Apple brought mainstream attention to AAC by announcing that its iTunes and iPod products would support songs in MPEG-4 AAC format (via a firmware update for older iPods). Customers could download music in a closed-source Digital Rights Management (DRM)-restricted form of AAC (see FairPlay) via the iTunes Store or create files without DRM from their own CDs using iTunes. In later years, Apple began offering music videos and movies, which also use AAC for audio encoding. On May 29, 2007, Apple began selling songs and music videos free of DRM from participating record labels. These files mostly adhere to the AAC standard and are playable on many non-Apple products but they do include custom iTunes information such as album artwork and a purchase receipt, so as to identify the customer in case the file is leaked out onto peer-to-peer networks. It is possible, however, to remove these custom tags to restore interoperability with players that conform strictly to the AAC specification. As of January 6, 2009, nearly all music on the USA regioned iTunes Store became DRM-free, with the remainder becoming DRM-free by the end of March 2009. iTunes supports a \"Variable Bit Rate\" (VBR) encoding option which encodes AAC tracks in an \"Average Bit Rate\" (ABR) scheme. As of September 2009, Apple has added support for HE-AAC (which is fully part of the MP4 standard) only for radio streams, not file playback, and iTunes still lacks support for true VBR encoding. The underlying QuickTime API does offer a true VBR encoding profile however.", "For a number of years, many mobile phones from manufacturers such as Nokia, Motorola, Samsung, Sony Ericsson, BenQ-Siemens and Philips have supported AAC playback. The first such phone was the Nokia 5510 released in 2002 which also plays MP3s. However, this phone was a commercial failure and such phones with integrated music players did not gain mainstream popularity until 2005 when the trend of having AAC as well as MP3 support continued. Most new smartphones and music-themed phones support playback of these formats.", "Almost all current computer media players include built-in decoders for AAC, or can utilize a library to decode it. On Microsoft Windows, DirectShow can be used this way with the corresponding filters to enable AAC playback in any DirectShow based player. Mac OS X supports AAC via the QuickTime libraries. Adobe Flash Player, since version 9 update 3, can also play back AAC streams. Since Flash Player is also a browser plugin, it can play AAC files through a browser as well. The Rockbox open source firmware (available for multiple portable players) also offers support for AAC to varying degrees, depending on the model of player and the AAC profile. Optional iPod support (playback of unprotected AAC files) for the Xbox 360 is available as a free download from Xbox Live. The following is a non-comprehensive list of other software player applications: Some of these players (e.g., foobar2000, Winamp, and VLC) also support the decoding of ADTS (Audio Data Transport Stream) using the SHOUTcast protocol. Plug-ins for Winamp and foobar2000 enable the creation of such streams.", "In May 2006, Nero AG released an AAC encoding tool free of charge, \"Nero Digital Audio\" (the AAC codec portion has become Nero AAC Codec), which is capable of encoding LC-AAC, HE-AAC and HE-AAC v2 streams. The tool is a Command Line Interface tool only. A separate utility is also included to decode to PCM WAV. Various tools including the foobar2000 audio player and MediaCoder can provide a GUI for this encoder.", "FAAC and FAAD2 stand for Freeware Advanced Audio Coder and Decoder 2 respectively. FAAC supports audio object types LC, Main and LTP. FAAD2 supports audio object types LC, Main, LTP, SBR and PS. Although FAAD2 is free software, FAAC is not free software.", "A Fraunhofer-authored open-source encoder/decoder included in Android has been ported to other platforms. It is the recommended AAC encoder of FFmpeg.", "The native AAC encoder created in FFmpeg's libavcodec, and forked with Libav, was considered experimental and poor. A significant amount of work was done for the 3.0 release of FFmpeg (February 2016) to make its version usable and competitive with the rest of the AAC encoders. Libav has not merged this work and continues to use the older version of the AAC encoder. These encoders are LGPL-licensed open-source and can be built for any platform that the FFmpeg or Libav frameworks can be built. Both FFmpeg and Libav can use the Fraunhofer FDK AAC library via libfdk-aac, and while the FFmpeg native encoder has become stable and good enough for common use, FDK is still considered the highest quality encoder available for use with FFmpeg. Libav also recommends using FDK AAC if it is available." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Chemical process.", "Properties.", "Fiber-reinforced materials." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Curing a thermosetting resin transforms it into a plastic, or elastomer (rubber) by crosslinking or chain extension through the formation of covalent bonds between individual chains of the polymer. Crosslink density varies depending on the monomer or prepolymer mix, and the mechanism of crosslinking: Acrylic resins, polyesters and vinyl esters with unsaturated sites at the ends or on the backbone are generally linked by copolymerisation with unsaturated monomer diluents, with cure initiated by free radicals generated from ionizing radiation or by the photolytic or thermal decomposition of a radical initiator – the intensity of crosslinking is influenced by the degree of backbone unsaturation in the prepolymer; Epoxy functional resins can be homo-polymerized with anionic or cationic catalysts and heat, or copolymerised through nucleophilic addition reactions with multifunctional crosslinking agents which are also known as curing agents or hardeners. As reaction proceeds, larger and larger molecules are formed and highly branched crosslinked structures develop, the rate of cure being influenced by the physical form and functionality of epoxy resins and curing agents – elevated temperature postcuring induces secondary crosslinking of backbone hydroxyl functionality which condense to form ether bonds; Polyurethanes form when isocyanate resins and prepolymers are combined with low- or high-molecular weight polyols, with strict stochiometric ratios being essential to control nucleophilic addition polymerisation – the degree of crosslinking and resulting physical type (elastomer or plastic) is adjusted from the molecular weight and functionality of isocyanate resins, prepolymers, and the exact combinations of diols, triols and polyols selected, with the rate of reaction being strongly influenced by catalysts and inhibitors; polyureas form virtually instantaneously when isocyanate resins are combined with long-chain amine functional polyether or polyester resins and short-chain diamine extenders – the amine-isocyanate nucleophilic addition reaction does not require catalysts. Polyureas also form when isocyanate resins come into contact with moisture; Phenolic, amino and furan resins all cured by polycondensation involving the release of water and heat, with cure initiation and polymerisation exotherm control influenced by curing temperature, catalyst selection or loading and processing method or pressure – the degree of pre-polymerisation and level of residual hydroxymethyl content in the resins determine the crosslink density. Benzoxazines are cured by an exothermal ring-opening polymerisation without releasing any chemical, which translates in near zero shrinkage upon polymerisation. Thermosetting polymer mixtures based on thermosetting resin monomers and pre-polymers can be formulated and applied and processed in a variety of ways to create distinctive cured properties that cannot be achieved with thermoplastic polymers or inorganic materials. Application/process uses and methods for thermosets include protective coating, seamless flooring, civil engineering construction grouts for jointing and injection, mortars, foundry sands, adhesives, sealants, castings, potting, electrical insulation, encapsulation, 3D printing, solid foams, wet lay-up laminating, pultrusion, gelcoats, filament winding, pre-pregs, and molding. Specific methods of molding thermosets are:", "Thermosetting plastics are generally stronger than thermoplastic materials due to the three-dimensional network of bonds (crosslinking), and are also better suited to high-temperature applications up to the decomposition temperature since they keep their shape as strong covalent bonds between polymer chains cannot be broken easily. The higher the crosslink density and aromatic content of a thermoset polymer, the higher the resistance to heat degradation and chemical attack. Mechanical strength and hardness also improve with crosslink density, although at the expense of brittleness. They normally decompose before melting. Hard, plastic thermosets may undergo permanent or plastic deformation under load. Elastomers, which are soft and springy or rubbery and can be deformed and revert to their original shape on loading release. Conventional thermoset plastics or elastomers cannot be melted and re-shaped after they are cured. This usually prevents recycling for the same purpose, except as filler material. New developments involving thermoset epoxy resins which on controlled and contained heating form crosslinked networks permit repeatedly reshaping, like silica glass by reversible covalent bond exchange reactions on reheating above the glass transition temperature. There are also thermoset polyurethanes shown to have transient properties and which can thus be reprocessed or recycled.", "When compounded with fibers, thermosetting resins form fiber-reinforced polymer composites, which are used in the fabrication of factory-finished structural composite OEM or replacement parts, and as site-applied, cured and finished composite repair and protection materials. When used as the binder for aggregates and other solid fillers, they form particulate-reinforced polymer composites, which are used for factory-applied protective coating or component manufacture, and for site-applied and cured construction, or maintenance purposes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Signs and symptoms.", "Causes.", "Diagnosis.", "Blood and urine test.", "Imaging.", "Ultrasound.", "Computed tomography.", "Magnetic resonance imaging.", "X-ray.", "Scoring systems.", "Pathology.", "Differential diagnosis.", "Management.", "Pain.", "Surgery.", "Open appendectomy.", "Laparoscopic appendectomy.", "Pre-surgery.", "After surgery.", "Prognosis.", "Epidemiology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The presentation of acute appendicitis includes abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and fever. As the appendix becomes more swollen and inflamed, it begins to irritate the adjoining abdominal wall. This leads to the localization of the pain to the right lower quadrant. This classic migration of pain may not be seen in children under three years. This pain can be elicited through signs and can be severe. Symptoms include localized findings in the right iliac fossa. The abdominal wall becomes very sensitive to gentle pressure (palpation). There is severe pain in the sudden release of deep tension in the lower abdomen (rebound tenderness). If the appendix is retrocecal (localized behind the cecum), even deep pressure in the right lower quadrant may fail to elicit tenderness (silent appendix). This is because the cecum, distended with gas, protects the inflamed appendix from pressure. Similarly, if the appendix lies entirely within the pelvis, there is typically a complete absence of abdominal rigidity. In such cases, a digital rectal examination elicits tenderness in the rectovesical pouch. Coughing causes point tenderness in this area (McBurney's point), historically called Dunphy's sign.", "Acute appendicitis seems to be the result of a primary obstruction of the appendix. Once this obstruction occurs, the appendix becomes filled with mucus and swells. This continued production of mucus leads to increased pressures within the lumen and the walls of the appendix. The increased pressure results in thrombosis and occlusion of the small vessels, and stasis of lymphatic flow. At this point, spontaneous recovery rarely occurs. As the occlusion of blood vessels progresses, the appendix becomes ischemic and then necrotic. As bacteria begin to leak out through the dying walls, pus forms within and around the appendix (suppuration). The end result is appendiceal rupture (a 'burst appendix') causing peritonitis, which may lead to sepsis and eventually death. These events are responsible for the slowly evolving abdominal pain and other commonly associated symptoms. The causative agents include bezoars, foreign bodies, trauma, intestinal worms, lymphadenitis and, most commonly, calcified fecal deposits that are known as appendicoliths or fecaliths. The occurrence of obstructing fecaliths has attracted attention since their presence in people with appendicitis is higher in developed than in developing countries. In addition an appendiceal fecalith is commonly associated with complicated appendicitis. Fecal stasis and arrest may play a role, as demonstrated by people with acute appendicitis having fewer bowel movements per week compared with healthy controls. The occurrence of a fecalith in the appendix was thought to be attributed to a right-sided fecal retention reservoir in the colon and a prolonged transit time. However, a prolonged transit time was not observed in subsequent studies. Diverticular disease and adenomatous polyps was historically unknown and colon cancer was exceedingly rare in communities where appendicitis itself was rare or absent, such as various African communities. Studies have implicated a transition to a Western diet lower in fibre in rising frequencies of appendicitis as well as the other aforementioned colonic diseases in these communities. And acute appendicitis has been shown to occur antecedent to cancer in the colon and rectum. Several studies offer evidence that a low fiber intake is involved in the pathogenesis of appendicitis. This low intake of dietary fiber is in accordance with the occurrence of a right-sided fecal reservoir and the fact that dietary fiber reduces transit time.", "Diagnosis is based on a medical history (symptoms) and physical examination, which can be supported by an elevation of neutrophilic white blood cells and imaging studies if needed. Histories fall into two categories, typical and atypical. Typical appendicitis includes several hours of generalized abdominal pain that begins in the region of the umbilicus with associated anorexia, nausea, or vomiting. The pain then \"localizes\" into the right lower quadrant where the tenderness increases in intensity. It is possible the pain could localize to the left lower quadrant in people with situs inversus totalis. The combination of pain, anorexia, leukocytosis, and fever is classic. Atypical histories lack this typical progression and may include pain in the right lower quadrant as an initial symptom. Irritation of the peritoneum (inside lining of the abdominal wall) can lead to increased pain on movement, or jolting, for example going over speed bumps. Atypical histories often require imaging with ultrasound or CT scanning.", "While there is no laboratory test specific for appendicitis, a complete blood count (CBC) is done to check for signs of infection. Although 70–90 percent of people with appendicitis may have an elevated white blood cell (WBC) count, there are many other abdominal and pelvic conditions that can cause the WBC count to be elevated. Due to its low sensitivity and specificity, on its own, WBC is not seen as a good indicator of appendicitis. A urinalysis generally does not show infection, but it is important for determining pregnancy status, especially the possibility of an ectopic pregnancy in women of childbearing age. The urinalysis is also important for ruling out a urinary tract infection as the cause of abdominal pain. The presence of more than 20 WBC per high-power field in the urine is more suggestive of a urinary tract disorder.", "In children the clinical examination is important to determine which children with abdominal pain should receive immediate surgical consultation and which should receive diagnostic imaging. Because of the health risks of exposing children to radiation, ultrasound is the preferred first choice with CT scan being a legitimate follow-up if the ultrasound is inconclusive. CT scan is more accurate than ultrasound for the diagnosis of appendicitis in adults and adolescents. CT scan has a sensitivity of 94%, specificity of 95%. Ultrasonography had an overall sensitivity of 86%, a specificity of 81%.", "Abdominal ultrasonography, preferably with doppler sonography, is useful to detect appendicitis, especially in children. Ultrasound can show the free fluid collection in the right iliac fossa, along with a visible appendix with increased blood flow when using color Doppler, and noncompressibility of the appendix, as it is essentially walled-off abscess. Other secondary sonographic signs of acute appendicitis include the presence of echogenic mesenteric fat surrounding the appendix and the acoustic shadowing of an appendicolith. In some cases (approximately 5%), ultrasonography of the iliac fossa does not reveal any abnormalities despite the presence of appendicitis. This false-negative finding is especially true of early appendicitis before the appendix has become significantly distended. Also, false-negative findings are more common in adults where larger amounts of fat and bowel gas make visualizing the appendix technically difficult. Despite these limitations, sonographic imaging with experienced hands can often distinguish between appendicitis and other diseases with similar symptoms. Some of these conditions include inflammation of lymph nodes near the appendix or pain originating from other pelvic organs such as the ovaries or Fallopian tubes. Ultrasounds may be either done by the radiology department or by the emergency physician.", "Where it is readily available, computed tomography (CT) has become frequently used, especially in people whose diagnosis is not obvious on history and physical examination. Concerns about radiation tend to limit use of CT in pregnant women and children, especially with the increasingly widespread usage of MRI. The accurate diagnosis of appendicitis is multi-tiered, with the size of the appendix having the strongest positive predictive value, while indirect features can either increase or decrease sensitivity and specificity. A size of over 6 mm is both 95% sensitive and specific for appendicitis. However, because the appendix can be filled with fecal material, causing intraluminal distention, this criterion has shown limited utility in more recent meta-analyses. This is as opposed to ultrasound, in which the wall of the appendix can be more easily distinguished from intraluminal feces. In such scenarios, ancillary features such as increased wall enhancement as compared to adjacent bowel and inflammation of the surrounding fat, or fat stranding, can be supportive of the diagnosis. However, their absence does not preclude it. In severe cases with perforation, an adjacent phlegmon or abscess can be seen. Dense fluid layering in the pelvis can also result, related to either pus or enteric spillage. When patients are thin or younger, the relative absence of fat can make the appendix and surrounding fat stranding difficult to see.", "Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) use has become increasingly common for diagnosis of appendicitis in children and pregnant patients due to the radiation dosage that, while of nearly negligible risk in healthy adults, can be harmful to children or the developing baby. In pregnancy, it is more useful during the second and third trimester, particularly as the enlargening uterus displaces the appendix, making it difficult to find by ultrasound. The periappendiceal stranding that is reflected on CT by fat stranding on MRI appears as an increased fluid signal on T2 weighted sequences. First trimester pregnancies are usually not candidates for MRI, as the fetus is still undergoing organogenesis, and there are no long-term studies to date regarding its potential risks or side effects.", "In general, plain abdominal radiography (PAR) is not useful in making the diagnosis of appendicitis and should not be routinely obtained from a person being evaluated for appendicitis. Plain abdominal films may be useful for the detection of ureteral calculi, small bowel obstruction, or perforated ulcer, but these conditions are rarely confused with appendicitis. An opaque fecalith can be identified in the right lower quadrant in fewer than 5% of people being evaluated for appendicitis. A barium enema has proven to be a poor diagnostic tool for appendicitis. While failure of the appendix to fill during a barium enema has been associated with appendicitis, up to 20% of normal appendices do not fill.", "Several scoring systems have been developed to try to identify people who are likely to have appendicitis. The performance of scores such as the Alvarado score and the Pediatric Appendicitis Score, however, are variable. The Alvarado score is the most known scoring system. A score below 5 suggests against a diagnosis of appendicitis, whereas a score of 7 or more is predictive of acute appendicitis. In a person with an equivocal score of 5 or 6, a CT scan or ultrasound exam may be used to reduce the rate of negative appendectomy.", "Even for clinically certain appendicitis, routine histopathology examination of appendectomy specimens is of value for identifying unsuspected pathologies requiring further postoperative management. Notably, appendix cancer is found incidentally in about 1% of appendectomy specimens. Pathology diagnosis of appendicitis can be made by detecting a neutrophilic infiltrate of the muscularis propria. Periappendicitis, inflammation of tissues around the appendix, is often found in conjunction with other abdominal pathology.", "Children: Gastroenteritis, mesenteric adenitis, Meckel's diverticulitis, intussusception, Henoch–Schönlein purpura, lobar pneumonia, urinary tract infection (abdominal pain in the absence of other symptoms can occur in children with UTI), new-onset Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis, pancreatitis, and abdominal trauma from child abuse; distal intestinal obstruction syndrome in children with cystic fibrosis; typhlitis in children with leukemia. Women: A pregnancy test is important for all women of childbearing age since an ectopic pregnancy can have signs and symptoms similar to those of appendicitis. Other obstetrical/gynecological causes of similar abdominal pain in women include pelvic inflammatory disease, ovarian torsion, menarche, dysmenorrhea, endometriosis, and Mittelschmerz (the passing of an egg in the ovaries approximately two weeks before menstruation). Men: testicular torsion Adults: new-onset Crohn disease, ulcerative colitis, regional enteritis, cholecystitis, renal colic, perforated peptic ulcer, pancreatitis, rectus sheath hematoma and epiploic appendagitis. Elderly: diverticulitis, intestinal obstruction, colonic carcinoma, mesenteric ischemia, leaking aortic aneurysm. The term \"\" is used to describe a condition mimicking appendicitis. It can be associated with \"Yersinia enterocolitica\".", "Acute appendicitis is typically managed by surgery. While antibiotics are safe and effective for treating uncomplicated appendicitis, 26% of people had a recurrence within a year and required an eventual appendectomy. Antibiotics are less effective if an appendicolith is present. Surgery is the standard management approach for acute appendicitis. The cost effectiveness of surgery versus antibiotics is unclear. Using antibiotics to prevent potential postoperative complications in emergency appendectomy procedures is recommended, and the antibiotics are effective when given to a person before, during, or after surgery.", "Pain medications (such as morphine) do not appear to affect the accuracy of the clinical diagnosis of appendicitis and therefore should be given early in the patient's care. Historically there were concerns among some general surgeons that analgesics would affect the clinical exam in children, and some recommended that they not be given until the surgeon was able to examine the person.", "The surgical procedure for the removal of the appendix is called an appendectomy. Appendectomy can be performed through open or laparoscopic surgery. Laparoscopic appendectomy has several advantages over open appendectomy as an intervention for acute appendicitis.", "For over a century, laparotomy (open appendectomy) was the standard treatment for acute appendicitis. This procedure consists of the removal of the infected appendix through a single large incision in the lower right area of the abdomen. The incision in a laparotomy is usually long. During an open appendectomy, the person with suspected appendicitis is placed under general anesthesia to keep the muscles completely relaxed and to keep the person unconscious. The incision is two to three inches (76 mm) long, and it is made in the right lower abdomen, several inches above the hip bone. Once the incision opens the abdomen cavity, and the appendix is identified, the surgeon removes the infected tissue and cuts the appendix from the surrounding tissue. After careful and close inspection of the infected area, and ensuring there are no signs that surrounding tissues are damaged or infected. In case of complicated appendicitis managed by an emergency open appendectomy, abdominal drainage (a temporary tube from the abdomen to the outside to avoid abscess formation) may be inserted, but this may increase the hospital stay. The surgeon will start closing the incision. This means sewing the muscles and using surgical staples or stitches to close the skin up. To prevent infections, the incision is covered with a sterile bandage or surgical adhesive.", "Laparoscopic appendectomy has become an increasingly prevalent intervention for acute appendicitis since its introduction in 1983. This surgical procedure consists of making three to four incisions in the abdomen, each long. This type of appendectomy is made by inserting a special surgical tool called a laparoscope into one of the incisions. The laparoscope is connected to a monitor outside the person's body, and it is designed to help the surgeon to inspect the infected area in the abdomen. The other two incisions are made for the specific removal of the appendix by using surgical instruments. Laparoscopic surgery requires general anesthesia, and it can last up to two hours. Laparoscopic appendectomy has several advantages over open appendectomy, including a shorter post-operative recovery, less post-operative pain, and lower superficial surgical site infection rate. However, the occurrence of an intra-abdominal abscess is almost three times more prevalent in laparoscopic appendectomy than open appendectomy.", "The treatment begins by keeping the person who will be having surgery from eating or drinking for a given period, usually overnight. An intravenous drip is used to hydrate the person who will be having surgery. Antibiotics given intravenously such as cefuroxime and metronidazole may be administered early to help kill bacteria and thus reduce the spread of infection in the abdomen and postoperative complications in the abdomen or wound. Equivocal cases may become more difficult to assess with antibiotic treatment and benefit from serial examinations. If the stomach is empty (no food in the past six hours), general anaesthesia is usually used. Otherwise, spinal anaesthesia may be used. Once the decision to perform an appendectomy has been made, the preparation procedure takes approximately one to two hours. Meanwhile, the surgeon will explain the surgery procedure and will present the risks that must be considered when performing an appendectomy. (With all surgeries there are risks that must be evaluated before performing the procedures.) The risks are different depending on the state of the appendix. If the appendix has not ruptured, the complication rate is only about 3% but if the appendix has ruptured, the complication rate rises to almost 59%. The most usual complications that can occur are pneumonia, hernia of the incision, thrombophlebitis, bleeding and adhesions. Evidence indicates that a delay in obtaining surgery after admission results in no measurable difference in outcomes to the person with appendicitis. The surgeon will explain how long the recovery process should take. Abdomen hair is usually removed to avoid complications that may appear regarding the incision. In most cases, patients going in for surgery experience nausea and vomiting that require medication before surgery. Antibiotics, along with pain medication, may be administrated before appendectomies.", "Hospital lengths of stay typically range from a few hours to a few days but can be a few weeks if complications occur. The recovery process may vary depending on the severity of the condition: if the appendix had ruptured or not before surgery. Appendix surgery recovery is generally a lot faster if the appendix did not rupture. It is important that people undergoing surgery respect their doctor's advice and limit their physical activity so the tissues can heal faster. Recovery after an appendectomy may not require diet changes or a lifestyle change. The length of hospital stays for appendicitis varies on the severity of the condition. A study from the United States found that in 2010, the average appendicitis hospital stay was 1.8 days. For stays where the person's appendix had ruptured, the average length of stay was 5.2 days. After surgery, the patient will be transferred to a postanesthesia care unit, so his or her vital signs can be closely monitored to detect anesthesia- or surgery-related complications. Pain medication may be administered if necessary. After patients are completely awake, they are moved to a hospital room to recover. Most individuals will be offered clear liquids the day after the surgery, then progress to a regular diet when the intestines start to function correctly. Patients are recommended to sit upon the edge of the bed and walk short distances several times a day. Moving is mandatory, and pain medication may be given if necessary. Full recovery from appendectomies takes about four to six weeks but can be prolonged to up to eight weeks if the appendix had ruptured.", "Most people with appendicitis recover quickly after surgical treatment, but complications can occur if treatment is delayed and if peritonitis occurs. Recovery time depends on age, condition, complications, and other circumstances, including the amount of alcohol consumption, but usually is between 10 and 28 days. For young children (around ten years old), the recovery takes three weeks. The possibility of peritonitis is the reason why acute appendicitis warrants rapid evaluation and treatment. People with suspected appendicitis may have to undergo a medical evacuation. Appendectomies have occasionally been performed in emergency conditions (i.e., not in a proper hospital) when a timely medical evacuation was impossible. Typical acute appendicitis responds quickly to appendectomy and occasionally will resolve spontaneously. If appendicitis resolves spontaneously, it remains controversial whether an elective interval appendectomy should be performed to prevent a recurrent episode of appendicitis. Atypical appendicitis (associated with suppurative appendicitis) is more challenging to diagnose and is more apt to be complicated even when operated early. In either condition, prompt diagnosis and appendectomy yield the best results with full recovery in two to four weeks usually. Mortality and severe complications are unusual but do occur, especially if peritonitis persists and is untreated. Another entity known as the appendicular lump is talked about. It happens when the appendix is not removed early during infection, and omentum and intestine adhere to it, forming a palpable lump. During this period, surgery is risky unless there is pus formation evident by fever and toxicity or by USG. Medical management treats the condition. An unusual complication of an appendectomy is \"stump appendicitis\": inflammation occurs in the remnant appendiceal stump left after a prior incomplete appendectomy. Stump appendicitis can occur months to years after initial appendectomy and can be identified with imaging modalities like ultrasound.", "Appendicitis is most common between the ages of 5 and 40; the median age is 28. Risk factors include being male, higher household income or living in a rural area. In 2013, it resulted in 72,000 deaths globally, down from 88,000 in 1990. In the United States, there were nearly 293,000 hospitalizations involving appendicitis in 2010. Appendicitis is one of the most frequent diagnoses for emergency department visits resulting in hospitalization among children ages 5–17 years in the United States." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot outline.", "Literary significance and criticism.", "Allusions/references." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Set in the summer of 1903, a series of unexplained events occur across the Eastern United States, caused by objects moving with such great speed that they are nearly invisible. The first-person narrator, John Strock, 'Head inspector in the federal police department' in Washington, DC, travels to the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina to investigate. He discovers that all the phenomena are being caused by Robur, a brilliant inventor. (He was previously featured as a character in Verne's \"Robur the Conqueror.\") Robur has perfected a new machine, which he has dubbed the \"Terror.\" It is a ten-meter long vehicle, capable of operating as a speedboat, submarine, automobile, or aircraft. It can travel at the (then) unheard of speed of 150 miles per hour on land and at more than 200 mph when flying. Strock tries to capture the \"Terror\" but instead is captured himself. Robur drives the strange craft to elude his pursuers, heading to the Caribbean and into a thunderstorm. The \"Terror\" is struck by lightning, breaks apart, and falls into the ocean. Strock is rescued from the vehicle's wreckage, but Robur's body is never found. The reader is left to decide whether or not he has died.", "\"Master of the World\" contains a number of scientific ideas, current to Verne's time, which are now widely known to be errors. For example, traveling at high speed does not reduce a vehicle's weight.", "The novel's events take place in the summer of 1903, as characters refer to events of the 1902 Mount Pelée eruption on Martinique. Verne took a few liberties with American geography in the novel. It is set in Morganton, North Carolina and refers to a mountain known as the Great Aerie. The name suggests Mount Airy, located elsewhere in North Carolina; its description as flat-topped is similar to the mountain nearby known as Table Rock. Another portion of the novel is described as taking place at a large deep natural lake in Kansas, but there is no such lake." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Fictional history.", "Description.", "The Three.", "The Seven.", "The Nine.", "The One.", "Powers.", "Publication history.", "Themes.", "Adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Rings of Power were forged by the Elven-smiths (also known as the Gwaith-i-Mírdain) of the Noldorin settlement of Eregion. They were led by Celebrimbor, the grandson of Fëanor, the greatest craftsman of the Noldor. Humiliated by the fall of his master Morgoth at the end of the First Age, the Dark Lord Sauron had evaded the summons in Valinor to surrender and face judgment, opting instead to remain in Middle-earth and seek dominion over the people of the Earth, primarily the Elves, for he knew that the Firstborn of the Children of Ilúvatar had the greater power. In the year 1200 of the Second Age, he arrived under the guise of a fair-looking emissary of the Valar named Annatar, the Lord of Gifts, offering the knowledge to transform Middle-earth with the light of Valinor. He was shunned by the Elven leaders Gil-galad and Elrond in Lindon, but was successful in persuading the Noldor of Eregion, who desired to increase the skill and subtlety of their works while enjoying the bliss of those that had departed. With Sauron's help, they set their sights on forging magic rings, creating the Seven and the Nine. While Celebrimbor created a set of Three alone, Sauron left for Mordor in the year 1500 and forged the One Ring in the fires of Mount Doom, a master ring to control all the others. Once the One Ring was made using the Black Speech, the Elves immediately became aware of Sauron's motive and quickly hid their rings. Celebrimbor sought Galadriel, who originally counselled him to destroy all the rings, but Celebrimbor could not bear to ruin them. He instead entrusted one of the Three Rings to her, and sent the other two to Gil-galad and Círdan. In an attempt to seize all the Rings of Power for himself, Sauron waged an assault upon the Elves. Desolating Eregion, he was successful in capturing the Nine. Under torture, Celebrimbor revealed where the Seven were bestowed, but refused to reveal the Three. Sauron then launched an invasion of Eriador, but Gil-galad victoriously defended the region with the aid of the Númenóreans. Toward the end of the Second Age, the Númenóreans took Sauron prisoner. Sauron dared to accomplish by cunning what he could not achieve by force, slowly corrupting the men of Númenor, leading to its downfall. The exiled Númenóreans who survived, led by Elendil and his sons Isildur and Anárion, established the realms of Arnor and Gondor. Together with the Elves of Lindon, they formed a last alliance against Sauron, who fell at the hands of Elendil and Gil-galad. Isildur then took the One Ring for his own; but Isildur was killed in ambush, and the ring was lost for centuries. During this time, the Elves were able to use the Three Rings, while the Nine given to leaders of Men corrupted their wearers, and turned them into the Nazgûl. The Seven failed to succumb directly to Sauron's will, but ignited a sense of avarice within them. Over the years, Sauron sought to recapture the Rings, primarily the One, but was only successful in recovering the Nine and three of the Seven. During the Third Age, The One was found by Bilbo Baggins (in \"The Hobbit\") and a Fellowship was formed to destroy it, led by Bilbo's heir Frodo. Following the destruction of the One Ring and the ultimate fall of Sauron, the power of the rings faded. While the Nine were destroyed, the Three were carried over the sea to Aman at the end of the Third Age, inaugurating the Dominion of Men.", "As observed by Saruman, each Ring of Power was adorned with \"their proper gem\", except for the One Ring, which was unadorned.", "The Three Rings were made to serve a different purpose; Celebrimbor had forged them alone in Eregion without Sauron's direct assistance. Although \"unsullied\" by Sauron's hand, they were moulded by his craft and were bound to the One. Named for the three elements of fire, water, and air, they were the last rings to be made, and were used by the Elves to ward off the decay brought by time, and to postpone weariness of the world. When Sauron set the One Ring upon his finger, the Elves became aware of him and realized that he could use the One to control the others. They immediately took off their rings to forestall him. Incensed at his failure to deceive them, Sauron demanded that they surrender the Rings, as the Elven-smiths could not have forged them without his lore and counsel. Galadriel counseled Celebrimbor to destroy them, but ultimately suggested that the Three he had made be kept hidden. Sauron invaded Eregion and tortured Celebrimbor, who died revealing all except the Three. Sauron could not discover where the Three were hidden, though he guessed that they were given to the Elvish guardians Gil-galad and Galadriel. Only after Sauron's defeat at the end of the Second Age, when the One Ring was cut from his finger, did the Elves begin to use the Three. The rings were rendered powerless when the One Ring was destroyed at the end of the Third Age, and their respective bearers carried them over the sea to the Undying Lands.", "Sauron tortured Celebrimbor for the location of the Seven Rings and gave them to the leaders of the seven kindreds of the Dwarves: Durin's Folk, Firebeards, Broadbeams, Ironfists, Stiffbeards, Blacklocks, and Stonefoots; though a tradition of Durin's Folk claimed that Durin received his ring from the Elven-smiths. The Dwarves used their rings to increase their treasure hoards, but Sauron failed to bend them to his will, nor did their rings make them invisible. Instead, Sauron was only able to influence their sense of greed and anger. Over the years, Sauron was able to recover only three rings from the Dwarves. The last of the Seven was seized from Thráin II during his captivity in Dol Guldur. Gandalf recounts to Frodo that the remaining four were consumed by dragons. Before the outbreak of the War of the Ring, an envoy from Sauron attempted to bribe Dain II Ironfoot of the Lonely Mountain with the three surviving rings and the lost realm of Moria in exchange for information leading to the recovery of the One Ring, but Dain refused.", "Sauron took Nine of the Rings of Power from Celebrimbor and gave them to several leaders of men. Three of these were from Númenór and one an Easterling. The nine men who used their rings became \"mighty in their day, kings, sorcerers, and warriors of old.\" Giving them glory and great wealth, the rings also gave them an unending long life, yet it became unendurable to them. In addition, the rings gave an ability to see things in worlds invisible to mortal men, but these are often phantoms and delusions made by Sauron. One by one, they fell to the power of the One Ring and before the end of the Second Age, all nine had been turned into ring-wraiths — the Nazgûl. Bound to Sauron's will, they became invisible save to him, and became his chief servants.", "The One Ring was forged in the fires of Mount Doom in secret by Sauron himself to rule over the wearers of the other Rings, and only there could it be unmade. Unlike the other Rings, the One was created as an unadorned gold band, but it bore Sauron's incantation in the Black Speech, which became visible only when heated by fire. As the Rings of Power were made under the influence of the Sauron, the power of all Rings can only endure as long as the master ring survives. Sauron had to imbue much of his strength and will in making it, as dominating the great power of Elven Rings required a ring of surpassing potency. While Sauron wore the One, he could perceive all that the lesser Rings did. He could see and govern the very thoughts of those who wore them. Following Sauron's defeat by Elendil and Gil-galad at the War of the Last Alliance, the Ring was cut from his hand by Isildur, who took it for his own as weregild for his losses. He refused Elrond and Círdan's counsel to destroy it. Isildur bore the Ring as an heirloom of his house, but his host was ambushed by orcs near the Gladden fields by the river Anduin. Caught unguarded, he used the Ring to escape in the river, but he was betrayed by the Ring when it purposely slipped off his finger. Suddenly visible, he was shot and killed by orcs. Then for more than two and a half thousand years, the One Ring remained hidden on the riverbed and from all knowledge, until it was discovered by the Stoor hobbit Déagol, accompanied by his friend Sméagol. It ensnared Sméagol, who murdered Déagol and took the Ring for himself. For five hundred years deep within the Misty Mountains, it corrupted him, and he became the creature Gollum, who called the Ring his \"precious\". The Ring is then found by the hobbit Bilbo Baggins when Gollum loses it. Perceiving it as merely as a magic ring, Bilbo brings the One to the Shire and later bequeathes it to his heir Frodo Baggins. Made aware by the wizard Gandalf of its true nature as the master Ring of Power, Frodo flees the Shire with the Ring to seek refuge to Rivendell, where the Council of Elrond decides to destroy it. A Fellowship consisting of nine companions is formed from all free races of Middle-earth to guide and protect him. This includes his hobbit friends Sam, Merry and Pippin, Gandalf, the Dúnedain Aragorn, the dwarf Gimli, the elf Legolas, and Boromir, a man of Gondor. The fellowship dissolves midway through their quest, and Frodo and Sam continue to Mordor alone on foot, where they are aided by Gollum, who secretly seeks to take the Ring from them. In Mordor, Gollum subsequently succumbs to the Power of the One and betrays Frodo, whom he leads to be captured by the spider Shelob. He is prevented from taking the Ring by Sam, who briefly hides it for safekeeping and later returns it to Frodo. Together, Frodo and Sam finally arrive at Mount Doom, trailed by Gollum. Here Frodo finally succumbs to the One and claims it for himself. In the ensuing fight, Gollum seizes the Ring but falls with it into the fires of mountain, thus destroying the One and effectively Sauron himself.", "The Rings of Power were made using the craft taught by Sauron to give their respective wearers \"wealth and dominion over others\", though the main purpose of the Three Rings was to \"heal and preserve\". Tolkien explained that the primary power of the rings was to \"the prevention and slowing of \"decay\"\", which appealed to the Elves in their pursuit of preserving what they desire or loved in Middle-earth. Tolkien noted in his letters that the Elves can only be immortal as long as the world endures, leading them to be concerned to burdens of deathlessness in time and change. Wanting the bliss and perfect memory of Valinor, and yet to remain in Middle-earth with their prestige as the fairest, as opposed to being relegated at the bottom of the hierarchy in the Undying Lands, they became obsessed with \"fading\". As changeless beings in a changing world, the Elves who remained in Middle-earth, have sought to forge the rings in an attempt to delay the inevitable—the rise of the Dominion of Men. He also pointed out that each ring can enhance the \"natural power\" of its possessor, thus approaching its \"magical aspect\", which can be \"easily corruptible to evil and lust of domination\". In \"The Fellowship of the Ring\", Galadriel explains to Frodo that the Rings can only \"give power according to the measure of each possessor\" and that before one can use that power one would need to become far stronger, and to train one's will to the domination of others. Mortals who take possession of a Ring of Power \"fade\" much more rapidly; it unnaturally extends their life-span, eventually turning them into wraiths. This power can manifest by rendering their material body invisible and making things of the invisible world visible, as half of the wearer is temporarily transported into the spirit world. The One Ring gave Gollum and Bilbo an unnatural long life, while the Nine made the Nazgûl permanently invisible. Immortal beings, however, can preserve their material things over long periods of time, as evidenced when Nenya was used by Galadriel to preserve Lothlórien. Gandalf explained to Frodo that a Ring of Power can \"look after itself\"—the One Ring in particular, can \"slip off treacherously\" and take advantage of a situation where it can to go back its master, such as betraying Isildur, Déagol, and Gollum when an opportunity arrives. As the ruling band, the One enabled a sufficiently powerful wielder to perceive what was done by means of the lesser rings, and to see and govern the thoughts of those who wore them. Tom Bombadil, the only person unaffected by its power, could see its wearer as a visible being and did not become invisible when he wore it. Tolkien notes that forging the One Ring meant that Sauron was obliged to put almost all his own power into it—when worn, it enhanced his power; but even unworn, it remained aligned to him unless another seized it and took control of it. A prospective possessor could, if sufficiently strong, overthrow Sauron and usurp his place. As the One was made in the fires of Mount Doom, only there it can be unmade. Once destroyed, its power would immediately dissolve, and Sauron would fade to a memory of malicious will. But the Dark Lord never contemplated nor feared it, as the One was unbreakable by anyone other than him and indissoluble unless thrown to the fires of the unapproachable dark mountain, and any prospective possessor would be corrupted by the lust for it, as such that person could not bear to destroy it. Samwise, who possessed the One Ring for a limited amount of time, was able to understand the Black Speech of Orcs in Mordor. Unlike the Seven and the Nine, the Three Rings were forged by Celebrimbor without the direct assistance from Sauron, as such the Three can not make their wearers invisible, but can be invisible themselves (except to a ring-bearer). Three have also shown to summon other powers—Narya can rekindle hearts and inspire others to resist tyranny, domination, and despair; Nenya has been described as a having a secret power that can protect from evil; while Vilya can heal and preserve wisdom.", "The One Ring had originally appeared in Tolkien's children's fantasy novel \"The Hobbit\" in 1937, only as a mysterious magic ring which the titular character, the Hobbit Bilbo Baggins, had stumbled upon and was left unexplained after the book was published. Following the successful response to the novel, Tolkien was persuaded by his publishers Allen & Unwin to write a sequel. Originally intending to give the character another adventure, he instead devised a background story behind the Ring upon remembering its powers of invisibility and used it as a framework to which plot of the new novel will take place. He later added several mythical elements from the unfinished manuscripts from \"The Silmarillion\" until the first publication of \"The Lord of the Rings\" in 1955. His conception of the lore behind these rings were closely linked to his development of the One Ring. Initially deciding as Sauron as instrumental in helping the forging of the Rings, Tolkien later briefly considered making Fëanor, who created the Silmarils, as also the maker of the Rings of Power, under the influence of Morgoth, the first Dark Lord. But he ultimately decided on Celebrimbor, a descendant of Fëanor, as its principal maker, under the tutelage of Sauron, Morgoth's chief servant. For a short period while writing a background lore behind the ring, Tolkien was struggling with the idea that the Elven rings must be given a \"special status\"—somehow linked to the One Ring, and thus endangered by it, but also \"unsullied\" that it would involve them having no direct connection with Sauron. By the time he was writing the chapter \"The Mirror of Galadriel\", Tolkien resolved to write that the Seven and the Nine were made by the Elven-smiths of Eregion under Sauron's guidance; but the Three were made by Celebrimbor alone, while Sauron secretly made the One, which has the power over the others, and once the Elves have finally realised what his deception, they immediately hid the Three. He also drafted an idea that upon the destruction of the One, the Three will be freed from being bound to it, but he ultimately decided to discard it. Tolkien's subsequent posthumous works such as \"The Silmarillion\", \"Unfinished Tales\" and \"The History of Middle-earth\" also offer additional material relating to creation of the Rings.", "According to Philosophy professors Gregory Bassham and Eric Bronson, the Rings of Power can be seen as a modern representation of the relationship between power and morality, remarking that it portrays an idea that \"absolute power is in conflict with behaviour that respects the wishes and needs of others\". They also observed that several of Tolkien's characters have responded in different ways when faced with the possibility of possessing the One Ring—characters such as Samwise Gamgee and Galadriel have rejected it; Boromir and Gollum were seduced by its power; and Frodo Baggins, though in limited use, ultimately succumbs to it; while Tom Bombadil can transcend from its power entirely. They also noted out that for Tolkien, the crucial moment of each character in the story is the moment in which they are tempted to use a Ring, a choice which will determine their fate. Writer Isaac Asimov wrote that the Rings of Power can also be seen as a symbol of industrial technology. In a literary documentation of Tokien's mythological works, David Day observed that there is \"a sense that those who possessed the rings were destroyed by their own desire of wealth and power\" and characterized the rings' mastery of the world as an \"illusion\", and that \"the ring comes to enslave its owner.\" Though Tolkien himself had explicitly denied such interpretations are allegorical, he also admitted that it can be applicable to an external situation and recommended it as an examination of \"placing power in external objects\".", "Ralph Bakshi's 1978 animated film \"The Lord of the Rings\" begins with the forging of the Rings of Power and the events of the War of the Last Alliance against Sauron, all of which are animated in a silhouette against a red background using rotoscope. The forging of the Rings of Power opens the prologue of Peter Jackson's \"The Lord of the Rings\" film series, primarily with \"\" (2001). In the film, the Three Elven Rings are shown being cast using a cuttlebone mold, an ancient primitive casting technique. These were given to Gil-galad (portrayed by Mark Ferguson), Círdan (Michael Elsworth), and Galadriel (Cate Blanchett). Tolkien illustrator Alan Lee, employed as conceptual designers for the films, had a cameo as one of the nine human Ring-bearers who would later become the Nazgûl, while Sauron (Sala Baker) is seen forging the One Ring at the chamber of Mount Doom. The One Ring was also shown to have the ability to adjust in size to the finger of its wearer, such as when it became smaller to fit Isildur (Harry Sinclair). In the extended version of the film, Galadriel also properly introduces Nenya, the Ring of Adamant, to Frodo. In the concluding sequel, \"\" (2003), the final wearers of the Three Rings—Gandalf (Ian McKellen), Elrond (Hugo Weaving), and Galadriel, appear openly at the Grey Havens wearing the Three, with Galadriel proclaiming the end of its power and the beginning of the Dominion of Men. Four Rings of Power have also appeared in Jackson's \"The Hobbit\" film series. In \"\" (2012), the One Ring was found by Bilbo Baggins (portrayed by Martin Freeman). In the extended version of the succeeding film \"\" (2013), Gandalf discovers that Sauron took the Ring of Thrór from Thráin (Antony Sher), who revealed in a flashback scene his possession of the Ring during a siege of Moria. In the concluding film \"\" (2014), Galadriel (Blanchett) reveals Nenya in rescuing Gandalf (McKellen) from Sauron (Benedict Cumberbatch), aided by Saruman (Christopher Lee) and Elrond (Weaving), who is wearing Vilya, the Ring of Air. In the film's extended edition, an Orc tries to cut Narya, the Ring of Fire, from Gandalf's finger before being rescued by Galadriel. In the gameplay of the 2014 video game \"\", the player controls a Gondorian ranger named Talion, who is imbued by the wraith-like spirit of Celebrimbor. In the game, Celebrimbor recalls how Sauron had deceived him into forging the Rings of Power. Continuing the narrative in its sequel, \"\", Celebrimbor (using Talion's physical body) forges a new Ring of Power free and unsullied from Sauron's influence." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Hardware interrupts.", "Masking.", "Spurious interrupts.", "Software interrupts.", "Triggering methods.", "Level-triggered.", "Edge-triggered.", "Processor response.", "System implementation.", "Shared IRQs.", "Difficulty with sharing interrupt lines.", "Hybrid.", "Message-signaled.", "Doorbell.", "Multiprocessor IPI.", "Performance.", "Typical uses.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Interrupt signals may be issued in response to hardware or software events. These are classified as hardware interrupts or software interrupts, respectively. For any particular processor, the number of interrupt types is limited by the architecture.", "A hardware interrupt is a condition related to the state of the hardware that may be signaled by an external hardware device, e.g., an interrupt request (IRQ) line on a PC, or detected by devices embedded in processor logic (e.g., the CPU timer in IBM System/370), to communicate that the device needs attention from the operating system (OS) or, if there is no OS, from the \"bare-metal\" program running on the CPU. Such external devices may be part of the computer (e.g., disk controller) or they may be external peripherals. For example, pressing a keyboard key or moving a mouse plugged into a PS/2 port triggers hardware interrupts that cause the processor to read the keystroke or mouse position. Hardware interrupts can arrive asynchronously with respect to the processor clock, and at any time during instruction execution. Consequently, all hardware interrupt signals are conditioned by synchronizing them to the processor clock, and acted upon only at instruction execution boundaries. In many systems, each device is associated with a particular IRQ signal. This makes it possible to quickly determine which hardware device is requesting service, and to expedite servicing of that device. On some older systems all interrupts went to the same location and the OS used a specialized instruction to determine the highest priority unmasked interrupt outstanding. On contemporary systems there is generally a distinct interrupt routine for each type of interrupt or for each interrupt source, often implemented as one or more interrupt vector tables..", "Processors typically have an internal \"interrupt mask\" register which allows selective enabling and disabling of hardware interrupts. Each interrupt signal is associated with a bit in the mask register; on some systems, the interrupt is enabled when the bit is set and disabled when the bit is clear, while on others, a set bit disables the interrupt. When the interrupt is disabled, the associated interrupt signal will be ignored by the processor. Signals which are affected by the mask are called \"maskable interrupts\". Some interrupt signals are not affected by the interrupt mask and therefore cannot be disabled; these are called \"non-maskable interrupts\" (NMI). NMIs indicate high priority events which cannot be ignored under any circumstances, such as the timeout signal from a watchdog timer. To \"mask\" an interrupt is to disable it, while to \"unmask\" an interrupt is to enable it.", "A \"spurious interrupt\" is an invalid, short-duration signal on an interrupt input. These are usually caused by glitches resulting from electrical interference, race conditions, or malfunctioning devices.", "A software interrupt is requested by the processor itself upon executing particular instructions or when certain conditions are met. Every software interrupt signal is associated with a particular interrupt handler. A software interrupt may be intentionally caused by executing a special instruction which, by design, invokes an interrupt when executed. Such instructions function similarly to subroutine calls and are used for a variety of purposes, such as requesting operating system services and interacting with device drivers (e.g., to read or write storage media). Software interrupts may also be unexpectedly triggered by program execution errors. These interrupts typically are called \"traps\" or \"exceptions\". For example, a divide-by-zero exception will be \"thrown\" (a software interrupt is requested) if the processor executes a divide instruction with divisor equal to zero. Typically, the operating system will catch and handle this exception.", "Each interrupt signal input is designed to be triggered by either a logic signal level or a particular signal edge (level transition). Level-sensitive inputs continuously request processor service so long as a particular (high or low) logic level is applied to the input. Edge-sensitive inputs react to signal edges: a particular (rising or falling) edge will cause a service request to be latched; the processor resets the latch when the interrupt handler executes.", "A \"level-triggered interrupt\" is requested by holding the interrupt signal at its particular (high or low) active logic level. A device invokes a level-triggered interrupt by driving the signal to and holding it at the active level. It negates the signal when the processor commands it to do so, typically after the device has been serviced. The processor samples the interrupt input signal during each instruction cycle. The processor will recognize the interrupt request if the signal is asserted when sampling occurs. Level-triggered inputs allow multiple devices to share a common interrupt signal via wired-OR connections. The processor polls to determine which devices are requesting service. After servicing a device, the processor may again poll and, if necessary, service other devices before exiting the ISR.", "An \"edge-triggered interrupt\" is an interrupt signaled by a level transition on the interrupt line, either a falling edge (high to low) or a rising edge (low to high). A device wishing to signal an interrupt drives a pulse onto the line and then releases the line to its inactive state. If the pulse is too short to be detected by polled I/O then special hardware may be required to detect it.", "The processor samples the interrupt trigger signal during each instruction cycle, and will respond to the trigger only if the signal is asserted when sampling occurs. Regardless of the triggering method, the processor will begin interrupt processing at the next instruction boundary following a detected trigger, thus ensuring:", "Interrupts may be implemented in hardware as a distinct component with control lines, or they may be integrated into the memory subsystem. If implemented in hardware as a distinct component, an interrupt controller circuit such as the IBM PC's Programmable Interrupt Controller (PIC) may be connected between the interrupting device and the processor's interrupt pin to multiplex several sources of interrupt onto the one or two CPU lines typically available. If implemented as part of the memory controller, interrupts are mapped into the system's memory address space.", "Multiple devices may share an edge-triggered interrupt line if they are designed to. The interrupt line must have a pull-down or pull-up resistor so that when not actively driven it settles to its inactive state, which is the default state of it. Devices signal an interrupt by briefly driving the line to its non-default state, and let the line float (do not actively drive it) when not signaling an interrupt. This type of connection is also referred to as open collector. The line then carries all the pulses generated by all the devices. (This is analogous to the pull cord on some buses and trolleys that any passenger can pull to signal the driver that they are requesting a stop.) However, interrupt pulses from different devices may merge if they occur close in time. To avoid losing interrupts the CPU must trigger on the trailing edge of the pulse (e.g. the rising edge if the line is pulled up and driven low). After detecting an interrupt the CPU must check all the devices for service requirements. Edge-triggered interrupts do not suffer the problems that level-triggered interrupts have with sharing. Service of a low-priority device can be postponed arbitrarily, while interrupts from high-priority devices continue to be received and get serviced. If there is a device that the CPU does not know how to service, which may raise spurious interrupts, it won't interfere with interrupt signaling of other devices. However, it is easy for an edge-triggered interrupt to be missed - for example, when interrupts are masked for a period - and unless there is some type of hardware latch that records the event it is impossible to recover. This problem caused many \"lockups\" in early computer hardware because the processor did not know it was expected to do something. More modern hardware often has one or more interrupt status registers that latch interrupts requests; well-written edge-driven interrupt handling code can check these registers to ensure no events are missed. The elderly Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus uses edge-triggered interrupts, without mandating that devices be able to share IRQ lines, but all mainstream ISA motherboards include pull-up resistors on their IRQ lines, so well-behaved ISA devices sharing IRQ lines should just work fine. The parallel port also uses edge-triggered interrupts. Many older devices assume that they have exclusive use of IRQ lines, making it electrically unsafe to share them. There are 3 ways multiple devices \"sharing the same line\" can be raised. First is by exclusive conduction (switching) or exclusive connection (to pins). Next is by bus (all connected to the same line listening): cards on a bus must know when they are to talk and not talk (ie, the ISA bus). Talking can be triggered in two ways: by accumulation latch or by logic gates. Logic gates expect a continual data flow that is monitored for key signals. Accumulators only trigger when the remote side excites the gate beyond a threshold, thus no negotiated speed is required. Each has its speed versus distance advantages. A trigger, generally, is the method in which excitation is detected: rising edge, falling edge, threshold (oscilloscope can trigger a wide variety of shapes and conditions). Triggering for software interrupts must be built into the software (both in OS and app). A 'C' app has a trigger table (a table of functions) in its header, which both the app and OS know of and use appropriately that is not related to hardware. However do not confuse this with hardware interrupts which signal the CPU (the CPU enacts software from a table of functions, similarly to software interrupts).", "Multiple devices sharing an interrupt line (of any triggering style) all act as spurious interrupt sources with respect to each other. With many devices on one line, the workload in servicing interrupts grows in proportion to the square of the number of devices. It is therefore preferred to spread devices evenly across the available interrupt lines. Shortage of interrupt lines is a problem in older system designs where the interrupt lines are distinct physical conductors. Message-signaled interrupts, where the interrupt line is virtual, are favored in new system architectures (such as PCI Express) and relieve this problem to a considerable extent. Some devices with a poorly designed programming interface provide no way to determine whether they have requested service. They may lock up or otherwise misbehave if serviced when they do not want it. Such devices cannot tolerate spurious interrupts, and so also cannot tolerate sharing an interrupt line. ISA cards, due to often cheap design and construction, are notorious for this problem. Such devices are becoming much rarer, as hardware logic becomes cheaper and new system architectures mandate shareable interrupts.", "Some systems use a hybrid of level-triggered and edge-triggered signaling. The hardware not only looks for an edge, but it also verifies that the interrupt signal stays active for a certain period of time. A common use of a hybrid interrupt is for the NMI (non-maskable interrupt) input. Because NMIs generally signal major – or even catastrophic – system events, a good implementation of this signal tries to ensure that the interrupt is valid by verifying that it remains active for a period of time. This 2-step approach helps to eliminate false interrupts from affecting the system.", "A \"message-signaled interrupt\" does not use a physical interrupt line. Instead, a device signals its request for service by sending a short message over some communications medium, typically a computer bus. The message might be of a type reserved for interrupts, or it might be of some pre-existing type such as a memory write. Message-signalled interrupts behave very much like edge-triggered interrupts, in that the interrupt is a momentary signal rather than a continuous condition. Interrupt-handling software treats the two in much the same manner. Typically, multiple pending message-signaled interrupts with the same message (the same virtual interrupt line) are allowed to merge, just as closely spaced edge-triggered interrupts can merge. Message-signalled interrupt vectors can be shared, to the extent that the underlying communication medium can be shared. No additional effort is required. Because the identity of the interrupt is indicated by a pattern of data bits, not requiring a separate physical conductor, many more distinct interrupts can be efficiently handled. This reduces the need for sharing. Interrupt messages can also be passed over a serial bus, not requiring any additional lines. PCI Express, a serial computer bus, uses message-signaled interrupts exclusively.", "In a push button analogy applied to computer systems, the term \"doorbell\" or \"doorbell interrupt\" is often used to describe a mechanism whereby a software system can signal or notify a computer hardware device that there is some work to be done. Typically, the software system will place data in some well-known and mutually agreed upon memory location(s), and \"ring the doorbell\" by writing to a different memory location. This different memory location is often called the doorbell region, and there may even be multiple doorbells serving different purposes in this region. It is this act of writing to the doorbell region of memory that \"rings the bell\" and notifies the hardware device that the data are ready and waiting. The hardware device would now know that the data are valid and can be acted upon. It would typically write the data to a hard disk drive, or send them over a network, or encrypt them, etc. The term \"doorbell interrupt\" is usually a misnomer. It is similar to an interrupt, because it causes some work to be done by the device; however, the doorbell region is sometimes implemented as a polled region, sometimes the doorbell region writes through to physical device registers, and sometimes the doorbell region is hardwired directly to physical device registers. When either writing through or directly to physical device registers, this may cause a real interrupt to occur at the device's central processor unit (CPU), if it has one. Doorbell interrupts can be compared to Message Signaled Interrupts, as they have some similarities.", "In multiprocessor systems, a processor may send an interrupt request to another processor via inter-processor interrupts\" (IPI).", "Interrupts provide low overhead and good latency at low load, but degrade significantly at high interrupt rate unless care is taken to prevent several pathologies. The phenomenon where the overall system performance is severely hindered by excessive amounts of processing time spent handling interrupts is called an interrupt storm. There are various forms of livelocks, when the system spends all of its time processing interrupts to the exclusion of other required tasks. Under extreme conditions, a large number of interrupts (like very high network traffic) may completely stall the system. To avoid such problems, an operating system must schedule network interrupt handling as carefully as it schedules process execution. With multi-core processors, additional performance improvements in interrupt handling can be achieved through receive-side scaling (RSS) when multiqueue NICs are used. Such NICs provide multiple receive queues associated to separate interrupts; by routing each of those interrupts to different cores, processing of the interrupt requests triggered by the network traffic received by a single NIC can be distributed among multiple cores. Distribution of the interrupts among cores can be performed automatically by the operating system, or the routing of interrupts (usually referred to as \"IRQ affinity\") can be manually configured. A purely software-based implementation of the receiving traffic distribution, known as \"receive packet steering\" (RPS), distributes received traffic among cores later in the data path, as part of the interrupt handler functionality. Advantages of RPS over RSS include no requirements for specific hardware, more advanced traffic distribution filters, and reduced rate of interrupts produced by a NIC. As a downside, RPS increases the rate of inter-processor interrupts (IPIs). \"Receive flow steering\" (RFS) takes the software-based approach further by accounting for application locality; further performance improvements are achieved by processing interrupt requests by the same cores on which particular network packets will be consumed by the targeted application.", "Interrupts are commonly used to service hardware timers, transfer data to and from storage (e.g., disk I/O) and communication interfaces (e.g., UART, Ethernet), handle keyboard and mouse events, and to respond to any other time-sensitive events as required by the application system. Non-maskable interrupts are typically used to respond to high-priority requests such as watchdog timer timeouts, power-down signals and traps. Hardware timers are often used to generate periodic interrupts. In some applications, such interrupts are counted by the interrupt handler to keep track of absolute or elapsed time, or used by the OS task scheduler to manage execution of running processes, or both. Periodic interrupts are also commonly used to invoke sampling from input devices such as analog-to-digital converters, incremental encoder interfaces, and GPIO inputs, and to program output devices such as digital-to-analog converters, motor controllers, and GPIO outputs. A disk interrupt signals the completion of a data transfer from or to the disk peripheral; this may cause a process to run which is waiting to read or write. A power-off interrupt predicts imminent loss of power, allowing the computer to perform an orderly shut-down while there still remains enough power to do so. Keyboard interrupts typically cause keystrokes to be buffered so as to implement typeahead. Interrupts are sometimes used to emulate instructions which are unimplemented on some computers in a product family. For example floating point instructions may be implemented in hardware on some systems and emulated on lower-cost systems. In the latter case, execution of an unimplemented floating point instruction will cause an \"illegal instruction\" exception interrupt. The interrupt handler will implement the floating point function in software and then return to the interrupted program as if the hardware-implemented instruction had been executed. This provides application software portability across the entire line. Interrupts are similar to signals, the difference being that signals are used for inter-process communication (IPC), mediated by the kernel (possibly via system calls) and handled by processes, while interrupts are mediated by the processor and handled by the kernel. The kernel may pass an interrupt as a signal to the process that caused it (typical examples are SIGSEGV, SIGBUS, SIGILL and SIGFPE).", "Hardware interrupts were introduced as an optimization, eliminating unproductive waiting time in polling loops, waiting for external events. The first system to use this approach was the DYSEAC, completed in 1954, although earlier systems provided error trap functions. The UNIVAC 1103 computer is generally credited with the earliest use of interrupts in 1953. Earlier, on the UNIVAC I (1951) \"Arithmetic overflow either triggered the execution a two-instruction fix-up routine at address 0, or, at the programmer's option, caused the computer to stop.\" The IBM 650 (1954) incorporated the first occurrence of interrupt masking. The National Bureau of Standards DYSEAC (1954) was the first to use interrupts for I/O. The IBM 704 was the first to use interrupts for debugging, with a \"transfer trap\", which could invoke a special routine when a branch instruction was encountered.The MIT Lincoln Laboratory TX-2 system (1957) was the first to provide multiple levels of priority interrupts." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Examples.", "Example with related tables.", "Related commands." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Delete rows from table \"pies\" where column \"flavor\" equals \"Lemon Meringue\": DELETE FROM pies Delete rows in \"trees\", if the value of \"height\" is smaller than 80. DELETE FROM trees Delete all rows from \"mytable\": DELETE FROM mytable; Delete rows from \"mytable\" using a subquery in the where condition: DELETE FROM mytable Delete rows from \"mytable\" using a list of values: DELETE FROM mytable", "Suppose there is a simple database that lists people and addresses. More than one person can live at a particular address and a person can live at more than one address (this is an example of a many-to-many relationship). The database only has three tables, \"person\", \"address\", and \"pa\", with the following data: The \"pa\" table relates the person and address tables, showing that Joe, Bob and Ann all live at 2001 Main Street, but Joe also takes up residence on Pico Boulevard. In order to remove joe from the database, two deletes must be executed: To maintain referential integrity, Joe's records must be removed from both \"person\" and \"pa\". The means by which integrity is sustained can happen differently in varying relational database management systems. It could be that beyond just having three tables, the database also has been set up with a trigger so that whenever a row is deleted from \"person\" any linked rows would be deleted from \"pa\". Then the first statement: would \"automatically\" trigger the second:", "Deleting all rows from a table can be very time consuming. Some DBMS offer a TRUNCATE TABLE command that works a lot quicker, as it only alters metadata and typically does not spend time enforcing constraints or firing triggers. DELETE only deletes the rows. For deleting a table entirely the DROP command can be used." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Description.", "Ecology.", "\"Sargassum\" crisis in the Caribbean Sea." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Sargassum\" was named by the Portuguese sailors who found it in the Sargasso Sea after the wooly rock rose (\"Halimium lasianthum\") that grew in their water wells at home, and that was called \"sargaço\" in Portuguese (). The Florida Keys and mainland South Florida are well known for their high levels of \"Sargassum\" covering their shores. Gulfweed was observed by Columbus. Although it was formerly thought to cover the entirety of the Sargasso Sea, making navigation impossible, it has since been found to occur only in drifts. \"Sargassum\" species are also cultivated and cleaned for use as an herbal remedy. Many Chinese herbalists prescribe powdered \"Sargassum\"—either the species \"S. pallidum\", or more rarely, hijiki, \"S. fusiforme\"—in doses of 0.5 gram dissolved in warm water and drunk as a tea. It is called in traditional Chinese medicine, where it is used to resolve \"heat phlegm\".", "Species of this genus of algae may grow to a length of several metres. They are generally brown or dark green in color and consist of a holdfast, a stipe, and a frond. Oogonia and antheridia occur in conceptacles embedded in receptacles on special branches. Some species have berrylike gas-filled bladders that help the fronds float to promote photosynthesis. Many have a rough, sticky texture that, along with a robust but flexible body, helps it withstand strong water currents.", "Large, pelagic mats of \"Sargassum\" in the Sargasso Sea act as one of the only habitats available for ecosystem development; this is because the Sargasso Sea lacks any land boundaries. The Sargassum patches act as a refuge for many species in different parts of their development, but also as a permanent residence for endemic species that can only be found living on and within the \"Sargassum\". These endemic organisms have specialized patterns and colorations that mimic the \"Sargassum\" and allow them to be impressively camouflaged in their environment. In total, these \"Sargassum\" mats are home to more than 11 phyla and over 100 different species. There is also a total of 81 fish species (36 families represented) that reside in the \"Sargassum\" or utilize it for parts of their life cycles. Other marine organisms, such as young sea turtles, will use the \"Sargassum\" as shelter and a resource for food until they reach a size at which they can survive elsewhere. This community is being affected by humans due to overfishing, trash and other types of pollution, and boat traffic, which could eventually lead to the demise of this diverse and unique habitat. Below is a list of organisms that are associated with the Sargassum in the Sargasso Sea. The Sargasso Sea plays a major role in the migration of catadromous eel species such as the European eel, the American eel, and the American conger eel. The larvae of these species hatch within the sea and as they grow they travel to Europe or the East Coast of North America. Later in life, the matured eel migrates back to the Sargasso Sea to spawn and lay eggs. It is also believed that after hatching, young Loggerhead sea turtles use currents such as the Gulf Stream to travel to the Sargasso Sea, where they use the sargassum as cover from predators until they are mature. Organisms found in the pelagic \"Sargassum\" patches, \"Sargassum\" is commonly found in the beach drift near \"Sargassum\" beds, where they are also known as gulfweed, a term that also can mean all seaweed species washed up on shore. \"Sargassum\" species are found throughout tropical areas of the world and are often the most obvious macrophyte in near-shore areas where \"Sargassum\" beds often occur near coral reefs. The plants grow subtidally and attach to coral, rocks, or shells in moderately exposed or sheltered rocky or pebble areas. These tropical populations often undergo seasonal cycles of growth and decay in concert with seasonal changes in sea temperature. In tropical \"Sargassum\" species that are often preferentially consumed by herbivorous fishes and echinoids, a relatively low level of phenolics and tannins occurs.", "In summer 2015, large quantities of different species of \"Sargassum\" accumulated along the shores of many of the countries on the Caribbean Sea. Some of the affected islands and regions include the Caribbean coast of Mexico, the Dominican Republic, Barbados, and Trinidad and Tobago. Another large outbreak occurred in 2018, which resulted in 6,000 square kilometers of \"Sargassum\" coverage, almost twice as much as the 2015 outbreak. The algae wash ashore, pile up on beaches, and decay, often causing a foul odor, releasing fumes of sulphur compounds that rust metals, can turn taps black in shore houses, damage modern conveniences, and cause respiratory problems, particularly for asthmatics. A doctor in Guadeloupe recorded 52 patients as having \"Sargassum\"-related symptoms. Insurance problems arise for tourist operators and homeowners, where the household and business losses do not fall into previous insurance categories. Wildlife also suffer; for example, sea turtle hatchlings die on their way to open water. The causes, effects, and potential solutions of the outbreak are a topic of international discussion. One method of cleaning is by spade and barrow onshore. Another is by raking boats offshore. Barrages of shallow nets floated by long buoys can be used to ward off algae drifts, depending on wave height and current. On the Caribbean island of Saint Martin, backhoes are also used in the process of clean up once the \"Sargassum\" weed reaches the shorelines. Researchers say that the \"Sargassum\" outbreak started in 2011, but it has become worse over the years. As it is cleaned up on the shorelines, in a matter of a week, the shorelines are once again filled in masses. It is still a recurring problem, in June 2019 the Mexican government said they would spend $2.7m (£2.1m) to build four boats designed to remove seaweed as well as new barriers to retain it. Several factors could explain the proliferation of \"Sargassum\" in the area in recent years. These include the rise of sea temperature and the change of sea currents due to climate change. Nutrients from agricultural fertilizers and wastewater from the cities that end up in the sea could also make the algae bloom." ] }