Datasets:

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StivenLancheros

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all_datasets_wikis

like 0

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{ "title": [ "Scope of the standard.", "History.", "Limitations of the standard.", "Role in modern personal computers.", "Physical interface.", "Voltage levels.", "Connectors.", "Cables.", "3-wire and 5-wire RS-232.", "Data and control signals.", "Ring Indicator.", "RTS, CTS, and RTR.", "Seldom-used features.", "Signal rate selection.", "Loopback testing.", "Timing signals.", "Secondary channel.", "Related standards.", "Development tools." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) standard RS-232-C as of 1969 defines: The standard does not define such elements as the character encoding (i.e. ASCII, EBCDIC, or others), the framing of characters (start or stop bits, etc.), transmission order of bits, or error detection protocols. The character format and transmission bit rate are set by the serial port hardware, typically a UART, which may also contain circuits to convert the internal logic levels to RS-232 compatible signal levels. The standard does not define bit rates for transmission, except that it says it is intended for bit rates lower than 20,000 bits per second.", "RS-232 was first introduced in 1960 by the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) as a \"Recommended Standard\". The original DTEs were electromechanical teletypewriters, and the original DCEs were (usually) modems. When electronic terminals (smart and dumb) began to be used, they were often designed to be interchangeable with teletypewriters, and so supported RS-232. Because the standard did not foresee the requirements of devices such as computers, printers, test instruments, POS terminals, and so on, designers implementing an RS-232 compatible interface on their equipment often interpreted the standard idiosyncratically. The resulting common problems were non-standard pin assignment of circuits on connectors, and incorrect or missing control signals. The lack of adherence to the standards produced a thriving industry of breakout boxes, patch boxes, test equipment, books, and other aids for the connection of disparate equipment. A common deviation from the standard was to drive the signals at a reduced voltage. Some manufacturers therefore built transmitters that supplied +5 V and −5 V and labeled them as \"RS-232 compatible\". Later personal computers (and other devices) started to make use of the standard so that they could connect to existing equipment. For many years, an RS-232-compatible port was a standard feature for serial communications, such as modem connections, on many computers (with the computer acting as the DTE). It remained in widespread use into the late 1990s. In personal computer peripherals, it has largely been supplanted by other interface standards, such as USB. RS-232 is still used to connect older designs of peripherals, industrial equipment (such as PLCs), console ports, and special purpose equipment. The standard has been renamed several times during its history as the sponsoring organization changed its name, and has been variously known as EIA RS-232, EIA 232, and, most recently as TIA 232. The standard continued to be revised and updated by the Electronic Industries Association and since 1988 by the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA). Revision C was issued in a document dated August 1969. Revision D was issued in 1986. The current revision is \"TIA-232-F Interface Between Data Terminal Equipment and Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment Employing Serial Binary Data Interchange\", issued in 1997. Changes since Revision C have been in timing and details intended to improve harmonization with the CCITT standard V.24, but equipment built to the current standard will interoperate with older versions. Related ITU-T standards include V.24 (circuit identification) and V.28 (signal voltage and timing characteristics). In revision D of EIA-232, the D-subminiature connector was formally included as part of the standard (it was only referenced in the appendix of RS-232-C). The voltage range was extended to ±25 volts, and the circuit capacitance limit was expressly stated as 2500 pF. Revision E of EIA-232 introduced a new, smaller, standard D-shell 26-pin \"Alt A\" connector, and made other changes to improve compatibility with CCITT standards V.24, V.28 and ISO 2110. Specification document revision history:", "Because RS-232 is used beyond the original purpose of interconnecting a terminal with a modem, successor standards have been developed to address the limitations. Issues with the RS-232 standard include:", "In the book \"PC 97 Hardware Design Guide\", Microsoft deprecated support for the RS-232 compatible serial port of the original IBM PC design. Today, RS-232 has mostly been replaced in personal computers by USB for local communications. Advantages compared to RS-232 are that USB is faster, uses lower voltages, and has connectors that are simpler to connect and use. Disadvantages of USB compared to RS-232 are that USB is far less immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and that maximum cable length is much shorter (15 meters for RS-232 v.s. 3 - 5 meters for USB depending on USB speed used). In fields such as laboratory automation or surveying, RS-232 devices may continue to be used. Some types of programmable logic controllers, variable-frequency drives, servo drives, and computerized numerical control equipment are programmable via RS-232. Computer manufacturers have responded to this demand by re-introducing the DE-9M connector on their computers or by making adapters available. RS-232 ports are also commonly used to communicate to headless systems such as servers, where no monitor or keyboard is installed, during boot when operating system is not running yet and therefore no network connection is possible. A computer with an RS-232 serial port can communicate with the serial port of an embedded system (such as a router) as an alternative to monitoring over Ethernet.", "In RS-232, user data is sent as a time-series of bits. Both synchronous and asynchronous transmissions are supported by the standard. In addition to the data circuits, the standard defines a number of control circuits used to manage the connection between the DTE and DCE. Each data or control circuit only operates in one direction, that is, signaling from a DTE to the attached DCE or the reverse. Because transmit data and receive data are separate circuits, the interface can operate in a full duplex manner, supporting concurrent data flow in both directions. The standard does not define character framing within the data stream, or character encoding.", "The RS-232 standard defines the voltage levels that correspond to logical one and logical zero levels for the data transmission and the control signal lines. Valid signals are either in the range of +3 to +15 volts or the range −3 to −15 volts with respect to the \"Common Ground\" (GND) pin; consequently, the range between −3 to +3 volts is not a valid RS-232 level. For data transmission lines (TxD, RxD, and their secondary channel equivalents), logic one is represented as a negative voltage and the signal condition is called \"mark\". Logic zero is signaled with a positive voltage and the signal condition is termed \"space\". Control signals have the opposite polarity: the asserted or active state is positive voltage and the de-asserted or inactive state is negative voltage. Examples of control lines include request to send (RTS), clear to send (CTS), data terminal ready (DTR), and data set ready (DSR). The standard specifies a maximum open-circuit voltage of 25 volts: signal levels of ±5 V, ±10 V, ±12 V, and ±15 V are all commonly seen depending on the voltages available to the line driver circuit. Some RS-232 driver chips have inbuilt circuitry to produce the required voltages from a 3 or 5 volt supply. RS-232 drivers and receivers must be able to withstand indefinite short circuit to ground or to any voltage level up to ±25 volts. The slew rate, or how fast the signal changes between levels, is also controlled. Because the voltage levels are higher than logic levels typically used by integrated circuits, special intervening driver circuits are required to translate logic levels. These also protect the device's internal circuitry from short circuits or transients that may appear on the RS-232 interface, and provide sufficient current to comply with the slew rate requirements for data transmission. Because both ends of the RS-232 circuit depend on the ground pin being zero volts, problems will occur when connecting machinery and computers where the voltage between the ground pin on one end, and the ground pin on the other is not zero. This may also cause a hazardous ground loop. Use of a common ground limits RS-232 to applications with relatively short cables. If the two devices are far enough apart or on separate power systems, the local ground connections at either end of the cable will have differing voltages; this difference will reduce the noise margin of the signals. Balanced, differential serial connections such as RS-422 or RS-485 can tolerate larger ground voltage differences because of the differential signaling. Unused interface signals terminated to ground will have an undefined logic state. Where it is necessary to permanently set a control signal to a defined state, it must be connected to a voltage source that asserts the logic 1 or logic 0 level, for example with a pullup resistor. Some devices provide test voltages on their interface connectors for this purpose.", "RS-232 devices may be classified as Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) or Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE); this defines at each device which wires will be sending and receiving each signal. According to the standard, male connectors have DTE pin functions, and female connectors have DCE pin functions. Other devices may have any combination of connector gender and pin definitions. Many terminals were manufactured with female connectors but were sold with a cable with male connectors at each end; the terminal with its cable satisfied the recommendations in the standard. The standard recommends the D-subminiature 25-pin connector up to revision C, and makes it mandatory as of revision D. Most devices only implement a few of the twenty signals specified in the standard, so connectors and cables with fewer pins are sufficient for most connections, more compact, and less expensive. Personal computer manufacturers replaced the DB-25M connector with the smaller DE-9M connector. This connector, with a different pinout (see Serial port pinouts), is prevalent for personal computers and associated devices. Presence of a 25-pin D-sub connector does not necessarily indicate an RS-232-C compliant interface. For example, on the original IBM PC, a male D-sub was an RS-232-C DTE port (with a non-standard current loop interface on reserved pins), but the female D-sub connector on the same PC model was used for the parallel \"Centronics\" printer port. Some personal computers put non-standard voltages or signals on some pins of their serial ports.", "The standard does not define a maximum cable length, but instead defines the maximum capacitance that a compliant drive circuit must tolerate. A widely used rule of thumb indicates that cables more than long will have too much capacitance, unless special cables are used. By using low-capacitance cables, communication can be maintained over larger distances up to about. For longer distances, other signal standards, such as RS-422, are better suited for higher speeds. Since the standard definitions are not always correctly applied, it is often necessary to consult documentation, test connections with a breakout box, or use trial and error to find a cable that works when interconnecting two devices. Connecting a fully standard-compliant DCE device and DTE device would use a cable that connects identical pin numbers in each connector (a so-called \"straight cable\"). \"Gender changers\" are available to solve gender mismatches between cables and connectors. Connecting devices with different types of connectors requires a cable that connects the corresponding pins according to the table below. Cables with 9 pins on one end and 25 on the other are common. Manufacturers of equipment with 8P8C connectors usually provide a cable with either a DB-25 or DE-9 connector (or sometimes interchangeable connectors so they can work with multiple devices). Poor-quality cables can cause false signals by crosstalk between data and control lines (such as Ring Indicator). If a given cable will not allow a data connection, especially if a gender changer is in use, a null modem cable may be necessary. Gender changers and null modem cables are not mentioned in the standard, so there is no officially sanctioned design for them.", "A minimal \"3-wire\" RS-232 connection consisting only of transmit data, receive data, and ground, is commonly used when the full facilities of RS-232 are not required. Even a two-wire connection (data and ground) can be used if the data flow is one way (for example, a digital postal scale that periodically sends a weight reading, or a GPS receiver that periodically sends position, if no configuration via RS-232 is necessary). When only hardware flow control is required in addition to two-way data, the RTS and CTS lines are added in a 5-wire version.", "The following table lists commonly used RS-232 signals (called \"circuits\" in the specifications) and their pin assignments on the recommended DB-25 connectors. (See Serial port pinouts for other commonly used connectors not defined by the standard.) The signals are named from the standpoint of the DTE. The ground pin is a common return for the other connections, and establishes the \"zero\" voltage to which voltages on the other pins are referenced. The DB-25 connector includes a second \"protective ground\" on pin 1; this is connected internally to equipment frame ground, and should not be connected in the cable or connector to signal ground.", "\"Ring Indicator\" (RI) is a signal sent from the DCE to the DTE device. It indicates to the terminal device that the phone line is ringing. In many computer serial ports, a hardware interrupt is generated when the RI signal changes state. Having support for this hardware interrupt means that a program or operating system can be informed of a change in state of the RI pin, without requiring the software to constantly \"poll\" the state of the pin. RI does not correspond to another signal that carries similar information the opposite way. On an external modem the status of the Ring Indicator pin is often coupled to the \"AA\" (auto answer) light, which flashes if the RI signal has detected a ring. The asserted RI signal follows the ringing pattern closely, which can permit software to detect distinctive ring patterns. The Ring Indicator signal is used by some older uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) to signal a power failure state to the computer. Certain personal computers can be configured for wake-on-ring, allowing a computer that is suspended to answer a phone call.", "The Request to Send (RTS) and Clear to Send (CTS) signals were originally defined for use with half-duplex (one direction at a time) modems such as the Bell 202. These modems disable their transmitters when not required and must transmit a synchronization preamble to the receiver when they are re-enabled. The DTE asserts RTS to indicate a desire to transmit to the DCE, and in response the DCE asserts CTS to grant permission, once synchronization with the DCE at the far end is achieved. Such modems are no longer in common use. There is no corresponding signal that the DTE could use to temporarily halt incoming data from the DCE. Thus RS-232's use of the RTS and CTS signals, per the older versions of the standard, is asymmetric. This scheme is also employed in present-day RS-232 to RS-485 converters. RS-485 is a multiple-access bus on which only one device can transmit at a time, a concept that is not provided for in RS-232. The RS-232 device asserts RTS to tell the converter to take control of the RS-485 bus so that the converter, and thus the RS-232 device, can send data onto the bus. Modern communications environments use full-duplex (both directions simultaneously) modems. In that environment, DTEs have no reason to deassert RTS. However, due to the possibility of changing line quality, delays in processing of data, etc., there is a need for symmetric, bidirectional flow control. A symmetric alternative providing flow control in both directions was developed and marketed in the late 1980s by various equipment manufacturers. It redefined the RTS signal to mean that the DTE is ready to receive data from the DCE. This scheme was eventually codified in version RS-232-E (actually TIA-232-E by that time) by defining a new signal, \"RTR (Ready to Receive)\", which is CCITT V.24 circuit 133. TIA-232-E and the corresponding international standards were updated to show that circuit 133, when implemented, shares the same pin as RTS (Request to Send), and that when 133 is in use, RTS is assumed by the DCE to be asserted at all times. In this scheme, commonly called \"RTS/CTS flow control\" or \"RTS/CTS handshaking\" (though the technically correct name would be \"RTR/CTS\"), the DTE asserts RTR whenever it is ready to receive data from the DCE, and the DCE asserts CTS whenever it is ready to receive data from the DTE. Unlike the original use of RTS and CTS with half-duplex modems, these two signals operate independently from one another. This is an example of hardware flow control. However, \"hardware flow control\" in the description of the options available on an RS-232-equipped device does not always mean RTS/CTS handshaking. Equipment using this protocol must be prepared to buffer some extra data, since the remote system may have begun transmitting just before the local system deasserts RTR.", "The EIA-232 standard specifies connections for several features that are not used in most implementations. Their use requires 25-pin connectors and cables.", "The DTE or DCE can specify use of a \"high\" or \"low\" signaling rate. The rates, as well as which device will select the rate, must be configured in both the DTE and DCE. The prearranged device selects the high rate by setting pin 23 to ON.", "Many DCE devices have a loopback capability used for testing. When enabled, signals are echoed back to the sender rather than being sent on to the receiver. If supported, the DTE can signal the local DCE (the one it is connected to) to enter loopback mode by setting pin 18 to ON, or the remote DCE (the one the local DCE is connected to) to enter loopback mode by setting pin 21 to ON. The latter tests the communications link, as well as both DCEs. When the DCE is in test mode, it signals the DTE by setting pin 25 to ON. A commonly used version of loopback testing does not involve any special capability of either end. A hardware loopback is simply a wire connecting complementary pins together in the same connector (see \"loopback\"). Loopback testing is often performed with a specialized DTE called a bit error rate tester (or BERT).", "Some synchronous devices provide a clock signal to synchronize data transmission, especially at higher data rates. Two timing signals are provided by the DCE on pins 15 and 17. Pin 15 is the transmitter clock, or send timing (ST); the DTE puts the next bit on the data line (pin 2) when this clock transitions from OFF to ON (so it is stable during the ON to OFF transition when the DCE registers the bit). Pin 17 is the receiver clock, or receive timing (RT); the DTE reads the next bit from the data line (pin 3) when this clock transitions from ON to OFF. Alternatively, the DTE can provide a clock signal, called transmitter timing (TT), on pin 24 for transmitted data. Data is changed when the clock transitions from OFF to ON, and read during the ON to OFF transition. TT can be used to overcome the issue where ST must traverse a cable of unknown length and delay, clock a bit out of the DTE after another unknown delay, and return it to the DCE over the same unknown cable delay. Since the relation between the transmitted bit and TT can be fixed in the DTE design, and since both signals traverse the same cable length, using TT eliminates the issue. TT may be generated by looping ST back with an appropriate phase change to align it with the transmitted data. ST loop back to TT lets the DTE use the DCE as the frequency reference, and correct the clock to data timing. Synchronous clocking is required for such protocols as SDLC, HDLC, and X.25.", "A secondary data channel, identical in capability to the primary channel, can optionally be implemented by the DTE and DCE devices. Pin assignments are as follows:", "Other serial signaling standards may not interoperate with standard-compliant RS-232 ports. For example, using the TTL levels of near +5 and 0 V puts the mark level in the undefined area of the standard. Such levels are sometimes used with GPS receivers and depth finders. A 20 mA current loop uses the absence of 20 mA current for high, and the presence of current in the loop for low; this signaling method is often used for long-distance and optically isolated links. Connection of a current-loop device to a compliant RS-232 port requires a level translator. Current-loop devices can supply voltages in excess of the withstand voltage limits of a compliant device. The original IBM PC serial port card implemented a 20 mA current-loop interface, which was never emulated by other suppliers of plug-compatible equipment. Other serial interfaces similar to RS-232:", "When developing or troubleshooting systems using RS-232, close examination of hardware signals can be important to find problems. A simple indicator device uses LEDs to show the high/low state of data or control pins. Y cables may be used to allow using another serial port to monitor all traffic on one direction. A serial line analyzer is a device similar to a logic analyzer but specialized for RS-232's voltage levels, connectors, and, where used, clock signals. The serial line analyzer can collect, store, and display the data and control signals, allowing developers to view them in detail. Some simply display the signals as waveforms; more elaborate versions include the ability to decode characters in ASCII or other common codes and to interpret common protocols used over RS-232 such as SDLC, HDLC, DDCMP, and X.25. Serial line analyzers are available as standalone units, as software and interface cables for general-purpose logic analyzers and oscilloscopes, and as programs that run on common personal computers and devices." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Folklore." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "It was built in the second half of the 13th century probably on the orders of Bohemian ruler Ottokar II of Bohemia during his reign (1253–78) to serve as an administration center from which the extensive royal estates could be managed. Later it passed to the hands of the aristocracy, frequently passing from the ownership of one to another. In 1584–90 it underwent Renaissance-style modifications, losing none of its fortress features as it looks down from a steep rocky cliff. In the 18th century it stopped to serve as a noble residence and fell into a state of disrepair before being renovated in 1823. In 1897 it was purchased by Princess Hohenlohe and in 1924, the times of the First Republic, bought by the President of Škoda, Josef Šimonek.", "Houska castle, and most specifically the chapel, has been constructed over a large hole in the ground that is allegedly a \"gateway to Hell\", which was said to be so deep no one could see the bottom of it. Animal-human hybrids were reported to have crawled out of it, and dark-winged, otherworldly creatures flew in its vicinity. Legend has it that when construction began in the castle, all of the inmates that were sentenced to death were offered a pardon if they consented to be lowered by rope into the hole, and report back on what they saw. When the first person was lowered, he began screaming after a few seconds, and when pulled back to the surface he looked as if he had aged 60 years. He had grown wrinkles and his hair had turned white. Houska castle was built with no fortifications, water, or kitchen, near no trade routes, and with no occupants at its time of completion. The castle was not built as a residence or as a protective sanctuary, but was instead built because the hole was thought to be a gateway to hell. Thus, by constructing the Gothic building, they were able to keep the demons trapped in the lower level thickest walls closest to the hole of the castle. Houska Castle was featured on an episode of \"Ghost Hunters International\" which aired on SyFy on July 22, 2009. \"Most Haunted Live\" visited the castle on March 26, 2010. The French team of paranormal investigators, \"R.I.P recherches investigations paranormal\", investigated the Castle in 2013 in their episode \"The Hell Gate\" (Episode 2, Season 3). This folklore was also the basis for the Doctor Who graphic novel \"Herald of Madness\" (2019), which is set at Houska Castle and was first published in Doctor Who Magazine 535-539." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Location.", "Purpose of its construction.", "Current situation.", "How to get there." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Stachelberg fortress is located just northwest of Babí, between Trutnov and. Moreover, there is Rýchorský prales (Virgin Forest) close to it. The place is frequently called the foot of the (Giant Mountains).", "The Stachelberg fortress was built as protection for Labavské sedlo (Saddleback), which is the land gate between the Krkonoše and. These places were usually a target of foreign armies and the Czech army led an attack on foreign armies from this place. However, the fortress has never been finished and nowadays it is used as an army museum.", "The museum in Stachelberg has been opened since 1993 and the owners expand the accessible parts of the fortress every year. The last extension was accomplished in 2010, which extended the sightseeing for more than an hour. The visitors can see the whole of its underground barracks. The first owner of this fortress was Fortis company, which is located in Trutnov. However, the owner changed in 2005 and presently it is owned by the Stachelberg Civic Association, a group of enthusiasts, who consider their job a hobby and do it voluntarily. It is worth mentioning that the fortress is financed only by the visitors’ entrance fee and occasionally by donors who are willing to help.", "There are a few options how to get there. Firstly, you can use a bus (from Trutnov to Žacléř). The final bus stop is called Babí-pevnost (Fortress) than you have to walk 300 m following the marked path. Secondly, you can use a car or a bike and use the road 300 from Trutnov to Žacléř. A car park can be found next to the bus stop (Babí-pevnost). The Stachelberg fortress is 10 km far from Trutnov and 5 km from Žacléř. Lastly, you can go on foot using tourist trails. There are many of them, but the most used is the one from Trutnov over Zámecký vrch or you can begin your journey from the other side, over and." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and career.", "Early life.", "Military service.", "Far-right politics.", "National Front.", "Personal life, wealth and security.", "Electoral record.", "Issues and policy positions.", "Controversial statements.", "Prosecution concerning Holocaust denial.", "Public image.", "Public perception.", "Relations with other groups.", "Perception by American commentators.", "References.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Jean Louis Marie Le Pen was the only son of Jean Le Pen (1901–1942). Jean Le Pen was born in French Brittany, like his ancestors and had started work at the age of 13 on a transatlantic vessel. He was the president of L'Association des Ancients Combattants and Councilor of La Trinité-sur-Mer. Jean-Marie Le Pen's mother, Anne-Marie Hervé (1904–1965) was a seamstress and also of local ancestry. Le Pen was born on 20 June 1928 in La Trinité-sur-Mer, a small seaside village in Brittany, the son of Anne Marie Hervé and Jean Le Pen, a fisherman. He was orphaned as an adolescent (\"pupille de la nation\", brought up by the state), when his father's boat \"La Persévérance\" was blown up by a mine in 1942. He was raised as a Roman Catholic and studied at the Jesuit high school François Xavier in Vannes, then at the \"lycée\" of Lorient. In November 1944, aged 16, he was turned down (because of his age) by Colonel Henri de La Vaissière (then representative of the Communist Youth) when he attempted to join the French Forces of the Interior (FFI). He then entered the faculty of law in Paris, and started to sell the monarchist \"Action Française\" newspaper, \"\"Aspects de la France\"\", in the street. He was repeatedly convicted of assault and battery (\"coups et blessures\"). Le Pen started his political career as the head of the student union in Toulouse. He became president of the \"Association corporative des étudiants en droit\", an association of law students whose main occupation was to engage in street brawls against the \"\"Cocos\"\" (communists). He was excluded from this organisation in 1951. After his time in the military, he studied political science and law at Panthéon-Assas University. His graduate thesis, submitted in 1971 by him and Jean-Loup Vincent, was titled \"Le courant anarchiste en France depuis 1945\" or (\"The anarchist movement in France since 1945\").", "After receiving his law degree, he enlisted in the Foreign Legion. He arrived in Indochina after the 1954 battle of Dien Bien Phu, which had been lost by France and which prompted Prime Minister of France Pierre Mendès France to put an end to the Indochina war at the Geneva Conference. Le Pen was then sent to Suez in 1956, but arrived only after the cease-fire. In 1953, a year before the beginning of the Algerian War, he contacted President Vincent Auriol, who approved Le Pen's proposed volunteer disaster relief project after a flood in the Netherlands. Within two days, there were 40 volunteers from his university, a group that would later help victims of an earthquake in Italy. In Paris in 1956, he was elected to the National Assembly as a member of Pierre Poujade's UDCA populist party. Le Pen has often presented himself as the youngest member of the Assembly, but a young communist, André Chène, 27 years old and half a year younger, was elected in the same year. In 1957, Le Pen became the General Secretary of the National Front of Combatants, a veterans' organization, as well as the first French politician to nominate a Muslim candidate, Ahmed Djebbour, an Algerian, elected in 1957 as deputy of Paris. The next year, following his break with Poujade, he was reelected to the National Assembly as a member of the Centre National des Indépendants et Paysans (CNIP) party, led by Antoine Pinay. Le Pen claimed that he had lost his left eye when he was savagely beaten during the 1958 election campaign. Testimonies suggest that he was only wounded in the right eye and did not lose it. He lost the sight in his left eye years later, due to an illness. (Popular belief is that he wears a glass eye.) During the 1950s, Le Pen took a close interest in the Algerian War (1954–62) and the French defence budget. Elected deputy of the French Parliament under the Poujadist banner, Le Pen voluntarily reengaged himself for two to three months in the French Foreign Legion. He was then sent to Algeria (1957) as an intelligence officer. He has been accused of having engaged in torture. Le Pen has denied these accusations, although he admitted knowing of its use.", "Le Pen directed the 1965 presidential campaign of far-right candidate Jean-Louis Tixier-Vignancour, who obtained 5.19% of the votes. He insisted on the rehabilitation of the Collaborationists, declaring that: In 1962, Le Pen lost his seat in the Assembly. He created the Serp (\"Société d'études et de relations publiques\") firm, a company involved in the music industry, which specialized in historical recordings and sold recordings of the choir of the CGT trade-union and songs of the Popular Front, as well as Nazi marches.", "In 1972, Le Pen founded the Front National (FN) party. He then ran in the 1974 presidential election, obtaining 0.74% of the vote. In 1976, his Parisian flat was dynamited (he lived at that time in his castle of Montretout in Saint-Cloud). The crime was never solved. Le Pen then failed to obtain the 500 signatures from \"grand electors\" (\"grands électeurs\", mayors, etc.) necessary to present himself in the 1981 presidential election, won by the candidate of the Socialist Party (PS), François Mitterrand. Criticizing immigration and taking advantage of the economic crisis striking France and the world since the 1973 oil crisis, Le Pen's party managed to increase its support in the 1980s, starting in the municipal elections of 1983. His popularity has been greatest in the south and east of France. The FN obtained 16 seats in the 1984 European elections. A total of 35 FN deputies entered the Assembly after the 1986 elections (the only legislative elections held under proportional representation), which were won by the right wing, bringing Jacques Chirac to Matignon in the first cohabitation government (that is, the combination of a right-wing Prime minister, Chirac, with a socialist President, Mitterrand). In Paris, Jean-Marie Le Pen was elected in the National Assembly. In 1984, Le Pen won a seat in the European Parliament and has been consistently reelected since then. In 1988 he lost his reelection bid for the French National Assembly in the Bouches-du-Rhône's 8th constituency. He was defeated in the second round by Socialist Marius Masse. In 1991 Le Pen's invite to London by Conservative MPs was militantly protested by large numbers coordinated by the Campaign Against Fascism in Europe, CAFE, which led to a surge of anti-fascist groups and activity across Europe. In 1992 and 1998 he was elected to the regional council of Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur. Le Pen ran in the French presidential elections in 1974, 1988, 1995, 2002, and 2007. As noted above, he was not able to run for office in 1981, having failed to gather the necessary 500 signatures of elected officials. In the presidential elections of 2002, Le Pen obtained 16.86% of the votes in the first round of voting. This was enough to qualify him for the second round, as a result of the poor showing by the PS candidate and incumbent prime minister Lionel Jospin and the scattering of votes among 15 other candidates. This was a major political event, both nationally and internationally, as it was the first time someone with such far right views had qualified for the second round of the French presidential elections. There was a widespread stirring of national public opinion as virtually the entire French political spectrum from the centre-right to the left united in fierce opposition to Le Pen's ideas. More than one million people in France took part in street rallies; slogans such as \"vote for the crook, not the fascist\" were heard in opposition to Le Pen. Le Pen was then defeated by a large margin in the second round, when incumbent president Jacques Chirac obtained 82% of the votes, thus securing the biggest majority in the history of the Fifth Republic. In the 2004 regional elections, Le Pen intended to run for office in the Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur region but was prevented from doing so because he did not meet the conditions for being a voter in that region: he neither lived there nor was registered as a taxpayer there. However, he was planned to be the FN's top candidate in the region for the 2010 regional elections. Le Pen again ran in the 2007 French presidential election and finished fourth. His 2007 campaign, at the age of 78 years and 9 months, makes him the oldest candidate for presidential office in French history. Le Pen has been a vocal critic of the European Reform Treaty (formally known as the Treaty of Lisbon) which was signed by EU member states on 13 December 2007, and entered into force on 1 December 2009. In October 2007, Le Pen suggested that he would personally visit Ireland to assist the \"No\" campaign but finally changed his mind, fearing that his presence would be used against the supporters of the NO vote. Ireland finally refused to ratify the treaty. Ireland is the only EU country which had a citizen referendum. All other EU states, including France, ratified the treaty by parliamentary vote, despite a previous citizen referendum where over 55% of French voters rejected the European Reform Treaty (although that vote was on a different draft of the Treaty in the form of the Constitutional Treaty). After the Irish \"No\" vote, Le Pen addressed the French President Nicolas Sarkozy in the European Parliament, accusing him of furthering the agenda of a \"cabal of international finance and free market fanatics.\" Ireland has since accepted the treaty in a second Lisbon referendum. After Le Pen left office in January 2011, his daughter Marine Le Pen was elected by the adherents of the party against Bruno Gollnisch. He became honorary chairman of the party and won his seat again at the European elections in 2014. On 4 May 2015, Le Pen was suspended from the party after refusing to attend his disciplinary hearing at the party for describing the gas chambers used in concentration camps during the Holocaust as a \"detail\" of history. A French court decided in June to cancel this suspension; although the members of the party were to hold a vote to accept or reject a whole series of measures aiming at changing the National Front's status, including Le Pen's Honorary Presidency, on 10 July, another French court ruled to suspend the vote two days beforehand and urged the party to organize an in-person Congress as Le Pen sued the National Front again. The party decided to appeal against both of these decisions. The FN then decided, on 29 July, to count the votes on the suppression of Le Pen's Honorary Presidency, which showed that 94% of the members were in favor of this decision. Due to the legal challenges to the FN's removal of Le Pen as its honorary president, he continued to officially hold the position. In August 2015, Le Pen was expelled from the National Front after a special party congress. He has since founded the Comités Jeanne.", "Le Pen's marriage to from 29 June 1960 to 18 March 1987 resulted in three daughters; these daughters have given him nine granddaughters. The break-up of the marriage was somewhat dramatic, with his ex-wife posing nude in the French edition of \"Playboy\" to ridicule him. Marie-Caroline, one of his daughters, broke with Le Pen, following her husband to join Bruno Mégret, who split from the FN to found the rival Mouvement National Républicain (MNR, National Republican Movement). The youngest of Le Pen's daughters, Marine Le Pen, is leader of the Front National. On 31 May 1991, Jean-Marie Le Pen married Jeanne-Marie Paschos (\"Jany\"), of Greek descent. Born in 1933, Paschos was previously married to Belgian businessman Jean Garnier. In 1977, Le Pen inherited a fortune from Hubert Lambert (1934–1976), son of the cement industrialist Leon Lambert (1877–1952), one of three sons of Lambert Cement founder Hilaire Lambert. Hubert Lambert was a political supporter of Le Pen and a monarchist as well. Lambert's will provided 30 million francs (approximately 5 million euros) to Le Pen, as well as his opulent three-storey 11-room mansion at 8 Parc de Montretout, Saint-Cloud, in the western suburbs of Paris. The home had been built by Napoleon III for his chief of staff Jean-François Mocquard. With his wife, he also owns a two-story townhouse on the Rue Hortense in Rueil-Malmaison and another house in his hometown of La Trinité-sur-Mer. In the early 1980s, Le Pen's personal security was assured by KO International Company, a subsidiary of VHP Security, a private security firm, and an alleged front organisation for \"SAC\", the \"Service d'Action Civique\" (Civic Action Service), a Gaullist organisation. SAC allegedly employed figures with organized crime backgrounds and from the far-right movement.", "National Assembly of France Municipal Council European Parliament Regional Council", "", "Le Pen has been accused and convicted several times at home and abroad of xenophobia and anti-Semitism. A Paris court found in February 2005 that his verbal criticisms, such as remarks disparaging Muslims in a 2003 \"Le Monde\" interview, were \"inciting racial hatred\", and he was fined 10,000 euros and ordered to pay an additional 5,000 euros in damages to the \"Ligue des droits de l'homme\" (League for Human Rights). The conviction and fines were upheld by the Court of Cassation in 2006. Arguing that his party includes people of various ethnic or religious origins like Jean-Pierre Cohen, Farid Smahi or Huguette Fatna, he has attributed some anti-Semitism in France to the effects of Muslim immigration to Europe and suggested that some part of the Jewish community in France might eventually come to appreciate National Front ideology. Le Pen has been sceptical about the theory of man made Global warming and linking climate science and communism.", "Le Pen has made several provocative statements concerning the Holocaust which have been interpreted by the legal system as constituting Holocaust denial. He has been convicted of racism or inciting racial hatred at least six times. Thus, on 13 September 1987, he said, \"I ask myself several questions. I'm not saying the gas chambers didn't exist. I haven't seen them myself. I haven't particularly studied the question. But I believe it's just a detail in the history of World War II.\" For Le Pen, the French deportation of 76,000 Jews from France to Nazi concentration camps, where they were killed, is a trivial matter, and he denies that 6 million Jews were killed, saying \"I don't think there were that many deaths. There weren't 6 million... There weren't mass murders as it's been said.\" He was eventually condemned under the Gayssot Act to pay 1.2 million francs (183,200 euros). In 1997, the European Parliament, of which Le Pen was then a member, removed his parliamentary immunity so that Le Pen could be tried by a German court in Germany, for comments he made at a December 1996 press conference before the German Republikaner party. Echoing his 1987 remarks in France, Le Pen stated: \"If you take a 1,000-page book on World War II, the concentration camps take up only two pages and the gas chambers 10 to 15 lines. This is what one calls a detail.\" In June 1999, a Munich court found this statement to be \"minimizing the Holocaust, which caused the deaths of six million Jews,\" and convicted and fined Le Pen for his remarks. Le Pen retorted ironically: \"I understand now that it's the Second World War which is a detail of the history of the gas chambers.\"", "", "Le Pen is often nicknamed the \"Menhir\", due to his \"granitic nature\" as he is perceived as someone who does not give way to pressure or who cannot be easily knocked down. It also connects him to France's Celtic origins. Le Pen is often described as one of the most flamboyant and charismatic orators in Europe, whose speech blends folksy humour, crude attacks and rhetorical finesse. However, Le Pen remains a polarizing figure in France: opinions regarding him tend to be quite strong. A 2002 IPSOS poll showed that while 22% of the electorate have a good or very good opinion of Le Pen, and 13% an unfavorable opinion, 61% have a very unfavorable opinion. Le Pen and the National Front are described by much of the media and nearly all commentators as far right. Le Pen himself and the rest of his party disagree with this label; earlier in his political career, Le Pen described his position as \"neither right, nor left, but French\" (\"ni droite, ni gauche, français\"). He later described his position as right-wing and opposed to the \"socialo-communists\" and other right-wing parties, which he deems are not real right-wing parties. At other times, for example during the 2002 election campaign, he declared himself \"socially left-wing, economically right-wing, nationally French\" (\"socialement à gauche, économiquement à droite, nationalement français\"). He further contends that most of the French political and media class are corrupt and out of touch with the real needs of the common people, and conspire to exclude Le Pen and his party from mainstream politics. Le Pen criticizes the other political parties as the \"establishment\" and lumped all major parties (Communist, Socialist, Union for French Democracy (UDF) and Rally for the Republic (RPR)) into the \"Gang of Four\" (\"la bande des quatre\" – an allusion to the Gang of Four during China's Cultural Revolution).", "Some of Le Pen's statements led other right-wing groups, such as the Austrian Freedom Party, and some National Front supporters, to distance themselves from him. Controversial Dutch anti-Islam lawmaker Geert Wilders, who has often been accused of being far-right, has also criticized Le Pen. Bruno Mégret left the National Front to found his own party (the National Republican Movement, MNR), claiming that Le Pen kept the Front away from the possibility of gaining power. Mégret wanted to emulate Gianfranco Fini's success in Italy by making it possible for right-wing parties to ally themselves with the Front, but claimed that Le Pen's attitude and outrageous speech prevented this. Le Pen's daughter Marine leads an internal movement of the Front that wants to \"normalize\" the National Front, \"de-enclave\" it, have a \"culture of government\" etc.; however, relations with Le Pen and other supporters of the hard line are complex. Le Pen's National Front electoral successes along with the party gaining wider public prominence led to suggestions for the renewal of the pan-European alliance of extreme-right parties with Le Pen as its figurehead, a suggestion that eventually did indeed bring about the establishment of the Europe of Nations and Freedom group in the European Parliament, chaired by Le Pen's daughter Marine. On 22 March 2018, Le Pen joined the Alliance for Peace and Freedom.", "Conservative commentator and author Ann Coulter called him an \"anti-American adulterer\" but said his anti-immigration, anti-Muslim message \"finally hit a nerve with voters\" after years of irrelevance. Paleoconservative commentator Pat Buchanan contends that even though Le Pen \"made radical and foolish statements,\" the EU violated his right to freedom of speech. Buchanan wrote: As it is often the criminal himself who is first to cry, \"Thief!\" so it is usually those who scream, \"Fascist!\" loudest who are the quickest to resort to anti-democratic tactics. Today, the greatest threat to the freedom and independence of the nations of Europe comes not from Le Pen and that 17% of French men and women who voted for him. It comes from an intolerant European Establishment that will accept no rollback of its powers or privileges, nor any reversal of policies it deems \"progressive\".", "Notes Further reading", "Official News articles and videos Criticism" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Space.", "Spaceflight.", "Iranian flag controversy.", "Reactions to Ansari's flight.", "Crewmates.", "Reactions in Iran.", "Interviews.", "Honors and awards.", "Other activities and public appearances.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born Anousheh Raissyan in Mashhad, Iran, she and her parents moved to Tehran shortly afterward. She witnessed the Iranian Revolution in 1979. She immigrated to the United States in 1984 as a teenager. Apart from her native Persian, she is fluent in English and French, and acquired a working knowledge of Russian for her spaceflight experience. She received her Bachelor of Science degree in electrical engineering and computer science at George Mason University in Fairfax, Virginia, and her master's degree at George Washington University in Washington D.C.", "After graduation, Raissyan began work at MCI, where she met her future husband, Hamid Ansari. They married in 1991. In 1993, she persuaded her husband and her brother-in-law Amir Ansari to co-found Telecom Technologies Inc., using their savings and corporate retirement accounts, as deregulation happened in the US telecommunications industry. The company was a supplier of softswitch technology that enabled telecom \"service providers to enhance system performance, lower operating costs and furnish new revenue opportunities.\" The company, headquartered in Richardson, Texas, offered products that allowed the integration between existing telecom networks and application-centric, next-generation networks via software switch technology. Telecom Technologies was acquired by Sonus Networks, Inc. in 2001 in a stock-for-stock transaction for 10.8 million shares of Sonus stock. Anousheh Ansari became \"a vice president of Sonus and general manager of Sonus' new INtelligentIP division.\" In 2006, she co-founded Prodea Systems, and is the current chairman and CEO. Prodea is a technology and services management company. Prodea is a privately held company formed by the Ansari family with development centers in both Richardson, Texas, and Silicon Valley.", "Ansari has expressed that she does not consider herself a \"space tourist\", and prefers the title of \"spaceflight participant\". Ansari is a member of the X PRIZE Foundation's Vision Circle, as well as its Board of Trustees. Along with her brother-in-law, Amir Ansari, she made a multimillion-dollar contribution to the X PRIZE foundation on May 5, 2004, the 43rd anniversary of Alan Shepard's sub-orbital spaceflight. The X PRIZE was officially renamed the \"Ansari X PRIZE\" in honor of their donation. As demonstrated by her commitment to the X PRIZE and through presentations at Space Enthusiast conferences, Ansari is a spokesperson for the \"privatization of space\", a process enabling commercially viable companies to government-independently send equipment and/or people into space for exploration and other purposes. The Ansari family investment firm, also named Prodea, has announced a partnership with Space Adventures, Ltd. and the Federal Space Agency of the Russian Federation (FSA) to create a fleet of suborbital spaceflight vehicles (the Space Adventures Explorer) for global commercial use.", "Ansari trained as a backup for Daisuke Enomoto for a Soyuz flight to the International Space Station, through Space Adventures, Ltd. On August 21, 2006, Enomoto was medically disqualified from flying the Soyuz TMA-9 mission that was due to launch the following month. The next day Ansari was elevated to the prime crew. Asked what she hoped to achieve on her spaceflight, Ansari said, \"I hope to inspire everyone—especially young people, women, and young girls all over the world, and in Middle Eastern countries that do not provide women with the same opportunities as men—to not give up their dreams and to pursue them... It may seem impossible to them at times. But I believe they can realize their dreams if they keep it in their hearts, nurture it, and look for opportunities and make those opportunities happen.\" The day before her departure, she was interviewed on Iran national television for the astronomy show \"Night's Sky\". The hosts wished her success and thanked her on behalf of Iranians. Ansari in return, thanked them. Ansari lifted off on the Soyuz TMA-9 mission with commander Mikhail Tyurin (RSA) and flight engineer Michael Lopez-Alegria (NASA) at 04:59 (UTC) on Monday September 18, 2006, from Baikonur, Kazakhstan. Ansari became the fourth (and first female) space tourist. Her contract did not allow for disclosure of the amount paid, but previous space tourists have paid in excess of $20 million USD. The space craft docked with the International Space Station (ISS) on Wednesday September 20, 2006, at 05:21 (UTC). Ansari landed safely aboard Soyuz TMA-8 on September 29, 2006, at 01:13 UTC on the steppes of Kazakhstan (90 kilometers north of Arkalyk) with U.S. astronaut Jeffrey Williams and Russian cosmonaut Pavel Vinogradov. She was given red roses from an unidentified official, and a surprise kiss from her husband, Hamid. The crew's rescuers moved them to Kustanai by helicopter for the welcome ceremony. During her nine-day stay on board the International Space Station, Ansari agreed to perform a series of experiments on behalf of the European Space Agency. She conducted four experiments, including: She also became the first person to publish a weblog from space.", "Ansari intended to wear the U.S. flag on her spacesuit alongside a politically neutral version of the Iranian flag, i.e. the simple 3-color flag with no government-specific emblem, to honor the two countries that have contributed to her life. A few U.S.-based media wrongly speculated that she was intending to wear the version of the Iranian flag that predated the 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran. At the insistence of the NASA and Russian officials, she did not wear the Iranian flag officially, but wore the Iranian flag colors instead and kept the Iranian flag on her official flight patch. She and her husband said no political message was intended, despite the increasing tensions with United States and Iran relations, which had dominated world headlines in the weeks leading up to her launch. She noted that she had \"plans to devote her mission to expanding a global consciousness she expected would be seeded with her first look at Earth from space\".", "", "Michael López-Alegría, the Spanish-born NASA astronaut who flew on the Russian Soyuz spacecraft on the return flight with Ansari, expressed his doubts to reporters before the flight: \"I'm not a big fan personally of having those guys go visit the space station because I think the space station is still a place that is under construction, and not quite operational. I don't think it's ideal.\" López-Alegría later stated that he was skeptical of private tourists a few years ago, but now believes it is essential to the survival of the Russian space program which is important to the U.S. space program: \"If that's the correct solution... then not only is it good from the standpoint of supporting the Russian space program, but it's good for us as well,\" he said. Ansari's presence in space \"is a great dream and a great hope not just for our country but for countries all around the world.\" The same Associated Press story also quoted Mikhail Tyurin describing Ansari as \"very professional\" and said he felt like they had worked together for a decade.", "The flight was given significant coverage by Iranian state television, with an hour-long live interview with Ansari being broadcast on the show \"Asemane Shab\" (\"Night Sky\"). Ansari was praised by newspapers such as \"Hambastegi\" and \"Jam-e-Jam Daily\", which published daily columns detailing the journey. The astronomy magazine \"NOJUM\" also published an exclusive interview of Pouria Nazemi with Ansari before her trip, in which she discussed her vision for commercial spaceflight. \"NOJUM\" also organized and held gatherings when the ISS passed over Iran's cities. Shahram Yazdanpanah, made a special part about Anousheh's trip to space at Persian \"Space Science\" website and covered all the news of trip.", "On September 22, 2006, she told reporters that she has no regrets and said \"I am having a wonderful time here. It's been more than what I expected, and I am enjoying every single second of it. The entire experience has been wonderful up here.\"", "Ansari has received multiple honors, including the George Mason University Entrepreneurial Excellence Award, the George Washington University Distinguished Alumni Achievement Award, the Ernst & Young Entrepreneur of the Year Award for the Southwest Region, and the Horatio Alger Award. While under her leadership, Telecom Technologies, Inc. earned recognition as one of \"Inc. magazine\"s 500 fastest-growing companies and one of Deloitte & Touche's Fast 500 technology companies. She was listed in \"Fortune Magazine\"s 40 under 40 list in 2001 and honored by \"Working Woman\" as the winner of the 2000 National Entrepreneurial Excellence award. In 2009, she received the first NCWIT Symons Innovator Award given annually by the National Center for Women & Information Technology to honor successful women entrepreneurs in technology. She received an Honorary Doctorate of Science from her alma mater George Mason University on December 20, 2012. The Ansari family was honored with an Orbit Award by the National Space Society and Space Tourism Society for underwriting the Ansari X Prize. In 2010, she was awarded the Ellis Island Medal of Honor in recognition of her humanitarian efforts. In 2015, the National Space Society awarded Ansari the Space Pioneer Award for her \"Service to the Space Community.\"", "Ansari participated as a speaker at the 2010 Honeywell Leadership Academy with Homer Hickam at United States Space Camp in Huntsville, Alabama. In 2009, Ansari was featured in the documentary film \"Space Tourists\" by independent Swiss filmmaker Christian Frei about billionaires who paid to ride to the International Space Station aboard Russian spacecraft. The DVD of the film was released in 2011. She served as the commencement speaker at and received an Honorary Doctorate of Science from Utah Valley University on April 25, 2013. On February 26, 2017, she and Firouz Naderi represented Iranian filmmaker Asghar Farhadi at the 89th Academy Awards and accepted the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film for \"The Salesman\" on Farhadi's behalf. Farhadi did not attend the ceremony due to his opposition to President Trump's immigration ban applying to seven Muslim countries including Iran. Farhadi selected Ansari and Naderi as his representatives because both are successful Iranian-Americans who immigrated to the US. Ansari has served on the boards of directors for Make-a-Wish Foundation of North Texas and Collin County Children's Advocacy Center. She has been active with several nonprofit organizations, including the nonprofit Iranian American Women Foundation organization. Other non-profit organizations include the Ashoka Foundation in its support of social entrepreneurs.", "While working at MCI, she met Hamid Ansari. They married in 1991. The Ansaris reside in Plano, Texas. She is also the aunt of the American actors Yara Shahidi and Sayeed Shahidi." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Archaeology.", "Villas.", "Villa San Marco.", "Villa Arianna.", "Layout.", "The \"Second Complex\".", "Villa del Pastore.", "Villa of Anteros and Heracles.", "Villa Petraro.", "Villa Carmiano (Villa A).", "Villa Sant'Antonio Abate.", "Villa Medici.", "Villa del Filosofo.", "Villa Marchetti.", "Villa detto Carmiano in Masseria Buonodono.", "Villa Casa dei Miri.", "Temples.", "Necropoleis." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The settlement at Stabiae arose from as early as the 7th century BC due to the favourable climate and its strategic and commercial significance as evocatively documented by materials found in the vast necropolis discovered in 1957 on via Madonna delle Grazie, situated between Gragnano and Santa Maria la Carità. The necropolis of over 300 tombs containing imported pottery of Corinthian, Etruscan, Chalcidian and Attic origin clearly shows that the town had major commercial contacts. The necropolis, covering an area of, was used from the 7th to the end of the 3rd century BC and shows the complex population changes with the arrival of new peoples, such as the Etruscans, which opened up new contacts. Stabiae had a small port which by the 6th century BC had already been overshadowed by the much larger port at Pompeii. It later became an Oscan settlement and it appears that the Samnites later took over the Oscan town in the 5th century. With the arrival of the Samnites the city suffered a sudden social and economic slowdown in favour of the development of nearby Pompeii, as shown by the almost total absence of burials: however, when the influence of the Samnites became more marked in the middle of 4th century BC Stabiae began a slow recovery, so much so that it was necessary to build two new necropoles, one discovered in 1932 near the Mediaeval Castle, the other in Scanzano. A sanctuary, probably dedicated to Athena, was built in the locality of Privati. It then became part of the Nucerian federation, adopting its political and administrative structure and becoming its military port, although it enjoyed less autonomy than Pompeii, Herculaneum and Sorrento; in 308 BC, after a long siege, it was forced to surrender in the Samnite wars against the Romans. The earliest Roman evidence is coins from Rome and Ebusus found in the sanctuary of Privati dating back to the 3rd century BC probably brought in by merchants. During the Punic Wars Stabiae supported Rome against the Carthaginians with young men in the fleet of Marcus Claudius Marcellus, according to Silius Italicus who wrote: \"Irrumpit Cumana ratis, quam Corbulo ducato lectaque complebat Stabiarum litore pubes.\" The city of Stabiae is still to be clearly located but was most probably a fortified town of some importance owing to the fact that when conflict with the Romans reached a head during the Social War (91–88 BC), the Roman general Sulla did not simply occupy the town on 30 April 89 BC but destroyed it. Its location is said to be delimited by the Scanzano gorge and the San Marco stream which partly eroded its walls.", "The archaeological remains of Stabiae were originally discovered in 1749 by Cavaliere Rocco de Alcubierre, an engineer working for king Charles VII of Naples. These ruins were partially excavated by Alcubierre with help from Karl Weber between 1749–1775. Weber was the first to make detailed architectural drawings and delivered them to the court of Naples. He proposed the systematic unearthing of the buildings and their display on site, in their context. In 1759 Weber partially identified and described part of the old city that extended over an area of about 45000 sqm. The ruins that had been excavated, however, were reburied. A second excavation campaign until 1782 was assisted by the architect Franceso La Vega after Weber's death. He diligently collected all the preceding material to reconstruct the history of the excavations. He introduced new concepts for the first time about context, emphasising direct observation of ancient buildings in their landscape or in their historical and archaeological complex. In seven years at Stabiae La Vega resumed excavations in some villas already partially excavated, the Villa del Pastore, Villa Arianna and Second Complex and extended research to a large number of villae rusticae in the \"ager stabianus\" and made precise reports. However he could not persuade the court to keep excavated buildings exposed and avoid their backfilling, so excavation of Stabiae continued with the usual technique of digging and backfilling. The location of Stabiae was again widely forgotten. In 1950 when Libero D'Orsi, an enthusiastic amateur, brought to light some rooms of Villa San Marco and Villa Arianna with the help of the maps from the Bourbon excavations, and also Villa Petraro, a \"domus\" found by chance in 1957 but then reburied after a few years of study. He also found parts of a residential area of the city about 300 m from Villa San Marco including remains of houses, shops, parts of the macellum to which roads from the port converged. These remains were again reburied. News of the finds quickly attracted important visitors and nobility from all over Europe. Some of the most important frescoes were detached to allow better conservation and almost 9000 finds collected were housed locally. His work finally stopped in 1962 following lack of funds.", "Among the many villas found at Stabiae are firstly large leisure villas (\"villa otium\") without agricultural buildings such as: and secondly residential villas with agricultural sections (\"villa rustica\") such as:", "One of the largest villas ever discovered in Campania it measured more than 11,000 sq. m, although only half has been excavated. It was being renovated at the time of the eruption as shown by building materials present and displaced artefacts. Nevertheless, it was lavishly decorated with frescoes, with stucco work, floor mosaics and wall mosaics all of very high artistic quality and many of which were removed and are now held in museums. This villa derived its name from a nearby chapel that existed in the 18th century, was the first to be explored in the excavations in Bourbon times between 1749 and 1754. The villa was re-buried after the removal of its furnishings and of the better-preserved frescoes. Excavations were resumed in 1950 by Libero d’Orsi and O. Elia of the Archaeological Superintendency. The villa was built at least in part on a 6th c. BC platform that may have levelled the ground on the hill. Construction started at the latest in Augustus' reign and was significantly enlarged with the garden and swimming pool under Claudius. The owner's name is not exactly known but it could belong to a certain Narcissus, a freedman, on the basis of stamps found on tiles, or to the Virtii family who had tombs not far away. It has an entrance atrium (44) containing a pool, a triclinium (16) with views of the bay, and several colonnaded", "Named for the fresco depicting Dionysus saving Ariadne from the island of Dia (a mythological name for Naxos), this villa is particularly famous for its frescoes, many of which depict light, winged figures. It is the oldest \"villa d'otium\" in Stabiae, dating back to the 2nd century BC. The villa was extended over the course of 150 years. It is skilfully designed so that the residential quarters take advantage of the panorama along the ridge overlooking the Bay of Naples. It occupies an area of about 11000 sqm. of which only 2500 have been excavated. Some of the rooms were lost as a result of landslides on the slope. Another feature is its private tunnel system that links the villa from its location on the ridge to the sea shore, which was probably only between 100 and 200 metres away from the bottom of the hill in Roman times. The shoreline has since changed, leaving the site further inland than it was in antiquity. It was first excavated between 1757 and 1762 when the villa was called the \"first complex\" to distinguish it from the \"second complex\", from which it is separated by a narrow alley. The excavations were resumed by D'Orsi in 1950. In 2008 the large peristyle, one of the largest of any Roman villa at 370m in length, was brought to light almost completely, along with new rooms, columns and windows.", "It has a complex plan, the result of several expansions of the building and was conveniently divided into four sections: the atrium, the thermal baths, the triclinium and the peristyle. The \"Tuscan\" atrium, dating back to the late Republican age, is paved with white-black mosaic and has wall frescoes, often female figures and palmettes on a black and red background attributable to the \"third style\". At the centre of the atrium is an impluvium while all around are numerous rooms: two of these, placed at the ends of the entrance of the atrium, preserve decorations that imitate architectures such as Ionic columns that support the coffered ceiling belonging the second style. In the other rooms the most important frescoes of all of Stabiae were found, all removed in the Bourbon era and preserved in the museum of Naples. They include the Flora or \"Primavera\" found in 1759; it has a size of only 38x22 cm and dates to the first century BC: the fresco represents the Greek nymph Flora, understood by the Romans as the goddess of Spring, turning round in the act of collecting a flower, an allegory", "The so-called Second Complex is a \"villa otium\" located on the edge of the Varano hill between the Villa del Pastore and Villa Arianna and separated by a narrow alley from the latter which because of its proximity is often confused as the same villa. The site was explored for the first time in 1762 by Karl Weber, in 1775 by Peter la Vega and finally in 1967 by Libero D'Orsi: only about 1000 sq. m has been brought to light. The villa consists of two areas, the oldest around the peristyle which was built around the first century BC", "\"Villa of the Shepherd\" in English, this villa gets its name from a small statue of a shepherd that was discovered at this site. The villa, at 19,000 square metres area, is one of the very largest ever discovered and is even larger than Villa San Marco with many rooms, large baths and luxurious gardens. It lacks, however, any domestic rooms suggesting that it may not have been a residence. One hypothesis is that it is instead a \"valetudinarium\" (health spa) to allow people to take advantage of the famous spring waters of Stabiae. The villa stands on the edge of the plateau Varano with a panoramic view, a short distance from Villa Arianna. It was explored three times: its discovery dates back to 1754 to 1759 when Karl Weber brought to light a large garden; the second campaign under Peter la Vega was carried out between 1775 and 1778; the third and final exploration dates to 1967–68 when the villa was rediscovered following the discovery of a perimeter wall after removal of a layer of lapilli on agricultural land. This excavation was funded by the landowner and the superintendent of the time tried to expropriate church land in the area between Villa Arianna and Villa San Marco", "This (also called Villa del Fauno or Villa Chapel San Marco) is a \"villa otium\" situated on the border between Castellammare di Stabia and Gragnano, a few metres from Villa San Marco and on the Varano plateau. It was the first Stabian villa to be excavated during the Bourbon excavations of the ancient town in 1749 and was explored again by Karl Weber in 1779. After being investigated and plundered of all items considered of value it was left buried. The site was lost until 2006 when a group of volunteers clearing the Varano ridge witnessed a landslide which brought to light various structures, including a doorway and the hinge of a door. After the initial enthusiasm and initiatives to recover the remains, lack of funds has led to villa becoming overgrown again. Most of what is known of the villa derives from the descriptions of the Bourbons. In the southwest corner of a small peristyle were the remains of a lararium, in the niche of which was of a young", "The villa is located on Via Cupa S. Marco, Petraro, on the border with Santa Maria la Carità. The villa was on the Sarno plain, a wooded area close to the Roman paved road between Stabia and Nuceria. It was discovered in 1957 during industrial lapilli extraction and its exploration continued until 1958, followed by Libero D'Orsi, when after stripping it of frescoes and the best artworks it was reburied. It comprised an estate with a working farm dating from before AD 14. When the eruption struck it was being renovated and being converted to a \"villa otium\", as evidenced by heaps of", "The villa was one of two nearby in Carmiano, Gragnano, excavated by Libero D'Orsi from 1963 but re-buried in 1998. Many fine frescoes were found and removed for preservation. It is a rustic villa of the \"ager stabianus\" located just under a kilometre from the plateau of Varano. It has an area of 400 square metres and dates from the end of the 1st c. BC. The quality of the paintings indicates that the owner was a wealthy farmer. The most important works come from the triclinium such", "This is a \"villa rustica\" in Casa Salese in the upper part of Sant'Antonio Abate and was in the extreme limit of the \"ager stabianus\" on the border with Pompeii and Nuceria. It was discovered in 1974 and provided important information on Roman life: having never been excavated before, not even by the Bourbons, it contained a great", "Named after its locality, it was explored by la Vega in 1781-2. The villa has a rectangular plan with a courtyard in the centre with six columns frescoed in red, a dolium, a well and a basin with a canal that served as a drinking trough for animals. From the courtyard there are", "It was found in 1778 and owes its name to the discovery of a ring adorned with a carved cornelian depicting the bust of a philosopher. The villa had not been disturbed since the eruption in 79 and many portable objects were found including the ring and an ivory needle with Venus, agricultural tools, terracotta objects, candelabra, bronze vases and the skeleton of a horse.", "The villa Marchetti located in Santa Maria La Carità was a very large villa, over 2000 sqm. where, in addition to the cultivation of grapes (wooden poles were found for the vineyard), horses and cattle were bred, cereals were grown, and the production", "The part of the villa shown in red was excavated in 1762 while the rest was done in", "This is a \"villa rustica\" excavated in 1779 - 80 and is near the \"villas of otium\" of ancient Stabia. It is divided into residential and the rustic areas; the living area consists of an entrance portico with three columns, in which a staircase leads to the upper floor and divides the entrance from a small \"atrium\". Around", "The almost total absence of temples in the central Stabiae area suggests that these were most likely razed to the ground during the occupation of Sulla: however, some remains suggest the presence of various sacred structures such as a temple dedicated to Hercules, Diana, Athena, Cybele and most importantly the Genius Stabianum. The temple of Hercules was located on the rock of Rovigliano (\"Petra Herculis\"), a limestone islet about 200 metres from the coast. The name Rovigliano derives either from an ancient Roman family name, the gens Rubilia or from the consul Rubelio, owner of the rock, or from the Latin term \"robilia\" the leguminous plants which grew abundantly in the ager area. Few traces of the temple of Hercules remain nut include a wall in opus reticulatum and a bronze statue representing Hercules, which has since been", "Several necropoleis have been identified and explored in the area of Ager Stabianus, in particular those along the roads that to Pompeii, Nocera and Sorrento." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background and production.", "Composition.", "Style and inspirations.", "Songs.", "Release and promotion.", "Singles.", "Tours.", "Critical reception.", "Accolades.", "Commercial performance.", "Legacy.", "Personnel.", "Certifications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In early 2004, Clarkson began working on new material for her second studio album, which followed her successful debut album \"Thankful\" (2003), while co-headlining the Independent Tour with Clay Aiken, the runner-up from the second season of \"American Idol\". She had also expressed intentions to record with Fantasia Barrino, who had then just won the series' third season; both were expected to release their albums in the same month. As she began to work for the album with music executive Clive Davis, Clarkson was invited by Whitney Houston to record the song \"Breakaway\", which would be included for the soundtrack of the 2004 Walt Disney Pictures feature film \"\", which Houston had co-produced. The song, written by Matthew Gerrard, Bridget Benenate, and Avril Lavigne, was initially written for Lavigne's debut album \"Let Go\" (2002) but deemed unsuitable for the album's themes at the time. Initially reluctant, Clarkson agreed to record the song. \"Breakaway\" was first released in July 2004 by Walt Disney Records as a single from the soundtrack, acting as an interim record until her second album's lead single was released. After debuting on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart at number 60, it peaked at number six, a week before the album's release. In April 2004, Clarkson entered the studio immediately after the Independent Tour. She said in an interview, \"I've written most of (the songs) so far, but there's some people who have some stuff for me. I'm not one of those people who thinks you have to write everything. (I'll sing it) as long as I can relate to it.\" During the album's development, Davis revealed that he was reluctant to let Clarkson write material for the album. He revealed, \"I always encourage people to write their own songs, but in the pop arena, where the career is totally dependent on hits, you get skeptical. Artists with great voices like Melissa Manchester and Taylor Dayne could have had much longer careers if they didn't insist on writing their own material.\" Clarkson reiterates that she's been writing songs since her teens, but rather than argue over labels or abilities, the two reached a détente—she would co-write half the album, with the other half being penned by other songwriters and producers. She said, \"I just think it's funny that all these middle-age guys told me, 'You don't know how a pop song needs to sound.' I'm a 23-year-old girl! But I was fighting those battles alone.\" In February 2004, Clarkson met with musicians Ben Moody and David Hodges, who had just departed from their band Evanescence in late 2003. She said, \"I didn't know that he (Moody) wasn't with Evanescence anymore,\" Clarkson said. \"I just really liked their vibe and I thought it might be cool to work with one of them. So I just randomly asked people I work with, 'Hey, do you think that he'd work with me?' And then I found out that he kind of split and that's what he's doing... so it worked out perfectly.\" Moody recalled, \"It's cool because she wants to do some branching out, and I'm doing nothing but branching out, we got together and she had all these songs in mind of what she wanted to do. It's just a really, really cool process for me, because everybody is a new experience. Everybody works differently.\" Worried of Clarkson being continually typecast as a talent show winner, Davis met with various producers, primarily Max Martin, and encouraged them to produce records for Clarkson in a pop rock direction. Clarkson revealed that she expected that she'll always be labeled as an \"American Idol\" winner; she remarked, \"I'm the first one, so it's going to be on my grave, I'm aware of that. (There's no getting away from it) so why even try?\" Upon their meeting, Martin presented songs he wrote with Dr. Luke. These songs include \"Since U Been Gone\" and a demo version of what would have been \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\". Davis wanted Clarkson to record the songs, describing them having \"a sharp rock edge but were still capable of being pop hits. They would push Kelly in a promising direction for her, while maintaining and even growing her audience.\" Martin insisted that the songs should be given to rock acts, wanting to stray from his reputation for producing pop singles for the Backstreet Boys and Britney Spears in the 1990s. Davis recalled, \"Max was looking to move on from what he had done with Backstreet Boys, and I really spent time convincing them that an \"American Idol\" winner could bring all the feeling and passion that was required to the song.\" Martin and Dr. Luke eventually agreed and invited Clarkson to travel to Sweden to record the songs. Upon hearing the tracks, Clarkson was skeptical of the pop elements; and the three eventually decided to develop a rock sound, a move Clarkson claimed Davis did not approve. Davis reiterated that he was ecstatic with the prospect, claiming that she disliked it and demanded that both the songs be removed from the album. Clarkson then asserted that she wanted it to be on the record and claimed that Davis had detested \"Because of You\" instead, saying that she \"was a shitty writer (\"sic\") who should be grateful for the gifts that he bestows upon her\". Davis reiterated that he loved the song and felt that Clarkson could indeed write hits.", "", "Wanting to stray away from the R&B-styled music of \"Thankful\", which she described as a showcase of versatility, she revealed that \"Thankful\"s success \"empowered me to step more into rock, step more into the soulful vibe.\" She described the music of the second album as \"like the first CD in the sense that it's versatile, but it's more into the rock, It's more into the soulful roots, and it's just a little bit deeper, so it's pretty cool.\" Dr. Luke revealed in an interview that alternative music and indie music were inspirations to \"Since U Been Gone\", saying, \"That was a conscious move by Max [Martin] and myself, because we were listening to alternative and indie music and talking about some song-I don't remember what it was. I said, 'Ah, I love this song,' and Max was like, 'If they would just write a damn pop chorus on it!' It was driving him nuts, because that indie song was sort of on six, going to seven, going to eight, the chorus comes... and it goes back down to five. It drove him crazy. And when he said that, it was like, light bulb. 'Why don't we do that, but put a big chorus on it?' It worked.\" Songs such as \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\", and \"Because of You\" were also inspired by her real life experiences, the former about her relationship with an ex-boyfriend and the latter about her experience after her parents' divorce.", "Clarkson shares writing credits on six songs from \"Breakaway\". \"Breakaway\" was included as the album's opening and title track. She described it as a simple song, and further explained, \"I think that it's simplicity is what's beautiful about it. Whenever writers or producers come to work with me, they take advantage of the fact that I can really belt it out. What's cool about 'Breakaway' is that it doesn't take advantage of that. The song just uses the simplicity of my voice. I've done country music, I've done pop, I've done gospel... all of my singles have sounded different. But this song was different from everything I've done; people didn't even know it was me!\" Written by Max Martin and Dr. Luke, Clarkson described the second track \"Since U Been Gone\", as \"not as \"smooth\" as pop or R&B. Clarkson said of the track, the very last to be recorded for the album, \"It's very emotional. Vocally, it can be a lot more challenging, but is very fun to play live.\" Written by Clarkson, Dr. Luke, and Martin, the third track, \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\", was the last song she had co-written for the album. She recalled, \"I wrote 'Behind These Hazel Eyes' about my last boyfriend. It's the last song I wrote for the album, I almost didn't make the deadline.\" The fourth track, \"Because of You\", was originally intended for \"Thankful\". Clarkson wrote a draft of the song after a late night talk with a friend who had hard time with her family, with Moody and Hodges providing additional writing. \"Gone\", the fifth track, was written by Kara DioGuardi and John Shanks. Clarkson admits she cannot relate thoroughly to the song, but felt that it should be heard nonetheless. The sixth track, \"Addicted\", was written by Clarkson, Ben Moody, and David Hodges. Clarkson revealed that the song was inspired by the songs featured on Evanescence's debut album \"Fallen\" (2003). She remarked, \"I wanted to work with someone as passionate about music as I am. And then I heard that Evanescence record... I loved their record because of the passion behind it. Clarkson co-wrote the seventh track, \"Where Is Your Heart\", with DioGuardi and Chantal Kreviazuk. She revealed that it was also about her boyfriend, Hodges, whom she described as \"wanting to get really into our relationship, and I just thought, 'Where are you in our relationship?'\" \"Walk Away\", the eight track, was also written by the three, with additional writing by Raine Maida. Clarkson described it as \"one of the brighter songs\" on \"Breakaway\", and said that \"It's very blunt and to the point. 'I'm done with you, you're upsetting me.'\" DioGuardi and Shanks co-wrote the ninth track, \"You Found Me\". Clarkson revealed, \"When I recorded this one, I was actually in a good place with a guy. It was very fitting at the time that I recorded it.\" DioGuardi had also co-written the tenth track, \"I Hate Myself for Losing You\", with Jimmy Harry and Shep Solomon. Clarkson described the song as \"depressing\", but felt it could be used as a foreshadowing device. She explained \"I read something that Sting said in an interview, he talked about how the great thing about writing is that it is an emotional and therapeutic thing and you can get it out.\" The eleventh track, \"Hear Me\", was written by Clarkson, DioGuardi, and Clif Magness. Clarkson explained the song, \"The song is almost like a prayer to God. I haven't met the person whom I will spend the rest of my life with, but the song is a prayer to God about that. That's what the song is. 'God, I'm ready for 'the one!'\" The twelfth and closing track is a live recording of \"Beautiful Disaster\", originally from \"Thankful\". Clarkson admitted that she hated \"Thankful\"s version of the song, and thought the production was distracting from the lyrics. So she decided to record a piano ballad version instead.", "\"Breakaway\" was first released in North America on November 30, 2004 by RCA Records, 19 Recordings, and S Records, following an influx of releases by \"American Idol\" contestants Clay Aiken, Ruben Studdard, and Fantasia Barrino. \"The New York Times\" columnist Jeff Leeds noted that the releases could benefit from the holiday season, but \"it could also hinder their efforts to establish themselves as recording artists with distinctive personalities and the legitimacy needed for long careers.\" Clive Davis reiterated that the release was intended to recede from their ties from \"American Idol\", saying, \"I'm not interested in merely souvenir sales\". The album was titled \"Breakaway\" to capitalize on the success of \"The Princess Diaries 2: Royal Engagement\" soundtrack single \"Breakaway\", which was also reissued as the album's final single. Immediately before the album was released, Clarkson left 19 Management, dismissed Fuller as her manager, and quickly hired the managing services of Jeff Kwatinetz of The Firm, though still contracted to 19 Recordings. A promotion plan was created for Clarkson for \"Breakaway\"s release. Davis positioned her to be RCA's top global priority, and at the recommendation of The Firm, removed \"American Idol\" from her official biography. Rather than being booked on arenas for her tour, Kwatinetz booked Clarkson for smaller amphitheaters to hone her performance skills. He remarked, \"\"American Idol\" gave her a lot of exposure that allowed her to skip some steps in her development, and that's hazardous.\" \"Breakaway\" was first released internationally on January 3, 2005 by the Bertelsmann Music Group (now Sony Music Entertainment), and was released in the United Kingdom on July 18, 2005 by RCA. In November 2005, a special edition CD+DVD was released, containing additional bonus tracks and music videos. Clarkson, along with Studdard and Barrino, hosted a television musical special on the Fox Broadcasting Company entitled \"Kelly, Ruben & Fantasia: Home for Christmas\" on November 25, 2004. On the eve of \"Breakaway\"s release, she performed \"Since U Been Gone\" on \"The Tonight Show with Jay Leno\". In February 2005, she appeared on \"Saturday Night Live\" to perform \"Since U Been Gone\" and \"Breakaway\". In September 2005, she appeared on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" and performed \"Breakaway\" as well as \"Because of You\". Clarkson also performed in award ceremonies and events; she performed \"Since U Been Gone\" on the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards at the American Airlines Arena and on the 2006 BRIT Awards at the Earls Court. She performed \"Because of You\" on the 48th Annual Grammy Awards at the Staples Center and on the 15th Echo Awards at the Estrel Berlin.", "\"Breakaway\"s lead single, \"Since U Been Gone\", was released in November 2004, but gained traction at the beginning of 2005. After debuting at number seventy, it peaked on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 at number two, and stayed in the chart's top ten for 20 weeks. Despite a number two peak, \"Since U Been Gone\" remains as Clarkson's most successful single on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, outpacing even her number one hits on the chart. It also topped nine other \"Billboard\" charts, including the \"Billboard\" Mainstream Top 40 and the \"Billboard\" Dance/Mix Show Airplay, and became a successful hit around the world. The second single, \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\", was released in April 2005 and continued the chart success. After debuting at number 87 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, it peaked at number six while \"Since U Been Gone\" was still in the top ten. It stayed on the chart's top ten for 15 weeks, and also became an international hit. The third single, \"Because of You\", released in August 2005, performed successfully along with its predecessors, peaking at number seven on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. While \"Since U Been Gone\" became \"Breakaway\"s most successful release in the United States, \"Because of You\" became the album's most successful release internationally. It topped the Dutch Top 40 chart in the Netherlands, the Schweizer Hitparade chart in Switzerland, the Tracklisten Airplay chart in Denmark and became a number one single on the \"Billboard\" European Hot 100 Singles chart; while also attaining a top ten position in nine regions. The follow-up track, \"Walk Away\", was released in January 2006 as \"Breakaway\"s fourth single and its final release in the United States. After debuting at number 97, it peaked at number 12 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, and became a top forty hit internationally. Originally released as a single from \"The Princess Diaries 2: Royal Engagement\" soundtrack in July 2004, the title track \"Breakaway\" was reissued as the album's fifth and final single in May 2006. After peaking on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 at number six, it became a top twenty hit internationally.", "From 2005 to 2006, Clarkson embarked on three concert tours to promote \"Breakaway\": the Hazel Eyes Tour, the Breakaway World Tour, and the Addicted Tour. The Hazel Eyes tour took place in various theaters throughout North America, with the concert at UCF Arena being streamed live on AOL and AOL Radio. The Breakaway World Tour, which took place in between the Hazel Eyes Tour, marked Clarkson's first world tour, visiting theaters and arenas throughout Europe and Oceania. Upon returning to the United States, she then embarked on the Addicted Tour, performing at various amphitheaters across North America.", "The album received positive reviews from music critics. AllMusic senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine, who gave it four out of five stars, wrote \"what gives \"Breakaway\" its spine are the driving, anthemic pop tunes, numbers that sound simultaneously mainstream and youthful, which is a hard trick to pull off\" and describing the tracks as the ones that illustrate Clarkson as a rare thing in the 2000s: \"a pop singer who's neither hip nor square, just solidly and enjoyably in the mainstream.\" Sputnikmusic's Dave Donnelly gave it a \"4\" rating, remarking that \"\"Breakaway\" is not a \"Thriller\" to her \"Off The Wall\" by no means, but she has at least created a rare type of album: a one that offers a full selection of potential singles, reminiscent of Michael Jackson's \"Bad\" or \"Thriller\", which he described as having a mass appeal with artistic integrity and perceived longevity. \"Breakaway\" may be remembered in years to come as a pop classic, alongside Madonna's early material perhaps.\" Raymond Fiore of \"Entertainment Weekly\" gave the album a \"B\" rating, noting its rock direction and describing it as \"Avril-meets-Evanescence, with a splash of Pat Benatar.\" Sal Cinquemani of \"Slant Magazine\" gave \"Breakaway\" a three-and-a-half star rating and commented that \"though her rocky leanings were hinted at on the less coherent \"Thankful\", Clarkson had always cited Mariah Carey as a primary influence and that she still owes a lot to that former powerhouse artist.\" Furthering describing it as \"what Mariah might sound like if she ever decided to rock out.\" Charles Merwin wrote for \"Stylus Magazine\" that the album's probable non-singles still maintain a quality \"high enough to quell worries about the \"I love the singles, but that's all I really need to hear\" arguments.\" He described Clarkson as ranking some where at the top of her class as far as rock albums go among the teen pop set, saying that she \"has a long way to go before we'll ever feel comfortable calling her anything besides an \"American Idol\", but for now she has a sound that seems believable enough to support her considerable chops.\" In a quick review, \"Billboard\" described \"Breakaway\" as a \"rare exhibition of substance over style\". Some critics, however, were less impressed by the album. Shirley Halperin of \"Rolling Stone\" offered a mixed review by giving the album a three-star rating and saying \"Clarkson isn't ready for her new sound.\" She asked, \"You can't help but wonder, Who is the real Kelly Clarkson, and when will she stop wearing her big sister's hand-me-downs?\" Caroline Sullivan of \"The Guardian\" gave it a two-star rating, saying that \"the title track expresses Clarkson's novel desire to \"spread my wings and learn to fly\", but settles into a catchy enough rut at times.\"", "\"Breakaway\" received various accolades from several music industry awards. It won Grammy Awards for Best Pop Vocal Album and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for \"Since U Been Gone\" at the 49th ceremony, marking the first time Clarkson won a Grammy Award. The album was also nominated for a Juno Award for International Album of the Year at the 36th Juno Awards. In the 2005 American Music Awards, \"Breakaway\" received four nominations, including Favorite Pop/Rock Album, and earned Clarkson two awards for Artist of the Year and Favorite Adult Contemporary Artist. In addition, Clarkson won the award for Favorite Pop/Rock Female Artist at the 2006 American Music Awards. The album also earned her twelve nominations at the 2005 Billboard Music Awards, nine of which she won. At the 2005 Teen Choice Awards, \"Breakaway\" won four awards, including a Choice Album award. At the TMF Awards, the album enabled Clarkson to win three awards, including a Best Pop Artist and a Best Female Artist award. \"Breakaway\" also appeared on decade-end best-of lists. \"Newsweek\" ranked it as the ninth best album of the 2000s. \"Entertainment Weekly\" ranked it as the 29th of the 100 best albums from 1988 to 2008. \"Rolling Stone\" ranked it as the 11th top album in their decade-end reader's poll.", "\"Breakaway\" is currently Clarkson's most successful release to date, with sales of over 12 million copies worldwide. On the week ending December 18, 2004, the album debuted at number three on the \"Billboard\" 200 album chart in the United States with 250,000 copies sold, which were 47,000 less than her first week sales of \"Thankful\". Music commercial analysts noted that Clarkson's commercial appeal has endured beyond \"American Idol\", but also commented on its slumping performance. \"Billboard\" director Geoff Mayfield noted the lackluster performance may have been caused by being released in a competitive holiday market. Despite failing to top the chart, the record stayed on the top twenty of the \"Billboard\" 200 for 61 consecutive weeks, and became the first title in five years to spend its entire year in the top twenty of the chart. By the end of 2005, \"Breakaway\" became the year's third best-selling album in the United States, according to Nielsen Soundscan. It was certified 6× multi-platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on May 23, 2007, and as of September 2017, it has sold over 6,355,000 copies in the United States, becoming her best-selling record in the region. \"Breakaway\" has also enjoyed commercial success internationally; it became her first album to chart in over nineteen regions. By the end of 2005, the album became the world's seventh best-selling release of the year according to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry. In the United Kingdom, it debuted on the Official UK Albums Chart at number ten with 17,631 copies. At the beginning of 2006, the album ascended to number three on the chart. As of 2012, it has sold over 1,571,278 copies in the region. In Australia, \"Breakaway\" debuted on the ARIA Albums Chart at number twenty-nine, and also spent its entire year on the top fifty, peaking at number two. In Ireland, the album debuted on the IRMA Artist Albums chart at number twenty-one, and topped the chart in 2006. Together with the Australian Recording Industry Association, the Irish Recorded Music Association certified the record as 7× multi-platinum, its highest certification overall. In the Netherlands, the album debuted on the Mega Album Top 100 at number forty-seven and topped the chart for three weeks. Additionally, \"Breakaway\" peaked in the top five in the national charts of Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Greece, New Zealand, Portugal, and Switzerland; and has attained top twenty positions in six additional regions worldwide.", "Music commercial analysts reported that Clarkson attained a commercial appeal on her own with \"Breakaway\", despite their initial skepticism of her establishing prominence beyond \"American Idol\". Clive Davis recalled that \"with the songs \"Since U Been Gone\" and \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\", we were able to take Clarkson to a major seller of albums all over the world where they had never even heard of \"American Idol\".\" According to Mediabase, which monitors radio station airplay in North America, Clarkson was the most played artist on the radio in 2006. David Corey, program director of WXKS-FM, described the feat as \"very rare\". Just before the release of her third studio album, Davis also stated that she was one of the top four artists at Sony BMG. According to \"Seattle Post-Intelligencer\", \"the turning point for \"Idol\"s credibility may have been the success of Clarkson's sophomore album, released in 2004. While her first album, released soon after her win on \"Idol,\" was a platinum success, it only generated two hit singles and her success seemed tied into her newfound fame. But her hard-rocking second disc, which contained smashes like \"Since U Been Gone\" and the ballad \"Because of You,\" garnered her critical acclaim and made her a bonafide success apart from \"Idol\".\" \"Billboard\" credits Clarkson for landscaping the core sound of mainstream pop music in the 2000s to an uptempo dance-oriented sound with the release of \"Since U Been Gone\" and the singles that followed it. The album's producers also came into prominence due to the album's success. Dr. Luke, who was the house band lead guitarist for \"Saturday Night Live\" at the time of \"Breakaway\"s release, has credited \"Since U Been Gone\" as his first big break. Max Martin, who had already found major success as a music producer in the 1990s and early 2000s with, among others, Britney Spears, Backstreet Boys and NSYNC, achieved more prominence due to the success of \"Since U Been Gone\" and \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\". \"Breakaway\"s critical acclaim also enabled Clarkson to also earn critical respect, particularly from the rock and indie music scene, who had looked down upon \"American Idol\" contestants. In his memoir, Davis recalled a meeting with Simon Fuller and Sony BMG President Charles Goldstuck, where Fuller acknowledged how the worldwide success of \"Breakaway\" had validated \"American Idol\" itself. The popularity of \"Since U Been Gone\" among the rock community also resulted in various cover versions by rock acts, such as A Day to Remember, Ted Leo, and Tokyo Police Club. Clarkson herself recalled, \"It's ridiculous how well that song was received by hard rockers, by indie people. I was walking around with a friend of mine and this hard-rock guy came up to me and was like, 'I look stupid, but I tell my friends I love this song.' People at concerts are like, 'That's my guilty pleasure. I don't mean to be mean, but I didn't want to like the \"American Idol\" girl.' But they love that song, and it kind of won them over.\"", "Adapted from AllMusic.", "! scope=\"row\" | Indonesia (ASIRI) ! scope=\"row\" | Singapore (RIAS)! scope=\"row\" | South Africa (RISA)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Aircraft designer.", "Life in the United States.", "Personal life.", "Legacy.", "Philosophical and religious views." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Igor Sikorsky was born in Kiev, Russian Empire (now Ukraine). He was the youngest of five children. His father, Ivan Alexeevich Sikorsky, was a professor of psychology of Saint Vladimir University (now Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv), a psychiatrist with an international reputation, and an ardent Russian nationalist. Igor Sikorsky was an Orthodox Christian. When questioned regarding his roots, he would answer: \"My family is of Russian origin. My grandfather and other ancestors from the time of Peter the Great were Russian Orthodox priests.\" Sikorsky's mother, Mariya Stefanovna Sikorskaya (née Temryuk-Cherkasova), was a physician who did not work professionally. She is sometimes called Zinaida Sikorsky. While homeschooling young Igor, she gave him a great love for art, especially in the life and work of Leonardo da Vinci, and the stories of Jules Verne. In 1900, at age 11, he accompanied his father to Germany and through conversations with his father, became interested in natural sciences. After returning home, Sikorsky began to experiment with model flying machines, and by age 12, he had made a small rubber band-powered helicopter. Sikorsky began studying at the Saint Petersburg Maritime Cadet Corps, in 1903, at the age of 14. In 1906, he determined that his future lay in engineering, so he resigned from the academy, despite his satisfactory standing, and left the Russian Empire to study in Paris. He returned to the Russian Empire in 1907, enrolling at the Mechanical College of the Kyiv Polytechnic Institute. After the academic year, Sikorsky again accompanied his father to Germany in the summer of 1908, where he learned of the accomplishments of the Wright brothers' Flyer and Ferdinand von Zeppelin's rigid airships. Sikorsky later said about this event: \"Within twenty-four hours, I decided to change my life's work. I would study aviation.\" By the start of World War I in 1914, Sikorsky's airplane research and production business in Kiev was flourishing, and his factory made bombers during the war. After the Bolshevik revolution began in 1917, Igor Sikorsky fled his homeland, because the new government threatened to shoot him. He moved to France where he was offered a contract for the design of a new, more powerful Muromets-type plane. But in November 1918 the war ended and the French government stopped subsidizing military orders, he decided to move to the United States. On March 24, 1919 he left France on the ocean liner \"Lorraine\" arriving in New York City on March 30, 1919.", "With financial backing from his sister Olga, Sikorsky returned to Paris, the center of the aviation world at the time, in 1909. Sikorsky met with aviation pioneers, to ask them questions about aircraft and flying. In May 1909, he returned to Russia and began designing his first helicopter, which he began testing in July 1909. Despite his progress in solving technical problems of control, Sikorsky realized that the aircraft would never fly. He finally disassembled the aircraft in October 1909, after he determined that he could learn nothing more from the design. I had learned enough to recognize that with the existing state of the art, engines, materials, and – most of all – the shortage of money and lack of experience... I would not be able to produce a successful helicopter at that time. Sikorsky's first aircraft of his own design, the S-1 used a 15 hp Anzani 3-cylinder fan engine in a pusher configuration, that could not lift the aircraft. His second design called the S-2 was powered by a 25 hp Anzani engine in a tractor configuration and first flew on June 3, 1910 at a height of a few feet. On June 30 after some modifications, Sikorsky reached an altitude of \"sixty or eighty feet\" before the S-2 stalled and was completely destroyed when it crashed in a ravine. Later, Sikorsky built the two-seat S-5, his first design not based on other European aircraft. Flying this original aircraft, Sikorsky earned his pilot license; Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) license No. 64 issued by the Imperial Aero Club of Russia in 1911. During a demonstration of the S-5, the engine quit and Sikorsky was forced to make a crash landing to avoid a wall. It was discovered that a mosquito in the gasoline had been drawn into the carburetor, starving the engine of fuel. The close call convinced Sikorsky of the need for an aircraft that could continue flying if it lost an engine. His next aircraft, the S-6 held three passengers and was selected as the winner of the Moscow aircraft exhibition held by the Russian Army in February 1912. In early 1912, Igor Sikorsky became Chief Engineer of the aircraft division for the Russian Baltic Railroad Car Works (\"Russko-Baltiisky Vagonny Zavod\" or \"R-BVZ\") in Saint Petersburg. His work at R-BVZ included the construction of the first four-cylinder aircraft, the S-21 \"Russky Vityaz\", which he initially called \"Le Grand\" when fitted with just two engines, then as the \"Bolshoi Baltisky\" (The Great Baltic) when fitted with four engines for the first time, each wing panel's pair of powerplants in a \"push-pull\" tandem configuration previous to the four tractor-engined \"Russki Vityaz\". He also served as the test pilot for its first flight on May 13, 1913. In recognition for his accomplishment, he was awarded an honorary degree in engineering from Saint Petersburg Polytechnical Institute in 1914. Sikorsky took the experience from building the Russky Vityaz to develop the S-22 \"Ilya Muromets\" airliner. Due to outbreak of World War I, he redesigned it as the world's first four-engined bomber, for which he was decorated with the Order of St. Vladimir. After World War I, Igor Sikorsky briefly became an engineer for the French forces in Russia, during the Russian Civil War. Seeing little opportunity for himself as an aircraft designer in war-torn Europe, and particularly Russia, ravaged by the October Revolution and Civil War, he emigrated to the United States, arriving in New York on March 30, 1919.", "In the U.S., Sikorsky first worked as a school teacher and a lecturer, while looking for an opportunity to work in the aviation industry. In 1932, he joined the faculty of the University of Rhode Island to form an aeronautical engineering program and remained with the university until 1948. He also lectured at the University of Bridgeport. In 1923, Sikorsky formed the Sikorsky Manufacturing Company in Roosevelt, New York. He was helped by several former Russian military officers. Among Sikorsky's chief supporters was composer Sergei Rachmaninoff, who introduced himself by writing a check for US$5,000 (approximately $61,000 in 2007). Although his prototype was damaged in its first test flight, Sikorsky persuaded his reluctant backers to invest another $2,500. With the additional funds, he produced the S-29, one of the first twin-engine aircraft in the US, with a capacity for 14 passengers and a speed of 115 mph. The performance of the S-29, slow compared to military aircraft of 1918, proved to be a \"make or break\" moment for Sikorsky's funding. In 1928, Sikorsky became a naturalized citizen of the United States. The Sikorsky Manufacturing Company moved to Stratford, Connecticut in 1929. It became a part of the United Aircraft and Transport Corporation (now United Technologies Corporation) in July of that year. The company manufactured flying boats, such as the S-42 \"Clipper\", used by Pan Am for transatlantic flights. Meanwhile, Sikorsky also continued his earlier work on vertical flight while living in Nichols, Connecticut. On February 14, 1929, he filed an application to patent a \"direct lift\" amphibian aircraft which used compressed air to power a direct lift \"propeller\" and two smaller propellers for thrust. On June 27, 1931, Sikorsky filed for a patent for another \"direct lift aircraft\", and was awarded patent No. 1,994,488 on March 19, 1935. His design plans eventually culminated in the first (tethered) flight of the Vought-Sikorsky VS-300 on September 14, 1939, with the first free flight occurring eight months later on May 24, 1940. Sikorsky's success with the VS-300 led to the R-4, which became the world's first mass-produced helicopter, in 1942. Sikorsky's final VS-300 rotor configuration, comprising a single main rotor and a single antitorque tail rotor, has proven to be one of the most popular helicopter configurations, being used in most helicopters produced today.", "Sikorsky was married to Olga Fyodorovna Simkovitch in the Russian Empire. They were divorced and Olga remained in Russia with their daughter, Tania, as Sikorsky departed after the October Revolution. In 1923, Sikorsky's sisters immigrated to the US, bringing six-year-old Tania with them. Sikorsky married Elisabeth Semion (1903–1995) in 1924, in New York. Sikorsky and Elisabeth had four sons; Sergei, Nikolai, Igor Jr. and George. Sikorsky died at his home in Easton, Connecticut, on October 26, 1972, and is buried in Saint John the Baptist Russian Orthodox Cemetery located on Nichols Avenue in Stratford.", "In 1966, Sikorsky was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame. Sikorsky's and Andrei Tupolev's professional careers were covered in the 1979 Soviet biopic \"The Poem of Wings\" () where Sikorsky was portrayed by Yury Yakovlev. A working model of Sikorsky Ilya Muromets was recreated for filming. The Sikorsky Memorial Bridge, which carries the Merritt Parkway across the Housatonic River next to the Sikorsky corporate headquarters, is named for him. Sikorsky has been designated a Connecticut Aviation Pioneer by the Connecticut State Legislature. The Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation in Stratford, Connecticut, continues to the present day as one of the world's leading helicopter manufacturers, and a nearby small airport has been named Sikorsky Memorial Airport. Sikorsky was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame and the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 1987. In October 2011, one of the streets in Kiev was renamed after Sikorsky. The decision was made by the City Council at the request of the U.S. Embassy in Ukraine, which opened its new office on that street. The Sikorsky's family house in the city's historical center is preserved to this day but is in a neglected condition pending restoration. In November 2012, one of the Russian supersonic heavy strategic bomber Tu-160, based at the Engels-2 Air Force Base, was named for Igor Sikorsky, which caused controversy among air base crew members. One of the officers said that Igor Sikorsky does not deserve it because he laid the foundations of the U.S., rather than Russian aviation. However, the Long Range Aviation command officer said that Igor Sikorsky is not responsible for the activities of his military aircraft, noted that Sikorsky had also designed the first heavy bomber for Russia. In 2013, \"Flying\" magazine ranked Sikorsky number 12 on its list of the 51 Heroes of Aviation. In August 2016, the National technical university of Ukraine \"Kyiv politechnical institute\" was named \"National Technical University of Ukraine \"Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute\"\" its former student and outstanding aircraft designer. On March 22, 2018 the Kiev City Council officially renamed Kiev International Airport to \"Igor Sikorsky Kyiv International Airport Zhuliany\".", "Sikorsky was a deeply religious Russian Orthodox Christian and authored two religious and philosophical books (\"The Message of the Lord's Prayer\" and \"The Invisible Encounter\"). Summarizing his beliefs, in the latter he wrote:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Climate.", "Transport.", "Sports.", "Public institutions.", "Points of interest." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Garmisch (in the west) and Partenkirchen (in the east) were separate towns for many centuries, and still maintain quite separate identities. Partenkirchen originated as the Roman town of \"Partanum\" on the trade route from Venice to Augsburg and is first mentioned in the year A.D. 15. Its main street, Ludwigsstrasse, follows the original Roman road. Garmisch is first mentioned some 800 years later as \"Germaneskau\" (\"German District\"), suggesting that at some point a Teutonic tribe took up settlement in the western end of the valley. During the late 13th century, the valley, as part of the County of Werdenfels, came under the rule of the prince-bishops of Freising and was to remain so until the mediatization of 1803. The area was governed by a prince-bishop's representative known as a \"Pfleger\" (caretaker or warden) from Werdenfels Castle situated on a crag north of Garmisch. The discovery of America at the turn of the 15th century led to a boom in shipping and a sharp decline in overland trade, which plunged the region into a centuries-long economic depression. The valley floor was swampy and difficult to farm. Bears, wolves and lynxes were a constant threat to livestock. The population suffered from periodic epidemics, including several serious outbreaks of bubonic plague. Adverse fortunes from disease and crop failure occasionally led to a witch hunt. Most notable of these were the trials and executions of 1589–1596, in which 63 people — more than 10 percent of the population at the time — were burned at the stake or garroted. Werdenfels Castle, where the accused were held, tried and executed, became an object of superstitious terror and was abandoned in the 17th century. It was largely torn down in the 1750s and its stones used to build the baroque \"Neue Kirche\" (New Church) on Marienplatz, which was completed in 1752. It replaced the nearby Gothic \"Alte Kirche\" (Old Church), parts of which predated Christianity and may originally have been a pagan temple. Used as a storehouse, armory and haybarn for many years, it has since been re-consecrated. Some of its medieval frescoes are still visible. Garmisch and Partenkirchen remained separate until their respective mayors were forced by Adolf Hitler to combine the two market towns in 1935 in anticipation of the 1936 Winter Olympic games. Today, the united town is casually (but incorrectly) referred to as Garmisch, much to the dismay of Partenkirchen's residents. Most visitors will notice the slightly more modern feel of Garmisch while the fresco-filled, cobblestoned streets of Partenkirchen offer a glimpse into times past. Early mornings and late afternoons in pleasant weather often find local traffic stopped while the dairy cows are herded to and from the nearby mountain meadows. During World War II, Garmisch-Partenkirchen was a major hospital center for the German military. After the war, it was used by the U.S. military as a recreation center for U.S. military men stationed in Europe and their families.", "Garmisch-Partenkirchen leans towards an oceanic climate. It has colder winters than the rest of Bavaria; due to its higher altitude it is very close to the winters associated with continental climates. It has a relatively wet and snowy climate with high precipitation year-round.", "The town is served by the B 2 as a continuation of the A 95 motorway, which ends at Eschenlohe 16 km north of the town. Garmisch-Partenkirchen station is on the Munich–Garmisch-Partenkirchen line and the Mittenwald Railway (Garmisch–Mittenwald–Innsbruck). Regional services run every hour to Munich Central Station (\"München Hauptbahnhof\") and Mittenwald and every two hours to Innsbruck Central Station (\"Innsbruck Hauptbahnhof\") and Reutte. In addition there are special seasonal long-distance services, including ICEs, to Berlin, Hamburg, Dortmund, Bremen and Innsbruck. It is the terminus of the Außerfern Railway to Reutte in Tirol / Kempten im Allgäu and the Bavarian Zugspitze Railway (with sections of rack railway) to the Zugspitze, the highest mountain in Germany. There are several accessible high and low-level hiking trails from the town that have especially good views.", "In 1936 it was the site of the Winter Olympic Games, the first to feature alpine skiing. It later replaced Sapporo, Japan as the host of the 1940 Winter Olympics, but were cancelled due to World War II. Including the two cancelled cities in 1940, it is the only host city chosen during the World Wars that did not host a subsequent Olympics. A variety of Nordic and alpine World Cup ski races are held here, usually on the Kandahar Track outside town. Traditionally, a ski jumping contest is held in Garmisch-Partenkirchen on New Year's Day, as a part of the Four Hills Tournament (\"Vierschanzen-Tournee\"). The World Alpine Ski Championships were held in Garmisch in 1978 and 2011. Garmisch-Partenkirchen is also a favoured holiday spot for skiing, snowboarding, and hiking, having some of the best skiing areas (Garmisch Classic and Zugspitze) in Germany. Garmisch-Partenkirchen was a partner in the city of Munich's bid for the 2018 Winter Olympics but the IOC vote held on 6 July 2011 awarded the Games to Pyeongchang. The Winter Olympics were last held in the German-speaking Alps in 1976 in nearby Innsbruck, Austria.", "The George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies is also located in Garmisch-Partenkirchen. The Marshall Center is an internationally funded and mostly U.S.-staffed learning and conference centre for governments from around the world, but primarily from the former Soviet Union and Eastern European countries. It was established in June 1993, replacing the U.S. Army Russian Institute. Near the Marshall Center is the American Armed Forces Recreation Centers (Edelweiss Lodge and Resort) in Garmisch that serves U.S. and NATO military and their families. A number of U.S. troops and civilians are stationed in the town to provide logistical support to the Marshall Center and Edelweiss Recreation Center. The German Centre for Pediatric and Adolescent Rheumatology, the largest specialized centre for the treatment of children and adolescents with rheumatic diseases in Europe, has been active in Garmisch-Partenkirchen since 1952.", "South of Partenkirchen is the Partnach Gorge, where the Partnach river surges spectacularly through a narrow, gap between high limestone cliffs. The Zugspitze (local name \"Zugspitz\") is south of Garmisch near the village of Grainau. The highest mountain in Germany, it actually straddles the border with Austria. Also overlooking Garmisch-Partenkirchen is Germany's fourth-highest mountain, the Leutasch Dreitorspitze (\"Three-Gate Peak\", a name derived from its triple summit). The King's House on Schachen, a small castle built for Ludwig II of Bavaria, is also located in the mountains south of Garmisch-Partenkirchen. Its grounds contain the Alpengarten auf dem Schachen, an alpine botanical garden." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Terminology.", "Biology.", "Genetics.", "Diet.", "Digestion.", "Reproduction.", "Health.", "Spaying and neutering.", "Vaccinations.", "Declawing.", "Tonic immobility.", "Sore hocks.", "Gastrointestinal stasis.", "Dental problems.", "Respiratory and conjunctival problems.", "Viral diseases.", "Myxomatosis.", "Rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD).", "West Nile virus.", "Wry neck & parasitic fungus.", "Fly strike.", "Breeds.", "As pets.", "House rabbits.", "Care.", "Advantages and disadvantages.", "As livestock.", "Meat rabbits.", "Wool rabbits.", "Fur rabbits.", "Laboratory rabbits.", "Housing.", "Show jumping." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Phoenician sailors visiting the coast of Spain c. 12th century BC, mistaking the European rabbit for a species from their homeland (the rock hyrax \"Procavia capensis\"), gave it the name \"i-shepan-ham\" (land or island of hyraxes). The captivity of rabbits as a food source is recorded as early as the 1st century BC, when the Roman writer Pliny the Elder described the use of rabbit hutches, along with enclosures called \"\". A controversial theory is that a corruption of the rabbit's name used by the Romans became the Latin name for the peninsula, \"Hispania\". In Rome, rabbits were raised in large walled colonies with walls extended underground. According to Pliny, the consumption of unborn and newborn rabbits, called laurices, was considered a delicacy. Evidence for the domestic rabbit is rather late. In the Middle Ages, wild rabbits were often kept for the hunt. Monks in southern France were crossbreeding rabits at least by the 12th century AD. Domestication was probably a slow process that took place from the Roman period (or earlier) until the 1500s.In the 19th century, as animal fancy in general began to emerge, rabbit fanciers began to sponsor rabbit exhibitions and fairs in Western Europe and the United States. Breeds of various domesticated animals were created and modified for the added purpose of exhibition, a departure from the breeds that had been created solely", "Male rabbits are called \"bucks\"; females are called \"does\". An older term for an adult rabbit is \"coney\", while \"rabbit\" once referred only to the young animals. Another term for a young rabbit is \"bunny\", though this term is often", "", "The study of rabbit genetics is of interest to fanciers, the fiber & fur industry, medical researchers, and the meat industry. Among rabbit fanciers, the genetics of rabbit health and diversity are paramount. The fiber & fur industry focuses on the genetics of coat color and hair properties. In the biomedical research community and the pharmaceutical industry, rabbit genetics are important in model organism research, antibody production, and toxicity testing. The meat industry relies on genetics for disease", "As a refinement of the diet of the wild rabbit, the diet of the domestic rabbit is often a function of its purpose. Show rabbits are fed for vibrant health, strong musculoskeletal systems, and—like rabbits intended for the fur trade—optimal coat production and condition. Rabbits intended for the meat trade are fed for swift and efficient production of flesh, while rabbits in research settings have closely controlled diets for specific goals. Nutritional needs of the domestic rabbit may also be focused on developing a physique that allows for the safe delivery of larger litters of healthy kits. Optimizing costs and producing feces that meet local waste regulations may also be factors. The diet of a pet rabbit, too, is geared toward its purpose—as a healthy and long-lived companion. Hay is an essential part of the diet", "Rabbits are hindgut fermenters and therefore have an enlarged cecum. This allows a rabbit to digest, via fermentation, what it otherwise would not be able to metabolically process. After a rabbit ingests food, the food travels down the esophagus and through a small valve called the cardia. In rabbits, this valve is very well pronounced and makes the rabbit incapable of vomiting. The food enters the stomach after passing through the cardia. Food then moves to the stomach and small intestine, where a majority of nutrient extraction and absorption takes place. Food then passes into the colon and eventually into the cecum. Peristaltic muscle contractions (waves of motion) help to separate fibrous and non-fibrous particles. The non-fibrous particles are then moved backwards up the colon, through the illeo-cecal valve, and into the cecum. Symbiotic bacteria in the cecum help to further digest the non-fibrous", "Rabbits have a reputation as prolific breeders, and deservedly so, in part because rabbits reach breeding age quickly. To prevent unwanted offspring and to possibly benefit the rabbit's behavior, rabbits may be spayed or neutered at sexual maturity: 4–5 months for small breeds (e.g., Mini Rex, Netherland Dwarf), 5–6 months for medium-sized breeds (e.g., Rex, New Zealand),", "Disease is rare when rabbits are raised in sanitary conditions and provided with adequate care. Rabbits have fragile bones, especially in their spines, and need support on the belly or bottom when they are picked up. Spayed or neutered rabbits kept indoors with proper care may have a lifespan of 8 to 12 years, with mixed-breed rabbits typically living longer than purebred specimens, and dwarf breeds having longer average lifespans than larger breeds. The world record for longest-lived rabbit is 18 years. Rabbits will gnaw on almost anything, including electrical cords (possibly leading to electrocution), potentially poisonous plants, and material like carpet and fabric that may cause life-threatening intestinal blockages, so areas to which they have access need to be pet-proofed.", "Rabbit fancier organizations and veterinarians recommend that pet rabbits be made infertile by spaying or neutering by a rabbit-experienced veterinarian. Health advantages of surgically altering a rabbit include increased longevity and (for females) a reduced risk of ovarian and uterine cancers", "In most jurisdictions, including the United States (except where required by local animal control ordinances), rabbits do not require vaccination. Vaccinations exist for both rabbit hemorrhagic disease and myxomatosis. These vaccinations are usually given annually, two weeks apart. If there is an outbreak of myxomatosis locally, this vaccine can be administered every six months for extra protection. Myxomatosis immunizations are not available in all", "A rabbit cannot be declawed. Lacking pads on the bottoms of its", "Coping with stress is a key aspect of rabbit behavior, and this can be traced to part of the brain known as ventral tegmental area (VTA). Dopaminergic neurons in this part of the brain release the hormone dopamine. In rabbits, it is released as part of a coping mechanism while in a heightened state of fear or stress, and has", "The formation of open sores on the rabbit's hocks, commonly called \"sore hocks\", is a problem that commonly afflicts mostly heavy-weight rabbits kept in cages with wire flooring or soiled solid flooring. The problem is most prevalent in rex-furred rabbits and heavy-weight rabbits (over ), as well", "Gastrointestinal stasis (GI stasis) is a serious and potentially fatal condition that occurs in some rabbits in which gut motility is severely reduced and possibly completely stopped. When untreated or improperly treated, GI stasis can be fatal in as little as 24 hours. GI stasis is the condition of food not moving through the gut as quickly as normal. The gut contents may dehydrate and compact into a hard, immobile mass (impacted gut), blocking the digestive tract of the rabbit. Food in an immobile gut may also ferment, causing significant gas buildup and resultant gas pain for the rabbit. The first noticeable symptom of GI stasis may be that the rabbit suddenly stops eating. Treatment frequently includes intravenous or subcutaneous fluid therapy (rehydration through injection of a balanced electrolyte solution), pain control, possible careful massage to promote gas expulsion and", "Dental disease has several causes, namely genetics, inappropriate diet, injury to the jaw, infection, or cancer. Signs of", "An over-diagnosed ailment amongst rabbits is respiratory infection, known colloquially as \"snuffles\". \"Pasteurella\", a bacterium, is usually misdiagnosed and this is known to be a factor in the overuse of antibiotics among rabbits. A runny nose, for instance, can have several causes, among those being high temperature or humidity, extreme stress, environmental pollution (like perfume or incense), or a sinus infection. Options for treating this is removing the", "Rabbits are subject to infection by a variety of viruses. Some have had deadly and widespread impact.", "Myxomatosis is a virulent threat to all rabbits but not to humans. The intentional introduction of myxomatosis in rabbit-ravaged Australia killed an estimated 500 million feral rabbits between 1950 and 1952. The Australian government will not allow veterinarians to purchase and use the myxomatosis vaccine", "Rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD), also known as \"viral hemorrhagic disease\" (VHD) or \"rabbit calicivirus disease\" (RCD), is caused by a rabbit-specific calicivirus known as RHDV or RCV. Discovered in 1983, RHD is highly infectious and usually fatal. Initial signs of the disease may be limited to fever and lethargy, until significant internal organ damage results in labored breathing, squealing, bloody mucus, and eventual coma and death. Internally, the infection causes necrosis of the liver and damages other organs, especially the spleen, kidneys, and small intestine. RHD, like", "West Nile virus is another threat to domestic as well as wild rabbits. It is a fatal disease, and while vaccines are available for other species, there are none yet specifically indicated for rabbits.", "Wry neck (or \"head tilt\") is a condition in rabbits that can be fatal, due to the resulting disorientation that causes the animal to stop eating and drinking. Inner ear infections or ear mites, as well as diseases or injuries affecting the brain (including stroke) can lead to wry neck. The most common cause, however, is a parasitic microscopic fungus called \"Encephalitozoon cuniculi\" (\"E.", "Fly strike, or blowfly strike, (\"Lucilia sericata\") is a condition that occurs when flies (particularly botflies) lay their eggs in a rabbit's damp or soiled fur, or in an open wound. Within 12 hours, the eggs hatch into the larval stage of the fly, known as maggots. Initially", "As of 2017, there were at least 305 breeds of domestic rabbit in 70 countries around the world. The American Rabbit Breeders Association currently recognizes 49 rabbit breeds and the British Rabbit Council recognizes 106. Selective breeding has produced rabbits ranging in size from dwarf to giant. Across the world, rabbits are raised as livestock (in \"cuniculture)\" for their meat, pelts, and wool, and", "Rabbits have been kept as pets in Western nations since the 19th century, but because of the destructive history of feral rabbits in Australia, domestic rabbits are illegal as pets in Queensland. Depending upon its size, a rabbit may be considered a type of pocket pet. Rabbits can bond with humans, can learn to follow simple voice commands and to come when called, and are curious and playful. Rabbits do not make good pets for small children because rabbits are fragile and easily injured by rough handling, can bite when hurt or frightened, and are easily frightened by loud noises and sudden motions. With the right guidance, rabbits can be trained to live indoors perfectly. Rabbits are especially popular as pets in the United States during the Easter season, due to their association with the holiday. However, animal shelters that accept rabbits often complain that during the weeks and months following Easter, there is a rise in unwanted and neglected rabbits that were bought as Easter gifts, especially for children. Similar problems arise in rural areas after county fairs and the like, in jurisdictions where rabbits are legal prizes in fairground games. Thus, there are many humane societies, animal shelters, and rescue groups that have rabbits available for pet adoption. Fancy rabbit breeds are often purchased from pet stores, private breeders, and fanciers.", "Rabbits may be kept as small house pets and \"rabbit-proofed\" spaces reduce the risks associated with their intrinsic need to chew. Rabbits are easily litter box trained and a rabbit that lives indoors may be less exposed to the dangers of predators, parasites, diseases, adverse weather, and pesticides, which in turn increases their lifespan. Rabbits are often compatible with others of their kind, or with birds or guinea pigs, but opinion differs regarding the dangers of housing different species together. For example, while rabbits can synthesize their own Vitamin C, guinea pigs cannot, so the two species should not be fed the same diet. Also, most rabbits tend to be stronger than guinea pigs, so this may cause deliberate or inadvertent injury. Some people consider rabbits a pocket pet even though they are rather large. Keeping a rabbit", "Not all veterinarians will treat rabbits, and pet owners may have to seek out an Exotic Animal Veterinarian for their rabbit's care. Rabbits need", "The advantages of keeping rabbits as pets is that they are clean, smart, cute, soft and have a low carbon footprint. They may or may not react favorably to handling and petting depending on their personality and how they were raised. There are also many different sizes and characteristics available, owing to a long history of breeding. Rabbits are friendly to each other and are often compatible with other pets. Rabbits are herbivores and their diet is relatively simple. Compared to other small animals kept as pets, rabbits are physically robust creatures with strong hind legs that enable them to run fast, and they have powerful teeth. Rabbits should never be picked up by the ears or the \"scruff\" on the back of their neck because \"their skeletons are light compared to their bodies, and they susceptible to trauma from falling, twisting, and kicking\". Rabbits breed rapidly and so it is often easy, and affordable, to find one to buy or adopt. Some disadvantages of", "Rabbits have been kept as livestock since ancient times for their meat, wool, and fur. In modern times, rabbits are also utilized in scientific research as laboratory animals.", "Breeds such as the New Zealand and Californian are frequently utilized for meat in commercial rabbitries. These breeds have efficient metabolisms and grow quickly; they are ready for slaughter by approximately 14 to 16 weeks of age. Rabbit fryers are rabbits that are between 70 and 90 days of age, and weighing between 3 and 5 lb (1 to 2 kg) live weight. Rabbit roasters are rabbits from 90 days to", "Rabbits such as the Angora, American Fuzzy Lop, and Jersey Wooly produce wool. However, since the American Fuzzy Lop and Jersey Wooly are both dwarf breeds, only the much larger Angora breeds such as the English Angora, Satin Angora, Giant Angora, and French", "Rabbit breeds that were developed for their fur qualities include the Rex with its plush texture, the Satin with its lustrous color, and the Chinchilla for its exotic pattern. White rabbit fur may be dyed in an array of colors that aren't produced naturally. Rabbits in", "Rabbits have been and continue to be used in laboratory work such as production of antibodies for vaccines and research of human male reproductive system toxicology. In 1972, around 450,000 rabbits were used for experiments in the United States, decreasing to around 240,000 in 2006. The Environmental Health Perspective, published by the National Institute of Health, states, \"The rabbit [is] an extremely valuable model for studying the effects of chemicals or other stimuli", "Rabbits can live outdoors in properly constructed, sheltered hutches, which provide protection from the elements in winter and keep rabbits cool in summer heat. To protect from predators, rabbit hutches are usually situated in a fenced yard, shed, barn, or other enclosed structure, which may", "Rabbit show jumping, a form of animal sport between rabbits, began in the 1970s and has since become popular in Europe, particularly Sweden and the United Kingdom. When rabbit jumping was first starting out, the" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography and administration.", "Demography.", "Climate.", "Buildings and monuments.", "Education.", "Transportation.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Dili was settled about 1520 by the Portuguese, who made it the capital of Portuguese Timor in 1769. It was proclaimed a city in January 1864. During World War II, Portugal and its colonies remained neutral, but the Allies saw East Timor as a potential target for Japanese invasion, and Australian and Dutch forces briefly occupied the island in 1941. On the night of 19 February 1942, the Japanese attacked with a force of around 20,000 men, and occupied Dili before spreading out across the rest of the colony. On 26 September 1945, control of the island was officially returned to Portugal by the Japanese. East Timor unilaterally declared independence from Portugal on 28 November 1975. However, nine days later, on 7 December, Indonesian forces invaded Dili. On 17 July 1976, Indonesia annexed East Timor, which it designated the 27th province of Indonesia, \"Timor Timur\" (Indonesian for \"East Timor\"), with Dili as its capital. A guerrilla war ensued from 1975 to 1999 between Indonesian and pro-independence forces, during which tens of thousands of East Timorese and some foreign civilians were killed. Media coverage of the 1991 Dili Massacre helped revitalise international support for the East Timorese independence movement. In 1999, East Timor was placed under UN supervision, and on 20 May 2002, Dili became the capital of the newly independent Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste. In May 2006, fighting and rioting sparked by conflict between elements of the military caused significant damage to the city and led to foreign military intervention to restore order.", "Dili lies on the northern coast of Timor island, the easternmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. It is the seat of the administration of the municipality of Dili, which is the administrative entity of the area and includes the island of Atauro and some cities close to Dili city. The city is divided into the Administrative Posts (formerly subdistricts) of Nain Feto, Vera Cruz, Dom Aleixo and Cristo Rei and is divided into several sucos, each of which is headed by an elected \"chefe de suco\". 18 of the 26 sucos of the four administrative posts are categorised as urban. The municipality has an elected mayor and council.", "The 2010 census recorded a population of 193,563 in the areas of Dili district classified as urban, with a population of 234,331 in the whole district including rural areas such as Atauro and Metinaro. Dili is a melting pot of the different ethnic groups of East Timor, due partly to the internal migration of young men from around the country in search of work. This has led to a gender imbalance, with the male population significantly larger than the female. Between 2001 and 2004, the population of Dili district grew by 12.58%, with only 54% of the district's inhabitants born in the city. 7% were born in Baucau, 5% each in Viqueque and Bobonaro 4% in Ermera, and the remainder in other districts or overseas.", "Dili has a tropical savanna climate (\"Aw\") under the Köppen climate classification.", "Most buildings were damaged or destroyed in the violence of 1999, orchestrated by the Indonesian military and local pro-Indonesia militias (see Operation Scorched Earth). However, the city still has many buildings from the Portuguese era. e.g. the former Market Hall built around 1930 which is used as a Congress Centre nowadays. The former Portuguese Governor's office is now the office of the Prime Minister. It was previously also used by the Indonesian-appointed Governor, and by the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET). Even under Indonesian rule, during which the use of Portuguese was banned, Portuguese street names like \"Avenida Marechal Carmona\" remained unchanged, although they were prefixed with the Indonesian word \"Jalan\" or 'road'. The Roman Catholic Church at Motael became a focus for resistance to Indonesian occupation. Legacies of Jakarta's occupation are the Church of the Immaculate Conception, seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Díli, purportedly the largest cathedral in Southeast Asia, and the 'Integration Monument', commemorating the Indonesian annexation of the territory in 1976. Featuring a statue of an East Timorese in traditional dress, breaking the chains round his wrists, the monument has not been demolished. The Cristo Rei of Dili is a 27-metre (88.6 ft) tall statue of Jesus situated on top of a globe at the end of a peninsula in Dili. It is one of the town's landmarks. It was a present from the government of Indonesia during occupation for the 20th anniversary of East Timor's integration into Indonesia.", "Schools in Dili include St. Joseph's High School (Colégio de São José) and 28 de Novembro Public Secondary School. There are five International schools in Dili: St Anthony's International School, which is Timorese owned and managed but teaches in English and uses a modified Australian curriculum; a Portuguese school by the name of Escola Portuguesa Ruy Cinatti; an Australian managed school by the name of Dili International School; an American curriculum school called QSI International School of Dili; and the Maharlika International School (Formerly Dili Education & Development Center), a Philippine International School. East Timor's major higher education institution, the Universidade Nacional de Timor-Leste (UNTL) is based in Dili. Other universities situated in Dili include the private undergraduate university, Universidade da Paz (UNPAZ), Universidade Dili (UNDIL) and Dili Institute of Technology (DIT), a community-based, non-profit education institution.", "Dili is served by Presidente Nicolau Lobato International Airport, named after independence leader Nicolau Lobato. This is the only functioning international airport in East Timor, though there are airstrips in Baucau, Suai and Oecusse used for domestic flights. Until recently, Dili's airport runway has been unable to accommodate aircraft larger than the Boeing 737 or C-130 Hercules, but in January 2008, the Portuguese charter airline EuroAtlantic Airways operated a direct flight from Lisbon using a Boeing 757, carrying 140 members of the Guarda Nacional Republicana. Under Portuguese rule, Baucau Airport, which has a much longer runway, was used for international flights, but following the Indonesian invasion this was taken over by the Indonesian military and closed to civilian traffic.", "Dili is twinned with the following places:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Specification.", "Design.", "Common side.", "Current design.", "Initial design.", "National sides.", "Subsequent changes.", "Security features.", "Features for persons with impaired sight.", "Commemorative issues.", "Gold and silver commemorative issues.", "Belgian 2.50 euro coin.", "Circulation.", "Statistics.", "Counterfeiting.", "Small-denomination coins.", "Price rounding.", "Controversy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The euro came into existence on 1 January 1999. It had been a goal of the European Union (EU) and its predecessors since the 1960s. The Maastricht Treaty entered into force in 1993 with the goal of creating economic and monetary union by 1999 for all EU states except the UK and Denmark (even though Denmark has a fixed exchange rate policy with the euro). In 1999 the currency was born virtually and in 2002 notes and coins began to circulate. It rapidly replaced the former national currencies and the eurozone has since expanded further to some newer EU states. In 2009 the Lisbon Treaty formalised its political authority, the Eurogroup, alongside the European Central Bank. In 2004 €2 commemorative coins were allowed to be minted in six states. By 2007, all states but France, Ireland and the Netherlands had minted a commemorative issue and the first eurozone-wide commemorative coin was issued to celebrate 50 years of the Treaty of Rome. In 2009, the second eurozone-wide issue of a 2-euro commemorative coin was issued, celebrating ten years of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). In 2012, the third eurozone-wide issue of a 2-euro commemorative coin was issued, celebrating 10 years of euro coins and notes. To date, only Cyprus has not independently issued a €2 commemorative coin. As the EU's membership has since expanded in 2004, 2007 and 2013, with further expansions envisaged, the common face of all euro coins from the value of 10c and above were redesigned in 2007 to show a new map. Slovenia joined the eurozone in 2007, Cyprus and Malta joined in 2008, Slovakia in 2009, Estonia in 2011, Latvia in 2014 and Lithuania in 2015, introducing seven more national-side designs. Andorra started minting coins in 2014, so from 2015 there are 23 countries with their own national sides.", "There are eight different denominations of euro coins: 1c, 2c, 5c, 10c, 20c, 50c, €1 and €2. The 1c, 2c and 5c coins show Europe in relation to Asia and Africa in the world. The remaining coins show the EU before its enlargement in May 2004 if minted before 1 January 2007, or a geographical map of Europe if minted after. Coins from Italy, San Marino, the Vatican City, Austria and Portugal show the geographical map if minted in 2008 or later. The common side was designed by Luc Luycx of the Royal Belgian Mint. They symbolise the unity of the EU. The national sides were designed by the NCBs of the eurozone in separate competitions. There are specifications which apply to all coins such as the requirement of including twelve stars. National designs were not allowed to change until the end of 2008, unless a monarch (whose portrait usually appears on the coins) dies or abdicates. National designs have seen some changes due to a new rule stating that national designs should include the name of the issuing country. The common side of the 1c, 2c and 5c coins depict the denomination, the words 'EURO CENT' beside it, twelve stars and Europe highlighted on a globe in relation to Asia and Africa in the world. The common side of the 10c, 20c and 50c coins currently depict the denomination on the right, the words 'EURO CENT' underneath it, with twelve stars and the European continent on the left. Coins minted from 1999 to 2006 depicted only the EU15, rather than the entire European continent, which is on coins minted after 2007. The common side of the €1 and €2 coins depict the denomination on the left, the currency, map of Europe and twelve stars on the right. Similarly, coins minted from 1999 to 2006 depicted the EU15, rather than the whole European continent, which is on coins minted from 2007.", "", "All coins have a common reverse side showing how much the coin is worth, with a design by Belgian designer Luc Luycx. The design of the 1c, 2c and 5c coins shows Europe's place in the world as a whole. The 10c coins and above show either the 15 countries that were the European Union in 2002, or, if minted after 2007, the whole European continent. Coins from Italy, San Marino, the Vatican, Austria and Portugal show the new design if minted 2008 or later. The coins symbolise the unity of the EU.", "On 7 June 2005, the European Council decided that the common side of the 10c to €2 coins should be brought up to date to reflect the enlargement of the EU in 2004. The 1c, 2c and 5c coins show Europe in relation to the rest of the world, therefore they remained unchanged. In 2007, the new design was introduced. The design still retains all elements of the original designs, including the twelve stars, but the map of the fifteen states is replaced by one showing the whole of Europe as a continent, without borders, to stress unity. These coins were not mandatory for existing eurozone members when introduced in 2007, but became so for every member in 2008. Starting in 2017 the 1, 2 and 5 cent coins from individual member states have started adjusting their common side design to a new version, identified by smaller and more rounded numeral and longer lines outside of the stars at the coin's circumference. Cyprus is shown several hundred kilometres north west of its real position in order to include it on the map. On the €1 and €2 coins, the island is shown to be directly east of mainland Greece; on the 10c, 20c and 50c coins, it appears directly below Crete. The original proposal from the European Commission was to include Turkey on the map, but this design was rejected by the Council.", "The original designs of the 10c, 20c and 50c coins showed the outline of each of the 15 EU member states. Each state was shown as separate from the others, thus giving Europe the appearance of an archipelago. EU member states outside the eurozone (the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Denmark) were also depicted. Non-EU states were not depicted. On the €1 and €2 coins, the landmass appeared more cohesive although borders were indicated. As in current issues, all coins featured 12 stars in their design. The year featured on the coins can date back to 1999, when the currency was formally established (only Belgian, Finnish, French, Dutch, and Spanish coins were struck with the 1999 date). These countries traditionally strike coins with the year of minting rather than the year it was put into circulation. Researchers from the University of Zürich warned that an external ring of metal surrounding an inner pill of a different colour, as in the euro coins, can lead to the release of high levels of nickel, causing allergic reactions with people sensitive to the metal. The researchers also warned that the coins could contain between 240 and 320 times the amount of nickel allowed under the EU nickel directive.", "The obverse side varies from state to state, with each member allowed to choose its own design. Each of the eight coins can have the same design (such as Irish coins), or can vary from coin to coin (such as Italian coins). In monarchies, the national side usually features a portrait of the country's monarch, often in a design carried over from the former currency (e.g. Belgian coins). Republics tend to feature national monuments, symbols, or stylised designs (such as French coins). Engravings on the edge of the €2 coin are also subject to national choice. There are, however, some restrictions on the design: it must include twelve stars, the engraver's initials, and the year of issue. New issues must also include the name of the issuing country or an abbreviation of it. It may not repeat the denomination of the coin or the word \"euro\" unless it is in a different alphabet (such as on Greek coins). This rule is flouted by Austria. The national side was also to remain unchanged until the end of 2008, unless a monarch depicted on a coin died or abdicated (such as in the case of the Vatican's coins or Monegasque coins). There are at present no plans to abolish the national designs in favour of a common European one. However, the Commission has proposed that the 1c, 2c and 5c coins have a common design to keep costs down. Though they are not members of the EU, Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and the Vatican City also have euro coins featuring a national side, but a considerable number of these coins are not put into general circulation by the authorities who instead sell them to collectors for prices higher than their face value. No territories associated with Eurozone countries are issuing their own euro coins. France and Netherlands have areas which have their own currencies. As of 2015 there are 23 countries issuing coins with their own national sides, making it 184 different euro coins, not counting annual differences or commemorative coins.", "The above paragraphs, from a European Commission Recommendation of 19 December 2008, in essence, exhorted five eurozone members to change their national designs. Finland and Belgium did so in 2007 and 2008 respectively while Austria, Germany and Greece have not announced any design changes as of February 2018. However, the regulation only stipulates 20 June 2062 (\"sic\") as a deadline for revising designs. , Belgium, Monaco, the Netherlands, Spain and the Vatican have all experienced a change in head of state and have revised their designs to reflect this and the new regulation where applicable.", "Euro coins have high-security machine-readable features. Sophisticated bi-metal and sandwich technologies have been put into the €1 and €2 coins. The 10c, 20c and 50c coins are made of Nordic gold, which is a unique alloy, difficult to melt and used exclusively for coins. The lettering on the edge of the €2 coin also protects it from counterfeiting.", "Euro coins were designed in cooperation with organisations representing blind persons, and as a result they incorporate many features allowing them to be distinguished by touch alone. In addition, their visual appearance is designed to make them easy to tell apart for persons who cannot read the inscriptions on the coins. The coins increase in size and weight with value. Of the eight denominations of euro coins, the three lowest denominations are small, resemble copper in colour and are quite thin and light. The next three denominations resemble gold in colour and are thicker as well as heavier. The highest two denominations are bimetallic, being generally larger and thicker than the lower denominations. In general, the greater the value, the heavier and larger the coin. Copper colour identifies low value; gold colour identifies medium value; two different metals identify high value. There are also differences within each group. The 2 cent coin has a grooved edge to distinguish it from the 1 and 5 cent coins and also from the US penny, which has the same colour and diameter. Similarly, the 20 cent coin is smooth with seven indents to distinguish it from the 10 and 50 cent coins. Although there have been other currencies predating the euro that were specifically designed in similar ways (different sizes, colours, and ridges) to aid the visually impaired, the introduction of the euro constitutes the first time that authorities have consulted associations representing the blind and visually impaired before the release of a currency.", "Each state allowed to issue coins may also mint two commemorative coins each year from June 2012. From 2004 to May 2012, countries were only allowed to mint one coin per year. Only €2 coins may be used in this way (for them to be legal tender) and there is a limit on the number that can be issued. The coin must show the normal design criteria, such as the twelve stars, the year and the issuing country. Greece was the first country to issue a commemorative coin, and was followed by all but Cyprus and Ireland. However, in 2007 every eurozone state participated in the Treaty of Rome programme, where all member states issued a coin of similar design to commemorate the signing of the Treaty of Rome, the only difference being the name of the issuing country and the language of the text. This was repeated in 2009 in commemoration of the 10th anniversary of the Economic and Monetary Union. The design was selected by electronic voting by EU citizens. The most recent common commemorative coin was issued in 2015 to commemorate 30 years of the European Union flag. In 2006, Germany began issuing a series of coins, the German Bundesländer series, showing each of the states of Germany on its coins; this will last until 2021. Spain started a commemorative coin series \"\" (UNESCO World Heritage) in 2010, commemorating all of Spain's UNESCO World Heritage Sites, which could continue until 2050. The order in which the coin for a specific site is issued coincides with the order in which they were declared a UNESCO World Heritage site. Malta issued a series of five €2 commemorative coins, all related to the Maltese constitutional history. The first coin was released in 2011 and the last coin was minted in 2015.<ref name=\"http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/euro/cash/commemorative/2011_en.htm\"></ref>", "A legacy of old national practice is the minting of silver and gold commemorative coins. Unlike normal issues, these coins \"are not legal tender throughout the eurozone\", but only in the country where they are issued (e.g. a €10 Finnish commemorative coin cannot be used in Portugal). However, these gold coins are intended for collectors as their bullion value vastly exceeds their face value. Some silver coins, such as the German €10 commemoratives, are often available at banks and some retailers at face value. These coins, however, generally do not circulate but are kept by collectors. It is uncertain whether the Council of Ministers will grant them legal tender status elsewhere outside national boundaries, as San Marino, Monaco, and the Vatican City also issue this kind of coins.", "The Belgian 2.50 euro coin is a commemorative euro coin valid in Belgium first issued in 2015 with 70,000 coins minted. The coin commemorates the 200th anniversary of Napoleon's defeat in the Battle of Waterloo. Belgium originally planned to mint €2 commemorative coins for the occasion. This plan was blocked by France, however (after 180,000 of the coins had already been minted, they had to be discarded). Minting in the 2.5 euro denomination obviates France's complaints as the coins will not be legal tender in the European Union, they are only legal for currency in Belgium. EU law states that any country can issue any new coins it wants as long as they are in an irregular denomination, so it invented a €2.5 coin.", "The European Central Bank closely monitors the circulation and stock of the euro coins and banknotes. It is a task of the Eurosystem to ensure an efficient and smooth supply of euro coins and to maintain their integrity throughout the eurozone.", "As of July 2019, there are approximately 130 billion coins in circulation around the eurozone. In contrast the USA has minted over 300 billion pennies since 1983 when the current copper-plated zinc metallic composition began. Using a population of 341.9 million for the Euro area that is roughly 188 coins of denomination 1c or 2c per capita, and 203 other coins per capita.", "Approximately 100,000 counterfeit euro coins are taken from circulation annually, and roughly the same number are seized before they can be released. Given a total circulation of 56 billion coins, counterfeit coins are relatively rare. About half the counterfeits feature the German national design, but counterfeits have been detected for every issuing country. The majority of counterfeit coins are €2 (60% in 2011), with most of the rest being €1, and a few 50c coins. The number of counterfeit €2 coins being found annually is decreasing, while numbers of counterfeit €1 and 50-cent coins are increasing. Total amount of counterfeit coins seized from circulation in: The European Technical and Scientific Centre estimates that up to 2 million counterfeit coins were put into circulation in 2002. Recent investigations by the European Commission have shown that counterfeit sophistication is increasing, making prompt detection more difficult. In 2008, Irish MEP Eoin Ryan called for tighter regulation over tokens and medals that are being increasingly used for small purchases mainly in vending machines across Europe.", "The 1c, 2c, and 5c coins account for approximately 80% of all new coins minted in the eurozone. Due to the expense of producing such low-value coinage, the Commission and some member states have proposed that costs could be cut by having a common design on both sides of these coins, rather than minting numerous different designs. The €1 and €2 coins are two-toned. The \"gold\" is an alloy, 75% copper, 20% zinc and 5% nickel. The \"silver\" is cupronickel, 75% copper and 25% nickel. The 10c, 20c and 50c coins are a proprietary alloy known as \"Nordic gold\", consisting of 89% copper, 5% aluminium, 5% zinc and 1% tin. The 1c, 2c, and 5c coins are copper-coated steel fourrées. The copper alloys make the coinage antimicrobial.", "The 1c and 2c coins were initially introduced to ensure that the introduction of the euro was not used as an excuse by retailers to heavily round up prices. However, due to the cost of maintaining a circulation of low-value coins, by business and the mints, Finland, Ireland and the Netherlands round prices to the nearest five cents (Swedish rounding) if paying with cash, while producing only a handful of those coins for collectors, rather than general circulation. The coins are still legal tender and produced outside these states. Despite this, many shops in the Netherlands refuse to accept them. The Swedish rounding law in Finland was issued in January 2002 just shortly after the coins were put into circulation. The Netherlands followed suit in September 2004. The Netherlands did so under pressure from retail businesses, which claimed that dealing with 1- and 2-cent coins was too expensive. After a successful experiment in the town of Woerden in May 2004, retailers in the whole of the Netherlands have been permitted to round cash transactions to the nearest five cents since September 2004. In Belgium, rounding was common practice since 2014; by law, rounding is obligatory for cash purchases since 1 December 2019. For payments with debit or credit cards, the merchant can choose whether to apply rounding but has to inform the client beforehand. With the obligatory rounding in effect, Belgium's National Bank has stopped production of 1- and 2-cent coins. Ireland did so in 2015 after trialling rounding in Wexford in 2013. In May 2017, the Italian parliament passed a resolution to stop minting 1c and 2c coins starting 1 January 2018 and to introduce Swedish rounding. This is in part due to factors such as rising metal prices: De Nederlandsche Bank calculated it would save $36 million a year by not using the smaller coins. Other countries such as Germany favoured retaining the coins due to their desire for €1.99 prices, which appear more attractive to the consumer than a €2 price. Luxembourg and Malta have also declared they do not wish to remove the coins. This is echoed by the European Central Bank itself which supports the coins, stating it allows businesses to calculate prices more exactly to attract consumers, such as €0.99. According to a Eurobarometer survey of EU citizens in 2005, Germans were most sceptical about the removal of the 1c and 2c coins from complete circulation in the eurozone, but on average there was a majority for their removal (58% for the one cent coin and 52% for the two cent coin in 2005). The Belgians were most supportive of their removal. A similar survey in 2017 found 64% across the Eurozone wanting their removal with prices rounded; with over 70% in Belgium, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands and Slovakia. Only Portugal and Latvia had a plurality in favour of retaining the coins (49% against removal, 45–46% in favour). The Commission in 2010 released its guidelines on daily life euro cash questions, to give citizens guidelines on such issues with direct implications on their daily lives. These guidelines are based on ten guiding principles. Two of these guiding principles were and still are that \"No surcharges should be imposed on payments in cash\" and \"Member States should not adopt new rounding rules to the nearest five cent\".", "In spring 2016 controversy arose in the Netherlands after an episode of the television program \"Keuringsdienst van Waarde\" showed that euro coins from the Netherlands and other countries are produced by the South Korean company Poongsan. This company is also a known producer of cluster munitions. Cluster munitions are banned internationally by the 2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions (CCM), because of their indiscriminate and long-term effects on civilians. The CCM prohibits the use, production, stockpiling or transfer of cluster munitions as well as assistance with these acts. After parliamentary questions were posed, the Dutch government stated that the Royal Dutch Mint had ordered around 40 million 'coin blanks' between 2011 and 2016, and that Poongsan was on a list of vetted suppliers of the European Commission's Mint Directors Working Group. Since then, both the Royal Dutch Mint and the Norwegian Mint have excluded Poongsan as a coin blank supplier due to its involvement in cluster munitions. In the European Parliament, questions were also raised about Poongsan's presence on the vetted list of coin blank suppliers of the European Commission's Mint Directors Working Group. However, the Commission claimed responsibility on this issue lies with the member states of the Union." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Death.", "Personal life.", "Works.", "Trilogies.", "Surviving plays.", "\"The Persians\".", "\"Seven against Thebes\".", "\"The Suppliants\".", "\"The Oresteia\".", "\"Agamemnon\".", "\"The Libation Bearers\".", "\"The Eumenides\".", "\"Prometheus Bound\".", "Lost plays.", "\"Myrmidons\".", "\"Nereids\".", "\"Phrygians\", or \"Hector's Ransom\".", "\"Niobe\".", "Influence.", "Influence on Greek drama and culture.", "Influence outside Greek culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Aeschylus was born in c. 525 BC in Eleusis, a small town about 27 kilometers northwest of Athens, which is nestled in the fertile valleys of western Attica, though the date is most likely based on counting back forty years from his first victory in the Great Dionysia. His family was wealthy and well established; his father, Euphorion, was a member of the Eupatridae, the ancient nobility of Attica, though this might be a fiction that the ancients invented to account for the grandeur of his plays. As a youth, he worked at a vineyard until, according to the 2nd-century AD geographer Pausanias, the god Dionysus visited him in his sleep and commanded him to turn his attention to the nascent art of tragedy. As soon as he woke from the dream, the young Aeschylus began to write a tragedy, and his first performance took place in 499 BC, when he was only 26 years old. He won his first victory at the City Dionysia in 484 BC. In 510 BC, when Aeschylus was 15 years old, Cleomenes I expelled the sons of Peisistratus from Athens, and Cleisthenes came to power. Cleisthenes' reforms included a system of registration that emphasized the importance of the deme over family tradition. In the last decade of the 6th century, Aeschylus and his family were living in the deme of Eleusis. The Persian Wars played a large role in the playwright's life and career. In 490 BC, Aeschylus and his brother Cynegeirus fought to defend Athens against the invading army of Darius I of Persia at the Battle of Marathon. The Athenians emerged triumphant, a victory celebrated across the city-states of Greece. Cynegeirus, however, died in the battle, receiving a mortal wound while trying to prevent a Persian ship retreating from the shore, for which his countrymen extolled him as a hero. In 480 BC, Aeschylus was called into military service again, this time against Xerxes I's invading forces at the Battle of Salamis together with his younger brother Ameinias; he also fought, later, at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. Ion of Chios was a witness for Aeschylus's war record and his contribution in Salamis. Salamis holds a prominent place in \"The Persians\", his oldest surviving play, which was performed in 472 BC and won first prize at the Dionysia. Aeschylus was one of many Greeks who were initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, an ancient cult of Demeter based in his home town of Eleusis. Initiates gained secret knowledge through these rites, likely concerning the afterlife. Firm details of specific rites are sparse, as members were sworn under the penalty of death not to reveal anything about the Mysteries to non-initiates. Nevertheless, according to Aristotle, Aeschylus was accused of revealing some of the cult's secrets on stage. Other sources claim that an angry mob tried to kill Aeschylus on the spot, but he fled the scene. Heracleides of Pontus asserts that the audience tried to stone Aeschylus. He then took refuge at the altar in the orchestra of the Theater of Dionysus. At his trial, he pleaded ignorance. He was acquitted, with the jury sympathetic to the military service of Aeschylus and his brothers during the Persian Wars. According to the 2nd-century AD author Aelian, Aeschylus's younger brother Ameinias helped to acquit Aeschylus by showing the jury the stump of the hand that he lost at Salamis, where he was voted bravest warrior. The truth is that the award for bravery at Salamis went not to Aeschylus' brother but to Ameinias of Pallene. Aeschylus travelled to Sicily once or twice in the 470s BC, having been invited by Hiero I of Syracuse, a major Greek city on the eastern side of the island; during one of these trips he produced \"The Women of Aetna\" (in honor of the city founded by Hieron) and restaged his \"Persians\". By 473 BC, after the death of Phrynichus, one of his chief rivals, Aeschylus was the yearly favorite in the Dionysia, winning first prize in nearly every competition. In 472 BC, Aeschylus staged the production that included the \"Persians\", with Pericles serving as \"choregos\".", "In 458 BC, he returned to Sicily for the last time, visiting the city of Gela where he died in 456 or 455 BC. Valerius Maximus wrote that he was killed outside the city by a tortoise dropped by an eagle (possibly a lammergeier or Cinereous vulture, which do open tortoises for eating by dropping them on hard objects) which had mistaken his bald head for a rock suitable for shattering the shell of the reptile. Pliny, in his \"Naturalis Historiæ\", adds that Aeschylus had been staying outdoors to avoid a prophecy that he would be killed by a falling object. But this story may be legendary and due to a misunderstanding of the iconography on Aeschylus's tomb. Aeschylus's work was so respected by the Athenians that after his death, his were the only tragedies allowed to be restaged in subsequent competitions. His sons Euphorion and Euæon and his nephew Philocles also became playwrights. The inscription on Aeschylus's gravestone makes no mention of his theatrical renown, commemorating only his military achievements: According to Castoriadis, the inscription on his grave signifies the primary importance of \"belonging to the City\" (polis), of the solidarity that existed within the collective body of citizen-soldiers.", "Aeschylus married and had two sons, Euphorion and Euaeon, both of whom became tragic poets. Euphorion won first prize in 431 BC in competition against both Sophocles and Euripides. A nephew of Aeschylus, Philocles (his sister's son), was also a tragic poet, and won first prize in the competition against Sophocles' \"Oedipus Rex\". Aeschylus had at least two brothers, Cynegeirus and Ameinias.", "The roots of Greek drama are in religious festivals for the gods, chiefly Dionysus, the god of wine. During Aeschylus's lifetime, dramatic competitions became part of the City Dionysia in the spring. The festival opened with a procession, followed with a competition of boys singing dithyrambs and culminated in a pair of dramatic competitions. The first competition Aeschylus would have participated in, consisted of three playwrights each presenting three tragic plays followed by a shorter comedic satyr play. Such format is called a continuous tragic tetralogy. It allowed Aeschylus to explore the human, theological, and cosmic dimensions of one or another mythic sequence, developing it in successive phases. A second competition of five comedic playwrights followed, and the winners of both competitions were chosen by a panel of judges. Aeschylus entered many of these competitions in his lifetime, and various ancient sources attribute between seventy and ninety plays to him. Only seven tragedies have survived intact: \"The Persians\", \"Seven against Thebes\", \"The Suppliants\", the trilogy known as \"The Oresteia\", consisting of the three tragedies \"Agamemnon\", \"The Libation Bearers\" and \"The Eumenides\", together with \"Prometheus Bound\" (whose authorship is disputed). With the exception of this last play – the success of which is uncertain – all of Aeschylus's extant tragedies are known to have won first prize at the City Dionysia. The Alexandrian \"Life of Aeschylus\" claims that he won the first prize at the City Dionysia thirteen times. This compares favorably with Sophocles' reported eighteen victories (with a substantially larger catalogue, at an estimated 120 plays), and dwarfs the five victories of Euripides, who is thought to have written roughly 90 plays.", "One hallmark of Aeschylean dramaturgy appears to have been his tendency to write connected trilogies, in which each play serves as a chapter in a continuous dramatic narrative. \"The Oresteia\" is the only extant example of this type of connected trilogy, but there is evidence that Aeschylus often wrote such trilogies. The comic satyr plays that follow his trilogies also drew upon stories derived from myths. For example, the \"Oresteia\"s satyr play \"Proteus\" treated the story of Menelaus' detour in Egypt on his way home from the Trojan War. Based on the evidence provided by a catalogue of Aeschylean play titles, scholia, and play fragments recorded by later authors, it is assumed that three other of his extant plays were components of connected trilogies: \"Seven against Thebes\" being the final play in an Oedipus trilogy, and \"The Suppliants\" and \"Prometheus Bound\" each being the first play in a Danaid trilogy and Prometheus trilogy, respectively (see below). Scholars have moreover suggested several completely lost trilogies derived from known play titles. A number of these trilogies treated myths surrounding the Trojan War. One, collectively called the \"Achilleis\", comprised the titles \"Myrmidons\", \"Nereids\" and \"Phrygians\" (alternately, \"The Ransoming of Hector\"). Another trilogy apparently recounts the entry of the Trojan ally Memnon into the war, and his death at the hands of Achilles (\"Memnon\" and \"The Weighing of Souls\" being two components of the trilogy); \"The Award of the Arms\", \"The Phrygian Women\", and \"The Salaminian Women\" suggest a trilogy about the madness and subsequent suicide of the Greek hero Ajax; Aeschylus also seems to have written about Odysseus' return to Ithaca after the war (including his killing of his wife Penelope's suitors and its consequences) in a trilogy consisting of \"The Soul-raisers\", \"Penelope\" and \"The Bone-gatherers\". Other suggested trilogies touched on the myth of Jason and the Argonauts (\"Argô\", \"Lemnian Women\", \"Hypsipylê\"); the life of Perseus (\"The Net-draggers\", \"Polydektês\", \"Phorkides\"); the birth and exploits of Dionysus (\"Semele\", \"Bacchae\", \"Pentheus\"); and the aftermath of the war portrayed in \"Seven against Thebes\" (\"Eleusinians\", \"Argives\" (or \"Argive Women\"), \"Sons of the Seven\").", "", "The earliest of his plays to survive is \"The Persians\" (\"Persai\"), performed in 472 BC and based on experiences in Aeschylus's own life, specifically the Battle of Salamis. It is unique among surviving Greek tragedies in that it describes a recent historical event. \"The Persians\" focuses on the popular Greek theme of \"hubris\" by blaming Persia's loss on the pride of its king. It opens with the arrival of a messenger in Susa, the Persian capital, bearing news of the catastrophic Persian defeat at Salamis to Atossa, the mother of the Persian King Xerxes. Atossa then travels to the tomb of Darius, her husband, where his ghost appears to explain the cause of the defeat. It is, he says, the result of Xerxes' hubris in building a bridge across the Hellespont, an action which angered the gods. Xerxes appears at the end of the play, not realizing the cause of his defeat, and the play closes to lamentations by Xerxes and the chorus.", "\"Seven against Thebes\" (\"Hepta epi Thebas\"), which was performed in 467 BC, has the contrasting theme of the interference of the gods in human affairs. It also marks the first known appearance in Aeschylus's work of a theme which would continue through his plays, that of the polis (the city) being a key development of human civilization. The play tells the story of Eteocles and Polynices, the sons of the shamed King of Thebes, Oedipus. The sons agree to alternate in the throne of the city, but after the first year Eteocles refuses to step down, and Polynices wages war to claim his crown. The brothers kill each other in single combat, and the original ending of the play consisted of lamentations for the dead brothers. A new ending was added to the play some fifty years later: Antigone and Ismene mourn their dead brothers, a messenger enters announcing an edict prohibiting the burial of Polynices; and finally, Antigone declares her intention to defy this edict. The play was the third in a connected Oedipus trilogy; the first two plays were \"Laius\" and \"Oedipus\". The concluding satyr play was \"The Sphinx\".", "Aeschylus continued his emphasis on the polis with \"The Suppliants\" in 463 BC (\"Hiketides\"), which pays tribute to the democratic undercurrents running through Athens in advance of the establishment of a democratic government in 461. In the play, the Danaids, the fifty daughters of Danaus, founder of Argos, flee a forced marriage to their cousins in Egypt. They turn to King Pelasgus of Argos for protection, but Pelasgus refuses until the people of Argos weigh in on the decision, a distinctly democratic move on the part of the king. The people decide that the Danaids deserve protection, and they are allowed within the walls of Argos despite Egyptian protests. The 1952 publication of Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 2256 fr. 3 confirmed a long-assumed (because of \"The Suppliants\"' cliffhanger ending) Danaid trilogy, whose constituent plays are generally agreed to be \"The Suppliants\", \"The Egyptians\" and \"The Danaids\". A plausible reconstruction of the trilogy's last two-thirds runs thus: In \"The Egyptians\", the Argive-Egyptian war threatened in the first play has transpired. During the course of the war, King Pelasgus has been killed, and Danaus rules Argos. He negotiates a peace settlement with Aegyptus, as a condition of which, his fifty daughters will marry the fifty sons of Aegyptus. Danaus secretly informs his daughters of an oracle predicting that one of his sons-in-law would kill him; he therefore orders the Danaids to murder their husbands on their wedding night. His daughters agree. \"The Danaids\" would open the day after the wedding. In short order, it is revealed that forty-nine of the Danaids killed their husbands as ordered; Hypermnestra, however, loved her husband Lynceus, and thus spared his life and helped him to escape. Angered by his daughter's disobedience, Danaus orders her imprisonment and, possibly, her execution. In the trilogy's climax and dénouement, Lynceus reveals himself to Danaus, and kills him (thus fulfilling the oracle). He and Hypermnestra will establish a ruling dynasty in Argos. The other forty-nine Danaids are absolved of their murderous crime, and married off to unspecified Argive men. The satyr play following this trilogy was titled \"Amymone\", after one of the Danaids.", "The only complete trilogy of Greek plays by any playwright still extant (save a few missing lines in several spots) is the \"Oresteia\" (458 BC), although the satyr play that originally followed it, \"Proteus\", is lost except for some fragments. The trilogy consists of \"Agamemnon\", \"The Libation Bearers\" (\"Choephoroi\"), and \"The Eumenides\". Together, these plays tell the bloody story of the family of Agamemnon, King of Argos.", "Aeschylus begins in Greece describing the return of King Agamemnon from his victory in the Trojan War, from the perspective of the towns people (the Chorus) and his wife, Clytemnestra. However, dark foreshadowings build to the death of the king at the hands of his wife, who was angry at his sacrifice of their daughter Iphigenia, who was killed so that the gods would restore the winds and allow the Greek fleet to sail to Troy. She was also unhappy at his keeping of the Trojan prophetess Cassandra as a concubine. Cassandra foretells of the murder of Agamemnon, and of herself, to the assembled townsfolk, who are horrified. She then enters the palace knowing that she cannot avoid her fate. The ending of the play includes a prediction of the return of Orestes, son of Agamemnon, who will seek to avenge his father.\"", "\"The Libation Bearers\" continues the tale, opening with Orestes's arrival at Agamemnon's tomb. At the tomb, Electra meets Orestes, who has returned from exile in Phocis, and they plan revenge upon Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus. Clytemnestra's account of a nightmare in which she gives birth to a snake is recounted by the chorus; and this leads her to order Electra, her daughter, to pour libations on Agamemnon's tomb (with the assistance of libation bearers) in hope of making amends. Orestes enters the palace pretending to bear news of his own death, and when Clytemnestra calls in Aegisthus to share in the news, Orestes kills them both. Orestes is then beset by the Furies, who avenge the murders of kin in Greek mythology.", "The final play of \"The Oresteia\" addresses the question of Orestes' guilt. The Furies drive Orestes from Argos and into the wilderness. He makes his way to the temple of Apollo and begs him to drive the Furies away. Apollo had encouraged Orestes to kill Clytemnestra, and so bears some of the guilt for the murder. The Furies are a more ancient race of the gods, and Apollo sends Orestes to the temple of Athena, with Hermes as a guide. The Furies track him down, and the goddess Athena, patron of Athens, steps in and declares that a trial is necessary. Apollo argues Orestes' case, and after the judges (including Athena) deliver a tie vote, Athena announces that Orestes is acquitted. She renames the Furies \"The Eumenides\" (The Good-spirited, or Kindly Ones), and extols the importance of reason in the development of laws, and, as in \"The Suppliants\", the ideals of a democratic Athens are praised.", "In addition to these six works, a seventh tragedy, \"Prometheus Bound\", is attributed to Aeschylus by ancient authorities. Since the late 19th century, however, scholars have increasingly doubted this ascription, largely on stylistic grounds. Its production date is also in dispute, with theories ranging from the 480s BC to as late as the 410s. The play consists mostly of static dialogue, as throughout the play the Titan Prometheus is bound to a rock as punishment from the Olympian Zeus for providing fire to humans. The god Hephaestus, the Titan Oceanus, and the chorus of Oceanids all express sympathy for Prometheus' plight. Prometheus meets Io, a fellow victim of Zeus' cruelty; and prophesies her future travels, revealing that one of her descendants will free Prometheus. The play closes with Zeus sending Prometheus into the abyss because Prometheus refuses to divulge the secret of a potential marriage that could prove Zeus' downfall. \"Prometheus Bound\" appears to have been the first play in a trilogy called the \"Prometheia\". In the second play, \"Prometheus Unbound\", Heracles frees Prometheus from his chains and kills the eagle that had been sent daily to eat Prometheus' perpetually regenerating liver. Perhaps foreshadowing his eventual reconciliation with Prometheus, we learn that Zeus has released the other Titans whom he imprisoned at the conclusion of the Titanomachy. In the trilogy's conclusion, \"Prometheus the Fire-Bringer\", it appears that the Titan finally warns Zeus not to sleep with the sea nymph Thetis, for she is fated to give birth to a son greater than the father. Not wishing to be overthrown, Zeus marries Thetis off to the mortal Peleus; the product of that union is Achilles, Greek hero of the Trojan War. After reconciling with Prometheus, Zeus probably inaugurates a festival in his honor at Athens.", "Only the titles and assorted fragments of Aeschylus's other plays have come down to us. We have enough fragments of some plays (along with comments made by later authors and scholiasts) to produce rough synopses of their plots.", "This play was based on books 9 and 16 in Homer's \"Iliad\". Achilles sits in silent indignation over his humiliation at Agamemnon's hands for most of the play. Envoys from the Greek army attempt to reconcile him to Agamemnon, but he yields only to his friend Patroclus, who then battles the Trojans in Achilles' armour. The bravery and death of Patroclus are reported in a messenger's speech, which is followed by mourning.", "This play was based on books 18, 19, and 22 of the \"Iliad\"; it follows the Daughters of Nereus, the sea god, who lament Patroclus' death. In the play, a messenger tells how Achilles, perhaps reconciled to Agamemnon and the Greeks, slew Hector.", "In this play, Achilles sits in silent mourning over Patroclus, after a brief discussion with Hermes. Hermes then brings in King Priam of Troy, who wins over Achilles and ransoms his son's body in a spectacular coup de théâtre. A scale is brought on stage and Hector's body is placed in one scale and gold in the other. The dynamic dancing of the chorus of Trojans when they enter with Priam is reported by Aristophanes.", "The children of Niobe, the heroine, have been slain by Apollo and Artemis because Niobe had gloated that she had more children than their mother, Leto. Niobe sits in silent mourning on stage during most of the play. In the \"Republic\", Plato quotes the line \"God plants a fault in mortals when he wills to destroy a house utterly.\" These are the remaining 71 plays ascribed to Aeschylus which are known to us:", "", "When Aeschylus first began writing, the theatre had only just begun to evolve, although earlier playwrights such as Thespis had already expanded the cast to include an actor who was able to interact with the chorus. Aeschylus added a second actor, allowing for greater dramatic variety, while the chorus played a less important role. He is sometimes credited with introducing \"skenographia\", or scene-decoration, though Aristotle gives this distinction to Sophocles. Aeschylus is also said to have made the costumes more elaborate and dramatic, and having his actors wear platform boots (\"cothurni\") to make them more visible to the audience. According to a later account of Aeschylus's life, as they walked on stage in the first performance of the \"Eumenides\", the chorus of Furies were so frightening in appearance that they caused young children to faint, patriarchs to urinate, and pregnant women to go into labour. His plays were written in verse. No violence is performed on stage, and the plays have a remoteness from daily life in Athens, either by relating stories about the gods or by being set, like \"The Persians\", in far-away locales. Aeschylus's work has a strong moral and religious emphasis. The \"Oresteia\" trilogy concentrated on man's position in the cosmos in relation to the gods, divine law, and divine punishment. Aeschylus's popularity is evident in the praise the comic playwright Aristophanes gives him in \"The Frogs\", produced some half-century after Aeschylus's death. Appearing as a character in the play, Aeschylus claims at line 1022 that his \"Seven against Thebes\" \"made everyone watching it to love being warlike\"; with his \"Persians\", Aeschylus claims at lines 1026–7 that he \"taught the Athenians to desire always to defeat their enemies.\" Aeschylus goes on to say at lines 1039ff. that his plays inspired the Athenians to be brave and virtuous.", "Aeschylus's works were influential beyond his own time. Hugh Lloyd-Jones draws attention to Richard Wagner's reverence of Aeschylus. Michael Ewans argues in his \"Wagner and Aeschylus. The Ring and the Oresteia\" (London: Faber. 1982) that the influence was so great as to merit a direct character by character comparison between Wagner's \"Ring\" and Aeschylus's \"Oresteia\". A critic of his book however, while not denying that Wagner read and respected Aeschylus, has described his arguments as unreasonable and forced. Sir J. T. Sheppard argues in the second half of his \"Aeschylus and Sophocles: Their Work and Influence\" that Aeschylus, along with Sophocles, have played a major part in the formation of dramatic literature from the Renaissance to the present, specifically in French and Elizabethan drama. He also claims that their influence went beyond just drama and applies to literature in general, citing Milton and the Romantics. Eugene O'Neill's \"Mourning Becomes Electra\" (1931), a trilogy of three plays set in America after the Civil War, is modeled after the \"Oresteia\". Prior to writing his acclaimed trilogy, O'Neill had been developing a play about Aeschylus himself, and he noted that Aeschylus \"so changed the system of the tragic stage that he has more claim than anyone else to be regarded as the founder (Father) of Tragedy.\" During his presidential campaign in 1968, Senator Robert F. Kennedy quoted the Edith Hamilton translation of Aeschylus on the night of the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. Kennedy was notified of King's murder before a campaign stop in Indianapolis, Indiana and was warned not to attend the event due to fears of rioting from the mostly African-American crowd. Kennedy insisted on attending and delivered an impromptu speech that delivered news of King's death to the crowd. Acknowledging the audience's emotions, Kennedy referred to his own grief at the murder of Martin Luther King and, quoting a passage from the play \"Agamemnon\" (in translation), said: \"My favorite poet was Aeschylus. And he once wrote: 'Even in our sleep, pain which cannot forget falls drop by drop upon the heart, until in our own despair, against our will, comes wisdom through the awful grace of God.' What we need in the United States is not division; what we need in the United States is not hatred; what we need in the United States is not violence and lawlessness; but is love and wisdom, and compassion toward one another, and a feeling of justice toward those who still suffer within our country, whether they be white or whether they be black... Let us dedicate ourselves to what the Greeks wrote so many years ago: to tame the savageness of man and make gentle the life of this world.\" The quotation from Aeschylus was later inscribed on a memorial at the gravesite of Robert Kennedy following his own assassination. The first translation of the seven plays into English was by Robert Potter in 1779, using blank verse for the iambic trimeters and rhymed verse for the choruses, a convention adopted by most translators for the next century." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1853–2003: Compagnie Générale des Eaux & Vivendi.", "2003 – present: Veolia.", "Operations.", "Overview.", "Water.", "Waste management.", "Energy.", "Former operations.", "Transport.", "Financial information.", "Stock market data.", "Corporate social responsibility.", "The Veolia Foundation.", "Institut Veolia.", "Research and development.", "Programmes.", "Operating events.", "West Carrollton plant explosion.", "Fatal accident in Gatlinburg.", "Controversies.", "Veolia v Lithuania.", "Relations with Israel.", "Unpaid internships.", "Flint water crisis." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "On 14 December 1853, a water company named Compagnie Générale des Eaux (CGE) was created by an Imperial decree of Napoleon III. In 1853, CGE obtained a concession in order to supply water to the public in Lyon, serving in this capacity for over a hundred years. In 1860, it obtained a 50-year concession with the City of Paris. For a hundred years, Compagnie Générale des Eaux remained largely focused on the water sector. However, following the appointment of Guy Dejouany as CEO in 1976, CGE extended its activities into other sectors with a series of takeovers. Beginning in 1980, CGE began diversifying its operations from water into waste management, energy, transport services, and construction and property. It did so by acquiring: In 1998, CGE changed its name to \"Vivendi\", and sold off its property and construction divisions the following year. Vivendi Environnement was formed in 1999 to consolidate its environmental divisions. Its divisions at the formation of Vivendi Environnement were: Vivendi went on to list on the New York Stock Exchange (as \"V\"), and in December, announced a major merger with Canal+ and Seagram, the owner of Universal Studios film company, to become Vivendi Universal and now named Vivendi. In July 2000, Vivendi Environnement was divested through IPOs in Paris and later New York in October 2001). Initially, Vivendi Universal retained a 70% stake in Vivendi Environnement in 2000, but by December 2002, it was reduced to 20.4%. In 2003, Vivendi Environnement was renamed to Veolia Environnement.", "As a result of Vivendi Environnement spinning off from its parent Vivendi in 2002, in 2003, Vivendi Environnement was renamed to Veolia Environnement. In 2005, the name \"Veolia\" was established as an umbrella brand for all of the Group's divisions (water, environmental services, energy services and transport) and a new logo was created. The names of the divisions at the time of rebranding were: In November 2009, Antoine Frérot has become the Chairman and the CEO of the Group after succeeding Henri Proglio who has been appointed CEO of Électricité de France. The change has been part of a huge politico-financial scandal in France as Proglio kept executive positions – and subsequent salary – in both companies until public criticism forced him to give up his Veolia revenues. Its Veolia Water division remains the largest private operator of water services in the world. In March 2011 the company announced the formation of Veolia Transdev, the result of the combination of its transport subsidiary Veolia Transport with Transdev, a subsidiary of Caisse des Dépôts. Veolia Transdev is the world's private-sector leader in sustainable mobility with more than 110,000 employees in 28 countries. In July 2011, amid disappointing financial results, the company announced the launch of new restructuring plans and redeployment of assets and businesses. In December 2011, Veolia announced a €5bn divestment program over 2012–2013. The company would comprise only three divisions (Water, Environmental Services and Energy Services). The transport businesses Veolia Transdev would be divested. Veolia sold a 20% share of Veolia Transdev (now called Transdev) to Caisse des Dépôts in December 2016 and continued to hold a 30% share. In January 2019, the 30% share was sold to the Rethmann Group, the owner of Rhenus.", "", "Veolia is established in 48 countries, with employees across the globe in 2012: The company has 2,573 subsidiaries around the world.", "Veolia Water is the world leader in water services. It handles water and wastewater services for clients in the public sector and in various industries. It also creates and constructs the required technology and infrastructure. In 2012, Veolia Water employed 89,094 people and recorded revenue of €12.078 billion 37.2% of its revenue comes from France, 30.2 from other European countries, 8.8% from Americas, 16.2% from Asia and 7.6% from Africa and the Middle East. Veolia Water was renamed from Vivendi Water in 2005, which was renamed from CGE water division in 1999.", "Veolia Environmental Services operates waste management services around the world, including the treatment of hazardous and non-hazardous liquid and solid waste. It also deals with the collection and recycling of waste. Veolia Environmental Services was originally part of the CGEA, created in 1912 and acquired by CGE in 1980. It was renamed to Onyx Environnement in 1989, and then again renamed to Veolia Environmental Services in 2005.", "In 1998, the energy service division of the CGE, originally the Compagnie Générale de Chauffe/Groupe Montenay prior to 1995, was renamed to Dalkia. It ran the business as a joint venture with Électricité de France (EDF) from 2000 until 2014, when it purchased Dalkia's international operations in full, and EDF bought its French operations. The company's services include maintaining and managing heating and cooling systems, making plants more energy efficient, and selecting the most adapted energies. In 2012, Dalkia employed 49,824 employees and recorded revenue of €7.664 billion (France 42%, Continental Europe 24%, Southern Europe 14.5%, Northern Europe 8%, North America 3%, China 1.5%, other countries 7%). In North America, Veolia Energy traded under the Trigen Energy name until February 2011. It is the largest operator and developer of efficient district energy (heating, cooling, and cogeneration) systems in North America, located in ten major U.S. cities. It also provides facility operations, energy management, and advisory services. In Latin America, Proactiva was a 50-50 joint venture formed in 1999 between Veolia Environnement and Fomento de Construcciones y Contratas (FCC), until Veolia bought the other 50% share from FCC in 2013. As a result, Veolia now owns 100% of Proactiva.", "", "Transdev (formerly Veolia Transdev) was formed in 2011 from a merger of Veolia Transport with the old Transdev, a subsidiary of Caisse des Dépôts. Currently, Veolia owns 30% of the company's shares. Prior to the merger, Veolia Transport was the transport division of Veolia. It was originally part of the CGEA, which was acquired in 1980, and the transport division was then renamed Connex in 1999, then finally renamed to Veolia Transport in 2005. At the time of merger, Veolia Transport recorded revenues of €7.863 billion in 2011 (For 2010 : Europe 83%, included France 37.1%, North America 13.2%, Asia-Pacific 3.7%). It employed 101,798 people. It worked with public authorities under public-private partnerships to manage public transit systems (buses, trains, metros, ferries, etc.). On 6 December 2011 Veolia Environment, seeking to reduce debt and focus on its core businesses of water, waste and energy, announced that it will eventually sell its share in Veolia Transdev, within a two-year time frame, by when its own activities will have been reorganized. After this announcement, the Caisse des Dépôts et Consignations, for its part, officially reiterated its commitment to Veolia Transdev and its continued support as a shareholder to the group's development. In early 2012 it was reported that Cube Infrastructure, a fund controlled by the French bank Natixis (Groupe BPCE), was likely to acquire about half of Veolia's stake in Transdev. The Caisse des Dépôts would take over the other half. This was later changed in October 2012 to Caisse des Dépôts acquiring 10% of the shares from Veolia. This however was not implemented. In December 2016, CDC finally bought 20% shares from Veolia. As a result, Veolia's share on the company reduced to 30%. This was sold in January 2019, marking Veolia's exit from the transport sector.", "On 31 December 2012, shares in Veolia Environnement were held as follows: 9.3% by Caisse des Dépôts et Consignations (primary shareholder), followed by Groupe Industriel Marcel Dassault (6.3%), Groupama (5.42%), Velo Investissement (4.73%), Électricité de France (4.22%), Veolia Environment (2.73%). Public and other institutional investors the remaining 67.3%. Veolia issued two profit warnings in 2011 and announced plans to quit half of the 77 countries where it does business. It launched a €5 billion ($6.4 billion) fire sale of assets. The company and its top executives were facing the prospect of a U.S. class-action lawsuit in January 2012 over allegations that they made \"misleading\" statements between 2007 and 2011 about its financial well-being. The company, which was described as \"struggling\" by the \"Financial Times\", said that a complaint had been filed against it in New York for violation of U.S. federal securities laws. Veolia's shares were the worst performer on France's CAC 40 index in 2011, falling 60%. The following is a summary of data (in millions of euros):", "Data for Veolia Environnement, as listed on the New York Stock Exchange. On the Paris Bourse, Veolia Environnement is part of the CAC 40 index of shares.", "The company's sustainable development activities are diverse. Because it operates in four sectors with a huge potential impact on the environment, both the risks and opportunities presented by sustainable development activities are substantial. The company's sustainability efforts are furthered by its Foundation and Institute which emphasize innovation and research.", "The Veolia Foundation supports non-profit activities related to sustainable development, professional continuous development and the protection of the environment in France and overseas. The Foundation supports projects through financial aid and voluntary services provided by its employees. It also supports emergency relief operations in collaboration with humanitarian organisations. Following the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the Veolia Foundation dispatched 30 tons of emergency supplies (mainly water treatment units) via French Red Cross air transportation. The Foundation also sent Veolia technical experts to provide water to the disaster's victims.", "The Institut Veolia was created in 2001 to provide insights into major global challenges such as climate change, urbanisation and various economic, social and cultural issues related to the environment. The institute is built around a committee that brings together seven experts and an international network of researchers and experts. Its activities include organising conferences and publishing articles and reports.", "As of 31 December 2009, the Group's research and development investments reached €89.8 million (€92.1 million in 2008, €84.6 million in 2007). The Research and Innovation division includes 850 experts and supports around 200 scientific partnerships with private and public organisations. The division focuses on four main issues:", "Veolia's R&I division has determined nine main development programmes through which a number of research projects are managed:", "", "On 4 May 2009, a Veolia Environmental Service's plant in West Carrollton, Ohio, United States, exploded. The blast leveled two buildings on the property which were a laboratory and a building that had several 200,000 gallon chemical tanks. This particular plant handles fuel blending among other services. Two workers at the plant were injured in the blast. The explosion caused $50 million in damage to the plant itself. More than a dozen homes up to a mile radius from the blast were also damaged due to the explosion.", "Two workers died after a catastrophic mechanical failure in April 2011 at a waste water treatment plant in Gatlinburg, Tennessee, United States, owned by the local municipality and operated by Veolia Water. At least 1.5 million gallons of a mix of storm and sewage water were spilled into a nearby river after a sewage-holding wall collapsed.", "", "In 2017, French company Veolia sued Lithuania in Stockholm arbitration court demanding about 100 million euros in damages. Veolia alleges that Lithuanian government is involved in illegal conduct and that it expropriated Veolia's investments. This is Veolia's second arbitration lawsuit against Lithuania after it sued Lithuania in Washington arbitration court in 2016.", "In February 2011 the Tower Hamlets London Borough Council of the London borough of Tower Hamlets, voted to review its position with Veolia and place no further contracts with it, after claiming that Veolia's work for the Israeli government assisted the \"continued oppression of the Palestinian people\". The Justice and Peace Commission, part of the Catholic Church in England, urged London municipalities to stop doing business with Veolia because of its involvement with illegal settlements. Veolia denied wrongdoing. Palestinian human-rights organization Al-Haq instructed lawyers in the Netherlands to submit a formal objection against the decision of Stadsregio Arnhem Nijmegen, a municipality, to award a public transport concession to Hermes, the Dutch subsidiary of Veolia Transdev. The objection was based on Veolia's involvement in what Al-Haq claims are Israel's violations of international law. In a 2012 interview with the Israeli press, Veolia's Denis Gasquet, senior executive vice president, admitted that Veolia had been under pressure from pro-Palestinian groups in Europe, particularly over the Jerusalem Light Rail. Parties within Veolia had argued that the group was losing tenders as a result, but Gasquest said he did not know of any tenders lost due to Veolia's activities in Israel. He confirmed Veolia's intention to stay in Israel and the occupied Palestinian territories, while exiting the transport business. On 1 April 2015, the company announced on its website \"Veolia closes the sale of its activities in Israel.\" This was taken by supporters of the BDS (Boycott Divestment and Sanctions) movement to signify a success for their campaigning efforts: \"The sale follows a worldwide campaign against the company’s role in illegal Israeli settlements that cost the firm billions of dollars of lost contracts.\"", "Veolia offered unpaid internship positions under the Irish government's JobBridge initiative. This scheme was opposed by left-wing political groups, who claim it amounts to free labour and can cause a claimant who refuses many such offers to fall foul of a provision in the Irish Social Welfare that allows benefits to be withdrawn from unemployed who were fired.", "On 22 June 2016, Michigan Attorney General Bill Schuette began its first civil action in the Flint water crisis by filing suit against Veolia North America and Lockwood, Andrews & Newnam (LAN) who were hired to consult Flint water plant officials after the switch to the Flint River in April 2015. The lawsuit accuses Veolia and LAN of professional negligence and public nuisance. Veolia is also accused of fraud. Veolia called the accusations \"baseless, entirely unfounded and appears to be intended to distract from the troubling and disturbing realities that have emerged as a result of this tragedy\". And added: \"In fact, when Veolia raised potential lead and copper issues, city officials and representatives told us to exclude it from our scope of work because the city and the EPA were just beginning to conduct lead and copper testing.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Operational History.", "Europe.", "Czech Republic.", "Finland.", "France.", "Ireland.", "Germany.", "Portugal.", "Netherlands.", "Spain.", "Sweden.", "United Kingdom.", "Former UK operations.", "Former operations.", "Belgium.", "Central Europe.", "Italy.", "Jersey.", "Switzerland.", "North America.", "Canada.", "United States.", "Oceania.", "Australia and New Zealand.", "New Caledonia.", "Asia.", "China, South Korea, India and Philippines.", "Former operations.", "South America.", "Colombia.", "Chile.", "Middle East and Africa.", "Morocco.", "Former operations.", "Israel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "The group was formed by the merger of Veolia Transport and Transdev on 3 April 2011. Veolia Environnement and Caisse des Dépôts et Consignations (CDC) had 50% shareholdings. It was initially planned for the company to be sold by an initial public offering, potentially accompanied by a rebranding, within 12 months of the merger. On 6 December 2011 Veolia Environment, seeking to reduce debt and focus on its core businesses of water, waste and energy, announced a €5 bn divestment program over 2012/13 that would include a sale of its share in Veolia Transdev within two years. At the time of the announcement, Veolia Transdev declared its intention to concentrate on four main markets (France, the Netherlands, Germany, United States), to develop UK, Asia and Australia and to divest from other countries and other activities amounting to about 9-10% of global revenue in 2012/13. After this announcement, the Caisse des Dépôts et Consignations, for its part, officially reiterated its commitment to Veolia Transdev and its continued support as a shareholder to the group's development. In early 2012 it was reported that Cube Infrastructure, a fund controlled by the French bank Natixis (Groupe BPCE), was likely to acquire about half of Veolia's stake in Transdev. The Caisse des Dépôts would take over the other half. This was later changed in October 2012 to Caisse des Dépôts acquiring 10% of the shares from Veolia. This however was not implemented. Following the sale of Transdev subsidiary SNCM in late 2015, CDC and Veolia continued talks about selling Veolia's stake in the joint venture. In December 2016, CDC finally bought 20% shares from Veolia. As a result, Veolia's share became 30% while CDC's share became 70%. In October 2018, Veolia announced its intention to sell its remaining 30% shareholding to the Rethmann Group. The transaction was completed in January 2019, with Rethmann increasing its shareholding to 34% by adding its Rhenus Veniro subsidiary to the Transdev portfolio.", "At the time of merger, Transdev operated in the following 27 countries. In 2014, the operations at the time were organised into seven geographical areas (struckthrough countries' operations have already ceased): In 2013 CEO Jérôme Gallot confirmed Veolia Transdev would consolidate its operations down to 17 countries. As of December 2018, Transdev operates in 20 countries organised into four regions, spanning across six continents. The list only counts sovereign countries and therefore excludes New Caledonia (France) and Hong Kong (China). Jersey, a British Crown dependency, was previously also not counted for the same reason, when Veolia Transdev operated MyBus operations until 2012. Additionally, Transdev is a shareholder of Transamo, a transport engineering and consultancy firm in Europe that was inherited from the old Transdev. It specialises in the project management of public transport projects in France. Société de Transports intercommunaux de Bruxelles (STIB) is the other major shareholder of Transamo.", "", "In December 2018, Transdev commenced operating a 10-year contract in the Moravian-Silesian Region serving Bruntál, Krnov, Nový Jičín and Rýmařov. Transdev had previously operated buses in the Czech Republic until they were sold to Arriva in May 2013 (see Central Europe section below). In August 2019, Transdev acquired the 3CSAD Group that also operated in the Moravian-Silesian Region with 410 buses to become the fourth largest bus operator in the Czech Republic.", "Transdev operates in Finland as Transdev Finland Oy. It was rebranded from Veolia Transport Finland Oy on 5 February 2015.", "Transdev's subsidiary Société Varoise de Transports (SVT) has operated two lines of the Bouches du Rhône district network since 1 January 2014, serving a population of more than one million inhabitants. Transdev owned 66% of SNCM, a French ferry company operating in the Mediterranean. However, as of 2014, Transdev was planning to sell its shares. SNCM was finally sold to a Corsican firm Rocca Group in late 2015 and was renamed Maritima Ferries in January 2016. Thello (see Italy section) operates trains between Italy and France; Transdev relinquished its 33% holding in 2016. Prior to April 2019, Transdev owned Eurolines who operated coach services around Europe. In July 2015, Eurolines commenced operating 17 coach routes under the Isilines brand to coincide with the deregulation of the French coach market. Eurolines and Isilines were sold to Flixbus in April 2019. Transdev retains Isilines' B2B bus rental activities in France, which will be operated under the Transdev brand. The shared-van service Supershuttle operated in the country, but it was sold to an affiliate of Blackstreet Capital Management in September 2019, after which it ceased service at the end of 2019 citing that Uber and market changes led to its demise.", "Transdev operates Dublin's Luas tram system since 2004. Transdev Ireland was renamed from Veolia Transport Ireland in May 2013. In June 2019, Transdev was awarded a new contract to operate and maintain the system for another 6 years, effective 1 December 2019, with an option for a 5-year extension.", "Transdev Germany operates buses and trains in Germany. It was renamed from Veolia Verkehr GmbH in March 2015. Rhenus Veniro was Transdev's newest addition its German portfolio as a result of Rhenus's parent company, Rethmann, increasing its shareholding of Transdev to 34%. The shared-van service Supershuttle operated in Berlin, but it was sold to an affiliate of Blackstreet Capital Management in September 2019, after which it ceased service at the end of 2019 citingthat Uber and market changes led to its demise.", "Transdev Portugal operates bus and coach services all around Portugal, and formerly light rail. It was first established in 1997 to tender for the Metro do Porto light rail through the consortium Normetro. The light rail opened in 2002 and was operated by Transdev Portugal until 2010. Transdev Portugal also acquired the CAIMA Group in 2002 and the Group in 2010. It was rewarded the AveiroBus network with 24 buses, 1 ferry boat and 2 boats, effective from 1 January 2017. The shared-van service Supershuttle operated in the country, but it was sold to an affiliate of Blackstreet Capital Management in September 2019, after which it ceased service at the end of 2019 citing that Uber and market changes led to its demise.", "Transdev Netherlands is made up of two operations, Connexxion and Witte Kruis. There used to be an additional operation called Veolia Transport Nederland, until the branding was discontinued and replaced by Connexxion in December 2016. Transdev Netherlands was set up in December 2015 to group the three operations together under one brand, after bringing Connexxion and Veolia Transport Nederland under one management earlier in May that year. Each operation continued to exist separately with its branding unchanged until the rebranding of Veolia Transport Nederland. This arrangement was planned ever since the global rebranding of Veolia Transdev in 2013. In October 2007 Transdev acquired a 50% shareholding in Connexxion. In February 2013 Transdev's shareholding increased to 86%. Veolia Transport Nederland operated bus, train and ferry services around Netherlands since 1997. In December 2016, the last remaining concession of Veolia Transport Nederland was rebranded to Connexxion. Witte Kruis (Dutch for White Cross) is Transdev's mobile care organization in Netherlands. The shared-van service Supershuttle operated in the country, but it was sold to an affiliate of Blackstreet Capital Management in September 2019, after which it ceased service at the end of 2019 citing that Uber and market changes led to its demise.", "Transdev is one of the few companies that make up TramMet, a joint venture company that operates two tram lines in Barcelona: Trambaix and Trambesòs. Transdev has 66% stake in the operating companies of the tram networks, and 5.53% of the concession companies. Transdev, together with Saycr and Ineco, also formerly formed the Tenemetro, S.L., which had a 14% stake (out of which, Transdev 8.5%) of Metropolitano de Tenerife (MTSA), the operator of Tenerife Tram since 2003. Cabildo Insular de Tenerife (the Tenerife Island Government) also owned 80% stake of the company. This tram operation was passed down from the old Transdev. The 14% was sold back to the Cabildo (Tenerife government) on 4 April 2017, who now owns 100% of MTSA. Transdev also participated in the pre-operation and operation of the and the in Madrid. The shared-van service Supershuttle operated in the country, but it was sold to an affiliate of Blackstreet Capital Management in September 2019, after which it ceased service at the end of 2019 citing that Uber and market changes led to its demise.", "Transdev, known as Transdev Sverige AB, operates a number of subsidiaries in Sweden. The company was rebranded from Veolia Transport Sverige AB on 2 February 2015. Its subsidiaries are: Transdev also won the tender to operate bus services in Umeå from 13 June 2016. In January 2018, Transdev completed its acquisition of, a ferry operator in the Stockholm archipelago. It currently operates on one of the four ferry contracts in the Stockholm archipelago. In December 2018, Blidösundsbolaget was awarded a second and the largest of the Stockholm archipelago contracts, for a period of nine years starting December 2019. Additionally, in April 2018, Blidösundsbolaget has been commissioned to operate the shuttle service on Ekerölinjen no. 89 for seven years starting in August 2018. In July 2019, Transdev Sweden won a 10-year bus market worth €757 million, comprising five contracts, in the Västra Götaland region in Gothenburg. The contracts will commence in December 2020. Later that month (July 2019), Transdev announced the acquisition of A Björks AB, a major bus operator in Central and Northern Sweden. The acquisition was completed in September 2019 and Transdev became Sweden's third largest public transportation operator. Ceased contracts:", "In the United Kingdom, Transdev operates Transdev Blazefield, Green Tomato Cars, Trident Niven, Black Car Service and holds an 18% shareholding in Nottingham City Transport. Transdev Blazefield is a bus group with operations in Yorkshire and Lancashire. It has six operating subsidiaries: Transdev owns three car services in London. Green Tomato Cars is an environmentally friendly passenger car service in London and was established in 2006. Trident Niven, acquired in December 2012, is a London-based private hire company and has a fleet of 100 cars. Black Car Service, established in May 2014, is a new corporate chauffeured car service in London, with a fleet of 150 black unbranded Volkswagen CCs (as of May 2014).", "Arrow Light Rail, a consortium between old Transdev, Nottingham City Transport, Bombardier Transportation, Carillion, Galaxy and Innisfree, was contracted to build and operate the Nottingham Express Transit for 30.5 years from 9 March 2004. However, the contract was ripped up in 2011 when Tramlink Nottingham (a Keolis consortium) was selected as the preferred bidder for the construction of Phase 2 of the light rail and operation of the network. The last day of operations of Arrow Light Rail was 16 December 2011, few months after the establishment of Veolia Transdev. The old Transdev used to own London Sovereign and London United, two of the 20 bus operators serving London, up to the merger with Veolia Transport in March 2011. Veolia Transdev took over London Sovereign from the old Transdev until it was sold to RATP Group in April 2014. Veolia Transdev never took over London United, instead it passed to RATP. The shared-van service Supershuttle operated in the country, but it was sold to an affiliate of Blackstreet Capital Management in September 2019, after which it ceased service at the end of 2019 citing that Uber and market changes led to its demise.", "", "In Belgium, Veolia Transdev's operations were known as Veolia Transport Belgium (VTB). VTB was sold to a consortium consisting of Cube Infrastructure and Gimv in March 2014.", "In Central Europe, Veolia Transdev's operations were known as Veolia Transport Central Europe GmbH (VTCE) and included operations in Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland and Serbia. They were sold to Arriva in May 2013.", "Thello was a joint venture between Transdev and Italian state owned railway company Trenitalia, operating train services between France and Italy since 2011. Transdev sold its 33% holding to Trenitalia in 2016, giving the latter full control.", "Between September 2002 and December 2012, Veolia Transdev (and previously Veolia Transport) operated Connex Transport Jersey, with the route network branded as MyBus for some of this period.", "The shared-van service Supershuttle operated in the country, but it was sold to an affiliate of Blackstreet Capital Management in September 2019, after which it ceased service at the end of 2019 citing that Uber and market changes led to its demise.", "Transdev North America, formerly Veolia Transportation until August/September 2014, is the North American business unit of Transdev. It operates a number of public transport services across the United States and Canada. Transdev North America's operations can be split into four divisions: Transit (buses and paratransit), Rail (trains and light rail), On-Demand (airport shuttles, taxis, private sedans and charter bus services) and IntelliRide (healthcare-related transportation). Other North American operations inherited from the old Transdev (Limocar) were never part of Veolia Transportation and therefore are not part of Transdev North America.", "Transdev Canada is the Transdev subsidiary in Canada and it has the following operations: Transdev Canada announced its acquisition of Voyago on 8 April 2019. Voyago is a Canadian-owned group of transportation companies with a fleet of 970 vehicles, operating services including patient transfer services and student transport services.", "Transdev North America US' operations include:", "", "Transdev Australasia operates:", "Transdev owns Transdev Outre-Mer, who runs the bus operation in Nouméa, as a partnership with Carsud and Semitan. The partnership agreement was signed in April 2014. Transdev's predecessor Connex, operated the bus operation since February 2002.", "", "RATP Dev Transdev Asia (RDTA) is a joint venture between Transdev and RATP Group created in 2009 between Veolia Transport and RATP Dev. It was originally named Veolia Transport RATP Asia (VTRA) until the Transdev global rebranding in 2013. RDTA operates:", "RDTA (and predecessor VTRA) also formerly operated:", "", "Transdev, in conjunction with three other operators, runs an right-of-way bus line of TransMilenio system in Bogotá unner the name Connexion Móvil. The contract started in 2000, and was recently extended until December 2023. In May 2018, Cable Movil, a consortium consisting of Transdev Chile and, won the contract to operate the new TransMiCable cable car operation in Bogotá, starting from December 2018 for a period of 5.5 years with a possible 2.5 year extension.", "Transdev operates in Santiago, Chile. It is Transdev's largest bus urban networks with revenues of more than 70 million euros in 2012.", "", "Transdev operates the Rabat-Salé tramway, the first light rail service in Morocco, since May 2011. Until Veolia Transdev's rebranding to Transdev in 2013, the tramway was operated under the old Transdev's name and logo. Transdev's contract to operate the tramway was renewed for another 10 years starting January 2020.", "", "Transdev inherited from Veolia Transport the Jerusalem Light Rail project that Veolia Environment had been trying to sell since at least 2009. As of December 2011, the agreed sale of the Jerusalem Light Rail to Egged was reported to have been held up by the Israeli state. Egged will however need Veolia's expertise for at least five years to run the light rail successfully. The sale was finally approved in August 2015. Transdev also operated buses in Israel as Veolia Transport Israel (more commonly Connex Israel): The buses in Modi'in were sold to Kavim in July 2013, while the rest were sold to Afikim in September 2013." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Geography and climate.", "Ecology.", "Marine.", "Terrestrial.", "History.", "Japanese administration.", "Current situation.", "Economy.", "Military.", "Atlasov Island.", "List of main islands." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"Kuril\" originates from the autonym of the aboriginal Ainu, the islands' original inhabitants: \"kur\", meaning \"man\". It may also be related to names for other islands that have traditionally been inhabited by the Ainu people, such as \"Kuyi\" or \"Kuye\" for Sakhalin and \"Kai\" for Hokkaidō. In Japanese, the Kuril Islands are known as the Chishima Islands (Kanji:, literally, \"Thousand Islands Archipelago\"), also known as the Kuriru Islands (Katakana:, literally, \"Kuril Archipelago\"). Once the Russians reached the islands in the 18th century they found a pseudo-etymology from Russian \"kurit' \" (курить – \"to smoke\") due to the continual fumes and steam above the islands from volcanoes.", "The Kuril Islands form part of the ring of tectonic instability encircling the Pacific Ocean referred to as the Ring of Fire. The islands themselves are summits of stratovolcanoes that are a direct result of the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Okhotsk Plate, which forms the Kuril Trench some east of the islands. The chain has around 100 volcanoes, some 40 of which are active, and many hot springs and fumaroles. There is frequent seismic activity, including a magnitude 8.5 earthquake in 1963 and one of magnitude 8.3 recorded on November 15, 2006, which resulted in tsunami waves up to reaching the California coast. Raikoke Island, near the centre of the archipelago, has an active volcano which erupted again in June 2019, with emissions reaching 13,000 m. The climate on the islands is generally severe, with long, cold, stormy winters and short and notoriously foggy summers. The average annual precipitation is, a large portion of which falls as snow. The Köppen climate classification of most of the Kurils is subarctic (\"Dfc\"), although Kunashir is humid continental (\"Dfb\"). However, the Kuril Islands’ climate resembles the subpolar oceanic climate of southwest Alaska much more than the hypercontinental climate of Manchuria and interior Siberia, as precipitation is heavy and permafrost completely absent. It is characterized by mild summers with only 1 to 3 months above and cold, snowy, extremely windy winters below, although usually above. The chain ranges from temperate to sub-Arctic climate types, and the vegetative cover consequently ranges from tundra in the north to dense spruce and larch forests on the larger southern islands. The highest elevations on the islands are Alaid volcano (highest point: ) on Atlasov Island at the northern end of the chain and Tyatya volcano () on Kunashir Island at the southern end. Landscape types and habitats on the islands include many kinds of beach and rocky shores, cliffs, wide rivers and fast gravelly streams, forests, grasslands, alpine tundra, crater lakes and peat bogs. The soils are generally productive, owing to the periodic influxes of volcanic ash and, in certain places, owing to significant enrichment by seabird guano. However, many of the steep, unconsolidated slopes are susceptible to landslides and newer volcanic activity can entirely denude a landscape. Only the southernmost island has large areas covered by trees, while more northerly islands have no trees, or spotty tree cover.", "", "Owing to their location along the Pacific shelf edge and the confluence of Okhotsk Sea gyre and the southward Oyashio Current, the Kuril islands are surrounded by waters that are among the most productive in the North Pacific, supporting a wide range and high abundance of marine life. Invertebrates: Extensive kelp beds surrounding almost every island provide crucial habitat for sea urchins, various mollusks and countless other invertebrates and their associated predators. Many species of squid provide a principal component of the diet of many of the smaller marine mammals and birds along the chain. Fish: Further offshore, walleye pollock, Pacific cod, several species of flatfish are of the greatest commercial importance. During the 1980s, migratory Japanese sardine was one of the most abundant fish in the summer and the main pinnipeds were a significant object of harvest for the indigenous populations of the Kuril islands, both for food and materials such as skin and bone. The long term fluctuations in the range and distribution of human settlements along the Kuril island presumably tracked the pinniped ranges. In historical times, fur seals were heavily exploited for their fur in the 19th and early 20th centuries and several of the largest reproductive rookeries, as on Raykoke island, were extirpated. In contrast, commercial harvest of the true seals and Steller sea lions has been relatively insignificant on the Kuril islands proper. Since the 1960s there has been essentially no additional harvest and the pinniped populations in the Kuril islands appear to be fairly healthy and in some cases expanding. The notable exception is the now extinct Japanese sea lion which was known to occasionally haul out on the Kuril islands. Sea otters were exploited very heavily for their pelts in the 19th century, as shown by 19th and 20th century whaling catch and sighting records. Seabirds: The Kuril islands are home to many millions of seabirds, including northern fulmars, tufted puffins, murres, kittiwakes, guillemots, auklets, petrels, gulls and cormorants. On many of the smaller islands in summer, where terrestrial predators are absent, virtually every possibly hummock, cliff niche or underneath of boulder is occupied by a nesting bird.", "The composition of terrestrial species on the Kuril islands is dominated by Asian mainland taxa via migration from Hokkaido and Sakhalin Islands and by Kamchatkan taxa from the North. While highly diverse, there is a relatively low level of endemism. The WWF divides the Kuril Islands into two ecoregions. The southern Kurils, along with southwestern Sakhalin, comprise the South Sakhalin-Kurile mixed forests ecoregion. The northern islands are part of the Kamchatka-Kurile meadows and sparse forests, a larger ecoregion that extends onto the Kamchatka Peninsula and Commander Islands. Because of the generally smaller size and isolation of the central islands, few major terrestrial mammals have colonized these, though red and Arctic foxes were introduced for the sake of the fur trade in the 1880s. The bulk of the terrestrial mammal biomass is taken up by rodents, many introduced in historical times. The largest southernmost and northernmost islands are inhabited by brown bear, foxes, and martens. Some species of deer are found on the more southerly islands. It is claimed that a wild cat, the Kurilian Bobtail, originates from the Kuril Islands. The bobtail is due to the mutation of a dominant gene. The cat has been domesticated and exported to nearby Russia and bred there, becoming a popular domestic cat. Among terrestrial birds, ravens, peregrine falcons, some wrens and wagtails are common.", "The Ainu people were early inhabitants of Kuril Islands, although there are few records that predate the 17th century. The Japanese administration first took nominal control of the islands in the Edo period of Japan, in the form of claims by the Matsumae clan. It is claimed that the Japanese knew of the northern islands 370 years ago. On the \"Shōhō Era Map of Japan\" (), a map of Japan made by the Tokugawa shogunate in 1644, there are 39 large and small islands shown northeast of the Shiretoko Peninsula and Cape Nosappu. Choka seems to have been the Ainu name for Paramushir and its neighbouring islands. Then Rakkoshima (\"sea-otter isles\") extended from Onnekotan to Simushir. Urup, Iturup and Kunashir are the three southern islands. In 1811, Russian Captain Vasily Golovnin and his crew, who stopped at Kunashir during their hydrographic survey, were captured by retainers of the Nambu clan, and sent to the Matsumae authorities. Because a Japanese trader, Takadaya Kahei, was also captured by Petr Rikord, Captain of a Russian vessel near Kunashir in 1812, Japan and Russia entered into negotiations to establish the border between the two countries. American whaleships caught right whales off the islands between 1847 and 1892. Three of the ships were wrecked on the islands: two on Urup in 1855 and one on Makanrushi in 1856. In September 1892, the bark \"Cape Horn Pigeon\", of New Bedford, was seized by a Russian schooner north of Kunashir Island and escorted to Vladivostok, where it was detained for nearly two weeks. The \"Treaty of Commerce, Navigation and Delimitation\" was concluded in 1855, and the border was established between Iturup and Urup. This border confirmed that Japanese territory stretched south from Iturup and Russian territory stretched north of Urup. Sakhalin remained a place where people from both countries could live. The Treaty of Saint Petersburg in 1875 resulted in Japan relinquishing all rights over Sakhalin in exchange for Russia ceding all of the Kuril Islands south of Kamchatka. During the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, Gunji, a retired Japanese military man and local settler in Shumshu, led an invading party to the Kamchatka coast. Russia sent reinforcements to the area to capture and intern this group. After the war was over, Japan received fishing rights in Russian waters as part of the Russo-Japanese Fisheries Agreement until 1945. During their armed intervention in Siberia 1918–1925, Japanese forces from the northern Kurils, along with United States and European forces, occupied southern Kamchatka. Japanese vessels made naval strikes against Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. While in February 1945 the Yalta Agreement had promised to the Soviet Union South Sakhalin and the Kuril islands in return for entering into World War II against the Japanese, the Soviet Union nevertheless mounted an armed invasion of South Sakhalin at the cost of over 5,000 lives. Japan maintains a claim to the four southernmost islands of Kunashir, Iturup, Shikotan, and the Habomai rocks, together called the \"Northern Territories\".", "In 1869, the Meiji government established the Colonization Commission in Sapporo to aid in the development of the northern area. Ezo was renamed Hokkaidō and Kita Ezo later received the name of Karafuto. Eleven provinces and 86 districts were founded by Meiji government and were put under the control of feudal clans. Because the Meiji government could not sufficiently cope with Russians moving to south Sakhalin, Japan negotiated with Russia over control of the Kuril Islands, resulting in the Treaty of Saint Petersburg that ceded the eighteen islands north of Uruppu to Japan and all of Sakhalin to Russia. Road networks and post offices were established on Kunashiri and Etorofu. Life on the islands became more stable when a regular sea route connecting islands with Hokkaidō was opened and a telegraphic system began. At the end of the Taishō period, towns and villages were organized in the northern territories and village offices were established on each island. The Habomai island towns were all part of Habomai Village for example. In other cases the town and village system was not adopted on islands north of Uruppu, which were under direct control of the Nemuro Subprefectural office of the Hokkaidō government. Each village had a district forestry system, a marine product examination center, salmon hatchery, post office, police station, elementary school, Shinto temple, and other public facilities. In 1930, 8,300 people lived on Kunashiri island and 6,000 on Etorofu island, and most of them were engaged in coastal and high sea fishing. Since the very end of 19th century, Japanese administration started the forced assimilation of native Ainu people. Also at this time, the Ainu were granted automatic Japanese citizenship, effectively denying them the status of an indigenous group. Many Japanese moved over to former Ainu lands, including Kuril islands. The Ainu were forced to learn Japanese, required to adopt Japanese names, and ordered to cease religious practices such as animal sacrifice and the custom of tattooing. Prior to Japanese colonization (in 1868) there were reportedly just about 100 Ainu living in the Kuril islands.", ", 19,434 people inhabited the Kuril Islands. These include ethnic Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Tatars, Nivkhs, Oroch, and Ainus. Russian Orthodoxy and Islam are the only religions with significant following among the population. Some of the villages are permanently manned by Russian soldiers (especially in Kunashir following recent tensions). Others are inhabited by civilians, which are mostly fishermen, workers of the fish factories, dockers, and social sphere workers (policemen, medics, teachers, etc.). Recent construction works on the islands attracts a lot of migrant workers from the rest of Russia and other Post-Soviet states., there were only 8 inhabited islands out of a total of 56. Iturup Island is over 60% ethnically Ukrainian. On 8 February 2017 the Russian government gave names to five previously unnamed Kuril islands in Sakhalin Oblast: Derevyanko Island (after Kuzma Derevyanko, ), Gnechko Island (after Alexey Gnechko, ), Gromyko Island (after Andrei Gromyko, ), Farkhutdinov Island (after Igor Farkhutdinov, ) and Shchetinina Island (after Anna Shchetinina, ).", "Fishing is the primary occupation. The islands have strategic and economic value, in terms of fisheries and also mineral deposits of pyrite, sulfur, and various polymetallic ores. There are hopes that oil exploration will provide an economic boost to the islands. The economic rise of the Russian Federation has been seen on the Kurils too. The most visible sign of improvement is the new construction in infrastructure. In 2014, construction workers built a pier and a breakwater in Kitovy Bay, central Iturup, where barges are a major means of transport, sailing between the cove and ships anchored offshore. A new road has been carved through the woods near Kurilsk, the island's biggest village, going to the site of Yuzhno-Kurilsk Mendeleyevo Airport. Gidrostroy, the Kurils' biggest business group with interests in fishing, construction and real estate, built its second fish processing factory on Iturup island in 2006, introducing a state-of-the-art conveyor system. To deal with a rise in the demand of electricity, the local government is also upgrading a state-run geothermal power plant at Mount Baransky, an active volcano, where steam and hot water can be found.", "The main Russian force stationed on the islands is the 18th Machine Gun Artillery Division, which has its headquarters in Goryachiye Klyuchi on Iturup Island. There are also Border Guard Service troops stationed on the islands. In February 2011, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev called for substantial reinforcements of the Kuril Islands defences. Subsequently in 2015, additional anti-aircraft missile systems 'Tor', 'BUK' missile systems, coastal defence missile systems 'Bastion', combat helicopters Ka-52 'Alligator' and 1 'Varshavyanka' project submarine came on defence of Kuril Islands.", "The northernmost, Atlasov Island (Oyakoba in Japanese), is an almost-perfect volcanic cone rising sheer out of the sea; it has been praised by the Japanese in haiku, wood-block prints, and other forms, in much the same way as the better-known Mt. Fuji.", "While in Russian sources the islands are mentioned for the first time in 1646, the earliest detailed information about them was provided by the explorer Vladimir Atlasov in 1697. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, the Kuril Islands were explored by Danila Antsiferov, I. Kozyrevsky, Ivan Yevreinov, Fyodor Luzhin, Martin Shpanberg, Adam Johann von Krusenstern, Vasily Golovnin, and Henry James Snow. The following table lists information on the main islands from north to south:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "As a subgroup.", "Conjugacy classes and centralizers.", "Conjugation.", "Higher centers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The center of \"G\" is always a subgroup of. In particular: Furthermore, the center of is always a normal subgroup of. Since all elements of commute, it is closed under conjugation.", "By definition, the center is the set of elements for which the conjugacy class of each element is the element itself; i.e., }. The center is also the intersection of all the centralizers of each element of. As centralizers are subgroups, this again shows that the center is a subgroup.", "Consider the map,, from to the automorphism group of defined by, where is the automorphism of defined by The function, is a group homomorphism, and its kernel is precisely the center of, and its image is called the inner automorphism group of, denoted. By the first isomorphism theorem we get, The cokernel of this map is the group of outer automorphisms, and these form the exact sequence", "Quotienting out by the center of a group yields a sequence of groups called the upper central series: The kernel of the map, is the th center of (second center, third center, etc.), and is denoted. Concretely, the ()-st center are the terms that commute with all elements up to an element of the th center. Following this definition, one can define the 0th center of a group to be the identity subgroup. This can be continued to transfinite ordinals by transfinite induction; the union of all the higher centers is called the hypercenter. The ascending chain of subgroups stabilizes at \"i\" (equivalently, ) if and only if is centerless." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geographical definition.", "Geology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Most of the perimeter of the Western Carpathians is quite sharply defined by valleys. To the northwest and north they are separated from the Bohemian Massif by the Forecarpathian Lowland and the Lesser Poland Upland; to the west the Moravian Gate leads over to the Sudetes. To the south the mountain chain falls away towards the Pannonian Plain, a large plain situated between the Alps, the Dinaric Alps, and the main mass of the Eastern Carpathians. The boundary between the Western Carpathians and the Eastern Alps is formed by the Vienna Basin, the Hainburg Hills of the Little Carpathians at Devín Gate, and a gap carved by the Danube. To the east and northeast the mountains are bounded by the East Slovak and Sandomierz Basins, but it is less striking and passes through highland terrain that continues to the Eastern Carpathians.", "The Western Carpathians are part of the northern branch of alpine orogeny, which was formed by the closure of the Tethys Ocean millions of years ago. The Western Carpathians are part of the Alpide belt. To the west they longitudinally join the Alps, but the exact boundary is hidden under the Neogene sedimentary fill of the Vienna Basin. To the east, their boundary with the Eastern Carpathians is the valley of the Hornád or Uzh River. The northern boundary with the East European craton and Bohemian Massif is well marked by the thrust of nappes of the Carpathian flysch belt. The southern boundary is less clear, because later postorogenetic evolution caused formation of basins, penetrating the mountain chain non-uniformly. The Western Carpathians have a complicated geological structure, that has been formed since the Paleozoic era. The oldest Paleozoic rocks experienced the first stage of deformation during the Hercynian orogeny, but younger Alpine overprint is common. Alpine orogeny affected the area in several stages from Jurassic to Neogene. During this period, parts of Tethys Ocean were subducted under the African plate and Western Carpathian blocks were thrust over the margin of the Eurasian plate. Tectonic units of the Western Carpathians are arranged in belt-like order, with the external units in the north and internal units in the south. Alpine evolution of the Western Carpathians is dominated by extension and closure of two or three oceanic domains: Triassic-Jurassic Meliata-Halstatt Ocean, Jurassic-Cretaceous Piemont-Vahic Ocean/Zone and Cretaceous-Tertiary Valais-Magura Ocean. After a subduction of the Meliata Ocean, the Internal Western Carpathians were formed. Suturing of Vahic domain finalized thrusting in the Central Western Carpathians, and consuming the crust of Carpathian Flysch Basins caused the formation of the External West Carpathian accretionary wedge (Flysch Belt)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Terminology.", "General biology and habitat.", "Behavior.", "Social behaviour.", "Courtship.", "Nesting and laying behaviour.", "Broodiness.", "Hatching and early life.", "Defensive behaviour.", "Embryology.", "Breeding.", "Origins.", "Use by humans.", "Farming.", "Reared for meat.", "Reared for eggs.", "As pets.", "Artificial incubation.", "Diseases and ailments.", "In religion and mythology.", "In history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the UK and Ireland, adult male chickens over the age of one year are primarily known as \"cocks\", whereas in the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, they are more commonly called \"roosters\". Males less than a year old are \"cockerels\". Castrated or neutered roosters are called \"capons\" (surgical and chemical castration are now illegal in some parts of the world). Females over a year old are known as \"hens\", and younger females as \"pullets\", although in the egg-laying industry,", "Chickens are omnivores. In the wild, they often scratch at the soil to search for seeds, insects and even animals as large as lizards, small snakes, or young mice. The average chicken may live for five to ten years, depending on the breed. The world's oldest known chicken was a hen which died of heart failure at the age of 16 years according to the Guinness World Records. Roosters can usually be differentiated from hens by their striking plumage of long flowing tails and shiny, pointed feathers on their necks (\"hackles\") and backs (\"saddle\"), which are typically of brighter, bolder colours than those of females of the same breed. However, in some breeds, such as the Sebright chicken, the rooster has only slightly pointed neck feathers, the same colour as the hen's. The identification can be made by looking at the comb, or eventually from the development of spurs on the male's legs (in a few breeds and in certain hybrids, the male and female chicks may be differentiated by colour). Adult chickens have a fleshy crest on their heads called a comb, or cockscomb, and hanging flaps of skin either side under their beaks called wattles. Collectively, these and other fleshy protuberances on the head and throat are called caruncles. Both the adult male and female have wattles and combs, but in most breeds these are more prominent in males. A \"muff\" or \"beard\" is a mutation found in several chicken breeds which causes extra feathering under the chicken's face, giving the appearance of a beard. Domestic chickens are not capable of long distance flight, although lighter chickens are generally capable of flying for short distances, such as over fences or into trees (where they would naturally roost). Chickens may occasionally fly briefly to explore their surroundings, but generally do so only to flee perceived danger.", "", "Chickens are gregarious birds and live together in flocks. They have a communal approach to the incubation of eggs and raising of young. Individual chickens in a flock will dominate others, establishing a \"pecking order\", with dominant individuals having priority for food access and nesting locations. Removing hens or roosters from a flock causes a temporary disruption to this social order until a new pecking order is established. Adding hens, especially younger birds, to an existing flock can", "To initiate courting, some roosters may dance in a circle around or near a hen (\"a circle dance\"), often lowering the wing which is closest to the hen. The dance triggers a response in the hen and when she responds to his \"call\", the", "Hens will often try to lay in nests that already contain eggs and have been known to move eggs from neighbouring nests into their own. The result of this behaviour is that a flock will use only a few preferred locations, rather than having a different nest for", "Under natural conditions, most birds lay only until a clutch is complete, and they will then incubate all the eggs. Hens are then said to \"go broody\". The broody hen will stop laying and instead will focus on the incubation of the eggs (a full clutch is usually about 12 eggs). She will \"sit\" or \"set\" on the nest, protesting or pecking in defense if disturbed or removed, and she will rarely leave the nest to eat, drink, or dust-bathe. While brooding,", "Fertile chicken eggs hatch at the end of the incubation period, about 21 days. Development of the chick starts only when incubation begins, so all chicks hatch within a day or two of each other, despite perhaps being laid over a period of two weeks or so. Before hatching, the hen can hear the chicks peeping inside the eggs, and will gently cluck to stimulate them to break out of their shells. The chick begins by \"pipping\"; pecking a breathing hole with its egg tooth towards the blunt end of the egg, usually on the upper side. The chick then rests for some hours, absorbing the remaining egg yolk and withdrawing the blood supply from the membrane beneath the shell (used earlier", "Chickens may occasionally gang up on a weak or inexperienced predator. At least one credible report exists of a young fox killed by hens. A group of hens have been recorded in attacking a hawk that had entered their coop.", "In 2006, scientists researching the ancestry of birds \"turned on\" a chicken recessive gene, \"talpid2\", and found that the embryo jaws", "", "Galliformes, the class of bird that chickens belong to, is directly linked to the survival of birds when all other dinosaurs went extinct. Water or ground-dwelling fowl, similar to modern partridges, survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that killed all tree-dwelling birds and dinosaurs. Some of these evolved into the modern galliformes, of which domesticated chickens are a main model. They are descended primarily from the red junglefowl (\"Gallus gallus\") and are scientifically classified as the same species. As such, they can and do freely interbreed with populations of red junglefowl. Subsequent hybridization of domestic chicken with grey junglefowl, Sri Lankan junglefowl and green junglefowl occurred with at least, a gene for yellow skin was incorporated into domestic birds through hybridization with the grey junglefowl (\"G. sonneratii\"). In study published in 2020, it was found that chickens shared between 71% - 79% of their genome with red junglefowl with domestication period dated to 8,000 years ago. The traditional view is that chickens were first domesticated for cockfighting in Asia, Africa, and Europe. In the last decade, there have been a number of genetic studies to clarify the origins. According to one early study, a single domestication event which took place in what now is the country of Thailand gave rise to the modern chicken with minor transitions separating the modern breeds. However, that study was later found to be based on incomplete data, and recent studies point to multiple maternal origins, with the clade found in the Americas, Europe, Middle East, and Africa, originating from the Indian subcontinent, where a large number of unique haplotypes occur. The red junglefowl, known as the bamboo fowl in many Southeast Asian languages, is a special bird well-adapted to take advantage of the large amounts of fruits that are produced during the", "", "More than 50 billion chickens are reared annually as a source of meat and eggs. In the United States alone, more than 8 billion chickens are slaughtered each year for meat, and more than 300 million chickens are reared for egg production. The vast majority of poultry are raised in factory farms. According to the Worldwatch Institute, 74 percent of the world's poultry meat and 68 percent of eggs are produced this way. An alternative to intensive poultry farming is free-range farming. Friction between these two main methods has led to long-term issues of ethical consumerism. Opponents of intensive farming argue that it harms the environment, creates human health risks and is inhumane. Advocates of intensive farming say that their highly efficient systems save land and food resources owing to increased productivity, and that the animals are looked after in state-of-the-art environmentally controlled facilities.", "Chickens farmed for meat are called broilers. Chickens will naturally live for six or more years, but broiler", "Chickens farmed primarily for eggs are called layer hens. In total, the UK alone consumes more than 34 million eggs per day. Some hen breeds can produce over 300 eggs per year, with \"the highest authenticated rate of egg laying being 371 eggs in 364 days\". After 12 months of laying, the commercial hen's egg-laying ability starts to decline to the point where the flock is commercially unviable. Hens, particularly from battery cage systems, are sometimes infirm or have lost a", "Keeping chickens as pets became increasingly popular in the 2000s among urban and suburban residents. Many people obtain chickens for their egg production but often name them and treat them as any other pet. Chickens are just like any other pet in that they provide companionship and have individual personalities. While many do not cuddle much, they will eat from one's", "Incubation can successfully occur artificially in machines that provide the correct, controlled environment for the developing chick. The average incubation period for chickens is 21 days but may depend on the temperature and humidity in the incubator. Temperature regulation is the most critical factor for a successful hatch. Variations of more than 1 °C (1.8 °F) from the optimum temperature of will reduce hatch rates. Humidity is also important because the rate at which eggs lose water by evaporation depends on the ambient relative humidity. Evaporation can be assessed by candling, to view the size of the air sac, or by measuring weight loss. Relative humidity should be increased to around", "Chickens are susceptible to several parasites, including lice, mites, ticks, fleas, and intestinal worms, as well as other", "Since antiquity chickens have been, and still are, a sacred animal in some cultures and deeply embedded within belief systems and religious worship. The term \"Persian bird\" for the rooster appears to have been given by the Greeks after Persian contact \"because of his great importance and his religious use among the Persians\". In Indonesia the chicken has great significance during the Hindu cremation ceremony. A chicken is considered a channel for evil spirits which may be present during the ceremony. A chicken is tethered by the leg and kept present at the ceremony for its duration to ensure that any evil spirits present go into the chicken and not the family members. The chicken is then taken home and returns to its normal life. In ancient Greece, chickens were not normally used for sacrifices, perhaps because they were still considered an exotic animal. Because of its valor, the cock is found as an attribute of Ares, Heracles, and Athena. The alleged last words of Socrates as he died from hemlock poisoning, as recounted by Plato, were \"Crito, I owe a cock to Asclepius; will you remember to pay the debt?\", signifying that death was a cure for the illness of life. The Greeks believed that even lions were afraid of roosters. Several of Aesop's Fables reference this belief. In the New Testament, Jesus prophesied the betrayal by Peter: \"Jesus answered, 'I tell you, Peter, before the rooster crows today, you will deny three times that you know me.'\" It happened, and Peter cried bitterly. This made the rooster a symbol for both vigilance and betrayal. Earlier, Jesus compares himself to a mother hen when talking about Jerusalem: \"O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, you who kill the prophets and stone those sent to you, how often I have longed to gather your children together, as a hen gathers her chicks under her wings, but you were not willing.\" In the sixth century, Pope Gregory I declared the rooster the emblem of Christianity and another Papal enactment of the ninth century", "An early domestication of chickens in Southeast Asia is probable, since the word for domestic chicken (\"*manuk\") is part of the reconstructed Proto-Austronesian language. Chickens, together with dogs and pigs, were the domestic animals of the Lapita culture, the first Neolithic culture of Oceania. The first pictures of chickens in Europe are found on Corinthian pottery of the 7th century BC. The poet Cratinus (mid-5th century BC, according to the later Greek author Athenaeus) calls the chicken \"the Persian alarm\". In Aristophanes's comedy \"The Birds\" (414 BC) a chicken is called \"the Median bird\", which points to an introduction from the East. Pictures of chickens are found on Greek red figure and black-figure pottery. In ancient Greece, chickens were still rare and were a rather prestigious food for symposia. Delos seems to have been a center of chicken breeding (Columella, \"De Re Rustica\" 8.3.4). \"About 3200 BC chickens were common in Sindh. After the attacks of Aria people these fowls spred from Sindh to Balakh and Iran. During attacks and wars between Iranian and Greeks the chickens of Hellanic breed came in Iran and about 1000 BC Hellanic chickens came into Sindh through Medan\". The Romans used chickens for oracles, both when flying (\"ex avibus\", Augury) and when feeding (\"auspicium ex tripudiis\", Alectryomancy). The hen (\"gallina\") gave a favourable omen (\"auspicium ratum\"), when appearing from the left (Cic., de Div. ii.26), like the crow and the owl. For the oracle \"ex tripudiis\" according to Cicero (Cic. de Div. ii.34), any bird could be used in auspice, and shows at one point that any bird could perform the \"tripudium\" but normally only chickens (\"pulli\") were consulted. The chickens were cared for by the pullarius, who opened their cage and fed them pulses or a special kind of soft cake when an augury was needed. If the chickens stayed in their cage, made noises (\"occinerent\"), beat their wings or flew away, the omen was bad; if they ate greedily, the omen was good. In 249 BC, the Roman general Publius Claudius Pulcher had his \"sacred chickens\" \" thrown overboard when they refused to feed before the battle of Drepana, saying \"If they won't eat, perhaps they will drink.\" He promptly lost the battle against the Carthaginians and 93 Roman ships were sunk. Back in Rome, he was tried for impiety and heavily fined. In 162 BC, the \"Lex Faunia\" forbade fattening hens on grain which was a measure enacted to reduce the demand for grain. To get around this, the Romans castrated roosters (capon), which resulted in a doubling of size despite the law that was passed in Rome that forbade the consumption of fattened chickens. It was renewed a number of times, but does not seem to have been successful. Fattening chickens with bread soaked in milk was thought to give especially delicious results. The Roman gourmet Apicius offers 17 recipes for chicken, mainly boiled chicken with a sauce. All parts of the animal are used: the recipes include the stomach, liver, testicles and even the pygostyle (the fatty \"tail\" of the chicken where the tail feathers attach). The Roman author Columella gives advice on chicken breeding in the eighth book of his treatise, \"De Re Rustica\" (On Agriculture). He identified Tanagrian, Rhodic, Chalkidic and Median (commonly misidentified as Melian) breeds, which have an impressive appearance, a quarrelsome nature and were used for cockfighting by the Greeks (\"De Re Rustica\" 8.3.4). For farming, native (Roman) chickens are to be preferred, or a cross between native hens and Greek cocks (\"De Re Rustica\" 8.2.13). Dwarf chickens are nice to watch because of their size but have no other advantages. According to Columella (\"De Re Rustica\" 8.2.7), the ideal flock consists of 200 birds, which can be supervised by one person if someone is watching for stray animals. White chickens should be avoided as they are not very fertile and are easily caught by eagles or goshawks. One cock should be kept for five hens. In the case of Rhodian and Median cocks that are very heavy and therefore not much inclined to sex, only three hens are kept per cock. The hens of heavy fowls are not much inclined to brood; therefore their eggs are best hatched by normal hens. A hen can hatch no more than 15-23 eggs, depending on the time of year, and supervise no more than 30 hatchlings. Eggs that are long and pointed give more male hatchlings, rounded eggs mainly female hatchlings (\"De Re Rustica\" 8.5.11). Columella also states that chicken coops should face southeast and lie adjacent to the kitchen, as smoke is beneficial for the animals and \"poultry never thrive so well as in warmth and smoke\" (\"De Re Rustica\" 8.3.1). Coops should consist of three rooms and possess a hearth. Dry dust or ash should be provided for dust-baths. According to Columella (\"De Re Rustica\" 8.4.1), chickens should be fed on barley groats, small chick-peas, millet and wheat bran, if they are cheap. Wheat itself should be avoided as it is harmful to the birds. Boiled ryegrass (\"Lolium\" sp.) and the leaves and seeds of alfalfa (\"Medicago sativa\" L.) can be used as well. Grape marc can be used, but only when the hens stop laying eggs, that is, about the middle of November; otherwise eggs are small and few. When feeding grape marc, it should be supplemented with some bran. Hens start to lay eggs after the winter solstice, in warm places around the first of January, in colder areas in the middle of February. Parboiled barley increases their fertility; this should be mixed with alfalfa leaves and seeds, or vetches or millet if alfalfa is not at hand. Free-ranging chickens should receive two cups of barley daily. Columella advises farmers to slaughter hens that are older than three years, those that aren't productive or are poor care-takers of their eggs, and particularly those that eat their own and other hens' eggs. According to Aldrovandi, capons were produced by burning \"the hind part of the bowels, or loins or spurs\" with a hot iron. The wound was treated with potter's chalk. For the use of poultry and eggs in the kitchens of ancient Rome see Roman eating and drinking. Chickens were spread by Polynesian seafarers and reached Easter Island in the 12th century AD, where they were the only domestic animal, with the possible exception of the Polynesian rat (\"Rattus exulans\"). They were housed in extremely solid chicken coops built from stone, which was first reported as such to Linton Palmer in 1868, who also \"expressed his doubts about this\".." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Access.", "Geography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Dyje–Svratka Valley has been a natural pass between the Vienna Basin (Carpathians) and the Vyškov Gate, the Upper Morava Valley, Moravian Gate and later, the North European Plain (Poland - Lower Silesia - Galicia) since ancient times. It served as an arm of several important trade routes from southern Europe to the Baltic Sea such as the Amber Road, as well as routes from Moravia to Upper Silesia and Lesser Poland. The Emperor Ferdinand Northern Railway from Břeclav to Brno traverses the Dyje–Svratka Valley.", "Highways that traverse the Dyje-Svratka Valley include D1 from Prague to Brno, D2 from Brno to Břeclav and Bratislava, and D52 from Brno to Vienna).", "The floodplains of several rivers end in the Dyje-Svratka Valley, including Svratka, Jihlava, Svitava, Dyje, Jevišovka and Litava. Many towns are located within it, including the southern districts of Brno, Slavkov/Austerlitz, Židlochovice, Pohořelice, Hrušovany nad Jevišovkou and Mikulov. The Lowlands are poorly forested, mostly by riparian forest (oaks, populus and willows), with higher areas forested by false akacia (Robinia pseudoacacia). The Lowlands are intensively farmed, with significant numbers of orchards (peaches, walnuts, apricots and almonds), vineyards and small woods. Only a few small sections are still covered by natural vegetation. The west valley contains numerous vineyards that are part of the wine making sub-regions of Mikulovská and Znojemská. It is formed by the depression between the Carpathian Mountains in the east (Ždánice Forest, Kyjov Hills and Mikulov Hills) and the Bohemian massif in the west. Drainage runs into the River Morava, from there into the Danube basin and finally into the Black Sea. It includes the low drainage divide Svratka-Dyje close to Mušov. Its soils mainly consist of chernozem and loess, local fluvisol and sand." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Finitely generated group.", "Free group.", "Frattini subgroup.", "Examples.", "Semigroups and monoids." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "If \"S\" is finite, then a group is called \"finitely generated\". The structure of finitely generated abelian groups in particular is easily described. Many theorems that are true for finitely generated groups fail for groups in general. It has been proven that if a finite group is generated by a subset S, then each group element may be expressed as a word from the alphabet S of length less than or equal to the order of the group. Every finite group is finitely generated since. The integers under addition are an example of an infinite group which is finitely generated by both 1 and −1, but the group of rationals under addition cannot be finitely generated. No uncountable group can be finitely generated. For example, the group of real numbers under addition, (R, +). Different subsets of the same group can be generating subsets. For example, if \"p\" and \"q\" are integers with, then also generates the group of integers under addition by Bézout's identity. While it is true that every quotient of a finitely generated group is finitely generated (the images of the generators in the quotient give a finite generating set), a subgroup of a finitely generated group need not be finitely generated. For example, let \"G\" be the free group in two generators, \"x\" and \"y\" (which is clearly finitely generated, since \"G\" = ), and let \"S\" be the subset consisting of all elements of \"G\" of the form \"y\"\"xy\" for \"n\" a natural number. is isomorphic to the free group in countably infinitely many generators, and so cannot be finitely generated. However, every subgroup of a finitely generated abelian group is in itself finitely generated. In fact, more can be said: the class of all finitely generated groups is closed under extensions. To see this, take a generating set for the (finitely generated) normal subgroup and quotient. Then the generators for the normal subgroup, together with preimages of the generators for the quotient, generate the group.", "The most general group generated by a set \"S\" is the group freely generated by \"S\". Every group generated by S is isomorphic to a quotient of this group, a feature which is utilized in the expression of a group's presentation.", "An interesting companion topic is that of \"non-generators\". An element \"x\" of the group \"G\" is a non-generator if every set \"S\" containing \"x\" that generates \"G\", still generates \"G\" when \"x\" is removed from \"S\". In the integers with addition, the only non-generator is 0. The set of all non-generators forms a subgroup of \"G\", the Frattini subgroup.", "The group of units U(Z) is the group of all integers relatively prime to 9 under multiplication ). All arithmetic here is done modulo 9. Seven is not a generator of U(Z), since while 2 is, since: On the other hand, for \"n\" > 2 the symmetric group of degree \"n\" is not cyclic, so it is not generated by any one element. However, it is generated by the two permutations (1 2) and. For example, for \"S\" we have: Infinite groups can also have finite generating sets. The additive group of integers has 1 as a generating set. The element 2 is not a generating set, as the odd numbers will be missing. The two-element subset is a generating set, since (in fact, any pair of coprime numbers is, as a consequence of Bézout's identity). The dihedral group of order is generated by the set, where represents rotation by and is any reflection about a line of symmetry. The cyclic group of order, formula_3, and the roots of unity are all generated by a single element (in fact, these groups are isomorphic to one another). A presentation of a group is defined as a set of generators and a collection of relations between them, so any of the examples listed on that page contain examples of generating sets.", "If G is a semigroup or a monoid, one can still use the notion of a generating set S of G. S is a semigroup/monoid generating set of G if G is the least semigroup/monoid containing S. The definitions of generating set of a group using finite sums, given above, must be slightly modified when one deals with semigroups or monoid. Indeed, this definition should not use the notion of inverse operation anymore. The set S is said to be a semigroup generating set of G if each element of G is a finite sum of elements of S. Similarly, a set S is said to be a monoid generating set of G if each non-zero element of G is a finite sum of elements of S. For example {1} is a monoid generator of the set of non-negative natural numbers formula_4. The set {1} is also a semigroup generator of the positive natural numbers formula_5. However, the integer 0 can not be expressed as a (non-empty) sum of 1's, thus {1} is not a semigroup generator of the non-negative natural numbers. Similarly, while {1} is a group generator of the set of relative integers formula_6, {1} is not a monoid generator of the set of relative integers. Indeed, the integer -1 can not be expressed as a finite sum of 1's." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1932 to 1939.", "1939 to 1979, the Fleet line.", "Proposed extensions.", "Millennium extension.", "24 hour weekend service.", "Current Jubilee line.", "Station features.", "Rolling stock.", "Seventh car upgrade.", "Signalling system.", "Future.", "Thamesmead branch.", "West Hampstead interchange.", "Services.", "Stations.", "Former stations.", "Depots." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Jubilee line's first section opened in 1932, when the Metropolitan Railway built a branch from its main line at Wembley Park to Stanmore. The line, as with many others in the northwest London area, was designed to absorb commuter traffic from the new and rapidly expanding suburbs. The line presented the Metropolitan with a problem. The suburban traffic had been so successful that, by the early 1930s, the lines into Baker Street were becoming overloaded, a problem which was exacerbated by the post-war flight from the City of London to the West End of London. At first, the Metropolitan had advocated a new deep tube line roughly following the line of the Edgware Road between the tube station and a point near Willesden Green. Indeed, construction advanced as far as the rebuilding of Edgware Road station to accommodate 4 platforms of 8-car length. Things changed, though, with the formation of the London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB) and the subsequent absorption of the Metropolitan line. The solution was now a new branch of the Bakerloo line from Baker Street to serve new stations at St. John's Wood and Swiss Cottage, thereby rendering the existing stations of Lord's, Marlborough Road and Swiss Cottage on the parallel route redundant, and negating the need for the Met's extension from Edgware Road station. It was originally proposed that the Metropolitan line's Swiss Cottage station would remain open during peak hours for interchange with the Bakerloo, and that Lord's station would open for special cricketing events, but both were closed permanently as economy measures during the Second World War. The new line rose between the Metropolitan line tracks at Finchley Road, providing cross-platform interchange with the Metropolitan line. Continuing north to Wembley Park, the new Bakerloo line branch was to provide local service on the Metropolitan line, while Metropolitan line trains ran non-stop between Finchley Road and Wembley Park, cutting seven minutes from journey times. At Wembley Park, the new Bakerloo would turn north to serve Kingsbury, Queensbury, Canons Park and Stanmore, taking over the former Metropolitan branch. The Bakerloo extension, built as above, opened in 1939.", "The planning for the Tube network immediately before and after World War II considered several new routes. The main results of this study concerned two major routes: the south-to-northeast \"line C\", and lines 3 and 4, new cross-town routes, linking the northeast suburbs to Fenchurch Street, Wapping and variously Lewisham and Hayes. Line C opened as the Victoria line, in stages, from 1968 to 1972. Work on the northeast–southwest route continued. The \"Fleet line\" was mentioned in a 1965 \"Times\" article, discussing options after the Victoria line had been completed — suggesting that the Fleet line could take a route via Baker Street, Bond Street, Trafalgar Square, Strand, Fleet Street, Ludgate Circus and Cannon Street, then proceeding into southeast London. The new line was to have been called the Fleet line, after the River Fleet (although it would only have crossed under the Fleet at Ludgate Circus; the central London section mostly follows the Tyburn). In 1971, construction began on the new Fleet line. Economic pressure and doubt over the final destination of the line had led to a staged approach. Under the first stage, the Baker Street-to-Stanmore branch of the Bakerloo line was joined at Baker Street to a new segment into central London, with intermediate stops at Bond Street and Green Park and terminating at a new station at Charing Cross, thereby relieving pressure on the West End section of the Bakerloo line between Baker Street and Charing Cross and also allowing increased frequencies on the section north of Baker Street. The new tube was to offer cross-platform interchange between the Bakerloo and Fleet at Baker Street, as pioneered on the Victoria line. The work was completed in 1979. As part of the works, Trafalgar Square (Bakerloo) and Strand (Northern) stations were combined into a single station complex, Charing Cross. The existing Charing Cross station on the sub-surface District and Circle lines was renamed Embankment. Another part of the works included a section of test tunnel, built near New Cross. This part of London has waterlogged soil that is difficult to tunnel in, so a new tunnelling method, called the Bentonite shield, was used experimentally to construct a 150 m section of tunnel, that was on the line of the proposed Phase 2 route, in 1972. The experiment was successful, leading to the introduction of this form of construction elsewhere, but when the planned route was altered, this section was left abandoned as it was effectively useless, and still exists to this day. In 1975, when plans were under way to introduce the London Transport Silver Jubilee Bus fleet, the then Sales Manager of London Transport Advertising, Geoffrey Holliman, proposed to the Chairman of LTE, Kenneth Robinson, that the Fleet line should be renamed the Jubilee line. However, this idea was initially rejected because of the additional costs involved. Nevertheless, the name was ultimately chosen for the line after Queen Elizabeth II's 1977 Silver Jubilee following a pledge made by the Conservatives in the Greater London Council election of 1977. The original choice of battleship grey for the line's colour was based on the naval meaning of the word \"fleet\"; this became a lighter grey, representing the silver colour of the Jubilee itself. The line was officially opened by the Prince of Wales on 30 April 1979, with passenger services operating from 1 May 1979.", "The Jubilee line of 1979 was to be the first of four phases of the project, but lack of funds meant that no further progress was made until the late 1990s.", "Changes in land use, particularly the urban renewal of the Docklands area, resulted in the project to extend the line beyond Charing Cross being changed considerably in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. The Jubilee Line Extension, as the eventual project became known, opened in three stages in 1999. It split from the existing line at Green Park; the service to Charing Cross was discontinued (though still maintained for reversing trains at times of disruption, and for occasional use as a film set). The line extends as far as Stratford, with ten intermediate stations. This section is unique on the Underground because it is the only section to have platform edge doors which open automatically when trains arrive. There have been other proposals to extend the line serving the docks.", "It was planned that from Saturday 12 September 2015, there would be a 24-hour service on Friday and Saturday nights on the entire Jubilee line as part of the new Night Tube service pattern. This was postponed due to an ongoing dispute between Transport for London and rail unions. In August 2016 Sadiq Khan, Mayor of London, announced that the Jubilee line night tube would run with services starting on 7 October 2016.", "Having been open since 1979, the Jubilee line is the newest line of the London Underground network. The trains were upgraded in 1997 to the 1996 stock. In 1999, trains began running to Stratford instead of Charing Cross, serving areas once poorly connected to the London Underground network.", "Jubilee line stations north of Baker Street were not built specifically for the Jubilee line. St. John's Wood and Swiss Cottage stations were opened in 1939 on the then-new Bakerloo line branch and have more traditional tube station features. Stations north of Finchley Road were opened by the Metropolitan Railway (now the Metropolitan line), but they became part of the Bakerloo in 1939, with only Wembley Park being shared with the Metropolitan. Then, the Jubilee line took over the whole of the Bakerloo line service between Baker Street and Stanmore. The only 'new' stations built for the original Jubilee line were the Baker Street westbound platform (eastbound opened in 1939), Bond Street, Green Park and the now-closed Charing Cross. Stations on the Jubilee Line Extension feature: The platform edge doors were introduced primarily to prevent draughts underground and to assist in air flow. They also prevent people from falling or jumping onto the track, as well as the build-up of litter.", "When the Jubilee line was opened, it was operated by 1972 stock. In 1984 this was partially replaced by the new 1983 stock: the displaced 1972 stock was transferred to the Bakerloo line. The 1983 stock proved to be unreliable and troublesome in service, with single-leaf doors making passenger loading and unloading a slower process than on other stock with wider door openings. With the construction of the Jubilee line Extension, the opportunity was taken to introduce new trains, and today the line is worked by 1996 stock, which has an exterior similar to the 1995 stock in use on the Northern line but (in spite of the confusing naming) is technically less advanced. The new stock has internal displays and automated announcements to provide passengers with information on the train's route. At first the displayed text was static and showed only the destination of the train, but later showed also the name of the next station and interchanges there. Subsequent modifications introduced scrolling text. The 1996 stock uses a different motor from the 1995 stock and has a motor design similar to Class 465 and Class 466 Networker trains.", "The Jubilee line closed for three days from 25 December 2005 in order to add an extra car to each six-car train. The line had to be closed as six- and seven-car trains could not run in service at the same time, because the platform-edge doors at Jubilee Line Extension stations could not cater for both train lengths simultaneously. The signalling system was also modified to work with the longer trains. Previously, an extra four complete seven-car trains had been added to the fleet, bringing the total to 63. This enabled the period during which a full service could be run to be increased. The full fleet will not be required to be available until full advantage is taken of the new signalling system. The result of the seventh car upgrade was a 17% increase in capacity, allowing 6,000 more passengers per hour to use the line. Work was completed and the line reopened two days ahead of schedule, on 28 December 2005.", "Since 2011, the Jubilee line has automatic train operation (ATO), using the SelTrac S40 moving block system. This provides capacity for 30 trains per hour. Migration to the system was problematic. The programme of temporary closures for engineering work was criticised by local politicians as well as by the management of venues such as Wembley Stadium and The O2 because visitors to major concerts and sporting events had to travel by rail replacement bus. The management of the project by Tube Lines was criticised by London TravelWatch for its delayed delivery date, and a report by the London Assembly referred to the weekly line closures as \"chaotic\".", "", "When North Greenwich Underground station was opened, it was built to enable a branch extension to be built eastwards to Thamesmead. At present there are no plans to construct this branch route.", "Plans were put forward in 1974 and again in 2004 for a West Hampstead interchange, to connect the three West Hampstead stations in one complex, but plans were put on hold in 2007 owing to uncertainty over the North London Line rail franchise. While no connections in the form of railway infrastructure exist, the three stations at West Hampstead form part of an \"out of station\" interchange in the Oyster system thus continuing similar (but little-publicised) interchange arrangements in existence since before nationalisation.", "Jubilee line services are:", "", "The Jubilee line platforms at Charing Cross are still used during service suspensions. For example, - when the service is suspended between Green Park and Stratford, trains will terminate (and passengers alight) at Green Park before going to Charing Cross and using a scissors crossover to reverse back westbound. The platforms are a popular set for films and television because the platforms are contemporary and the trains used are current ones that appear in normal passenger service.", "The main servicing and maintenance depot on the Jubilee line is Stratford Market Depot between the Stratford and West Ham stations. Trains are also stabled in Neasden Depot – sharing it with the Metropolitan line. Stratford Market Depot was built as part of the Jubilee Line Extension in the late 1990s, as the Neasden Depot could not accommodate the increased number of trains required." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Route.", "Current operations.", "Rolling stock.", "Locomotives.", "Railcars.", "Carriages.", "Goods wagons." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The line to Nová Bystřice was opened on 1 November 1897 and the line to Obrataň followed on 24 December 1906. Both lines were originally operated with steam locomotives and there were engine sheds at Jindřichův Hradec, Kamenice nad Lipou, Nova Bystřice und Obrataň. Soon after opening a goods service with roll-blocks was established. Following the founding of Czechoslovakia the railway became part of ČSD in 1924 and during World War II they came under the control of the Deutsche Reichsbahn In 1998 both lines were privatised and they are now owned and operated by JHMD.", "Near Jindřichův Hradec there is a section of dual gauge track on the České dráhy line between Veselí nad Lužnicí and Jihlava. The maximum permitted speed today is and the steepest gradient is 2.6% near Kamenice nad Lipou.", "Most trains consist of a diesel locomotive and one carriage. During the summer steam trains with historic carriages are operated for tourists.", "", "For the opening of the line to Nova Bystřice there were three 0-6-2 steam locomotives, like those used on the Murtalbahn. These were classified as class U (after Unzmarkt on the Murtalbahn) by the kkStB and were numbered U.1 - U.3. After the opening of the line to Obrataň in 1906 two more class U locomotives were acquired and numbered U.33 and U.34. In 1908 another locomotive, numbered U.41, was also acquired. After World War I only U.1, U.34 and U.41 remained in Jindřichův Hradec and in 1924 when ČSD took over the railway they were reclassified as U 37 and renumbered U 37.001, U 37.005 and U 37.006. ČSD bought three class U 47 Mallet locomotives and rented a further two identical locomotives for use on the lines. A U 37 and a U 47 are used on the railway today for tourist trains. In addition to these a Romanian Reșița locomotive, numbered U 46.001 by JHMD, and a Polish Px48, now numbered U46.101, have been bought by JHMD for tourist trains. Since 1955 traffic has mainly been handled by ČSD class T 47.0 diesel locomotives. In the 1970s more of these locomotives were transferred to Jindřichův Hradec when the Frýdlant–Heřmanice and Ružomberok–Korytnica narrow gauge railways were closed. A PKP class Lxd2 locomotive, now numbered T 48.001, and a PKP class MBxd2, now numbered M 27.001, are also in use by JHMD.", "From 1929 two ČSD class M 11.0 railcars, which were narrow gauge versions ČSD Class M 120.4, were introduced. In 1939 two further railcars, this time ČSD class M 21.0 were acquired. Railcar services continued until shortly after World War II. Railcar M 21.004 is currently at Čierny Balog on the Čierny Hron Railway. Four modernised 805.9 railcars have been obtained to run services.", "At first two-axled carriages manufactured by Ringhoffer in Prague were used. In the 1960s several four-axled carriages originally from Saxony were brought to Jindřichův Hradec from the Frýdlant-Heřmanice Railway, where they had been used since 1945. These carriages remained in use until the end of the 1970s. The class Balm/u carriages in use today were manufactured by ČKD in the 1960s. When they were built these were modern carriages with wooden benches, oil heating, fluorescent lights and toilets. In the 1980s the last remaining two-axled carriages were used to form a museum train, which is used in summer for the tourist steam trains.", "Goods traffic was originally carried in two-axled goods wagons, most of which were built by the Grazer Wagen- und Waggonfabrik AG (Graz Wagon Factory). Roll-blocks were introduced in 1906 and are still used today. The newest roll-blocks were built by Poprad Wagon Factory in the 1980s." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Shumshu is the least elevated in the entire Kuril group with a height of. The terrain is low-lying and covered with numerous lakes and marshland. Shumshu is roughly oval, and has an area of.", "Shumshu was inhabited by the Ainu, who subsisted off of the abundant fish, marine mammals and birdlife in the area, at the time of European contact. The island appears on an official map showing the territories of Matsumae Domain, a feudal domain of Edo-period Japan dated 1644. Due to its proximity to the Kamchatka Peninsula, Shumshu became the first of the Kurils to be reached by Cossacks from the peninsula in the first years of the 18th century. Russian fur traders are known to have visited the island in 1711 and 1713, and it was from this base that Russian fur hunters and traders gradually expanded into other islands of the chain and Sakhalin. Although the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan officially confirmed the Matsumae Domain’s claims to the island, the island remained outside of \"de facto\" Japanese control. Also claimed by the Empire of Russia, sovereignty over the island was confirmed to be under Russia under the terms of the Treaty of Shimoda in 1855. In 1875, sovereignty over the Kuril Islands, including Shumshu, was transferred to the Empire of Japan per the Treaty of Saint Petersburg. A number of Japanese colonizing expeditions followed, establishing the settlement of Kataoka (on the site of the Ainu settlement of Mairuppo) as the commercial center of Shumshu. As the island closest to Russia, it became an important Japanese military outpost, as well as a center for the commercial fishing industry. The island was administered as part of the Shumushu District of Nemuro Subprefecture of Hokkaidō. In 1910, a cannery was established, and the island’s civilian population exceeded 2,000 by the early 1940s. Towards the end of World War II the island was strongly garrisoned by both the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) and Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). A garrison of over 24,500 men reinforced by sixty tanks was garrisoned on Shumshu in nine locations centered around Kataoka. All coastal areas suitable for enemy amphibious landings were covered with permanent emplacements and bunkers, interconnected with underground passages and trenches. All the warehouses, power stations, and hospitals were up to underground. These defenses were manned by the IJA 91st Division, with the IJA 73rd Infantry Brigade. Miyoshino Airfield was a joint IJA-IJN airfield, located near the center of the island, and it hosted several aviation units operating various aircraft including IJN Nakajima B5N2 (Allied reporting name \"Kate\") and Mitsubishi G3M (Allied reporting name \"Nell\") and IJA Nakajima Ki-44 (Allied reporting name \"Tojo\") and Nakajima Ki-43 (Allied reporting name \"Oscar\") aircraft. Kataoka Naval Base was under the command of the IJN′s 5th Fleet and had three oil storage tanks as well as barracks and supply buildings. The base also had a seaplane facility in the harbor, and neighboring Imaizaki Airfield had a and a runway. These facilities were subject to sporadic air raids by United States Army Air Forces and United States Navy forces based in the Aleutian Islands from 1943 until the Japanese Emperor Hirohito announced the surrender of Japan on 15 August 1945. The Soviet Union continued combat operations against Japan until early September 1945. During the Invasion of the Kuril Islands, Soviet forces landed on Shumshu on 18 August 1945, beginning the Battle of Shumshu, one of the last battles of World War II. Combat operations continued through 23 August 1945, ending with the surrender of the surviving members of the Japanese garrison. The Soviets sent the Japanese prisoners of war, including most Japanese male civilians, to labor camps and forcibly deported the remaining Japanese civilian inhabitants. The Soviets renamed Kataoka Baikovo (), and the Soviet Union annexed the island in 1946, including it in the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. Japan formally gave up sovereignty over the island under the terms of the San Francisco Peace Treaty of 1951. The island remained a part of Russia after the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union and is now administered as part of the Sakhalin Oblast of the Russian Federation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Plot summary.", "Style.", "Critical responses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As a child, Orwell lived at Shiplake and Henley in the Thames Valley. His father, Richard Walmesley Blair, was a civil servant in British India, and he lived a genteel life with his mother and two sisters, though spending much of the year at boarding school at Eastbourne and later at Eton in Britain. He particularly enjoyed fishing and shooting rabbits with a neighbouring family. In 1937 Orwell spent some months fighting in the Spanish Civil War. He was wounded in the throat in May 1937, by a Fascist sniper at Huesca. Orwell was severely ill in 1938 and was advised to spend the winter in a warm climate. The novelist L. H. Myers anonymously gave £300 to enable this and Orwell went with his wife to North Africa where he stayed, in French Morocco, mainly in Marrakesh, from September 1938 to March 1939. (Orwell never learned the source of the money and he accepted it only on condition that it be considered a loan. He repaid the loan, eight years later, when he began making money from the success of \"Animal Farm\".) Orwell wrote \"Coming Up for Air\" while he was in North Africa and left the manuscript at his agent's office within a few hours of arriving back in England on March 30, 1939. It was submitted to Victor Gollancz, who had an option on Orwell's next three novels, in spite of the 'cold treatment which [Orwell] had been given when \"Homage to Catalonia\" was rejected.' In fact Orwell heard in April 1939 that Gollancz had reservations about the book, and was delaying a decision to accept it. The descriptions in the novel of a character who lectures at a meeting of Gollancz's Left Book Club, and of the meeting itself, were such that Gollancz 'could not have helped being offended by them.' Nevertheless, the publisher did bring out the novel without demanding major changes and it was published on June 12, 1939. It was the last Orwell novel to bear the Gollancz imprint.", "The themes of the book are nostalgia, the folly of trying to go back and recapture past glories and the easy way the dreams and aspirations of one's youth can be smothered by the humdrum routine of work, marriage and getting old. It is written in the first person, with George Bowling, the forty-five-year-old protagonist, who reveals his life and experiences while undertaking a trip back to his boyhood home as an adult. At the opening of the book, Bowling has a day off work to go to London to collect a new set of false teeth. A news-poster about the contemporary King Zog of Albania sets off thoughts of a biblical character Og, King of Bashan that he recalls from Sunday church as a child. Along with'some sound in the traffic or the smell of horse dung or something' these thoughts trigger Bowling's memory of his childhood as the son of an unambitious seed merchant in \"Lower Binfield\" near the River Thames. Bowling relates his life history, dwelling on how a lucky break during the First World War landed him in a comfortable job away from any action and provided contacts that helped him become a successful salesman. Bowling is wondering what to do with a modest sum of money that he has won on a horserace and which he has concealed from his wife and family. Much later (part III) he and his wife attend a Left Book Club meeting where he is horrified by the hate shown by the anti-fascist speaker, and bemused by the Marxist ramblings of the communists who have attended the meeting. Fed up with this, he seeks his friend Old Porteous, the retired schoolmaster. He usually enjoys Porteous' company, but on this occasion his dry dead classics makes Bowling even more depressed. Bowling decides to use the money on a 'trip down memory lane', to revisit the places of his childhood. He recalls a particular pond with huge fish in it which he had missed the chance to try and catch thirty years previously. He therefore plans to return to Lower Binfield but when he arrives, he finds the place unrecognisable. Eventually he locates the old pub where he is to stay, finding it much changed. His home has become a tea shop. Only the church and vicar appear the same but he has a shock when he discovers an old girlfriend, for she has been so ravaged by time that she is almost unrecognisable and is utterly devoid of the qualities he once adored. She fails to recognise him at all. Bowling remembers the slow and painful decline of his father's seed business – resulting from the nearby establishment of corporate competition. This painful memory seems to have sensitised him to – and given him a repugnance for – what he sees as the marching ravages of \"Progress\". The final disappointment is to find that the estate where he used to fish has been built over, and the secluded and once hidden pond that contained the huge carp he always intended to take on with his fishing rod, but never got around to, has become a rubbish dump. The social and material changes experienced by Bowling since childhood make his past seem distant. The concept of \"you can't go home again\" hangs heavily over Bowling's journey, as he realises that many of his old haunts are gone or considerably changed from his younger years. Throughout the adventure he receives reminders of impending war, and the threat of bombs becomes real when one lands accidentally on the town. Orwell's brother-in-law, Humphry Dakin, the husband of Orwell's elder sister Marjorie, a'short, stout, loquacious' man, thought that Bowling might be a portrait of him. He had known Blair (Orwell) since they were youngsters, when the Blairs lived at Henley-on-Thames and later when they lived at Southwold where he married Marjorie.", "In their 1972 study of Orwell, \"The Unknown Orwell\", the writers Peter Stansky and William Abrahams described the novel as \"Wellsian\". Whilst at his prep school in Sussex (1911–1916), Wells had been a favourite author of Eric Blair/Orwell. As with other writers he had read while at St Cyprian's Prep school, – Kipling, Wodehouse, Swift, Shaw, Thackeray – his loyalty \"was virtually unwavering. What he valued in Wells was not the later polemicist, but the novelist whose evocation of certain aspects of life in England before the First World War recalled to Orwell comparable experiences of his own. He and Connolly would leave the school grounds and set out across the Downs to Beachy Head, or far along the plunging leafy roads that led deep into the Sussex countryside, to villages that might have figured in a Wells novel: Eastdean and Westdean and Jevington. They would pause in each, and buy penny sweets and various fizzy drinks. This was the plain, decent, bread-and-sunlit world that Orwell recalled so nostalgically the further it retreated from him; eventually he would write [a] Wellsian [novel of this kind], in \"Coming Up For Air.\"\" The writer Michael Levenson remarked upon the influence at this period in Orwell's life, of Henry Miller, and Miller's attitude to what was happening in the world. Miller sees what is happening, but is \"Inside the Whale\", he \" feels no impulse to alter or control the process that he is undergoing. He has performed the essential Jonah act of allowing himself to be swallowed, remaining passive, \"accepting\" – even when this means accepting \"concentration camps, rubber truncheons, Hitler, Stalin, bombs, aeroplanes.\" \"George Bowling is Orwell's Jonah, and \"Coming Up For Air\" is in significant respects a contribution to the'school of Miller'. Hemmed in on every side ̶ by job, home, history – Bowling neither comprehends the political world nor tries to change it. He merely wants to rediscover the grounds of happiness. In its central movement, \"Coming Up For Air\" is an unembarrassedly affirmative recovery of early-century innocence:boyhood, family life and country rambling in the town of Lower Binfield. Fishing in \"Coming Up For Air\" is what sex was in \"Tropic of Cancer\". 'Fishing', as Bowling puts it, 'is the opposite of war'.", "The novel sold three thousand copies, a thousand of which represented a second printing and thus bettered \"the dismal response in the bookshops which had met the publication of \"Homage to Catalonia\".\" The reviews were among the best that Orwell had received for a novel. Margery Allingham, in \"Time and Tide\", wrote that her only regret \"is that the story was written in the first person. This device, although it has the important virtue of making the narrative clear and easy to read, tends to falsify the character slightly since [Bowling's] uncanny perception where his own feelings are concerned makes him a little less of the ordinary mortal which his behaviour would show him to be.\" A recent biographer, Michael Shelden, praised the \"many passages of lyrical beauty, not unbecoming a novelist who once aspired to be a poet. The one serious defect in the novel is Orwell's attempt to \"be\" the voice of his narrator-protagonist. He does not make a convincing middle-aged, overweight, suburban-dwelling, low-brow insurance salesman, and the book is at its best when Orwell is 'out-of-character', speaking in a voice which is recognisably his rather than an imitation of 'Fatty' Bowling's.\" The writers Peter Stansky and William Abrahams, in their 1972 \"The Unknown Orwell\", noted: \"Eric Blair looked back unforgivingly on the world before 1914 – it was that world that had sent him to his prep school – while George Orwell could believe it was superior to what came after it, and looked back to it nostalgically in \"Coming Up for Air\".\" The writer John Wain thought the book \" not a success in novelistic terms\", but saw \"vitality in its hinterland.\" He considered the novel \" a bleaker work than \"Keep the Aspidistra Flying\"; in \"Aspidistra\" everybody fears the sack, hankers for more money and security, cringes to the boss. But only to the boss at work, the economic boss. When Bowling thinks of the future, he fears not only the ever-present financial insecurity, the endless work, work, work with the gutter only a few steps away; he fears also the new breed of tyrants, the leader and his strong-arm boys.\" And Wain noted the third region of Bowling's nightmare – \" what we have since learnt to call 'the environment'.\" He places \"Coming Up For Air\" alongside Orwell's 1946 essay \"Some Thoughts on the Common Toad\" where he had written that, \"retaining one's childhood love of such things as trees, fishes, butterflies and – toads, one makes a peaceful and decent future a little more probable\". \"What makes \"Coming Up For Air\" so peculiarly bitter to the taste is that, in addition to calling up the twin spectres of totalitarianism and workless poverty, it also declares the impossibility of'retaining one's childhood love of such things as trees, fishes, butterflies' – because it postulates a world in which these things are simply not there any more.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Naming Conventions.", "Western Carpathians (province).", "Outer Western Carpathians (subprovince).", "Western Beskids (CZ / SK / PL) (area).", "Eastern Carpathians (province).", "Outer Eastern Carpathians (subprovince).", "Eastern Beskids (area).", "Western Romanian Carpathians (RO).", "Apuseni Mountains (\"Munții Apuseni\").", "Transylvanian Plateau (RO).", "Outer Subcarpathian regions (subprovince)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The division is largely (with many exceptions) undisputed at the lowest level (except for the Ukrainian part), but various divisions are given for the higher levels, especially for the penultimate level. A geomorphological division has been used as much as the data was available; other new physiogeographic divisions were used in other cases. Where the classification of a higher level \"title\" is known/sure, it is added at the end of the name in brackets, e.g. \"(subprovince)\". The names are also given in the language of the corresponding country and marked by the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes: The most confusing and diverse is the classification of the Beskids, including the Western Beskids, the Central Beskids and the Eastern Beskids. Their geologic features are fairly distinct, but multiple traditions, languages and nationalities have developed overlapping variants for the divisions and names of these ranges. In Romania, it is usual to divide the Eastern Carpathians in Romanian territory into three formal groups (northern, central, southern), instead in \"Outer\" and \"Inner\" sections of Eastern Carpathians. The Romanian approach is shown by adding the following abbreviations to the names of units within Romania: Similar standard (grouping of \"outer\" and \"inner\" sections) is traditionally applied within broader use of the term \"Wooded Carpathians\", that encompasses all mountain ranges within central section of \"Outer Eastern Carpathians\", including \"Eastern Beskids\" with \"Polonynian Mountains\", and also all mountains within northern section of \"Inner Eastern Carpathians\", including \"Vihorlat-Gutin Area\" and \"Maramureș-Rodna Area\". The Transylvanian Plateau is encircled by, and geologically a part of, the Carpathians. But it is not a mountainous region and its inclusion is disputed in some sources. Its features are included below. The Serbian Carpathians are sometimes considered part of the Southern Carpathians (together with the Banat Mountains), sometimes not considered part of the Carpathians at all. They're included below. The Outer Carpathian Depressions lay outside the broad arc of the entire formation and are usually listed as part of the individual divisions of the Carpathian Mountains, i.e. of Western Carpathians, Eastern Carpathians etc. With the difficulty of finding their exact subdivisions, they are given only as a list of the final units (\"mountains\" etc.) from the west to the east and south, in a separate listing at the end.", "", "", "Western section of the Western Beskids Northern section of the Western Beskids Eastern section of the Western Beskids (in Slovak terminology: \"Eastern Beskids\", SK: \"Východné Beskydy\") Central section of the Western Beskids (in Slovak terminology: \"Central Beskids\", SK: \"Stredné Beskydy\")", "Clarification: In Ukraine sometimes is denoted as \"Eastern Carpathians\" only the part basically on their territory (i.e.to the north of the Prislop Pass), while in Romania sometimes use to call \"Eastern Carpathians\" (\"Carpații Orientali\") only the other part, which lies on their territory (i.e. from the Ukrainian border or from the Prislop Pass to the south). In some Polish classifications, Central Beskids and Central Beskidian Piedmont belongs to Western Carpathians province and Outer Western Carpathians subprovince.", "", "Wooded Beskids (PL: Beskidy Lesiste; UA: Лісисті Бескиди): Polonynian Beskids (PL: Beskidy Połonińskie; UA: Полонинські Бескиди; SK: Poloniny):", "", "\"Criș Mountains (Munții Criș)\" : \"Seș-Meseș Mountains (Munții Seș-Meseșului)\": \"Bihor Massif (\"Masivul Bihor\"): \"Mureș Mountains (\"Munții Mureșului\"):", "\"Transylvanian Plateau (\"Podișul Transilvaniei\"):", "The Outer Subcarpathian regions are divided into Western, Northern etc. and are usually treated as part of the individual parts of the Carpathian Mountains, i.e. of Western Carpathians, Eastern Carpathians etc.. Since, however, it was impossible to find their exact subdivision, they are given only as a list of the final units (\"mountains etc.) from the west to the east and south here:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography and geology.", "Climate and flora and fauna.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Paramushir is roughly rectangular, and is the second largest of the Kuril Islands with an area of. Geologically, Paramushir is a continuous chain of 23 volcanoes. At least five of them are active, and exceed :", "Paramushir has a sub-arctic climate strongly modulated by the cooling effects of the North Pacific Oyashio Current. The arboreal flora of Paramushir is consequently limited to dense, stunted copses of Siberian dwarf pine and shrubby alder. The alpine tundra which dominates the landscape produces plentiful edible mushrooms and berries, especially lingonberry, Arctic raspberry, whortleberry and crowberry. Red fox, Arctic hare and ermine are notably abundant and hunted by the inhabitants. The island also supports a population of brown bears. In the spring crested auklet nest on the island. The straits between Paramushir and Shumshu island support a notably dense population of sea otters; harbor seals are also common. North Pacific right whales, one of the rarest and the most endangered whale species are known to appear in the surrounding waters. Several species of charr and Pacific salmon spawn in its rivers, notably in the Tukharka river, which at is the longest river on the island.", "Paramushir was inhabited by the Ainu at the time of European contact. The island appears on an official map showing the territories of Matsumae Domain, a feudal domain of Edo period Japan dated 1644. Russian fur traders are known to have visited the island in 1711 and 1713, and Russian Orthodox missionaries established a church in 1747 to convert the local inhabitants. Subsequently, claimed by the Empire of Russia, sovereignty over the island was initially confirmed to be under Imperial Russia under the terms of the Treaty of Shimoda in 1855, but was transferred to the Empire of Japan per the Treaty of Saint Petersburg along with the rest of the Kuril Islands. The Japanese established a settlement, Kashiwabara, on the site of the largest Ainu village, which became the major port on the island, and a center for the commercial fishing industry. The island was administered as part of Shimushu District of Nemuro Subprefecture of Hokkaidō. During World War II the island was strongly garrisoned by both the Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy. The headquarters of the IJA 91st Infantry Division, responsible for defense of the northern Kurils, was established at Kashiwabara, and numerous coastal artillery positions and fortified bunkers were constructed in various locations around the island. In addition, the Imperial Japanese Army constructed four airfields: Kashiwabara Airfield in the northeast with Ki-43 Oscars, Kakumabestu Airfield on the southwest coast with a runway and Ki-44 Tojos, Kitanodai Airfield on the northeast coast with a runway, and Suribachi Airfield, an auxiliary base in the center of the south coast with two runways. The Imperial Japanese Navy had Musashi Airfield on the south-western tip of the island with two runways, one 4,300 ft and another 4,200 ft, operating a variety of aircraft as well as a radar site. These bases were subject to sporadic air raids from the US Army Air Forces and US Navy based in the Aleutian Islands from 1943 until the end of the war. Soviet troops landed on Paramushir on August 18, 1945, during the Invasion of the Kuril Islands, and combat operations continued through August 23, ending with the surrender of the surviving members of the Japanese garrison. The Soviets forcibly deported the remaining Japanese civilian inhabitants and sent the prisoners of war to labor camps. Kashiwabara was renamed Severo-Kurilsk and the island annexed by the Soviet Union in 1946. Japan formally gave up sovereignty over the island under the terms of the San Francisco Peace Treaty of 1951. In November 1952, Severo-Kurilsk was destroyed by the 1952 Severo-Kurilsk tsunami and was rebuilt in another location. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1990, the population of the island has decreased (2592 in 2002 census, 5180 in the 1989 census), and villages that once lined the coast are now ghost towns. This is due in part to the crash of the formerly lucrative herring fishery, to the extremely destructive tsunami of 1952, and general economic hardships in the more remote reaches of Russia since the fall of the Soviet Union. The island is now administered as part of the Sakhalin Oblast of the Russian Federation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Distribution.", "Uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Xylopia\" is a compression from Greek \"ξυλον πικρον\" (\"xylon pikron\") meaning \"bitter wood\". The second part of the plant's binomial name, \"aethiopica\", refers to the origin of the tree, in Ethiopia, though currently it grows most prominently as a crop in Ghana.", "\"Xylopia aethiopica\" grows in Tropical Africa. It is present in rain forests, especially near the coast. It also grows in riverine and fringing forest, and as a pioneer species in arid savanna regions. This species is present in the following countries:", "\"Xylopia aethiopica\" is used extensively in construction, African cuisine and traditional medicine. The plant's bark is used to make doors and partitions. The wood is known to be resistant to termite attack and is used in hut construction: posts, scantlings, roof-ridges and joists. The wood is also used for boat construction: masts, oars, paddles and spars. In Togo and Gabon, wood was traditionally used to make bows and crossbows for hunters and warriors. An infusion of the plant's bark or fruit has been useful in the treatment of bronchitis and dysenteric conditions, or as a mouthwash to treat toothaches. It has also been used as a medicine for biliousness and febrile pains. The bark, when steeped in palm wine, is used to treat asthma, stomach-aches and rheumatism. In Senegal, the fruit is used to flavor café Touba, a coffee drink that is the country's spiritual beverage and the traditional drink of the Mouride brotherhood. In the Middle Ages the fruit was exported to Europe as a ‘pepper.’ In the eastern part of Nigeria, the plant's fruit is an essential ingredient in preparation of local soups to aid new mothers in breastfeeding. It remains an important item of local trade throughout Africa as a spice, and flavouring for food and for medicine. The fruit is sometimes put into jars of water for purification purposes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Operational history.", "Surviving examples.", "Operators." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Development of an improved B-29 started in 1944, with the desire to replace the unreliable Wright R-3350 \"Duplex-Cyclone\" engines with the more powerful four-row, 28-cylinder Pratt & Whitney R-4360 \"Wasp Major\" radial engine, America's largest-ever displacement aircraft piston engine in large-scale production. A B-29A-5-BN (serial number \"42-93845\") was modified by Pratt & Whitney as a testbed for the installation of the R-4360 in the B-29, with four R-4360-33s replacing the R-3350s. The modified aircraft, designated XB-44 Superfortress, first flew in May 1945. The planned Wasp-Major powered bomber, the B-29D, was to incorporate considerable changes in addition to the engine installation tested in the XB-44. The use of a new alloy of aluminum, 75-S rather than the existing 24ST, gave a wing that was both stronger and lighter, while the undercarriage was strengthened to allow the aircraft to operate at weights of up to greater than the B-29. A larger vertical fin and rudder (which could fold to allow the aircraft to fit into existing hangars) and enlarged flaps were provided to deal with the increased engine power and weight, respectively. Armament was similar to that of the B-29, with two bomb bays carrying of bombs, and a further externally. Defensive armament was 13 × 12.7mm (.50 inch) machine guns (or 12 machine guns and one cannon) in five turrets. First flying in May 1945, the sole XB-44 proved faster than the standard B-29, although existing sources do not indicate how much of this increased speed was due to differing aircraft weight due to deleted armament or increased power due to the R-4360-33 engines. An order for 200 B-29Ds was placed in July 1945, but the ending of World War II in August 1945 prompted mass cancellations of outstanding orders for military equipment, with over 5,000 B-29s canceled in September 1945. In December that year, B-29D orders were cut from 200 to 60, while at the same time the designation of the aircraft was changed to B-50. Officially, the aircraft's new designation was justified by the changes incorporated into the revised aircraft, but according to Peter M. Bowers, a long-time Boeing employee and aircraft designer, and a well-known authority on Boeing aircraft, \"the re-designation was an outright military ruse to win appropriations for the procurement of an airplane that by its B-29D designation appeared to be merely a later version of an existing model that was being canceled wholesale, with many existing examples being put into dead storage.\" The first production B-50A (there were no prototypes, as the aircraft's engines and new tail had already been tested) made its maiden flight on 25 June 1947, with a further 78 B-50As following. The last airframe of the initial order was held back for modification to the prototype YB-50C, a planned version to be powered by R-4360-43 turbo-compound engines. It was to have a longer fuselage, allowing the two small bomb bays of the B-29 and the B-50A to be replaced by a single large bomb bay, more suited to carrying large nuclear weapons. It would also have longer span wings, which required additional outrigger wheels to stabilize the aircraft on the ground. Orders for 43 B-54s, the planned production version of the YB-50C, were placed in 1948, but the program was unpopular with Curtis LeMay, commander of Strategic Air Command (SAC), as being inferior to the Convair B-36 Peacemaker and having little capacity for further improvement, while requiring an expensive redevelopment of air bases owing to the type's undercarriage. The B-54 program was therefore canceled in April 1949, work on the YB-50C being stopped prior to it being completed. While the B-54 was canceled, production of less elaborate developments continued as a stopgap until jet bombers like the Boeing B-47 and B-52 could enter service. Forty-five B-50Bs, fitted with lightweight fuel tanks and capable of operating at higher weights, were built, followed by 222 B-50Ds, capable of carrying underwing fuel tanks and distinguished by a one-piece plastic nose dome. To give the Superfortress the range to reach the Soviet Union, B-50s were fitted to be refueled in flight. Most (but not all) of the B-50As were fitted with the early \"looped hose\" refueling system, developed by the British company Flight Refuelling Limited, in which the receiving aircraft would use a grapple to catch a line trailed by the tanker aircraft (normally a Boeing KB-29) before hauling over the fuel line to allow transfer of fuel to begin. While this system worked, it was clumsy, and Boeing designed the alternative Flying Boom method to refuel SAC's bombers, with most B-50Ds being fitted with receptacles for Flying Boom refueling. Revisions to the B-50 (from its predecessor B-29) would boost top speed to just under. Changes included: The C-97 military transport was, in its 1944 prototype, essentially a large upper fuselage tube attached to a B-29 lower fuselage and wings, with an inverted figure-eight cross-section. In its production version it incorporated the key elements of the B-50 platform including, after the first 10 in production, the enlarged tailfin of the B-50. The B-29 and B-50 were phased out with introduction of the jet-powered B-47 Stratojet. The B-50 was nicknamed \"Andy Gump\", because the redesigned engine nacelles reminded aircrew of the chinless newspaper comic character popular at the time.", "Boeing built 370 of the various B-50 models and variants between 1947 and 1953, the tanker and weather reconnaissance versions remaining in service until 1965. The first B-50As were delivered in June 1948 to the Strategic Air Command's 43d Bombardment Wing, based at Davis–Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona. The 2d Bombardment Wing at Chatham Air Force Base, Georgia also received B-50As; the 93d Bombardment Wing at Castle Air Force Base, California and the 509th Bombardment Wing at Walker Air Force Base, New Mexico received B-50Ds in 1949. The fifth and last SAC wing to receive B-50Ds was the 97th Bombardment Wing at Biggs Air Force Base, Texas in December 1950. The mission of these wings was to be nuclear-capable and, in wartime, be able to deliver the atomic bomb on enemy targets if ordered by the president. The 301st Bombardment Wing at MacDill Air Force Base, Florida received some B-50As reassigned from Davis–Monthan in early 1951, but used them for non-operational training pending the delivery of B-47A Stratojets in June 1951. The B-50 was built as an interim strategic bomber to be replaced by the B-47 Stratojet, but delays to the Stratojet forced the B-50 to soldier on until well into the 1950s. A strategic reconnaissance version of the B-50B, the RB-50 was developed in 1949 to replace the aging RB-29s used by SAC in its intelligence gathering operations against the Soviet Union. Three different configurations were produced, which were later redesignated RB-50E, RB-50F, and RB-50G respectively. The RB-50E was earmarked for photographic reconnaissance and observation missions; The RB-50F resembled the RB-50E but carried the SHORAN radar navigation system designed to conduct mapping, charting, and geodetic surveys, and the mission of the RB-50G was electronic reconnaissance. These aircraft were operated primarily by the 55th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing. RB-50Es were also operated by the 91st Strategic Reconnaissance Wing as a replacement for RB-29 photographic reconnaissance aircraft flown over North Korea during the Korean War. The vast northern borders of the Soviet Union were wide open in many places during the early Cold War years with little defensive radar coverage, and limited detection capability. RB-50 aircraft of the 55th SRW flew many sorties along the periphery, and where necessary into the interior. Initially, there was little opposition from the Soviet forces as radar coverage was limited and, if the overflying aircraft were detected, the World War II era Soviet fighters could not intercept the RB-50s at their high altitude. The deployment of the MiG-15 interceptor in the early 1950s made these flights exceedingly hazardous, with several being shot down by Soviet air defenses and the wreckage being examined by intelligence personnel. RB-50 missions over Soviet territory ended by 1954, replaced by the RB-47 Stratojet intelligence aircraft that could fly higher near supersonic speed. The B-47 Stratojet was manufactured in large numbers beginning in 1953 and eventually replaced the B-50Ds in SAC service; the last being retired in 1955. With its retirement from the nuclear-bomber mission, many B-50 airframes were converted to aerial refueling tankers. The B-50, with more powerful engines than the KB-29s in use by Tactical Air Command (TAC), was much more suitable to refuel tactical jet fighter aircraft, such as the F-100 Super Sabre. As tankers, KB-50s would feature extensively reinforced outer wing panels, the necessary equipment to air refuel simultaneously three fighter-type aircraft by the probe and drogue method, and removal of defensive armament. The first KB-50 flew in December 1955 and was accepted by the Air Force in January 1956. The tankers steadily entered the operational inventory of TAC supplanting TAC's KB-29s. By the end of 1957, all of the command's aerial refuling squadrons had their full complement of KB-50s. KB-50s, and later KB-50Js with two General Electric J47 jet engines were used by TAC, and also by USAFE and PACAF overseas as aerial tankers. Some were deployed to Thailand and flew refueling missions over Indochina in the early years of the Vietnam War until being retired in March 1965 due to metal fatigue and corrosion. In addition to the aerial tanker conversion, the Air Weather Service by 1955 had worn out the WB-29s used for hurricane hunting and other weather reconnaissance missions. Thirty-six former SAC B-50Ds were stripped of their armament and equipped for long-range weather reconnaissance missions. The WB-50 could fly higher and faster and longer than the WB-29. However, between 1956 and 1960 it experienced 13 major operational accidents, six of them involving the loss of the entire crew, and 66 crew member fatalities. After the weather reconnaissance fleet was grounded in May 1960 because of fuel leaks, plans were set in motion in 1962 to modify B-47 Stratojets being phased out of SAC to replace it in the role. The WB-50 had an important role during the Cuban Missile Crisis, when it monitored the weather around Cuba to plan photo-reconnaissance flights. The WB-50 was finally retired in 1965 due to metal fatigue and corrosion.", "From the 370 produced only five B-50 aircraft survive today, : AF Ser. No. 46-0010 \"Lucky Lady II\" – The first plane to fly around the world nonstop, between February 26 and March 2, 1949. Was refueled four times in air by KB-29 tanker planes of the 43rd Air Refuelling Squadron, over the Azores, Saudi Arabia, the Philippines and Hawaii. The circumnavigation took 94 hours and 1 minute, and covered 37,743 km (23,452 miles) at an average speed of 398 km/h (249 mph). Lucky Lady II was disassembled after a serious accident and its forward fuselage is stored outside at Planes of Fame Air Museum in Chino, California. AF Ser. No. 49-0310 – National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio. AF Ser. No. 49-0351 \"Flight Of The Phoenix\" – Castle Air Museum at the former Castle Air Force Base in Atwater, California. This was the last B-50 to be flown, being delivered to MASDC at Davis–Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, on 6 October 1965. It was put on display at the Castle Air Museum in 1980. AF Ser No. 49-0372 – Pima Air & Space Museum adjacent to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in Tucson, Arizona. AF Ser. No. 49-0389 – Air Mobility Command Museum in Dover, Delaware. Formerly an outdoor display at MacDill Memorial Park at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, Florida. In 2018, 49–0389 was dismantled and moved a thousand miles to the Air Mobility Command Museum in Dover, Delaware, where the air frame is being repaired before reassembly. Strategic Air Command", "Air Weather Service Tactical Air Command" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Family.", "Military career.", "Interests.", "Political career.", "Senator.", "Criticism of the Eisenhower Administration.", "1964 Republican presidential primary.", "1964 presidential campaign.", "Return to the Senate.", "Retirement.", "Policies.", "Later life.", "Hobbies and interests.", "Amateur radio.", "Kachina dolls.", "Photography.", "UFOs.", "Goldwater Scholarship.", "Death.", "Legacy.", "Buildings and monuments.", "Documentary.", "In popular culture.", "Relatives." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Goldwater was born in Phoenix in what was then the Arizona Territory, the son of Baron M. Goldwater and his wife, Hattie Josephine \"JoJo\" Williams. His father's family had founded Goldwater's, a leading upscale department store in Phoenix. Goldwater's paternal grandfather, Michel Goldwasser, a Polish Jew, was born in 1821 in Konin, then part of the Russian Empire, whence he emigrated to London following the Revolutions of 1848. Soon after arriving in London, he anglicized his name from Goldwasser to Goldwater. Michel married Sarah Nathan, a member of an English-Jewish family, in the Great Synagogue of London. His father was Jewish and his mother, who was Episcopalian, came from a New England family that included the theologian Roger Williams of Rhode Island. Goldwater's parents were married in an Episcopal church in Phoenix; for his entire life, Goldwater was an Episcopalian, though on rare occasions he referred to himself as Jewish. While he did not often attend church, he stated that \"If a man acts in a religious way, an ethical way, then he's really a religious man—and it doesn't have a lot to do with how often he gets inside a church.\" After he did poorly as a freshman in high school, Goldwater's parents sent him to Staunton Military Academy in Virginia where he played varsity football, basketball, track and swimming, was senior class treasurer and attained the rank of captain. He graduated from the academy in 1928 and enrolled at the University of Arizona. Goldwater dropped out of college after one year. He is the most recent non-college graduate to be the nominee of a major political party in a presidential election. Goldwater entered the family's business around the time of his father's death in 1930. Six years later, he took over the department store, though he was not particularly enthused about running the business.", "In 1934, he married Margaret \"Peggy\" Johnson, daughter of a prominent industrialist from Muncie, Indiana. They had four children: Joanne (born January 18, 1936), Barry (born July 15, 1938), Michael (born March 15, 1940), and Peggy (born July 27, 1944). Goldwater became a widower in 1985, and in 1992 he married Susan Wechsler,", "With the American entry into World War II, Goldwater received a reserve commission in the United States Army Air Forces. He became a pilot assigned to the Ferry Command, a newly formed unit that flew aircraft and supplies to war zones worldwide. He spent most of the war flying between the U.S. and India, via the Azores and North Africa or South America, Nigeria, and Central Africa. He also flew \"the hump\" over the Himalayas to deliver supplies to the Republic of China. Following World War II, Goldwater was a leading proponent of creating the United States Air Force Academy, and", "Goldwater ran track and cross country in high school, where he specialized in the 880 yard run. His parents strongly encouraged him to compete in these sports, to his dismay. He often went by the nickname of \"Rolling Thunder\". In 1940, Goldwater became one of the first people to run the Colorado River recreationally through Grand Canyon participating as an oarsman on Norman Nevills' second commercial river", "In a heavily Democratic state, Goldwater became a conservative Republican and a friend of Herbert Hoover. He was outspoken against New Deal liberalism, especially its close ties to labor unions. A pilot, amateur radio operator, outdoorsman and photographer, he criss-crossed Arizona and developed a deep interest in both the natural and the human history of the state. He entered Phoenix politics in 1949, when he was elected to the City Council as part of a nonpartisan team of candidates pledged to clean up widespread prostitution and gambling. The team won every mayoral and council election for the next two decades. Goldwater rebuilt the weak Republican party and was instrumental in electing Howard Pyle as Governor in 1950.", "As a Republican he won a seat in the U.S. Senate in 1952, when he upset veteran Democrat and Senate Majority Leader Ernest McFarland. He won largely by defeating McFarland in his native Maricopa County by 12,600 votes, almost double the overall margin of 6,725 votes. As a measure of how Democratic Arizona had been since joining the Union 40 years earlier, Goldwater was only the second Republican ever to represent Arizona in the Senate. In his first", "Goldwater was outspoken about the Eisenhower administration, calling some of the policies of the Eisenhower administration too liberal for a Republican President. \"...Democrats delighted in pointing out that the junior senator was so headstrong that he had gone out his way to criticize the president of his own party.\" There was a Democratic majority in Congress for most of Eisenhower's career and Goldwater felt that President Dwight Eisenhower was compromising too much with Democrats in order to get legislation passed. Early on in his career as a senator for Arizona, he criticized the $71.8 billion budget that President Eisenhower sent to Congress, stating \"Now, however, I am not so sure. A $71.8 billion budget not only shocks me,", "In 1964, Goldwater fought and won a multi-candidate race for the Republican Party's presidential nomination. His main rival was New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller, whom he defeated by a narrow margin in the California primary. Eisenhower gave his support to Goldwater when he told reporters, \"I personally believe that Goldwater is not an extremist as some people have made him, but in", "At the time of Goldwater's presidential candidacy, the Republican Party was split between its conservative wing (based in the West and South) and moderate/liberal wing, sometimes called Rockefeller Republicans (based in the Northeast). Goldwater alarmed even some of his fellow partisans with his brand of staunch fiscal conservatism and militant anti-communism. He was viewed by many traditional Republicans as being too far on the right wing of the political spectrum to appeal to the mainstream majority necessary to win a national election. As a result, moderate Republicans recruited a series of opponents, including New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., of Massachusetts and Pennsylvania Governor William Scranton, to challenge him. Goldwater would defeat Rockefeller in the winner-take-all California primary and secure the nomination. He also had a solid backing from Southern Republicans. A young Birmingham lawyer, John Grenier, secured commitments from 271 of 279 Southern convention delegates to back Goldwater. Grenier would serve as executive director of the national GOP during the Goldwater campaign, the number 2 position to party chairman Dean Burch of Arizona. Journalist John Adams says, \"his acceptance speech was bold, reflecting his conservative views, but not irrational. Rather than shrinking from those critics who accuse him of extremism, Goldwater challenged them head-on\" in his acceptance speech at the 1964 Republican Convention. In his own words: His paraphrase of Cicero was included at the suggestion of Harry V. Jaffa, though the speech was primarily written by Karl Hess. Because of President Johnson's popularity, Goldwater refrained from attacking the president directly. He did not mention Johnson by name at all in his convention speech. Former U.S. Senator Prescott Bush, a moderate Republican from Connecticut, was a friend of Goldwater and supported him in the general election campaign. Bush's son, George H. W. Bush (then running for the Senate from Texas against Democrat Ralph Yarborough), was also a strong Goldwater supporter in both the nomination and general election campaigns. Future Chief Justice of the United States and fellow Arizonan William H. Rehnquist also first came to the attention of national Republicans through his work as a legal adviser to Goldwater's presidential campaign. Rehnquist had", "Goldwater remained popular in Arizona, and in the 1968 Senate election he was elected to the seat of retiring Senator Carl Hayden. He was subsequently reelected in 1974 and 1980. The 1974 election saw Goldwater easily reelected over his Democratic opponent, Jonathan Marshall, the publisher of \"The Scottsdale Progress\". With his fourth Senate term due to end in January 1981, Goldwater seriously considered retiring from the Senate in 1980 before deciding to run for one final term. It was a surprisingly tough battle for re-election. He was viewed by some as out of touch and vulnerable for several reasons. Chief among them was that Goldwater, because he had planned to retire in 1981, had not visited many areas of Arizona outside of Phoenix and Tucson. Additionally, his challenger, Bill", "Goldwater said later that the close result in 1980 convinced him not to run again. He retired in 1987, serving as chair of the Senate Intelligence and Armed Services Committees in his final term. Despite his reputation as a firebrand in the 1960s, by the end of his career he was", "Goldwater became most associated with labor-union reform and anti-communism; he was a supporter of the conservative coalition in Congress. His work on labor issues led to Congress passing major anti-corruption reforms in 1957, and an all-out campaign by the AFL-CIO to defeat his 1958 reelection bid. He voted against the censure of Senator Joseph McCarthy in 1954, but he never actually charged any individual with being a communist/Soviet agent. Goldwater emphasized his strong opposition to the worldwide spread of communism in his 1960 book \"The Conscience of a Conservative\". The book became an important reference text in conservative political circles. In 1964, Goldwater ran a conservative campaign that emphasized states' rights. Goldwater's 1964 campaign was a magnet for conservatives since he opposed interference by the federal government in state affairs. Goldwater voted in favor of the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, but did not vote on the Civil Rights Act of 1960. Though Goldwater had supported the original Senate version of the bill, Goldwater voted against the Civil Rights Act of 1964. His stance was based on his view that Article II and Article VII of the Act interfered with the rights of private persons to do or not to do business with whomever they chose, and believed that the private employment provisions of the Act would lead to racial quotas. In the segregated city of Phoenix in the 1950s, he had quietly supported civil rights for blacks, but would not let his name be used. All this appealed to white Southern Democrats, and Goldwater was the first Republican to win the electoral votes of all of the Deep South states (South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana) since Reconstruction (although Dwight Eisenhower did carry Louisiana in 1956). However, Goldwater's vote on the Civil Rights Act proved devastating to his campaign everywhere outside the South (besides Dixie, Goldwater won only in Arizona, his home state), contributing to his landslide defeat in 1964. While Goldwater had been depicted by his opponents in the Republican primaries as a representative of a conservative philosophy that was extreme and alien, his voting records show that his positions were in harmony with those of his fellow Republicans in the Congress. According to Hans J. Morgenthau, what distinguished him from his predecessors was his firmness of principle and determination, which did not allow him to be content with mere rhetoric. Goldwater fought in 1971 to stop U.S. funding of the United Nations after the People's Republic of China was admitted to the organization. He said:", "By the 1980s, with Ronald Reagan as president and the growing involvement of the religious right in conservative politics, Goldwater's libertarian views on personal issues were revealed; he believed that they were an integral part of true conservatism. Goldwater viewed abortion as a matter of personal choice and as such supported abortion rights. As a passionate defender of personal liberty, he saw the religious right's views as an encroachment on personal privacy and individual liberties. In his 1980 Senate reelection campaign, Goldwater won support from religious conservatives but in his final term voted consistently to uphold legalized abortion and in 1981 gave a speech on how he was angry about the bullying of American politicians by religious organizations, and would \"fight them every step of the way\". Goldwater also disagreed with the Reagan administration on certain aspects of foreign policy (for example, he opposed the decision to mine Nicaraguan harbors). Notwithstanding his prior differences with Dwight D. Eisenhower, Goldwater in a 1986 interview rated him the best of the seven presidents with whom he had worked. He introduced the 1984 Cable Franchise Policy and Communications Act, which allowed local governments to require the transmission of public, educational, and government access (PEG) channels, barred cable operators from exercising editorial control over content of programs carried on PEG channels, and absolved them from liability for their content. On May 12, 1986, Goldwater was presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Ronald Reagan. After his retirement in 1987, Goldwater described the Arizona Governor Evan Mecham as \"hardheaded\" and called on him to resign, and two years later stated that the Republican party had been taken over by a \"bunch of kooks\". In 1987 he received the Langley Gold Medal from the Smithsonian Institution. In 1988, Princeton University's", "", "Goldwater was an avid amateur radio operator from the early 1920s onwards, with the call signs 6BPI, K3UIG and K7UGA. The last is now used by an Arizona club honoring him as a commemorative call. During the Vietnam War he was a Military Affiliate Radio System (MARS) operator. Goldwater was a prominent spokesman for amateur radio and its enthusiasts. Beginning in 1969 up to his death he appeared in numerous educational and promotional films (and later videos) about the hobby that were produced for", "In 1916 Goldwater visited the Hopi Reservation with Phoenix architect John Rinker Kibby, and obtained", "Goldwater was an amateur photographer and in his estate left some 15,000 of his images to three Arizona institutions. He was very keen on candid photography. He got started in photography after receiving a camera as a gift from his wife on their first Christmas together. He was known to use a 4×5 Graflex, Rolleiflex, 16 mm Bell and Howell motion picture camera, and 35 mm Nikkormat FT. He was a member of the Royal Photographic Society from 1941 becoming a Life Member in 1948. For decades, he contributed photographs of his home state to \"Arizona Highways\" and was best known for his Western landscapes and pictures of native Americans in the United States. Three books with his photographs are \"People and Places\",", "On March 28, 1975, Goldwater wrote to Shlomo Arnon: \"The subject of UFOs has interested me for some long time. About ten or twelve years ago I made an effort to find out what was in the building at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base where the information has been stored that has been collected by the Air Force, and I was understandably denied this request. It is still classified above Top Secret.\" Goldwater further wrote that there were rumors the evidence would be released, and that he was", "The Barry M. Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Program was established by Congress in 1986. Its goal is to provide a continuing source of highly qualified scientists, mathematicians, and engineers by awarding scholarships to college students who intend to pursue", "Goldwater's public appearances ended in late 1996 after he suffered a massive stroke; family members then disclosed he was in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease. He died on May 29, 1998, at the age of 89 at his long-time home in", "", "Among the buildings and monuments named after Barry Goldwater are: the Barry M. Goldwater Terminal at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport, Goldwater Memorial Park in Paradise Valley, Arizona, the Barry Goldwater Air Force Academy Visitor Center at the United States Air Force Academy, and Barry Goldwater High School in northern Phoenix. In", "Goldwater's granddaughter, CC Goldwater, has co-produced with longtime friend and independent film producer Tani", "In his song \"I Shall Be Free No. 10\", Bob Dylan refers to Goldwater: \"I'm liberal to a", "Goldwater's son Barry Goldwater Jr. served as a Congressman from California from 1969 to 1983. He was the first Congressman to serve while having a father in the Senate. Goldwater's uncle Morris Goldwater served in the Arizona territorial and state legislatures and as mayor of Prescott, Arizona. Goldwater's nephew Don Goldwater sought the Arizona Republican Party nomination for Governor of Arizona in 2006, but he was defeated by Len Munsil." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Depiction.", "Dike Astraea." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The sculptures of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia have as their unifying iconographical conception the \"dikē\" of Zeus, and in poetry she is often the attendant (\"paredros\") of Zeus. In the philosophical climate of late 5th century Athens, \"dikē\" could be anthropomorphised as a goddess of moral justice. She was one of the three second-generation Horae, along with Eunomia ('order') and Eirene ('peace'): She ruled over human justice, while her mother Themis ruled over divine justice. Her opposite was \"adikia\" ('injustice'): in reliefs on the archaic Chest of Cypselus preserved at Olympia, a comely \"Dikē\" throttled an ugly \"Adikia\" and beat her with a stick. The later art of rhetoric treated the personification of abstract concepts as an artistic device, which devolved into the allegorizing that Late Antiquity bequeathed to patristic literature. In a further euhemerist interpretation, Dikē was born a mortal and Zeus placed her on Earth to keep mankind just. He quickly learned this was impossible and placed her next to him on Mount Olympus.", "One of her epithets was \"Astraea\", referring to her appearance as the constellation Virgo. According to Aratus' account of the constellation's origin, Dike lived upon Earth during the Golden and Silver ages, when there were no wars or diseases, men raised fine crops and did not yet know how to sail. They grew greedy, however, and Dike was sickened. She proclaimed: Dike left Earth for the sky, from which, as the constellation, she watched the despicable human race. After her departure, the human race declined into the Bronze Age, when diseases arose and they learned how to sail." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Establishment.", "Sunrise period.", "Landrush.", "Stabilisation.", "Brexit.", "Use by the European Union institutions.", "Actual use.", "Parking and redirects.", "Cyrillic domain.", "Greek domain.", "Allegations of abuse." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The.eu ccTLD was approved by ICANN on 22 March 2005 and put in the Internet root zone on 2 May 2005. Even though the EU is not a country (it is a sui generis intergovernmental and supranational organisation), it has an exceptional reservation in ISO 3166. The Commission and ICANN had extended negotiations lasting more than five years to secure its acceptance. \".eu.int\" was the subdomain most used by the European Commission and the European Parliament, based on the.int generic top-level domain (gTLD) for international bodies, until 9 May 2006. The.eu domain (ccTLD) was launched in December 2005, and because of this most.eu.int domain names changed to.europa.eu on Europe day, 9 May 2006.", "The Sunrise Period was broken into two phases. The first phase, which began on 7 December 2005 was to facilitate applications by registrants with prior rights based on trademarks and geographic names. The second phase began on 7 February 2006 and covered company, trade and personal names. In the case of all Sunrise applications, the application needed to be accompanied by documents proving the claim to ownership of a certain right. The decision was then made by PricewaterhouseCoopers Belgium, which had been chosen as the validation agent by EURid. On 7 February 2006, the registry was opened for company, trade and personal names. In the first 15 minutes, there were 27,949 total applications, and after one hour, 71,235.", "On 7 April 2006 at 11 am CET registration became possible for non-trademark holders. Most people requesting domains had asked their registrars to put their requested domains in a queue, ensuring the best chance to register a domain. This way more than 700,000 domains were registered during the first 4 hours of operation. Some large registrars like Go Daddy and small registrars like Dotster suffered from long queues and unresponsiveness, allowing people to 'beat the queue' by registering through a registrar that had already processed its queue. By August 2006, 2 Million.eu domains had been registered. It was then fourth-largest ccTLD in Europe, after.de,.uk and.nl, and is one of the largest internationally. The number of.eu domain registrations during the year after the landrush 7 April 2006 to 6 April 2007 seems to have peaked at approximately 2.6 million.eu domains. The market adjustment that follows a landrush in any domain name extension ensures that the number of registered domains will fall as many speculative domain registrations that failed to be resold will not be renewed. This is sometimes referred to as the \"Junk Dump\". On the morning of 7 April 2007, the number of active.eu domains stood at 2,590,160 with approximately 15,000 domains having been deleted since 5 April 2007.", "Approximately 1.5 million.eu domains were up for renewal in April 2007. The EURid registry software is based on the DNS. be software and domains are physically renewed at the end of the month of their anniversary of registration. This process differs from more sophisticated registries like that of.com TLD and other ccTLDs that operate on a daily basis. As with any post-landrush phase, an extension shrinks as the \"Junk Dump\" takes effect. Over one year after the launch of.eu (5 July 2007), the number of.de domains registered was 11,079,557 according to the German.de registry's statistics page, while number of German owned.eu domains according to EURid's statistics page was 796,561. The number of.uk domains registered was 6,038,732 according to.uk registry Nominet's statistics page. The number of apparently UK owned.eu domains was 344,584. The extent of the shrinkage of.eu ccTLD is difficult to estimate because EURid does not publish detailed statistics on the number of new domains registered each day. Instead it provides only a single figure for the number of active domains. The number of new registrations are combined with numbers of domains registered. Approximately 250,000.eu domains were either deleted or moved into quarantine by 30 April 2007. In the intervening years the renewal rate has stabilised to approximately 80%, which is above the industry average.", "On 29 March 2018, as a consequence of the United Kingdom's exit from the European Union, it was announced that \"as of the withdrawal date, undertakings and organisations that are established in the United Kingdom but not in the EU, and natural persons who reside in the United Kingdom will no longer be eligible to register.eu domain names or, if they are.eu registrants, to renew.eu domain names registered before the withdrawal date\". The Commission announced on 27 April 2018 that it would like to open registration to all EU and EEA citizens, including those living outside the EU. The Parliament, the Council, and the Commission reached an agreement on this in December 2018, and the corresponding regulation passed the Parliament on 31 January 2019. The 317.000 British.eu domain names will be subject to Brexit negotiations because the.eu domain is reserved for European Union use. The.eu brexit would occur on 30 March 2019, in case of no deal, but has since been postponed to January 2020.", "The second-level domain.europa.eu has been reserved for EU institution sites, with institutions and agencies making the switch from.eu.int to.europa.eu domains on the Europe day of 9 May 2006.", "The main users of.eu domains are websites with pan-European or cross-border intentions and audiences. It is often used to emphasise the 'European identity' of a website, as opposed to the website having a strictly national ccTLD or global \"dotcom\" nature. Alternative (opportunistic) uses include Basque webpages (as the initial letters of Euskadi or the language Euskara) and Romanian, Portuguese, or Galician personal sites, as \"eu\" is the equivalent of the English pronoun 'I' in those languages. In most countries of the EU, the national ccTLDs have the major share of the market with the remainder spread over.com/.net/.org/.info/.biz. As a result of this,.eu has had an uphill battle to gain a significant share of these national markets. The dominant players tend to be the national ccTLD and.com. The other TLDs such as.net,.org and to a lesser extent.info and.biz have progressively smaller shares of these national markets. Some.eu domain names have had some popularity, such as torrentz2.eu. As of November 2019, according to the Tranco rank, the top 100 thousand most popular domains in the world included over 200.eu domains.", "As of around 2010, some statistics indicated a large number of.eu domains being used to direct to other domains. According to page 20 of EURid's Annual Report for 2006, the breakdown of.eu domain ownership figures on 31 December 2006 was: The number of registrants with five domains or fewer registered in.eu ccTLD was, according to these statistics, 805,316. These registrants accounted for 1,128,454 domains out of 2,444,947.eu domains registered as of 31 December 2006. These registrations, typically those of individuals and companies protecting their brand, only represent 46% of the number of registered.eu domains.", ".ею, a top level domain using Cyrillic letters was put into operation on 1 June 2016. A Cyrillic domain was needed because Bulgaria, a member of the EU, uses the Cyrillic alphabet. The EU is called ЕС (Европейски Съюз) in Bulgarian Cyrillic, but.ес (in Cyrillic letters) is much too similar to.ec (in Latin letters), the existing top level domain of Ecuador, so.ею was chosen. (While some Latin and Cyrillic letters may look identical, they have different character encodings and are distinct for data-processing purposes. Consequently there is an opportunity for misrepresentation unless steps are taken to prevent abusive registration). EURid has a rule that the second-level domain name must be in the same script as the top-level domain, so Cyrillic second-level domains must go under.ею instead of.eu, and all domain names under.ею must be spelt using Cyrillic. Older Cyrillic domains under.eu were cloned into.ею at its launch.", "An application for a top level domain using Greek letters,.ευ was submitted in 2016. The application was originally turned down because it was too visually similar to.eu. The Greek name of the EU is, but.εε would be too visually similar to.ee, the top level domain of Estonia. In 2019 steps were taken towards approving \".ευ\" as a domain. The proposal was to have one and the same registry manager of.eu,.eю and.ευ, which shall make sure second-level domains are not visually similar and in the long term assign all Cyrillic domains under.eu to.eю and all Greek letters domains to.ευ. ευ domain names were officially launched in November 2019.", "Domain name speculation, Domain name warehousing and cybersquatting are always features of the launch of any new TLD; however, this was more widespread in the case of the.eu launch. Bob Parsons, CEO and co-founder of Go Daddy, criticized the landrush process designed by EURid. Particularly, he condemned the use of shell companies by some registrars. In his blog, he stated \"These companies, instead of only registering their real active registrars, created hundreds of new \"phantom\" registrars.\" Parsons cited a group of about 400 companies, all with similar address and contact information based in New York, each registered as an LLC; in his opinion, these were phantom registrars \"created to hijack the.EU landrush.\" These \"phantom\" registrars effectively had hundreds of opportunities of registering a domain whereas a genuine registrar effectively only had one opportunity to register the same domain. Thus some registrants were crowded out of the.eu landrush process and many generic.eu domain names are now owned by the companies using these \"phantom\" registrars. Patrik Lindén, spokesman for EURid at the time, denied the allegations by Parsons, stating that \"[EURid] verified that each registrar was an individual legal entity. Each had to sign an agreement with us, and prepay €10,000.\" Parsons didn't dispute that each registrar was a separate legal entity, but noted that creating such entities was trivial: \"Mr. Linden seemed proud that the EURid registry verified that each applicant was a legal entity before it was accredited. Take a moment and think about what that means. You can form a \"legal entity\" for $50 – an LLC – and you are good to go. Is that what we want a registry to do? Don't we want them instead to make sure that the organization it allows to provide end-users with its domain names – especially Europe's very own domain name – are actually in the domain name registration business?\" Others claimed that.eu domain had been actively targeted during the Sunrise period by speculators using fast track Benelux trademarks to create \"prior rights\" on various high value generic terms and during the landrush by speculators using EU front companies in the UK and Cyprus to register large numbers of domains. While speculative activity occurred with the launch of other domains, it was the scale of the activity that called into question the competence of EURid in protecting the integrity of eu ccTLD. The EURid organisation investigated some allegations of abuse, and in July 2006 announced the suspension of over 74,000 domain names and that they were suing 400 registrars for breach of contract. The status of the domains was changed from ACTIVE to ON-HOLD. This meant that the domains could not be moved or have their ownership changed. The registrars also lost their access to the EURid registration database meaning that they could no longer register.eu domain names. The legal action relates to the practice of domain name warehousing, whereby large numbers of domain names are registered, often by registrars, with the intention of subsequently selling them on to third parties. EURid rules state that applications for domains can only be made after a legitimate application has been made to a registrar. The 74,000 applications were made in the name of only three Cyprus registered companies— Ovidio Ltd., Fausto Ltd. and Gabino Ltd. The affected registrars, joined in the action by the affected registrants, obtained a provisional order from the Court of First Instance in Brussels, Belgium on 27 September 2006. The court ordered EURid to release the blocked domain names or else pay a fine of €25,000 per hour for each affected domain name. EURid complied with the court order and changed the status of the domains from ON HOLD to ACTIVE and restored EURid registration database access to the affected registrars. The main legal action, that of EURid seeking the registrar agreements between EURid and the registrars in question to be dissolved has still to be heard." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Architecture.", "Connections.", "Services." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Canada Water was originally intended to be a stop on the aborted Fleet Line Extension to Thamesmead. The extension was never built, but Canada Water became the only projected Fleet Line Extension station to be realised on the Jubilee Line Extension. The station is a wholly new building on a derelict site formerly occupied by Albion Dock, part of the old Surrey Commercial Docks. The station was one of the first designed for the Jubilee Line Extension. The contract for the station's construction was initially awarded to Wimpey in 1993 for the sum of £21.3 million and was later taken over by Tarmac. Construction began in 1995. It proved extremely challenging, requiring the excavation (by cut-and-cover) of a void long, wide and deep. The building of the East London Line station required a separate slot at right angles, long, deep and tapering in width, incorporating a Victorian railway tunnel. Construction was complicated by the high water table on the site, which is located on the Thames flood plain; extensive deep-well dewatering was required to lower the water table before the enclosure to the excavations could be built. A total of 120,000 m3 (4,237,760 ft3) of spoil had to be excavated. An additional complication was the location of the excavation site, near the foundations of two existing 22-storey tower blocks and the northern end of the former Canada Dock, now the ornamental lake Canada Water. The section of East London line running through the station was completely reconstructed, with the 19th-century brick railway tunnel being dismantled and the track relaid over a new structure bridging the Jubilee line tracks below. As the East London line had to be closed for this work, London Underground took the opportunity to carry out other remedial works such as repairs to the Thames Tunnel, a short distance to the north. It was opened on 19 August 1999, served initially by East London line trains. The Jubilee line passenger service from the station began on 17 September 1999. In 2012, it was used as a filming location for part of the pilot episode of the BBC/Cinemax British-American spy drama, \"Hunted\" (TV series). Canada Water was the first station to receive external sponsorship; Nestlé sponsored the station on the day of the 2015 London Marathon, and roundels in the station were edited to advertise Nestlé's Buxton Water. The one-day sponsorship was part of a plan to increase Transport for London's non-fare revenue, costing Nestlé £110,000.", "The station, which was the first to be designed in the Jubilee Line Extension project, has been described by the Hong Kong MTR's chief architect Roland Paoletti as \"the only station on the JLE that has been built to the strict engineering economies of the specification of a Hong Kong interchange station.\" Above ground, its most salient feature is a striking glass \"drum\" across, which covers a deep opening descending almost to the Jubilee line platforms, below the surface. This feature was designed to allow natural light to reach deep into the station, a design principle common to many of the stations on the Jubilee Line Extension. The drum was designed and constructed by Buro Happold. It is notably similar to the brick drum designed by Charles Holden for station on the Piccadilly line in the 1930s, but is much more oriented towards the entry of daylight. The drum is accompanied by a glass-roofed bus station designed by Eva Jiřičná which serves as a hub for services in the Rotherhithe and Bermondsey areas. The bus station was designed to fit in a relatively small site between the station drum, the railway's ventilation openings, a high wall and the adjoining tower blocks. Its most distinctive feature is a row of -long roof spans cantilevered from a row of central columns supporting a -long glass and aluminium canopy. This provides acoustic protection to the residential blocks and shelters passengers waiting below. Below ground, the station is dominated by a huge concrete box, large enough to accommodate one of the Canary Wharf skyscrapers on its side. It is lined by a series of huge concrete pillars designed to take the weight of a planned nine-storey building on the surface as well as the roadway and bus station. The station has four lifts and eight escalators with an average rise of about to connect the lower parts of the station with street level. It is built on three levels: the ticket office and shops lie immediately below ground, the two north-south East London line platforms are situated on the second level below the ground, and the two east-west Jubilee line platforms are on the lowest level down. The station was the winner of the Civic Trust Building of the Year Award for 2000, and the Interchange Awards' Medium Size Project of the Year award for 2001.", "London Buses routes 1, 47, 188, 199, 225, 381, C10 and P12 and night routes N1, N199 and N381 serve the station and bus station.", "Canada Water is the busiest two-platform National Rail station, with 25 million entries and exits to the NR platforms in 2017–18." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure.", "Synthesis.", "Pyrimidine ribonucleotide synthesis.", "Purine ribonucleotide synthesis.", "Pyrimidine and purine degradation.", "Unnatural base pair (UBP).", "Length unit.", "Nucleotide supplements.", "Abbreviation codes for degenerate bases." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A nucleotide is composed of three distinctive chemical sub-units: a five-carbon sugar molecule, a nitrogenous base—which two together are called a nucleoside—and one phosphate group. With all three joined, a nucleotide is also termed a \"nucleoside \"mono\"phosphate\", \"nucleoside \"di\"phosphate\" or \"nucleoside \"tri\"phosphate\", depending on how many phosphates make up the phosphate group. In nucleic acids, nucleotides contain either a purine or a pyrimidine base—i.e., the nitrogenous base molecule, also known as a nucleobase—and are termed \"ribo\"nucleotides if the sugar is ribose, or \"deoxyribo\"nucleotides if the sugar is deoxyribose. Individual phosphate molecules repetitively connect the sugar-ring molecules in two adjacent nucleotide monomers, thereby connecting the nucleotide monomers of a nucleic acid end-to-end into a long chain. These chain-joins of sugar and phosphate molecules create a 'backbone' strand for a single- or double helix. In any one strand, the chemical orientation (directionality) of the chain-joins runs from the 5'-end to the 3'-end (\"read\": 5 prime-end to 3 prime-end)—referring to the five carbon sites on sugar molecules in adjacent nucleotides. In a double helix, the two strands are oriented in opposite directions, which permits base pairing and complementarity between the base-pairs, all which is essential for replicating or transcribing the encoded information found in DNA. Nucleic acids then are polymeric macromolecules assembled from nucleotides, the monomer-units of nucleic acids. The purine bases adenine and guanine and pyrimidine base cytosine occur in both DNA and RNA, while the pyrimidine bases thymine (in DNA) and uracil (in RNA) occur in just one. Adenine forms a base pair with thymine with two hydrogen bonds, while guanine pairs with cytosine with three hydrogen bonds. In addition to being building blocks for construction of nucleic acid polymers, singular nucleotides play roles in cellular energy storage and provision, cellular signaling, as a source of phosphate groups used to modulate the activity of proteins and other signaling molecules, and as enzymatic cofactors, often carrying out redox reactions. Signaling cyclic nucleotides are formed by binding the phosphate group twice to the same sugar molecule, bridging the 5'- and 3'- hydroxyl groups of the sugar. Some signaling nucleotides differ from the standard single-phosphate group configuration, in having multiple phosphate groups attached to different positions on the sugar. Nucleotide cofactors include a wider range of chemical groups attached to the sugar via the glycosidic bond, including nicotinamide and flavin, and in the latter case, the ribose sugar is linear rather than forming the ring seen in other nucleotides.", "Nucleotides can be synthesized by a variety of means both in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, protecting groups may be used during laboratory production of nucleotides. A purified nucleoside is protected to create a phosphoramidite, which can then be used to obtain analogues not found in nature and/or to synthesize an oligonucleotide. In vivo, nucleotides can be synthesized de novo or recycled through salvage pathways. The components used in de novo nucleotide synthesis are derived from biosynthetic precursors of carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism, and from ammonia and carbon dioxide. The liver is the major organ of de novo synthesis of all four nucleotides. De novo synthesis of pyrimidines and purines follows two different pathways. Pyrimidines are synthesized first from aspartate and carbamoyl-phosphate in the cytoplasm to the common precursor ring structure orotic acid, onto which a phosphorylated ribosyl unit is covalently linked. Purines, however, are first synthesized from the sugar template onto which the ring synthesis occurs. For reference, the syntheses of the purine and pyrimidine nucleotides are carried out by several enzymes in the cytoplasm of the cell, not within a specific organelle. Nucleotides undergo breakdown such that useful parts can be reused in synthesis reactions to create new nucleotides.", "The synthesis of the pyrimidines CTP and UTP occurs in the cytoplasm and starts with the formation of carbamoyl phosphate from glutamine and CO. Next, aspartate carbamoyltransferase catalyzes a condensation reaction between aspartate and carbamoyl phosphate to form carbamoyl aspartic acid, which is cyclized into 4,5-dihydroorotic acid by dihydroorotase. The latter is converted to orotate by dihydroorotate oxidase. The net reaction is: Orotate is covalently linked with a phosphorylated ribosyl unit. The covalent linkage between the ribose and pyrimidine occurs at position C of the ribose unit, which contains a pyrophosphate, and N of the pyrimidine ring. Orotate phosphoribosyltransferase (PRPP transferase) catalyzes the net reaction yielding orotidine monophosphate (OMP): Orotidine 5'-monophosphate is decarboxylated by orotidine-5'-phosphate decarboxylase to form uridine monophosphate (UMP). PRPP transferase catalyzes both the ribosylation and decarboxylation reactions, forming UMP from orotic acid in the presence of PRPP. It is from UMP that other pyrimidine nucleotides are derived. UMP is phosphorylated by two kinases to uridine triphosphate (UTP) via two sequential reactions with ATP. First the diphosphate form UDP is produced, which in turn is phosphorylated to UTP. Both steps are fueled by ATP hydrolysis: CTP is subsequently formed by amination of UTP by the catalytic activity of CTP synthetase. Glutamine is the NH donor and the reaction is fueled by ATP hydrolysis, too: Cytidine monophosphate (CMP) is derived from cytidine triphosphate (CTP) with subsequent loss of two phosphates.", "The atoms that are used to build the purine nucleotides come from a variety of sources: The de novo synthesis of purine nucleotides by which these precursors are incorporated into the purine ring proceeds by a 10-step pathway to the branch-point intermediate IMP, the nucleotide of the base hypoxanthine. AMP and GMP are subsequently synthesized from this intermediate via separate, two-step pathways. Thus, purine moieties are initially formed as part of the ribonucleotides rather than as free bases. Six enzymes take part in IMP synthesis. Three of them are multifunctional: The pathway starts with the formation of PRPP. PRPS1 is the enzyme that activates R5P, which is formed primarily by the pentose phosphate pathway, to PRPP by reacting it with ATP. The reaction is unusual in that a pyrophosphoryl group is directly transferred from ATP to C of R5P and that the product has the α configuration about C1. This reaction is also shared with the pathways for the synthesis of Trp, His, and the pyrimidine nucleotides. Being on a major metabolic crossroad and requiring much energy, this reaction is highly regulated. In the first reaction unique to purine nucleotide biosynthesis, PPAT catalyzes the displacement of PRPP's pyrophosphate group (PP) by an amide nitrogen donated from either glutamine (N), glycine (N&C), aspartate (N), folic acid (C), or CO. This is the committed step in purine synthesis. The reaction occurs with the inversion of configuration about ribose C, thereby forming β-5-phosphorybosylamine (5-PRA) and establishing the anomeric form of the future nucleotide. Next, a glycine is incorporated fueled by ATP hydrolysis and the carboxyl group forms an amine bond to the NH previously introduced. A one-carbon unit from folic acid coenzyme N-formyl-THF is then added to the amino group of the substituted glycine followed by the closure of the imidazole ring. Next, a second NH group is transferred from a glutamine to the first carbon of the glycine unit. A carboxylation of the second carbon of the glycin unit is concomitantly added. This new carbon is modified by the additional of a third NH unit, this time transferred from an aspartate residue. Finally, a second one-carbon unit from formyl-THF is added to the nitrogen group and the ring covalently closed to form the common purine precursor inosine monophosphate (IMP). Inosine monophosphate is converted to adenosine monophosphate in two steps. First, GTP hydrolysis fuels the addition of aspartate to IMP by adenylosuccinate synthase, substituting the carbonyl oxygen for a nitrogen and forming the intermediate adenylosuccinate. Fumarate is then cleaved off forming adenosine monophosphate. This step is catalyzed by adenylosuccinate lyase. Inosine monophosphate is converted to guanosine monophosphate by the oxidation of IMP forming xanthylate, followed by the insertion of an amino group at C. NAD is the electron acceptor in the oxidation reaction. The amide group transfer from glutamine is fueled by ATP hydrolysis.", "In humans, pyrimidine rings (C, T, U) can be degraded completely to CO and NH (urea excretion). That having been said, purine rings (G, A) cannot. Instead they are degraded to the metabolically inert uric acid which is then excreted from the body. Uric acid is formed when GMP is split into the base guanine and ribose. Guanine is deaminated to xanthine which in turn is oxidized to uric acid. This last reaction is irreversible. Similarly, uric acid can be formed when AMP is deaminated to IMP from which the ribose unit is removed to form hypoxanthine. Hypoxanthine is oxidized to xanthine and finally to uric acid. Instead of uric acid secretion, guanine and IMP can be used for recycling purposes and nucleic acid synthesis in the presence of PRPP and aspartate (NH donor).", "An unnatural base pair (UBP) is a designed subunit (or nucleobase) of DNA which is created in a laboratory and does not occur in nature. In 2012, a group of American scientists led by Floyd Romesberg, a chemical biologist at the Scripps Research Institute in San Diego, California, published that his team designed an unnatural base pair (UBP). The two new artificial nucleotides or \"Unnatural Base Pair\" (UBP) were named d5SICS and dNaM. More technically, these artificial nucleotides bearing hydrophobic nucleobases, feature two fused aromatic rings that form a (d5SICS–dNaM) complex or base pair in DNA. In 2014 the same team from the Scripps Research Institute reported that they synthesized a stretch of circular DNA known as a plasmid containing natural T-A and C-G base pairs along with the best-performing UBP Romesberg's laboratory had designed, and inserted it into cells of the common bacterium \"E. coli\" that successfully replicated the unnatural base pairs through multiple generations. This is the first known example of a living organism passing along an expanded genetic code to subsequent generations. This was in part achieved by the addition of a supportive algal gene that expresses a nucleotide triphosphate transporter which efficiently imports the triphosphates of both d5SICSTP and dNaMTP into \"E. coli\" bacteria. Then, the natural bacterial replication pathways use them to accurately replicate the plasmid containing d5SICS–dNaM. The successful incorporation of a third base pair is a significant breakthrough toward the goal of greatly expanding the number of amino acids which can be encoded by DNA, from the existing 21 amino acids to a theoretically possible 172, thereby expanding the potential for living organisms to produce novel proteins. The artificial strings of DNA do not encode for anything yet, but scientists speculate they could be designed to manufacture new proteins which could have industrial or pharmaceutical uses.", "Nucleotide (abbreviated \"nt\") is a common unit of length for single-stranded nucleic acids, similar to how base pair is a unit of length for double-stranded nucleic acids.", "A study done by the Department of Sports Science at the University of Hull in Hull, UK has shown that nucleotides have significant impact on cortisol levels in saliva. Post exercise, the experimental nucleotide group had lower cortisol levels in their blood than the control or the placebo. Additionally, post supplement values of Immunoglobulin A were significantly higher than either the placebo or the control. The study concluded, \"nucleotide supplementation blunts the response of the hormones associated with physiological stress.\" Another study conducted in 2013 looked at the impact nucleotide supplementation had on the immune system in athletes. In the study, all athletes were male and were highly skilled in taekwondo. Out of the twenty athletes tested, half received a placebo and half received 480 mg per day of nucleotide supplement. After thirty days, the study concluded that nucleotide supplementation may counteract the impairment of the body's immune function after heavy exercise.", "The IUPAC has designated the symbols for nucleotides. Apart from the five (A, G, C, T/U) bases, often degenerate bases are used especially for designing PCR primers. These nucleotide codes are listed here. Some primer sequences may also include the character \"I\", which codes for the non-standard nucleotide inosine. Inosine occurs in tRNAs, and will pair with adenine, cytosine, or thymine. This character does not appear in the following table however, because it does not represent a degeneracy. While inosine can serve a similar function as the degeneracy \"D\", it is an actual nucleotide, rather than a representation of a mix of nucleotides that covers each possible pairing needed." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development history.", "Container format.", "Codecs.", "Windows Media Audio.", "Windows Media Audio Professional.", "Windows Media Audio Lossless.", "Windows Media Audio Voice.", "Sound quality.", "Criticism of claimed quality.", "Players.", "Encoders.", "Digital rights management." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first WMA codec was based on earlier work by Henrique Malvar and his team which was transferred to the Windows Media team at Microsoft. Malvar was a senior researcher and manager of the Signal Processing Group at Microsoft Research, whose team worked on the \"MSAudio\" project. The first finalized codec was initially referred to as \"MSAudio 4.0\". It was later officially released as \"Windows Media Audio\", as part of Windows Media Technologies 4.0. Microsoft claimed that WMA could produce files that were half the size of equivalent-quality MP3 files; Microsoft also claimed that WMA delivered \"near CD-quality\" audio at 64 kbit/s. The former claim however was rejected by some audiophiles. RealNetworks also challenged Microsoft's claims regarding WMA's superior audio quality compared to RealAudio. Newer versions of WMA became available: \"Windows Media Audio 2\" in 1999, \"Windows Media Audio 7\" in 2000, \"Windows Media Audio 8\" in 2001, and \"Windows Media Audio 9\" in 2003. Microsoft first announced its plans to license WMA technology to third parties in 1999. Although earlier versions of Windows Media Player played WMA files, support for WMA file creation was not added until the seventh version. In 2003, Microsoft released new audio codecs that were not compatible with the original WMA codec. These codecs were \"Windows Media Audio 9 Professional\", \"Windows Media Audio 9 Lossless\", and \"Windows Media Audio 9 Voice\". All versions of WMA released since version 9.0 - namely 9.1, 9.2 and 10 - have been backwards compatible with the original v9 decoder and are therefore not considered separate codecs. The sole exception to this is the WMA 10 Professional codec whose Low Bit Rate (LBR) mode is only backwards compatible with the older WMA Professional decoders at half sampling rate (similar to how HE-AAC is backwards compatible with AAC-LC). Full fidelity decoding of WMA 10 Professional LBR bitstreams requires a WMA version 10 or newer decoder.", "A WMA file is in most circumstances contained in the Advanced Systems Format (ASF), a proprietary Microsoft container format for digital audio or digital video. The ASF container format specifies how metadata about the file is to be encoded, similar to the ID3 tags used by MP3 files. Metadata may include song name, track number, artist name, and also audio normalization values. This container can optionally support digital rights management (DRM) using a combination of elliptic curve cryptography key exchange, DES block cipher, a custom block cipher, RC4 stream cipher and the SHA-1 hashing function. See Windows Media DRM for further information. Since 2008 Microsoft has also been using WMA Professional in its Protected Interoperable File Format (PIFF) based on the ISO Base Media File Format and most commonly used for Smooth Streaming, a form of adaptive bit rate streaming over HTTP. Related industry standards such as DECE UltraViolet and MPEG-DASH have not standardized WMA as a supported audio codec, deciding in favor of the more industry-prevalent MPEG and Dolby audio codecs.", "Each WMA file features a single audio track in one of the four sub-formats: WMA, WMA Pro, WMA Lossless, or WMA Voice. These formats are implemented differently from one another, such that they are technically distinct and mutually incompatible; that is to say, a device or software compatible with one sub-format does not therefore automatically support any of the other codecs. Each codec is further explained below.", "Windows Media Audio (WMA) is the most common codec of the four WMA codecs. Colloquial usage of the term \"WMA\", especially in marketing materials and device specifications, usually refers to this codec only. The first version of the codec released in 1999 is regarded as WMA 1. In the same year, the bit stream syntax, or compression algorithm, was altered in minor ways and became WMA 2. Since then, newer versions of the codec have been released, but the decoding process remained the same, ensuring compatibility between codec versions. WMA is a lossy audio codec based on the study of psychoacoustics. Audio signals that are deemed to be imperceptible to the human ear are encoded with reduced resolution during the compression process. WMA can encode audio signals sampled at up to 48 kHz with up to two discrete channels (stereo). WMA 9 introduced variable bit rate (VBR) and average bit rate (ABR) coding techniques into the MS encoder although both were technically supported by the original format. WMA 9.1 also added support for low-delay audio, which reduces latency for encoding and decoding. Fundamentally, WMA is a transform coder based on modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT), somewhat similar to AAC, Cook and Vorbis. The bit stream of WMA is composed of superframes, each containing 1 or more frames of 2048 samples. If the bit reservoir is not used, a frame is equal to a superframe. Each frame contains a number of blocks, which are 128, 256, 512, 1024, or 2048 samples long after being transformed into the frequency domain via the MDCT. In the frequency domain, masking for the transformed samples is determined, and then used to requantize the samples. Finally, the floating point samples are decomposed into coefficient and exponent parts and independently huffman coded. Stereo information is typically mid/side coded. At low bit rates, line spectral pairs (typically less than 17 kbit/s) and a form of noise coding (typically less than 33 kbit/s) can also be used to improve quality. Like AAC and Ogg Vorbis, WMA was intended to address perceived deficiencies in the MP3 standard. Given their common design goals, the three formats ended up making similar design choices. All three are pure transform codecs. Furthermore, the MDCT implementation used in WMA is essentially a superset of those used in Ogg and AAC such that WMA iMDCT and windowing routines can be used to decode AAC and Ogg Vorbis almost unmodified. However, quantization and stereo coding is handled differently in each codec. The primary distinguishing trait of the WMA Standard format is its unique use of 5 different block sizes, compared to MP3, AAC, and Ogg Vorbis which each restrict files to just two sizes. WMA Pro extends this by adding a 6th block size used at 88.2/96 kHz sampling rate. Certified PlaysForSure devices, as well as a large number of uncertified devices, ranging from portable hand-held music players to set-top DVD players, support the playback of WMA files. Most PlaysForSure-certified online stores distribute content using this codec only. In 2005, Nokia announced its plans to support WMA playback in future Nokia handsets. In the same year, an update was made available for the PlayStation Portable (version 2.60) which allowed WMA files to be played on the device for the first time.", "Windows Media Audio Professional (WMA Pro) is an improved lossy codec closely related to WMA standard. It retains most of the same general coding features, but also features improved entropy coding and quantization strategies as well as more efficient stereo coding. Notably, many of the WMA standard's low bitrate features have been removed, as the core codec is designed for efficient coding at most bitrates. Its main competitors include AAC, HE-AAC, Vorbis, Dolby Digital, and DTS. It supports 16-bit and 24-bit sample bit depth, sampling rates up to 96 kHz and up to eight discrete channels (7.1 channel surround). WMA Pro also supports dynamic range compression, which reduces the volume difference between the loudest and quietest sounds in the audio track. According to Microsoft's Amir Majidimehr, WMA Pro could theoretically go beyond 7.1 surround sound and support \"an unlimited number of channels,\" however Microsoft chose to limit its current capability to eight (7.1 discrete channels). The codec's bit stream syntax was frozen at the first version, WMA 9 Pro. Later versions of WMA Pro introduced low-bit rate encoding, low-delay audio, frequency interpolation mode, and an expanded range of sampling rate and bit-depth encoding options. A WMA 10 Pro file compressed with frequency interpolation mode comprises a WMA 9 Pro track encoded at half the original sampling rate, which is then restored using a new compression algorithm. In this situation, WMA 9 Pro players which have not been updated to the WMA 10 Pro codec can only decode the lower quality WMA 9 Pro stream. Starting with WMA 10 Pro, eight channel encoding starts at 128 kbit/s, and tracks can be encoded at the native audio CD resolution (44.1 kHz, 16-bit), previously the domain of WMA Standard. Despite a growing number of supported devices and its superiority over WMA, WMA Pro still has little hardware and software support. Some notable exceptions to this are the Microsoft Zune (limited to stereo), Xbox 360, Windows Mobile-powered devices with Windows Media Player 10 Mobile, newer Toshiba Gigabeat and Motorola devices, and devices running recent versions of the Rockbox alternative firmware. In addition, WMA Pro is a requirement for the WMV HD certification program. On the software side, Verizon utilizes WMA 10 Pro for its V CAST Music Service, and Windows Media Player 11 has promoted the codec as an alternative to WMA for copying audio CD tracks. WMA Pro is supported in Silverlight as of version 2 (though only in stereo mode). In the absence of the appropriate audio hardware, WMA Pro can automatically downmix multichannel audio to stereo or mono, and 24-bit resolution to 16-bit during playback. A notable example of WMA Pro being used instead of WMA Standard is the NBC Olympics website which uses WMA 10 Pro in its low-bitrate mode at 48 kbit/s.", "Windows Media Audio 9 Lossless is a lossless incarnation of Windows Media Audio, an audio codec by Microsoft, released in early 2003. It compresses an audio CD to a range of 206 to 411 MB, at bit rates of 470 to 940 kbit/s. The result is a bit-for-bit duplicate of the original audio file; in other words, the audio quality on the CD will be the same as the file when played back. WMA Lossless uses the same.WMA file extension as other Windows Media Audio formats. It supports 6 discrete channels and up to 24-bit/96 kHz lossless audio. The format has never been publicly documented, although an open source decoder has been reverse engineered for non-Microsoft platforms by the libav and ffmpeg projects. Windows Media Audio Lossless (WMA Lossless) is a lossless audio codec that competes with ATRAC Advanced Lossless, Dolby TrueHD, DTS-HD Master Audio, Shorten, Monkey's Audio, FLAC, Apple Lossless, and WavPack (Since late 2011, the last three have the advantage of being open source software and available for nearly any operating system.) Designed for archival purposes, it compresses audio signals without loss of quality from the original using VBR. When decompressed, the audio signal is an exact replica of the original. The first version of the codec, WMA 9 Lossless, and its revisions support up to 96 kHz, 24-bit audio for up to 6 discrete channels (5.1 channel surround) with dynamic range compression control. The typical compression ratio for music varies between 1.7:1 and 3:1. Hardware support for the codec is available on the Cowon A3, Cowon S9, Bang & Olufsen Serenata Sony Walkman NWZ-A and NWZ-S series, Zune 4, 8, 80 30, Zune 120 (with firmware version 2.2 or later) and the new Zune HD, Xbox 360, Windows Mobile-powered devices with Windows Media Player 10 Mobile, Windows Phone (version 8 and above), Toshiba Gigabeat S and V models, Toshiba T-400, the Meizu M3, and Best Buy's Insignia NS-DV, Pilot, and Sport music players. The Logitech Squeezebox Touch now supports the format natively despite previously only supporting it via transcoding. Like WMA Standard, WMA Lossless is being used by a few online stores to distribute music online. Similar to WMA Pro, the WMA Lossless decoder can perform downmixing when capable audio hardware is not present. As of 2012, the ffmpeg and libav projects have open source WMA Lossless decoders based on reverse engineering of the official decoder. Only 16-bit WMA files can be successfully decoded by ffmpeg as of June 20, 2012.", "Windows Media Audio Voice (WMA Voice) is a lossy audio codec that competes with Speex (used in Microsoft's own Xbox Live online service), ACELP, and other codecs. Designed for low-bandwidth, voice playback applications, it employs low-pass and high-pass filtering of sound outside the human speech frequency range to achieve higher compression efficiency than WMA. It can automatically detect sections of an audio track containing both voice and music and use the standard WMA compression algorithm instead. WMA Voice supports up to 22.05 kHz for a single channel (mono) only. Encoding is limited to constant bit rate (CBR) and up to 20 kbit/s. The first and only version of the codec is WMA 9 Voice. Windows Mobile-powered devices with Windows Media Player 10 Mobile have native support for WMA 9 Voice playback. In addition, BBC World Service has employed WMA Voice for its Internet radio streaming service.", "Microsoft claims that audio encoded with WMA sounds better than MP3 at the same bit rate; Microsoft also claims that audio encoded with WMA at lower bit rates sound better than MP3 at higher bit rates. Double blind listening tests with other lossy audio codecs have shown varying results, from failure to support Microsoft's claims about its superior quality to supremacy over other codecs. One independent test conducted in May 2004 at 128 kbit/s showed that WMA was roughly equivalent to LAME MP3; inferior to AAC and Vorbis; and superior to ATRAC3 (software version). Some conclusions made by recent studies:", "Microsoft's claims of WMA sound quality have frequently drawn complaints. \"Some audiophiles challenge Microsoft's claims regarding WMA's quality,\" according to a published article from EDN. Another article from MP3 Developments wrote that Microsoft's claim about CD-quality audio at 64 kbit/s with WMA was \"very far from the truth.\" At the early stages of WMA's development, a representative from RealNetworks claimed that WMA was a \"clear and futile effort by Microsoft to catch up with RealAudio 8.\" Microsoft has sometimes claimed that the sound quality of WMA at 64 kbit/s equals or exceeds that of MP3 at 128 kbit/s (both WMA and MP3 are considered near-transparent at 192 kbit/s by most listeners). In a 1999 study funded by Microsoft, National Software Testing Laboratories (NSTL) found that listeners preferred WMA at 64 kbit/s to MP3 at 128 kbit/s (as encoded by MusicMatch Jukebox). It is important to note that both MP3 and WMA encoders have undergone active development and improvement for many years, so their relative quality may change over time.", "Apart from Windows Media Player, most of the WMA compression formats can be played using ALLPlayer, VLC media player, Media Player Classic, MPlayer, RealPlayer, Winamp, Zune Software (with certain limitations—DSP plugin support and DirectSound output is disabled using the default WMA plugin), and many other software media players. The Microsoft Zune media management software supports most WMA codecs, but uses a variation of Windows Media DRM which is used by PlaysForSure. The FFmpeg project has reverse-engineered and re-implemented the WMA codecs to allow their use on POSIX-compliant operating systems such as Linux. The Rockbox project further extended this codec to be suitable for embedded cores, allowing playback on portable MP3 players and cell phones running open source software. RealNetworks has announced plans to support playback of DRM-free WMA files in RealPlayer for Linux. On the Macintosh platform, Microsoft released a PowerPC version of Windows Media Player for Mac OS X in 2003, but further development of the software has ceased. Microsoft currently endorses the third-party Flip4Mac WMA, a QuickTime component that allows Macintosh users to play WMA files in any player that uses the QuickTime framework. Flip4Mac, however, does not currently support the Windows Media Audio Voice codec. Not all Android devices have native support for WMA files because the core Android platform doesn't support this format, but third-party software that supports it also exists. WMA format can be played in almost all Windows Mobile and later Windows Phone devices.", "Software that can export audio in WMA format include Windows Media Player, Windows Movie Maker, Microsoft Expression Encoder, Sony Sound Forge, GOM Player, RealPlayer, Adobe Premiere Pro, Adobe Audition, and Adobe Soundbooth. Microsoft Office OneNote supports encoding in all WMA codecs, and Windows Media Encoder supports all available bit rate and resolution options as well. Open source players like VLC media player can also do some encoding.", "The WMA codecs are most often used with the ASF container format, which has an optional DRM facility. Windows Media DRM, which can be used in conjunction with WMA, supports time-limited music subscription services such as those offered by unlimited download services, including MTV's URGE, Napster, Rhapsody, Yahoo! Music Unlimited, and Virgin Digital. Windows Media DRM, a component of PlaysForSure and Windows Media Connect, is supported on many modern portable audio devices and streaming media clients such as Roku, SoundBridge, Xbox 360, and Wii. Players that support the WMA format but not Windows Media DRM cannot play DRM-protected files." ] }

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{ "title": [ "General description.", "History.", "Management.", "Buildings.", "List of building complexes.", "Transport.", "Pedestrian.", "Road.", "Rapid transit.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Before construction began, the area had been a stone quarry and industrial zone, where most of the buildings were old factories that had been closed or abandoned. A public company, CITY, was created in 1992, to oversee the initial creation and development of Moscow City as well as its subsequent usage. CITY is also a general contractor and both landlord and lessor. Overall responsibility for the architectural planning and design of Moscow City belongs to the architectural studio No. 6, which is a part of the large Moscow practice Mosproject-2 named after Mikhail Vasilyevich Posokhin. This group, headed by Gennady Lvovich Sirota, who is officially the Chief Architect of Moskva-Citi, is in charge of overseeing the design of the complex as a whole and agreeing the details of individual projects. Each building lot has its own investor and architect. By 2014 the volume of investments in Moskva-Citi was approximately $12 billion.", "Established in the spring of 1992, the PJSC City Company manages the creation and development of the MIBC. On 30 December 1994, the Government of Moscow authorized PJSC City to act as the managing company for the MIBC and to negotiate with third parties to help develop the MIBC. As of February 2014, the company was owned by the Solvers Group, led by Oleg Malis.", "", "Roof height, max height, and floors apply to the tallest building of the respective complex. Completion of construction applies to the building in each complex completed last.", "", "The Bagration Bridge is a pedestrian bridge that goes over the Moskva River. It connects Tower 2000 and the rest of the MIBC complex.", "Major thoroughfares that connect to the MIBC are the Third Ring Road, 3rd Magistralnaya street, and the Presnenskaya Embankment. To correspond with the growing MIBC, new highways and interchanges were built to connect the MIBC with the main transport arteries of the city. These projects include the ten-lane Dorogomilovsky Bridge of the Third Ring Road over the Moskva River, the Third Ring Road interchange with Kutuzovsky Avenue, and the extension of the Presnenskaya Embankment. Existing roads were reconstructed and rearranged.", "The MIBC is served by two metro lines, and three stations, and was for a time served by a further station and line. Two of the stations are named Delovoy Tsentr (Russian for \"business center\"). Vystavochnaya (formerly known as Delovoy Tsentr) and Mezhdunarodnaya are on the Filyovskaya line, while Delovoy Tsentr is on the incomplete Bolshaya Koltsevaya line. The first Delovoy Tsentr was on Kalininsko-Solntsevskaya line since 2014, but was closed after four years operation, pending further development of the line. The MIBC in addition is served by the Moscow Central Circle urban rail, with a station also named Delovoy Tsentr which opened in 2016. There are also plans to install a high-speed rail system between the MIBC and Sheremetyevo International Airport.", "Other commercial districts in Russia: Building comparisons:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Composition.", "Design.", "Compression levels.", "Comparison to other formats.", "Adoption and implementations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Development was started in 2000 by Josh Coalson. The bit-stream format was frozen when FLAC entered beta stage with the release of version 0.5 of the reference implementation on 15 January 2001. Version 1.0 was released on 20 July 2001. On 29 January 2003, the Xiph.Org Foundation and the FLAC project announced the incorporation of FLAC under the Xiph.org banner. Xiph.org is behind other free compression formats such as Vorbis, Theora, Speex and Opus. Version 1.3.0 was released on 26 May 2013, at which point development was moved to the Xiph.org git repository.", "The FLAC project consists of: The specification of the stream format can be implemented by anyone without prior permission (Xiph.org reserves the right to set the FLAC specification and certify compliance), and neither the FLAC format nor any of the implemented encoding or decoding methods are covered by any patent. The reference implementation is free software. The source code for libFLAC and libFLAC++ is available under the BSD license, and the sources for codice_1, codice_2, and the plugins are available under the GNU General Public License. In its stated goals, the FLAC project encourages its developers not to implement copy prevention features (DRM) of any kind.", "Audio sources encoded to FLAC are typically reduced to 50–70% of their original size, similar to other lossless formats, though the final size depends on the density and volume of the music being compressed, and, with some music, file size can be reduced by as much as 80%.", "libFLAC uses a compression level parameter that varies from 0 (fastest) to 8 (slowest). The compressed files are always perfect, lossless representations of the original data. Although the compression process involves a tradeoff between speed and size, the decoding process is always quite fast and not dependent on the level of compression. According to a.WAV benchmark running with an Athlon XP 2400+, using higher rates above default level −5, takes considerably more time to encode without real gains in space savings.", "FLAC is specifically designed for efficient packing of audio data, unlike general-purpose lossless algorithms such as DEFLATE, which are used in ZIP and gzip. While ZIP may reduce the size of a CD-quality audio file by 10–20%, FLAC is able to reduce the size of audio data by 40–50% by taking advantage of the characteristics of audio. The technical strengths of FLAC compared to other lossless formats lie in its ability to be streamed and decoded quickly, independent of compression level. Since FLAC is a lossless scheme, it is suitable as an archive format for owners of CDs and other media who wish to preserve their audio collections. If the original media are lost, damaged, or worn out, a FLAC copy of the audio tracks ensures that an exact duplicate of the original data can be recovered at any time. An exact restoration from a lossy copy (e.g., MP3) of the same data is impossible. FLAC being lossless means it is highly suitable for transcoding e.g. to MP3, without the normally associated transcoding quality loss between one lossy format and another. A CUE file can optionally be created when ripping a CD. If a CD is read and ripped perfectly to FLAC files, the CUE file allows later burning of an audio CD that is identical in audio data to the original CD, including track order and pregap, but excluding CD-Text and other additional data such as lyrics and CD+G graphics.", "The reference implementation of FLAC is implemented as the \"libFLAC\" core encoder & decoder library, with the main distributable program codice_1 being the reference implementation of the libFLAC API. This codec API is also available in C++ as libFLAC++. The reference implementation of FLAC compiles on many platforms, including most Unix (such as Solaris, BSD) and Unix-like (including Linux), Microsoft Windows, BeOS, and OS/2 operating systems. There are build systems for autoconf/automake, MSVC, Watcom C, and Xcode. There is currently no multicore support in libFLAC, but utilities such as GNU parallel and various graphical frontends can be used to spin up multiple instances of the encoder. FLAC playback support in portable audio devices and dedicated audio systems is limited compared to formats such as MP3 or uncompressed PCM. FLAC support is included by default in Windows 10, Android, Blackberry 10 and Jolla devices. In 2014, several aftermarket mobile electronics companies introduced multimedia solutions that include support for FLAC. These include the NEX series from Pioneer Electronics and the VX404 and NX404 from Clarion. The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) has adopted the FLAC format for the distribution of high quality audio over its Euroradio network. The Windows operating system has supported native FLAC integration since the introduction of Windows 10. The Android operating system has supported native FLAC playback since version 3.1. macOS High Sierra and iOS 11 add native FLAC playback support. Among others the Pono music player and streaming service used the FLAC format. Bandcamp insists on a lossless format for uploading, and has FLAC as a download option. The Wikimedia Foundation sponsored a free and open-source online ECMAScript FLAC tool for browsers supporting the required HTML5 features. Various other containers are supported, independently from used operating system, depending on used playback software." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Dialects.", "Status.", "Classification.", "Phonology.", "Vowels.", "Consonants.", "Structure.", "Stress.", "Phonological processes.", "Morphology.", "Nominal morphology.", "Suffixes.", "Prefixes.", "Compounding.", "Possession.", "Personal names.", "Pronouns.", "Verbal morphology.", "Active–stative verbs.", "Verb chain.", "Syntax.", "Noun-phrase syntax.", "Relative clauses.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Crow is closely related to Hidatsa spoken by the Hidatsa tribe of the Dakotas; the two languages are the only members of the Missouri Valley Siouan family. Despite their similarities, Crow and Hidatsa are not entirely mutually intelligible.", "According to Ethnologue with figures from 1998, 77% of Crow people over 66 years old speak the language; \"some\" parents and older adults, \"few\" high school students and \"no pre-schoolers\" speak Crow. 80% of the Crow Nation prefers to speak in English. The language was defined as \"definitely endangered\" by UNESCO as of 2012. However, R. Graczyk claims in his \"A Grammar of Crow\" (2007) that \"[u]nlike many other native languages of North America in general, and the northern plain in particular, the Crow language still exhibits considerable vitality: there are fluent speakers of all ages, and at least some children are still acquiring Crow as their first language.\" Many of the younger population who do not speak Crow are able to understand it. Almost all of those who do speak Crow are also bilingual in English. Graczyk cites the reservation community as the reason for both the high level of bilingual Crow-English speakers and the continued use and prevalence of the Crow language. Daily contact with non-American Indians on the reservation for over one hundred years has led to high usage of English. Traditional culture within the community, however, has preserved the language via religious ceremonies and the traditional clan system. Currently, most speakers of Crow are 30 and older but a few younger speakers are learning it. There are increased efforts for children to learn Crow as their first language and many do on the Crow Reservation of Montana, particularly through a Crow language immersion school that was sponsored in 2012. Development for the language includes a Crow language dictionary and portions of the Bible published from 1980-2007. The current literacy rate is around 1-5% for first language speakers and 75-100% for second language learners. Teens are immersed in Crow at the Apsaalooke language camp sponsored by the Crow Nation.", "Crow is closely related to Hidatsa spoken by the Hidatsa tribe of the Dakotas; the two languages are the only members of the Missouri Valley Siouan family. The ancestor of Crow-Hidatsa may have constituted the initial split from Proto-Siouan. Crow and Hidatsa are not mutually intelligible, however the two languages share many phonological features, cognates and have similar morphologies and syntax. The split between Crow and Hidatsa may have occurred between 300 and 800 years ago.", "", "There are five distinct vowels in Crow, which occur either long or short with the exception of the mid vowels. There is also a marginal diphthong \"ea\" that only occurs in two native Crow stems: \"déaxa\" 'clear' and \"béaxa\" 'intermittent'.", "Crow has a very sparse consonant inventory, much like many other languages of the Great Plains. Stops are aspirated word-initially, word-finally, when geminated (e.g. [pph]) and when following another stop (e.g. [pth]). Stops in a consonant cluster with \"h\" as the initial radical (\"hp\", \"ht\", \"hk\") are unaspirated and lax. Gemination in stops only occurs intervocalically. Intervocalic single, nongeminating stops are lax, unaspirated, and generally voiced. The difference between voiced stops \"b\" and \"d\" (allophones of \"m\" and \"n\") and voiceless stops is hardly discernible when following a fricative, since both are unaspirated and lax. The phoneme \"k\" has a palatalized allophone [kj] that occurs after \"i\", \"e\", \"ch\" and \"sh\", often word-finally. Fricatives are tense; they are only lax when intervocalic. Palatal \"sh\" is often voiced intervocalically; \"s\" is sometimes voiced intervocalically; \"x\" is never voiced. The alveolar fricative /s/ has an optional allophone /h/ in phrase-initial position: Sonorants voiced /m/ and /n/ have three allophones: \"w\" and \"l\" intervocalically, \"b\" and \"d\" word initially and following an obstruent, and \"m\" and \"n\" in all other conditions. In conservative speech, \"l\" is realized as a tapped \"r\", however in general cases it is realized as \"l\", perhaps in due part to the influence of English. Word initially, \"b\" is optional for /m/, though \"b\" is more commonly realized. The glottal sonorant /h/ assimilates to the nasality of the following segment, but retains its voicelessness. When following \"i\" or \"e\" or preceding \"ch\", /h/ may be realized as an alveopalatal fricative.", "Vowel sequences across morpheme boundaries can be quite varied, but short vowels cannot appear alone in the morpheme: V:V (long+short), V:V: (long+long) and diphthong+V (short). Word finally, only \"a\" (in a diphthong), \"o\", and \"u\" (allomorphs of the plural suffix) can occur after a long vowel. A wide variety of consonant clusters can occur in Crow. All consonants except for /h/ can be geminated. Voiced labials and dentals (phonemic \"m\" and \"n\", allophones \"b\", \"m\", \"w\" and \"d\", \"n\", \"l\") are resistant to clustering. Because they only occur intervocallically, \"l\" and \"w\" do not occur in clusters. The plosive allophones \"b\" and \"d\" only occur in clusters as the second consonant and only at morpheme boundaries. The nasal allophones \"m\" and \"n\" can only occur with each other with the exception of \"nm\", or occur with \"h\" at a morpheme boundary. Clusters in general occur at morphemic boundaries. Some morphemic constraints:", "Stress in Crow is phonemic. The position of the stress in the stem is determined lexically. Virtually all noun and verb stems have an inherent stress. In word initial syllables, accented short vowels in a word initial syllable are generally followed by a consonant cluster, while accented long vowels are generally followed by a single consonant. Stress can fall on short vowels as well as long vowels and may fall on either mora of a long vowel. With diphthongs, either the long vowel or the offglide may bear the stress. Stress helps predict the tones of all the vowels in a word: stressed vowels are high in pitch; all vowels following the stressed vowel are low in pitch; all short vowels preceding the stressed vowel are low in pitch; all long vowels preceding the stressed vowel are high in pitch; short vowels occurring between a long vowel and the accented vowel assimilate to a high pitch. In words composed of more than one morpheme, there are several rules (with a few exceptions) to determine the placement of the stress: Exceptions:", "Phonological processes in Crow include:", "Crow is a polysynthetic language.", "Basic stems consist of one to four syllables (with four being rare) and always end in a vowel. Monosyllabic stems have long vowels or diphthongs, e.g., \"bií\",'stone, rock'; \"bía\", 'woman'. The vast majority of nouns in Crow are derived stems. Derivational processes in nominal morphology include affixation and compounding.", "An exhaustive list of nominal suffixes:", "Prefixes will render a relative clause into a derived noun.", "There are two basic types of compounding in Crow: noun-noun compounds and noun-verb compounds. Noun-noun compounds often involve a whole-part relationship: the first noun refers to the whole and the second to the part. Members of the compound may also be themselves compounds or derived nouns. Noun-verb compounds consist of a noun plus a stative verb. There are a number of select exceptions.", "Nouns are classified as either inalienably or alienably possessed, according to which possessive markers they occur with. Inalienably possessed nouns are those that are inherently possessed or nondetachable associations, specifically body parts and family members, opposed to alienably possessed nouns whose entity is not inherently possessed. This rule is not absolute as some body parts and kin nouns can be considered alienable and some nouns with close associations to its possessor (i.e. \"aasúu\" 'his house', \"isaashkakaáshi\" 'her dog') can be considered inalienable. The affixed possession paradigm for inalienable and alienable possessives can be derived. The alienable possessives only use the first consonant of the alienable prefixes and do not mark the possessor when the prefix begins with a vowel. The final suffix transforms into a diphthong from /-o/.", "Personal names constitute a distinct morphological class of nouns in Crow. They are marked with the definite determiner suffix /sh/, which attaches to the stem rather than to the citation form.", "Crow has three pronominal forms: bound; emphatic and contrastive; and interrogative-indefinite pronouns. With the first two types, there is a correlation between morphology and syntax. Argument pronouns are generally bound whereas emphatic and contrastive pronouns are generally independent. Bound pronominals function as direct and oblique arguments. Bound Pronominal Stems:", "Verbal derivational morphology is composed of prefixes, suffixes, one infix (\"chi\", 'again; possessive reflexive') and reduplication, which expresses an \"iterative, distributive, or intensive sense to the meaning of the stem.\"", "The morphological verb classes in Crow mirror a semantic distinction: Crow is an active–stative language, meaning that the subject of an active verb is treated differently than the subject of a stative verb. Active verbs and stative verbs are marked with distinct sets of pronomical affixes: the \"A-set\" for active verbs and the \"B-set\" for stative verbs. Active verbs may have one, two, or three arguments (making them respectively intransitive, transitive, or ditransitive). An intransitive verb takes a subject (SV), a transitive verb takes a subject and an object (SOV) and a ditransitive verb takes a subject and two objects (SOOV). In a relative clause built on an active verb, when the subject of the verb is the head of the relative clause and it is an animate noun phrase, it is marked by \"ak\". Stative verbs may have zero (impersonal), one, or two arguments. In a relative clause, the subject of a stative verb is marked with \"m\" or in elevated discourse, \"dak\". There may also be an absence of marking on the head noun where the entire relative clause is marked with the indefinite nonspecific determiner \"m\".", "Crow has a fairly complex ordering of verb phrase constituents. The following table demonstrates simple constructions of active-state intransitive and transitive verbs based on the first person. The verb chain constituents are, of course, much more complicated. Following is a concise list of the rank ordering of each type element:", "Crow is a subject–object–verb (SOV) language; it is a verb-final and head marking. In noun phrases, the order is possessor–possessum, with the person marker of the possessor identified by a prefix to the possessum. Subordinate clauses precede matrix clauses, and are marked by a suffixed clause-final marker. Relative clauses are internally headed. Crow has postpositional phrases, with the postposition often occurring as a prefix to the following verb. There is no distinct category of adjectives; instead, stative verbs function as noun phrase modifiers. Crow is an active–stative language, with verbs divided into two classes, active (both transitive and intransitive) and stative, largely on semantic grounds. This is also often called a \"split intransitive\" language.", "An analysis of Crow noun phrase syntax under generative grammar has yielded the following rules: There are two phrases that are subordinate to the NP (noun-phrase): (1) the DP (demonstrative phrase) and (2) the QP (quantifier phrase). A noun phrase can be marked as definite or indefinite by a suffixed determiner (DET). The definite suffix is /-sh/ and the indefinite suffix is /-m/. The determiner suffix is attached to the final word of the noun phrase, not just the agentive noun. Relative Clauses: N' → [s...N' head...] Genitive Clauses: N' → NP N' Postpositional Phrases: N' → PP N' [[Quantification (linguistics)|Quantifier Phrases]]: Q → DP Q There are two classes of quantifiers that are distinguished syntactically. The first class heads a quantifier phrases that takes a demonstrative (or in its stead, a noun phrase) as its complement: \"xaxúa\". The second class is a stative verb that may function as a nominal modifier. This class includes: \"ahú\"'many, much', \"hawa\"'some', \"kooshtá\" 'few', \"sáawi\" 'how many, so many, some', and the numerals. This class may also be followed by a determiner. They may also function as clausal predicates. [[Demonstrative|Demonstrative Phrases]]: Q → DP Q Demonstratives are deictic words; in Crow, they occur phrase-initially. They can also cooccur with determiners (ex. 'this the horse'). [[Apposition|Appositives]]: NP → NP NP /ko/ (demonstrative) and /kon/ (appositive) are used to modify each other.", "Relative clauses in Crow are complex and subject to theoretical debates. There are two types of relative clauses in Crow: lexically headed and non-lexically headed. There are two basic relativizers /ak/ and /ala/, several composite forms based on \"ala\" plus \"baa\" 'indefinite pronoun' and instances with no relativizer. /ak/ indicates the subject of the relative clause is relativized and marks the subject as animate, and generally agentitive. It can occur in both lexically and non-lexically headed clauses. /ala/ may indicate a locative, temporal or manner adverbial is the head of the relative clause. In non-lexically headed relative clauses, /ala/ can sometimes be interpreted as the head of the clause itself. It can also occur in both lexically and non-lexically headed clauses. The relativizers are bound, with many exception, but they are generally prefixed to the word that contains the verb of the relative clause. Relative clauses are marked with final determiners. If the definite referent of the relative clause has already been accounted in the discourse or is otherwise obvious, the relative clause is marked with the definite /\"-sh\"/. Relative clauses can also be marked with the indefinite determiner marker /\"-m\"/; generally this is used to imply that the referent is being introduced into the discourse for the first time. However, the nominal head is almost always marked by the indefinite determiner /\"-m\"/.", "[[Category:Crow tribe]] [[Category:Endangered languages of the United States]] [[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Plains]] [[Category:Native American language revitalization]] [[Category:Western Siouan languages]]" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Annexation and bombing.", "Euroregion Tyrol-South Tyrol-Trentino.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Boroughs and statistical divisions.", "Government and politics.", "Culture.", "Cultural events.", "Sports.", "Economy and infrastructure.", "Transport.", "Education.", "International relations.", "Austrian Service Abroad." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The earliest traces suggest initial inhabitation in the early Stone Age. Surviving pre-Roman place names show that the area has been populated continuously. In the 4th century the Romans established the army station Veldidena (the name survives in today's urban district Wilten) at Oenipons (Innsbruck), to protect the economically important commercial road from Verona-Brenner-Augsburg in their province of Raetia. The first mention of Innsbruck dates back to the name \"Oeni Pontum\" or \"Oeni Pons\" which is Latin for bridge (pons) over the Inn (Oenus), which was an important crossing point over the Inn river. The Counts of Andechs acquired the town in 1180. In 1248 the town passed into the hands of the Counts of Tyrol. The city's arms show a bird's-eye view of the Inn bridge, a design used since 1267. The route over the Brenner Pass was then a major transport and communications link between the north and the south of Europe, and the easiest route across the Alps. It was part of the Via Imperii, a medieval imperial road under special protection of the king. The revenues generated by serving as a transit station on this route enabled the city to flourish. Innsbruck became the capital of all Tyrol in 1429 and in the 15th century the city became a centre of European politics and culture as Emperor Maximilian I also resided in Innsbruck in the 1490s. The city benefited from the emperor's presence as can be seen for example in the Hofkirche. Here a funeral monument for Maximilian was planned and erected partly by his successors. The ensemble with a cenotaph and the bronze statues of real and mythical ancestors of the Habsburg emperor are one of the main artistic monuments of Innsbruck. A regular postal service between Innsbruck and Mechelen was established in 1490 by the Thurn-und-Taxis-Post. In 1564 Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria received the rulership over Tirol and other Further Austrian possessions administered from Innsbruck up to the 18th century. He had Schloss Ambras built and arranged there his unique Renaissance collections nowadays mainly part of Vienna's Kunsthistorisches Museum. Up to 1665 a stirps of the Habsburg dynasty ruled in Innsbruck with an independent court. In the 1620s the first opera house north of the Alps was erected in Innsbruck (Dogana). In 1669 the university was founded. Also as a compensation for the court as Emperor Leopold I again reigned from Vienna and the Tyrolean stirps of the Habsburg dynasty had ended in 1665. During the Napoleonic Wars Tyrol was ceded to Bavaria, ally of France. Andreas Hofer led a Tyrolean peasant army to victory in the Battles of Bergisel against the combined Bavarian and French forces, and then made Innsbruck the centre of his administration. The combined army later overran the Tyrolean militia army and until 1814 Innsbruck was part of Bavaria. After the Vienna Congress Austrian rule was restored. Until 1918, the town (one of the 4 autonomous towns in Tyrol) was part of the Austrian monarchy (Austria side after the compromise of 1867), head of the district of the same name, one of the 21 \"Bezirkshauptmannschaften\" in the Tyrol province. The Tyrolean hero Andreas Hofer was executed in Mantua; his remains were returned to Innsbruck in 1823 and interred in the Franciscan church. During World War I, the only recorded action taking place in Innsbruck was near the end of the war. On February 20, 1918, Allied planes flying out of Italy raided Innsbruck, causing casualties among the Austrian troops there. No damage to the town is recorded. In November 1918 Innsbruck and all Tyrol were occupied by the 20 to 22 thousand soldiers of the III Corps of the First Italian Army. In 1929, the first official Austrian Chess Championship was held in Innsbruck.", "In 1938 Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany in the \"Anschluss\". Between 1943 and April 1945, Innsbruck experienced twenty-two air raids and suffered heavy damage.", "In 1996, the European Union approved further cultural and economic integration between the Austrian province of Tyrol and the Italian autonomous provinces of South Tyrol and Trentino by recognizing the creation of the Euroregion Tyrol-South Tyrol-Trentino.", "", "Innsbruck has a humid continental climate (Köppen \"Dfb\") using isotherm or oceanic climate (\"Cfb\") using the original isotherm since it has larger annual temperature differences than most of Central Europe due to its location in the centre of the Continent and its position around mountainous terrains. Winters are often very cold (colder than those of most major European cities) and snowy, although the foehn wind sometimes brings pronounced thaws. Spring is brief; days start to get warm, often over, but nights remain cool or even freezing. Summer is highly variable and unpredictable. Days can be cool and rainy, or sunny and extremely hot, sometimes hitting. In summer, as expected for an alpine-influenced climate, the diurnal temperature variation is often very high as nights usually remain cool, being on average, but sometimes dipping as low as. The average annual temperature is.", "Innsbruck is divided into nine boroughs (cadastral settlements) that were formed from previously independent municipalities or villages. These nine boroughs are further divided into twenty wards (cadastral districts). All wards are within one borough, except for the ward of Hungerburg (Upper Innsbruck), which is divided between two. For statistical purposes, Innsbruck is further divided into forty-two statistical units (\"Statistischer Bezirk\") and 178 numbered blocks (\"Zählsprengel\"). The following are the nine boroughs with the population as of 31 October 2011:", "The results of the 2018 local elections were:", "", "Innsbruck is a very popular tourist destination, organizing the following events every year:", "Due to its location between high mountains, Innsbruck serves as an ideal place for skiing in winter, ski-jumping and mountaineering in summer. There are several ski resorts around Innsbruck, with the Nordkette served by a cable car and additional chair lifts further up. Other ski resorts nearby include Axamer Lizum, Muttereralm, Patscherkofel, Igls, Seefeld, Tulfes and Stubai Valley. The glaciated terrain in the latter makes skiing possible even in summer months. The Winter Olympic Games were held in Innsbruck twice, first in 1964, then again in 1976, when Colorado voters rejected a bond referendum in 1972 to finance the Denver games, originally awarded in 1970. The 1976 Winter Olympics were the last games held in the German-speaking Alps (Austria, Germany, or Switzerland). Along with St. Moritz, Switzerland and Lake Placid, New York in the United States, it is one of three places which have twice hosted the Winter Games. It also hosted the 1984 and 1988 Winter Paralympics. Innsbruck hosted the 1st Winter Youth Olympic Games in 2012. Innsbruck also hosts one of the 4 ski-jumping competitions of the 4 Hills Tournament every year. Other notable events held in Innsbruck include the Air & Style Snowboard Contest from 1994 to 1999 and 2008 and the Ice Hockey World Championship in 2005. Together with the city of Seefeld, Innsbruck organized the Winter Universiade in 2005. Innsbruck's Bergiselschanze is one of the hills of the famous Four Hills Tournament. Innsbruck is home to the football club FC Wacker Innsbruck, which plays in the Austrian Football Bundesliga (first tier) as of the 2018–19 season. Former teams include the FC Swarovski Tirol and FC Tirol Innsbruck. FC Wacker Innsbruck's stadium, Tivoli Neu, is one of eight stadiums which hosted Euro 2008 which took place in Switzerland and Austria in June 2008. The city also hosted an American Football final, Eurobowl XXII between the Swarco Raiders Tirol and the Raiffeisen Vikings Vienna. The city hosted opening round games in the 2011 IFAF World Championship, the official international American Football championship. In 2018 Innsbruck hosted the IFSC Climbing World Championships 2018 from September 6 to September 16 and the 2018 UCI Road World Championships from September 22 to September 30.", "Innsbruck is a substantial tourist centre, with more than a million overnight stays. In Innsbruck, there are 86,186 employees and about 12,038 employers. 7,598 people are self-employed. Nearly 35,000 people commute every day into Innsbruck from the surrounding communities in the area. The unemployment rate for the year 2012 was 4.2%. The national statistics office, Statistik Austria, does not produce economic data for the City of Innsbruck alone, but on aggregate level with the Innsbruck-Land District summarized as NUTS 3-region Innsbruck. In 2013, GDP per capita in the NUTS 3-region Innsbruck was €41,400 which is around 60% above the EU average. The headquarters of Tiroler Wasserkraft (Tiwag, energy production), Bank für Tirol und Vorarlberg (financial services), Tiroler Versicherung (insurance) and MED-EL (medical devices) are located in Innsbruck. The headquarters of Swarovski (glass), Felder Group (mechanical engineering) and Swarco (traffic technology) are located within from the city. Residential property is very expensive by national standards. The average price per square metre in Innsbruck is €4,430 (2015), which is the second highest per square metre price among Austrian cities surpassed only by Salzburg (€4,823), but followed by Vienna (€3,980).", "Innsbruck is located along the A12/A13 highway corridor (Inn Valley Autobahn and Brenner Autobahn respectively), providing freeway access to Verona, Italy and Munich, Germany. The A12 and A13 converge near Innsbruck, at which point the A13 terminates. Innsbruck Hauptbahnhof, the most important railway station of Innsbruck and Tyrol, is one of the busiest railway stations in Austria. It is served by the Lower Inn Valley line to Germany and eastern Austria, the Arlberg line to the west and the Brenner line, which connects northern Italy with southern Germany via the Brenner pass. Since December 2007 suburban services have been operated as the Innsbruck S-Bahn. Innsbruck Airport is located in the suburb of Kranebitten, which is located in the west of the city. It provides services to airports including Frankfurt, London, Amsterdam and Vienna. It also handles regional flights around the Alps, as well as seasonal flights to other destinations. During the winter, activity increases significantly, due to the high number of skiers travelling to the region. The airport is approximately from the centre of Innsbruck. Local public transport is provided by Innsbrucker Verkehrsbetriebe (IVB), a public authority operating a network of bus and tram routes. The metre-gauge tram network consists of four city lines, 1, 2, 3 and 5, and two lines serving the surrounding area:, the Innsbrucker Mittelgebirgsbahn to Igls, and line \"STB\", the Stubaitalbahn running through the Stubai Valley to Fulpmes. The network is planned to be enlarged during the coming years to reach the neighboring village Rum in the east and Völs in the west. Numerous bus lines serve the inner city and connect it with surrounding areas. Until 2007 the bus network included two trolleybus routes, but these were abandoned in preparation for planned expansion of the tram network. In December 2007, the Hungerburgbahn, a funicular service to the district of Hungerburg, was reopened after a two-year closure for extensive rebuilding, with partial realignment and a new extension across the Inn River and into central Innsbruck. The line was also equipped with new vehicles. Because of the unique design of the stations, drafted by the famous architect Zaha Hadid, the funicular evolves immediately to a new emblem of the city. The line was rebuilt by the Italian company Leitner, and can now carry up to 1,200 persons per hour. It is operated by a private company, the 'Innsbrucker Nordkettenbahnen'.", "Innsbruck is a university city, with several locally based colleges and universities. Innsbruck is home to the oldest grammar school \"(Gymnasium)\" of Western Austria, the \"Akademisches Gymnasium Innsbruck\". The school was founded in 1562 by the Jesuit order and was the precursor of the university, founded in 1669. Innsbruck hosts several universities. The most well-known are the University of Innsbruck (Leopold-Franzens-Universität), the Innsbruck Medical University, and the university of applied sciences MCI Management Center Innsbruck.", "", "The Austrian Service Abroad is a NGO, which provides positions for an alternative Austrian national service at 85 organizations in 35 countries worldwide in the sectors Holocaust Memorial Service, Social Service and Peace Service. It was founded by Andreas Maislinger and Andreas Hörtnagl in 1998 and is based in Innsbruck." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Classification.", "Geographic distribution.", "Official status.", "Phonology.", "Consonants.", "Vowels and stress.", "Phonotactics.", "Syntax.", "Writing system.", "Latin alphabet." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Afar is classified within the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic family. It is further categorized in the Lowland East Cushitic sub-group, along with Saho and Somali. Its closest relative is the Saho language.", "The Afar language is spoken as a mother tongue by the Afar people in Djibouti, Eritrea, and the Afar Region of Ethiopia. According to \"Ethnologue\", there are 1,379,200 total Afar speakers. Of these, 1,280,000 were recorded in the 2007 Ethiopian census, with 906,000 monolinguals registered in the 1994 census.", "In Djibouti, Afar is a recognized national language. It is also one of the broadcasting languages of the Radio Television of Djibouti public network. In Eritrea, Afar is recognized as one of nine national languages which formally enjoy equal status although Tigrinya and Arabic are by far of greatest significance in official usage. There are daily broadcasts on the national radio and a translated version of the Eritrean constitution. In education, however, Afar speakers prefer Arabic – which many of them speak as a second language – as the language of instruction. In the Afar Region of Ethiopia, Afar is also recognized as an official working language.", "", "The consonants of the Afar language in the standard orthography are listed below (with IPA notation in brackets): Voiceless stop consonants which close syllables are released, e.g.,.", "Sentence final vowels of affirmative verbs are aspirated (and stressed), e.g. = 'He did.' Sentence final vowels of negative verbs are not aspirated (nor stressed), e.g. = 'He did not do.' Sentence final vowels of interrogative verbs are lengthened (and stressed), e.g. = 'Did he do?' Otherwise, stress in word-final.", "Possible syllable shapes are V, VV, VC, VVC, CV, CVV and CVVC.", "As in most other Cushitic languages, the basic word order in Afar is subject–object–verb.", "In Ethiopia, Afar is written with the Ge'ez script (Ethiopic script). Since around 1849, the Latin script has been used in other areas to transcribe the language. Additionally, Afar is also transcribed using the Arabic script. In the early 1970s, two Afar intellectuals and nationalists, Dimis and Redo, formalized the Afar alphabet. Known as \"Qafar Feera\", the orthography is based on the Latin script. Officials from the Institut des Langues de Djibouti, the Eritrean Ministry of Education, and the Ethiopian Afar Language Studies and Enrichment Center have since worked with Afar linguists, authors and community representatives to select a standard orthography for Afar from among the various existing writing systems used to transcribe the language.", "A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z a, ba, ca, da, e, fa, ga, ha, i, ja, ka, la, ma, na, o, pa, qa, ra, sa, ta, u, va, wa, ya, za" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Appearance.", "Species.", "Eurasian lynx.", "Canada lynx.", "Iberian lynx.", "Conservation efforts.", "Bobcat.", "Behavior and diet.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Europe and Asia.", "North America.", "National animal." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Lynx have a short tail, characteristic tufts of black hair on the tips of their ears, large, padded paws for walking on snow and long whiskers on the face. Under their neck they have a ruff which has black bars resembling a bow tie, although this is often not visible. Body colour varies from medium brown to goldish to beige-white, and is occasionally marked with dark brown spots, especially on the limbs. All species of lynx have white fur on their chests, bellies and on the insides of their legs, fur which is an extension of the chest and belly fur. The lynx's colouring, fur length and paw size vary according to the climate in their range. In the Southwestern United States, they are short-haired, dark in colour and their paws are smaller and less padded. As climates get colder and more northerly, lynx have progressively thicker fur, lighter colour, and their paws are larger and more padded to adapt to the snow. Their paws may be larger than a human hand or foot. The smallest species are the bobcat and the Canada lynx, while the largest is the Eurasian lynx, with considerable variations within species.", "The four living species of the genus \"Lynx\" are believed to have evolved from the \"Issoire lynx\", which lived in Europe and Africa during the late Pliocene to early Pleistocene. The Pliocene felid \"Felis rexroadensis\" from North America has been proposed as an even earlier ancestor; however, this was larger than any living species, and is not currently classified as a true lynx.", "Of the four lynx species, the Eurasian lynx (\"Lynx lynx\") is the largest in size. It is native to European, Central Asian, and Siberian forests. While its conservation status has been classified as \"least concern\", populations of Eurasian lynx have been reduced or extirpated from Europe, where it is now being reintroduced. The Eurasian lynx is the third largest predator in Europe after the brown bear and the grey wolf. It is a strict carnivore, consuming about one or two kilograms of meat every day. The Eurasian lynx is one of the widest-ranging. During the summer, the Eurasian lynx has a relatively short, reddish or brown coat which is replaced by a much thicker silver-grey to greyish-brown coat during winter. The lynx hunts by stalking and jumping on its prey, helped by the rugged, forested country in which it resides. A favorite prey for the lynx in its woodland habitat is roe deer. It will feed however on whatever animal appears easiest, as it is an opportunistic predator much like its cousins.", "The Canada lynx (\"Lynx canadensis\"), or Canadian lynx, is a North American felid that ranges in forest and tundra regions across Canada and into Alaska, as well as some parts of the northern United States. Historically, the Canadian lynx ranged from Alaska across Canada and into many of the northern U.S. states. In the eastern states, it resided in the transition zone in which boreal coniferous forests yielded to deciduous forests. By 2010, after an 11-year effort, it had been successfully reintroduced into Colorado, where it had become extirpated in the 1970s. In 2000, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service designated the Canada lynx a threatened species in the lower 48 states. The Canada lynx is a good climber and swimmer; it constructs rough shelters under fallen trees or rock ledges. It has a thick coat and broad paws, and is twice as effective as the bobcat at supporting its weight on the snow. The Canada lynx feeds almost exclusively on snowshoe hares; its population is highly dependent on the population of this prey animal. It will also hunt medium-sized mammals and birds if hare numbers fall.", "The Iberian lynx (\"Lynx pardinus\") is an endangered species native to the Iberian Peninsula in Southern Europe. It was the most endangered cat species in the world, but conservation efforts have changed its status from critical to endangered. According to the Portuguese conservation group SOS Lynx, if this species dies out, it will be the first feline extinction since the \"Smilodon\" 10,000 years ago. The species used to be classified as a subspecies of the Eurasian lynx, but is now considered a separate species. Both species occurred together in central Europe in the Pleistocene epoch, being separated by habitat choice. The Iberian lynx is believed to have evolved from \"Lynx issiodorensis\".", "In 2004, a Spanish government survey showed just two isolated breeding populations of Iberian lynx in southern Spain, totaling about 100 lynx (including only 25 breeding females). An agreement signed in 2003 by the Spanish Environment Ministry and the Andalusian Environment Council seeks to breed the Iberian lynx in captivity. Three Iberian lynx cubs were born as part of the Spanish program in 2005, at the Centro El Acebuche facility in Doñana National Park. As a result of the Spanish government program and efforts by others (such as the WWF and the EU's Life projects), the Iberian lynx \"has recovered from the brink of extinction\"; from 2000 to 2015, the population of Iberian lynx more than tripled. The IUCN reassessed the species from \"critically endangered\" to \"endangered\" in 2015. A 2014 census of the species showed 327 animals in Andalucia in the \"reintroduction areas\" of Sierra Morena and Montes de Toledo (Castilla-La Mancha, Spain), the Matachel Valley (Extremadura, Spain), and the Guadiana Valley (Portugal).", "The bobcat (\"Lynx rufus\") is a North American wild cat. With 13 recognized subspecies, the bobcat is common throughout southern Canada, the continental United States, and northern Mexico. The bobcat is an adaptable predator that inhabits deciduous, coniferous, or mixed woodlands, but unlike other \"Lynx\", does not depend exclusively on the deep forest, and ranges from swamps and desert lands to mountainous and agricultural areas, its spotted coat serving as camouflage. The population of the bobcat depends primarily on the population of its prey. Nonetheless, the bobcat is often killed by larger predators such as coyotes. The bobcat resembles other species of the genus \"Lynx\", but is on average the smallest of the four. Its coat is variable, though generally tan to grayish brown, with black streaks on the body and dark bars on the forelegs and tail. The ears are black-tipped and pointed, with short, black tufts. There is generally an off-white color on the lips, chin, and underparts. Bobcats in the desert regions of the southwest have the lightest-colored coats, while those in the northern, forested regions have the darkest.", "The lynx is usually solitary, although a small group of lynx may travel and hunt together occasionally. Mating takes place in the late winter and once a year the female gives birth to between one and four kittens. The gestation time of the lynx is about 70 days. The young stay with the mother for one more winter, a total of around nine months, before moving out to live on their own as young adults. The lynx creates its den in crevices or under ledges. It feeds on a wide range of animals from white-tailed deer, reindeer, roe deer, small red deer, and chamois, to smaller, more usual prey: snowshoe hares, fish, foxes, sheep, squirrels, mice, turkeys and other birds, and goats. It also eats ptarmigans, voles, and grouse.", "The lynx inhabits high altitude forests with dense cover of shrubs, reeds, and tall grass. Although this cat hunts on the ground, it can climb trees and can swim swiftly, catching fish.", "The Eurasian lynx ranges from central and northern Europe across Asia up to Northern Pakistan and India. In Iran, they live in Mount Damavand area. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the Eurasian lynx was considered extinct in the wild in Slovenia and Croatia. A resettlement project, begun in 1973, has successfully reintroduced lynx to the Slovenian Alps and the Croatian regions of Gorski Kotar and Velebit, including Croatia's Plitvice Lakes National Park and Risnjak National Park. In both countries, the lynx is listed as an endangered species and protected by law. The lynx was distributed throughout Japan during Jōmon period, but no archeological evidence thereafter suggesting extinction at that time. Several lynx resettlement projects begun in the 1970s have been successful in various regions of Switzerland. Since the 1990s, there have been numerous efforts to resettle the Eurasian lynx in Germany, and since 2000, a small population can now be found in the Harz mountains near Bad Lauterberg. The lynx is found in the Białowieża Forest in northeastern Poland, in Estonia and in the northern and western parts of China, particularly the Tibetan Plateau. In Romania, the numbers exceed 2,000, the largest population in Europe outside of Russia, although most experts consider the official population numbers to be overestimated. The lynx is more common in northern Europe, especially in Norway, Sweden, Estonia, Finland, and the northern parts of Russia. The Swedish population is estimated to be 1200–1500 individuals, spread all over the country, but more common in middle Sweden and in the mountain range. The lynx population in Finland was 1900–2100 individuals in 2008, and the numbers have been increasing every year since 1992. The lynx population in Finland is estimated currently to be larger than ever before. Lynx in Britain were wiped out in the 17th century, but there have been calls to reintroduce them to curb the numbers of deer. The endangered Iberian lynx lives in southern Spain and formerly in eastern Portugal. There is an Iberian lynx reproduction center outside Silves in the Algarve in southern Portugal.", "The two \"Lynx\" species in North America, Canada lynx and bobcats, are both found in the temperate zone. While the bobcat is common throughout southern Canada, the continental United States and northern Mexico, the Canada lynx is present mainly in boreal forests of Canada and Alaska.", "The lynx is considered a national animal in North Macedonia and is displayed on the reverse of the 5 denar coin. It is also the national animal of Romania." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Sport.", "Cycling." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The village was first mentioned in a Latin document of Diocese of Wrocław called \"Liber fundationis episcopatus Vratislaviensis\" from around 1305 as \"item in Dithmari villa sunt triginta octo mansi\". It meant that the village had 38 smaller lans. The creation of the village was a part of a larger settlement campaign taking place in the late 13th century on the territory of what will be later known as Upper Silesia. The village became a seat of a Catholic parish, mentioned in the register of Peter's Pence payment from 1447 among 50 parishes of Teschen deanery as \"Ditmari villa\". Politically the village belonged initially to the Duchy of Teschen, formed in 1290 in the process of feudal fragmentation of Poland and was ruled by a local branch of Piast dynasty. In 1327 the duchy became a fee of Kingdom of Bohemia, which after 1526 became part of the Habsburg Monarchy. In 1573 it was sold as one of a dozen villages and the town of Freistadt and formed a state country split from the Duchy of Teschen. The village was bought in 1792 by Jan Larisch who joined it with its Karwin properties. It was owned by the Larisch family until 1927. After Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire a modern municipal division was introduced in the re-established Austrian Silesia. The village as a municipality was subscribed in 1869 to the newly established Freistadt political district and Oderberg legal district, but before 1890 the municipality was transferred to Freistadt legal district. A formerly separate village of Koukolná became administratively a part of Dětmarovice in 1872-1875. According to the censuses conducted in 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910 the population of the municipality grew from 1,769 in 1880 to 3,453 in 1910. In three censuses majority were Czech-speakers (84.9% in 1880, 64% in 1890, 77.1% in 1910, 12.5% minority in 1900), in 1900 majority were Polish-speakers (86.7%, in other censuses minority: 13.9% in 1880, 34.6% in 1890, 21.8% in 1910). They were accompanied by German-speaking minority (between 0.8% and 1.4%). In terms of religion in 1910 the majority were Roman Catholics (98.2%), followed by Jews (31 or 0.9%), Protestants (19 or 0.6%) and \"others\" (15 or 0.3%). The \"DITTMANNSDORF\" post-office (in Austrian Silesia) was opened in 1895. After World War I, fall of Austria-Hungary, Polish–Czechoslovak War and the division of Cieszyn Silesia in 1920, the village became a part of Czechoslovakia. Following the Munich Agreement, in October 1938 together with the Zaolzie region it was annexed by Poland, administratively organised in Frysztat County of Silesian Voivodeship. The village was then annexed by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II. After the war it was restored to Czechoslovakia. Historical landmarks include the Nebroj chapel from around 1860 and a Catholic Mary Magdalene Church built in 1869-1870 in Neo-Romanesque style. There is a large thermal power station in the village. It was built in 1971-1976. It is the only large thermal power station in the country burning black coal. In 1998 a filter reducing the air pollution was installed. The power station is situated on an important main railway line from Prague/Vienna to Warsaw. Another important line to Český Těšín - Žilina - Košice splits here from the line to Warsaw.", "", "The city hosted the start of the first stage of the 2012 and 2013 Gracia-Orlová." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Environment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The village of Lutyně was first mentioned in a Latin document of Diocese of Wrocław called \"Liber fundationis episcopatus Vratislaviensis\" from around 1305 as \"item in Luthina LXXI) mansi\". It meant that the village was supposed to pay tithe from 71 greater lans. The village could have been founded by Benedictine monks from an Orlová abbey and also it could a part of a larger settlement campaign taking place in the late 13th century on the territory of what will be later known as Upper Silesia. Politically the village belonged initially to the Duchy of Teschen, formed in 1290 in the process of feudal fragmentation of Poland and was ruled by a local branch of Piast dynasty. In 1327 the duchy became a fee of Kingdom of Bohemia, which after 1526 became part of the Habsburg Monarchy. The large village was later in the 14th century subdivided into two sister settlements. Dolní Lutyně was then known for centuries as \"German\" (\"Theutonicum\"), and the other as \"Polish\" (\"Polonicum\"), now Lutyně district of Orlová. For example, in 1450 they were together mentioned as Lutynie utrumque Theutonicum et Polonicum. German Lutynie became a seat of a Catholic parish, mentioned in the register of Peter's Pence payment from 1447 among 50 parishes of Teschen deaconry as Lutina. Since 1700 it was a property of Taafe counts who built there a baroque château as their summer residence. Object currently has no architectonical value and serves as an apartment building. At the end of the 19th century coal boom affected Cieszyn Silesia and industrialization rapidly grew. This had also impact on the village, demographically and economically. After World War I, fall of Austria-Hungary, Polish–Czechoslovak War and the division of Cieszyn Silesia in 1920, the village became a part of Czechoslovakia. Following the Munich Agreement, in October 1938 together with the Zaolzie region it was annexed by Poland, administratively organised in Frysztat County of Silesian Voivodeship. The village was then annexed by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II. After the war it was restored to Czechoslovakia. The village was host to an unexploded bomb from World War II, which remained in the village until being discovered in 2014. Resultantly, 400 residents were evacuated from their homes. Notable landmarks include Catholic baroque John the Baptist church from 1746, old apothecary shop built around 1900 and the Polish school.", "Part of the Olza River with its alluvium and surroundings from Dětmarovice to Bohumín (especially in Věřňovice) is an environment with fragile nature balance. In otherwise industrialized and densely populated area it is quite special, and hence is protected." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The village could have been first mentioned in 1388 as \"Stoena\" (\"Stozna\"?). As \"Stonawa\" it was then mentioned in 1432, a German name \"Steinau\" appeared in the 18th century. Politically the village belonged then to the Duchy of Teschen, formed in 1290 in the process of feudal fragmentation of Poland and was ruled by a local branch of Silesian Piast dynasty. In 1327 the duchy became a fee of the Kingdom of Bohemia, which after 1526 became a part of the Habsburg Monarchy. The village became a seat of a Catholic parish, mentioned in the register of Peter's Pence payment from 1447 among the 50 parishes of Teschen deanery as \"Stinavia\". After the 1540s Protestant Reformation prevailed in the Duchy of Teschen and a local Catholic church was taken over by Lutherans. It was taken from them (as one from around fifty buildings in the region) by a special commission and given back to the Roman Catholic Church on 26 March 1654. After the Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire, a modern municipal division was introduced in the re-established Austrian Silesia. The village as a municipality was subscribed at least since 1880 to political district and legal district of Freistadt. According to the censuses conducted in 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910 the population of the municipality grew from 2,040 in 1880 to 3,952 in 1910. In terms of the language spoken \"colloquially\" the majority were Polish-speakers (growing from 90.1% in 1880 to 99% in 1910), accompanied by Czech-speakers (at most 158 or 7.8% in 1880, then dropping to between 0.1% and 0.4%) and German-speakers (at most 43 or 2.1% in 1880). In terms of religion, in 1910 the majority were Roman Catholics (77.7%), followed by Protestants (21.1%), 3 Jews and 42 \"others\". The village was also traditionally inhabited by Silesian Lachs, speaking Cieszyn Silesian dialect, additionally industrial growth lured a large influx of migrant workers, mostly from western Galicia. After World War I, the fall of Austria-Hungary, the Polish–Czechoslovak War and the division of Cieszyn Silesia in 1920, the village became a part of Czechoslovakia. Following the Munich Agreement, in October 1938 together with the Zaolzie region it was annexed by Poland, administratively organised in Frysztat County of Silesian Voivodeship. The village was then annexed by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II. After the war it was restored to Czechoslovakia." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Upbringing.", "Career.", "Death.", "Background.", "Murder.", "Aftermath.", "Works.", "Edition of the \"Almagest\".", "Independent writings.", "Reputed inventions.", "Legacy.", "Antiquity.", "Middle Ages.", "Early modern period.", "Nineteenth century.", "Twentieth century.", "Twenty-first century." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Hypatia was the daughter of the mathematician Theon of Alexandria (c. 335 – c. 405 AD). According to classical historian Edward J. Watts, Theon was the head of a school called the \"Mouseion\", which was named in emulation of the Hellenistic Mouseion, whose membership had ceased in the 260s AD. Theon's school was exclusive, highly prestigious, and doctrinally conservative. Theon rejected the teachings of Iamblichus and may have taken pride in teaching a pure, Plotinian Neoplatonism. Although he was widely seen as a great mathematician at the time, Theon's mathematical work has been deemed by modern standards as essentially \"minor\", \"trivial\", and \"completely unoriginal\". His primary achievement was the production of a new edition of Euclid's \"Elements\", in which he corrected scribal errors that had been made over the course of nearly 700 years of copying. Theon's edition of Euclid's \"Elements\" became the most widely used edition of the textbook for centuries and almost totally supplanted all other editions.", "Hypatia was a Neoplatonist, but, like her father, she rejected the teachings of Iamblichus and instead embraced the original Neoplatonism formulated by Plotinus. The Alexandrian school was renowned at the time for its philosophy, and Alexandria was regarded as second only to Athens as the philosophical capital of the Greco-Roman world. Hypatia taught students from all over the Mediterranean. According to Damascius, she lectured on the writings of Plato and Aristotle. He also states that she walked through Alexandria in a \"tribon\", a kind of cloak associated with philosophers, giving impromptu public lectures. According to Watts, two main varieties of Neoplatonism were taught in Alexandria during the late fourth century. The first was the overtly pagan religious Neoplatonism taught at the Serapeum, which was greatly influenced by the teachings of Iamblichus. The second variety was the more moderate and less polemical variety championed by Hypatia and her father Theon, which was based on the teachings of Plotinus. Although Hypatia herself was a pagan, she was tolerant of Christians. In fact, every one of her known students was Christian. One of her most prominent pupils was Synesius of Cyrene, who went on", "", "From 382 – 412, the bishop of Alexandria was Theophilus. Theophilus was militantly opposed to Iamblichean Neoplatonism and, in 391, he demolished the Serapeum. Despite this, Theophilus tolerated Hypatia's school and seems to have regarded Hypatia as his ally. Theophilus supported the bishopric of Hypatia's pupil Synesius, who describes Theophilus in his letters with love and admiration. Theophilus also permitted Hypatia herself to establish close relationships with the Roman prefects and other prominent political leaders. Partly as a result of Theophilus's tolerance, Hypatia became extremely popular with the people of Alexandria and exerted profound political influence. Theophilus died unexpectedly", "According to Socrates Scholasticus, during the Christian season of Lent in March 415, a mob of Christians under the leadership of a lector named Peter, raided Hypatia's carriage as she was travelling home. They dragged her into a building known as the \"Kaisarion\", a former pagan temple and center of the Roman imperial cult in Alexandria that had been converted into a Christian church. There, the mob stripped Hypatia naked and murdered her using \"ostraka\", which can either be translated as \"roof tiles\" or \"oyster shells\". Damascius adds that they also cut out her eyeballs. They tore her body into pieces and dragged her mangled limbs through the town to a place called Cinarion, where they set them on fire. According to Watts, this was in line with the traditional manner in which Alexandrians carried the bodies of the \"vilest criminals\" outside the city limits to", "Hypatia's death sent shockwaves throughout the empire; for centuries, philosophers had been seen as effectively untouchable during the displays of public violence that sometimes occurred in Roman cities and the murder of a female philosopher at the hand of a mob was seen as \"profoundly dangerous and destabilizing\". Although no concrete evidence was ever discovered definitively linking Cyril to the murder of Hypatia, it was widely believed that he had ordered it. Even if Cyril had not directly ordered the murder himself, it was self-evident that his smear campaign against Hypatia had inspired it. The Alexandrian council was alarmed at Cyril's conduct and sent an embassy to Constantinople. Theodosius II's advisors launched", "Hypatia has been described as a universal genius, but she was probably more of a teacher and commentator than an innovator. No evidence has been found that Hypatia ever published any independent works on philosophy and she does not appear to have made any groundbreaking mathematical discoveries. During Hypatia's time period, scholars preserved classical mathematical works and commented on them to develop their arguments, rather than publishing original works. It has also been suggested that the closure of the Mouseion and the destruction of the Serapeum may have led Hypatia and her father to focus their efforts on preserving seminal mathematical books and making them accessible to their students. The \"Suda\" mistakenly states that all of Hypatia's writings have been lost, but modern scholarship has identified several works by her as extant. This kind of authorial uncertainty is typical of female philosophers from antiquity. Hypatia wrote in Greek, which was the language spoken by most educated people in the Eastern Mediterranean at the time. In classical antiquity, astronomy was seen as being essentially mathematical in character. Furthermore, no distinction was made between mathematics and numerology or astronomy and astrology.", "Hypatia is now known to have edited the existing text of Book III of Ptolemy's \"Almagest\". It was once thought that Hypatia had merely revised Theon's commentary on the \"Almagest\", based on the title of Theon's commentary on the third book of \"Almagest\", which reads \"Commentary by Theon of Alexandria on Book III of Ptolemy's \"Almagest\", edition revised by my daughter Hypatia, the philosopher\", but, based on analysis of the titles of Theon's other commentaries and similar titles from the time period, scholars have concluded that Hypatia corrected, not her", "Hypatia wrote a commentary on Diophantus's thirteen-volume \"Arithmetica\", which had been written sometime around the year 250 AD. It set out more than 100 mathematical problems, for which solutions are proposed using algebra. For centuries, scholars believed that this commentary had been lost. Only volumes one through six of the \"Arithmetica\" have survived in the original Greek, but at least four additional volumes have been preserved in an Arabic translation produced around the year 860. The Arabic text contains numerous", "One of Synesius's letters describes Hypatia as having taught him how to construct a silver plane astrolabe as a gift for an official. An astrolabe is a device used to calculate date and time based on the positions of the stars and planets. It can also be used to predict where the stars and planets will be on any given date. A \"little astrolabe\", or \"plane astrolabe\", is a kind of astrolabe that used stereographic projection of the celestial sphere to represent the heavens on a plane surface, as opposed to an armillary sphere, which was globe-shaped. Armillary spheres were large and normally used for display, whereas a plane astrolabe was portable and could be used for practical measurements. The statement from Synesius's letter has sometimes been wrongly interpreted to mean that Hypatia invented the plane astrolabe herself, but the plane astrolabe is known to have been in use at least 500 years before Hypatia was born. Hypatia may have learned how to construct a plane astrolabe from her father Theon, who had written two treatises on astrolabes: one entitled \"Memoirs on", "", "Hypatia was not the last pagan, nor was she the last Neoplatonist philosopher. Neoplatonism and paganism both survived for centuries after her death. Booth notes that a massive number of new academic lecture halls were built in Alexandria at Kom el Dikka shortly after Hypatia's death, indicating that philosophy was clearly still taught in Alexandrian schools. In fact, Neoplatonism thrived throughout the eastern Mediterranean during the next 200 years, with philosophers such as Hierocles of Alexandria, John Philoponus, Simplicius of Cilicia, and Olympiodorus the Younger continuing to make astronomical observations, teach mathematics, and write lengthy commentaries on the works of Plato and Aristotle. Booth points out that Hypatia was not even the last female Neoplatonist philosopher. Notable female Neoplatonists who followed her include: Aedesia, Asclepigenia, and Theodora of Emesa, all of whom lived out similar careers. According to Watts, however, Hypatia had no appointed successor, no spouse, and no offspring and her sudden death not only left her legacy unprotected, but also triggered a backlash against her entire ideology. Hypatia, with her tolerance towards Christian students and her willingness to cooperate with Christian leaders,", "Hypatia's death was similar to those of Christian martyrs in Alexandria, who had been dragged through the streets during the Decian persecution in 250. Other aspects of Hypatia's life also fit the mold for a Christian martyr, especially her lifelong virginity. In the Early Middle Ages, Christians conflated Hypatia's death with stories of the Decian martyrs and she became part of the basis for the legend of Saint Catherine of Alexandria, a virgin martyr said to have been exceedingly wise and well-educated. The earliest attestation for the cult of Saint Catherine comes from the eighth century, around three hundred years after Hypatia's death. One story tells of Saint Catherine being confronted by fifty pagan philosophers seeking to convert her, but instead converting all of them to Christianity through her eloquence. Another legend claimed that Saint Catherine had been a student of Athanasius of Alexandria. The Byzantine \"Suda\" encyclopedia contains a very", "The early eighteenth-century Deist scholar John Toland used the murder of Hypatia as the basis for the anti-Catholic tract, \"Hypatia: Or the History of a most beautiful, most vertuous, most learned, and every way accomplish'd Lady; who was torn to pieces by the Clergy of Alexandria, to gratify the pride, emulation, and cruelty of their Archbishop, commonly, but undeservedly, stiled St. Cyril\". In order to portray Hypatia's death in the worst possible light, Toland changed the story and invented elements not found in any of the ancient sources. In 1721, Thomas Lewis wrote a response defending Cyril entitled \"The History of Hypatia, a most Impudent School-Mistress of Alexandria: Murder'd and torn to Pieces by the Populace, in Defence of Saint Cyril and the Alexandrian Clergy from the Aspersions of Mr. Toland\". Lewis rejected Damascius's account as unreliable out of hand on account of the fact that its author was \"a heathen\" and then proceeded to argue that Socrates Scholasticus was \"a Puritan\", who was consistently biased against Cyril. Voltaire, in his \"Examen important de Milord Bolingbroke ou le tombeau de fanatisme\" (1736) interpreted Hypatia", "In nineteenth century European literary authors spun the legend of Hypatia as part of neo-Hellenism, a movement that romanticised ancient Greeks and their values. Interest in the \"literary legend of Hypatia\" began to rise. Diodata Saluzzo Roero's 1827 \"Ipazia ovvero delle Filosofie\" suggested that Cyril had actually converted Hypatia to Christianity, and that she had been killed by a \"treacherous\" priest. In his 1852 \"Hypatie\" and 1857 \"Hypathie et Cyrille\", French poet Charles Leconte de Lisle portrayed Hypatia as the epitome of \"vulnerable truth and beauty\". Leconte de Lisle's first poem portrayed Hypatia as a woman born after her time, a victim of the laws of history. His second poem reverted to the eighteenth-century Deistic portrayal of Hypatia as the victim of Christian brutality, but with the twist that Hypatia tries and fails to convince Cyril that Neoplatonism and Christianity are actually fundamentally the same. Charles Kingsley's 1853 novel \"Hypatia; Or, New Foes with an Old Face\" was originally intended as a historical treatise, but instead became a typical mid-Victorian romance with a militantly anti-Catholic message, portraying Hypatia as a \"helpless, pretentious, and erotic heroine\" with the \"spirit of Plato and the", "In 1908, the American writer Elbert Hubbard published a putative biography of Hypatia as part of his series \"Little Journeys to the Homes of Great Teachers\". Despite its claimed biographical intentions, the book is almost entirely a work of fiction. In it, Hubbard relates in great detail a completely made-up physical exercise program which he claims Theon established for his daughter, involving \"fishing, horseback-riding, and rowing\". He also claims that Theon taught Hypatia to \"Reserve your right to think, for even to think wrongly is better than to never think at all.\" Hubbard relates how, as a young woman, Hypatia traveled to Athens, where she was a student of the revered philosopher Plutarch of Athens. All of this supposed biographical information, however, is completely fictional and is not found in any ancient source. Hubbard even attributes to Hypatia numerous completely fabricated quotations in which she is presented as espousing modern, rationalist views. The cover illustration for the book, a drawing of Hypatia by artist Jules Maurice Gaspard showing her as a beautiful young woman with her wavy hair tied back in the classical style, has now became the most iconic and widely reproduced image of her. Around the same time, Hypatia was adopted by feminists, and her life and death began to be viewed in the light of the women's rights movement. The author Carlo Pascal claimed in 1908 that her murder was an anti-feminist act and brought about a change in the treatment of women, as well as the decline of the Mediterranean civilization in general. Dora Russell, the wife of Bertrand Russell, published a book on the inadequate education of women and inequality with the title \"Hypatia or Woman and Knowledge\" in 1925. The prologue explains why she chose the title: \"Hypatia was a university lecturer denounced by Church dignitaries and torn to pieces by Christians. Such will probably be the fate of this book.\" Hypatia's death became symbolic for some historians.", "Hypatia's life continues to be fictionalized by authors in many countries and languages. In Umberto Eco's 2002 novel \"Baudolino\", the hero falls in love with a half-satyr, half-woman, who is descended from a group of Hypatia's young female disciples, who fled after their teacher's murder. These disciples set up a female-only community who \"tried to keep alive what they had learned from their mistress... [living] apart from the world, to rediscover what Hypatia had really said.\" All the women, who reproduce by \"fecundation\" with satyrs, are named Hypatia and are collectively known as \"hypatias\". Charlotte Kramer's 2006 novel \"Holy Murder: the Death of Hypatia of Alexandria\" portrays Cyril as an archetypal villain without an ounce of good. Hypatia is repeatedly described as brilliant and beloved and she humiliates Cyril by demonstrating that she knows more about the Christian scriptures than he does. Ki Longfellow's novel \"Flow Down Like Silver\" (2009) invents an elaborate backstory for why Hypatia first started teaching. Youssef Ziedan's novel \"Azazeel\" (2012) describes Hypatia's brutal murder through the eyes of the monk Hypa, who witnesses the incident. In \"The Plot to Save Socrates\" (2006) by Paul Levinson and its sequels \"Unburning Alexandria\" (novelette, 2008; novel 2013) and \"Chronica\", Hypatia turns out to have been a time-traveler from the twenty-first century United States. In the penultimate episode of the TV series \"The Good Place\", Hypatia is played by" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Horizon sequence.", "Horizons according to the Australian Soil and Land Survey Field Handbook (2009).", "Horizons.", "Transitional horizons.", "Horizon suffixes.", "Buried soils.", "Horizons and layers according to the USDA \"Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils\".", "Master horizons and layers.", "Transitional horizons and layers.", "Other horizon modifiers.", "Horizons and layers according to the FAO Guidelines for Soil Description (2006).", "Master horizons and layers.", "Transitional horizons and layers.", "Subordinate characteristics.", "Discontinuities and vertical subdivisions.", "Diagnostic soil horizons.", "Diagnostic horizons in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB).", "Diagnostic horizons in the USDA soil taxonomy (ST)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Many soils have an organic surface layer, which is denominated with a capital letter (different letters, depending from the system). The mineral soil usually starts with an A horizon. If a well-developed subsoil horizon as a result of soil formation exists, it is generally called a B horizon. An underlying loose, but poorly developed horizon is called a C horizon. Hard bedrock is mostly denominated R. Most individual systems defined more horizons and layers than just these five. In the following, the horizons and layers are listed more or less by their position from top to bottom within the soil profile. Not all of them are present in every soil. Soils with a history of human interference, for instance through major earthworks or regular deep ploughing, may lack distinct horizons almost completely. When examining soils in the field, attention must be paid to the local geomorphology and the historical uses, to which the land has been put, in order to ensure that the appropriate names are applied to the observed horizons.", "Source:", "O horizon The \"O\" stands for organic matter. It is a surface layer, dominated by the presence of large amounts of organic matter in varying stages of decomposition. In the Australian system, the O horizon should be considered distinct from the layer of leaf litter covering many heavily vegetated areas, which contains no weathered mineral particles and is not part of the soil itself. O horizons may be divided into O1 and O2 categories, whereby O1 horizons contain undecomposed matter whose origin can be spotted on sight (for instance, fragments of leaves), and O2 horizons contain organic debris in various stages of decomposition, the origin of which is not readily visible. O horizons contain ≥ 20% organic carbon. P horizon These horizons are also heavily organic, but are distinct from O horizons in that they form under waterlogged conditions. The “P” designation comes from their common name, peats. They may be divided into P1 and P2 in the same way as O horizons. P horizons contain ≥ 12 to 18% organic carbon, depending on the clay content. A horizon The A horizon is the top layer of the mineral soil horizons, often referred to as 'topsoil'. This layer contains dark decomposed organic matter, which is called \"humus\". The technical definition of an A horizon may vary between the systems, but it is most commonly described in terms relative to deeper layers. \"A\" horizons may be darker in colour than deeper layers and contain more organic matter, or they may be lighter but contain less clay or pedogenic oxides. The A is a surface horizon, and as such is also known as the zone in which most biological activity occurs. Soil organisms such as earthworms, potworms (enchytraeids), arthropods, nematodes, fungi, and many species of bacteria and archaea are concentrated here, often in close association with plant roots. Thus, the A horizon may be referred to as the biomantle. However, since biological activity extends far deeper into the soil, it cannot be used as a chief distinguishing feature of an A horizon. The A horizon may be further subdivided into A1 (dark, maximum biologic activity), A2 (paler) and A3 (transitional to the B horizon). E horizon (not used in the Australian system) \"E\", being short for eluviated, is most commonly used to label a horizon that has been significantly leached of its mineral and/or organic content, leaving a pale layer largely composed of silicates or silica. These are present only in older, well-developed soils, and generally occur between the A and B horizons. In systems where (like in the Australian system) this designation is not employed, leached layers are classified firstly as an A or B according to other characteristics, and then appended with the designation “e” (see the section below on horizon suffixes). In soils that contain gravels, due to animal bioturbation, a stonelayer commonly forms near or at the base of the E horizon. B horizon The B horizon is commonly referred to as \"subsoil\" and consists of mineral layers which are significantly altered by pedogenesis, mostly with the formation of iron oxides and clay minerals. It is usually brownish or reddish due to the iron oxides, which increases the chroma of the subsoil to a degree that it can be distinguished from the other horizons. The weathering may be biologically mediated. In addition, the B horizon is defined as having a distinctly different structure or consistency than the horizon(s) above and the horizon(s) below. The B horizon can also accumulate minerals and organic matter that are migrating downwards from the A and E horizons. If so, this layer is also known as the \"illuviated\" or \"illuvial\" horizon. As with the A horizon, the B horizon may be divided into B1, B2, and B3 types under the Australian system. B1 is a transitional horizon of the opposite nature to an A3 – dominated by the properties of the B horizons below it, but containing some A-horizon characteristics. B2 horizons have a high concentration of clay minerals or oxides. B3 horizons are transitional between the overlying B layers and the material beneath it, whether C or D horizon. The A3, B1, and B3 horizons are not tightly defined, and their use is generally at the discretion of the individual worker. Plant roots penetrate throughout this layer, but it has very little humus. The A/E/B horizons are referred to collectively as the \"solum\", the surface depth of the soil where biologically activity and climate effects drives pedogenesis. The layers below the solum have no collective name but are distinct in that they are noticeably less affected by surface soil-forming processes. C horizon The C horizon is below the solum horizons. This layer is little affected by pedogenesis. Clay illuviation, if present, is not significant. The absence of solum-type development (pedogenesis) is one of the defining attributes. The C horizon forms either in deposits (e.g., loess, flood deposits, landslides) or it formed from weathering of residual bedrock. The C horizon may be enriched with carbonates carried below the solum by leaching. If there is no lithologic discontinuity between the solum and the C horizon and no underlying bedrock present, the C horizon resembles the parent material of the solum. D horizon D horizons are not universally distinguished, but in the Australian system refer to \"any soil material below the solum that is unlike the solum in its general character, is not C horizon, and cannot be given reliable horizon designation... [it] may be recognized by the contrast in pedologic organization between it and the overlying horizons\" (National Committee on Soil and Terrain, 2009, p. 151). R horizon R horizons denote the layer of partially weathered or unweathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile. Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses (as opposed to boulders) of hard rock that cannot be excavated by hand. If there is no lithologic discontinuity between the solum and the R horizon, the R horizon resembles the parent material of the solum. L horizon (not used in the Australian system) L (Limnic) horizons or layers indicate mineral or organic material that has been deposited in water by precipitation or through the actions of aquatic organisms. Included are coprogenous earth (sedimentary peat), diatomaceous earth, and marl; and is usually found as a remnant of past bodies of standing water.", "A horizon that combines the characteristics of two horizons is indicated with both capital letters, the dominant one written first. Example: AB and BA. If distinct parts have properties of two kinds of horizons, the horizon symbols are combined using a slash (/). Example: A/B and B/A.", "In addition to the main descriptors above, several modifiers exist to add necessary detail to each horizon. Firstly, each major horizon may be divided into sub-horizons by the addition of a numerical subscript, based on minor shifts in colour or texture with increasing depth (e.g., B21, B22, B23 etc.). While this can add necessary depth to a field description, workers should bear in mind that excessive division of a soil profile into narrow sub-horizons should be avoided. Walking as little as ten metres in any direction and digging another hole can often reveal a very different profile in regards to the depth and thickness of each horizon. Over-precise description can be a waste of time. In the Australian system, as a rule of thumb, layers thinner than 5 cm (2 inches) or so are best described as pans or segregations within a horizon rather than as a distinct layer. Suffixes describing particular features of a horizon may also be added. The Australian system provides the following suffixes:", "Soil formation is often described as occurring \"in situ\": Rock breaks down, weathers and is mixed with other materials, or loose sediments are transformed by weathering. But the process is often far more complicated. For instance, a fully formed profile may have developed in an area only to be buried by wind- or water-deposited sediments which later formed into another soil profile. This sort of occurrence is most common in coastal areas, and descriptions are modified by numerical prefixes. Thus, a profile containing a buried sequence could be structured O, A1, A2, B2, 2A2, 2B21, 2B22, 2C with the buried profile commencing at 2A2.", "Source:", "O: Organic soil materials (not limnic). A: Mineral; organic matter (humus) accumulation. E: Mineral; some loss of Fe, Al, clay, or organic matter. B: Subsurface accumulation of clay, Fe, Al, Si, humus, CaCO, CaSO; or loss of CaCO; or accumulation of sesquioxides; or subsurface soil structure. C: Little or no pedogenic alteration, unconsolidated earthy material, soft bedrock. L: Limnic soil materials. W: A layer of liquid water (W) or permanently frozen water (Wf) within or beneath the soil (excludes water/ice above soil). M: Root-limiting subsoil layers of human-manufactured materials. R: Bedrock, strongly cemented to indurated.", "A horizon that combines the characteristics of two master horizons is indicated with both capital letters, the dominant one written first. Example: AB and BA. If discrete, intermingled bodies of two master horizons occur together, the horizon symbols are combined using a slash (/). Example: A/B and B/A.", "Numerical prefixes are used to denote lithologic discontinuities. By convention, 1 is not shown. Numerical suffixes are used to denote subdivisions within a master horizon. Example: A, E, Bt1, 2Bt2, 2BC, 3C1, 3C2.", "Source: The World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) recommends the use of these horizon denominations.", "H horizons or layers: These are layers of organic material. Organic material is defined by having a certain minimum content of soil organic carbon. In the WRB, this is 20% (by weight). The H horizon is formed from organic residues that are not incorporated into the mineral soil. The residues may be partially altered by decomposition. Contrary to the O horizons, the H horizons are saturated with water for prolonged periods, or were once saturated but are now drained artificially. In many H horizons, the residues are predominantly mosses. Although these horizons form above the mineral soil surface, they may be buried by mineral soil and therefore be found at greater depth. H horizons may be overlain by O horizons that especially form after drainage. O horizons or layers: These are layers of organic material. Organic material is defined by having a certain minimum content of soil organic carbon. In the WRB, this is 20% (by weight). The O horizon is formed from organic residues that are not incorporated into the mineral soil. The residues may be partially altered by decomposition. Contrary to the H horizons, the O horizons are not saturated with water for prolonged periods and not drained artificially. In many O horizons, the residues are leaves, needles, twigs, moss, and lichens. Although these horizons form above the mineral soil surface, they may be buried by mineral soil and therefore be found at greater depth. A horizons: These are mineral horizons that formed at the surface or below an O horizon. All or much of the original rock structure has been obliterated. Additionally, they are characterized by one or more of the following: If a surface horizon has properties of both A and E horizons but the dominant feature is an accumulation of humified organic matter, it is designated an A horizon. E horizons: These are mineral horizons in which the main feature is loss of clay minerals, iron, aluminium, organic matter or some combination of these, leaving a concentration of sand and silt particles. However, pedogenesis is advanced, because the lost substances first have been formed or accumulated there. All or much of the original rock structure is obliterated. An E horizon is usually, but not necessarily, lighter in colour than an underlying B horizon. In some soils, the colour is that of the sand and silt particles. An E horizon is most commonly differentiated from an underlying B horizon: by colour of higher value or lower chroma, or both; by coarser texture; or by a combination of these properties. An E horizon is commonly near to the surface, below an O or A horizon and above a B horizon. However, the symbol E may be used without regard to the position in the profile for any horizon that meets the requirements and that has resulted from soil genesis. B horizons: These are horizons that formed below an A, E, H or O horizon, and in which the dominant features are the obliteration of all or much of the original rock structure, together with one or a combination of the following: All kinds of B horizons are, or were originally, subsurface horizons. Examples of layers that are not B horizons are: layers in which clay films either coat rock fragments or are found on finely stratified unconsolidated sediments, whether the films were formed in place or by illuviation; layers into which carbonates have been illuviated but that are not contiguous to an overlying genetic horizon; and layers with gleying but no other pedogenic changes. C horizons or layers: These are horizons or layers, excluding hard bedrock, that are little affected by pedogenic processes and lack properties of H, O, A, E or B horizons. Most are mineral layers, but some siliceous and calcareous layers, such as shells, coral and diatomaceous earth, are included. The material of C layers may be either like or unlike that from which the overlying solum presumably formed. Plant roots can penetrate C horizons, which provide an important growing medium. Included as C layers are sediments, saprolite, non-indurated bedrock and other geological materials that commonly slake within 24 hours, when air-dry or drier chunks are placed in water, and that, when moist, can be dug with a spade. Some soils form in material that is already highly weathered, and if such material does not meet the requirements of A, E or B horizons, it is designated C. Changes not considered pedogenic are those not related to overlying horizons. Layers having accumulations of silica, carbonates or gypsum, even if indurated, may be included in C horizons, unless the layer is obviously affected by pedogenic processes; then it is a B horizon. R layers: These consist of hard bedrock underlying the soil. Granite, basalt, quartzite and indurated limestone or sandstone are examples of bedrock that are designated R. Air-dry or drier chunks of an R layer, when placed in water, will not slake within 24 hours. The R layer is sufficiently coherent when moist to make hand digging with a spade impractical. The bedrock may contain cracks, but these are so few and so small that few roots can penetrate. The cracks may be coated or filled with soil material. I layers: These are ice lenses and wedges that contain at least 75 percent ice (by volume) and that distinctly separate layers (organic or mineral) in the soil. L layers: These are sediments deposited in a body of water. They may be organic or mineral. Limnic material is either: (i) deposited by precipitation or through action of aquatic organisms, such as algae, especially diatoms; or (ii) derived from underwater and floating aquatic plants and subsequently modified by aquatic animals. L layers include coprogenous earth or sedimentary peat (mostly organic), diatomaceous earth (mostly siliceous), and marl (mostly calcareous). W layers: These are either water layers in soils or water layers submerging soils. The water is present either permanently or cyclic within the time frame of 24 hours. Some organic soils float on water. In other cases, shallow water (i.e. water not deeper than 1 m) may cover the soil permanently, as in the case of shallow lakes, or cyclic, as in tidal flats. The occurrence of tidal water can be indicated by the letter W in brackets: (W).", "A horizon that combines the characteristics of two master horizons is indicated with both capital letters, the dominant one written first. Example: AB and BA. If discrete, intermingled bodies of two master horizons occur together, the horizon symbols are combined using a slash (/). Example: A/B and B/A. The master horizon symbols may be followed by the lowercase letters indicating subordinate characteristics (see below). Example: AhBw. The I, L and W symbols are not used in transitional horizon designations.", "This is the list of suffixes to the master horizons. After the hyphen, it is indicated to which master horizons the suffixes can be added.", "Numerical prefixes are used to denote lithic discontinuities. By convention, 1 is not shown. Numerical suffixes are used to denote subdivisions within a horizon. The horizons in a profile are combined using a hyphen (-). Example: Ah-E-Bt1-2Bt2-2BwC-3C1-3C2.", "Many soil classification systems have diagnostic horizons. A diagnostic horizon is a horizon used to define soil taxonomic units (e.g. to define soil types). The presence or absence of one or more diagnostic horizons in a required depth is used for the definition of a taxonomic unit. In addition, most classification systems use some other soil characteristics for the definition of taxonomic units. The diagnostic horizons need to be thoroughly defined by a set of criteria. When allocating a soil (a pedon, a soil profile) to a taxonomic unit, one has to check every horizon of this soil and decide, whether or not the horizon fulfils the criteria of a diagnostic horizon. Based on the identified diagnostic horizons, one can proceed with the allocation of the soil to a taxonomic unit. In the following, the diagnostic horizons of two soil classification systems are listed.", "Source:", "Source:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition and principles.", "Soil pH.", "Measurement.", "Typical values.", "Base saturation.", "Anion-exchange capacity.", "General References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Cation-exchange capacity is defined as the amount of positive charge that can be exchanged per mass of soil, usually measured in cmol/kg. Some texts use the older, equivalent units me/100g or meq/100g. CEC is measured in moles of electric charge, so a cation-exchange capacity of 10 cmol/kg could hold 10 cmol of Na cations (with 1 unit of charge per cation) per kilogram of soil, but only 5 cmol Ca (2 units of charge per cation). Cation-exchange capacity arises from various negative charges on soil particle surfaces, especially those of clay minerals and soil organic matter. Phyllosilicate clays consist of layered sheets of aluminium and silicon oxides. The replacement of aluminium or silicon atoms by other elements with lower charge (e.g. Al replaced by Mg) can give the clay structure a net negative charge. This charge does not involve deprotonation and is therefore pH-independent, and called permanent charge. In addition, the edges of these sheets expose many acidic hydroxyl groups that are deprotonated to leave negative charges at the pH levels in many soils. Organic matter also makes a very significant contribution to cation exchange, due to its large number of charged functional groups. CEC is typically higher near the soil surface, where organic matter content is highest, and declines with depth. The CEC of organic matter is highly pH-dependent. Cations are adsorbed to soil surfaces by the electrostatic interaction between their positive charge and the negative charge of the surface, but they retain a shell of water molecules and do not form direct chemical bonds with the surface. Exchangeable cations thus form part of the diffuse layer above the charged surface. The binding is relatively weak, and a cation can easily be displaced from the surface by other cations from the surrounding solution.", "The amount of negative charge from deprotonation of clay hydroxy groups or organic matter depends on the pH of the surrounding solution. Increasing the pH (i.e. decreasing the concentration of H cations) increases this variable charge, and therefore also increases the cation-exchange capacity.", "Cation-exchange capacity is measured by displacing all the bound cations with a concentrated solution of another cation, and then measuring either the displaced cations or the amount of added cation that is retained. Barium (Ba) and ammonium (NH) are frequently used as exchanger cations, although many other methods are available. CEC measurements depend on pH, and therefore are often made with a buffer solution at a particular pH value. If this pH differs from the natural pH of the soil, the measurement will not reflect the true CEC under normal conditions. Such CEC measurements are called \"potential CEC\". Alternatively, measurement at the native soil pH is termed \"effective CEC\", which more closely reflects the real value, but can make direct comparison between soils more difficult.", "The cation-exchange capacity of a soil is determined by its constituent materials, which can vary greatly in their individual CEC values. CEC is therefore dependent on parent materials from which the soil developed, and the conditions under which it developed. These factors are also important for determining soil pH, which has a major influence on CEC.", "Base saturation expresses the percentage of potential CEC occupied by the cations Ca, Mg, K or Na. These are traditionally termed \"base cations\" because they are non-acidic, although they are not bases in the usual chemical sense. Base saturation provides an index of soil weathering and reflects the availability of exchangeable cationic nutrients to plants.", "Positive charges of soil minerals can retain anions by the same principle as cation exchange. The surfaces of kaolinite, allophane and iron and aluminium oxides often carry positive charges. In most soils the cation-exchange capacity is much greater than the anion-exchange capacity, but the opposite can occur in highly weathered soils, such as ferralsols (oxisols).", "Ramos, F.T.; Dores E.F.G.C.; Weber O.L.S.; Beber D.C.; Campelo Jr J.H.; Maia J.C.S. (2018) \"Soil organic matter doubles the cation exchange capacity of tropical soil under no-till farming in Brazil\". J Sci Food Agric. 10.1002/jsfa.8881" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Fictional setting.", "Geography.", "History.", "Adaptations.", "References.", "Secondary." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "According to \"Unfinished Tales\", Dol Guldur was originally known in Tolkien's fictional language of Sindarin as \"Amon Lanc\" (\"naked hill\", from \"amon\" \"hill\" and \"lanc\" \"bare\" or \"naked\"). After Sauron came to reside there, it became known instead as \"Dol Guldur\" \"Hill of Sorcery\", acquiring a connotation of corruption and evil. The word \"dol\" strictly means \"head\" in elvish, but is applied to hills or mountains, as in \"Dol Amroth\". The word \"guldur\" signifies \"black magic\": \"gûl\" means \"sorcery, magic\", from the stem \"ngol\" or \"nólë\" meaning \"long study, lore, knowledge\"; and \"dûr\" means \"dark\".", "", "Dol Guldur appears on the maps published with \"The Lord of the Rings\". The hill rose above the River Anduin across from Lothlórien within the great forest east of the River. Sauron's influence caused a great shadow of sickness and death to fall over the forest, which became known as Mirkwood. To the northeast on the other side of the forest lay Thranduil's kingdom and Erebor, the Lonely Mountain. Further north was Ered Mithrin, the Grey Mountains, where the Dwarves had once prospered. According to the Appendices of the book, at a meeting in the forest after the defeat of Sauron, Celeborn and Thranduil renamed the forest \"Eryn Lasgalen\", \"The Wood of Greenleaves\". Thranduil claimed the northern regions of the forest as far south as the mountains in the centre of the forest (the Emyn Duir), and Celeborn took the southern part of the forest below the Narrows, calling it East Lórien.", "The fictional history of Dol Guldur is laid out across several of Tolkien's works, including \"The Lord of the Rings\", \"The Hobbit\", \"The Silmarillion\", and \"Unfinished Tales\". Sauron's history at the site begins in the Third Age, around the year 1100. Due to its situation inside Mirkwood and east of Lothlórien, Dol Guldur was a key stronghold in Sauron's return to power. After Sauron was defeated in the War of the Last Alliance, he retreated to Amon Lanc and built a fortress, where he hid in secrecy while recovering his strength. As the evil force residing there became apparent to the outside world, it was named \"the Necromancer\". It was not known at first that Sauron had regained physical form and power; it was believed that a \"Nazgûl\" dominated the tower and land. But as the power grew in strength, Gandalf the Grey became suspicious and travelled to Dol Guldur to investigate. Sauron anticipated his coming and withdrew to the East to remain hidden in secrecy. Thus began what later became known as The Watchful Peace, which lasted until, when Sauron finally returned to Dol Guldur after years of hiding. The Wise (various Elf-lords and Wizards, including Gandalf the Grey) formed the White Council in to determine whether Sauron was alive and regaining strength. Later Thráin II the last bearer of one of the seven Rings of Power given to the Dwarves, was captured by Sauron's forces and was kept at Dol Guldur, where he yielded his ring to Sauron under torture. Gandalf went again to Dol Guldur to investigate his suspicions of the power that was rising, learned that this was indeed Sauron, and found Thráin in the dungeons close to death. Thráin had forgotten his own name, but gave Gandalf a map and key to the Lonely Mountain for Thráin's son, Thorin Oakenshield. The following year Gandalf pressed the White Council for an attack on Sauron. Saruman, the head of the Council, who had become corrupted by desire for Sauron's One Ring, spoke against this move, reassuring them that without the Ring Sauron could not regain his full strength. Saruman put the Council off by suggesting that the Ring had most likely been lost in the River Anduin and had been carried out to the sea. But in fact, Saruman was himself seeking the One Ring, and in this pursuit secretly betrayed the Council. He believed the Ring lay hidden in the Gladden Fields not far from Dol Guldur, and was searching for it there. For Isildur had perished in the Gladden Fields when his army was ambushed by orcs after the defeat of Sauron – and it was Isildur who had taken Sauron's Ring and was its last known bearer. Saruman therefore did not want Sauron disturbed, hoping that if Sauron continued searching, the Ring might reveal itself while trying to reach Sauron, its one true master. Sauron thus was left to his devices. Gandalf remained troubled by Sauron's presence, and at the White Council he once again argued that an attack on Dol Guldur was inevitable and necessary for the security of Middle-earth and its peoples. Saruman agreed this time, but only because he had learned two years earlier that Sauron too was searching for the One Ring in the Gladden Fields. Saruman hoped too that with Sauron and his servants out of the way, he himself might have more leisure to continue the search. The Council gathered its strength and drove Sauron from Dol Guldur. But the victory was hollow: Sauron had foreseen and prepared in advance for the assault, and he travelled in secret to Mordor to rebuild Barad-dûr to be his new sanctuary – and Dol Guldur was shortly reoccupied by \"Nazgûl\" sent by Sauron from Mordor. Khamûl (one of the \"Nazgûl\") commanded the fortress in Sauron's absence. Scouts from Dol Guldur became aware that Gollum had been brought to Mirkwood and was being held prisoner by Thranduil. Orcs from Dol Guldur then attacked the Elves who had imprisoned Gollum; in the chaos, Gollum escaped and disappeared. During the final days of the War of the Ring, Dol Guldur sent forces against Lothlórien and Thranduil's realm in what came to be known as the Battles of Lothlórien and Mirkwood: three attacks on Lórien (March 11, 15, and 22) and one, \"The Battle under the Trees\", against Thranduil (March 15). All were fiercely fought, but the power of Galadriel and the strength of the Elves proved too great for Dol Guldur to overcome. After the defeat of Sauron on March 25, Celeborn marched on Dol Guldur and overthrew it. Galadriel then destroyed the fortress so that the forest was free from the shadow of the tower.", "Several portrayals of Dol Guldur are included in the Games Workshop game \"The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game\", appearing prominently in the \"Fall of the Necromancer\". A number of enemies are listed, including Spider Queens, Castellans of Dol Guldur, Sauron the Necromancer, Wild Warg Chieftain, and their respective armies. Giant Bats are also included in the game. Dol Guldur has been featured in many of the game adaptations of \"The Lord of the Rings\", including the Iron Crown Enterprises portrayal, which contains scenarios and adventures for the Middle-earth Role Playing game In the strategy battle game \"\", Dol Guldur appears as an iconic building. The campaign-scenario called \"Assault on Dol Guldur\" appears as the final part of the good campaign. Released in 1996, the music album \"Dol Guldur\" from the black metal band Summoning features the name \"Dol Guldur\". Canadian artist John Howe has portrayed Dol Guldur in several of his sketches and drawings. Howe drew these for Electronic Arts. In \"Myth and Magic: The Art of John Howe\", Howe includes Dol Guldur among other fortresses of Middle-earth, such as Dol Amroth In addition, Howe created many drawings for Peter Jackson during the filming of the \"Lord of the Rings\" trilogy in New Zealand, worked for Tolkien Enterprises, and also drew for Iron Crown Enterprises' collectable Middle-earth card game, which mentions Dol Guldur on Gandalf's card. Mirkwood was added to the MMORPG \"\" in the expansion pack entitled \"Siege of Mirkwood\", released on December 1, 2009, and depicting the southern area of Mirkwood and Dol Guldur. The storyline depicts a small Elven assault upon the fortress of Dol Guldur (not to be confused with the subsequent Siege of Dol Guldur, led by Lady Galadriel herself). Making a bold strike deep into enemy territory, the Elves of Lothlorien then prepare to regroup and quickly move back to the west shore of Anduin before the Enemy can retaliate in force. While most participants are unaware of the true purpose of the assault, it is eventually revealed to be a ploy to draw Sauron's attention away from Lothlorien and allow the Fellowship to safely depart it and travel down the river Anduin. Dol Guldur is depicted in Peter Jackson's 2012-2014 film trilogy adaptation of \"The Hobbit\". In the first installment, \"\", it is visited by the wizard Radagast, who has a brief skirmish with the shade of the Witch-king of Angmar before encountering the Necromancer and then fleeing to tell Gandalf what he has discovered. The second part of the trilogy, \"\", depicts Gandalf himself entering Dol Guldur, where he discerns that a spell of illusion hangs over the entire fortress, making it appear abandoned even though a growing army of Orcs is amassing there. Gandalf encounters the Necromancer and engages in a magical duel with him but is ultimately overpowered when the Necromancer unveils his true strength and identity as Sauron. In the third film, \"\", Galadriel, Elrond, and Saruman enter Dol Guldur, where they rescue the wounded Gandalf, and battle the Nazgûl. Radagast takes Gandalf out of Dol Guldur to recover, and Galadriel uses her power to force Sauron out of Dol Guldur. In the Jackson \"Hobbit\" trilogy, Dol Guldur is depicted as a massive castle in ruins, heavily overgrown with brambles and thorny trees. According to Alan Lee and John Howe, the trilogy's conceptual designers, this aesthetic was used to give the impression that the fortress had been built by Númenóreans during the Second Age, only to fall into ruin when Númenór's power waned. Adrián Maldonado of AlmostArchaeology speculates that the derelict castle could also be interpreted by viewers as the ruins of Oropher's halls, erected during the Second Age when he ruled Greenwood the Great from Amon Lanc.", "", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "In geology.", "The term and its origin." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A polje, in geological terminology, is a large, flat-floored depression within karst limestone, whose long axis develops in parallel with major structural trends and can become several miles (tens of kilometers) long. Superficial deposits tend to accumulate along the floor. Drainage may be either by surface watercourses (as an \"open polje\") or by swallow holes (as a \"closed polje\") or ponors. Usually, the ponors cannot transmit entire flood flows, so many poljes become wet-season lakes. The structure of some poljes is related to the geological structure, but others are purely the result of lateral dissolution and planation. The development of poljes is fostered by any blockage in the karst drainage. A polje or karst polje covers the flatbottomed lands of closed basins which may extend over large areas, up to 1,000 km2. The flat floor of a polje may consist of bare limestone, of a nonsoluble formation (as with rolling topography), or of soil. A polje typically shows complex hydrogeological characteristics such as exsurgences, estavelles, swallow holes, and lost rivers. In colloquial use, the term \"polje\" designates flat-bottomed lands which are overgrown or are under cultivation. The Dinaric Karst has many poljes. They are mostly distributed in subtropical and tropical latitudes but some also appear in temperate or, rarely, boreal regions. Usually covered with thick sediments, called \"terra rossa\", they are used extensively for agricultural purposes. Some \"poljes\" of the Dinaric Alps are inundated during the rainy winters and spring seasons as masses of water called \"izvor\" or \"vrelo\" appears at the margins. The water disappears through shafts called \"ponor\". Prominent karst poljes are Livanjsko polje (about 60km long and 7km wide), Glamočko Polje, Grahovsko Polje, Drvarsko Polje, Duvanjsko Polje, Kupreška Visoravan \"(Kupres Highlands)\", Popovo Polje, Dabarsko Polje, Nevesinjsko Polje and Gatačko Polje in Bosnia and Herzegovina; Logatec, Planina, and Cerknica Polje in Slovenia; Grahovsko Polje and Nikšićko Polje in Montenegro; Ličko Polje and Krbava in Lika, Croatia; Odorovsko polje the only karst polje in Serbia. You can see Arjan polje in Fars province of Iran on Google Earth, located in 29° 38' 00\"N 51° 59' 00\"E.", "The term is synonymous with \"interior valley\". The word itself can be found in a number of languages including: French, German, Greek, Italian, Spanish and Turkish (which uses \"polye\"). The word \"polje\" () itself is of Slavic origin (best known as the root for the country Poland - \"Polska\" from the Polish word \"pole\"). English borrowed \"polje\" from Slovene or Serbo-Croatian. The equivalent in neighbouring Macedonian and Bulgarian is \"pole\" (поле), and in Russian it is \"polye\" (полье)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Standards.", "Operations centers.", "SWIFTNet network.", "Architecture.", "SWIFTNet Phase 2.", "Products and interfaces.", "SWIFTREF.", "SWIFTNet Mail.", "U.S. government involvement.", "Terrorist Finance Tracking Program.", "Sanctions against Iran.", "U.S. control over transactions within the EU.", "Monitoring by the NSA.", "Use in sanctions.", "Competitors.", "Security." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "SWIFT was founded in Brussels in 1973 under the leadership of its inaugural CEO, Carl Reuterskiöld (1973–1989), and was supported by 239 banks in fifteen countries. It started to establish common standards for financial transactions and a shared data processing system and worldwide communications network designed by Logica and developed by the Burroughs Corporation. Fundamental operating procedures, rules for liability, etc., were established in 1975 and the first message was sent in 1977. SWIFT's first United States operating center was inaugurated by Governor John N. Dalton of Virginia in 1979.", "SWIFT has become the industry standard for syntax in financial messages. Messages formatted to SWIFT standards can be read by, and processed by, many well-known financial processing systems, whether or not the message traveled over the SWIFT network. SWIFT cooperates with international organizations for defining standards for message format and content. SWIFT is also \"Registration authority\" (RA) for the following ISO standards: In RFC 3615 \"urn:swift:\" was defined as Uniform Resource Names (URNs) for SWIFT FIN.", "The SWIFT secure messaging network is run from three data centers, one in the United States, one in the Netherlands and one in Switzerland. These centers share information in near real-time. In case of a failure in one of the data centers, another is able to handle the traffic of the complete network. SWIFT uses submarine communications cables to transmit its data. SWIFT opened its third data center in Switzerland in 2009. In the same year SWIFT introduced new distributed architecture with two messaging zones: European and Trans-Atlantic, so data from European SWIFT members are no longer mirrored to the U.S. data center. European zone messages are stored in the Netherlands and in a part of the Switzerland operating center; Trans-Atlantic zone messages are stored in the United States and in a part of the Switzerland operating center that is segregated from the European zone messages. Countries outside of Europe were by default allocated to the Trans-Atlantic zone but could choose to have their messages stored in the European zone.", "SWIFT moved to its current IP network infrastructure, known as SWIFTNet, from 2001 to 2005, providing a total replacement of the previous X.25 infrastructure. The process involved the development of new protocols that facilitate efficient messaging, using existing and new message standards. The adopted technology chosen to develop the protocols was XML, where it now provides a wrapper around all messages legacy or contemporary. The communication protocols can be broken down into: InterAct FileAct Browse", "SWIFT provides a centralized store-and-forward mechanism, with some transaction management. For bank A to send a message to bank B with a copy or authorization with institution C, it formats the message according to standard and securely sends it to SWIFT. SWIFT guarantees its secure and reliable delivery to B after the appropriate action by C. SWIFT guarantees are based primarily on high redundancy of hardware, software, and people.", "During 2007 and 2008, the entire SWIFT network migrated its infrastructure to a new protocol called SWIFTNet Phase 2. The main difference between Phase 2 and the former arrangement is that Phase 2 requires banks connecting to the network to use a Relationship Management Application (RMA) instead of the former bilateral key exchange (BKE) system. According to SWIFT's public information database on the subject, RMA software should eventually prove more secure and easier to keep up-to-date; however, converting to the RMA system meant that thousands of banks around the world had to update their international payments systems to comply with the new standards. RMA completely replaced BKE on 1 January 2009.", "SWIFT means several things in the financial world: Under 3 above, SWIFT provides turn-key solutions for members, consisting of linkage clients to facilitate connectivity to the SWIFT network and CBTs or \"computer based terminals\" which members use to manage the delivery and receipt of their messages. Some of the more well-known interfaces and CBTs provided to their members are: There are four key areas that SWIFT services fall under in the financial marketplace: Securities, Treasury & Derivatives, Trade Services and Payments & Cash Management. Securities Treasury & Derivatives Cash Management Trade Services", "Swift Ref, the global payment reference data utility, is SWIFT's unique reference data service. Swift Ref sources data direct from data originators, including central banks, code issuers and banks making it easy for issuers and originators to maintain data regularly and thoroughly. SWIFTRef constantly validates and cross-checks data across the different data sets.", "SWIFT offers a secure person-to-person messaging service, SWIFTNet Mail, which went live on 16 May 2007. SWIFT clients can configure their existing email infrastructure to pass email messages through the highly secure and reliable SWIFTNet network instead of the open Internet. SWIFTNet Mail is intended for the secure transfer of sensitive business documents, such as invoices, contracts and signatories, and is designed to replace existing telex and courier services, as well as the transmission of security-sensitive data over the open Internet. Seven financial institutions, including HSBC, FirstRand Bank, Clearstream, DnB NOR, Nedbank, and Standard Bank of South Africa, as well as SWIFT piloted the service.", "", "A series of articles published on 23 June 2006 in \"The New York Times\", \"The Wall Street Journal\", and the \"Los Angeles Times\" revealed a program, named the Terrorist Finance Tracking Program, which the US Treasury Department, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and other United States governmental agencies initiated after the 11 September attacks to gain access to the SWIFT transaction database. After the publication of these articles, SWIFT quickly came under pressure for compromising the data privacy of its customers by allowing governments to gain access to sensitive personal information. In September 2006, the Belgian government declared that these SWIFT dealings with American governmental authorities were a breach of Belgian and European privacy laws. In response, and to satisfy members' concerns about privacy, SWIFT began a process of improving its architecture by implementing a distributed architecture with a two-zone model for storing messages (see Operations centers). Concurrently, the European Union negotiated an agreement with the United States government to permit the transfer of intra-EU SWIFT transaction information to the United States under certain circumstances. Because of concerns about its potential contents, the European Parliament adopted a position statement in September 2009, demanding to see the full text of the agreement and asking that it be fully compliant with EU privacy legislation, with oversight mechanisms emplaced to ensure that all data requests were handled appropriately. An interim agreement was signed without European Parliamentary approval by the European Council on 30 November 2009, the day before the Lisbon Treaty—which would have prohibited such an agreement from being signed under the terms of the Codecision procedure—formally came into effect. While the interim agreement was scheduled to come into effect on 1 January 2010, the text of the agreement was classified as \"EU Restricted\" until translations could be provided in all EU languages and published on 25 January 2010. On 11 February 2010, the European Parliament decided to reject the interim agreement between the EU and the US by 378 to 196 votes. One week earlier, the parliament's civil liberties committee had already rejected the deal, citing legal reservations. In March 2011, it was reported that two mechanisms of data protection had failed: EUROPOL released a report complaining that the USA's requests for information had been too vague (making it impossible to make judgments on validity) and that the guaranteed right for European citizens to know whether their information had been accessed by USA authorities had not been put into practice.", "In January 2012, the advocacy group United Against Nuclear Iran (UANI) implemented a campaign calling on SWIFT to end all relations with Iran's banking system, including the Central Bank of Iran. UANI asserted that Iran's membership in SWIFT violated U.S. and EU financial sanctions against Iran as well as SWIFT's own corporate rules. Consequently, in February 2012, the U.S. Senate Banking Committee unanimously approved sanctions against SWIFT aimed at pressuring the Belgian financial telecommunications network to terminate its ties with blacklisted Iranian banks. Expelling Iranian banks from SWIFT would potentially deny Iran access to billions of dollars in revenue and spending using SWIFT but not from using IVTS. Mark Wallace, president of UANI, praised the Senate Banking Committee. Initially SWIFT denied it was acting illegally, but now says \"it is working with U.S. and European governments to address their concerns that its financial services are being used by Iran to avoid sanctions and conduct illicit business.\" Targeted banks would be—amongst others—Saderat Bank of Iran, Bank Mellat, Post Bank of Iran and Sepah Bank. On 17 March 2012, following agreement two days earlier between all 27 member states of the Council of the European Union and the Council's subsequent ruling, SWIFT disconnected all Iranian banks from its international network that had been identified as institutions in breach of current EU sanctions and warned that even more Iranian financial institutions could be disconnected from the network. In February 2016, most Iranian banks reconnected to the network following lift of sanctions on Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action.", "On 26 February 2012 the Danish newspaper \"Berlingske\" reported that US authorities have sufficient control over SWIFT to seize money being transferred between two European Union (EU) countries (Denmark and Germany), since they succeeded in seizing around US$26,000 that was being transferred from a Danish businessman to a German bank. The transaction was automatically routed through the US, possibly because of the USD currency used in the transaction, which is how the United States was able to seize the funds. The money was a payment for a batch of Cuban cigars previously imported to Germany by a German supplier. As justification for the seizure, the U.S. Treasury stated that the Danish businessman had violated the United States embargo against Cuba.", "\"Der Spiegel\" reported in September 2013 that the National Security Agency (NSA) widely monitors banking transactions via SWIFT, as well as credit card transactions. The NSA intercepted and retained data from the SWIFT network used by thousands of banks to securely send transaction information. SWIFT was named as a \"target\", according to documents leaked by Edward Snowden. The documents revealed that the NSA spied on SWIFT using a variety of methods, including reading \"SWIFT printer traffic from numerous banks\". In April 2017, a group known as the Shadow Brokers released files allegedly from the NSA which indicate that the agency monitored financial transactions made through SWIFT.", "As mentioned above SWIFT had disconnected all Iranian banks from its international network as a sanction against Iran. However, as of 2016 Iranian banks which are no longer on international sanctions lists were reconnected to SWIFT. Even though this enables movement of money from and to these Iranian banks, foreign banks remain wary of doing business with the country. Due to primary sanctions, transactions of U.S. banks with Iran or transactions in U.S. dollars with Iran both remained prohibited. Similarly, in August 2014 the UK planned to press the EU to block Russian use of SWIFT as a sanction due to Russian military intervention in Ukraine. However, SWIFT refused to do so. SPFS, a Russia-based SWIFT equivalent, was created by the Central Bank of Russia as a backup measure. In 2014, SWIFT rejected calls from pro-Palestinian activists to revoke Israeli banks' access to its network.", "Alternatives to the SWIFT system include:", "In 2016 an $81 million theft from the Bangladesh central bank via its account at the New York Federal Reserve Bank was traced to hacker penetration of SWIFT's Alliance Access software, according to a New York \"Times\" report. It was not the first such attempt, the society acknowledged, and the security of the transfer system was undergoing new examination accordingly. Soon after the reports of the theft from the Bangladesh central bank, a second, apparently related, attack was reported to have occurred on a commercial bank in Vietnam. Both attacks involved malware written to both issue unauthorized SWIFT messages and to conceal that the messages had been sent. After the malware sent the SWIFT messages that stole the funds, it deleted the database record of the transfers then took further steps to prevent confirmation messages from revealing the theft. In the Bangladeshi case, the confirmation messages would have appeared on a paper report; the malware altered the paper reports when they were sent to the printer. In the second case, the bank used a PDF report; the malware altered the PDF viewer to hide the transfers. In May 2016, Banco del Austro (BDA) in Ecuador sued Wells Fargo after Wells Fargo honored $12 million in fund transfer requests that had been placed by thieves. In this case, the thieves sent SWIFT messages that resembled recently canceled transfer requests from BDA, with slightly altered amounts; the reports do not detail how the thieves gained access to send the SWIFT messages. BDA asserts that Wells Fargo should have detected the suspicious SWIFT messages, which were placed outside of normal BDA working hours and were of an unusual size. Wells Fargo claims that BDA is responsible for the loss, as the thieves gained access to the legitimate SWIFT credentials of a BDA employee and sent fully authenticated SWIFT messages. In the first half of 2016, an anonymous Ukrainian bank and others — even \"dozens\" that are not being made public — were variously reported to have been \"compromised\" through the SWIFT network and to have lost money. The episode was investigated by ISACA (formerly known as the Information Systems Audit and Control Association)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Signs and symptoms.", "Skin.", "Mouth.", "Gastrointestinal tract.", "Respiratory tract.", "Cause.", "Transmission.", "Pathology.", "Diagnosis.", "Classification.", "Prevention.", "Treatment.", "Epidemiology.", "Awareness." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "KS lesions are nodules or blotches that may be red, purple, brown, or black, and are usually papular. They are typically found on the skin, but spread elsewhere is common, especially the mouth, gastrointestinal tract and respiratory tract. Growth can range from very slow to explosively fast, and is associated with significant mortality and morbidity. The lesions are painless, but become cosmetically disfiguring or interruptive to organs.", "Commonly affected areas include the lower limbs, back, face, mouth, and genitalia. The lesions are usually as described above, but may occasionally be plaque-like (often on the soles of the feet) or even involved in skin breakdown with resulting fungating lesions. Associated swelling may be from either local inflammation or lymphoedema (obstruction of local lymphatic vessels by the lesion). Skin lesions may be quite disfiguring for the sufferer, and a cause of much psychosocial pathology.", "The mouth is involved in about 30% of cases, and is the initial site in 15% of AIDS-related KS. In the mouth, the hard palate is most frequently affected, followed by the gums. Lesions in the mouth may be easily damaged by chewing and bleed or suffer secondary infection, and even interfere with eating or speaking.", "Involvement can be common in those with transplant-related or AIDS-related KS, and it may occur in the absence of skin involvement. The gastrointestinal lesions may be silent or cause weight loss, pain, nausea/vomiting, diarrhea, bleeding (either vomiting blood or passing it with bowel movements), malabsorption, or intestinal obstruction.", "Involvement of the airway can present with shortness of breath, fever, cough, coughing up blood or chest pain, or as an incidental finding on chest x-ray. The diagnosis is usually confirmed by bronchoscopy, when the lesions are directly seen and often biopsied. Kaposi's sarcoma of the lung has a poor prognosis.", "Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), also called HHV-8, is present in almost 100% of Kaposi sarcoma lesions, whether HIV-related, classic, endemic, or iatrogenic. KSHV encodes oncogenes, microRNAs and circular RNAs that promote cancer cell proliferation and escape from the immune system.", "In Europe and North America, KSHV is transmitted through saliva. Thus, kissing is a theoretical risk factor for transmission. Higher rates of transmission among gay and bisexual men have been attributed to \"deep kissing\" sexual partners with KSHV. Another alternative theory suggests that use of saliva as a sexual lubricant might be a major mode for transmission. Prudent advice is to use commercial lubricants when needed and avoid deep kissing with partners with KSHV infection or whose status is unknown. KSHV is also transmissible via organ transplantation and blood transfusion. Testing for the virus before these procedures is likely to effectively limit iatrogenic transmission.", "Despite its name, in general it is not considered a true sarcoma, which is a tumor arising from mesenchymal tissue. The histogenesis of KS remains controversial. KS may arise as a cancer of lymphatic endothelium and forms vascular channels that fill with blood cells, giving the tumor its characteristic bruise-like appearance. KSHV proteins are uniformly detected in KS cancer cells. KS lesions contain tumor cells with a characteristic abnormal elongated shape, called \"spindle cells\". The most typical feature of Kaposi sarcoma is the presence of spindle cells forming slits containing red blood cells. Mitotic activity is only moderate and pleomorphism is usually absent. The tumor is highly vascular, containing abnormally dense and irregular blood vessels, which leak red blood cells into the surrounding tissue and give the tumor its dark color. Inflammation around the tumor may produce swelling and pain. Variously sized PAS positive hyaline bodies are often seen in the cytoplasm or sometimes extracellularly. The spindle cells of Kaposi sarcoma differentiate toward endothelial cells, probably of lymph vessel rather than blood vessel origin. The consistent immunoreactivity for podoplanin supports the lymphatic nature of the lesion.", "Although KS may be suspected from the appearance of lesions and the patient's risk factors, definite diagnosis can be made only by biopsy and microscopic examination. Detection of the KSHV protein LANA in tumor cells confirms the diagnosis. In differential diagnosis, arteriovenous malformations, pyogenic granuloma and other vascular proliferations can be microscopically confused with KS.", "HHV-8 is responsible for all varieties of KS. Since Moritz Kaposi first described this cancer, the disease has been reported in five separate clinical settings, with different presentations, epidemiology, and prognoses. All of these forms are infected with KSHV and are different manifestations of the same disease but have differences in clinical aggressiveness, prognosis and treatment.", "Blood tests to detect antibodies against KSHV have been developed and can be used to determine whether a person is at risk for transmitting infection to their sexual partner, or whether an organ is infected prior to transplantation. However, these tests are not available except as research tools, and, thus, there is little screening for persons at risk for becoming infected with KSHV, such as people following a transplant.", "Kaposi sarcoma is not curable, but it can often be treatable for many years. In KS associated with immunodeficiency or immunosuppression, treating the cause of the immune system dysfunction can slow or stop the progression of KS. In 40% or more of peoples with AIDS-associated Kaposi sarcoma, the Kaposi lesions will shrink upon first starting highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Therefore, HAART is considered the cornerstone of therapy in AIDS-associated Kaposi sarcoma. However, in a certain percentage of such people, Kaposi sarcoma may recur after a number of years on HAART, especially if HIV is not completely suppressed. People with a few local lesions can often be treated with local measures such as radiation therapy or cryosurgery. Weak evidence suggests that antiretroviral therapy in combination with chemotherapy is more effective than either of those two therapies individually. Limited basic and clinical evidence suggest that topical beta-blockers, such as timolol, may induce regression of localized lesions in classic as well as HIV-associated Kaposi sarcoma. In general, surgery is not recommended, as Kaposi sarcoma can appear in wound edges. In general, more widespread disease, or disease affecting internal organs, is treated with systemic therapy with interferon alpha, liposomal anthracyclines (such as liposomal doxorubicin or daunorubicin), thalidomide, or paclitaxel. Alitretinoin, applied to the lesion, may be used when the lesion are not getting better with standard treatment of HIV/AIDS and chemotherapy or radiation therapy cannot be used.", "With the decrease in the death rate among people with HIV/AIDS receiving new treatments in the 1990s, the rates and severity of epidemic KS also decreased. However, the number of people living with HIV/AIDS is increasing in the United States, and it is possible that the number of people with AIDS-associated Kaposi sarcoma will again rise as these people live longer with HIV infection.", "It has been reported that only 6% of men who have sex with men are aware that KS is caused by a virus different from HIV. Thus, there is little community effort to prevent KSHV infection. Likewise, no systematic screening of organ donations is in place. In people with AIDS, Kaposi sarcoma is considered an opportunistic infection, a disease that is able to gain a foothold in the body because the immune system has been weakened. With the rise of HIV/AIDS in Africa, where KSHV is widespread, KS has become the most frequently reported cancer in some countries. Because of their highly visible nature, external lesions are sometimes the presenting symptom of AIDS. Kaposi sarcoma entered the awareness of the general public with the release of the film \"Philadelphia\", in which the main character was fired after his employers found out he was HIV-positive due to visible lesions. By the time KS lesions appear, it is likely that the immune system has already been severely weakened." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Specification.", "1st series ES1 (issued 2002)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The euro came into existence on 1 January 1999. The euro's creation had been a goal of the European Union (EU) and its predecessors since the 1960s. The Maastricht Treaty entered into force in 1993 with the goal of creating economic and monetary union by 1999 for all EU states except the UK and Denmark (though Denmark has a policy of a fixed exchange rate with the euro). In 1999, the currency was born virtually, and in 2002 notes and coins began to circulate. It rapidly took over from the former national currencies and slowly expanded around the rest of the EU. In 2009, the Lisbon Treaty formalised the Euro's political authority, the Euro Group, alongside the European Central Bank. Slovenia joined the Eurozone in 2007, Cyprus and Malta in 2008, Slovakia in 2009, Estonia in 2011, Latvia in 2014 and Lithuania in 2015.", "There are seven different denominations of the euro banknotes: €5, €10, €20, €50, €100, €200 and €500. Each has a distinctive colour and size. The designs for each of them have a common theme of European architecture in various artistic eras. The obverse of the banknote features windows or gateways while the reverse bears different types of bridges. The architectural examples are stylised illustrations, not representations of existing monuments.", "The following table depicts the design characteristics of the 1st series (ES1) of euro notes. All the notes of the initial series of euro notes bear the European flag, a map of the continent on the reverse, the name \"euro\" in both Latin and Greek script (EURO / ΕΥΡΩ) and the signature of a president of the ECB, depending on when the banknote was printed. The 12 stars from the flag are also incorporated into every note. The notes also carry the acronyms of the name of the European Central Bank in five linguistic variants, covering all official languages of the EU in 2002 (the time of the banknote introduction), and now 19 out of 24 official languages of the EU28, in the following order:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Appearances.", "Relationships.", "\"Joey\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Joey is a member of the Screen Actors Guild, having refused to follow in his father's footsteps and become a pipe fitter. He started his acting profession doing stage work, introduced in the show's pilot episode by Monica and Chandler having seen Joey in a production of \"Pinocchio\". Sometime prior to the start of the series, Joey also had appeared in a porn film, as a fully clothed extra. Joey also mentioned appearing in a play with trolls before getting the leading role of Sigmund Freud in the musical play \"Freud!\" where he was first spotted by his talent agent Estelle Leonard. She immediately got him a film role in the same episode as Al Pacino's \"butt double\" – a speechless role he later lost due to taking the part too seriously. Monica and Chandler also once discussed having seen Joey in a version of \"Macbeth\", in which he was unable to pronounce most of the words. Joey becomes an \"actor-slash-model\" when he appears on print ads for the NYC Free Clinic, as a man named \"Mario\" who has a venereal disease. He also did an infomercial for a device that lets you pour milk out of milk cartons; he played \"Kevin\", a man who had extreme difficulty opening the cartons without the use of the device. (\"Kevin\" also inadvertently choked on a cookie during the show.). This haunted him again when he appeared in the play 'The King', where he was made fun of due to choking on a cookie. In Season Two, Joey continued his stage work, appearing as \"The King\" in a poorly reviewed (and never-named) play. Published reviews of his performance claimed he was \"disturbingly unskilled\" and that he achieved \"brilliant new levels of sucking\" in a \"mediocre play\" with \"mindless, adolescent direction\". Only days after these reviews came out, Joey gets his big break when he lands his first major role as Dr. Drake Ramoray on the soap opera \"Days of Our Lives\". He had initially gone in to read for a one-shot role as a cab driver; it is implied that he got the recurring role of Ramoray by sleeping with the casting director. While still playing Ramoray, he also appears in a bit role as a dead man in the film \"Outbreak 2: The Virus Takes Manhattan\", starring Jean-Claude Van Damme. Several episodes later, Joey costs himself the \"Days of our Lives\" gig when during an interview with \"Soap Opera Digest\", he radically overstates and claims he writes most of his own lines. This angers the show's writers, who out of spite, \"kill off\" his character by having Dr. Ramoray fall down an elevator shaft. Joey takes this very hard and admits that his role on \"Days\" was the best thing that ever happened to him. He goes back to stage acting in Season Three appearing in a play called \"Boxing Day\" opposite love interest Kate Miller. The play seems to start out as a conventional drama but ends with Joey's character \"Victor\" being taken from his apartment by aliens. In Season Four, he lands a small one-scene movie role as a cop, playing his scene opposite Charlton Heston. Joey had some bad luck in terms of his acting career. In Season Five, he is cast in the independent film \"Shutter Speed\", but it is shut down before filming began in Las Vegas. He is also fired from a Burger King commercial. He filmed a role in a \"Law & Order\" episode that was cut from the completed episode—Joey was only \"seen\" as a corpse in a body bag. In seasons 6 and 7, he lands a starring role as Detective 'Mac' Machiavelli in a very short-lived, and very bad cop show called \"Mac and C.H.E.E.S.E\", which Chandler described as \"one of the worst things ever... and not just on TV.\" Joey had high hopes for the series, however \"Mac and C.H.E.E.S.E\" was canceled halfway through its first season. In Season 7, Joey auditions for the role of Dr. Striker Ramoray, a new character on \"Days of Our Lives\" and Drake Ramoray's brother but he doesn't get that role. Eventually, Joey's luck turns when he gets back his role as Dr. Drake Ramoray and even nominated for an award for Best Returning Character, first as a character in coma, then revived through a brain transplant with another character, Jessica Lockhart (played by Susan Sarandon). In Season 7 he later replaces Lockhart as Dr. Drake \"Jessica\" Ramoray. Later in the spin-off \"Joey\", it turns out he loses his role as Dr. Drake Ramoray and has to again hunt for a new job. Later in season 7, Joey lands a supporting role as \"Tony\", a soldier, in a major film opposite an Oscar-nominated actor named Richard Crosby (Gary Oldman). The film is a World War I period film entitled \"Over There\". Joey is also briefly employed at Central Perk as a waiter. Facing a dry spell in his career as an actor, Joey is persuaded by Gunther, the manager, to take a job serving coffee. At first Joey tries to hide his new job from his friends, but they eventually figure it out. He does not like the work but, true to his nature, soon finds a way to use his position to meet and ingratiate himself to attractive women by giving them free food, although Gunther quickly puts a stop to it. Joey doesn't take his job very seriously and spends a lot of his working hours sitting and talking to his friends. Eventually he is fired for closing the coffeehouse in the middle of the day to go to an audition while Gunther was running a personal errand. Rachel later persuades Gunther to give Joey back his job, but once Joey finds more steady acting jobs he eventually just stops showing up. His absence is barely noticed. In a later episode, Joey realizes he forgot to tell Gunther he quit; Gunther replies that he would have eventually fired him anyway. Joey is also briefly a sperm donor for a medical experiment; at the end, the hospital would pay any donor $700. This was later mentioned when Monica goes to a sperm bank. Joey finds to his dismay that his sperm is not very popular. Some of Joey's other jobs have included selling Christmas trees, dressing as Santa Claus and as a Christmas elf, working as a tour guide at the Museum of Natural History where Ross worked, offering perfume samples to customers at a department store, and as a Roman warrior at Caesar's Palace in Las Vegas. He also works at the restaurant \"Alessandro's\" where Monica is head chef, nicknaming himself \"Dragon\" while on the job. Monica hires him just so she can fire him to intimidate the other employees who pay her no respect, but he makes a lot of tips and backs out of the deal, only to realize how important his getting fired was to Monica. He then sets himself up to be fired the next day. He spends one episode working with Chandler as an entry-level data processor. He treats the job like another acting role, in which he is \"Joseph the Processing Guy\" and creates a complex back-story for the character. Chandler begins to dislike the Joseph character when he starts showing up Chandler at work. Joey eventually leaves after Chandler pretends to sleep with Joey's \"pretend wife\". Prior to Monica and Chandler's wedding, when the two admit that they were having trouble finding someone to perform the ceremony, Joey volunteers for the role, subsequently getting himself ordained over the Internet to entitle him to perform the marriage. He has apparently retained this role until Season Ten, when he performed the ceremony for Phoebe's wedding. Joey is characterized as a simple-minded but good-natured womanizer who loves food. He particularly loves meatball sub sandwiches. When asked if he would give up sex or food he had trouble deciding and kept blurting out sex or food, eventually yelling \"I want girls on bread!\". In \"The One with the Ride Along\", he appears to be saving Ross from a putative gunshot, when it was actually his meatball sandwich that he was trying to save; it just happened to be next to Ross. He also loves the \"Joey Special\" – two pizzas. His greed when it comes to food is also shown in the episode \"The One With the Birth Mother\" where he refuses to call Sarah the next day. When Phoebe asks why, Joey explains how Sarah broke his golden commandment on their date – not to share food. Phoebe's shocked to say the least, but Rachel admits to her how this is who Joey is. Nonetheless, Phoebe makes Joey go out with Sarah again, making him order extra fries should the need arise. Joey does so, but Sarah really wants to dig in his seafood platter, making him drop his plate to the floor in the process. He exclaims, \"Joey doesn't share food\", which she seems to understand. However, things change course when Joey wants to nibble at her chocolate torte. As he wouldn't share his food with her, she reciprocates and warns him not to touch any of her desserts while she wanders off to take a call. When she arrives, her dessert is pretty much gone; Joey, with chocolate torte all over his face, is at peace with himself, and admits that he's \"not even sorry!\". He is something of an idiot savant in general, but capable of good ideas when the situation arises; this is alluded to in the episode \"The One Where Ross Dates a Student\", when Chandler, referring to Joey, says \"A hot girl's at stake and suddenly he's Rain Man\" when Joey suggested Ross work out who among his students called him the 'hottie of the paleontology department' by comparing the handwriting of the note to the handwriting in the class essays. In another example, Joey made up an anecdote referred to as the \"Europe story\" or the \"magic story\"; apparently, anyone who hears it will immediately want to have sex with the teller. This is proven to be effective when Rachel successfully uses the story on Ross. Being a glutton when it comes to food, Joey is shown throughout the series to have the uncanny ability to eat enormous quantities of food. As he prides the Tribbiani family for their eating prowess (\"We might not be [...] world leaders, but damn it, we can eat!\"), he takes on Monica's challenge to eat a whole roast turkey virtually all by himself. In season 8, episode 9, Monica is unwilling to cook a whole roast turkey for Thanksgiving dinner as Rachel is pregnant, Chandler refuses to eat Thanksgiving food due to childhood traumas, Phoebe is a vegetarian, and dinner guest Will (played by Brad Pitt) is on a diet. Joey's love for Thanksgiving traditions, however, convinces Monica to roast the turkey only under the condition that Joey can eat the entire 19-pound bird in one sitting. When Monica sees him struggle, she says she is only kidding, but Joey perseveres and with a little help of Phoebe's maternity pants, he eventually not only consumes the entire turkey, but has room for dessert afterwards. A similar eating stunt happens in season 9, episode 5, when Joey is left alone at the dinner table in a restaurant after Phoebe's failed birthday dinner, and he is forced to eat six meals by himself. He finishes them, only to tuck into the birthday cake afterwards. Joey is extremely promiscuous, often relying on his catchphrase pickup line \"How \"you\" doin'?\". He regularly sleeps with attractive women, but can never seem to get into a committed relationship – judging from a conversation he had with Chandler at the latter's bachelor party he seems to regard marriage as depressing and restrictive. He sleeps with many of the interns and extras on shows on which he works. He has apparently been sexually active for a very long time; he undid a 16-year-old girl's bra when he was nine, slept with his teacher in the seventh grade, and had a \"wild spring break\" when he was 13. In the episode \"The One With Joey's Interview\", he sleeps with the interviewer (played by Sasha Alexander) so what he said about not watching soap operas doesn't get published in \"Soap Opera Digest\". Despite his promiscuous nature towards many women throughout the series, he is highly protective and old-fashioned when it comes to the relationships of his own sisters. While he does not seem to have a problem with his own lifestyle, he repeatedly makes sure his sisters don't go down the same path. When he finds out in season 3, episode 11 that Chandler drunkenly made out with his sister Mary Angela, he attempts to force the two into a relationship. Later, in season 8, episode 10, Joey initially attempts to force his younger sister Dina into marriage with her hapless boyfriend upon hearing she's pregnant, but they play into his emotional nature by saying they want to raise the baby independently. While he is not very bright, Joey is a caring and kindhearted person. He lets Rachel live with him when she is fighting with Ross, financially supports Monica and Chandler, and helps Phoebe find work when she is unemployed. He is willing to marry Phoebe and Rachel on the separate occasions he finds out that each is pregnant. Joey is also the most physically powerful of the group, being able to easily push Ross over a couch with only one hand, and offering to go to the coffee house to intimidate two bullies into leaving Ross and Chandler alone. He is a Stephen King fan, having read \"The Shining\" several times, as well as being a fan of the film adaptation of one of King's novels, \"Cujo\". He also becomes a fan of the classic novel, \"Little Women\" after Rachel asks him to read it to see if it was better than \"The Shining\". Joey briefly mentions to the gang that Al Pacino is his idol. Joey has the poster for the 1983 Al Pacino film \"Scarface\" in his bedroom and the same poster is seen in his house in \"Joey\". Joey, Ross and Chandler are huge fans of \"Die Hard\". He moved apartment(s) four times in the series. The first time, he moved to his own lavish apartment away from Chandler (with whom the psychotic Eddie moved in) after he got the role as Dr. Drake Ramoray on \"Days of Our Lives\", though he moved back soon afterward due to his loss of the role. The other times are when he and Chandler move into what is usually Monica's apartment, after winning it from her in a game in \"The One with the Embryos\". They are later forced back to their own apartment by the girls. Although Joey dates several women in the series, very few of these relationships are serious, his romantic partners rarely appearing for more than one episode. However, despite his great interest in women, Joey has made it clear more than once that his friends are more important to him; when his latest relationship, Janine (Elle Macpherson), stated that she dislikes Monica and Chandler, Joey breaks it off with her despite the fact that he had been trying to win her over for the previous four episodes. He tells Janine that Monica and Chandler are like family, and he can't be with her if she doesn't like them. Joey was originally shunned by Chandler when he came in for a roommate interview (in favour of a fashion photographer, who apologetically informs Chandler that, due to his work, models will have to come to the apartment, and that his sister- a porn actress- has a beach house Chandler is welcome to use), and Joey thought Chandler was gay. However, Mr. Heckles, another building resident, lied to Chandler's originally selected roommate, causing Chandler to have to go with his second choice roommate Joey (In \"The One with the Flashback\" set in 1993, Joey moved in 3 years before although in \"The One with All the Thanksgivings\" it shows that the gang knew Joey was Chandler's roommate in 1992 and he would have been his roommate for quite some time). Joey's first couple of days involved a brief, mutual attraction to Monica. This subsided and Chandler and Joey quickly became best friends as Joey's carefree lifestyle grew on Chandler. Later in the series, they bought a chick and a duck together, whom Chandler had named Yasmine and Dick, respectively. A long-running gag depicted Joey and Chandler occasionally fighting with each other like an old married couple. Joey moved out temporarily when he found success playing Dr. Drake Ramoray on a soap opera, but soon moved back in after his character was dropped down an elevator shaft. At the end of the series, Chandler and Monica made it clear to Joey that their new house outside the city would have a room for him. While Joey is best friends with Chandler, Ross is a close second (although Ross has been referred to as his best friend several times). At a time when Joey and Chandler had problems, when Chandler had kissed Joey's girlfriend, Joey stopped acting as Chandler's best friend and replaced him with Ross, although this only lasted until Chandler spent Thanksgiving in a box in order to show his remorse and apologize to him. Joey and Chandler have remained best friends ever since. Furthermore, Joey and Ross share a moment in an episode after watching \"Die Hard\" all night. They fall asleep on Ross' couch, which is evidently enjoyed by Joey, as he tries to coerce Ross into more nap sessions with him. Also, earlier in the series, after much persuading by Joey, Ross gives in and kisses him to help him practice kissing men. In response, Joey replies that the audition was already over, he hadn't gotten the part, but the kiss was very well received.", "The major development of their relationship outside the realm of normal male interaction was when Joey fell in love with Rachel, Ross's ex-girlfriend and the object of Ross's affections since ninth grade. When Joey goes on to tell Ross about it, he can't say it in his face and instead says that he loves his \"friend's\" ex-girlfriend. When asked if that \"friend\" (Ross) is a good guy, Joey honestly answers \"Yeah... He's the best\". Initially it causes a major rift, with Joey being apologetic, but when Ross sees Joey truly in love with Rachel he gives him the go ahead. Ross basically says that he's not okay with it but he wants to be, and the two's friendship deepens due to Joey's refusal to date Rachel unless Ross okays the deal. However, Joey and Rachel do not date long and later Joey encourages Ross to pursue Rachel in the season finale. Joey and Monica are close friends often joking around with each other. Joey allowed Monica to hire and fire him to prove to her employees that she was not a pushover. When he discovered that Monica and Chandler had developed a romantic relationship, he agreed to keep it secret until the two were ready to reveal it to the rest of their group. In an episode where he sees how close Chandler and Monica are, he dreams of himself and Monica in the same way. This later causes him to act weird around Monica. Finally he reveals this to Chandler and Monica, its that he wants a relationship like that, but Monica finds it nice thinking Joey thought of them two together. He also called Chandler moments after suspecting Monica of having an affair with a mystery male he had heard in her apartment. When Monica and Chandler needed their Engagement Picture taken, Chandler could not smile. In the newspaper announcement, it showed the photo was of Monica and Joey. Joey always enjoyed a close relationship with Monica, Rachel, and Phoebe; LeBlanc once speculated that Joey saw the girls as sisters more than potential romantic interests. However, the tension between Monica and Joey is at times fairly obvious and it is made clear that the two have a very close, almost intimate, relationship, though it is never consummated on the show. According to DVD commentary of the pilot episode, Joey and Monica were initially meant to be the principal love connection of the show but was overshadowed by the Ross-Rachel relationship. In Episode 1.07 \"The One with the Blackout\", Phoebe blurted to Joey that Monica has a crush on him when he was moving in with Chandler. This idea was revisited in Season 7 when it is revealed that Monica initially meant to hit on Joey in London, and not Chandler. She states that it was because she was looking for something meaningless, never expecting to have found Chandler and fall in love with him. The concept of what their marriage would have been like was then envisioned by Phoebe and it consisted of Monica cooking all the time for a very fat Joey. Phoebe is Joey's female best friend. They appear to understand each other. They are the only members of the group who lack a college education. Joey is Phoebe's best male friend; they have dinner together once a month to talk about the rest of the group and Joey once tried to get Phoebe to call him 'Big Daddy' in that same episode. Both characters show a softness for each other, even when joking or when they are upset with the others. In \"The One with the Race Car Bed\", it is implied that Phoebe can hear Joey's thoughts. In \"The One With the Ride Along\", she explains that \"when the revolution comes, I will have to destroy you all...not you, Joey\". In the episode \"The One in Vegas\", after Joey has said that no one will live in his hand shaped mansion, he adds \"Except you, Pheebs... you can live in the thumb.\" When she was a surrogate mother for her brother's triplets and suddenly craved meat, Joey offered to eat no meat until the babies were born, to compensate for her consumption and, in a way, preserve her vegetarianism (no extra animals would have to be killed). In \"The One With All the Cheesecakes\", it is shown that the two tried to meet once a month for dinner in order to discuss the other Friends. When Phoebe was upset because she'd turned thirty-one without having had the perfect kiss, Joey kissed her so that she could cross that off her list (also adding that he was one-sixteenth Portuguese when she mentioned that she hadn't met any Portuguese people). Joey did not have romantic feelings for Phoebe. Joey dates briefly Phoebe's twin sister Ursula, which upsets Phoebe; he breaks it off to preserve his friendship with Phoebe, however. When Monica finds out that Joey \"sees a friend in a different way\", she assumes it to be Phoebe. Phoebe, overwhelmed by the news, approaches Joey, only to find that it is Rachel. Phoebe also has Joey locked in as a backup for her marriage. When the Friends believe that the group may have to split up, Phoebe and Rachel conspire to form a separate group by themselves, but Phoebe insists that Joey be invited to their new group as well. Phoebe's loyalty is proved again when she states that she could live in Las Vegas, since it has everything she needs, \"Including Joey!\". He, in turn, invites her to live with him in the mansion he expected to own when he becomes rich from having a hand twin. When Joey learned from a customer at Central Perk that Phoebe was apparently a porn star, he refused to watch the movies even when the other four decided to do so. However, he shows a new interest in them when he learned that the film actually stars Ursula. When Joey believes Phoebe to be pregnant, he proposes, claiming the world is too scary for a single mother. This proposal is apparently made entirely without romantic intentions. Phoebe says yes and accepts his ring, but Monica tells Joey that it is Rachel who is pregnant, so Joey proposes to Rachel and must retrieve the ring from a reluctant Phoebe. Phoebe also sets up Joey with many of her friends. On a double date, Joey sets her up with a stranger, Mike (Paul Rudd), whom she eventually marries. In one episode, after persuasion from Rachel, he reads \"Little Women\" and she reads \"The Shining\". She finds out that whenever he gets scared whilst reading he puts the book in the freezer. At the end of the episode, Joey is afraid that one of the characters is going to die and Rachel says 'Do you want to put it in the freezer?' Their close friendship continues and when a fire destroys Rachel and Phoebe's apartment, Rachel moves in with Joey and stays there, even after her apartment has been repaired. Halfway through season 8, Joey and Rachel go out on a date, so that Rachel can have one night of fun before it becomes too obvious that she's pregnant. They have a great time, and afterwards, Joey starts developing feelings for Rachel. He does not act on his feelings out of loyalty to Ross. However, upon discovering Joey's feelings for Rachel, Ross encourages his friend to talk to her. Joey tells Rachel about his feelings, but she does not return them, and things are awkward between them for a while, but they quickly reconcile. In late season 9, Rachel starts developing feelings for Joey, but fears he does not feel the same way anymore and has already moved on, especially when he starts dating Ross' colleague Charlie Wheeler (Aisha Tyler). When the gang goes to Barbados for a convention from Ross' work, Joey finds out about Rachel's feelings, and even though he first says nothing can happen, he changes his mind when he sees Charlie and Ross kiss, and he goes back to Rachel's room to be with her. They continue their relationship for several episodes and gain Ross' approval after he realizes it's been six years since his relationship with Rachel ended, and he should move on from that. When Rachel and Joey prepare for their first night together, however, they realize they're too close as friends to make their relationship work, with Rachel instinctively slapping Joey away when he tries to touch her as she suddenly finds herself unable to get past the fact that it's Joey touching her. After Chandler mentions how natural it was for him and Monica to make the transition from friends to lovers, Joey and Rachel realize they aren't on the same path and go back to being friends. At the end, when Chandler and Monica announce that they are moving into a house, Joey presents them with a housewarming gift of a chick and a duck, who are named Chick Jr. and Duck Jr. The pets remain in Joey's apartment but were presumably given away to a shelter when Joey moved to LA. Soon after Chandler and Monica move out, Joey moves to LA to focus on his acting career. That was the last time the six best friends are portrayed hanging out together.", "After the final season of \"Friends\", Joey becomes the main character of \"Joey\", a spin-off/sequel series, where he moves to L.A. to polish his acting career. His sister Gina Tribbiani and his nephew Michael (Paulo Costanzo) are two other central characters in the show. Joey turns down a role in a sitcom called \"Nurses\" to star in a different series pilot. His pilot does not get picked up, while \"Nurses\" becomes a huge hit. However, his acting career has had some better moments. In \"Joey\", it is revealed that Joey's character of Dr. Drake Ramoray dies again on \"Days of Our Lives\" where he is stabbed by a nurse (\"Joey and the Wrong Name\"). He wins a Daytime Soap Award for \"Best Death Scene\". In later \"Joey\" episodes, Joey lands a starring role on the prime time soap \"Deep Powder\". When he gets fired from that job, he bounces back by snagging a leading role in the big-budget action picture \"Captured\". Throughout the series, Joey develops a complicated on-off relationship with Alex Garrett (Andrea Anders), his next-door neighbor and property manager. They become good friends upon meeting and Alex confides her problems with her marriage in Joey. At the end of season one, she and Joey become romantically involved during her separation from her husband. In season two she becomes romantically interested in Joey and has a crush on him for a long period. Gina tries to help her to get over Joey, but once Alex starts dating Joey's friend Dean, Joey soon realizes that he is also in love with Alex, and they slowly form a committed relationship. In the series finale, Joey becomes concerned over believing that Alex is planning for marriage too early in their relationship, only to become upset when she says she does not want to marry again. When the two argue about the situation, Alex compares his attitude to him not wanting a piece of broccoli until the second she denies it from him. This argument culminates in them nearly marrying out of spite until they make up when he admits to her that she is the first girl he has ever wanted to marry. At the end of the episode, Alex gives Joey back the piece of broccoli, implying that she may be changing her mind about marrying again." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Satellites." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "CryoSat's primary instrument is SIRAL (SAR / Interferometric Radar Altimeter). SIRAL operates in one of three modes, depending on where (above the Earth's surface) CryoSat was flying. Over the oceans and ice sheet interiors, CryoSat operates like a traditional radar altimeter. Over sea ice, coherently transmitted echoes are combined (synthetic aperture processing) to reduce the surface footprint so that CryoSat could map smaller ice floes. CryoSat's most advanced mode is used around the ice sheet margins and over mountain glaciers. Here, the altimeter performs synthetic aperture processing and uses a second antenna as an interferometer to determine the across-track angle to the earliest radar return. This provides the exact surface location being measured when the surface is sloping. The original CryoSat was proposed in 1998 by Duncan Wingham of University College London. The satellite's planned three-year mission was to survey natural and human driven changes in the cryosphere on Earth. It was designed to provide much more accurate data on the rate of change of the surface elevation of the polar ice sheets and sea ice thickness. It was the first ESA Earth Sciences satellite selected through open, scientific competition. It was destroyed on launch October 8, 2005. The existing satellite is therefore, formally speaking, CryoSat-2, but the mission is still known simply as CryoSat. Although largely the same as the original satellite a number of key improvements were included in CryoSat-2. The most significant was the decision to provide a fully duplicated payload to enable the mission to continue if a fault caused the loss of the SIRAL radar, but there were many other changes \"under the hood\". Some of these were caused by obsolescence in the original design, some improved reliability and others made the satellite easier to operate. Despite all the changes the mission remains the same and the performance, in terms of measurement capability and accuracy, remains the same., the launch was scheduled for February 25, 2010 with a Dnepr rocket from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, but this was delayed. The CryoSat 2 launched on April 8, 2010 at 13:57 UTC. For positioning purposes, CryoSat included a DORIS receiver, a laser retroreflector and three star trackers. The ERS-1 and ERS-2 satellites were precursors that tested the techniques used by CryoSat.", "CryoSat-1 was launched from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in Russia on October 8, 2005, using a Rockot launcher. (Rockot is a modified SS-19 rocket which was originally an ICBM designed to deliver nuclear weapons, but which Russia is now eliminating in accordance with the START treaties.) According to Mr. Yuri Bakhvalov, First Deputy Director General of the Khrunichev Space Centre, when the automatic command to switch off the second stage engine did not take effect, the second stage continued to operate until it ran out of fuel and as a consequence the planned separation of the third (Breeze-KM) stage of the rocket which carried the CryoSat satellite did not take place, and would thus have remained attached to the second stage. The upper rocket stages, together with the satellite, probably crashed in the Lincoln Sea. Analysis of the error revealed that it was caused by faults in the programming of the rocket, which had not been detected in simulations. After the launch failure of CryoSat, ESA immediately started to plan a replacement CryoSat mission. This included securing the industrial team which had built the original, ordering parts which have a long delivery time and establishing a funding scheme within existing budgets. Due to the importance of the scientific goals of this satellite, there was enormous support for this, and the initial phases for CryoSat-2 were approved when ESA's Earth Observation Programme Board agreed to build a copy of the spacecraft on February 23, 2006." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Necropolis.", "Major pyramids.", "Mastabas of courtiers.", "Abusir-south.", "Saite-Persian cemetery.", "A temple.", "Site looting during 2011 protests.", "Climate." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There are a total of 14 pyramids at this site, which served as the main royal necropolis during the Fifth Dynasty. The quality of construction of the Abusir pyramids is inferior to those of the Fourth Dynasty; perhaps signalling a decrease in royal power or a less vibrant economy. They are smaller than their predecessors, and are built of low quality local stone. All of the major pyramids at Abusir were built as step pyramids, although the largest of them — the Pyramid of Neferirkare — is believed to have originally been built as a step pyramid some seventy metres in height and then later transformed into a \"true\" pyramid by having its steps filled in with loose masonry.", "The three major pyramids are", "The tombs of several high officials and family members are located in the direct vicinity of their king's pyramid:", "Directly north of Saqqara is a cemetery of lower-ranking officials of the Old Kingdom, including the following tombs:", "On a small hill directly south of the pyramid of Neferefre is a cemetery of tombs from the Saite period:", "Also found at Abusir were substantial remains of a Ramesside temple, perhaps built by Ramses II. The temple lies about 500 meters south east of the pyramids, close to the cultivation in the desert. The main building of the temple was built of limestone. There were three cellars, a small hall with four columns and a courtyard (with mudbrick walls) with ten limestone columns. The limestone building was placed within a larger complex made of mud bricks with a pylon and magazines.", "Abusir, Saqqara and Dahshur suffered damage by looters during the 2011 Egyptian protests. Part of the false door from the tomb of the priest Rahotep was stolen, and store rooms were broken into. Systematic looting continues into 2013 with organized digging and destruction of tombs and mummies.", "Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies it climate as hot desert (BWh), as the rest of Egypt." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography and geology.", "History.", "Flora and fauna." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Onekotan is roughly rectangular, with a length of, and a width ranging from. It has an area of The island consists of two stratovolcanos connected by a relatively flat isthmus. There are seven rivers on the island more than five kilometers long. The largest is Ozernaya River ( long, which flows from the southern part of the caldera of the Nemo volcano to the Sea of Okhotsk. Almost the same length is the Kedrovka River, which flows from the central part of the island into the Pacific Ocean. The climate of Onekotan is characterized by short, cool summers, high humidity, frequent fogs, and especially strong winds. However, the island's climate is generally considered to be mild oceanic with an average annual temperature of about. Even in record cold winters, temperatures below were not observed. Onekotan is separated from the neighboring islands by the Fourth Kuril Strait, Yevreinov Strait, and Krenitsyn Strait. The neighboring islands are Makanrushi, with a volcanic peak, is to the northwest of Onekotan; and Kharimkotan, with a high volcano, is to the southwest. Paramushir is located to the northeast. Onekotan still has an active volcano with the most recent eruption, in 1952, forming a small lava dome on the island's coast. A bay on the eastern shore contains the remains of an abandoned settlement.", "Onekotan, with a number of shallow bays and sandy beaching providing landing points, was inhabited by the Ainu prior to European contact. It appears on an official map showing the territories of Matsumae Domain, a feudal domain of Edo period Japan dated 1644, and these holdings were officially confirmed by the Tokugawa shogunate in 1715. The island was surveyed by Russian geodesists and explorers Ivan Yevreinov and Fyodor Luzhin in 1720, and was subsequently, claimed by the Empire of Russia in 1736 after the Ainu inhabitants were converted to the Russian Orthodox Church; however Russian tax collectors encountered Japanese officials on the islands in 1744-45. Sovereignty initially passed to Russia under the terms of the 1855 Treaty of Shimoda, but was returned to the Empire of Japan per the Treaty of Saint Petersburg in 1875 along with the rest of the Kuril islands. The island was formerly administered as part of Shimushu District of Nemuro Subprefecture of Hokkaidō. In 1884, the Ainu inhabitants were relocated by Japanese authorities to Shikotan. During World War II, the island had a small Japanese garrison, which surrendered on August 25, 1945 without a fight. After 1945, the island came under the control of the Soviet Union, and is now administered as part of the Sakhalin Oblast of the Russian Federation. A small garrison on the island was withdrawn in 2005.", "There are chars in Lake Chyornoye, one of the two lakes on Onekotan, located at the northern end of the island. In the spring and summer pigeon guillemot and Leach's storm petrel nest on the island. Mammals found on the island include foxes and small rodents, with seals and sea lions on the coast. The strong winds and harsh climate limit the growth of trees to small thickets of Krummholz formations of Siberian dwarf pine with a maximum height of 2-4 meters, mostly in gullies." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Appearances.", "Development.", "Relationships.", "Career." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Chandler works in \"Statistical analysis and data reconfiguration,\" but loathes it. Chandler was Ross Geller's roommate in college. Chandler met his future wife Monica Geller while celebrating Thanksgiving with the Geller family during his first year at college. On a tip from Monica, Chandler later moved to Apartment #19 in Greenwich Village, Manhattan, across the hall from Monica and her roommate Phoebe Buffay. Actor Joey Tribbiani moves in with Chandler, who becomes his best friend. Ross and Chandler have been best friends since college, where they were roommates. They were in a band together. Chandler also learned \"Hug and Roll\" from Ross when he was dating Janice. Until moving in with Monica, Chandler shared an apartment with his best friend Joey Tribbiani. Chandler and Joey's apartment is an important focal point for the series as one of the few meeting areas of the gang. The two form a close and enduring friendship, and get into many humorous situations. In the pilot episode of the sequel series \"Joey\", Joey's sister Gina briefly expresses her belief that Joey and Chandler were a gay couple. When Chandler is first considering Joey as a roommate, the two start off on the wrong foot when Joey says that he \"is cool with the gay thing\" (Joey assuming Chandler was gay). Joey comes to fill the slot, only Chandler had already chosen a roommate – a fashion photographer with a porn-star sister. But after their eccentric neighbor Mr. Heckles (Larry Hankin) tells the photographer that he is Chandler's new roommate and is able to open Chandler's unlocked door, the photographer leaves. This forces Chandler to give the keys to Joey and they find out they had a lot in common, including a fondness for \"Baywatch\" and beer. Chandler often supports Joey throughout the show, by always supporting Joey at every step of his roller-coaster of a career in show business besides paying the rent, paying for Joey's head-shots, buying most of the food, and even giving money to Joey for his numerous dates. Even when buying a new house for his own family, Chandler reveals that he is going to have a 'Joey room' in it for him. The relationship between the two is balanced: Joey looks to Chandler as his intellectual superior, while Chandler acknowledges Joey as the more confident counterpart, especially when it comes to romance and Chandler often takes advice from Joey on how to date women. Chandler and Rachel originally did not like each other, but grew to become good friends. In \"The One with All the Cheesecakes\" Chandler and Rachel steal and share the cheesecake which originally belonged to their downstairs neighbor. Rachel, who works for Ralph Lauren, is also the one who helps Chandler pick out his wedding suit. Rachel also sets up Chandler with her boss Joanna (Alison LaPlaca). Rachel and Chandler never have any romantic relationships apart from a glance back to their time in college when they made out. Also in Rachel's thoughts in the one with the Flashback Chandler and Phoebe are good friends. They sometimes are goofy and have fun with one another. In \"The One with the Metaphorical Tunnel\", Phoebe and Chandler play hide and seek. They also play games, like coming up with superhero names and reclining the Barcaloungers like cowboys. They share a duet of \"Endless Love\" at the end of one episode, when Chandler is sad after a breakup with his on-off girlfriend Janice (Maggie Wheeler). In \"The One Where Everyone Finds Out\", she tries to trick him into believing that she is attracted to him, but Monica tells him that Phoebe finds him charming in a \"sexless\" way, indicating that any hints of romance are jokes. Phoebe is the initial reason that Chandler quit smoking in \"The One with the Thumb\", after an argument between the group about his smoking. He is leaving the apartment when she offers him $7,000 to never smoke again. Chandler is brash, zany, and estranged from both of his parents. He suffers from commitment issues, brought on by growing up in a broken home with no idea of what a stable marriage looks like, can be neurotic and extremely defensive, with humour as his shield. Chandler also associates everything that links to his parents' divorce in a negative light, specifically Thanksgiving where his parents reveal their separation over a turkey where his father plans to run away with the bus boy. Both of Chandler's parents are extremely sexually promiscuous, and he has made several allusions to having caught them during sexual acts. Most of these involve his father with other men. Among other things, he alludes to having witnessed orgies by the time he was seven years old, and playing \"the far left\" background dancer during his father's rendition of It's Raining Men when he was growing up. His mother Nora is a world famous writer of erotic novels, which is demonstrated when Rachel's short-term boyfriend Paolo - who is Italian and barely speaks any English - is shown to know her. Chandler began smoking when he was nine years old after his parents announced their divorce. Chandler is first seen smoking during the first season and is chastised by his friends for breaking his non-smoking streak of three years. He does a fairly good job at controlling his habit throughout the series' run, although a few times he cannot resist temptation and has a single cigarette or just a single drag off someone else's. His only major relapse occurs in season 9 when he stays in Oklahoma four days a week for work and smoked \"three cartons in three days\" because all his colleagues lit up during work meetings. He promises Monica never to smoke again, and is not seen smoking in the series after this point. Chandler's main catchphrase is starting sentences with \"Could that BE any more...\"", "", "Chandler is afraid of commitment and had the fewest relationships out of all the Friends. Despite all this, he is the first one to have a committed marriage that doesn't end in divorce. At Ross' wedding in London, Monica and Chandler sleep together and decide to begin dating. They try to keep their relationship secret, as they are unsure about how the others would react. Eventually, however, they all find out and give their blessing. Things briefly become strained when Monica reveals that she had initially been looking for Joey for a one-night-stand, but they reconcile. Their wedding takes place during the finale of season 7. In the final episode of the series, Monica and Chandler adopt twins, due to their inability to conceive. Before his relationship with Monica, Chandler has an on-and-off relationship with Janice Hosenstein (Maggie Wheeler). She is a regular feature in his life, even though he regrets dating her and keeps ending their relationship in season 1. He calls her in season 2 out of fear of being alone, only to find out she is married and pregnant. In the season 2 finale, they meet after unknowingly chatting with each other online when her husband cheats on her, and they quickly get back together. The relationship lasts through the first few episodes of season 3, with Chandler genuinely infatuated by her, but when she kisses her husband whilst in the midst of her divorce, Chandler urges her to go back to her husband, not wanting to destroy her family. However, Janice makes further appearances later in the series, even after they have both married other people. Kathy (Paget Brewster) makes an appearance in the fourth season of \"Friends\". Chandler sees her in Central Perk and asks the gang if he should ask her out, only to learn that she was already waiting for a date with Joey. Chandler and Kathy then fall for each other even though she is dating Joey. This causes huge friction between Joey and Chandler, but this is resolved and Chandler and Kathy get together and begin dating. She is an actress, and Chandler gets extremely paranoid when she shares a sex scene with her co-star prompting a big fight between the two. Chandler's paranoia drives Kathy into having an affair with the co-star, and Chandler and Kathy split up.", "Chandler works in statistical analysis and data reconfiguration, which he takes up as temporary work. Despite disliking his job, Chandler stays because they keep giving him promotions and raises, eventually becoming boss to his old workmates. His friends do not understand what he does (except Ross because he was the one who prepared the questions); during the contest for Monica and Rachel's apartment, Rachel guesses \"Transponster\" for his job title. This results in Chandler and Joey winning the apartment. In the episode \"The One Where Emma Cries\", Chandler falls asleep during a meeting and on waking, realizes that he had agreed to head the new division in Tulsa. Chandler quits his job on Christmas, so that he can fly home to New York to be with Monica. Monica helps Chandler secure a job in advertising through an old colleague of hers. Much to Chandler's dismay, he begins as an unpaid intern. However, his more mature approach eventually pays off, and he secures a full-time job in the business as a junior copywriter." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Nomenclature.", "Classification and history.", "Geographic distribution and variants.", "Alaska.", "Canada.", "Greenland.", "Phonology and phonetics.", "Morphology and syntax.", "Vocabulary.", "Toponymy and names.", "Disc numbers and Project Surname.", "Words for snow.", "Numbers.", "Writing.", "Canadian syllabics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The traditional language of the Inuit is a system of closely interrelated dialects that are not readily comprehensible from one end of the Inuit world to the other; some people do not think of it as a single language but rather a group of languages. However, there are no clear criteria for breaking the Inuit language into specific member languages since it forms a dialect continuum. Each band of Inuit understands its neighbours, and most likely its neighbours' neighbours; but at some remove, comprehensibility drops to a very low level. As a result, Inuit in different places use different words for its own variants and for the entire group of languages, and this ambiguity has been carried into other languages, creating a great deal of confusion over what labels should be applied to it. In Greenland the official form of Inuit language, and the official language of the state, is called \"Kalaallisut\". In other languages, it is often called \"Greenlandic\" or some cognate term. The Eskimo languages of Alaska are called \"Inupiatun\", but the variants of the Seward Peninsula are distinguished from the other Alaskan variants by calling them \"Qawiaraq\", or for some dialects, \"Bering Strait Inupiatun\". In Canada, the word \"Inuktitut\" is routinely used to refer to all Canadian variants of the Inuit traditional language, and it is under that name that it is recognised as one of the official languages of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories. However, one of the variants of western Nunavut is called \"Inuinnaqtun\" to distinguish itself from the dialects of eastern Canada, while the variants of the Northwest Territories are sometimes called \"Inuvialuktun\" and have in the past sometimes been called \"Inuktun\". In those dialects, the name is sometimes rendered as \"Inuktitun\" to reflect dialectal differences in pronunciation. The Inuit language of Quebec is called \"Inuttitut\" by its speakers, and often by other people, but this is a minor variation in pronunciation. In Labrador, the language is called \"Inuttut\" or, often in official documents, by the more descriptive name \"Labradorimiutut\". Furthermore, Canadians – both Inuit and non-Inuit – sometimes use the word \"Inuktitut\" to refer to \"all\" Inuit language variants, including those of Alaska and Greenland. The phrase \"\"Inuit language\"\" is largely limited to professional discourse, since in each area, there is one or more conventional terms that cover all the local variants; or it is used as a descriptive term in publications where readers can't necessarily be expected to know the locally used words. Although many people refer to the Inuit language as \"Eskimo language\", this is a broad term that also includes the Yupik languages, and is in addition strongly discouraged in Canada and diminishing in usage elsewhere. See the article on \"Eskimo\" for more information on this word.", "The language of the Inuit is an Eskimo–Aleut language. It is fairly closely related to the Yupik languages and more remotely to the Aleut language. These cousin languages are all spoken in Western Alaska and Eastern Chukotka, Russia. It is not discernibly related to other indigenous languages of the Americas or northeast Asia, although some have proposed that it is related to the Uralic languages such as Finnish and the Sami languages in the proposed \"Uralo-Siberian\" grouping, or even Indo-European languages as part of the hypothetical \"Nostratic\" superphylum. Some consider it a Paleosiberian language, although that is more a geographic than a linguistic grouping. Early forms of the Inuit language were spoken by the Thule people, who overran the Dorset culture that had previously occupied Arctic America at the beginning of the 2nd millennium. By 1300, the Inuit and their language had reached western Greenland, and finally east Greenland roughly at the same time the Viking colonies in southern Greenland disappeared. It is generally believed that it was during this centuries-long eastward migration that the Inuit language became distinct from the Yupik languages spoken in Western Alaska and Chukotka. Until 1902, a possible enclave of the Dorset, the \"Sadlermiut\" (in modern Inuktitut spelling \"Sallirmiut\"), existed on Southampton Island. Almost nothing is known about their language, but the few eyewitness accounts tell of them speaking a \"strange dialect\". This suggests that they also spoke an Eskimo–Aleut language, but one quite distinct from the forms spoken in Canada today. The Yupik and Inuit languages are very similar syntactically and morphologically. Their common origin can be seen in a number of cognates: The western Alaskan variants retain a large number of features present in proto-Inuit language and in Yup'ik, enough so that they might be classed as Yup'ik languages if they were viewed in isolation from the larger Inuit world.", "The Inuit languages are a fairly closely linked set of languages which can be broken up using a number of different criteria. Traditionally, Inuit describe dialect differences by means of place names to describe local idiosyncrasies in language: The dialect of Igloolik versus the dialect of Iqaluit, for example. However, political and sociological divisions are increasingly the principal criteria for describing different variants of the Inuit languages because of their links to different writing systems, literary traditions, schools, media sources and borrowed vocabulary. This makes any partition of the Inuit language somewhat problematic. This article will use labels that try to synthesise linguistic, sociolinguistic and political considerations in splitting up the Inuit dialect spectrum. This scheme is not the only one used or necessarily one used by Inuit themselves, but its labels do try to reflect the usages most seen in popular and technical literature. In addition to the territories listed below, some 7,000 Greenlandic speakers are reported to live in mainland Denmark, and according to the 2001 census roughly 200 self-reported Inuktitut native speakers regularly live in parts of Canada which are outside traditional Inuit lands.", "Of the roughly 13,000 Alaskan Iñupiat, as few as 3000 may still be able to speak the Iñupiaq, with most of them over the age of 40. Alaskan Inupiat speak four distinct dialects:", "The Inuit languages are an official language in the Northwest Territories, and the official and dominant language of Nunavut; it enjoys a high level of official support in Nunavik, a semi-autonomous portion of Quebec; and is still spoken in some parts of Labrador. Generally, Canadians refer to all dialects spoken in Canada as \"Inuktitut\", but the terms \"Inuvialuktun\", \"Inuinnaqtun\", and \"Inuttut\" (also called \"Nunatsiavummiutut\" or \"Labradorimiutut\") have some currency in referring to the variants of specific areas.", "Greenland counts approximately 50,000 speakers of the Inuit languages, over 90% of whom speak west Greenlandic dialects at home. Greenlandic was strongly supported by the Danish Christian mission (conducted by the Danish state church) in Greenland. Several major dictionaries were created, beginning with Poul Egedes's Dictionarium Grönlandico-danico-latinum (1750) and culminating with Samuel Kleinschmidt's (1871) \"Den grønlandske ordbog\" (Transl. \"The Greenlandic Dictionary\") that contained a Greenlandic grammatical system that has formed the basis of modern Greenlandic grammar. Together with the fact that until 1925 Danish was not taught in the public schools, these policies had the consequence that Greenlandic has always and continues to enjoy a very strong position in Greenland, both as a spoken as well as written language.", "Eastern Canadian Inuit language variants have fifteen consonants and three vowels (which can be long or short). Consonants are arranged with five places of articulation: bilabial, alveolar, palatal, velar and uvular; and three manners of articulation: voiceless stops, voiced continuants, and nasals, as well as two additional sounds—voiceless fricatives. The Alaskan dialects have an additional manner of articulation, the \"retroflex\", which was present in proto-Inuit language. Retroflexes have disappeared in all the Canadian and Greenlandic dialects. In Natsilingmiutut, the voiced palatal stop derives from a former retroflex. Almost all Inuit language variants have only three basic vowels and make a phonological distinction between short and long forms of all vowels. The only exceptions are at the extreme edges of the Inuit world: parts of Greenland, and in western Alaska.", "The Inuit language, like other Eskimo–Aleut languages, has a very rich morphological system, in which a succession of different morphemes are added to root words (like verb endings in European languages) to indicate things that, in languages like English, would require several words to express. (See also: Agglutinative language and Polysynthetic language) All Inuit language words begin with a root morpheme to which other morphemes are suffixed. The language has hundreds of distinct suffixes, in some dialects as many as 700. Fortunately for learners, the language has a highly regular morphology. Although the rules are sometimes very complicated, they do not have exceptions in the sense that English and other Indo-European languages do. This system makes words very long, and potentially unique. For example, in central Nunavut Inuktitut: This long word is composed of a root word \"tusaa-\" \"to hear\" followed by five suffixes: This sort of word construction is pervasive in the Inuit languages and makes it very unlike English. In one large Canadian corpus – the \"Nunavut Hansard\" – 92% of all words appear only once, in contrast to a small percentage in most English corpora of similar size. This makes the application of Zipf's law quite difficult in the Inuit language. Furthermore, the notion of a part of speech can be somewhat complicated in the Inuit languages. Fully inflected verbs can be interpreted as nouns. The word ilisaijuq can be interpreted as a fully inflected verb: \"he studies\", but can also be interpreted as a noun: \"student\". That said, the meaning is probably obvious to a fluent speaker, when put in context. The morphology and syntax of the Inuit languages vary to some degree between dialects, and the article \"Inuit grammar\" describes primarily central Nunavut dialects, but the basic principles will generally apply to all of them and to some degree to Yupik languages as well.", "", "Both the names of places and people tend to be highly prosaic when translated. \"Iqaluit\", for example, is simply the plural of the noun \"iqaluk\" \"fish\" (\"Arctic char\", \"salmon\" or \"trout\" depending on dialect). \"Igloolik\" (\"Iglulik\") means \"place with houses\", a word that could be interpreted as simply \"town\"; \"Inuvik\" is \"place of people\"; \"Baffin Island\", \"Qikiqtaaluk\" in Inuktitut, translates approximately to \"big island\". Although practically all Inuit have legal names based on southern naming traditions, at home and among themselves they still use native naming traditions. There too, names tend to consist of highly prosaic words. The Inuit traditionally believed that by adopting the name of a dead person or a class of things, they could take some of their characteristics or powers, and enjoy a part of their identity. (This is why they were always very willing to accept European names: they believed that this made them equal to the Europeans.) Common native names in Canada include \"Ujarak\" (rock), \"Nuvuk\" (headland), \"Nasak\" (hat, or hood), \"Tupiq\" or \"Tupeq\" in Kalaallisut (tent), and \"Qajaq\" (kayak). Inuit also use animal names, traditionally believing that by using those names, they took on some of the characteristics of that animal: \"Nanuq\" or \"Nanoq\" in Kalaallisut (polar-bear), \"Uqalik\" or \"Ukaleq\" in Kalaallisut (Arctic hare), and \"Tiriaq\" or \"Teriaq\" in Kalaallisut (ermine) are favourites. In other cases, Inuit are named after dead people or people in traditional tales, by naming them after anatomical traits those people are believed to have had. Examples include \"Itigaituk\" (has no feet), \"Anana\" or \"Anaana\" (mother), \"Piujuq\" (beautiful) and \"Tulimak\" (rib). Inuit may have any number of names, given by parents and other community members.", "In the 1920s, changes in lifestyle and serious epidemics like tuberculosis made the government of Canada interested in tracking the Inuit of Canada's Arctic. Traditionally Inuit names reflect what is important in Inuit culture: environment, landscape, seascape, family, animals, birds, spirits. However these traditional names were difficult for non-Inuit to parse. Also, the agglutinative nature of Inuit language meant that names seemed long and were difficult for southern bureaucrats and missionaries to pronounce. Thus, in the 1940s, the Inuit were given disc numbers, recorded on a special leather ID tag, like a dog tag. They were required to keep the tag with them always. (Some tags are now so old and worn that the number is polished out.) The numbers were assigned with a letter prefix that indicated location (E = east), community, and then the order in which the census-taker saw the individual. In some ways this state renaming was abetted by the churches and missionaries, who viewed the traditional names and their calls to power as related to shamanism and paganism. They encouraged people to take Christian names. So a young woman who was known to her relatives as \"Lutaaq, Pilitaq, Palluq, or Inusiq\" and had been baptised as \"Annie\" was under this system to become Annie E7-121. People adopted the number-names, their family members' numbers, etc., and learned all the region codes (like knowing a telephone area code). Until Inuit began studying in the south, many did not know that numbers were not normal parts of Christian and English naming systems. Then in 1969, the government started Project Surname, headed by Abe Okpik, to replace number-names with patrilineal \"family surnames\". But contemporary Inuit carvers and graphic artists still use their disk number as their signature on their works of art.", "A popular belief exists that the Inuit have an unusually large number of words for snow. This is not accurate, and results from a misunderstanding of the nature of polysynthetic languages. In fact, the Inuit have only a few base roots for snow: 'qanniq-' ('qanik-' in some dialects), which is used most often like the verb \"to snow\", and 'aput', which means \"snow\" as a substance. Parts of speech work very differently in the Inuit language than in English, so these definitions are somewhat misleading. The Inuit languages can form very long words by adding more and more descriptive affixes to words. Those affixes may modify the syntactic and semantic properties of the base word, or may add qualifiers to it in much the same way that English uses adjectives or prepositional phrases to qualify nouns (e.g. \"falling snow\", \"blowing snow\", \"snow on the ground\", \"snow drift\", etc.) The \"fact\" that there are many Inuit words for snow has been put forward so often that it has become a journalistic cliché.", "The Inuit use a base-20 counting system.", "Because the Inuit languages are spread over such a large area, divided between different nations and political units and originally reached by Europeans of different origins at different times, there is no uniform way of writing the Inuit language. Currently there are six \"standard\" ways to write the languages: Though all except the syllabics use the Latin alphabet, all of them are a bit different from each other. The Canadian national organization Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami adopted Inuktut Qaliujaaqpait, a unified orthography for all varieties of Inuktitut, in September 2019. It is based on the Latin alphabet without diacritics. Most Inuktitut in Nunavut and Nunavik is written using a script called Inuktitut syllabics, based on Canadian Aboriginal syllabics. The western part of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories use Latin alphabet usually identified as Inuinnaqtun. In Alaska, two other Latin alphabets are used. Nunatsiavut uses an alphabet devised by German-speaking Moravian missionaries, which included the letter \"kra\". Greenland's Latin alphabet was originally much like the one used in Nunatsiavut, but underwent a spelling reform in 1973 to bring the orthography in line with changes in pronunciation and better reflect the phonemic inventory of the language.", "Inuktitut syllabics, used in Canada, is based on Cree syllabics, which was devised by the missionary James Evans based on Devanagari a Brahmi script. The present form of Canadian Inuktitut syllabics was adopted by the Inuit Cultural Institute in Canada in the 1970s. The Inuit in Alaska, the Inuvialuit, Inuinnaqtun speakers, and Inuit in Greenland and Labrador use Latin alphabets. Though presented in syllabic form, syllabics is not a true syllabary, but an abugida, since syllables starting with the same consonant are written with graphically similar letters. All of the characters needed for Inuktitut syllabics are available in the Unicode character repertoire, in the blocks Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Morphology.", "Behaviour.", "Feeding.", "Breeding.", "Communication.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Predators.", "Relationship with humans.", "Domestication.", "Hunting.", "Cultural references." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The word \"duck\" comes from Old English *\"\" \"diver\", a derivative of the verb *\"dūcan\" \"to duck, bend down low as if to get under something, or dive\", because of the way many species in the dabbling duck group feed by upending; compare with Dutch \"duiken\" and German \"tauchen\" \"to dive\". This word replaced Old English \"ened/ænid\" \"duck\", possibly to avoid confusion with other Old English words, like \"ende\" \"end\" with similar forms. Other Germanic languages still have similar words for \"duck\", for example, Dutch \"eend\" \"duck\", German \"Ente\" \"duck\" and Norwegian \"and\" \"duck\". The word \"ened/ænid\" was inherited from Proto-Indo-European; compare: Latin \"anas\" \"duck\", Lithuanian \"ántis\" \"duck\", Ancient Greek \"nēssa\"/\"nētta\" (νῆσσα, νῆττα) \"duck\", and Sanskrit \"ātí\" \"water bird\", among others. A duckling is a young duck in downy plumage or baby duck, but in the food trade a young domestic duck which has just reached adult size and bulk and its meat is still fully tender, is sometimes labelled as a duckling. A male duck is called a drake and the female is called a duck, or in ornithology a hen.", "The overall body plan of ducks is elongated and broad, and the ducks are also relatively long-necked, albeit not as long-necked as the geese and swans. The body shape of diving ducks varies somewhat from this in being more rounded. The bill is usually broad and contains serrated pecten (biology), which are particularly well defined in the filter-feeding species. In the case of some fishing species the bill is long and strongly serrated. The scaled legs are strong and well developed, and generally set far back on the body, more so in the highly aquatic species. The wings are very strong and are generally short and pointed, and the flight of ducks requires fast continuous strokes, requiring in turn strong wing muscles. Three species of steamer duck are almost flightless, however. Many species of duck are temporarily flightless while moulting; they seek out protected habitat with good food supplies during this period. This moult typically precedes migration. The drakes of northern species often have extravagant plumage, but that is moulted in summer to give a more female-like appearance, the \"eclipse\" plumage. Southern resident species typically show less sexual dimorphism, although there are exceptions such as the paradise shelduck of New Zealand, which is both strikingly sexually dimorphic and in which the female's plumage is brighter than that of the male. The plumage of juvenile birds generally resembles that of the female. Over the course of evolution, female ducks have evolved to have a corkscrew shaped vagina to prevent rape.", "", "Ducks eat a variety of food sources such as grasses, aquatic plants, fish, insects, small amphibians, worms, and small molluscs. Dabbling ducks feed on the surface of water or on land, or as deep as they can reach by up-ending without completely submerging. Along the edge of the beak, there is a comb-like structure called a pecten. This strains the water squirting from the side of the beak and traps any food. The pecten is also used to preen feathers and to hold slippery food items. Diving ducks and sea ducks forage deep underwater. To be able to submerge more easily, the diving ducks are heavier than dabbling ducks, and therefore have more difficulty taking off to fly. A few specialized species such as the mergansers are adapted to catch and swallow large fish. The others have the characteristic wide flat beak adapted to dredging-type jobs such as pulling up waterweed, pulling worms and small molluscs out of mud, searching for insect larvae, and bulk jobs such as dredging out, holding, turning head first, and swallowing a squirming frog. To avoid injury when digging into sediment it has no cere, but the nostrils come out through hard horn. \"The Guardian\" (British newspaper) published an article advising that ducks should not be fed with bread because it damages the health of the ducks and pollutes waterways.", "Ducks generally only have one partner at a time, although the partnership usually only lasts one year. Larger species and the more sedentary species (like fast-river specialists) tend to have pair-bonds that last numerous years. Most duck species breed once a year, choosing to do so in favourable conditions (spring/summer or wet seasons). Ducks also tend to make a nest before breeding, and, after hatching, lead their ducklings to water. Mother ducks are very caring and protective of their young, but may abandon some of their ducklings if they are physically stuck in an area they cannot get out of (such as nesting in an enclosed courtyard) or are not prospering due to genetic defects or sickness brought about by hypothermia, starvation, or disease. Ducklings can also be orphaned by inconsistent late hatching where a few eggs hatch after the mother has abandoned the nest and led her ducklings to water. Most domestic ducks neglect their eggs and ducklings, and their eggs must be hatched under a broody hen or artificially.", "Female mallard ducks (as well as several other species in the genus \"Anas\", such as the American and Pacific black ducks) make the classic \"quack\" sound while males make a similar but raspier sound that is sometimes written as \"breeeeze\", but, despite widespread misconceptions, most species of duck do not \"quack\". In general, ducks make a wide range of calls, ranging from whistles, cooing, yodels and grunts. For example, the scaup – which are diving ducks – make a noise like \"scaup\" (hence their name). Calls may be loud displaying calls or quieter contact calls. A common urban legend claims that duck quacks do not echo; however, this has been proven to be false. This myth was first debunked by the Acoustics Research Centre at the University of Salford in 2003 as part of the British Association's Festival of Science. It was also debunked in one of the earlier episodes of the popular Discovery Channel television show \"MythBusters\".", "The ducks have a cosmopolitan distribution. A number of species manage to live on sub-Antarctic islands like South Georgia and the Auckland Islands. Numerous ducks have managed to establish themselves on oceanic islands such as Hawaii, New Zealand and Kerguelen, although many of these species and populations are threatened or have become extinct. Some duck species, mainly those breeding in the temperate and Arctic Northern Hemisphere, are migratory; those in the tropics, however, are generally not. Some ducks, particularly in Australia where rainfall is patchy and erratic, are nomadic, seeking out the temporary lakes and pools that form after localised heavy rain.", "Worldwide, ducks have many predators. Ducklings are particularly vulnerable, since their inability to fly makes them easy prey not only for predatory birds but also for large fish like pike, crocodilians, predatory testudines such as the Alligator snapping turtle, and other aquatic hunters, including fish-eating birds such as herons. Ducks' nests are raided by land-based predators, and brooding females may be caught unaware on the nest by mammals, such as foxes, or large birds, such as hawks or owls. Adult ducks are fast fliers, but may be caught on the water by large aquatic predators including big fish such as the North American muskie and the European pike. In flight, ducks are safe from all but a few predators such as humans and the peregrine falcon, which regularly uses its speed and strength to catch ducks.", "", "Ducks have many economic uses, being farmed for their meat, eggs, and feathers (particularly their down). Approximately 3 billion ducks are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide. They are also kept and bred by aviculturists and often displayed in zoos. Almost all the varieties of domestic ducks are descended from the mallard (\"Anas platyrhynchos\"), apart from the Muscovy duck (\"Cairina moschata\"). The call duck is another example of a domestic duck breed. Its name comes from its original use established by hunters, as a decoy to attract wild mallards from the sky, into traps set for them on the ground. The call duck is the world's smallest domestic duck breed, as it weighs less than.", "In many areas, wild ducks of various species (including ducks farmed and released into the wild) are hunted for food or sport, by shooting, or formerly by being trapped using duck decoys. Because an idle floating duck or a duck squatting on land cannot react to fly or move quickly, \"a sitting duck\" has come to mean \"an easy target\". These ducks may be contaminated by pollutants such as PCBs.", "In 2002, psychologist Richard Wiseman and colleagues at the University of Hertfordshire, UK, finished a year-long LaughLab experiment, concluding that of all animals, ducks attract the most humor and silliness; he said, \"If you're going to tell a joke involving an animal, make it a duck.\" The word \"duck\" may have become an inherently funny word in many languages, possibly because ducks are seen as silly in their looks or behavior. Of the many ducks in fiction, many are cartoon characters, such as Walt Disney's Donald Duck, and Warner Bros.' Daffy Duck. Howard the Duck started as a comic book character in 1973 and was made into a movie in 1986. The 1992 Disney film \"The Mighty Ducks\", starring Emilio Estevez, chose the duck as the mascot for the fictional youth hockey team who are protagonists of the movie, based on the duck being described as a fierce fighter. This led to the duck becoming the nickname and mascot for the eventual National Hockey League professional team Anaheim Ducks. The duck is also the nickname of the University of Oregon sports teams as well as the Long Island Ducks minor league baseball team." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years.", "Early success.", "Hearts in World War I.", "Inter war years.", "Tommy Walker's managerial era.", "Latter 20th century.", "Into the 21st century.", "The Romanov era.", "Administration.", "Post administration.", "Colours and badge.", "Stadium.", "Rivalry.", "Supporters and culture.", "Players.", "Development and under-20s squad.", "Hearts Women." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The club was formed by a group of friends from the Heart of Midlothian Quadrille Assembly Club. The group of friends bought a ball before playing local rules football at the Tron from where they were directed by a local policeman to The Meadows to play. Local rules football was a mix of rugby and association football. In December 1873 a match was held between XIs selected by Mr Thomson from Queens Park and Mr Gardner from Clydesdale at Raimes Park in Bonnington. This was the first time that Association rules had been seen in Edinburgh. Members from the dance club viewed the match and in 1874 decided to adopt the association rules. The new side was Heart of Mid-Lothian Football Club. The exact date of the club's formation was never recorded; however, 1874 is regarded as the year of formation as it was when association rules were taken on, although Tom Purdie claimed the club was formed in 1873. The earliest mention of \"Heart of Midlothian\" in a sporting context is a report in \"The Scotsman\" newspaper from 20 July 1864 of \"The Scotsman\" vs Heart of Mid-Lothian at cricket.", "Hearts had considerable success in the early years of the Scottish Football League, winning the league championship in 1895 and 1896. They also won four Scottish Cups in a 15-year", "In November 1914, Heart of Midlothian comfortably led the First Division, having started the 1914–15 season with eight straight victories, including a 2–0 defeat of reigning champions Celtic. This streak coincided with the start of the First World War and the beginnings of a public debate upon the morality of continuing professional football while young soldiers were dying on the front-line. A motion was placed before the Scottish Football Association to postpone the season, with one of its backers, Airdrieonians chairman Thomas Forsyth declaring that \"\"playing football while our men are fighting is repugnant\"\". While this motion was defeated at the ballot box, with the SFA opting to wait for War Office advice, the East London philanthropist Frederick Charrington was orchestrating a public campaign to have professional football in Britain suspended, and achieving great popular support for his cause. The prime tactic of Charrington's campaign was to shame football players and officials into action through public and private denouncement. In response, sixteen players from Hearts enlisted in Sir George McCrae's new volunteer battalion, joining en masse", "Hearts collected no senior silverware in the inter war years. Tommy Walker joined the Hearts ground staff aged 16 in February 1932. As Scottish clubs could not then officially sign players until the age of 17, Walker played junior football for Linlithgow Rose until his birthday in May. A talented and elegant inside-forward, Walker quickly earned a place in the Hearts first team, helping the side to victory in the 1933", "The first seeds of the Tommy Walker managerial success at Hearts were sown by Davie McLean. On 9 October 1948 after a mediocre start to the 1948–49 season, Hearts' manager McLean gave a competitive first team debut to 20 year old centre forward Willie Bauld and 19 year old inside left Jimmy Wardhaugh, and 22 year old inside right Alfie Conn Sr. had already broken through to the first team so this game marked the first time all three were deployed as a combined attacking force. They became dubbed the \"Terrible Trio\" and scored over 900 Hearts goals between them (Wardhaugh 376, Bauld 355, Conn 221). As a unit they played 242 games together. The combination of Wardhaugh's dribbling skills and non-stop running, Bauld's cerebral play and prodigious aerial ability, and Conn's energetic, tenacious style and powerful shooting complemented each other well. Their first match as a forward combination ended in a 6–1 defeat of Scot Symon's East Fife team of the era. This was notable as Symon's team had defeated the \"Maroons\" 4–0 three weeks earlier. A few weeks later in December 1948 Tommy Walker left during his third season at Chelsea to return to Hearts. He took the role of player-assistant to manager McLean. McLean's intention was that Walker would be a steadying influence in a developing young team. However, after a single appearance at right-half in a 1–0 home defeat by Dundee, Walker retired to concentrate fully on learning the managerial ropes. Tangible progress was made in the League Championship in 1949–50 when Hearts finished third. As Tommy Walker had become more influential, McLean was co-opted to the Board on 16 March 1950. McLean's death on 14 February 1951 saw Walker promoted to the position of manager. Walker's reign was to prove the most successful period in the club's history. Walker was always quick to acknowledge the contribution made by McLean and his fatherly interest in the welfare and development of the players. The important foundations Walker inherited from McLean included the \"Terrible Trio\" forwards, the full back pair of Bobby Parker and Tam McKenzie and half backs Bobby Dougan and Davie Laing. To this established core John Cumming had recently broken through to the first team in the left half position he was to dominate for many years. Freddie Glidden was already at Tynecastle but yet to first team debut as was the then schoolboy Dave Mackay. Walker made Parker the team Captain. Mackay's key signing as a professional was under Walker in 1952 (initially part-time whilst also working as a joiner). Mackay's pairing with Cumming at wing half", "The highlight of the late 60s was the run to the 1968 Scottish Cup Final when they lost 3–1 to George Farm's Dunfermline Athletic. The players of greatest note in the late sixties were Jim Cruickshank, Alan Anderson and Donald Ford with Drew Busby joining the three in the 1970s. The high point of the 1970s was another run to the Scottish Cup Final. In 1975–76 they again lost 3–1 in the final this time to Rangers. After the advent of the ten team Premier Division in 1975, Hearts were subsequently relegated for the first time in 1977. This began a sequence of yo-yoing between the Premier League and First Division six times in seven seasons. On 25 May 1981, 34-year-old Wallace Mercer became chairman", "Hearts finished third in 2003 and 2004, and reached the inaugural group stages of the UEFA Cup in 2004–05, but finished bottom of their group, despite Robbie Neilson's goal giving a 2–1 victory over FC Basel. During the 2004–05 season, they finished fifth in the league. In 2004, then club CEO Chris Robinson announced plans to sell", "In August 2004 the midst of Hearts' financial difficulties Russian-Lithuanian multi-millionaire Vladimir Romanov entered into talks to take over Hearts in what was dubbed the \"Romanov Revolution\". Romanov had already made failed attempts to purchase Dundee United, Dundee and Dunfermline. Romanov offered the prospect of the club staying at a redeveloped Tynecastle, which was very attractive to Hearts supporters. At the end of September 2004 Chris Robinson agreed to sell his 19.6% stake to Romanov. Romanov called an extraordinary general meeting in January 2005 so that the club could pass a motion to exercise the escape clause in the deal with Cala Homes. The backing of Leslie Deans and the McGrail brothers meant that the motion was passed with over 70% support. The sale of Robinson's shares was completed on 2 February 2005 after Romanov made financial guarantees that the club could continue to trade without selling Tynecastle. This sale increased Romanov's stake to 29.9%, giving him effective control of the club. Romanov's takeover was welcomed by a fans' representative. Romanov increased his", "On 17 June 2013 Hearts announced that they had lodged court papers stating their intention to enter administration, and on 19 June 2013 the administrators BDO were appointed to run the club. This meant that the club was unable to register players over 21 until February 2014 at the earliest. As long as they were still in administration they would not be able to bring in players of any age. As well as the signing embargo, Hearts were to be deducted a third of the previous season's points tally", "Hearts earned an immediate return to the Scottish Premiership by clinching the 2014–15 Scottish Championship title with seven games remaining. Hearts remained undefeated for the first 20 league matches before a 3–2 home defeat to Falkirk ended that run. They won the title, winning 29 of 36 games, scoring 96 goals, conceding just 26 goals with a points total of 91. They finished the season 21 points ahead nearest challengers city-rivals Hibernian and 24 points ahead of third placed Rangers. The season included handing Cowdenbeath a joint club record defeat 10–0. At the", "The original Hearts football strip was all white shirts and trousers with maroon trimmings, and a heart sewn onto the chest. For one season they played in red, white and blue stripes. These were the colours of a club called St. Andrew, who had taken their name and colours from the University of St Andrews, that Hearts had absorbed. Since then the predominant club colours have been maroon and white. The strip typically has a maroon top and a white collar, although the strip was predominantly", "Hearts initially played at The Meadows, Powburn and Powderhall before moving to the Gorgie area in 1881. They moved to their current site, Tynecastle Park, in 1886. Tynecastle has hosted nine full Scotland international matches. Tynecastle was named after the Tynecastle Tollhouse, at the entrance to the grounds of Merchiston. For most of", "Hearts have a traditional local rivalry in Edinburgh with Hibs; the Edinburgh derby match between the two clubs is one of the oldest rivalries in world football. Graham Spiers has described it as \"one of the jewels of the Scottish game\". The clubs first met on Christmas Day 1875, when Hearts won 1–0, in the first match ever contested by Hibs. The two clubs became distinguished in Edinburgh after a five-game struggle for the Edinburgh Football Association Cup in 1878, which Hearts finally won with a 3–2 victory after four successive draws. The clubs have met twice in a Cup Final, in the 1896 Scottish Cup Final, which Hearts won 3–1 and the 2012 Scottish Cup Final which Hearts won 5–1. The 1896 final is also notable for being", "Heart of Midlothian are one of two full-time professional football clubs in Edinburgh, the capital and second largest city in Scotland. Hearts' average attendance during the 2019–20 season was 16,750. Important matches, particularly the Edinburgh derby, European fixtures and games against the Old Firm, always see Tynecastle at or very", "", "\"For more information on reserves and", "In 2009 Hearts took over Musselburgh Windsor Ladies Football Club and they became Hearts Ladies F.C. They currently play in the Scottish Women's Premier League under the name Hearts Women. The team play their home games at Kings Park, Dalkeith." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Appearances.", "\"The Hobbit\".", "\"The Lord of the Rings\".", "Narrator.", "Interpretations.", "Name.", "Period.", "Character.", "Quest.", "Genealogy.", "Adaptations.", "Namesakes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In \"The Hobbit\", the protagonist Bilbo Baggins, a hobbit in comfortable middle age, is hired as a \"burglar\", despite his initial objections, by the wizard Gandalf and 13 Dwarves led by their king in exile, Thorin Oakenshield. The Dwarves are on a quest to reclaim the Lonely Mountain and its treasures from the dragon Smaug. The adventure takes Bilbo and his companions through the wilderness, to the elf haven of Rivendell, across the Misty Mountains where, escaping from goblins, he meets Gollum and acquires a magic ring. His journey continues via a lucky escape from wargs, goblins, and fire, to the house of Beorn the shapeshifter, through the black forest of Mirkwood, to Lake-town in the middle of Long Lake, and eventually to the Mountain itself. As burglar, Bilbo is sent down the secret passage to the dragon's lair. He steals a golden cup and takes it back to the Dwarves. Smaug awakes and instantly notices the theft and a draught of cold air from the opened passage. He flies out, nearly catches the Dwarves outside the door, and eats their ponies. Bilbo and the Dwarves hide inside the passage. Bilbo goes down to Smaug's lair again to steal some more, but the dragon is now only half-asleep. Bilbo, wearing his magic ring, is invisible, but Smaug at once smells him. Bilbo has a riddling conversation with Smaug, and notices that the dragon's armour has a gap. He escapes the dragon's flames as he runs up the passage, and tells the Dwarves about the gap in Smaug's armour. An old thrush hears what he says, and flies off to tell Bard in Lake-town. Smaug realizes that Lake-town must have helped Bilbo, and flies off in a rage to destroy the town. The Dwarves and Bilbo hear that Smaug has been killed in the attack. The Dwarves reclaim the Lonely Mountain, and horrify Bilbo by refusing to share the dragon's treasure with the Lake-men or the Wood-elves. Bilbo finds the Arkenstone of Thrain, the most precious heirloom of Thorin's family, and hides it. Thorin calls his relative Dáin to bring an army of Dwarves. Thorin and his Dwarves fortify the entrance to the mountain hall, and are besieged by the Wood-elves and Lake-men. Bilbo tries to ransom the Arkenstone to prevent fighting, but Thorin sees his action as betrayal, and banishes Bilbo. Dain arrives, and the army of Dwarves faces off against the armies of Elves and Men. As battle is joined, a host of goblins and wargs arrive to take over the mountain, now that Smaug is dead. The armies of Elves, Men, and Dwarves, with the help of Eagles and Beorn, defeat the goblins and wargs. Thorin is fatally wounded, but has time to make peace with Bilbo. Bilbo accepts only a little of the treasure which was his share, though it still represents great wealth for a Shire hobbit. Bilbo returns to his home in the Shire to find that several of his relatives, believing him to be dead, are trying to claim his home and possessions.", "\"The Lord of the Rings\" begins with Bilbo's \"eleventy-first\" (111th) birthday, 60 years after the beginning of \"The Hobbit\". The main character of the novel is Frodo Baggins, Bilbo's cousin, who celebrates his 33rd birthday and legally comes of age on the same day. Bilbo has kept the magic ring, with no idea of its significance, all that time; it has prolonged his life, leaving him feeling \"thin and stretched\". At the party, Bilbo tries to leave with the ring, but Gandalf persuades him to leave it behind for Frodo. Bilbo travels to Rivendell and visits the dwarves of the Lonely Mountain before returning to retire at Rivendell and write books. Gandalf discovers that Bilbo's magic ring is the One Ring forged by the Dark Lord Sauron, and sets in motion the quest to destroy it. Frodo and his friends set off on the quest, finding Bilbo, now obviously aged, in Rivendell. When they have destroyed the Ring, they return to the Shire, via Rivendell, where Bilbo looks \"very old, but peaceful, and sleepy\". Two years later Bilbo accompanies Gandalf, Elrond, Galadriel, and Frodo to the Grey Havens, there to take ship for Tol Eressëa across the sea.", "In Tolkien's narrative conceit, in which all the writings of Middle-earth are translations from the fictitious volume of the \"Red Book of Westmarch\", Bilbo is the author of \"The Hobbit\", translator of various \"works from the elvish\", and the author of the following poems and songs:", "", "The critic Tom Shippey notes that \"Baggins\" is close to \"bæggin\", \"bægginz\" in the dialect of Huddersfield, Yorkshire, where it means a substantial meal eaten between main meals, most particularly at teatime in the afternoon; and Mr Baggins is definitely, Shippey writes, \"partial to.. his tea\". The choice of the surname may be connected to the name of Bilbo's house, Bag End, also the actual name of Tolkien's aunt's farmhouse, which Shippey notes was at the bottom of a lane with no exit. This is called a \"cul-de-sac\" in England; Shippey describes this as \"a silly phrase\", a piece of \"French-oriented snobbery\", and observes that the socially aspiring Sackville-Bagginses have similarly attempted to \"Frenchify\" their family name, \"Sac[k]-ville\" = \"Bag Town\", as a mark of their bourgeois status. The journalist Matthew Dennison, writing for St Martin's Press, calls Lobelia Sackville-Baggins \"Tolken's unmistakable nod to Vita Sackville-West,\" an aristocratic novelist and gardening columnist as passionately attached to her family home, Knole House, which she was unable to inherit, as Lobelia was to Bag End. The opposite of a bourgeois is a burglar who breaks into bourgeois houses, and in \"The Hobbit\" Bilbo is asked to become a burglar (of Smaug the dragon's lair), Shippey writes, showing that the Bagginses and the Sackville-Bagginses are \"connected opposites\".", "Bilbo's period can be defined, Shippey notes, by the presence of tobacco, brought to Europe in 1559, and a postal service, introduced in England in 1840. Like Tolkien himself, Bilbo was \"English, middle class; and roughly Victorian to Edwardian\", something that as Shippey observes, does not belong in the much older world of elves, dwarves, and wizards.", "Marjorie Burns, a medievalist, writes that Bilbo's character and adventures match the fantasy writer and designer William Morris's account of his travels in Iceland in the early 1870s in numerous details. Like Bilbo's, Morris's party set off enjoyably into the wild on ponies. He meets a \"boisterous\" man called \"Biorn the boaster\" who lives in a hall beside Eyja-fell, and who tells Morris, tapping him on the belly, \"Besides you know you are so fat\", just as Beorn pokes Bilbo \"most disrespectfully\" and compares him to a plump rabbit. Burns notes that Morris was \"relatively short, a little rotund, and affectionately called 'Topsy', for his curly mop of hair\", all somewhat hobbit-like characteristics. Further, she writes, \"Morris in Iceland often chooses to place himself in a comic light and to exaggerate his own ineptitude\", just as Morris's companion, the painter Edward Burne-Jones, gently teased his friend by depicting him as very fat in his Iceland cartoons. Burns suggests that these images \"make excellent models\" for the Bilbo who runs puffing to the Green Dragon inn or \"jogs along behind Gandalf and the dwarves\" on his quest. Another definite resemblance is the emphasis on home comforts: Morris enjoyed a pipe, a bath, and \"regular, well-cooked meals\"; Morris looked as out of place in Iceland as Bilbo did \"over the Edge of the Wild\"; both are afraid of dark caves; and both grow through their adventures.", "The Christian writer Joseph Pearce describes \"The Hobbit\" as \"a pilgrimage of grace, in which its protagonist, Bilbo Baggins, becomes grown up... in wisdom and virtue\". Dorothy Matthews sees the story rather as a psychological journey, the anti-heroic Bilbo being willing to face challenges while firmly continuing to love home and discovering himself. Along the way, Matthews sees Jungian archetypes, talismans and symbols at every turn: the Jungian wise old man Gandalf; the devouring mother of the giant spider, not to mention Gollum's \"long grasping fingers\"; the Jungian circle of the self, the ring; the escape from the dark underground imprisoning chambers of the wood-elves and Bilbo's symbolic rebirth into the sunlight and the waters of the woodland river; and the dragon guarding the contested treasure, itself \"an archetype of the self, of psychic wholeness\".", "The Tolkien scholar Jason Fisher notes that Tolkien stated that hobbits were extremely \"clannish\" and had a strong \"predilections for genealogy\". Accordingly, Tolkien's decision to include Bilbo's family tree in \"Lord of the Rings\" gives the book, in Fisher's view, a strongly \"hobbitish perspective\". The tree also, he notes, serves to show Bilbo's and Frodo's connections and familial characteristics, Bilbo being \"a Baggins and a Took\". Fisher observes that Bilbo is, like Aragorn, a \"distillation of the best of two families\"; he notes that in \"The Quest of Erebor\", Gandalf is made to say \"So naturally thinking over the hobbits that I knew, I said to myself, 'I want a dash of the [adventurous] Took... and I want a good foundation of the stolider sort, a Baggins perhaps.' That pointed at once to Bilbo\". Bilbo's family tree is as follows: The Tolkien critic Tom Shippey notes that Tolkien was very interested in such names, describing Shire names at length in Appendix F to \"The Lord of the Rings\". One category was the names that had no meaning to the hobbits \"in their daily language\", like Bilbo and Bungo; a few of these, like Otho and Drogo in the family tree, were \"by accident, the same as modern English names\". Shippey observes that the name Sackville-Baggins, for the snobbish branch of the Baggins family, is \"an anomaly in Middle-earth and a failure of tone\".", "In the 1955–1956 BBC Radio serialisation of \"The Lord of the Rings\", Bilbo was played by Felix Felton. In the 1968 BBC Radio serialisation of \"The Hobbit\", Bilbo was played by Paul Daneman. The 1969 parody \"Bored of the Rings\" by \"Harvard Lampoon\" (i.e. its co-founders Douglas Kenney and Henry Beard) modifies the hobbit's name to \"Dildo Bugger\". Nicol Williamson portrayed Bilbo with a light West Country accent in the 1974 performance released on Argo Records. In the 1977 Rankin/Bass animated version of \"The Hobbit\", Bilbo was voiced by Orson Bean. Bean also voiced both the aged Bilbo and Frodo in the same company's 1980 adaptation of \"The Return of the King\". In Ralph Bakshi's 1978 animated version of \"The Lord of the Rings\", Bilbo was voiced by Norman Bird. Billy Barty was the model for Bilbo in the live-action recordings Bakshi used for rotoscoping. The 3000th story to be broadcast in the BBC's long-running children's programme Jackanory was The Hobbit, in 1979. Four narrators told the story, with Bilbo's part being played by Bernard Cribbins. In the BBC's 1981 radio serialisation of \"The Lord of the Rings\", Bilbo is played by John Le Mesurier. An unlicensed Soviet version, called \"Сказочное путешествие мистера Бильбо Бэггинса, Хоббита\" (\"The Fairytale Journey of Mr. Bilbo Baggins, The Hobbit\") appeared on the Leningrad TV channel in 1985. In the 1993 television miniseries \"Hobitit\" by Finnish broadcaster Yle, Bilbo is portrayed by Martti Suosalo. In Peter Jackson's films \"\" (2001) and \"\" (2003) Bilbo is played by Ian Holm, who had played Frodo in the BBC radio series 20 years earlier. Throughout the 2003 video game \"The Hobbit\", the players control Bilbo, voiced by Michael Beatie. The game follows the plot of the book, but adds the elements of platform gameplay and various side-objectives along the main quests. In \"The Lord of the Rings Online\" (2007) Bilbo resides in Rivendell, mostly playing riddle games with the Elf Lindir in the Hall of Fire. In Peter Jackson's \"The Hobbit\" film series, a prequel to \"The Lord of the Rings\", the young Bilbo is portrayed by Martin Freeman while Ian Holm reprises his role as an older Bilbo in \"\" (2012) and \"\" (2014).", "In astronomy, the asteroid was discovered and named in 1982. The International Astronomical Union names all colles (small hills) on Saturn's moon Titan after characters in Tolkien's work, and in 2012, they named one of these \"Bilbo Colles\". In taxonomy, the South African frog \"Breviceps bagginsi\" was described in 2003, while a fossil trilobite \"Marjumia bagginsi\" from the Cambrian period was described in 1994. Among the beetles named for Bilbo is the \"short and robust\" \"Pericompsus bilbo\", described in 1974." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Standard interfaces.", "ALDL.", "OBD-I.", "OBD-1.5.", "OBD-II.", "OBD-II diagnostic connector.", "EOBD.", "EOBD fault codes.", "EOBD2.", "JOBD.", "ADR 79/01 & 79/02 (Australian OBD standard).", "OBD-II signal protocols.", "OBD-II diagnostic data available.", "Mode of operation.", "OBD Applications.", "Hand-held scan tools.", "Mobile device-based tools and analysis.", "PC-based scan tools and analysis platforms.", "Data loggers.", "Emission Testing.", "Driver's Supplementary Vehicle Instrumentation.", "Vehicle telematics.", "OBD-II Diagnostic Trouble Codes.", "Security issues." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "GM's ALDL (Assembly Line Diagnostic Link) is sometimes referred as a predecessor to, or a manufacturer's proprietary version of, an OBD-I diagnostic. This interface was made in different varieties and changed with power train control modules (aka PCM, ECM, ECU). Different versions had slight differences in pin-outs and baud rates. Earlier versions used a 160 baud rate, while later versions went up to 8192 baud and used bi-directional communications to the PCM.", "The regulatory intent of OBD-I was to encourage auto manufacturers to design reliable emission control systems that remain effective for the vehicle's \"useful life\". The hope was that by forcing annual emissions testing for California, and denying registration to vehicles that did not pass, drivers would tend to purchase vehicles that would more reliably pass the test. OBD-I was largely unsuccessful, as the means of reporting emissions-specific diagnostic information was not standardized. Technical difficulties with obtaining standardized and reliable emissions information from all vehicles led to an inability to implement the annual testing program effectively. The Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTC's) of OBD-I vehicles can usually be found without an expensive'scan tool'. Each manufacturer used their own Diagnostic Link Connector (DLC), DLC location, DTC definitions, and procedure to read the DTC's from the vehicle. DTC's from OBD-I cars are often read through the blinking patterns of the 'Check Engine Light' (CEL) or 'Service Engine Soon' (SES) light. By connecting certain pins of the diagnostic connector, the 'Check Engine' light will blink out a two-digit number that corresponds to a specific error condition. The DTC's of some OBD-I cars are interpreted in different ways, however. Cadillac (gasoline) fuel-injected vehicles are equipped with actual \"on-board\" diagnostics, providing trouble codes, actuator tests and sensor data through the new digital Electronic Climate Control display. Holding down 'Off' and 'Warmer' for several seconds activates the diagnostic mode without the need for an external scan tool. Some Honda engine computers are equipped with LED's that light up in a specific pattern to indicate the DTC. General Motors, some 1989-1995 Ford vehicles (DCL), and some 1989-1995 Toyota/Lexus vehicles have a live sensor data stream available, however, many other OBD-I equipped vehicles do not. OBD-I vehicles have fewer DTC's available than for OBD-II equipped vehicles.", "OBD 1.5 refers to a partial implementation of OBD-II which General Motors used on some vehicles in 1994, 1995, & 1996. (GM did not use the term OBD 1.5 in the documentation for these vehicles — they simply have an OBD and an OBD-II section in the service manual.) For example, the 94–95 Corvettes have one post-catalyst oxygen sensor (although they have two catalytic converters), and have a subset of the OBD-II codes implemented. For a 1994 Corvette the implemented OBD-II codes are P0116-P0118, P0131-P0135, P0151-P0155, P0158, P0160-P0161, P0171-P0175, P0420, P1114-P1115, P1133, P1153 and P1158. This hybrid system was present on the GM H-body cars in 94–95, W-body cars (Buick Regal, Chevrolet Lumina ('95 only), Chevrolet Monte Carlo ('95 only), Pontiac Grand Prix, Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme) in 94–95, L-body (Chevrolet Beretta/Corsica) in 94–95, Y-body (Chevrolet Corvette) in 94–95, on the F-body (Chevrolet Camaro and Pontiac Firebird) in 95 and on the J-Body (Chevrolet Cavalier and Pontiac Sunfire) and N-Body (Buick Skylark, Oldsmobile Achieva, Pontiac Grand Am) in 95 and 96 and also on '94-'95 Saab vehicles with the naturally aspirated 2.3. The pinout for the ALDL connection on these cars is as follows: For ALDL connections, pin 9 is the data stream, pins 4 and 5 are ground, and pin 16 is battery voltage. An OBD 1.5 compatible scan tool is required to read codes generated by OBD 1.5. Additional vehicle-specific diagnostic and control circuits are also available on this connector. For instance, on the Corvette there are interfaces for the Class 2 serial data stream from the PCM, the CCM diagnostic terminal, the radio data stream, the airbag system, the selective ride control system, the low tire pressure warning system, and the passive keyless entry system. An OBD 1.5 has also been used in the Ford Scorpio since 95.", "OBD-II is an improvement over OBD-I in both capability and standardization. The OBD-II standard specifies the type of diagnostic connector and its pinout, the electrical signalling protocols available, and the messaging format. It also provides a candidate list of vehicle parameters to monitor along with how to encode the data for each. There is a pin in the connector that provides power for the scan tool from the vehicle battery, which eliminates the need to connect a scan tool to a power source separately. However, some technicians might still connect the scan tool to an auxiliary power source to protect data in the unusual event that a vehicle experiences a loss of electrical power due to a malfunction. Finally, the OBD-II standard provides an extensible list of DTCs. As a result of this standardization, a single device can query the on-board computer(s) in any vehicle. This OBD-II came in two models OBD-IIA and OBD-IIB. OBD-II standardization was prompted by emissions requirements, and though only emission-related codes and data are required to be transmitted through it, most manufacturers have made the OBD-II Data Link Connector the only one in the vehicle through which all systems are diagnosed and programmed. OBD-II Diagnostic Trouble Codes are 4-digit, preceded by a letter: P for engine and transmission (powertrain), B for body, C for chassis, and U for network.", "The OBD-II specification provides for a standardized hardware interface—the female 16-pin (2x8) J1962 connector. Unlike the OBD-I connector, which was sometimes found under the hood of the vehicle, the OBD-II connector is required to be within of the steering wheel (unless an exemption is applied for by the manufacturer, in which case it is still somewhere within reach of the driver). SAE J1962 defines the pinout of the connector as: The assignment of unspecified pins is left to the vehicle manufacturer's discretion.", "The European on-board diagnostics (EOBD) regulations are the European equivalent of OBD-II, and apply to all passenger cars of category M1 (with no more than 8 passenger seats and a Gross Vehicle Weight rating of 2500 kg or less) first registered within EU member states since January 1, 2001 for petrol (gasoline) engined cars and since January 1, 2004 for diesel engined cars. For newly introduced models, the regulation dates applied a year earlier - January 1, 2000 for petrol and January 1, 2003 for diesel. For passenger cars with a Gross Vehicle Weight rating of greater than 2500 kg and for light commercial vehicles, the regulation dates applied from January 1, 2002 for petrol models, and January 1, 2007 for diesel models. The technical implementation of EOBD is essentially the same as OBD-II, with the same SAE J1962 diagnostic link connector and signal protocols being used. With Euro V and Euro VI emission standards, EOBD emission thresholds are lower than previous Euro III and IV.", "Each of the EOBD fault codes consists of five characters: a letter, followed by four numbers. The letter refers to the system being interrogated e.g. Pxxxx would refer to the powertrain system. The next character would be a 0 if complies to the EOBD standard. So it should look like P0xxx. The next character would refer to the sub system. The following two characters would refer to the individual fault within each subsystem.", "The term \"EOBD2\" is marketing speak used by some vehicle manufacturers to refer to manufacturer-specific features that are not actually part of the OBD or EOBD standard. In this case \"E\" stands for Enhanced.", "JOBD is a version of OBD-II for vehicles sold in Japan.", "The ADR 79/01 (Vehicle Standard (Australian Design Rule 79/01 – Emission Control for Light Vehicles) 2005) standard is the Australian equivalent of OBD-II. It applies to all vehicles of category M1 and N1 with a Gross Vehicle Weight rating of 3500 kg or less, registered from new within Australia and produced since January 1, 2006 for petrol (gasoline) engined cars and since January 1, 2007 for diesel engined cars. For newly introduced models, the regulation dates applied a year earlier - January 1, 2005 for petrol and January 1, 2006 for diesel. The ADR 79/01 standard was supplemented by the ADR 79/02 standard which imposed tighter emissions restrictions, applicable to all vehicles of class M1 and N1 with a Gross Vehicle Weight rating of 3500 kg or less, from July 1, 2008 for new models, July 1, 2010 for all models. The technical implementation of this standard is essentially the same as OBD-II, with the same SAE J1962 diagnostic link connector and signal protocols being used.", "There are five signaling protocols that are permitted with the OBD-II interface. Most vehicles implement only one of the protocols. It is often possible to deduce the protocol used based on which pins are present on the J1962 connector: All OBD-II pinouts use the same connector, but different pins are used with the exception of pin 4 (battery ground) and pin 16 (battery positive).", "OBD-II provides access to data from the engine control unit (ECU) and offers a valuable source of information when troubleshooting problems inside a vehicle. The SAE J1979 standard defines a method for requesting various diagnostic data and a list of standard parameters that might be available from the ECU. The various parameters that are available are addressed by \"parameter identification numbers\" or PIDs which are defined in J1979. For a list of basic PIDs, their definitions, and the formula to convert raw OBD-II output to meaningful diagnostic units, see OBD-II PIDs. Manufacturers are not required to implement all PIDs listed in J1979 and they are allowed to include proprietary PIDs that are not listed. The PID request and data retrieval system gives access to real time performance data as well as flagged DTCs. For a list of generic OBD-II DTCs suggested by the SAE, see Table of OBD-II Codes. Individual manufacturers often enhance the OBD-II code set with additional proprietary DTCs.", "Here is a basic introduction to the OBD communication protocol according to ISO 15031:", "Various tools are available that plug into the OBD connector to access OBD functions. These range from simple generic consumer level tools to highly sophisticated OEM dealership tools to vehicle telematic devices.", "A range of rugged hand-held scan tools is available.", "Mobile device applications allow mobile devices such as cell phones and tablets to display and manipulate the OBD-II data accessed via USB adaptor cables or bluetooth adapters plugged into the car's OBD II connector.", "A PC-based OBD analysis tool that converts the OBD-II signals to serial data (USB or serial port) standard to PCs or Macs. The software then decodes the received data to a visual display. Many popular interfaces are based on the ELM or STN1110 OBD Interpreter ICs, both of which read all five generic OBD-II protocols. Some adapters now use the J2534 API allowing them to access OBD-II Protocols for both cars and trucks. In addition to the functions of a hand-held scan tool, the PC-based tools generally offer: The extent that a PC tool may access manufacturer or vehicle-specific ECU diagnostics varies between software products as it does between hand-held scanners.", "Data loggers are designed to capture vehicle data while the vehicle is in normal operation, for later analysis. Data logging uses include: Analysis of vehicle black box data may be performed on a periodic basis, automatically transmitted wirelessly to a third party or retrieved for forensic analysis after an event such as an accident, traffic infringement or mechanical fault.", "In the United States, many states now use OBD-II testing instead of tailpipe testing in OBD-II compliant vehicles (1996 and newer). Since OBD-II stores trouble codes for emissions equipment, the testing computer can query the vehicle's onboard computer and verify there are no emission related trouble codes and that the vehicle is in compliance with emission standards for the model year it was manufactured. In the Netherlands, 2006 and later vehicles get a yearly EOBD emission check.", "Driver's supplementary vehicle instrumentation is instrumentation installed in a vehicle in addition to that provided by the vehicle manufacturer and intended for display to the driver during normal operation. This is opposed to scanners used primarily for active fault diagnosis, tuning, or hidden data logging. Auto enthusiasts have traditionally installed additional gauges such as manifold vacuum, battery current etc. The OBD standard interface has enabled a new generation of enthusiast instrumentation accessing the full range of vehicle data used for diagnostics, and derived data such as instantaneous fuel economy. Instrumentation may take the form of dedicated trip computers, carputer or interfaces to PDAs, smartphones, or a Garmin navigation unit. As a carputer is essentially a PC, the same software could be loaded as for PC-based scan tools and vice-versa, so the distinction is only in the reason for use of the software. These enthusiast systems may also include some functionality similar to the other scan tools.", "OBD II information is commonly used by vehicle telematics devices that perform fleet tracking, monitor fuel efficiency, prevent unsafe driving, as well as for remote diagnostics and by Pay-As-You-Drive insurance. Although originally not intended for the above purposes, commonly supported OBD II data such as vehicle speed, RPM, and fuel level allow GPS-based fleet tracking devices to monitor vehicle idling times, speeding, and over-revving. By monitoring OBD II DTCs a company can know immediately if one of its vehicles has an engine problem and by interpreting the code the nature of the problem. OBD II is also monitored to block mobile phones when driving and to record trip data for insurance purposes.", "OBD-II diagnostic trouble codes (DTC's) contain 1 letter and 4 numbers, and are divided into the following categories:", "Researchers at the University of Washington and University of California examined the security around OBD, and found that they were able to gain control over many vehicle components via the interface. Furthermore, they were able to upload new firmware into the engine control units. Their conclusion is that vehicle embedded systems are not designed with security in mind. There have been reports of thieves using specialist OBD reprogramming devices to enable them to steal cars without the use of a key. The primary causes of this vulnerability lie in the tendency for vehicle manufacturers to extend the bus for purposes other than those for which it was designed, and the lack of authentication and authorization in the OBD specifications, which instead rely largely on security through obscurity." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Formal definition.", "Properties of the Julia set and Fatou set.", "Examples.", "Quadratic polynomials.", "Generalizations.", "Pseudocode.", "Pseudocode for normal Julia sets.", "Pseudocode for multi-Julia sets.", "The potential function and the real iteration number.", "Field lines.", "Plotting the Julia set.", "Using backwards (inverse) iteration (IIM).", "Using DEM/J." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Let \"f\"(\"z\") be a nonconstant holomorphic function from the Riemann sphere onto itself. Such \"f\"(\"z\") are precisely the nonconstant complex rational functions, that is, formula_1, where \"p\"(\"z\") and \"q\"(\"z\") are complex polynomials. Assume that \"p\" and \"q\" have no common roots and at least one has degree larger than 1. Then there is a finite number of open sets \"F\",..., \"F\", that are left invariant by \"f\"(\"z\") and are such that: The last statement means that the termini of the sequences of iterations generated by the points of \"F\" are either precisely the same set, which is then a finite cycle, or they are finite cycles of circular or annular shaped sets that are lying concentrically. In the first case the cycle is \"attracting\", in the second it is \"neutral\". These sets \"F\" are the Fatou domains of \"f\"(\"z\"), and their union is the Fatou set \"F\"(\"f\") of \"f\"(\"z\"). Each of the Fatou domains contains at least one critical point of \"f\"(\"z\"), that is, a (finite) point \"z\" satisfying formula_2, or formula_3, if the degree of the numerator \"p\"(\"z\") is at least two larger than the degree of the denominator \"q\"(\"z\"), or if formula_4 for some \"c\" and a rational function \"g\"(\"z\") satisfying this condition. The complement of \"F\"(\"f\") is the Julia set \"J\"(\"f\") of \"f\"(\"z\"). If all the critical points are preperiodic, that is they are not periodic but eventually land on a periodic cycle, then \"J\"(\"f\") is all the sphere; otherwise, \"J\"(\"f\") is a nowhere dense set (it is without interior points) and an uncountable set (of the same cardinality as the real numbers). Like \"F\"(\"f\"), \"J\"(\"f\") is left invariant by \"f\"(\"z\"), and on this set the iteration is repelling, meaning that formula_5 for all \"w\" in a neighbourhood of \"z\" (within \"J\"(\"f\")). This means that \"f\"(\"z\") behaves chaotically on the Julia set. Although there are points in the Julia set whose sequence of iterations is finite, there are only a countable number of such points (and they make up an infinitesimal part of the Julia set). The sequences generated by points outside this set behave chaotically, a phenomenon called \"deterministic chaos\". There has been extensive research on the Fatou set and Julia set of iterated rational functions, known as rational maps. For example, it is known that the Fatou set of a rational map has either 0, 1, 2 or infinitely many components. Each component of the Fatou set of a rational map can be classified into one of four different classes.", "The Julia set and the Fatou set of \"f\" are both completely invariant under iterations of the holomorphic function \"f\":", "For formula_9 the Julia set is the unit circle and on this the iteration is given by doubling of angles (an operation that is chaotic on the points whose argument is not a rational fraction of formula_10). There are two Fatou domains: the interior and the exterior of the circle, with iteration towards 0 and ∞, respectively. For formula_11 the Julia set is the line segment between −2 and 2. There is one Fatou domain: the points not on the line segment iterate towards ∞. (Apart from a shift and scaling of the domain, this iteration is equivalent to formula_12 on the unit interval, which is commonly used as an example of chaotic system.) The functions f and g are of the form formula_13, where \"c\" is a complex number. For such an iteration the Julia set is not in general a simple curve, but is a fractal, and for some values of \"c\" it can take surprising shapes. See the pictures below. For some functions \"f\"(\"z\") we can say beforehand that the Julia set is a fractal and not a simple curve. This is because of the following result on the iterations of a rational function: Theorem. Each of the Fatou domains has the same boundary, which consequently is the Julia set. This means that each point of the Julia set is a point of accumulation for each of the Fatou domains. Therefore, if there are more than two Fatou domains, \"each\" point of the Julia set must have points of more than two different open sets infinitely close, and this means that the Julia set cannot be a simple curve. This phenomenon happens, for instance, when \"f\"(\"z\") is the Newton iteration for solving the equation formula_14: The image on the right shows the case \"n\" = 3.", "A very popular complex dynamical system is given by the family of complex quadratic polynomials, a special case of rational maps. Such quadratic polynomials can be expressed as where \"c\" is a complex parameter. Fix some formula_17 large enough that formula_18. (For example, if formula_19 is in the Mandelbrot set, then formula_20, so we may simply let formula_21.) Then the filled Julia set for this system is the subset of the complex plane given by where formula_23 is the \"n\"th iterate of formula_24. The Julia set formula_25 of this function is the boundary of formula_26. The parameter plane of quadratic polynomials – that is, the plane of possible \"c\" values – gives rise to the famous Mandelbrot set. Indeed, the Mandelbrot set is defined as the set of all \"c\" such that formula_25 is connected. For parameters outside the Mandelbrot set, the Julia set is a Cantor space: in this case it is sometimes referred to as Fatou dust. In many cases, the Julia set of \"c\" looks like the Mandelbrot set in sufficiently small neighborhoods of \"c\". This is true, in particular, for so-called Misiurewicz parameters, i.e. parameters \"c\" for which the critical point is pre-periodic. For instance: In other words, the Julia sets formula_25 are locally similar around Misiurewicz points.", "The definition of Julia and Fatou sets easily carries over to the case of certain maps whose image contains their domain; most notably transcendental meromorphic functions and Adam Epstein's finite-type maps. Julia sets are also commonly defined in the study of dynamics in several complex variables.", "The below pseudocode implementations hard code the functions for each fractal. Consider implementing complex number operations to allow for more dynamic and reusable code.", "R = escape radius # choose R > 0 such that R**2 - R >= sqrt(cx**2 + cy**2) for each pixel (x, y) on the screen, do:", "R = escape radius # choose R > 0 such that R**n - R >= sqrt(cx**2 + cy**2) for each pixel (x, y) on the screen, do:", "The Julia set for formula_9 is the unit circle, and on the outer Fatou domain, the \"potential function\" φ(\"z\") is defined by φ(\"z\") = log|\"z\"|. The equipotential lines for this function are concentric circles. As formula_32 we have where formula_34 is the sequence of iteration generated by \"z\". For the more general iteration formula_29, it has been proved that if the Julia set is connected (that is, if \"c\" belongs to the (usual) Mandelbrot set), then there exist a biholomorphic map ψ between the outer Fatou domain and the outer of the unit circle such that formula_36. This means that the potential function on the outer Fatou domain defined by this correspondence is given by: This formula has meaning also if the Julia set is not connected, so that we for all \"c\" can define the potential function on the Fatou domain containing ∞ by this formula. For a general rational function \"f\"(\"z\") such that ∞ is a critical point and a fixed point, that is, such that the degree \"m\" of the numerator is at least two larger than the degree \"n\" of the denominator, we define the \"potential function\" on the Fatou domain containing ∞ by: where \"d\" = \"m\" − \"n\" is the degree of the rational function. If \"N\" is a very large number (e.g. 10), and if \"k\" is the first iteration number such that formula_39, we have that for some real number formula_41, which should be regarded as the real iteration number, and we have that: where the last number is in the interval [0, 1). For iteration towards a finite attracting cycle of order \"r\", we have that if \"z*\" is a point of the cycle, then formula_43 (the \"r\"-fold composition), and the number is the \"attraction\" of the cycle. If \"w\" is a point very near \"z*\" and \"w\"' is \"w\" iterated \"r\" times, we have that Therefore the number formula_46 is almost independent of \"k\". We define the potential function on the Fatou domain by: If ε is a very small number and \"k\" is the first iteration number such that formula_48, we have that for some real number formula_41, which should be regarded as the real iteration number, and we have that: If the attraction is ∞, meaning that the cycle is \"super-attracting\", meaning again that one of the points of the cycle is a critical point, we must replace α by where \"w\"' is \"w\" iterated \"r\" times and the formula for φ(\"z\") by: And now the real iteration number is given by: For the colouring we must have a cyclic scale of colours (constructed mathematically, for instance) and containing \"H\" colours numbered from 0 to \"H\"−1 (\"H\" = 500, for instance). We multiply the real number formula_41 by a fixed real number determining the density of the colours in the picture, and take the integral part of this number modulo \"H\". The definition of the potential function and our way of colouring presuppose that the cycle is attracting, that is, not neutral. If the cycle is neutral, we cannot colour the Fatou domain in a natural way. As the terminus of the iteration is a revolving movement, we can, for instance, colour by the minimum distance from the cycle left fixed by the iteration.", "In each Fatou domain (that is not neutral) there are two systems of lines orthogonal to each other: the \"equipotential lines\" (for the potential function or the real iteration number) and the \"field lines\". If we colour the Fatou domain according to the iteration number (and \"not\" the real iteration number formula_41, as defined in the previous section), the bands of iteration show the course of the equipotential lines. If the iteration is towards ∞ (as is the case with the outer Fatou domain for the usual iteration formula_57), we can easily show the course of the field lines, namely by altering the colour according as the last point in the sequence of iteration is above or below the \"x\"-axis (first picture), but in this case (more precisely: when the Fatou domain is super-attracting) we cannot draw the field lines coherently - at least not by the method we describe here. In this case a field line is also called an external ray. Let \"z\" be a point in the attracting Fatou domain. If we iterate \"z\" a large number of times, the terminus of the sequence of iteration is a finite cycle \"C\", and the Fatou domain is (by definition) the set of points whose sequence of iteration converges towards \"C\". The field lines issue from the points of \"C\" and from the (infinite number of) points that iterate \"into\" a point of \"C\". And they end on the Julia set in points that are non-chaotic (that is, generating a finite cycle). Let \"r\" be the order of the cycle \"C\" (its number of points) and let \"z*\" be a point in \"C\". We have formula_58 (the r-fold composition), and we define the complex number α by If the points of \"C\" are formula_60, α is the product of the \"r\" numbers formula_61. The real number 1/|α| is the \"attraction\" of the cycle, and our assumption that the cycle is neither neutral nor super-attracting, means that 1 < 1/|α| < ∞. The point \"z*\" is a fixed point for formula_62, and near this point the map formula_62 has (in connection with field lines) character of a rotation with the argument β of α (that is, formula_64). In order to colour the Fatou domain, we have chosen a small number ε and set the sequences of iteration formula_65 to stop when formula_48, and we colour the point \"z\" according to the number \"k\" (or the real iteration number, if we prefer a smooth colouring). If we choose a direction from \"z*\" given by an angle θ, the field line issuing from \"z*\" in this direction consists of the points \"z\" such that the argument ψ of the number formula_67 satisfies the condition that For if we pass an iteration band in the direction of the field lines (and away from the cycle), the iteration number \"k\" is increased by 1 and the number ψ is increased by β, therefore the number formula_69 is constant along the field line. A colouring of the field lines of the Fatou domain means that we colour the spaces between pairs of field lines: we choose a number of regularly situated directions issuing from \"z*\", and in each of these directions we choose two directions around this direction. As it can happen that the two field lines of a pair do not end in the same point of the Julia set, our coloured field lines can ramify (endlessly) in their way towards the Julia set. We can colour on the basis of the distance to the center line of the field line, and we can mix this colouring with the usual colouring. Such pictures can be very decorative (second picture). A coloured field line (the domain between two field lines) is divided up by the iteration bands, and such a part can be put into a one-to-one correspondence with the unit square: the one coordinate is (calculated from) the distance from one of the bounding field lines, the other is (calculated from) the distance from the inner of the bounding iteration bands (this number is the non-integral part of the real iteration number). Therefore, we can put pictures into the field lines (third picture).", "Methods :", "As mentioned above, the Julia set can be found as the set of limit points of the set of pre-images of (essentially) any given point. So we can try to plot the Julia set of a given function as follows. Start with any point \"z\" we know to be in the Julia set, such as a repelling periodic point, and compute all pre-images of \"z\" under some high iterate formula_70 of \"f\". Unfortunately, as the number of iterated pre-images grows exponentially, this is not feasible computationally. However, we can adjust this method, in a similar way as the \"random game\" method for iterated function systems. That is, in each step, we choose at random one of the inverse images of \"f\". For example, for the quadratic polynomial \"f\", the backwards iteration is described by At each step, one of the two square roots is selected at random. Note that certain parts of the Julia set are quite difficult to access with the reverse Julia algorithm. For this reason, one must modify IIM/J ( it is called MIIM/J) or use other methods to produce better images.", "As a Julia set is infinitely thin we cannot draw it effectively by backwards iteration from the pixels. It will appear fragmented because of the impracticality of examining infinitely many startpoints. Since the iteration count changes vigorously near the Julia set, a partial solution is to imply the outline of the set from the nearest color contours, but the set will tend to look muddy. A better way to draw the Julia set in black and white is to estimate the distance of pixels (DEM) from the set and to color every pixel whose center is close to the set. The formula for the distance estimation is derived from the formula for the potential function φ(\"z\"). When the equipotential lines for φ(\"z\") lie close, the number formula_72 is large, and conversely, therefore the equipotential lines for the function formula_73 should lie approximately regularly. It has been proven that the value found by this formula (up to a constant factor) converges towards the true distance for z converging towards the Julia set. We assume that \"f\"(\"z\") is rational, that is, formula_1 where \"p\"(\"z\") and \"q\"(\"z\") are complex polynomials of degrees \"m\" and \"n\", respectively, and we have to find the derivative of the above expressions for φ(\"z\"). And as it is only formula_34 that varies, we must calculate the derivative formula_76 of formula_34 with respect to \"z\". But as formula_78 (the \"k\"-fold composition), formula_76 is the product of the numbers formula_80, and this sequence can be calculated recursively by formula_81, starting with formula_82 (\"before\" the calculation of the next iteration formula_83). For iteration towards ∞ (more precisely when \"m\" ≥ \"n\" + 2, so that ∞ is a super-attracting fixed point), we have (\"d\" = \"m\" − \"n\") and consequently: For iteration towards a finite attracting cycle (that is not super-attracting) containing the point \"z*\" and having order \"r\", we have and consequently: For a super-attracting cycle, the formula is: We calculate this number when the iteration stops. Note that the distance estimation is independent of the attraction of the cycle. This means that it has meaning for transcendental functions of \"degree infinity\" (e.g. sin(\"z\") and tan(\"z\")). Besides drawing of the boundary, the distance function can be introduced as a 3rd dimension to create a solid fractal landscape." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Applications.", "Automotive.", "Architecture.", "Physical.", "Electrical properties.", "Nodes.", "Data transmission.", "ID allocation.", "Bit timing.", "Layers.", "Frames.", "Data frame.", "Base frame format.", "Extended frame format.", "Remote frame.", "Error frame.", "Overload frame.", "ACK slot.", "Interframe spacing.", "Bit stuffing.", "CAN lower-layer standards.", "CAN-based higher-layer protocols.", "CANopen Lift.", "Security.", "Development tools.", "Licensing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Development of the CAN bus started in 1983 at Robert Bosch GmbH. The protocol was officially released in 1986 at the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) conference in Detroit, Michigan. The first CAN controller chips were introduced by Intel in 1987, and shortly thereafter by Philips. Released in 1991, the Mercedes-Benz W140 was the first production vehicle to feature a CAN-based multiplex wiring system. Bosch published several versions of the CAN specification and the latest is CAN 2.0 published in 1991. This specification has two parts; part A is for the standard format with an 11-bit identifier, and part B is for the extended format with a 29-bit identifier. A CAN device that uses 11-bit identifiers is commonly called CAN 2.0A and a CAN device that uses 29-bit identifiers is commonly called CAN 2.0B. These standards are freely available from Bosch along with other specifications", "", "The modern automobile may have as many as 70 electronic control units (ECU) for various subsystems. Typically the biggest processor is the engine control unit. Others are used for transmission, airbags, antilock braking/ABS, cruise control, electric power steering, audio systems, power windows, doors, mirror adjustment, battery and recharging systems for hybrid/electric cars, etc. Some of these form independent subsystems, but communications among others are essential. A", "", "CAN is a multi-master serial bus standard for connecting Electronic Control Units (ECUs) also known as nodes. (Automotive electronics is a major application domain.) Two or more nodes are required on the CAN network to communicate. A node may interface to devices from simple digital logic e.g. PLD, via FPGA up to an embedded computer running extensive software. Such a computer may also be a gateway allowing a general purpose computer (like a laptop) to communicate over a USB or Ethernet port to the devices on a CAN network. All nodes are connected to each other through a physically conventional two wire bus. The wires are a twisted pair with a 120 Ω (nominal) characteristic impedance. This bus uses differential wired-AND signals. Two signals, CAN high (CANH) and CAN low (CANL) are either driven to a \"dominant\" state with CANH > CANL, or not driven and pulled by passive resistors to a \"recessive\" state with CANH ≤ CANL. A 0 data bit encodes a dominant state, while a 1 data bit encodes a recessive state, supporting a wired-AND convention, which gives nodes with lower ID numbers", "With both high-speed and low-speed CAN, the speed of the transition is faster when a recessive to dominant transition occurs since the CAN wires are being actively driven. The speed of the dominant to recessive transition depends primarily on the length of the CAN network and the capacitance of the wire used. High-speed CAN is usually used in automotive and industrial applications where the bus runs from one end of the environment to the other. Fault-tolerant CAN is often used where groups of nodes need to be connected together. The", "Each node requires a Each node is able to send and receive messages, but not simultaneously. A message or Frame consists primarily of the ID (identifier), which represents the priority of the message, and up to eight data bytes. A CRC, acknowledge slot [ACK] and other overhead are also part", "CAN data transmission uses a lossless bitwise arbitration method of contention resolution. This arbitration method requires all nodes on the CAN network to be synchronized to sample every bit on the CAN network at the same time. This is why some call CAN synchronous. Unfortunately the term synchronous is imprecise since the data is transmitted in an asynchronous format, namely without a clock signal. The CAN specifications use the terms \"dominant\" bits and \"recessive\" bits, where dominant is a logical 0 (actively driven to a voltage by the transmitter) and recessive is a logical 1 (passively returned to a voltage by a resistor). The idle state is represented by the recessive level (Logical 1). If one node transmits a dominant bit and another node transmits a recessive bit then there is a collision and the dominant bit \"wins\". This means there is no delay to the higher-priority message, and the node transmitting the lower priority message automatically attempts to re-transmit six bit clocks after the end of the dominant message. This makes CAN very suitable as a real-time prioritized communications system. The exact voltages for a logical 0 or 1 depend on the physical layer used, but the basic principle of CAN requires that each node listen to the data on the CAN network including the transmitting node(s) itself (themselves). If a logical 1 is transmitted by all transmitting nodes at the same time, then a logical 1 is seen by all of the nodes, including both the transmitting node(s) and receiving node(s). If a logical 0 is transmitted by all transmitting node(s) at the same time, then a", "Message IDs must be unique on a single CAN bus, otherwise two nodes would continue transmission beyond the end of the arbitration field (ID) causing an error. In the early 1990s, the choice of IDs for messages was done simply on the basis of identifying the type of data and the sending node;", "All nodes on the CAN network must operate at the same nominal bit rate, but noise, phase shifts, oscillator tolerance and oscillator drift mean that the actual bit rate might not be the nominal bit rate. Since a separate clock signal is not used, a means of synchronizing the nodes is necessary. Synchronization is important during arbitration since the nodes in arbitration must be able to see both their transmitted data and the other nodes' transmitted data at the same time. Synchronization is also important to ensure that variations in oscillator timing between nodes do not cause errors. Synchronization starts with a hard synchronization on the first recessive to dominant transition after a period of bus idle (the start bit). Resynchronization occurs on every recessive to dominant transition during the frame. The CAN controller expects", "The CAN protocol, like many networking protocols, can be decomposed into the following abstraction layers: Most of the CAN standard applies to the transfer layer. The transfer layer receives messages from the physical layer and transmits those messages to the object layer. The transfer layer is responsible for bit timing and synchronization, message framing, arbitration, acknowledgement, error detection and signaling, and fault confinement. It performs: CAN bus (ISO 11898-1:2003) originally specified the link layer protocol with only abstract requirements for the physical layer, e.g., asserting the use of a medium with multiple-access at the bit level through the use of dominant and recessive states. The electrical aspects of the physical layer (voltage, current, number of conductors) were specified in ISO 11898-2:2003, which is now widely accepted. However, the mechanical aspects of the physical layer (connector type and number, colors, labels, pin-outs) have yet to be formally specified. As a result, an automotive ECU will typically have a particular—often custom—connector with various sorts of cables, of which two are the CAN bus lines. Nonetheless, several de facto standards for mechanical implementation have emerged, the most common being the 9-pin D-sub type male connector with the following pin-out: This \"de facto\" mechanical standard for CAN could be implemented with the node having both male and female 9-pin D-sub connectors electrically wired to each other in parallel within the node. Bus power is fed to a node's male connector and the bus draws power from the node's female connector. This follows the electrical engineering convention that power sources are terminated at female connectors. Adoption of this standard avoids the need to fabricate custom splitters to connect two sets of bus wires to a single D connector at each node. Such nonstandard (custom) wire harnesses (splitters) that join conductors outside the node reduce bus reliability, eliminate cable interchangeability, reduce compatibility of wiring harnesses, and increase cost. The absence of a complete physical layer specification (mechanical in addition to electrical) freed the CAN bus specification from the constraints and complexity of physical implementation. However it left CAN bus implementations open to interoperability issues due to mechanical incompatibility. In order to improve interoperability, many vehicle makers have generated specifications describing a set of allowed CAN transceivers in combination with requirements on the parasitic capacitance on the line. The allowed parasitic capacitance includes both capacitors as well as ESD protection (ESD against ISO 7637-3). In addition to parasitic capacitance, 12V and 24V systems do not have the same requirements in terms of line maximum voltage. Indeed, during jump start events light vehicles lines can go", "A CAN network can be configured to work with two different message (or \"frame\") formats: the standard or base frame format (described in CAN 2.0 A and CAN 2.0 B), and the extended frame format (described only by CAN 2.0 B). The only difference between the two formats is that the \"CAN base frame\" supports a length of 11 bits for the identifier, and the \"CAN extended frame\" supports a length of 29 bits for the identifier, made up of the 11-bit identifier (\"base identifier\") and an 18-bit extension (\"identifier extension\"). The distinction between CAN base frame format and CAN extended frame format is made by using the IDE bit, which is transmitted as dominant in case of an 11-bit frame, and transmitted as recessive in case of a 29-bit frame. CAN controllers that support extended frame format messages are also able to send and receive messages in CAN base frame format. All frames begin with a start-of-frame (SOF) bit that denotes the start of the frame transmission. CAN has four frame types:", "The data frame is the only frame for actual data transmission. There are two message formats: The CAN standard requires that the implementation must accept the base frame format and may accept the extended frame format, but must tolerate the extended frame format.", "The frame format is as follows:", "The frame format is as follows: The two identifier fields (A & B) combine to form a 29-bit identifier.", "i.e., In the event of a Data Frame and a Remote Frame with the", "The error frame consists of two different fields: There", "The overload frame contains the two bit fields Overload Flag and Overload Delimiter. There are two kinds of overload conditions that can lead to the transmission of an overload flag: The start of an overload frame due to case 1 is only allowed to be started at the first bit time of an expected intermission,", "The acknowledge slot is used to acknowledge the receipt of a valid CAN frame. Each node that receives the frame, without finding an error, transmits a dominant level in the ACK slot and thus overrides the recessive level of the transmitter. If a transmitter detects a recessive level in the ACK slot, it knows that no", "Data frames and remote frames are separated from preceding frames by a bit field called interframe space. Interframe space consists of at least three consecutive recessive (1) bits. Following that, if a dominant bit is detected, it will be", "To ensure enough transitions to maintain synchronization, a bit of opposite polarity is inserted after five consecutive bits of the same polarity. This practice is called bit stuffing, and is necessary due to the non-return to zero (NRZ) coding used with CAN. The stuffed data frames are destuffed by the receiver. All fields in the frame are stuffed with the exception of the CRC delimiter, ACK field and end of frame which are a fixed size and are not stuffed. In the fields where bit stuffing is used, six consecutive bits of the same polarity (111111 or 000000) are considered an error. An active error flag can be transmitted by a node when an error has been detected. The active error flag consists of six consecutive dominant bits and violates the rule of bit stuffing. Bit stuffing means that data frames may be larger than one", "ISO 11898 series specifies physical and data link layer (levels 1 and 2 of the ISO/OSI model) of serial communication technology called Controller Area Network that supports distributed real-time control and multiplexing for use within road vehicles. There are several CAN physical layer and other standards: ISO 11898-1:2015 specifies the data link layer (DLL) and physical signalling of the controller area network (CAN). This document describes the general architecture of CAN in terms of hierarchical layers according to the ISO reference model for open systems interconnection (OSI) established in ISO/IEC 7498-1 and provides the characteristics for setting up an interchange of digital information between modules implementing the CAN DLL with detailed specification of the logical link control (LLC) sublayer and medium access control (MAC) sublayer. ISO 11898-2:2016 specifies the high-speed (transmission rates of up to 1 Mbit/s) medium access unit (MAU), and some medium dependent interface (MDI) features (according to ISO 8802-3), which comprise the physical layer of the controller area network. ISO 11898-2 uses a two-wire balanced signalling scheme. It is the most used physical layer in vehicle powertrain applications and industrial control networks. ISO", "As the CAN standard does not include tasks of application layer protocols, such as flow control, device addressing, and transportation of data blocks larger than one message,", "The CANopen Special Interest Group (SIG) \"Lift Control\", which was founded in 2001, develops the CANopen application profile CiA 417 for lift control systems. The first version of CiA 417 was published in summer 2003. The version 2.0 has been available on CiA's website since February 2010. The SIG works on extending the features for", "CAN is a low-level protocol and does not support any security features intrinsically. There is also no encryption in standard CAN implementations, which leaves these networks open to man-in-the-middle frame interception. In most implementations, applications are expected to deploy their own security mechanisms; e.g., to", "When developing or troubleshooting the CAN bus, examination of hardware signals can be very important. Logic analyzers and bus analyzers are tools which collect, analyse, decode and store signals so people can view the high-speed waveforms at their leisure. There are also specialist tools as well as CAN bus monitors. A is an analysis tool, often a combination of hardware and software, used during development of hardware making use", "Bosch holds patents on the technology, though those related to the original protocol have now expired. Manufacturers of CAN-compatible microprocessors pay license fees to Bosch for use of the CAN trademark and any of the newer patents related to CAN FD, and these are normally passed on to the customer in the price of the chip. Manufacturers of products with custom ASICs or FPGAs containing CAN-compatible modules need to pay a fee for the CAN Protocol License if they wish to use the CAN trademark or CAN FD capabilities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Background.", "Hercules.", "Connector.", "Technical specifications.", "Original Hercules Graphics Card.", "Later cards.", "Clone boards.", "PC clones with HGC.", "Programming.", "CGA emulation.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The IBM Personal Computer was launched in 1981 with the Color Graphics Adapter (CGA) expansion card and the Monochrome Display And Printer Adapter. The CGA offered two basic operating modes: 320×200 pixel (or 40×25 character) low resolution or a 640×200 (or 80×25 characters) pixels high resolution mode. While the low-resolution mode was very comparable to 8-bit home computers of the era, the higher-resolution mode offered a fair advance, used with a suitable RGBI (or RGB) monitor (such as the IBM 5153 Personal Computer Color Display). Still, since by design CGA was able to be connected to cheap composite monitors and even to home TVs (via RF modulator), CGA was limited in resolution; its text modes has a character box size of 8×8 pixels, which made text fairly rough-looking, especially in the vertical direction, which had only one pixel row for descenders. Simultaneously announced, The Monochrome Display and Printer Adapter (MDPA), often shortened to Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA), which did not support pixel-addressable graphics of any sort, offered a high-quality 80×25 character mode, having a relatively high pixel-resolution of 720×350 (character box size 9×14), that could be used on a monochrome monitor (originally, specifically the IBM 5151 Personal Computer Display). Due to a continuous single-color phosphor, a digital connection with separate video and sync, and a signal format making no compromises for compatibility with lower resolution (e.g. composite NTSC) displays, monochrome monitors were sharper than CGA color. The MDPA also included a Centronics compatible parallel port for printers, which the CGA did not. Furthermore, a similar printer port was not originally available from IBM on any other card for the IBM PC. Many imitations were available, but many of them did not include the parallel port, so the video standard became known as \"MDA\", for \"Monochrome Display Adapter\", since MDPA was not applicable. An internal IBM publication described MDA's text output as \"beautiful\" and CGA's text output as \"rough\". For graphics and highest-quality text on one PC, it needed both video cards with two monitors. Most games only supported CGA, while a few extremely rare business applications only supported MDA. Since business software at the time was text based, most of it could run on either. Most software that used any specific capabilities of either would simply check the system settings for monitor type (via Int 11h), or check the current video mode (via Int 10h), to configure itself appropriately.", "The Hercules Graphics Card was developed in 1982 by Van Suwannukul, founder of Hercules Computer Technology. The system was created by Suwannukul initially so that he could work on his doctoral thesis on an IBM PC using the Thai alphabet, as Thai was his native language. In 1984, its list price was US$499 (), although it was often sold for less than the manufacturer's suggested price. The Hercules card was essentially an MDA-compatible monochrome card with an added all-points-addressable graphics mode. The card connected to IBM's monochrome 5151 monitor or a third-party monitor compatible with the 5151, and it displayed text and graphics in the same 720×350 pixel resolution format, in the same raster format, and at the same horizontal and vertical scan frequencies as the MDA. In the text mode, which the Hercules card reverted to when the PC was reset, it was almost exactly like the IBM MDA and could be treated by software as if it were an MDA. For full MDA compatibility, the HGC used a Motorola 6845 CRT controller (CRTC) chip like the one found on the MDA. The HGC was so compatible with the MDA in this regard that it did not provide its own BIOS ROM and was recognized and operated by the standard PC system board BIOS as an MDA. The graphics mode of the Hercules card used the same raster format and timing as the MDA text mode, as stated above, but unlike the text mode, it made all pixels addressable. To support this mode, the Hercules had a full 64 KB of video RAM—16 times the RAM of an MDA (4 KB) and four times the RAM of a CGA card (16 KB). The Hercules graphics mode had a lot in common with the CGA high-resolution (640×200) two-color mode: the video buffer contained a packed-pixel bitmap (eight pixels per byte, one bit per pixel) with the same byte format, including the pixel-to-bit mapping and byte order, as the CGA two-color graphics mode, and the video buffer was split into interleaved banks, each 8 KB in size, as in the CGA graphics modes. However, because in the Hercules graphics mode there were more than 256 scanlines and the display buffer size was nearly 32 KB (instead of 16,000 bytes as in all CGA graphics modes), four interleaved banks were used in the Hercules mode instead of two as in the CGA modes. Also, to represent 720 pixels per line instead of 640 as on the CGA, each scanline had 90 bytes of pixel data instead of 80. The 64 KB RAM of the HGC could hold two graphics display pages. Either page could be selected for display by setting or resetting a single bit in the Mode Control Register. Another bit, in a configuration register exclusive to the HGC, determined whether the second 32 KB of RAM on the HGC was accessible to the CPU at the base address B8000h. This bit was reset at system reset (e.g. power-on) so that the card would not conflict with a CGA or other color card at address B8000h. Programming for the Hercules card's native graphics mode was somewhat hindered by a lack of BIOS support and standardization from IBM—after all, the HGC was a competing technology. As stated, the Hercules card was supported as an MDA by the IBM PC BIOS and did not provide its own BIOS ROM (unlike most other video adapters after the MDA and CGA). Therefore, there was no BIOS support for the Hercules graphics mode, unlike all standard CGA, EGA, and VGA graphics modes. At least by December 1983, Hercules cards came with a \"GRAPH X\" installable program which enhanced the BIOS by adding Hercules graphics-mode support and even geometric drawing primitives. Popular IBM PC programs at the time (such as Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet, AutoCAD computer-aided drafting, Pagemaker and Xerox Ventura desktop publishing, and Microsoft Flight Simulator) came with their own drivers to use the Hercules graphics mode. Though the graphics mode of the Hercules card was not CGA-compatible, it was technically similar enough to the two CGA graphics modes that eventually through the use of third-party drivers (TSRs) it could also work (suboptimally) with most programs written for the CGA card's standard graphics modes. As the Hercules card did not actually have color-generating circuitry, nor could it connect to a color monitor, color appeared as simulated greyscale in varying patterns (in essence, a primitive form of half-toning or dithering.) Very large numbers of imitations of the Hercules appeared, including generic clones at very low prices, usually without the printer port. Hercules briefly ran ads implying that use of generic clones of the Hercules card could damage the monitor. Long after its prime, the Hercules card continued to be popular for dual-monitor setups alongside another (color) graphics adapter. Certain software detected the presence of both video systems, and used the monochrome display for extra data display, while running the application on the other screen—for example, a CAD work area would be displayed on the main (non-Hercules driven) screen, and a list of drawing commands would be shown on the HGC-driven monochrome screen. Some software debuggers could take advantage of an HGC to run the main program on the color monitor and the debugger on the HGC. Later on, the multi-monitor trick became obsolete with OS-related improvements such as the introduction of GUIs for debug commands as a software analogy for debug command modules. The dual-monitor capability of the original Hercules card and its imitations (and some successors) came from its emulation of an MDA rather than a CGA. When IBM designed the original two cards for the PC, the MDA and the CGA, it assigned them different I/O and memory address ranges. This made it possible for both cards to be installed and operated in the same computer at the same time. Subsequent video hardware standards from IBM—the EGA and VGA—used the same I/O and memory address ranges as the CGA (optionally emulating an MDA in its address ranges or using additional I/O and memory addresses not used by earlier cards). Therefore, an EGA or a VGA could replace a CGA and operate in color modes, but either could only replace an MDA, and operate alongside another color graphics card, if it was put into MDA-compatible mode, which gave no more display capability than the Hercules graphics card. Two color cards could not operate in color modes at the same time in a PC, PC XT, or PC AT. Therefore, the Hercules card (or, later, a much more expensive EGA operating in a configuration to essentially emulate the Hercules card) was the only way to produce two graphics displays on two monitors at the same time.", "The monitor is connected to the Hercules card through a DE9F connector using 5V TTL electrical signaling; the same as for an MDA card. Nominally, the Hercules card provides a horizontal scanning frequency of 18.425 ±0.500 kHz, and 50 Hz vertical. However, the Hercules actually ran at two slightly different frequencies depending on whether it was running in Text or Graphics mode. This is a side effect of the CRT controller using 9-pixel, 14-line character cells when impersonating the MDA, but having to use 8-by-4 pixel blocks to turn memory bytes into 1-bit pixels in graphics mode, with neither the total pixel count in a horizontal period nor total number of scanlines matching up completely. As the card's onboard clock crystal was also slightly different, at 16.000 MHz vs the MDA's (and later, EGA's) actual 16.257 MHz, \"neither\" mode was an exact match for the original sync structure, with the exact figures being 18.141 kHz and 49.84 Hz in text mode, plus 18.519 kHz and 50.32 Hz in graphics. However both are close enough to MDA's own 18.432 kHz and 49.82 Hz timings to fit within the sync tolerance of and work reliably on a typical IBM monochrome monitor or compatible. This tolerance was taken advantage of by the various Hercules clone cards, which themselves often exhibited less than accurate timings versus the original.", "", "Like the IBM Monochrome Display Adapter it improved on, the \"Hercules Graphics Card\" had both a parallel printer port and a video output port. Its text mode could display 80×25 text characters and was MDA-compatible. As such, it rendered characters in a box of 9×14 pixels, of which 7×11 made out the character itself (the other pixels being used for space between character columns and lines). This amounted to markedly clearer text display than the competing CGA adapter could offer. The total theoretical resolution of this text mode was 720×350 pixels. This number is arrived at through multiplying the character width of 9 pixels by the number of text columns possible on screen (80) as well as multiplying the character height of 14 pixels by the number of text lines (25). In the MDA-compatible text mode, however, these pixels were not individually addressable. The graphics mode simply made all pixels directly addressable. This translated to a resolution of not 720×350, but only 720×348 pixels (at 1 bit per pixel) because, for technical reasons (see Programming below), the screen height had to be a multiple of four. On a, which was the most common back then, the pixel ratio was 1:1.55. The Hercules card supported two graphic pages, one at address B0000h and one at address B8000h. The second page could be enabled or disabled by software. When it was disabled, the addresses used by the card did not overlap with those used by color adapters such as CGA or VGA. This made dual-screen operation possible simply through installation of a Hercules card next to, for instance, a VGA adapter.", "The HGC standard was extended by two later cards. Hercules also sold the \"Hercules Color Card\" (not to be confused with the InColor Card), a CGA-compatible video board. This board could coexist with the HGC and still allow both graphics pages to be used. It would detect when the second graphics page was selected and disable access to its own memory, which would otherwise have been at the same addresses.", "Other boards offered Hercules compatibility.", "Certain later models of the Tandy 1000 (such as the 1000 TL and SL) and the Epson Equity contained circuitry built into their CPU boards that supported Hercules display modes in addition to their standard CGA modes.", "As part of its commercial packaging, the Hercules Graphics Card included a diskette with HBASIC, an interpreted version of the BASIC computer language that enabled programming graphics on a monochrome monitor. In text modes, the memory appears just like an MDA card. The screen has 80×25 chars, so there are 80 ASCII code/attribute pairs per line (160 bytes per line, 2 bytes per symbol). The address of a given screen location in memory is given by the formula: Video timing on the HGC is provided by the Motorola 6845 video controller. This integrated circuit was originally designed only for character-based alphanumeric (text) displays and can only address a maximum of 128 character rows. To realize a graphics mode with 348 scanlines on the HGC, the MC6845 is programmed with 87 character rows per picture and four scanlines per character row. Because the video memory address output by the MC6845 is identical for each row within a character, the HGC must use the MC6845's \"row address\" output (i.e. the scanline within the character row) as additional address bits to fetch raster data from video memory. This implies that unless the size of a single scanline's raster data is a power of two, raster data cannot be laid out continuously in video memory. Instead, the lines are interleaved and thus addressing is slightly more complicated. There are 8 pixels per byte, 90 bytes per line. Consecutive lines on the screen are interleaved by 4 lines in memory, so in memory it looks like this: The memory address that contains a given pixel is given by: This code would set the correct pixel in that byte: The lack of preset BIOS modes for graphics meant the card was quite reprogrammable, within the limits of monitor sync tolerance. A somewhat popular modified driver called HERKULES was able to produce 720x360 graphics or 90x45 text (8x8 font) on a standard display, just short of the maximum 720x364 that would fit within a 32kb memory page, by careful adjustment of the sync parameters and coercing the card into using the CGA character set still present within the MDA ROM. Other drivers were able to produce different effects, for example a squarer 640x400 \"double CGA\" mode (similar to that offered by certain more upgraded and customised PC clones made by e.g. AT&T) within the same memory space; either by narrowing each scanline (increasing the scan frequency) and adding additional lines to the raster (thus also keeping the Vsync rate about the same), which required a multisync, EGA-class or unusually tolerant MDA-class monitor; or (for less tolerant monitors) by keeping the scan layout the same but turning on interlace which, in contrast to IBM's own CGA card, usually worked as intended with Hercules and suffered less flicker than might otherwise be expected thanks to the monochrome monitors' generally quite long-persistence phosphors.", "CGA emulation on a Hercules card could be done almost entirely via hardware, or through software (such as \"SIMCGA\" PC program) via \"brute force\" copying of data on a regular interrupt. Hardware emulation was normally something done by programmers of an application, such as a game, as a \"quick and dirty\" way to add Hercules support. Software emulation was performed by third-party utilities as a way to get graphics programs with only CGA support working on a Hercules. Hardware emulation was achieved by enabling the second Hercules video page, which would appear at segment B800h just like CGA, and then making it the visible page. The HGC onboard Motorola 6845 would then be reprogrammed to display 80 \"columns\" of data (640 pixels where each character is 8 pixels wide) instead of the usual 90 used in graphics mode (720 pixels with a character box of 8×4 pixels). Data was then written just as it would on a real CGA (i.e. the video display was updated by writing to segment 0xB800) with only minor changes due to the different memory interlacing structure. The advantage of this method was no loss of speed during the emulation: Data did not need to be significantly reformatted from the original CGA data while written, only interlaced differently. The disadvantage was that the image appeared vertically \"squashed\", as CGA data only used 200 lines of the 350 available. Software emulation would copy from the CGA video memory location to the Hercules memory location. It would reformat the CGA data (320×200 or 640×200 pixels) to the higher resolution (720×348) Hercules. Because of the reformatting of data while copying to completely fill the 720×348 graphics space, and the speed penalty introduced via that method, this introduced an interlacing type of display artifact since the copying could not complete before the beginning of the next display cycle.", "Although it cited flaws in the hardware and software, \"BYTE\" called the Hercules Graphics Card \"a fine product\" that gave owners of monochrome monitors graphics capability. \"PC Magazine\" reported successfully running CGA-compatible games on a monochrome display, and using the card with a Columbia MPC." ] }

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{ "title": [ "General features.", "Structure.", "Industry standard forms.", "Manuscript policies and endorsements." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The insurance contract or agreement is a contract whereby the insurer promises to pay benefits to the insured or on their behalf to a third party if certain defined events occur. Subject to the \"fortuity principle\", the event must be uncertain. The uncertainty can be either as to when the event will happen (e.g. in a life insurance policy, the time of the insured's death is uncertain) or as to if it will happen at all (e.g. in a fire insurance policy, whether or not a fire will occur at all).", "Insurance contracts were traditionally written on the basis of every single type of risk (where risks were defined extremely narrowly), and a separate premium was calculated and charged for each. Only those individual risks expressly described or \"scheduled\" in the policy were covered; hence, those policies are now described as \"individual\" or \"schedule\" policies. This system of \"named perils\" or \"specific perils\" coverage proved to be unsustainable in the context of the Second Industrial Revolution, in that a typical large conglomerate might have dozens of types of risks to insure against. For example, in 1926, an insurance industry spokesman noted that a bakery would have to buy a separate policy for each of the following risks: manufacturing operations, elevators, teamsters, product liability, contractual liability (for a spur track connecting the bakery to a nearby railroad), premises liability (for a retail store), and owners' protective liability (for negligence of contractors hired to make any building modifications). In 1941, the insurance industry began to shift to the current system where covered risks are initially defined broadly in an \"all risk\" or \"all sums\" insuring agreement on a general policy form (e.g., \"We will pay all sums that the insured becomes legally obligated to pay as damages...\"), then narrowed down by subsequent exclusion clauses (e.g., \"This insurance does not apply to...\"). If the insured desires coverage for a risk taken out by an exclusion on the standard form, the insured can sometimes pay an additional premium for an endorsement to the policy that overrides the exclusion. Insurers have been criticized in some quarters for the development of complex policies with layers of interactions between coverage clauses, conditions, exclusions, and exceptions to exclusions. In a case interpreting one ancestor of the modern \"products-completed operations hazard\" clause, the Supreme Court of California complained:", "In the United States, property and casualty insurers typically use similar or even identical language in their standard insurance policies, which are drafted by advisory organizations such as the Insurance Services Office and the American Association of Insurance Services. This reduces the regulatory burden for insurers as policy forms must be approved by states; it also allows consumers to more readily compare policies, albeit at the expense of consumer choice. In addition, as policy forms are reviewed by courts, the interpretations become more predictable as courts elaborate upon the interpretation of the same clauses in the same policy forms, rather than different policies from different insurers. In recent years, however, insurers have increasingly modified the standard forms in company-specific ways or declined to adopt changes to standard forms. For example, a review of home insurance policies found substantial differences in various provisions. In some areas such as directors and officers liability insurance and personal umbrella insurance there is little industry-wide standardization.", "For the vast majority of insurance policies, the only page that is heavily custom-written to the insured's needs is the declarations page. All other pages are standard forms that refer back to terms defined in the declarations as needed. However, certain types of insurance, such as media insurance, are written as manuscript policies, which are either custom-drafted from scratch or written from a mix of standard and nonstandard forms. By analogy, policy endorsements that are not written on standard forms or whose language is custom-written to fit the insured's particular circumstances are known as manuscript endorsements." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Overview.", "Versions.", "Parts before 1997.", "Versions after 1997.", "POSIX.1-2001 (with two TCs).", "POSIX.1-2008 (with two TCs).", "POSIX.1-2017.", "Controversies.", "512- vs 1024-byte blocks.", "POSIX-oriented operating systems.", "POSIX-certified.", "Mostly POSIX-compliant.", "POSIX for OS/2.", "POSIX for DOS.", "Compliant via compatibility feature." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "Originally, the name \"POSIX\" referred to IEEE Std 1003.1-1988, released in 1988. The family of POSIX standards is formally designated as IEEE 1003 and the international standard name is ISO/IEC 9945. The standards emerged from a project that began circa 1985. Richard Stallman suggested the name \"POSIX\" to the IEEE instead of former \"IEEE-IX\". The committee found it more easily pronounceable and memorable, and thus adopted it.", "Unix was selected as the basis for a standard system interface partly because it was \"manufacturer-neutral\". However, several major versions of Unix existed—so there was a need to develop a common-denominator system. The POSIX specifications for Unix-like operating systems originally consisted of a single document for the core programming interface, but eventually grew to 19 separate documents (POSIX.1, POSIX.2, etc). The standardized user command line and scripting interface were based on the UNIX System V shell. Many user-level programs, services, and utilities (including awk, echo, ed) were also standardized, along with required program-level services (including basic I/O: file, terminal, and network). POSIX also defines a standard threading library API which is supported by most modern operating systems. In 2008, most parts of POSIX were combined into a single standard \"(IEEE Std 1003.1-2008\", also known as \"POSIX.1-2008).\" , POSIX documentation is divided into two parts: The development of the POSIX standard takes place in the Austin Group (a joint working group among the IEEE, The Open Group, and the ISO/IEC JTC 1).", "", "Before 1997, POSIX comprised several standards:", "After 1997, the Austin Group developed the POSIX revisions. The specifications are known under the name Single UNIX Specification, before they become a POSIX standard when formally approved by the ISO.", "\"POSIX.1-2001\" (or IEEE Std 1003.1-2001) equates to the \"Single UNIX Specification version 3.\" This standard consisted of: IEEE Std 1003.1-2004 involved a minor update of POSIX.1-2001. It incorporated two minor updates or errata referred to as \"Technical Corrigenda\" (TCs). Its contents are available on the web.", "\"Base Specifications, Issue 7\" (or \"IEEE Std 1003.1-2008\", 2016 Edition) is similar to the current 2017 version (as of 22 July 2018). A free online copy may still be available. This standard consists of:", "IEEE Std 1003.1-2017 (Revision of IEEE Std 1003.1-2008) - IEEE Standard for Information Technology—Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX(R)) Base Specifications, Issue 7 is available from either The Open Group or IEEE and is, as of 22 July 2018, the current standard. It is technically identical to POSIX.1-2008 with Technical Corrigenda 1 and 2 applied.", "", "POSIX mandates 512-byte default block sizes for the df and du utilities, reflecting the typical size of blocks on disks. When Richard Stallman and the GNU team were implementing POSIX for the GNU operating system, they objected to this on the grounds that most people think in terms of 1024 byte (or 1 KiB) blocks. The environment variable was introduced to allow the user to force the standards-compliant behaviour. The variable name was later changed to. This variable is now also used for a number of other behaviour quirks, where \"POSIX and common sense disagree\".", "Depending upon the degree of compliance with the standards, one can classify operating systems as fully or partly POSIX compatible. Certified products can be found at the IEEE's website.", "Some versions of the following operating systems have been certified to conform to one or more of the various POSIX standards. This means that they passed the automated conformance tests.", "The following, while not officially certified as POSIX compatible, comply in large part:", "Mostly POSIX compliant environments for OS/2:", "Partially POSIX compliant environments for DOS include:", "The following are not officially certified as POSIX compatible, but they conform in large part to the standards by implementing POSIX support via some sort of compatibility feature (usually translation libraries, or a layer atop the kernel). Without these features, they are usually noncompliant." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Jung's persona.", "Identification.", "Disintegration.", "Negative restoration.", "Absence.", "Restoration.", "Later developments.", "Jordan Peterson." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The development of a viable social persona is a vital part of adapting to, and preparing for, adult life in the external social world. \"A strong ego relates to the outside world through a flexible persona; identifications with a specific persona (doctor, scholar, artist, etc.) inhibits psychological development... Thus for Jung \"the danger is that [people] become identical with their personas—the professor with his textbook, the tenor with his voice.\" The result could be \"the shallow, brittle, conformist kind of personality which is 'all persona', with its excessive concern for 'what people think'\"—an unreflecting state of mind 'in which people are utterly unconscious of any distinction between themselves and the world in which they live. They have little or no concept of themselves as beings distinct from what society expects of them'. The stage was set thereby for what Jung termed enantiodromia—the emergence of the repressed individuality from beneath the persona later in life: 'the individual will either be completely smothered under an empty persona or an enantiodromia into the buried opposites will occur'.", "\"The breakdown of the persona constitutes the typically Jungian moment both in therapy and in development\"—the \"moment\" when \"that excessive commitment to collective ideals masking deeper individuality—the persona—breaks down... disintegrates.\" Given Jung's view that \"the persona is a semblance... the dissolution of the persona is therefore absolutely necessary for individuation.\" Nevertheless, its disintegration may well lead initially to a state of chaos in the individual: \"one result of the dissolution of the persona is the release of fantasy... disorientation.\" As the individuation process gets under way, \"the situation has thrown off the conventional husk and developed into a stark encounter with reality, with no false veils or adornments of any kind.\"", "One possible reaction to the resulting experience of archetypal chaos was what Jung called \"the regressive restoration of the persona\", whereby the protagonist \"laboriously tries to patch up his social reputation within the confines of a much more limited personality... pretending that he is as he was \"before\" the crucial experience.\" Similarly in treatment there can be \"the \"persona-restoring\" phase, which is an effort to maintain superficiality\"; or even a longer phase designed not to promote individuation but to bring about what Jung caricatured as \"the negative restoration of the persona\"—that is to say, a reversion to the \"status quo\".", "The alternative is to endure living with the absence of the persona—and for Jung \"the man with no persona... is blind to the reality of the world, which for him has merely the value of an amusing or fantastic playground.\" Inevitably, the result of \"the streaming in of the unconscious into the conscious realm, simultaneously with the dissolution of the 'persona' and the reduction of the directive force of consciousness, is a state of disturbed psychic equilibrium.\" Those trapped at such a stage remain \"blind to the world, hopeless dreamers... spectral Cassandras dreaded for their tactlessness, eternally misunderstood.\"", "Recovery, the aim of individuation, \"is not only achieved by work on the inside figures but also, as \"conditio sine qua non\", by a readaptation in outer life\"—including the recreation of a new and more viable persona. To \"develop a stronger persona... might feel inauthentic, like learning to \"play a role\"... but if one cannot perform a social role then one will suffer\". Thus one goal for individuation is for people to \"develop a more realistic, flexible persona that helps them navigate in society but does not collide with nor hide their true self\". Eventually, \"in the best case, the persona is appropriate and tasteful, a true reflection of our inner individuality and our outward sense of self.\"", "The persona has become one of the most widely adopted aspects of Jungian terminology, passing into almost common parlance: \"a mask or shield which the person places between himself and the people around him, called by some psychiatrists the \"persona\".\" For Eric Berne, \"the persona is formed during the years from six to twelve, when most children first go out on their own... to avoid unwanted entanglements or promote wanted ones.\" He was interested in \"the relationship between ego states and the Jungian \"persona\"\", and considered that \"as an \"ad hoc\" attitude, persona is differentiated also from the more autonomous \"identity\" of Erikson.\" Perhaps more contentiously, in terms of life scripts, he distinguished \"the Archetypes (corresponding to the magic figures in a script) and the Persona (which is the style the script is played in)\". Post-Jungians would loosely call the persona \"the \"social\" archetype of the \"conformity\" archetype\", though Jung himself was always concerned to distinguish the persona as an external function from those images of the unconscious he called archetypes. Thus whereas Jung recommended conversing with archetypes as a therapeutic technique he himself had employed—\"For decades I always turned to the anima when I felt my emotional behavior was disturbed, and I would speak with the anima about the images she communicated to me\"—he stressed that \"It would indeed be the height of absurdity if a man tried to have a conversation with his persona, which he recognized merely as a psychological means of relationship.\"", "University of Toronto psychology professor Jordan Peterson, well-known as an admirer of Jung’s work, uses Jungian terminology but reconfigures it into a model that divides the psychological world into the domains of ‘nature’ and ‘culture.’ The Great Father of culture is an archetypal force that shapes the potential of chaos into the actuality of order. In this framework, the persona would be the aspect of the personality that has been adapted to culture, more specifically to the social dominance hierarchy. People who refuse to submit to this social discipline or carry the responsibility inherent in having a role in the world remain as undifferentiated potential, known in more Jungian terms as peter pan syndrome, or the negative aspect of the puer aeternus. Though Jung doesn’t use this framework exactly, it is broadly in accordance with his conception of the persona as defined in his Two Essays on Analytical Psychology: “We can see how a neglected persona works, and what one must do to remedy the evil. Such people can avoid disappointments and an infinity of sufferings, scenes, and social catastrophes only by learning to see how men behave in the world. They must learn to understand what society expects of them; they must realize that there are factors and persons in the world far above them; they must know that what they do has a meaning for others.”" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Names and places.", "Western astronomy.", "Asian traditions.", "Stars.", "Guidepost.", "Cultural associations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The constellation of Ursa Major (Latin: Greater Bear) has been seen as a bear, a wagon, or a ladle. The \"bear\" tradition is Indo-European (appearing in Greek, as well as in Vedic India), but apparently the name \"bear\" has parallels in Siberian or North American traditions.", "The name \"Bear\" is Homeric, and apparently native to Greece, while the \"Wain\" tradition is Mesopotamian. Book XVIII of Homer's \"Iliad\" mentions it as \"the Bear, which men also call the Wain\". In Latin, these seven stars were known as the \"Seven Oxen\" (', from '). Classical Greek mythography identified the \"Bear\" as the nymph Callisto, changed into a she-bear by Hera, the jealous wife of Zeus. In Ireland and the United Kingdom, this pattern is known as the Plough (Irish: An Camchéachta – the bent plough). The symbol of the Starry Plough has been used as a political symbol by Irish Republican and left wing movements. Former names include the Great Wain (i.e., wagon), Arthur's Wain or Butcher's Cleaver. The terms Charles's Wain and Charles his Wain are derived from the still older \"Carlswæn\". A folk etymology holds that this derived from Charlemagne, but the name is common to all the Germanic languages and the original reference was to the churls' (i.e., the men's) wagon, in contrast to the women's wagon, (the Little Dipper). An older \"Odin's Wain\" \"may\" have preceded these Nordic designations. In German, it is known as the \"Great Wagon\" (') and, less often, the \"Great Bear\" ('). In Scandinavia, it is known by variations of \"Charles's Wagon\" (\",, or \"), but also the \"Great Bear\" (). In Dutch, its official name is the \"Great Bear\" (\"\"), but it is popularly known as the \"Saucepan\" (\"\"). In Italian, too, it is called the \"Great Wagon\" (\"\"). Romanian and most Slavic languages also call it the \"Great Wagon\". In Hungarian, it is commonly known as \"Göncöl's Wagon\" (') or, less often, \"Big Göncöl\" (') after a táltos (\"shaman\") in Hungarian mythology who carried medicine that could cure any disease. In Finnish, the figure is known as with established etymology in the archaic meaning'salmon net', although other uses of the word refer to 'bear' and 'wheel'. The bear relation is claimed to stem from the animal's resemblance to—and mythical origin from—the asterism rather than vice versa. In Lithuanian, the stars of Ursa Major are known as \"Didieji Grįžulo Ratai\" (\"The Big Back Wheels\"). Other names for the constellation include \"Perkūno Ratai\" (\"The Wheels of Perkūnas\"), \"Kaušas\" (\"The Bucket\"), \"Vežimas\" (\"The Carriage\"), and \"Samtis\" (\"The Ladle\").", "In traditional Chinese astronomy, which continues to be used throughout East Asia (e.g., in astrology), these stars are generally considered to compose the Right Wall of the Purple Forbidden Enclosure which surrounds the Northern Celestial Pole, although numerous other groupings and names have been made over the centuries. Similarly, each star has a distinct name, which likewise has varied over time and depending upon the asterism being constructed. The Western asterism is now known as the \"Northern Dipper\" () or the \"Seven Stars of the Northern Dipper\" (). The personification of the Big Dipper itself is also known as \"Doumu\" () in Chinese folk religion and Taoism, and Marici in Buddhism. In Vietnam, the colloquial name for the asterism is \"Sao Bánh Lái Lớn\" (The Big Rudder Stars), contrasted with Ursa Minor, which is known as \"Sao Bánh Lái Nhỏ\" (The Little Rudder Stars). Although this name has now been substituted by the Sino-Vietnamese \"Bắc Đẩu\" in everyday speech, many coastal communities in central and southern Vietnam still refer to the asterism as such and use it to navigate when their fishing vessels return from the sea at night. In Shinto, the seven largest stars of Ursa Major belong to Amenominakanushi, the oldest and most powerful of all kami. In Malay, it is known as the \"Boat Constellation\" (\"\"); in Indonesian, as the \"Canoe Stars\" (\"Bintang Biduk\"). In Burmese, these stars are known as \"Pucwan Tārā\" (ပုဇွန် တာရာ, pronounced \"bazun taja\"). \"Pucwan\" (ပုဇွန်) is a general term for a crustacean, such as prawn, shrimp, crab, lobster, etc. While its Western name come from the star pattern's resemblance to a kitchen ladle, in Filipino, the Big Dipper and its sister constellation the Little Dipper are more often associated with the \"tabo\", a one-handled water pot used ubiquitously in Filipino households and bathrooms for purposes of personal hygiene. In the earliest Indian astronomy, the Big Dipper was called \"the Bear\" (Ṛkṣa, ) in the Rigveda, but was later more commonly known by the name of Saptarishi, \"Seven Sages.\"", "Within Ursa Major the stars of the Big Dipper have Bayer designations in consecutive Greek alphabetical order from the bowl to the handle. In the same line of sight as Mizar, but about one light-year beyond it, is the star Alcor (80 UMa). Together they are known as the \"Horse and Rider\". At fourth magnitude, Alcor would normally be relatively easy to see with the unaided eye, but its proximity to Mizar renders it more difficult to resolve, and it has served as a traditional test of sight. Mizar itself has four components and thus enjoys the distinction of being part of an optical binary as well as being the first-discovered telescopic binary (1617) and the first-discovered spectroscopic binary (1889). Five of the stars of the Big Dipper are at the core of the Ursa Major Moving Group. The two at the ends, Dubhe and Alkaid, are not part of the swarm, and are moving in the opposite direction. Relative to the central five, they are moving down and to the right in the map. This will slowly change the Dipper's shape, with the bowl opening up and the handle becoming more bent. In 50,000 years the Dipper will no longer exist as we know it, but be re-formed into a new Dipper facing the opposite way. The stars Alkaid to Phecda will then constitute the bowl, while Phecda, Merak, and Dubhe will be the handle.", "Not only are the stars in the Big Dipper easily found themselves, they may also be used as guides to yet other stars. Thus it is often the starting point for introducing Northern Hemisphere beginners to the night sky: Additionally, the Dipper may be used as a guide to telescopic objects:", "The \"Seven Stars\" referenced in the Bible's Book of Amos may refer to these stars or, more likely, to the Pleiades. In addition, the constellation has also been used in corporate logos and the Alaska flag. The seven stars on a red background of the Flag of the Community of Madrid, Spain, are the stars of the Big Dipper Asterism. The same can be said about the seven stars pictured in the bordure azure of the Coat of arms of Madrid, capital of Spain. The asterism's prominence on the north of the night sky produced the adjective \"\" (literally, pertaining to seven plow oxen) in Romance languages and English. The character Dipper Pines from the animated series \"Gravity Falls\" is (nick)named after the Big Dipper because he has a birthmark on his forehead in the shape of the constellation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Novel ideas.", "Project history.", "Current status.", "Retrospective observations.", "Influence on other projects.", "Unix.", "Other operating systems.", "Further reading." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Initial planning and development for Multics started in 1964, in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Originally it was a cooperative project led by MIT (Project MAC with Fernando Corbató) along with General Electric and Bell Labs. It was developed on the GE 645 computer, which was specially designed for it; the first one was delivered to MIT in January, 1967. Multics was conceived as a commercial product for General Electric, and became one for Honeywell, albeit not very successfully. Due to its many novel and valuable ideas, Multics had a significant impact on computer science despite its faults. Multics had numerous features intended to ensure high availability so that it would support a computing utility similar to the telephone and electricity utilities. Modular hardware structure and software architecture were used to achieve this. The system could grow in size by simply adding more of the appropriate resource, be it computing power, main memory, or disk storage. Separate access control lists on every file provided flexible information sharing, but complete privacy when needed. Multics had a number of standard mechanisms to allow engineers to analyze the performance of the system, as well as a number of adaptive performance optimization mechanisms.", "Multics implemented a single-level store for data access, discarding the clear distinction between files (called \"segments\" in Multics) and \"process memory\". The memory of a process consisted solely of segments that were mapped into its address space. To read or write to them, the process simply used normal central processing unit (CPU) instructions, and the operating system took care of making sure that all the modifications were saved to disk. In POSIX terminology, it was as if every file were codice_1ed; however, in Multics there was no concept of \"process memory\", separate from the memory used to hold mapped-in files, as Unix has. \"All\" memory in the system was part of \"some\" segment, which appeared in the file system; this included the temporary scratch memory of the process, its kernel stack, etc. One disadvantage of this was that the size of segments was limited to 256 kilowords, just over 1 MiB. This was due to the particular hardware architecture of the machines on which Multics ran, having a 36-bit word size and index registers (used to address within segments) of half that size (18 bits). Extra code had to be used to work on files larger than this, called multisegment files. In the days when one megabyte of memory was prohibitively expensive, and before large databases and later huge bitmap graphics, this limit was rarely encountered. Another major new idea of Multics was dynamic linking, in which a running process could request that other segments be added to its address space, segments which could contain code that it could then execute. This allowed applications to automatically use the latest version of any external routine they called, since those routines were kept in other segments, which were dynamically linked only when a process first tried to begin execution in them. Since different processes could use different search rules, different users could end up using different versions of external routines automatically. Equally importantly, with the appropriate settings on the Multics security facilities, the code in the other segment could then gain access to data structures maintained in a different process. Thus, to interact with an application running in part as a daemon (in another process), a user's process simply performed a normal procedure-call instruction to a code segment to which it had dynamically linked (a code segment that implemented some operation associated with the daemon). The code in that segment could then modify data maintained and used in the daemon. When the action necessary to commence the request was completed, a simple procedure return instruction returned control of the user's process to the user's code. Multics also supported extremely aggressive on-line reconfiguration: central processing units, memory banks, disk drives, etc. could be added and removed while the system continued operating. At the MIT system, where most early software development was done, it was common practice to split the multiprocessor system into two separate systems during off-hours by incrementally removing enough components to form a second working system, leaving the rest still running the original logged-in users. System software development testing could be done on the second system, then the components of the second system were added back to the main user system, without ever having shut it down. Multics supported multiple CPUs; it was one of the earliest multiprocessor systems. Multics was the first major operating system to be designed as a secure system from the outset. Despite this, early versions of Multics were broken into repeatedly. This led to further work that made the system much more secure and prefigured modern security engineering techniques. Break-ins became very rare once the second-generation hardware base was adopted; it had hardware support for ring-oriented security, a multilevel refinement of the concept of master mode. Multics was the first operating system to provide a hierarchical file system, and file names could be of almost arbitrary length and syntax. A given file or directory could have multiple names (typically a long and short form), and symbolic links between directories were also supported. Multics was the first to use the now-standard concept of per-process stacks in the kernel, with a separate stack for each security ring. It was also the first to have a command processor implemented as ordinary user code – an idea later used in the Unix shell. It was also one of the first written in a high-level language (Multics PL/I), after the Burroughs MCP system written in ALGOL.", "In 1964, Multics was developed initially for the GE-645 mainframe, a 36-bit system. GE's computer business, including Multics, was taken over by Honeywell in 1970; around 1973, Multics was supported on the Honeywell 6180 machines, which included security improvements including hardware support for protection rings. Bell Labs pulled out of the project in 1969; some of the people who had worked on it there went on to create the Unix system. Multics development continued at MIT and General Electric. Honeywell continued system development until 1985. About 80 multimillion-dollar sites were installed, at universities, industry, and government sites. The French university system had several installations in the early 1980s. After Honeywell stopped supporting Multics, users migrated to other systems like Unix. In 1985, Multics was issued certification as a B2 level secure operating system using the Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria from the National Computer Security Center (NCSC) a division of the NSA, the first operating system evaluated to this level. Multics was distributed from 1975 to 2000 by Groupe Bull in Europe, and by Bull HN Information Systems Inc. in the United States. In 2006, Bull SAS open sourced Multics versions MR10.2, MR11.0, MR12.0, MR12.1, MR12.2, MR12.3, MR12.4 & MR12.5. The last known Multics installation running natively on Honeywell hardware was shut down on October 30, 2000, at the Canadian Department of National Defence in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.", "In 2006 Bull HN released the source code for MR12.5, the final 1992 Multics release, to MIT. Most of the system is now available as open-source software with the exception of some optional pieces such as TCP/IP. In 2014 Multics was successfully run on current hardware using a emulator. The 1.0 release of the emulator is now available. Release 12.6f of Multics accompanies the 1.0 release of the emulator, and adds a few new features, including command line recall and editing using the video system.", "Peter H. Salus, author of a book covering Unix's early years, stated one position: \"With Multics they tried to have a much more versatile and flexible operating system, and it failed miserably\". This position, however, has been widely discredited in the computing community because many of Multics' technical innovations are used in modern commercial computing systems. The permanently resident kernel of Multics, a system derided in its day as being too large and complex, was only 135 KB of code. In comparison, a Linux system in 2007 might have occupied 18 MB. The first MIT GE-645 had 512 kilowords of memory (2 MiB), a truly enormous amount at the time, and the kernel used only a moderate portion of Multics main memory. The entire system, including the operating system and the complex PL/1 compiler, user commands, and subroutine libraries, consisted of about 1500 source modules. These averaged roughly 200 lines of source code each, and compiled to produce a total of roughly 4.5 MiB of procedure code, which was fairly large by the standards of the day. Multics compilers generally optimised more for code density than CPU performance, for example using small sub-routines called \"operators\" for short standard code sequences, which makes comparison of object code size with modern systems less useful. High code density was a good optimisation choice for Multics as a multi-user system with expensive main memory.", "", "The design and features of Multics greatly influenced the Unix operating system, which was originally written by two Multics programmers, Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie. Superficial influence of Multics on Unix is evident in many areas, including the naming of some commands. But the internal design philosophy was quite different, focusing on keeping the system small and simple, and so correcting some deficiencies of Multics because of its high resource demands on the limited computer hardware of the time. The name \"Unix\" (originally \"Unics\") is itself a pun on \"Multics\". The \"U\" in Unix is rumored to stand for \"uniplexed\" as opposed to the \"multiplexed\" of Multics, further underscoring the designers' rejections of Multics' complexity in favor of a more straightforward and workable approach for smaller computers. (Garfinkel and Abelson cite an alternative origin: Peter Neumann at Bell Labs, watching a demonstration of the prototype, suggested the pun name UNICS – pronounced \"eunuchs\" – as a \"castrated Multics\", although Dennis Ritchie is said to have denied this.) Ken Thompson, in a transcribed 2007 interview with Peter Seibel refers to Multics as \"overdesigned and overbuilt and over everything. It was close to unusable. They [Massachusetts Institute of Technology] still claim it's a monstrous success, but it just clearly wasn't\". On the influence of Multics on Unix, Thompson stated that \"the things that I liked enough (about Multics) to actually take were the hierarchical file system and the shell — a separate process that you can replace with some other process\".", "The Prime Computer operating system, PRIMOS, was referred to as \"Multics in a shoebox\" by William Poduska, a founder of the company. Poduska later moved on to found Apollo Computer, whose AEGIS and later Domain/OS operating systems, sometimes called \"Multics in a matchbox\", extended the Multics design to a heavily networked graphics workstation environment. The Stratus VOS operating system of Stratus Computer (now Stratus Technologies) was very strongly influenced by Multics, and both its external user interface and internal structure bear many close resemblances to the older project. The high-reliability, availability, and security features of Multics were extended in Stratus VOS to support a new line of fault tolerant computer systems supporting secure, reliable transaction processing. Stratus VOS is the most directly-related descendant of Multics still in active development and production usage today. The protection architecture of Multics, restricting the ability of code at one level of the system to access resources at another, was adopted as the basis for the security features of ICL's VME operating system.", "The literature contains a large number of papers about Multics, and various components of it; a fairly complete list is available at the Multics Bibliography page. The most important and/or informative ones are listed below." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Abiotic factors.", "Biotic factors.", "Anthropogenic factors.", "Genetic factors.", "Combined influences." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Gradients in climactic factors create physiological barriers to dispersal. All species have limits of tolerance to abiotic factors, which can lower their survival and reproductive success and limit range expansion beyond the edge. Changes in temperature may cause a species to change its geographical distribution. With increasing temperatures resulting from global warming, species have been seen to expand their range northward due to increased survival and reproduction as a result of warming. Precipitation can also be a key determinant in limiting the geographic range edges of species. This is often seen in organisms with high water demands, whose survival and reproduction would decrease beyond the edge due to dry conditions, limiting expansion. Moisture of soil or air is also seen to limit range expansion. In terms of soil moisture, limited range expansion for species that forage on soil organisms or for species that reside in soil and rely on it for nutrients are seen. If moisture requirements are not met beyond the species range, they will not be able to expand due to resulting reductions in fitness. There are many other abiotic factors that can determine a species range, including dissolved oxygen, canopy cover, conductivity, alkalinity and pH.", "Interactions between species can cause limitations to a species geographic range. The most obvious interaction that limits range expansion is predation, where prey species do not move beyond their range to avoid predator attack and mortality. Geographic range edges can also be determined by competition, where less competitive species are forced into suboptimal conditions within the range to avoid stress of reduced food and habitat. The geographic range of one species may be linked to another, where the range of one species cannot extend independent of the other. This is seen in mutualistic relationships, where fitness and population growth are reduced outside of the hosts range where the symbiont is not present. Parasitism can also play a role in limiting the expansion of species outside of their range. This occurs when there is a higher presence of infection at the range edges that reduces population growth and survivorship and ultimately reduces further expansion. Higher parasite presence can occur when abiotic conditions are unfavorable at the edge, leading to lower resistance of species to the infection.", "Humans are responsible for causing changes to the environment and habitat that plants and animals rely on for survival. These impacts have the potential to alter species behaviours, interactions and distributions. Many areas are deforested in order to provide land for agriculture or industrial use. Deforestation can cause loss of habitat for millions of species and can cause expansion or contraction of their geographic range. For species that require deforested land, they may expand in their range to take advantage of new habitat, however for species that require forest for survival their geographic range may decrease or change completely. the Global warming resulting from green house gases emitted into the air has been seen to cause changes in species dispersal and geographic distribution. Due to rising temperatures, organisms move northward to reach slightly colder temperatures to track the environmental niche they are adapted to. This allows them to continue stable survival and reproduction and ultimately sustain their population. Humans have also initiated many range expansions by transporting species to new locations both intentionally and accidentally. These introduced species can survive and reproduce in these new locations and expand their geographic range as long as conditions are suitable. These species may also cause changes in the geographic range of native species that cannot tolerate competition from invasive species, who possess novel ways of using resources.", "Studies of the genetic influences on geographic range limits tend to focus on genetic effects that restrict peripheral populations from expanding beyond their range edge. Many hypotheses have been proposed, however there has not been a general consensus on one main cause. Most hypotheses stem from the fact that peripheral populations are expected to be small, due to less optimal conditions at the edge. One hypothesis predicts that due to smaller population size at the edge, genetic drift will have a larger effect and reduce genetic variation of edge populations. With less genetic variation, populations at the edge may have difficulty adapting to changing conditions. Another hypothesis predicts that high selection pressure at the peripheral edge will only allow for a few genotypes to survive, decreasing genetic variation and future adaptation. Reduced gene flow between central and peripheral populations has also been hypothesized as a limitation for species expansion. Without introduction of new alleles from central to edge populations, genetic variation will remain low and peripheral populations will have difficulty adapting to new conditions. Contrary to this, some hypothesize that gene flow between central and peripheral populations can prevent range expansion, where gene flow causes contamination of the edge gene pool. Conditions at the center of the range differ from those at the periphery; therefore adapted alleles at the center may not benefit those at the edge who experience different conditions. The Allee effect has also been proposed to reduce range expansion, where small population sizes lead to reduced cooperation and survival. There are many potential causes of the allee effect, including mate-finding failure or inbreeding. At low densities, the challenge for males and females to locate each other is much larger, leading to decreased reproduction and survival. Small population sizes may also cause species to mate with their relatives, increasing chances of lethal alleles within the population and decreasing survival.", "In most cases, combinations of factors are responsible for limiting the geographic range edge of species. Abiotic and biotic factors may work as co-factors in determining the ability of species to expand their range. This is found in obligate seeder plants, who require fire to activate their seed bank and produce seeds, and require mediated dispersal of seeds by other species to expand their range. This can also be seen in species that share an overlapping range, where competition for food and habitat determines where each species resides. Abiotic and anthropogenic factors can be found to work together to limit a species range. Deforestation can result in climate change, where reduced protection from sun blocking tree cover causes forest soils to lose moisture and dry out. Species that live in soil or forage on soil living species require moisture for survival, therefore changes in their geographical distribution may occur if these conditions are not met. Genetic factors can interplay with abiotic and or biotic factors as determinants of a species range, where unfavorable conditions can reduce fitness and survival of species, limiting their distribution." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Features.", "Definition.", "Methods.", "List of methods.", "Digital electronic money.", "Reverse money laundering.", "Magnitude.", "Combating.", "Criminalization.", "Role of financial institutions.", "Enforcement costs and associated privacy concerns.", "Global organizations.", "Anti-money laundering measures by region.", "Afghanistan.", "Australia.", "Bangladesh.", "Canada.", "European Union.", "India.", "Latin America.", "Economic impact in the region.", "Jurisprudence.", "Singapore.", "United Kingdom.", "South Africa.", "United States.", "Preventive.", "Criminal sanctions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "Laws against money laundering were created to use against organized crime during the period of Prohibition in the United States during the 1930s. Organized crime received a major boost from Prohibition and a large source of new funds that were obtained from illegal sales of alcohol. The successful prosecution of Al Capone on tax evasion brought in a new emphasis by the state and law enforcement agencies to track and confiscate money, but existing laws against tax evasion could not be used once gangsters started paying their taxes. In the 1980s, the war on drugs led governments again to turn to money laundering rules in an attempt to track and seize the proceeds of drug crimes in order to catch the organizers and individuals running drug empires. It also had the benefit, from a law enforcement point of view, of turning rules of evidence \"upside down\". Law enforcers normally have to prove an individual is guilty to seize their property, but with money laundering laws money can be confiscated and it is up to the", "", "Money laundering is the conversion or transfer of property; the concealment or disguising of the nature of the proceeds; the acquisition, possession or use of property, knowing that these are derived from criminal activity; or participating in or assisting the movement of funds to make the proceeds appear legitimate. Money obtained from certain crimes, such as extortion, insider trading, drug trafficking, and illegal gambling is \"dirty\" and needs to be \"cleaned\" to appear to have been", "", "Money laundering can take several forms, although most methodology can be categorized", "In theory, electronic money should provide as easy a method of transferring value without revealing identity as untracked banknotes, especially wire transfers involving anonymity-protecting numbered bank accounts. In practice, however, the record-keeping capabilities of Internet service providers and other network resource maintainers tend to frustrate that intention. While some cryptocurrencies under recent development have aimed to provide for more possibilities of transaction anonymity for various reasons, the degree to which they succeed—and, in consequence, the degree to which they offer benefits for money laundering efforts—is controversial. Solutions such as ZCash and Monero are examples of cryptocurrencies that provide unlinkable anonymity via proofs and/or obfuscation of information (ring signatures). Such currencies could find use in online illicit services. In 2013, Jean-Loup Richet, a research fellow at ESSEC ISIS, surveyed new techniques that cybercriminals were using in a report written for the United", "Reverse money laundering is a process that disguises a legitimate source of funds that are to be used for illegal purposes. It is usually perpetrated for the purpose of financing terrorism but can be also used by criminal organizations that have invested in legal businesses and would like to withdraw legitimate funds from official circulation. Unaccounted cash received via disguising financial transactions is not included in official financial reporting and could be used to evade taxes, hand in bribes and pay \"under-the-table\" salaries. For example, in an", "Many regulatory and governmental authorities issue estimates each year for the amount of money laundered, either worldwide or within their national economy. In 1996, a spokesperson for the IMF estimated that 2–5% of the worldwide global economy involved laundered money. The Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF), an intergovernmental body set up to combat money laundering, stated, \"Due to the illegal nature of the transactions, precise statistics are not available and it is therefore impossible to produce a definitive estimate of the amount of money that is globally laundered every year. The FATF therefore does not publish any figures in this regard.\" Academic commentators have likewise been unable to estimate the volume of money with any degree of assurance. Various estimates of the scale of global money laundering are sometimes repeated often enough to make some people regard them as factual—but", "Anti-money laundering (AML) is a term mainly used in the financial and legal industries to describe the legal controls that require financial institutions and other regulated entities to prevent, detect, and report money laundering activities. Anti-money laundering guidelines came into prominence globally as a result of the formation of the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) and the promulgation of an international framework of anti-money laundering standards. These standards began to have more relevance in 2000 and 2001, after FATF began a process to publicly identify countries that were deficient in their anti-money laundering laws and international cooperation, a process colloquially known as \"name and shame\". An effective AML program requires a jurisdiction to criminalise money laundering, giving the relevant regulators and police the powers and tools to investigate; be able to share information with other countries as appropriate; and require financial institutions to identify their customers, establish risk-based controls, keep records, and report suspicious activities. Strict background checks are necessary to combat as many money launderers escape by investing through complex ownership and company structures. Banks can do that but proper surveillance is required but on the government side to reduce this. Over recent years, the rise in anti-money laundering mechanisms has been attributed to the use of big data and artificial intelligence. Traditional anti-money laundering systems are falling behind against evolving threats and new technologies are helping AML compliance officers to deal with: poor implementation, expanding regulation, administrative complexity, false positives.", "The elements of the crime of money laundering are set forth in the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances", "While banks operating in the same country generally have to follow the same anti-money laundering laws and regulations, financial institutions all structure their anti-money laundering efforts slightly differently. Today, most financial institutions globally, and many non-financial institutions, are required to identify and report transactions of a suspicious nature to the financial intelligence unit in the respective country. For example, a bank must verify a customer's identity and, if necessary, monitor transactions for suspicious activity. This process comes under \"know your customer\" measures, which means knowing the identity of the customer and understanding the kinds of transactions in which the customer is likely", "The financial services industry has become more vocal about the rising costs of anti-money laundering regulation and the limited benefits that they claim it brings. One commentator wrote that \"[w]ithout facts, [anti-money laundering] legislation has been driven on rhetoric, driving by ill-guided activism responding to the need to be \"seen to be doing something\" rather than by an objective understanding of its effects on predicate crime. The social panic approach is justified by the language used—we talk of the battle", "Formed in 1989 by the G7 countries, the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF) is an intergovernmental body whose purpose is to develop and promote an international response to combat money laundering. The FATF Secretariat is housed at the headquarters of the OECD in Paris. In October 2001, FATF expanded its mission to include combating the financing of terrorism. FATF is a policy-making body that brings together legal, financial, and law enforcement experts to achieve national legislation and regulatory AML and CFT reforms. its membership consists of 36 countries and territories and two regional organizations. FATF works in collaboration with a number of international bodies and organizations. These entities have observer status with FATF, which does not entitle them to vote, but permits them full participation in plenary sessions and working groups. FATF has developed 40 recommendations", "Many jurisdictions adopt a list of specific predicate crimes for money laundering prosecutions, while others criminalize the proceeds of any serious crimes.", "The Financial Transactions and Reports Analysis Center of Afghanistan (FinTRACA) was established as a Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU) under the Anti Money Laundering and Proceeds of Crime Law passed by decree late in 2004. The main purpose of this law is to protect the integrity of the Afghan financial system and to gain compliance with international treaties and conventions. The Financial Intelligence Unit is a semi-independent body that is administratively housed within the Central Bank of Afghanistan (Da Afghanistan Bank). The main objective of FinTRACA is to deny the use of the Afghan financial system to those who obtained funds as the result of illegal activity, and to those", "Australia has adopted a number of strategies to combat money laundering, which mirror those of a majority of western countries. The Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre (AUSTRAC) is Australia's financial intelligence unit to combat money laundering and terrorism financing, which requires every provider of designated services in Australia to report to it suspicious cash or other transactions and other specific information. The Attorney-General's Department maintains a list of outlawed terror organisations. It is an offense to materially support or be supported by such organisations. It is an offence to open a", "The first anti-money laundering legislation in Bangladesh was the \"Money Laundering Prevention Act, 2002\". It was replaced by the \"Money Laundering Prevention Ordinance 2008\". Subsequently, the ordinance was repealed by the \"Money Laundering Prevention Act, 2009\". In 2012, government again replace it with the \"Money Laundering Prevention Act, 2012\" In terms of section 2, \"Money Laundering means – (i) knowingly moving, converting, or transferring proceeds of crime or property involved in an offence for the following purposes:- (1) concealing or disguising the illicit nature, source, location, ownership or control of the proceeds of crime; or (2) assisting any person involved in the commission of the predicate offence to evade the legal consequences of such offence; (ii) smuggling money or property earned through legal or illegal means to", "In 1991, the Proceeds of Crime (Money Laundering) Act was brought into force in Canada to give legal effect to the former FATF Forty Recommendations by establishing record keeping and client identification requirements in the financial sector to facilitate the investigation and prosecution of money laundering offences under the Criminal Code and the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act. In 2000, the Proceeds of Crime (Money Laundering) Act was amended to expand the scope of its application and to establish a financial intelligence unit with national control over money laundering, namely FINTRAC. In December 2001, the scope of the Proceeds of Crime (Money Laundering) Act was again expanded by amendments enacted under the Anti-Terrorism Act with the objective of deterring terrorist activity by cutting off sources and channels of funding used by", "The fourth iteration of the EU's anti-money laundering directive (AMLD IV) was published on 5 June 2015, after clearing its last legislative stop at the European Parliament. This directive brought the EU's money laundering laws more in line with the US's, which is advantageous for financial institutions operating in both jurisdictions. The Fifth Money Laundering Directive (5MLD) comes into force on 10 January 2020, addressing a number of weaknesses in the European Union's AML/CFT regime that came to light after the enactment of the Fourth Money Laundering Directive AMLD IV).. The AMLD5 increased the scope of the EU's AML regulations. It decreased the threshold of customer identity verification for the prepaid card industry from EUR 250 to EUR 150. The customers who deposit or transfer funds more than EUR150 will be identified by the prepaid card issuing company. Lack of harmonization in AML requirements between the US and EU has complicated the compliance efforts of global institutions that are looking to standardize the Know Your Customer (KYC) component of their", "In 2002, the Parliament of India passed an act called the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002. The main objectives of this act are to prevent money-laundering as well as to provide for confiscation of property either derived from or involved in, money-laundering. Section 12 (1) describes the obligations that banks, other financial institutions, and intermediaries have to Section 12 (2) prescribes that the records referred to in sub-section (1) as mentioned above, must be maintained for ten years after the transactions finished. It", "In Latin America, money laundering is mainly linked to drug trafficking activities and to having connections with criminal activity, such as crimes that have to do with arms trafficking, human trafficking, extortion, blackmail, smuggling, and acts of corruption of people linked to governments, such as bribery, which are more common in Latin American countries. There is a relationship between corruption and money laundering in developing countries. The economic power of Latin America increases rapidly and without support, these fortunes being of illicit origin having the appearance of legally acquired profits. With regard to money laundering, the ultimate goal of the process is to integrate illicit capital into the general economy and transform it into licit goods and services. The money laundering practice uses various channels to legalize everything achieved through illegal practices. As such, it has different techniques depending on the country where this illegal operation is going to be carried out: Casinos continue to attract organizations that deal with money laundering. Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles, the Cayman Islands, Colombia, Mexico, Panama and Venezuela are considered high priority countries in the region, due to the strategies used by the washers.", "The practice of money laundering, among other economic and financial crimes seeps into the economic and political structures of most developing countries therefore resulting to political instability and economic digression. Money laundering is still a great concern for the financial services industry. About 50% of the money laundering incidents in Latin America were reported by organizations in the financial sector. According to PwC's 2014 global economic crime survey, in Latin America only 2.8% of respondents in Latin America claimed suffering Antitrust/Competition Law incidents, compared to 5.2% of respondents globally. It has been", "Money laundering has been increasing. A key factor behind the growing money laundering is ineffective enforcement of money laundering laws locally. Perhaps because of the lack of importance that has been given to the subject, since the 21st century started, there was not jurisprudence regarding the laundering of money or assets, or the conversion or transfer of goods. Which is even worse, the laws of the Latin American countries have really not dealt with their study in a profound way, as it is an issue that concerns the whole world and is the subject of seminars, conferences and academic analysis in different regions of the planet. Now a new figure that is being called the Economic Criminal Law is being implemented, which should be implemented in modern societies, which has been inflicted enormous damage to the point of affecting the general economy of the states. Even though, developing countries have responded and continue to respond, through legislative measures, to the problem of money laundering, at national level, however, money launderers, have taken advantage of the lax regulatory environment, vulnerable financial systems along with the continued civil and political unrest of most the developing countries.", "Singapore’s legal framework for combating money laundering is contained in a patchwork of legal instruments, the main elements of which are: The", "Money laundering and terrorist funding legislation in the UK is governed by five Acts of primary legislation:- Money Laundering Regulations are designed to protect the UK financial system, as well as preventing and detecting crime. If a business is covered by these regulations then controls are put in place to prevent it being used for money laundering. The Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 contains the primary UK anti-money laundering legislation, including provisions requiring businesses within the \"regulated sector\" (banking, investment, money transmission, certain professions, etc.) to report to the authorities suspicions of money laundering by customers or others. Money laundering is broadly defined in the UK. In effect any handling or involvement with any proceeds of any crime (or monies or assets representing the proceeds of crime) can be a money laundering offence. An offender's possession of the proceeds of his own crime falls within the UK definition of money laundering. The definition also covers activities within the traditional definition of money laundering, as a process that conceals or disguises the proceeds of crime to make them appear legitimate. Unlike certain other jurisdictions (notably the US and much of Europe), UK money laundering offences are not limited to the proceeds of serious crimes, nor are there any monetary limits. Financial transactions need no money laundering design or purpose for UK laws to consider them a money laundering offence. A money laundering offence under UK legislation need not even involve money, since the money laundering legislation covers assets of any description. In consequence, any person who commits an acquisitive crime (i.e., one that produces some benefit in the form of money or an asset of any description) in the UK inevitably also commits a money laundering offence under UK legislation. This applies also to a person who, by criminal conduct, evades a liability (such as a taxation liability)—which lawyers call \"obtaining a pecuniary advantage\"—as he is deemed thereby to obtain a sum of money equal in value to the liability evaded. The principal money laundering offences carry a maximum penalty of 14 years' imprisonment. Secondary regulation is provided by the Money Laundering Regulations 2003, which was replaced by the Money Laundering Regulations 2007. They are directly based on the EU directives 91/308/EEC, 2001/97/EC and 2005/60/EC. One consequence of the Act is that solicitors, accountants, tax advisers, and insolvency practitioners who suspect (as a consequence of information received in the course of their work) that their clients (or others) have engaged in tax evasion or other criminal conduct that produced a benefit, now must report their suspicions to the authorities (since these entail suspicions of money laundering). In most circumstances it would be an offence, \"tipping-off\", for the reporter to inform the subject of his report that a report has been made. These provisions do not however require disclosure to the authorities of information received by certain professionals in privileged circumstances or where the information is subject to legal professional privilege. Others that are subject to these regulations include financial institutions, credit institutions, estate agents (which includes chartered surveyors), trust and company service providers, high value dealers (who accept cash equivalent to €15,000 or more for goods sold), and casinos. Professional guidance (which is submitted to and approved by the UK Treasury) is provided by industry groups including the Joint Money Laundering Steering Group, the Law Society. and the Consultative Committee of Accountancy Bodies (CCAB). However, there is no obligation on banking institutions to routinely report monetary deposits or transfers above a specified value. Instead reports must be made of all suspicious deposits or transfers, irrespective of their value. The reporting obligations include reporting suspicious gains from conduct in other countries that would be criminal if it took place in the UK. Exceptions were later added for certain activities legal where they took place, such as bullfighting in Spain. More than 200,000 reports of suspected money laundering are submitted annually to authorities in the UK (there were 240,582 reports in the year ended 30 September 2010. This was an increase from the 228,834 reports submitted in the previous year). Most of these reports are submitted by banks and similar financial institutions (there were 186,897 reports from the banking sector in the year ended 30 September 2010). Although 5,108 different organisations submitted suspicious activity reports to the authorities in the year ended 30 September 2010, just four organisations submitted approximately half of all reports, and the top 20 reporting organisations accounted for three-quarters of all reports. The offence of failing to report a suspicion of money laundering by another person carries a maximum penalty of 5 years' imprisonment. On 1 May 2018, the UK House of Commons, without opposition, passed the Sanctions and Anti-Money Laundering Bill, which will set out the UK government's intended approach to exceptions and licenses when the nation becomes responsible for implementing its own sanctions and will also require notorious overseas British territory tax havens such as the Cayman Islands and the British Virgin Islands to establish public registers of the beneficial ownership of firms in their jurisdictions by the end of 2020. The legislation was passed by the House of Lords on 21 May and received Royal Asset on 23 May. However, the Act's public register provision is facing legal challenges from local governments in the Cayman Islands and British Virgin Islands, who argue that it violates their Constitutional sovereignty. Under the Proceeds of Crime Act goods that criminals cannot legally account for are seized and sold at auction to raise funds. This is usually carried out by authorised auction houses and often within the geographical areas of the criminals.", "In South Africa, the Financial Intelligence Centre Act (2001) and", "The approach in the United States to stopping money laundering is usually broken into two areas: preventive (regulatory) measures and criminal measures.", "In an attempt to prevent dirty money from entering the U.S. financial system in the first place, the United States Congress passed a series of laws, starting in 1970, collectively known as the Bank Secrecy Act (BSA). These laws, contained in sections 5311 through 5332 of Title 31 of the United States Code, require financial institutions, which under the current definition include a broad array of entities, including banks, credit card companies, life insurers, money service businesses and broker-dealers in securities, to report certain transactions to the United States Department of the Treasury. Cash transactions in excess of a certain amount must be reported on a currency transaction report (CTR), identifying the individual making the transaction as well as the source of the cash. The law", "Money laundering has been criminalized in the United States since the Money Laundering Control Act of 1986. The law, contained at section 1956 of Title 18 of the United States Code, prohibits individuals from engaging in a financial transaction with proceeds that were generated from certain specific crimes, known as \"specified unlawful activities\" (SUAs). The law requires that an individual specifically intend in making the transaction to conceal the source, ownership or control of the funds. There is no minimum threshold of money, and no requirement that the transaction succeeded in actually disguising the money. A \"financial transaction\" has been broadly defined, and need not involve a financial institution, or even a business. Merely passing money from one person to another, with the intent to disguise the source, ownership, location or control of the money, has been deemed a financial transaction under the law. The possession of money without either a financial transaction or an intent to conceal is not a crime in the United States. Besides money laundering, the law contained in section 1957 of Title 18 of the United States Code, prohibits spending more than US$10,000 derived from an SUA, regardless of whether the individual wishes to disguise it. It carries a lesser penalty than money laundering, and unlike the money laundering statute, requires that the money pass through a financial institution. According to the records compiled by the United States Sentencing Commission, in 2009, the United States" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Backends.", "Xglx.", "Xegl.", "Rationale.", "Competitors.", "Availability." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Xgl was originally developed on public mailing lists, but for a long time, until January 2, 2006 most development of Xgl was done behind closed doors. On that day the source to Xgl was re-opened to the public, and included in freedesktop.org, along with major restructuring to allow a wider range of supported display drivers. X server backends used by Xgl include Xglx and Xegl. In February 2006 the server gained wide publicity after a public display where the Novell desktop team demonstrated a desktop using Xgl with several visual effects such as translucent windows and a rotating 3D desktop. The effects had first been implemented in a composite manager called glxcompmgr (not to be confused with xcompmgr), now deprecated because several effects could not be adequately implemented without tighter interaction between the window manager and the composite manager. As a solution David Reveman developed Compiz, the first proper OpenGL compositing window manager for the X Window System. Later, in September 2006, the Beryl compositing window manager was released as a fork of the original Compiz. Compiz and Beryl have merged back in April 2007, which resulted in the development of Compiz Fusion.", "OpenGL does not specify how to initialize a display and manipulate drawing contexts. Instead these operations are handled by an API specific to the native windowing system. So far there are two different backend approaches to solving this initialization problem. Most likely the majority of each backend will contain the same code and the differences will primarily be in the initialization portions of the servers.", "\"Xglx\" was the first backend implemented for this architecture. It requires an already existing X server to run on top of and uses GLX to create an OpenGL window which Xgl then uses, similar to Xnest. This mode is only intended to be used for development in the future, as it is redundant to require an X server to run Xgl on top of. At XDevConf 2006 (the 2006 X development conference), NVIDIA made a presentation arguing that this is the wrong direction to take because the layered server abstracts features of the cards away. This makes driver specific capabilities like support for 3D glasses and dual monitor support much more difficult. However, delegating initialization to an existing X server allows the developers to immediately focus on server functionality rather than dedicating substantial time to specifics of interfacing with numerous video hardware. At the moment, Xglx does not officially support multiple monitors, although it has been achieved on Ubuntu Dapper / ATI / NVIDIA (twinview).", "\"Xegl\" was a long-term goal of X server development. It shares much of the drawing code with the Xglx server, but the initialization of the OpenGL drawable and context management is handled by the EGL API developed by Khronos (EGL is a window system-independent equivalent to the GLX and WGL APIs, which respectively enable OpenGL support in X and Microsoft Windows). The current implementation uses Mesa-solo to provide OpenGL rendering directly to the Linux framebuffer or DRI to the graphics hardware. Xegl can only be run using Radeon R200 graphics hardware and development is currently stalled. It is likely that it will remain so until the Xglx server has proven itself and the closed source drivers add support for the EGL API, when it should be a transparent replacement for the nested Xglx server.", "Structuring all rendering on top of OpenGL could potentially simplify video driver development. It removes the artificial separation of 2D and 3D acceleration. This is advantageous as 2D operations are frequently unaccelerated (which is counterintuitive, since 2D is a subset of 3D). It also removes all driver-dependent code from the X server itself, and allows for accelerated Composite and Render operations independent of the graphics driver.", "Hardware acceleration of 2D drawing operations has been a common feature of many window systems (including X11) for many years. The novelty of Xgl and similar systems is the use of APIs specifically developed for 3D rendering for accelerating 2D desktop operations. Prior to the adoption of anti-aliased drawing by X11, the use of 3D rendering APIs for 2D desktop rendering was undesirable because such APIs did not make the pixel accurate rendering guarantees that are part of the original X11 protocol definition. Hardware-accelerated OpenGL window and desktop rendering, limited to using OpenGL for texture composition, has been in use in Mac OS X, in a technology called Quartz Extreme, since Mac OS X v10.2. Quartz 2D Extreme is an enhancement of this feature and more directly comparable to Xgl. Like Xgl, Quartz 2D Extreme brings OpenGL acceleration to all 2D drawing operations (not just desktop compositing) and ships with Mac OS X v10.4, but is disabled by default pending a formal declaration of production-readiness. Core Animation is the extension of this effort for Leopard (Mac OS X v10.5). Several desktop interfaces based on 3D APIs have been developed, more recently OpenCroquet and Sun Microsystems' Project Looking Glass ; these take advantage of 3D acceleration for software built within their own framework, but do not appear to accelerate existing 2D desktop applications rendered within their environment (often via mechanisms like VNC). Microsoft developed a similar technology based on DirectX, named the DWM, as part of its Windows Vista operating system. This technology was first shown publicly at Microsoft's October 2003 PDC.", ", the Xgl X Server (and related components including the Compiz compositing manager and associated graphical config tools) ships as a non-default in one major Linux distribution, SUSE 10.1, and is included in Frugalware Linux or SUSE Linux Enterprise Desktop 10. Xgl can be set up fairly easily for Ubuntu 6.06 LTS (Dapper Drake) and 6.10 (Edgy Eft) and for Freespire with binary packages from unofficial repositories. Xgl is also available as an overlaid package in Gentoo Linux, and as a PKGBUILD for Arch Linux. Mandriva Linux 2007 includes official packages to run Compiz, using Xgl and AIGLX. Mandriva provides drak3d, a tool to configure a 3D Desktop in two clicks. Ubuntu 6.10 \"Edgy Eft\" and later use AIGLX, not Xgl, by default. Xgl was removed from X11R7.5 in 2009 due to its being an unmaintained server variant." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career.", "Newspaper correspondent.", "War reporting.", "Osama bin Laden.", "Syrian Civil War.", "Views.", "Personal life.", "Awards and honours.", "Works.", "Books.", "Video documentary." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Fisk was an only child, born in Maidstone, Kent. His father William ('Bill') Fisk (1899–1992) was Borough Treasurer at Maidstone Corporation and had fought in the First World War. At the end of the war Bill Fisk was punished for disobeying an order to execute another soldier; \"My father's refusal to kill another man was the only thing he did in his life which I would also have done.\" Though his father said little about his part in the war, it held a fascination for his son. After his father's death, he discovered him to have been the scribe of his battalion's war diaries from August 1918. Robert Fisk was educated at Yardley Court, a preparatory school, then at Sutton Valence School and Lancaster University, where he worked on the student magazine \"John O'Gauntlet\". He gained a PhD in Political Science, from Trinity College, Dublin in 1983; the title of his doctoral thesis was \"A condition of limited warfare: Éire's neutrality and the relationship between Dublin, Belfast and London, 1939–1945\".", "", "Fisk worked on the \"Sunday Express\" diary column before a disagreement with the editor, John Junor, prompted a move to \"The Times\". From 1972 to 1975, at the height of the Troubles, Fisk was \"The Times\" Belfast correspondent, before being posted to Portugal following the Carnation Revolution in 1974. He then was appointed Middle East correspondent (1976–1988). In addition to the Troubles and Portugal, he reported the Iranian revolution in 1979. When a story of his was spiked (Iran Air Flight 655) after Rupert Murdoch's takeover, he moved to \"The Independent\" in April 1989. \"The New York Times\" once described Robert Fisk as \"probably the most famous foreign correspondent in Britain\".", "Fisk has lived in Beirut since 1976, remaining throughout the Lebanese Civil War. He was one of the first journalists to visit the scene of the Sabra and Shatila massacre in Lebanon, as well as the Syrian Hama Massacre. His book on the Lebanese conflict, \"Pity the Nation\", was first published in 1990. Fisk also reported on the Soviet–Afghan War, the Iran–Iraq War, the Arab–Israeli conflict, the Gulf War, the Kosovo War, the Algerian Civil War, the Bosnian War, the 2001 international intervention in Afghanistan, the invasion of Iraq in 2003, the Arab Spring in 2011 and the ongoing Syrian Civil War. During the Iran–Iraq War, he suffered partial but permanent hearing loss as a result of being close to Iraqi heavy artillery in the Shatt-al-Arab when covering the early stages of the conflict. After the United States and allies launched their intervention in Afghanistan, Fisk was for a time transferred to Pakistan to provide coverage of the conflict. While reporting from there, he was attacked and beaten by a group of Afghan refugees fleeing heavy bombing by the United States Air Force. He was ultimately rescued from this attack by another Afghan refugee. In his graphic account of his own beating, Fisk absolved the attackers of responsibility and pointed out that their \"brutality was entirely the product of others, of us—of we who had armed their struggle against the Russians and ignored their pain and laughed at their civil war and then armed and paid them again for the 'War for Civilisation' just a few miles away and then bombed their homes and ripped up their families and called them 'collateral damage.'\" During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Fisk was based in Baghdad and filed many eyewitness reports. He has criticised other journalists based in Iraq for what he calls their \"hotel journalism\", reporting from one's hotel room without interviews or first hand experience of events. His opposition to the war brought criticism from both Irish \"Sunday Independent\" columnist and senator, Eoghan Harris, and \"The Guardian\" columnist, Simon Hoggart. Fisk has criticised the Coalition's handling of the sectarian violence in post-invasion Iraq, and argued that the official narrative of sectarian conflict is not possible: \"The real question I ask myself is: who are these people who are trying to provoke the civil war? Now the Americans will say it's Al Qaeda, it's the Sunni insurgents. It is the death squads. Many of the death squads work for the Ministry of Interior. Who runs the Ministry of Interior in Baghdad? Who pays the Ministry of the Interior? Who pays the militia men who make up the death squads? We do, the occupation authorities. (...) We need to look at this story in a different light.\"", "Fisk interviewed Osama bin Laden on three occasions, reporting the interviews in articles published by \"The Independent\" on 6 December 1993, 10 July 1996, and 22 March 1997. In Fisk's first interview, \"Anti-Soviet warrior puts his army on the road to peace,\" he wrote of Osama Bin Laden: \"With his high cheekbones, narrow eyes and long brown robe, Mr Bin Laden looks every inch the mountain warrior of mujahedin legend. Chadored children danced in front of him, preachers acknowledged his wisdom\" while noting that he was accused of \"training for further jihad wars\". During one of Fisk's interviews with Bin Laden, Fisk noted an attempt by Bin Laden to convert him. Bin Laden said; \"Mr Robert, one of our brothers had a dream...that you were a spiritual person... this means you are a true Muslim\". Fisk replied; \"Sheikh Osama, I am not a Muslim.... I am a journalist [whose] task is to tell the truth\". Bin Laden replied: \"If you tell the truth, that means you are a good Muslim\". During the 1996 interview, Bin Laden accused the Saudi royal family of corruption. During the final interview in 1997, Bin Laden said he sought God's help \"to turn America into a shadow of itself\". Fisk strongly condemned the September 11 attacks, describing them as a \"hideous crime against humanity\". He also denounced the Bush administration's response to the attacks, arguing that \"a score of nations\" were being identified and positioned as \"haters of democracy\" or \"kernels of evil\", and urged a more honest debate on U.S. policy in the Middle East. He argued that such a debate had hitherto been avoided \"because, of course, to look too closely at the Middle East would raise disturbing questions about the region, about our Western policies in those tragic lands, and about America's relationship with Israel\". In 2007, Fisk expressed personal doubts about the official historical record of the attacks. In an article for \"The Independent\", he claimed that, while the Bush administration was incapable of successfully carrying out such attacks due to its organisational incompetence, he is \"increasingly troubled at the inconsistencies in the official narrative of 9/11\" and added that he does not condone the \"crazed'research' of David Icke\", but is \"talking about scientific issues\". Fisk had earlier addressed similar concerns in a speech at Sydney University in 2006. During the speech, Fisk said: \"Partly I think because of the culture of secrecy of the White House, never have we had a White House so secret as this one. Partly because of this culture, I think suspicions are growing in the United States, not just among Berkeley guys with flowers in their hair. (...) But there are a lot of things we don't know, a lot of things we're not going to be told. (...) Perhaps the [fourth] plane was hit by a missile, we still don't know\". Bill Durodie notes that \"recently published compilation of Osama bin Laden’s writings reveals how frequently he is inclined to cite Western writers, Western diplomats and Western thinkers. At one point he even advises the White House to read Robert Fisk, rather than, as one might have supposed, the Koran.\"", "From September 2012 onward, Fisk's reporting on the conflict in Syria has received a critical response with assertions he has sided with the Assad government. Sam Hamad, among others, has accused Fisk of being embedded with the Syrian army in Aleppo and Damascus and of \"trumpet[ing]\" Syrian and Russian government propaganda. Loubna Mrie said that Fisk claimed the Syrian government \"did not use chemical weapons in various attacks on civilians\". Reporting from Douma, Syria in April 2018 on the Douma chemical attack, he quoted a Syrian doctor (who he said used some terms in common with the Assad government) who attributed the victims' breathing problems not to gas but to dust and lack of oxygen after heavy shelling by Assad forces. Other people he spoke to doubted a gas attack, and Fisk queried such an incident. Richard Spencer and Catherine Philp in \"The Times\" reported that journalists had been taken to Douma on a government-organised trip while international investigators were forced to remain in Damascus. The Snopes website said other reporters on the same trip as Fisk had interviewed locals who made known their inhalation of toxic gas. Fisk returned to the subject of the Douma attacks in early January 2020 in an article concerning the apparent internal disagreements within the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) recorded in documents released by WikiLeaks. Fisk was profiled in Yung Chang's 2019 documentary film \"This Is Not a Movie\".", "Fisk has described himself as a pacifist and has never voted. He has said that journalism must \"challenge authority, all authority, especially so when governments and politicians take us to war.\" He has quoted with approval Israeli journalist Amira Hass: \"There is a misconception that journalists can be objective... What journalism is really about is to monitor power and the centres of power.\" He spoke on \"Lies, Misreporting, and Catastrophe in the Middle East\" at the First Congregational Church of Berkeley on 22 September 2010, and stated, \"I think it is the duty of a foreign correspondent to be neutral and unbiased on the side of those who suffer, whoever they may be.\" He has written at length on how much contemporary conflicts have their origins, in his view, in lines drawn on maps: \"After the allied victory of 1918, at the end of my father's war, the victors divided up the lands of their former enemies. In the space of just seventeen months, they created the borders of Northern Ireland, Yugoslavia and most of the Middle East. And I have spent my entire career—in Belfast and Sarajevo, in Beirut and Baghdad—watching the people within those borders burn.\" Fisk has also written extensively about the Armenian Genocide of 1915 and has supported moves to persuade the Turkish Government to acknowledge the truth of what happened in it.", "He married American-born journalist Lara Marlowe in 1994. They divorced in 2006—there were no children.", "Fisk has received the British Press Awards' International Journalist of the Year seven times, and twice won its \"Reporter of the Year\" award. He also received Amnesty International UK Media Awards in 1992 for his report \"The Other Side of the Hostage Saga\", in 1998 for his reports from Algeria and again in 2000 for his articles on the NATO air campaign against the FRY in 1999.", "", "His 2005 work, \"The Great War for Civilisation\", with its criticism of Western and Israeli approaches to the Middle East, was generally well received by critics and students of international affairs and is perhaps his best-known work. However, the reviewer for \"The Guardian\", the former British ambassador to Libya, Oliver Miles, was less enthusiastic. He wrote that \"a deplorable number of mistakes\" in the 1,366 pages long book \"undermine the reader's confidence\", and that \"vigilant editing and ruthless pruning could perhaps have made two or three good short books out of this one\".", "Fisk produced a three-part series titled \"From Beirut To Bosnia\" in 1993 which Fisk says was an attempt \"to find out why an increasing number of Muslims had come to hate the West.\" Fisk says that the Discovery Channel did not show a repeat of the films, after initially showing them in full, due to a letter campaign launched by pro-Israel groups such as CAMERA." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Journalism, broadcasting, and film careers.", "Governor General of Canada.", "As governor general-designate.", "In office.", "Military duties and welcomes overseas.", "\"Loose cannon\" accusation.", "Parliamentary prorogation.", "Seal meat, new uniforms, and crisis in Haiti.", "End of tenure.", "Post-viceregal life.", "Secretary-General of La Francophonie.", "Titles, styles, honours, and arms.", "Honours.", "Honorific eponyms." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "Jean's family hails from Haiti; she was born in Port-au-Prince, baptized at the Holy Trinity Cathedral, and spent winters in that city and summers and weekends in Jacmel, her mother's hometown. Though her father worked as principal and teacher for a Protestant independent school in Port-au-Prince, Jean was educated at home, as her parents did not want her swearing allegiance to the then Haitian president, François Duvalier, as all Haitian schoolchildren were required to do. With her family, Jean fled Haiti to escape Duvalier's regime, under which Jean's father was arrested and tortured in 1965. Jean's father left for Canada in 1967 and Jean, her mother, and sister, arrived the following year; the family settled together at Thetford Mines, Quebec. Jean's father, however, became increasingly distant and violent, and her parents' marriage eventually fell apart; she, with her mother and sister, then moved to a basement apartment in the Little Burgundy neighbourhood of Montreal. Jean received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Italian and Hispanic languages and literature from the University of Montreal, and, from 1984 to 1986, taught Italian Studies there, while completing her Master of Arts degree in comparative literature. She then went on with language and literature studies at the University of Florence, the University of Perugia, and the Catholic University of Milan. Besides French and English, Jean is fluent in Spanish, Italian, and Haitian Creole, and can read Portuguese. Concurrent with her studies between 1979 and 1987, Jean coordinated a study on spousal abuse and worked at a women's shelter, which paved the way for her establishment of a network of shelters for women and children across Canada. She also involved herself in organizations dedicated to assisting immigrants to Canada obtain the entry they desired, and later worked for Employment and Immigration Canada and at the \"Conseil des Communautés culturelles du Québec\", where Jean began writing about the experiences of immigrant women. She married French-born, Canadian filmmaker Jean-Daniel Lafond, and the couple adopted as their daughter Marie-Éden, an orphaned child from Jacmel. Through her marriage to Lafond, Jean has two stepdaughters.", "Jean became a reporter, filmmaker, and broadcaster for Radio-Canada in 1988, hosting news and affairs programmes such as \"Actuel\", \"Montréal ce soir\", \"Virages\", and \"Le Point\"; she was the first person of Caribbean descent to be seen on French television news in Canada. She then moved in 1995 to \"Réseau de l'information\" (RDI), Radio-Canada's all-news channel, in order to anchor a number of programmes, \"Le Monde ce soir\", \"l'Édition québécoise\", \"Horizons francophones\", \"Les Grands reportages\", \"Le Journal RDI\", and \"RDI à l'écoute\", for example. Four years later, she was asked by CBC's English language all-news channel, CBC Newsworld, to host \"The Passionate Eye\" and \"Rough Cuts\", which both broadcast the best in Canadian and foreign documentary films. By 2004, Jean was hosting her own show, \"Michaëlle\", while continuing to anchor RDI's \"Grands reportages\", as well as acting occasionally as anchor of \"Le Téléjournal\". Over the same period, Jean made several films with her husband, including the award-winning \"Haïti dans tous nos rêves\" (\"Haiti in All Our Dreams\"), in which she meets her uncle, the poet and essayist René Depestre, who fled from the Duvalier dictatorship into exile in France and wrote about his dreams for Haiti, and tells him Haiti awaits his return. She similarly produced and hosted news and documentary programming for television on both the English and French services of the CBC.", "Jean was Canada's first governor general of Caribbean origin; the third woman (after Jeanne Sauvé and Adrienne Clarkson); the fourth youngest (after the Marquess of Lorne, who was 33 years old in 1878; the Marquess of Lansdowne, who was 38 years old in 1883; and Edward Schreyer, who was 43 years old in 1979); the fourth former journalist (after Sauvé, Roméo LeBlanc and Clarkson); and the second after Clarkson to not only have neither a political nor military background, but also to be a visible minority, to break the tradition of Canadian-born governors general, and to be in an interracial marriage. Jean was also the first representative of Queen Elizabeth II to have been born during the latter's reign, and her appointment saw the first child living in Rideau Hall, the official residence, since Schreyer and his young family lived there in the early 1980s.", "On August 4, 2005, it was announced from the Office of the Prime Minister of Canada that Queen Elizabeth II had approved Prime Minister Paul Martin's choice of Jean to succeed Adrienne Clarkson as the Queen's representative. At the time, Martin said of Jean that she \"is a woman of talent and achievement. Her personal story is nothing short of extraordinary. And extraordinary is precisely what we seek in a governor generalship—who after all must represent all of Canada to all Canadians and to the rest of the world as well.\" Almost immediately, there was speculation that Martin had been influenced by the political climate in Ottawa at the time, leading the Prime Minister to deny that rejuvenated popularity for his party in Quebec was a motivating factor in his decision. From Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition, the upcoming appointment was met with mostly favourable comments, Jean's predecessor applauded the choice, saying that Jean was \"an exciting and imaginative choice for Governor General.\" In her first remarks after this announcement, Jean herself encouraged Canadians to involve themselves in their communities, and stated that she wished to reach out to all Canadians, regardless of their background, and made it a goal to focus especially on Canadian youth and the disadvantaged. However, by August 11, 2005, reports emerged of a forthcoming piece by René Boulanger for the Quebec sovereigntist publication \"Le Québécois\" that would reveal Jean and her husband's support for Quebec independence, citing Lafond's associations with former members of the terrorist organization, the \"Front de libération du Québec\" (FLQ), specifically Jacques Rose. Though Boulanger admitted that he was motivated to incite a rejection of Jean by Anglophone Canadians, Gilles Rhéaume, former president of the Saint-Jean-Baptiste Society, called on the Governor General-Designate to reveal how she voted in Quebec's 1995 referendum on independence, and Members of Parliament, as well as some provincial premiers, demanded that Jean and her husband clarify where their sympathies lay. Then, four days after the Prime Minister publicly explained that Jean and her spouse had both undergone thorough background checks by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the Canadian Security Intelligence Service, there came to light, on August 17, the existence of a documentary in which Jean had been filmed with several hard-line Quebec separatists, all toasting \"to independence\" after Jean stated: \"Independence can't be given, it must be taken.\" That same day, Jean responded with a public statement, saying \"I wish to tell you unequivocally that both my husband and I are proud to be Canadian and that we have the greatest respect for the institutions of our country. We are fully committed to Canada. I would not have accepted this position otherwise... [We] have never belonged to a political party or the separatist movement,\" and went on to say that in the documented footage she had been speaking about Haiti, and not Quebec. Martin added on his earlier comments: \"There is no doubt in my mind that her devotion to Canada is longstanding and resolute,\" though some critics continued to argue that Jean's response had been too vague. By late August, polls showed that there had been a 20% drop in support for the recommendation of Jean as the next governor general, in response to which the Haitian community voiced their support for Jean, even holding special church services in her honour. Jean reaffirmed in late 2010 that the rumours of her separatist sympathies were untrue and revealed that she had been upset by those journalists who she saw as capitalizing on sensationalism, rather than seeking accuracy through investigation, but she had been advised repeatedly not to respond. The Queen held audience with Jean and her family on September 6, 2005, at Balmoral Castle. Though this type of meeting with a governor general-designate was standard, Jean's was unique in that the presence of her young daughter marked the first time in Elizabeth's reign that her designated viceroy-to-be had brought a child to an audience, which caused some protocol issues. The weekend was informal; for one dinner, coincidentally on the eve of Jean's birthday, the Queen drove Jean and her family to a cottage on the Balmoral estate, where they were joined by Prince Philip and Prince Edward, who, along with the Queen, performed the cooking and washing up. Of it, Jean said \"[i]t was probably the best birthday of my life.\" The commission appointing Jean was issued on September 10 under the royal sign-manual and Great Seal of Canada. Upon her return to Canada, Jean yet again became a target when the subject of her dual citizenship was raised, in particular the French variety she had obtained through her marriage to the French-born Lafond. A section of the French civil code forbade French citizens from holding government or military positions in other countries, yet Jean, as governor general, would hold a governmental position as the representative of Canada's head of state, and, as such, would have a military role carrying out the duties of Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Forces, as constitutionally vested in the monarch. The French embassy in Ottawa stated that there was \"no question\" that the law would not be enforced in Jean's case, but, on September 25, two days before her swearing-in, Jean made it public that she had renounced her French citizenship \"[in] light of the responsibilities related to the function of Governor General of Canada and Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Forces\" and \"France acceded to my request by decree on September 23, 2005.\"", "At her investiture ceremony in the Senate chamber on September 27, 2005, Jean declared in a speech described as \"moving\" that \"the time of the Two Solitudes that for too long described the character of this country is past,\" and called for the protection of the environment, the shielding of culture against globalization, and an end to the marginalization of young people. According to one media account, \"the pomp and circumstance of Canada's most significant state function were blended with humour, passion and even tears.\" while \"The Globe and Mail\" columnist John Ibbitson reflected the general captivation with the new governor general in the following way: Echoing her inaugural speech, the motto on the personal coat of arms created for Jean upon taking office as governor general was \"BRISER LES SOLITUDES\", which translates into \"breaking down solitudes\". One of her first acts as vicereine was then to launch an online chat with Canadians, as part of the larger project of creating within the Governor General's domain name a website dubbed \"Citizen Voices: Breaking Down Solitudes\", where users could engage each other in discussion forums and prominent individuals could post blog entries. The focus extended beyond simply the relationship between the traditional Two Solitudes of Francophones and Anglophones in Canada to include relations between peoples of all racial, linguistic, cultural, and gender groups. Over the first two years of her mandate, Jean embarked on the traditional viceregal tours of Canada's provinces and territories. In British Columbia, Jean presented the Grey Cup at the 93rd Canadian Football League championship game; in Iqaluit, Nunavut, she opened the Toonik Tyme Festival, where she donated eighty books in Inuktitut, French, and English to the Centennial Library in commemoration of Queen Elizabeth II's 80th birthday; and, on May 4, 2006, she became the first governor general to address the Alberta legislature. During these tours, Jean also focused strongly on the plight of female victims of violence, meeting with representatives of women's organisations, such as when, in 2007, she participated in a historic private discussion with aboriginal women chiefs and elders at Saskatchewan's Government House. In contrast to her low approval ratings prior to her appointment, crowds were large and welcoming wherever Jean went. Only as her convoy arrived at the National War Memorial for her first Remembrance Day ceremony, on November 11, 2005, were Jean and Lafond greeted with disapproval from an audience, when veterans turned their backs on the Governor General and her consort to show contempt for two people the veterans felt had worked to break up the country they had fought to defend.", "The viceregal family undertook their first international trip in February 2006, journeying to Italy to attend the closing ceremonies of the 2006 Winter Olympics, meet Italian President Carlo Azeglio Ciampi in Torino, and Pope Benedict XVI at the Vatican. Three months later, Jean attended the investiture of René Préval as President of Haiti, Jean's first visit to her homeland in her capacity as the Queen's representative, and where she was greeted with enthusiasm in Jacmel. At the end of the year, between November 18 and December 11, 2006, Jean then embarked on a trip consisting of state visits to five African countries—Algeria, Mali, Ghana, South Africa, and Morocco—wherein the Governor General encouraged women's rights. She also, in a precedent-breaking move, personally explained on her Citizen Voices website the role of the governor general in undertaking such trips and the reason behind these particular tours throughout Africa, after which she continued to post her observations and feelings on her experiences on the continent. In Mali, where she arrived on November 23, 2006, Jean was greeted by tens of thousands of people lining the highway as her motorcade passed and, in the town of Benieli, she was presented with a goat, replete with a Canadian flag on its collar. Male vendors also gave Canadian journalists gifts to be passed on to Jean, provided that she also be given their telephone numbers. Further, during the South African leg of the tour, then President Thabo Mbeki praised the Queen-in-Council's decision to appoint Jean as governor general, citing it as an example to European countries of how African immigrants could be treated. Jean embraced her role as acting commander-in-chief, one of her first international duties being a trip, from October 29–30, 2005, to France for the 90th anniversary of the Battle of Vimy Ridge, just after which she returned to Canada for the arrival at Trenton, Ontario, of the bodies of six Canadian soldiers killed in Afghanistan. Jean made on March 8, 2007, her first visit to Canadian troops taking part in the offensive in Afghanistan; she had earlier expressed her desire to go, but Harper advised against such a trip on the grounds of security concerns, the relevance of which were demonstrated when two attacks were made against Canadian soldiers on the same day the Governor General landed in Kabul. Jean had the arrival timed specifically for International Women's Day, stating: \"the women of Afghanistan may face the most unbearable conditions, but they never stop fighting for survival. Of course, we, the rest of the women around the world, took too long to hear the cries of our Afghan sisters, but I am here to tell them that they are no longer alone. And neither are the people of Afghanistan.\" Part of the Governor General's itinerary included meeting with Afghan women, Canadian soldiers, Royal Canadian Mounted Police teams, humanitarian workers, and diplomats.", "There was, by early 2007, some perception that Jean's schedule was seemingly thinner than that of her predecessors; an initial explanation of fatigue was further detailed by the Secretary to the Governor General as thyroid problems, and that the vicereine's doctor had advised rest after Jean's previously hectic diary. At the same time, some in the Ottawa Press Gallery opined that Jean had on a few occasions in the previous year overstepped the boundaries of an office that was expected to remain non-partisan; journalist Chantal Hébert said that the Governor General had \"been wading uncommonly deep in political territory over the past few months\", citing Jean's criticism of Quebec sovereigntists and her expressed support for the mission of Canadian troops in Afghanistan. Further, Michael Valpy penned a piece in \"The Globe and Mail\" critiquing Jean for inviting who Valpy described as \"potentially politically charged individuals\" to post on her Citizen Voices website. Jean had also made, at the roast-like annual National Press Gallery dinner, satirical remarks about Parti Québécois leadership candidate André Boisclair's admitted cocaine use and, in a September 18, 2006 interview regarding a proposed subsidy for Canadians to travel domestically, she commented that Quebecers \"are sometimes very disconnected from the rest of Canada\" and that their isolation affected Canada's unity. Jean later clarified her opinion by adding that Canadians from all provinces were disconnected from other parts of the country, and a September 26 editorial in the \"Montreal Gazette\" supported Jean's statements on the divisions between Canada's peoples, saying that supporting national unity was a part of a governor general's mandate; but, the ire of Quebec separatist politicians was not assuaged. Further, the content of a speech by Jean to mark the 25th anniversary of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms was regarded as thinly veiled criticism of her Cabinet's decision to end the Court Challenges Program and, into 2007, it was reported that Jean's staff at Rideau Hall had been systematically removing royal portraits from the walls of the residence. All of this prompted Valpy to reveal that, early in his time as prime minister, Stephen Harper was told by Alex Himelfarb, then the Clerk of the Privy Council: \"Prime Minister, your biggest problem is in Rideau Hall,\" meaning Jean and her potential to be a \"loose cannon\". Jean carried out the regular ceremonial duties of state, such as dedicating the new Michael Lee-Chin Crystal at the Royal Ontario Museum on June 1, 2007 (following in the footsteps of her predecessor, Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, the governor general who opened the first expansion of the museum in 1914), and undertaking a state visit to Brazil, from July 6–15, 2007.", "In late 2008, the Governor General had to return to Canada in the midst of a state visit in Europe to contend with a parliamentary dispute, as a coalition of three opposition parties in parliament threatened to rescind their confidence in the Cabinet under the leadership of Stephen Harper and subsequently form the government. After two and half hours of deliberation, Jean chose to follow the constitutional precedent of accepting her prime minister's advice, which was to prorogue parliament until late January 2009. At the end of Jean's viceregal tenure, Peter H. Russell, one of the constitutional experts from whom Jean sought advice, disclosed that the Governor General granted the prorogation on two conditions: parliament would reconvene soon and, when it did, the Cabinet would produce a passable budget. This, Russell said, set a precedent that would prevent future prime ministers from advising the prorogation of parliament \"for any length of time for any reason.\" Jean thus prevented the approaching non-confidence vote, as well as a resulting situation wherein she would be required to choose between asking the coalition to form a government or dissolving parliament and dropping the writs, after having a federal election only six weeks earlier. Along with the subsequent prorogation of parliament in December 2009 and the earlier calling of an election in October 2008, Jean was for almost two years part of a controversy in the Canadian media that focused on the constitutional relationships between the governor general and the prime minister or the leaders of the parties in opposition.", "During a tour of Nunavut in early 2009, the Governor General again garnered headlines when she participated in a traditional Inuit seal feast at a community festival, gutting a seal that had been recently killed by hunters and consuming a piece of the raw heart. While both her immediate predecessor and Prince Charles had previously partaken in raw seal meat in the Canadian Arctic, Jean's simple act drew attention, both positive and negative, because of its coincidence with the European Parliament's recent ban on the import of Canadian seal products. Dining on seal was a traditional aspect of the annual event and it was proper etiquette for the Governor General, as a guest, to take part. When asked by reporters what her motivations were, Jean replied: \"Take from that what you will.\" A series of state visits followed in 2009, to Norway, Croatia, Greece, and Mexico, as well as another visit to Canadian troops in Afghanistan from September 8–9. In between these diplomatic missions, Jean presided on June 27 over the ceremonies in Halifax, Nova Scotia, for the consecration and presentation of the new Queen's Colour to the Canadian navy; she wore at that time the Commander-in-Chief's naval uniform, marking the revival of a practice that had ceased following the tenure of Ray Hnatyshyn. She, along with Prince Charles, did the same at the 2009 Remembrance Day events in Ottawa, both at that time sporting Canadian army dress uniform. Then, in June 2010, Jean conducted a fleet review in Esquimalt Harbour, to mark the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Royal Canadian Navy. The vicereine again won plaudits, though not universal, from the media and public for her actions following the earthquake that devastated her native Haiti on January 12, 2010, in which she lost her friend Magalie Marcelin, godmother to Jean's daughter. The Governor General, with her prime minister, Stephen Harper, attended an emergency meeting at the Department of Foreign Affairs and then made a tearful speech, with parts in Haitian Creole, thanking the Cabinet for its swift action and the Canadian media for its coverage, as well as urging strength and courage to Haitians. She later attended a vigil in Montreal and, on January 25, 2010, met at Rideau Hall with Haitian prime minister Jean-Max Bellerive. After officially opening the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, on February 12, and the Winter Paralympics a month later, the Governor General made a visit to Haiti, from March 8–10, 2010, to observe the devastation and Canadian assistance being meted out there and to meet with President Préval.", "Jean announced to the press in early 2010 that she would step out of the viceregal role near the end of the traditional, but not official, five-year period. The then official opposition leader, Michael Ignatieff, publicly advocated the extension of Jean's tenure, in doing so breaking the tradition of keeping consultations on the next governor general among the prime minister and opposition party leaders confidential. Polls conducted around that time showed that Jean had earned an approval rating of 60%, and a constitutional expert at the University of Toronto called her performance as governor general \"superb\", though some of her missteps were noted. On May 10, 2010, Princess Margriet of the Netherlands presented Jean with a new tulip cultivar named the \"Michaëlle Jean tulip\"; with deep maroon petals; it was designed to reflect the Governor General's personal tastes. This carried on the tradition of Dutch royalty giving tulips as gifts to Canada. Summaries of Jean's time as the Queen's representative emerged by mid-2010; Jean was regarded as having fulfilled the role in an admirable, though not perfect, fashion. It was noted that she used the office, her speaking abilities, and photogenic nature to Canada's advantage, promoting freedom, human rights, and urban youth, and to bring attention to socio-economic problems in the country's north. She was commended for her dedication to the arts, Aboriginal Canadians, the Armed Forces, and her outreach to Haiti following the earthquake there, but critiqued for specific incidents, such as referring to herself as Canada's head of state and making public comments that skirted the political. Her ability to personally connect with those she met was also noted, as well as her frequent displays of emotion; commentators dubbed her the \"empathizer-in-chief\".", "In the weeks before Jean's departure from the viceregal office, the Cabinet announced that the Michaëlle Jean Foundation would be established by the federal Crown-in-Council to focus on promoting education, culture, and creativity among youth from rural, northern, and/or poor communities in Canada. It was also reported that the Secretary-General of the United Nations would be appointing Jean to act as special envoy to Haiti for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, with an aim to fight poverty and illiteracy and raise international funds. She was on November 8, 2010, appointed for a four-year term. Although the position's office is located in Paris, France, Jean opted to remain in Canada and base herself out of space provided by the University of Ottawa and rented by the Michaëlle Jean Foundation. In early 2011, Jean made a call for the overhaul of Haiti's education system, as \"the cornerstone of the impoverished nation's future prosperity.\" Also that year, it was announced that Jean had been appointed as Chancellor of the University of Ottawa; she began her term on February 1, 2012, and stepped down in 2015.", "Secretary-General of La Francophonie Abdou Diouf, in April 2011, appointed Jean as the \"Grand Témoin de la Francophonie\" for the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, England, with the task of promoting the French language and ensuring compliance by the London Olympic Organising Committee with rule 24 of the Olympic Charter, which gives French the status of an official language of the Olympic Games. In 2014, the Canadian federal government, along with the provincial governments of Quebec and New Brunswick, as well as the government of Haiti endorsed Jean's candidacy to be Diouf's successor as Secretary-General of La Francophonie. On November 30, 2014, the representatives of governments of the 57-member organization chose Jean for the position by consensus after the four other candidates withdrew. Her four-year mandate began January 5, 2015, and she has since promoted democratic procedures—particularly in respect to elections in the Central African Republic, Niger, Comoros, and Benin—education, and the rights of women and girls. Jean sought a mandate for a second four-year term at the 2018 Francophonie Summit in Armenia, however, France and eventually Canada supported the consensus candidate, Rwandan foreign minister Louise Mushikiwabo. Jean has been criticized for expenses such as spending $500,000 to renovate her Paris apartment, a $50,000 bill for four nights at Manhattan's Waldorf-Astoria hotel, the acquisition of a $20,000 piano and the $1-million price tag for a youth-engagement program carried out aboard the replica of a historic 18th century ship, the \"Hermione\". Jean was defeated in her bid for a second term when the 2018 Francophonie summit held in Armenia agreed, by consensus, to elect Rwandan foreign minister Louise Mushikiwabo as Secretary-General. Jean's term in office ended on January 2, 2019.", "", "Appointments", "Awards Geographic locations Schools Flora" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Twin towns — sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Several hermits settled in the local forest at the beginning of the 13th century. The first written record of the community is a charter dated 1213 (suspected of being a counterfeit but the date seems to hold), by which King Přemysl Otakar I donated the area to Břevnov Monastery (Prague). In a document dated 1229, by which King Václav I confirmed the donation, he described the area as \"a large dreadful wasteland\". Police was granted town charter on 6 September 1253, when King Přemysl Otakar II endowed it with the right to hold markets. Police is thus the oldest settlement in the Broumov bulge. the Benedictines settled here to colonize the wider area. All the other towns of the Náchod District were settled later. 1253 was also the year in which the building of the imposing early-Gothic church was initiated (completed in 1294). The development of the monastery, initiated earlier in the 13th century, was accomplished in 1306. At the onset of the Hussite Wars, the town was sacked and burnt by the Catholic Silesians on 27 May 1421. Men were slaughtered, women raped, 40 boys had their right feet and left hands severed and their noses cut off. Some burgesses sought refuge in the rock labyrinth on the nearby Ostaš mountain but the Silesians went even there to murder. The monastery was not renewed until after the Hussite Wars. The town was almost completely destroyed in the great fire of 1535. It was close the hotbed of a large peasant rebellion in 1775. The monastery and the church were renovated in the Baroque style in the 18th century. The monastery was abolished by edict of Emperor Joseph II in 1786. Police was growing in importance as a hub of business and culture in the first half of the 19th century. The promising development was slowed after the opening of the railway from Choceň to Meziměstí, which bypassed the town. A library and tourist information office were opened on 9 September 2007.", "Police nad Metují is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "Career in Europe.", "Farinelli in London.", "At the court of Spain.", "Retirement and death.", "Farinelli's other musical activities.", "The artist and his times.", "Farinelli Study Centre.", "Portrayals of Farinelli." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Broschi was born in Andria (in what is now Apulia, Italy) into a family of musicians. As recorded in the baptismal register of the church of S. Nicola in Andria, his father Salvatore was a composer and \"maestro di cappella\" of the city's cathedral, and his mother, Caterina Barrese, a citizen of Naples. The Duke of Andria, Fabrizio Carafa, a member of the House of Carafa, one of the most prestigious families of the Neapolitan nobility, honored Maestro Broschi by taking a leading part in the baptism of his second son, who was baptised Carlo Maria Michelangelo Nicola. [In later life, Farinelli wrote: \"Il Duca d'Andria mi tenne al fonte.\" (\"The Duke of Andria held me at the font.\")]. In 1706 Salvatore also took up the non-musical post of governor of the town of Maratea (on the western coast of what is now Basilicata), and in 1709 that of Terlizzi (some twenty miles south-east of Andria). Unlike many castrati, who came from poor families, Farinelli was well-to-do, and was related to minor nobility on both sides of the family. From 1707, the Broschi family lived in the coastal city of Barletta, a few miles from Andria, but at the end of 1711, they made the much longer move to the capital city of Naples, where, in 1712 Carlo's elder brother Riccardo was enrolled at the Conservatory of S. Maria di Loreto, specialising in composition. Carlo had already shown talent as a boy singer, and was now introduced to the most famous singing-teacher in Naples, Nicola Porpora. Already a successful opera composer, in 1715 Porpora was appointed at the Conservatory of S. Onofrio, where his pupils included such well-known castrati as Giuseppe Appiani, Felice Salimbeni and Gaetano Majorano (known as Caffarelli), as well as distinguished female singers such as Regina Mingotti and Vittoria Tesi; Farinelli may well have studied with him privately. Salvatore Broschi died unexpectedly on 4 November 1717, aged only 36, and it seems likely that the consequent loss of economic security for the whole family provoked the decision, presumably taken by Riccardo, for Carlo to be castrated. As was often the case, an excuse had to be found for this operation, and in Carlo's case it was said to have been necessitated by a fall from a horse. It is, however, also possible that he was castrated earlier, since, at the time of his father's death, he was already twelve years old, quite an advanced age for castration. Under Porpora's tutelage, his singing progressed rapidly, and at the age of fifteen, he made his debut a by his master entitled. The text of this work was the first by the soon-to-be-famous Pietro Trapassi (known as Metastasio), who became a lifelong friend of the singer. Farinelli remarked that the two of them had made their debuts on the same day, and each frequently referred to the other as his (\"dear twin\"). In this Serenata \"Angelica e Medoro\", the two leading roles were entrusted to two highly acclaimed singers: Marianna Benti Bulgarelli, la Romanina and Domenico Gizzi, Musico Soprano in the Royal Chapel of Naples. The derivation of Broschi's stage name is not certain, but it was possibly from two rich Neapolitan lawyers, the brothers Farina, who may have sponsored his studies. Farinelli quickly became famous throughout Italy as (\"the boy\"). In 1722, he first sang in Rome in Porpora's \"Flavio Anicio Olibrio\", as well as taking the female lead in \"Sofonisba\" by Luca Antonio Predieri. (It was common practice for young castrati to appear \"en travesti\"). All these appearances were greeted with huge public enthusiasm, and an almost legendary story arose that he had to perform an aria with trumpet \"obbligato\", which evolved into a contest between singer and trumpeter. Farinelli surpassed the trumpet player so much in technique and ornamentation that he \"was at last silenced only by the acclamations of the audience\" (to quote the music historian Charles Burney). This account, however, cannot be verified, since no surviving work which Farinelli is known to have performed contains an aria for soprano with trumpet \"obbligato\".", "In 1724, Farinelli made his first appearance in Vienna, at the invitation of Pio di Savoia, director of the Imperial Theatre. He spent the following season in Naples. In 1726, he also visited Parma and Milan, where Johann Joachim Quantz heard him and commented: \"Farinelli had a penetrating, full, rich, bright and well-modulated soprano voice, with a range at that time from the A below middle C to the D two octaves above middle C.... His intonation was pure, his trill beautiful, his breath control extraordinary and his throat very agile, so that he performed the widest intervals quickly and with the greatest ease and certainty. Passagework and all kinds of melismas were of no difficulty to him. In the invention of free ornamentation in adagio he was very fertile.\" Quantz is certainly accurate in describing Farinelli as a soprano, since arias in his repertoire contained the highest notes customarily employed by that voice during his lifetime: \"Fremano l'onde\" in Pietro Torri's opera \"Nicomede\" (1728) and \"Troverai se a me ti fidi\" in Niccolò Conforto's \"La Pesca\" (1737) both have sustained C6. His low range apparently extended to F3, as in two of his own cadenzas for \"Quell' usignolo innamorato\" from Geminiano Giacomelli's \"Merope\". Farinelli sang at Bologna in 1727, where he met the famous castrato Antonio Bernacchi, twenty years his senior. In a duet in Orlandini's \"Antigona\", Farinelli showed off all the beauties of his voice and refinements of his style, executing a number of passages of great virtuosity, which were rewarded with tumultuous applause. Undaunted, Bernacchi repeated every trill, roulade, and cadenza of his young rival, but performing all of them even more exquisitely, and adding variations of his own. Farinelli, admitting defeat, entreated Bernacchi to give him instruction in (\"ultra-refined graces\"); Bernacchi agreed. In 1728, as well as performing in Torri's \"Nicomede\" at the Munich court, Farinelli performed another concert before the Emperor in Vienna. In 1729, during the Carnival season in Venice, he sang in two works by Metastasio: as Arbace in Metastasio's \"Catone in Utica\" (music by Leonardo Leo) and Mirteo in \"Semiramide Riconosciuta\" (music by Porpora). In these important drammi per musica, performed at the Teatro San Giovanni Grisostomo of Venice, at his side sang some great singers: Nicola Grimaldi, detto Nicolino, Lucia Facchinelli, Domenico Gizzi, Virtuoso della Cappella Reale di Napoli and Giuseppe Maria Boschi. During this period he could really do no wrong. Loaded with riches and honors, he was so famous and so formidable as a performer that his rival and friend, the castrato Gioacchino Conti (\"Gizziello\") is said to have fainted away from sheer despondency on hearing him sing. George Frideric Handel was also keen to engage Farinelli for his company in London, and while in Venice in January 1730, tried unsuccessfully to meet him. In 1731, Farinelli visited Vienna for a third time. There he was received by the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles VI, on whose advice, according to the singer's first biographer, Giovenale Sacchi, he modified his style, singing more simply and emotionally. After further seasons in Italy, and another visit to Vienna, during which he sang in oratorios in the Imperial chapel, Farinelli came to London in 1734.", "In London the previous year, Senesino, a singer who had been a part of Handel's \"Second Academy\" which performed at the King's Theatre, Haymarket, quarrelled with Handel and established a rival company, the Opera of the Nobility, operating from a theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields. This company had Porpora as composer and Senesino as principal singer, but had not been a success during its first season of 1733–34. Farinelli, Porpora's most famous pupil, joined the company and made it financially solvent. He first appeared in \"Artaserse\", a with music by his brother Riccardo and by Johann Adolph Hasse. He sang the memorable arias \"Per questo dolce amplesso\" (music by Hasse) and \"Son qual nave\" (music by Broschi), while Senesino sang \"Pallido il sole\" (music by Hasse). Of \"Per questo dolce amplesso,\" Charles Burney reports: \"Senesino had the part of a furious tyrant, and Farinelli that of an unfortunate hero in chains; but in the course of the first air, the captive so softened the heart of the tyrant, that Senesino, forgetting his stage-character, ran to Farinelli and embraced him in his own.\" \"Son qual nave,\" on the other hand, was composed by Riccardo Broschi as a special showpiece for his brother's virtuosic skills. Burney described it thus: \"The first note he was taken with such delicacy, swelled by minute degrees to such an amazing volume, and afterwards diminished in the same manner to a mere point, that it was applauded for full five minutes. After this he set off with such brilliancy and rapidity of execution, that it was difficult for the violins of those days to keep pace with him.\" In 1735 Farinelli and Senesino also appeared in Nicola Porpora's \"Polifemo\". Both the cognoscenti and the public adored him. The librettist Paolo Rolli, a close friend and supporter of Senesino, commented: \"Farinelli has surprised me so much that I feel as though I had hitherto heard only a small part of the human voice, and now have heard it all. He has besides, the most amiable and polite manners...\" Some fans were more unrestrained: one titled lady was so carried away that, from a theatre box, she famously exclaimed: \"One God, one Farinelli!\" and was immortalised in a detail of Plate II of William Hogarth's \"A Rake's Progress\" (she may also appear in Plate IV of his series \"Marriage à la mode\" of 1745). Though Farinelli's success was enormous, neither the Nobility Opera nor Handel's company was able to sustain the public's interest, which waned rapidly. Though his official salary was £1500 for a season, gifts from admirers probably increased this to something more like £5000, an enormous sum at the time. Farinelli was by no means the only singer to receive such large amounts, which were unsustainable in the long term. As one contemporary observer remarked: \"within these two years we have seen even Farinelli sing to an audience of five-and-thirty pounds.\" Nonetheless, he was still under contract in London in the summer of 1737 when he received a summons, via Sir Thomas Fitzgerald, Secretary of the Spanish Embassy there, to visit the Spanish court.", "Apparently intending to make only a brief visit to the Continent, Farinelli called at Paris on his way to Madrid, singing on 9 July at Versailles to King Louis XV, who gave him his portrait set in diamonds, and 500 \"louis d'or\". On 15 July he left for Spain, arriving about a month later. Elisabetta Farnese, the Queen, had come to believe that Farinelli's voice might be able to cure the severe depression of her husband, King Philip V (some contemporary physicians, such as the Queen's doctor Giuseppe Cervi, believed in the efficacy of music therapy). On 25 August 1737, Farinelli was named chamber musician to the king, and, or servant to the royal family. He never sang again in public. Farinelli became a royal favourite and very influential at court. For the remaining nine years of Philip's life, Farinelli gave nightly private concerts to the royal couple. He also sang for other members of the royal family and organised private performances by them, and by professional musicians in the royal palaces. In 1738 he arranged for an entire Italian opera company to visit Madrid, beginning a fashion for \"opera seria\" in the Spanish capital. The Coliseo of the royal palace of Buen Retiro was remodelled, and became Madrid's only opera house. On the accession of Philip's son, Ferdinand VI, Farinelli's influence became even greater. Ferdinand was a keen musician, and his wife, Barbara of Portugal, more or less a musical fanatic (in 1728 she had appointed Domenico Scarlatti as her harpsichord teacher; the musicologist Ralph Kirkpatrick acknowledges Farinelli's correspondence as providing \"most of the direct information about Scarlatti that has transmitted itself to our day\"). The relationship between singer and monarchs was personally close: he and the queen sang duets together, and the king accompanied them on the harpsichord. Farinelli took charge of all spectacles and court entertainments. He was himself also officially received into the ranks of the nobility, being made a Knight of the Order of Calatrava in 1750, an honour of which he was enormously proud. Although much courted by diplomats, Farinelli seems to have kept out of politics.", "In 1759, Ferdinand was succeeded by his half-brother Charles III, who was no lover of music. Charles was the son of Elisabetta Farnese, who had never forgiven Farinelli for his decision to remain at court after Philip V's death, rather than following her into internal exile. It was clear that Farinelli would now have to leave Spain, though he was allowed a generous state pension. He retired to Bologna, where in 1732 he had acquired a property and citizenship. Though rich and still famous, much feted by local notables and visited by such notable figures as Burney, Mozart and Casanova, he was lonely in his old age, having outlived many of his friends and former colleagues. One distinguished friend of his latter years was the music historian, Giovanni Battista (known as \"Padre\") Martini. He also continued his correspondence with Metastasio, court poet at Vienna, dying a few months after him. In his will, dated 20 February 1782, Farinelli asked to be buried in the mantle of the Order of Calatrava, and was interred in the cemetery of the Capuchin monastery of Santa Croce in Bologna. His estate included gifts from royalty, a large collection of paintings including works by Velázquez, Murillo and Jusepe de Ribera, as well as portraits of his royal patrons, and several of himself, one by his friend Jacopo Amigoni. He also had a collection of keyboard instruments in which he took great delight, especially a piano made at Florence in 1730 (called in the will ), and violins by Stradivarius and Amati. He died in Bologna on 16 September 1782. His original place of burial was destroyed during the Napoleonic wars, and in 1810 Farinelli's great-niece Maria Carlotta Pisani had his remains transferred to the cemetery of La Certosa in Bologna. Farinelli's immediate heir, his nephew Matteo Pisani, sold Farinelli's house in 1798. (It later became the headquarters of a sugar factory, and was demolished in 1949, having been much damaged by bombardment during World War II.) Maria Carlotta bequeathed many of Farinelli's letters to Bologna's University Library and was buried in the same grave as Farinelli in 1850. Farinelli's remains were disinterred from the Certosa cemetery on 12 July 2006. Having been piled together at one end of Maria Carlotta's grave for almost two centuries, the bones had suffered considerable degradation, and there was no sign of the singer's mantle of the Order of Calatrava. However, the surviving remains included his jawbone, several teeth, parts of his skull and almost all of the major bones. (The exhumation was instigated by Florentine antiquarian Alberto Bruschi and Luigi Verdi, Secretary of the Farinelli Study Centre.) The next day the musicologist Carlo Vitali of the Farinelli Study Centre stated that the major bones were \"long and sturdy, which would correspond with Farinelli's official portraits, as well as the castrato's reputation for being unusually tall.\" Maria Giovanna Belcastro of the Anthropology Institute of Bologna University, Gino Fornaciari, paleoanthropologist of the University of Pisa, and David Howard, Professor of Music Technology at York University, England, are engaged in ascertaining what new information may be derived from these remains as to Farinelli's lifestyle, habits and possible diseases, as well as the physiology of a castrato. Their research methods will include X-rays, CAT scans and DNA sampling.", "Farinelli not only sang, but like most musicians of his time, was a competent harpsichordist. In old age, he learned to play the viola d'amore. He occasionally composed, writing a cantata of farewell to London (entitled, for which he also wrote the text), and a few songs and arias, including one dedicated to Ferdinand VI.", "Farinelli is widely regarded as the greatest, most accomplished and most respected opera singer of the \"castrato\" era, which lasted from the early 1600s into the early 1800s, and while there were a vast number of such singers during this period, originating especially from the Neapolitan School of such composers as Nicola Porpora, Alessandro Scarlatti and Francesco Durante, only a handful of his rivals could approach his skill as a singer, and perhaps none his qualities as a human being. Caffarelli, Matteuccio, Siface, Senesino, Gizziello, Marchesi, Carestini and some others were very famous and extremely gifted in their own right, with Caffarelli probably being the most vocally proficient – but Farinelli was also admired for his modesty, his intelligence, his \"low-key\" attitude and his dedication to his work. He respected his colleagues, composers and impresarios, often earning their lifelong friendship as a result, whereas Caffarelli was notoriously capricious, malicious and disrespectful of anyone sharing the stage with him, to the point of cackling and booing fellow singers during their own arias. Farinelli's technical proficiency allowed him to be comfortable in all vocal registers, from tenor to soprano, but he himself favoured the medium-to-high register rather than the very high, preferring to convey emotion rather than to astonish by sheer technique (unlike most of his colleagues who preferred to startle audiences with vocal stunts). This \"soft\" approach to music no doubt helped him survive his 22-year private engagement at the court of Spain, which effectively ended his theatrical career when aged only 32. By this time he had already achieved every possible success on every European stage, and, even in retirement in Bologna, was still regarded, by every foreign dignitary visiting the city, as \"the\" music star to meet.", "Farinelli lived in Bologna from 1761 until his death. The Farinelli Study Centre () was opened in Bologna in 1998. Major events and achievements include:", "Farinelli is represented in Voltaire's \"Candide\". A film, \"Farinelli\", directed by Gérard Corbiau, was made about Farinelli's life in 1994. This takes considerable dramatic licence with history, emphasising the importance of Farinelli's brother and reducing Porpora's role, while Handel becomes an antagonist; the singer's 22 years spent in the Spanish court is only vaguely hinted at, as well as his brother being appointed minister of War. Farinelli's supposed sexual escapades are a major element of the film's plot, and are totally spurious according to historians (primarily, Patrick Barbier's \"Histoire des castrats\", Paris 1989). The movie is largely fictionalized and bears little resemblance to the historical Farinelli. The film is not the first dramatic work to take Farinelli's life as its source material. He appears as a character in the opera, composed by Daniel Auber to a libretto by Eugène Scribe, and has the title-role in the opera \"Farinelli\" by the English composer John Barnett, first performed at Drury Lane in 1839, where his part is, oddly, written for a tenor (this work is itself an adaptation of the anonymous, premiered in Paris in 1835). More recent operas include Matteo d'Amico's (1996) and by Siegfried Matthus (1998). Composer/performer Rinde Eckert gives Farinelli's time in Spain a contemporary treatment in his 1995 work for radio, \"Four Songs Lost in a Wall\", commissioned by \"New American Radio\". That period in his life is also the setting for \"Farinelli and the King\" (the king in question being Philip V of Spain), a play by Claire van Kampen, which premiered at the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse from 11 February to 7 March 2015. It was transferred to the Duke of York's Theatre in London's West End in the final months of 2015, with the role of Farinelli doubled between'speaking' and'singing', with Iestyn Davies playing the latter. Kampen's \"Farinelli and the King\" will be performed on Broadway at the Belasco Theatre from December 5, 2017 to March 25, 2018." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Type 35.", "Type 35A.", "Type 35C.", "Type 35T.", "Type 35B.", "Type 37.", "Type 37A.", "Type 39." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The original model, introduced at the Grand Prix of Lyon on August 3, 1924, used an evolution of the three-valve 2.0 L (1991 cc/121 in3) overhead cam straight-eight engine first seen on the Type 29. Bore was 60 mm and stroke was 88 mm as on many previous Bugatti models. Ninety-six examples were produced. This new powerplant featured five main bearings with an unusual ball bearing system. This allowed the engine to rev to 6,000 rpm, and 90 hp (67 kW) was reliably produced. Solid axles with leaf springs were used front and rear, and drum brakes at the back, operated by cables, were specified. Alloy wheels were a novelty, as was the hollow front axle for reduced unsprung weight. A second feature of the Type 35 that was to become a Bugatti trademark was passing the springs through the front axle rather than simply U-bolting them together as was done on their earlier cars. A rare version was de-bored (to 52 mm) for a total displacement of 1.5 L (1494 cc/91 in3). There are two of these cars in New Zealand. Dimensions:", "A less expensive version of the Type 35 appeared in May, 1925. The factory's \"Type 35A\" name was ignored by the public, who nicknamed it \"Tecla\" after a famous maker of imitation jewelry. The Tecla's engine used three plain bearings, smaller valves, and coil ignition like the Type 30. While this decreased maintenance requirements, it also reduced output. One-hundred thirty nine of the Type 35As were sold.", "The Type 35C featured a Roots supercharger, despite Ettore Bugatti's disdain for forced induction. Output was nearly 128 hp (95 kW) with a single Zenith carburettor. Type 35Cs won the French Grand Prix at Saint-Gaudens in 1928, and at Pau in 1930. Fifty examples left the factory.", "For 1926, Bugatti introduced a special model for the Targa Florio race. Called the \"Type 35T\" officially, it soon became known as the \"Targa Florio\". Engine displacement was up to 2.3 L (2262 cc/138 in3) with a longer 100 mm stroke. Grand Prix rule changes limiting capacity to 2.0 L limited the appeal of this model at the time with just thirteen produced. Bugatti is 'world champion of cars builders' this year.", "The final version of the Type 35 series was the Type 35B of 1927. Originally named \"Type 35TC\", it shared the 2.3 L engine of the Type 35T but added a large supercharger like the Type 35C. Output was 138 hp (102 kW), and 45 examples were made. A British racing green Type 35B driven by William Grover-Williams won the 1929 French Grand Prix at Le Mans.", "The Type 35 chassis and body were reused on the Type 37 sports car. Fitted with a new 1.5 L (1496 cc/91 in3) straight-4 engine, 290 Type 37s were built. This engine was an SOHC three-valve design and produced 60 hp (44 kW). The same engine went on to be used in the Type 40.", "The supercharged Type 37A accounted for 67 of the Type 37's production slots. Engine output was up to. It also had larger shrouded brake drums.", "The Type 39 was basically identical to the Type 35C except for its engine. This was modified to be smaller at 1.5 L (1493 cc/91 in3) with a shorter-stroked crankshaft. This brought stroke down from 88 mm to 66 mm, and a mix of regular and ball bearings were used. Ten examples were produced. An odd 1.1 L (1092 cc/66 in3) version was also created by reducing the bore of the engine to 51.3 mm." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Today." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The municipality is the former centre of a vast agrary husbandry including two small towns and about 50 villages in its proximity (only the small settlement Zahorčice is still administered by Lnáře). Such was the situation between the mid-15th century and the mid-19th century. After this period of relative prosperity (with a few pauses incurred by civil convulsions) emerged an era of nationwide population decline in all counties in Central Europe (with exceptions in entirely undeveloped mountainous counties in the Carpathian Mountains system etc.), and the local population significantly decreased to the current number of fewer than 750 people. Municipality have got traces of human settlement since 7th–6th centuries BC. As proof are left burying-grounds with remains of funeral equipment on the shores of pond Měleč close to the municipality. Although continually inhabited, some influx of Slavs also occurred in the 8th century. Since 13th century, the settlement has been denser and small stronghold from wood was built. The oldest mention of Lnáře or Schlüsselburg dates back to 1319, when it was referenced to the local Old Stronghold, formerly wooden fort, as the site of governor of Lnáře district (descendants of that governor later became hereditary knights of Lnáře). Lnáře was a village hidden in woods, on the shores of muddy streams in moorland. This moorland was (as in case of town Třeboň) very soon turned into a basin with dozens of ponds and lakes, later numbering almost four hundred. When some decline in fishing industry occurred during the 17th century, many ponds and lakes were dried up and these reclaimed plots have been used for pasture for sheep – numbering about 13,000 of those animals as of 1840. Moreover, a new unusual variant of common carp, with the name \"Lnářský modrák\" (\"Blue carp of Lnáře\"), was cultivated at the beginning of the 20th century by specialist Ing. Theodor Mokrý, who substantially contributed to revival of local fishing industry. A train line was built between the towns of Blatná and Nepomuk near the start of the 20th century leading near Lnáře municipality, which is still in use. The construction of national route I/20 (now part of the European route E49) through Lnáře was also beneficial for the local population.", "Lnáře has two chateaux: the Old Stronghold (\"Stará tvrz\") and the New Chateau (\"Nový zámek\"). The Old Stronghold is 690 years old, while the New Chateau is only about 340 years old. Next to them is located an English garden (4 ha2) with a few pools, many flower-beds of roses, a fountain, a small Baroque mosque with two low minarets and beautiful old trees with sculptures of the ancient gods carved by a famous Baroque sculptor. The New Chateau is adorned with great paintings of dozens Greek gods. The Old Stronghold is used for municipality needs, including as a gallery and bibliotheca, as well as leasing space for doctors and masseuses and flats for rent. Lnáře is divided into five quarters: \"Malá Strana\" (Lesser Part), \"Svatá Anna\" (Saint Anna), \"Přístav\" (Harbour), \"Zámky\" (Chateaux) and \"Centrum\" (Centre). Svatá Anna part, with its monastery of the Discalced Augustinians and church, dates back to the 18th century. Today these buildings are used for government purposes, mainly as an insane asylum, but it will stop its activity in time. Aside from this, Lnáře has three more places for prayers – the Chapel of Adventist Church in the New Chateau, the Catholic Church by the graveyard and the Chapel of Hussite Church in the centre of municipality. A new development is the dense system of tourism cycle-ways with rest places. These cycle-ways are created for all kinds of people, allowing them to visit all the landmarks of the unique local landscape." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Air Pollution.", "Administrative divisions and demographics.", "Demographics.", "Administration.", "Economy.", "Transportation.", "Land.", "Subway.", "Bus.", "Research.", "Yicheng Prison.", "Sport." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "From the 8th to the 6th centuries BC, Hefei was the site of many small states, later a part of the Chu kingdom. Many archaeological finds dating from this period have been made. The name 'Hefei' was first given to the county set up in the area under the Han dynasty in the 2nd century BC. In the 3rd century AD, the Battle of Xiaoyao Ford was fought at Xiaoyao Ford () in Hefei. Zhang Liao, a general of the Wei state, led 800 picked cavalry to defeat the 200,000-strong army from Wei's rival state Wu. Several decades of warring in Hefei between Wu and Wei followed this battle. During the 4th to the 6th centuries AD, this crucial border region between northern and southern states was much fought over; its name and administrative status were consequently often changed. During the Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) periods, it became the seat of Lu prefecture—a title it kept until the 15th century, when it became a superior prefecture named Luzhou. The present city dates from the Song dynasty (960–1126), the earlier Hefei having been some distance farther north. In the 10th year of Xining (, 1077 AD), the taxes collected from the Luchow Prefecture were 50315 Guan, approximately 25 million today's Chinese Yuan, with a ranking of the amount of taxes was the 11th(following Kaifeng, Hangzhou, Qinzhou, Chuzhou, Chengdu, Zizhou, Xingyuan, Mianzhou, Zhenzhou, Suzhou) among all the prefectures of Song Dynasty. During the 10th century, it was for a while the capital of the independent Wu kingdom (902–938) and was an important center of the Southern Tang state (937–975). After 1127 it became a center of the defenses of the Southern Song dynasty (1126–1279) against the Jin (Jurchen) invaders in the Jin–Song wars, as well as a flourishing center of trade between the two states. When the Chinese Republic was founded in 1911, the superior prefecture was abolished, and the city took the name of Hefei. The city was known as Luchow or Liu-tcheou (, \"Luzhou\") during the Ming and Qing dynasties (after the 14th century to the 19th century). Hefei was the temporary capital for Anhui from 1853 to 1862. It was renamed as Hefei County in 1912. Following the Chinese victory in the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1945, Hefei was made the capital of Anhui. Before World War II, Hefei remained essentially an administrative center and the regional market for the fertile plain to the south. It was a collecting center for grain, beans, cotton, and hemp, as well as a center for handicraft industries manufacturing cloth, leather, bamboo goods, and ironware. The construction in 1912 of the Tianjin–Pukou railway, farther east, for a while made Hefei a provincial backwater, and much of its importance passed to Bengbu. In 1932–36, however, a Chinese company built a railway linking Hefei with Yuxikou (on the Yangtze opposite Wuhu) to the southeast and with the Huai River at Huainan to the north. While this railway was built primarily to exploit the rich coalfield in northern Anhui, it also did much to revive the economy of the Hefei area by taking much of its produce to Wuhu and Nanjing. Although Hefei was a quiet market town of only about 30,000 in the mid-1930s, its population grew more than tenfold in the following 20 years. The city's administrative role was strengthened by the transfer of the provincial government from Anqing in 1945, but much of its new growth derived from its development as an industrial city. A cotton mill was opened in 1958, and a thermal generating plant, using coal from Huainan, was established in the early 1950s. It also became the seat of an industry producing industrial chemicals and chemical fertilizers. In the late 1950s an iron and steel complex was built. In addition to a machine-tool works and engineering and agricultural machinery factories, the city has developed an aluminum industry and a variety of light industries. There are several universities based in the city.", "Hefei is located west of Nanjing in south-central Anhui. Chao Lake, a lake southeast of the city, is one of the largest fresh water lakes in China. the situation is improving due to efforts by both the government and the people.", "Hefei features a humid subtropical climate (Köppen \"Cfa\") with four distinct seasons. Hefei's annual average temperature is. Its annual precipitation is just slightly over, being heavier from May through August. Winters are damp and cold, with January lows dipping just below freezing and January averaging. The city sees irregular snowfalls that rarely turn significant. Springs are generally relatively pleasant if somewhat erratic. Summers here are oppressively hot and humid, with a July average of. In the months of June, July, August, and often September, daily temperatures can reach or surpass with high humidity levels being the norm. Autumn in Hefei sees a gradual cooling and drying. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 35 percent in March to 50 percent in August, the city receives 1,868 hours of bright sunshine annually. Extremes since 1951 have ranged from on 6 January 1955 to on 27 July 2017.", "Air quality typically diminishes in May and June when the city is blanketed by smog caused by the smoke generated as farmers outside the city burn their fields in preparation for planting the next crop. A dense wave of smog began in Hefei surrounding Anhui as well as other Chinese major cities including Shanghai and Tianjin.", "", "The majority of the population in Hefei are Han Chinese. There are a comparatively small number of Hui Chinese living in the city, for whom a few mosques have been constructed. Of the more than five million people in the city, some are migrant workers from other parts of Anhui.", "The prefecture-level city of Hefei administers 9 county-level divisions, including 4 districts, 1 County-city and 4 counties. Hefei subdivisions area (km2), population (According to 2010 Census) and population density (per km2).", "The GDP was ¥627.43 billion (ca. US$91.12 billion) in 2016. Before the Chinese civil war, Hefei's main industry was agriculture. After World War II, the capital of Anhui was moved from Anqing to Hefei. To assist the development of the city, many talented people were sent in from other parts of the country. Modern-day Hefei has machinery, electronics, chemistry, steel, textile, and cigarette industries, among others. In the summer of 2005, the municipal government implemented changes designed to beautify the city by demolishing thousands of illegally built structures, and clearing away long-established marketplaces in many parts of the city. While these actions removed many unlicensed, and often poorly-constructed food stalls which had been contributing to the spread of disease and which posed fire hazards, these changes also removed longstanding businesses that had lined many streets throughout the city overnight. The impact on the local economy was felt immediately as hundreds, if not thousands, of low paid workers no longer had employment. Hefei has been identified by the Economist Intelligence Unit in the November 2010 Access China White Paper as a member of the CHAMPS (Chongqing, Hefei, Anshan, Ma'anshan, Pingdingshan and Shenyang), an economic profile of the top 20 emerging cities in China. Hefei was identified by \"The Economist\" in December 2012 as the world's No.1 fastest growing metropolitan economy.", "Hefei has been the provincial capital since 1945 (before it was Lihuang, which is today's Jinzhai) and is a natural center of transportation, being situated to the north of Lake Chao and standing on a low saddle crossing the northeastern extension of the Dabie Mountains, which form the divide between the Huai and Yangtze rivers. From Hefei there is easy water transport via the lake to the Yangtze River opposite Wuhu.", "Important land routes run through Hefei, including: 1. G3 Beijing-Taipei Expressway (京台高速公路 From Beijing to Pingtan, and was designed to cross the Taiwan Strait to connect the highways in Taipei) 2. G40 Shanghai-Xi'an Expressway (沪陕高速公路 From Shanghai to Xi'an) 3. G42 Shanghai-Chengdu Expressway (沪蓉高速公路 From Shanghai to Chengdu) 4. G4212 Hefei-Anqing Expressway (合安高速公路 From Hefei to Anqing, a spur of G42) 5. G5011 Wuhu-Hefei Expressway (芜合高速公路 From Wuhu to Hefei, a spur of G50) 6. China National Highway 206 (烟汕线 From Yantai to Shantou) 7. China National Highway 312 (沪霍线 From Shanghai to Khorgas) 8. China National Highway 346 (沪康线 From Shanghai to Ankang) 9. S24 Changshu-Hefei Expressway (常合高速公路 From Changshu to Hefei) 10.S17 Bengbu-Hefei Expressway (蚌合高速公路 From Bengbu to Hefei) 11. G3W Dezhou-Shangrao Expressway (德上高速公路 From Dezhou to Shangrao) There are two main train stations in Hefei. The newest one is Hefei South railway station (Hefeinan station, 合肥火车南站) where most high-speed trains pass through. Many city buses serve this station, for instance the 108 from the East gate of the University of Science and Technology's East campus on Susong road. It has a very comprehensive taxi rank with multiple queues to avoid a long wait. There are many fast food restaurants in the departure hall with seating. There are not so many options for arrivals, a small cafe and a takeaway kfc booth. There is an ATM in the ticket sales area next to the security gates for the departure hall. The alternative station is Hefei railway station () which is smaller and older. This has only one taxi queue, directly opposite the main exit. There is fast food, a post office and a China mobile store in the same courtyard next to the arrival gates. There are some small stations such as Feidong Station (), Feixi Station (), Shuijiahu Station (), Chaohu Station (), Chaohu East railway station (Chaohudong station; 巢湖火车东站), Hefeibeicheng Station (Hefei Northtown Station 合肥北城火车站), Lujiang Station () and so on. These stations are mostly located in small towns or played commuting roles. Important railways that run through Hefei, including: 1. Shanghai-Wuhan-Chengdu High-Speed Railway () 2. Hefei-Fuzhou High-Speed Railway (合福高速铁路 Play as part of Beijing-Taipei High-Speed Railway) 3. Hefei-Bengbu High-Speed Railway (合蚌高速铁路 A spur of Beijing-Shanghai High-Speed Railway) 4. Shangqiu-Hefei-Hangzhou High-Speed Railway (商合杭高速铁路 The northern part, Shangqiu-Hefei High-Speed Railway will play as a part of Beijing-Hong Kong High-Speed Railway. Under Construction) 5. Hefei-Anqing-Jiujiang High-Speed Railway (合安九高速铁路 Play as a part of Beijing-Hong Kong High-Speed Railway. Under Construction) 6. Hefei-Qingdao High-Speed Railway (合青高速铁路 Proposed) 7. Nanjing-Xi'an High-Speed Railway (宁西高速铁路 Proposed) 8. Huainan Railway (淮南铁路 From Huainan-Wuhu) 9. Hefei-Jiujiang Railway () 10. Nanjing-Xi'an Railway () 11. Lujiang-Tongling Railway (庐铜铁路 Under Construction) In 2008 the thoroughfare Chang Jiang Road () is undergoing a renovation project to widen the roads and to create a bus route in the center of the road, with bus stations at islands that are connected to the sidewalks by skyways. The First Ring Road is also undergoing construction, with traffic lights being replaced by overpasses and ramps built to connect the First Ring Road and all major intersecting roads. Both projects are intended to ease the traffic Hefei now experiences at rush hour. Hefei Xinqiao International Airport replaced the old Hefei Luogang International Airport and started its operation on May 30, 2013 00:00. This new domestic aviation hub is located in Gaoliu Village situated in the northwestern part of Hefei City. The first arriving flight was China Eastern Airlines flight MU5172 from Beijing Capital International Airport. The first departing flight was China Eastern Airlines MU5468 to Shanghai Pudong International Airport. Hefei Xinqiao International Airport provides scheduled passenger service to major airports in China and other international cities. Destinations include Hong Kong, Macao, Singapore, Taipei (Taoyuan, Songshan), Kaohsiung, Taichung, Seoul, Cheongju, Yangyang, Jeju, Osaka, Nagoya, Shizuoka, Okayama, Boracay Island, Bali Island, Frankfurt, Siem Reap, Bangkok, Phuket Island and Krabi Island.", "Hefei Metro is a rapid transit rail network under construction that will eventually serve both urban and rural areas of Hefei. As planned, Line 1 covers a total distance of starting from Hefei Railway Station. It was inaugurated in December 2016. In February 2013, Metro Line 2 also began its construction. It is being built alongside the Changjiang Dong Road, Changjiang Zhong Road and Changjiang Xi Road, which is a major passenger corridor in the east–west direction. It will pass through the city center area and connect to a transit point where passengers will be able to take the shuttle bus to Hefei Xinqiao International Airport. The Line 2 was opened on December 26, 2017. In November 2015, Metro Line 3 construction began. Line 3 is expected to open in 2020. Line 3 will connect the New Station Exploitative-experimental Zone and the Economic Technology Development District, from the vocational education town to the university town. Alongside Line 1, Line 2 and Line 3, Hefei is also planning to build other 12 metro lines, 4 lines of intra-metropolitan rail transit (to Lu'an, Huainan, Lujiang and Chaohu) and 3 lines of tram and hopefully accomplish the project by 2030.", "Normal buses included 1-33, 35–53, 56,57,59-66, 68, 70, 72, 76, 78, 99, 101–141, 143, 145–150, 152, 154–159, 161–163, 166, 226, 232–235, 300–305, 350–359, 399, 401, 502–513, 516–519, 521, 522, 525–533, 535–539, 577, 601–606, 621, 622, 650–657, 665, 670, 681–683, 686, 690–699, 702–710, 801–805, 901–903. And there are also several buses lines which severed for Feixi county(begins with X, such as X201), Feidong county(begins with D, such as D199), Changfeng county (begins with C, such as C131) and Chaohu city (begins with H, such as H105). There are 8 major lines of Bus Rapid Transit in Hefei, including: Bus Rapid Transit Line 1 (B1): from the downtown to the Binhu New Area. () Bus Rapid Transit Line 2 (B2): from Previous Research Institute of China University of Science and Technology to Wang Tong Bus Station (Along Wangjiang Rd. ) Bus Rapid Transit Line 3 (B3): from No.2 buses company to Hefei No.2 Hospital New Area (Along Changjiang Rd. ) Bus Rapid Transit Line 4 (B4): from Hefei Information Technology University to Binhu International Convention and Exhibition Center (Along Ziyun Rd. ) Bus Rapid Transit Line 5 (B5): from Hefeinan Railway Station to Binhu Wanda Bus Station (Along Baohe Avenue. ) Bus Rapid Transit Line 7 (B7): from Provincial Administrative Center to Xinghua Park (Along Baohe Avenue. ) Bus Rapid Transit Line 9 (B9): from Road Bus Station to City Square (Along Fuyang North Road. ) Bus Rapid Transit Line 11 (B11): from Feixi Railway Station to Nanqili Station (Along Jinzhai South Road. ) And there are several commuter lines operating, which only run at designated time or having a large interval, including: T1 from West Bus Terminus () to No.7 High School New Campus (), T2 from Liushutang () to No.7 High School New Campus, T3 from North Square of Hefei Railway Station () to Hefei Economic and Trade Tourism School (), T5 from North Square of Hefei Railway Station to Gongda Vocational and Technical College (), T6 from North Square of Hefei Railway Station to Hefei Industrial School (), T7 from Hefeinan Railway Station () to University Park (), T8 from Gedadian () to E-Commerce Park of the Youth (), T9 from Public Transportation Group (No.2 Hospital) () to No.10 High School New Campus (), T10 from Shifu Square () to No.10 High School New Campus, T12 from Anjuyuan() to Provincial Administration Center (), T13 from CPPCC of Anhui Province () to Provincial Administration Center, T15 from Binhu Vanke City () to Provincial Administration Center, T16 from Wanghucheng () to Provincial Administration Center, T18 as a loop line of the CBD of Binhu New Area (), T19 as a loop line of the Promoting Zone of Binhu New Area (), T21 from Cuozhen () to Fuxing Community (), T22 from Shuidong Rd. () to Sanlian University Branch Campus (), T24 from Cuozhen to Qiaotouji (), T26 from Feihe () to Hefei International Port ().", "Hefei plays an important role in scientific research in China. It has seven national laboratories, second only to Beijing: The National Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory (), the Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale (), both of which are under the University of Science and Technology of China. It also has the Institute of Solid State Physics, Institute of Plasma Physics, Institute of Intelligent Machines, High Magnetic Field Laboratory (founded in 2008), Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, all of which are under the Hefei Institutes of Physical Science which belongs to the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Hefei is the location of Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak, an experimental superconducting tokamak magnetic fusion energy reactor. The No. 105 Hospital of the People's Liberation Army, located in Hefei, is reportedly the site of the first human trials using CRISPR genome editing, doing so in 2015.", "Yicheng Prison is located within the city. It was built during the 1983 \"Strike Hard\" campaign and was formerly Hefei Zhenxing Machine Parts Factory. On June 15, 1984 the Prov. Justice Dept. decided to change the name of the Machine Parts Factory's Internal Dept. to the Prov. Independent LRC. On March 17, 1986, the City's Party Committee and government agreed to the change. On April 26 more than 400 inmates were transferred to Hefei Shangzhangwei Farm and Baihu Farm. In February 1992 a secondary country level prison was created at the Shangzhangwei Farm. In August 1992 the Hefei City LRD level was upgraded by the government. June 1996 the prison was changed to its present name. It is currently controlled by Hefei city. It mainly houses prisoners with sentences of less than 5 years and houses up to 1000 prisoners a year. In the past 20 years, nearly 20,000 inmates have completed their sentences here. The prison mainly cultivates vegetables and rice but also cooperates with the Zhejiang Rongguang Group and produces soccer training shoes, soccer balls, tourism products, and other products.", "Hefei has its own football team called Anhui Jiufang, who in the 2007–08 season were promoted from the Chinese Football Association Yi League to the Chinese Football Association Jia League which is the second highest tier of Chinese football. It was acquired by Tianjin Runyulong in 2011." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Fictional history.", "Second Age.", "Third Age.", "Steeds.", "Significance.", "Development.", "Literary modes.", "Evil, the absence of good.", "Invisible, but corporeal.", "Gradual incarnation.", "Prophecy both true and false.", "Adaptations.", "Films.", "Games.", "Influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Nazgûl or Ringwraiths (Quenya plural: \"Úlairi\") first appeared in the Second Age, according to the \"Akallabêth\" in \"The Silmarillion\". The Dark Lord Sauron gave nine of the Rings of Power to powerful mortal men, including three lords of the once-powerful realm of Númenor and kings of other countries. \"The Silmarillion\" states in \"Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age\" that the rings enslaved their bearers to the power of Sauron's Ring, into which he had put much of his own power. The corrupting effect of the rings extended the bearers' earthly lives far beyond their normal lifespans. The Nazgûl had a sharp sense of smell. \"The Lord of the Rings\" states that their sight worked differently, too: \"They themselves do not see the world of light as we do, but our shapes cast shadows in their minds, which only the noon sun destroys; and in the dark they perceive many signs and forms that are hidden from us: then they are most to be feared.\" Their chief weapon was terror; it was so powerful that Sauron faced one disadvantage when using them: they could not easily travel in secret. Tolkien added, in \"Unfinished Tales\", that the terror they spread was greater when they were unclad and invisible; and when they were gathered together. Few of the Nazgûl are named or identified individually in Tolkien's works. Their chief, also known as the Lord of the Nazgûl and the Black Captain, appears as the Witch-king of Angmar during the Third Age, instrumental in the destruction of the North-kingdom of Arnor. In \"Unfinished Tales\", his second-in-command is named as Khamûl, the \"Black Easterling\" or the \"Shadow of the East\". Three of the Nazgûl were great Númenórean lords; in his notes for translators, Tolkien speculated that the Witch-king of Angmar was of Númenórean origin. The nine, as Nazgûl, were soon established as Sauron's principal servants. They were dispersed after the first overthrow of Sauron late in the Second Age at the hands of the Last Alliance of Elves and Men, but their survival was assured since the One Ring survived.", "The appendices to \"The Lord of the Rings\" state that the Nazgûl re-emerged over a thousand years later in the Third Age, when the Lord of the Nazgûl led Sauron's forces against the successor kingdoms of Arnor: Rhudaur, Cardolan, and Arthedain. He effectively destroyed all of these, but was eventually defeated by the Elf-lord Glorfindel, who put him to flight, and made the prophecy that \"not by the hand of man will he fall\". He escaped, and returned to Mordor. There, he gathered the other Nazgûl in preparation for the return of Sauron to that realm. The Nazgûl besieged Minas Ithil and, after two years, captured it and acquired its \"palantír\" for Sauron. The city thereafter became Minas Morgul, the stronghold of the Nazgûl. Sauron returned from Dol Guldur in Mirkwood to Mordor late in the Third Age and declared himself openly. He sent two or three of the Nazgûl to garrison Dol Guldur. By the time of the main narrative of \"The Lord of the Rings\", Sauron had already learned from Gollum that a hobbit, Bilbo Baggins of the Shire, had acquired the One Ring. Sauron entrusted its recovery to the Nazgûl. They reappeared \"west of the River\", riding black horses that were bred or trained in Mordor to endure their terror. They learned that the Ring had passed to Bilbo's heir, Frodo, and hunted him and his companions across the Shire; the hobbits heard what seemed to be snuffling, and sometimes saw them crawling or crouching. The hobbits escaped, via Tom Bombadil's realm of the Old Forest where they were not pursued, to Bree. A Ranger of the North, Aragorn, arrived ahead of them and for some days led the hobbits on paths not closely followed by the Ringwraiths. Five of the Nazgûl cornered Frodo and his company at Weathertop, where the Witch-king stabbed Frodo in the shoulder with the Morgul blade, breaking off a piece of it in the Hobbit's flesh. During their assault, they mentally commanded Frodo to put on the One Ring; while wearing it, he saw them as pale figures robed in white, with \"haggard hands\", helmets and swords. The Witch-king was taller than the others, with \"long and gleaming\" hair and a crown on his helmet. When all Nine were swept away by the waters of the river Bruinen, their horses were drowned, and the Ringwraiths were forced to return to Mordor to regroup. The nine companions of the Fellowship of the Ring left Rivendell as the \"Nine Walkers\", in opposition to the Nazgûl, the \"Nine Riders\". The latter reappeared mounted on hideous flying beasts. During the Battle of the Pelennor Fields, the Lord of the Nazgûl used black magic, including Grond, a battering-ram engraved with evil spells, to break the gates of Minas Tirith. He was faced by Éowyn, a noblewoman of Rohan; and not far away, Merry, a hobbit of the Fellowship. Éowyn boldly called the Nazgûl a \"dwimmerlaik\", telling him to go if he was not deathless. He cast back his hood to reveal a crown, but the head that wore it was invisible. Merry's surreptitious stroke with an enchanted Barrow-blade brought the Nazgûl to his knees, allowing Éowyn, the niece of Théoden, to drive her sword between his crown and mantle. Thus was the Witch-king destroyed by a woman and a Hobbit, fulfilling Glorfindel's prophecy. Both weapons that pierced him disintegrated, and both assailants were stricken with the Black Breath. After the fall of the Lord of the Nazgûl, command of Mordor's army in the field fell to Gothmog, the \"lieutenant of Morgul\", of unspecified race. The remaining eight Ringwraiths attacked the Army of the West during the Battle of the Morannon. When Frodo claimed the Ring for his own in Mount Doom, Sauron, finally realizing his peril, ordered the remaining eight Nazgûl to fly to intercept him. They arrived too late: Gollum seized the Ring and fell into the Cracks of Doom, destroying the Ring. That ended Sauron's power and everything he had brought into being using it, including the Nazgûl.", "The Nazgûl's flying steeds are given various descriptions but no name. Beregond calls them \"Hell Hawks\". Tolkien describes them as \"fell beasts\", though Tolkien applies the adjective \"fell\" (\"fierce, cruel\") to a variety of other creatures throughout \"The Lord of the Rings\" – even at one point to the wizard Gandalf. In a letter, he calls the winged mounts \"Nazgûl-birds\". In the absence of a proper name, derivative works sometimes press \"fellbeast\" or \"fell-beast\" into service. In the Battle of the Pelennor Fields, where the Lord of the Nazgûl rode one of the flying beasts against King Théoden of Rohan, his mount is described as: It is said to attack with \"beak and claw\". Tolkien wrote that he \"did not intend the steed of the Witch-king to be what is now called a 'pterodactyl'\", while acknowledging \"obviously it is \"pterodactylic\" and owes much to the \"new... mythology\" [of the \"Prehistoric\"], and might even be \"a last survivor of older geological eras.\" The medievalist Marjorie Burns compares the fell beast to the \"Poetic Edda\"s flying steed Sleipnir, \"Odin's eight-legged otherworldly horse\". She writes that whereas Gandalf's horse Shadowfax resembles Sleipnir in his miraculous speed and in almost seeming to fly, the Nazgûl's mount actually flies but is a \"negative image\" of Odin's steed; and, she notes, both Odin and the Nazgûl can cause blindness.", "", "Tolkien began writing \"The Lord of the Rings\" with no conception of Black Riders at all. The horseman in dark clothes in the early chapter \"Three is Company\" was originally Gandalf; in 1938, Tolkien called the figure's transformation into a Black Rider \"an unpremeditated turn\". Frodo's ring, too, was simply a magic ring conferring invisibility, both in \"The Hobbit\" and early drafts of \"The Lord of the Rings\", with no link to Sauron. However, Tolkien was at the time starting to consider the true nature of the Ring, and the idea that it had been made by the Necromancer, and drew itself or its bearer back to him. The Black Riders became Ringwraiths when the hobbit, at that time called Bingo rather than Frodo, discussed the Riders with the Elf Gildor, later in the same chapter. Over the next three years, Tolkien gradually developed the connections between the Nazgûl, the One Ring, Sauron, and all the other Rings of Power. The pieces finally all came together when Tolkien wrote \"The Mirror of Galadriel\", some hundreds of pages later, around the autumn of 1941.", "The Tolkien critic Tom Shippey writes that the Nazgûl function at different stylistic levels or modes (as categorised by Northrop Frye in his \"Anatomy of Criticism\") in the story. At one level, they serve simply as story elements, dangerous opponents. But, Shippey notes, the level rises from the romantic, with heroes taking on the black riders, to the mythic, giving as example the assault of Minas Tirith. The leader of the Nazgûl directs the attack on the Great Gate; he bursts the gate using both the battering-ram Grond, written with \"spells of ruin\", and with \"words of power and terror to rend both heart and stone\".", "The Lord of the Nazgûl hovers close to being an abstraction, \"a vast menace of despair... a huge shadow\", Shippey notes, actually calling himself Death: \"Old fool! This is my hour. Do you not know Death when you see it?\" The scene forms, too, a picture of the \"unexistence of evil\", based on the Boethian philosophy that God is all-powerful, so evil is not the equal and opposite of good, but simply its absence: he forms \"a huge shadow\".", "Despite his shadowiness and invisibility, Shippey writes, the Nazgûl on the Pelennor Fields also comes as close as he ever does to seeming human, having human form inside his black robes, carrying a sword, and laughing to reveal his power when he throws back his hood, revealing a king's crown on his invisible head. Yvette Kisor, a scholar of literature, writes that while the Ringwraiths and others (like Frodo) who wear Rings of Power become invisible, they do not lose any of their corporeality, being present as physical bodies. They require, she writes, physical steeds to carry them about, and they can wield swords. She notes that only a person in a body can wield the One Ring, so the invisibility is just \"a trick of sight\". When Frodo, wearing the Ring, saw the Nazgûl in the \"twilight world\", they appeared solid, not shadowy. He also saw Glorfindel in that world, as a figure of white flame; and Gandalf explains later that the Ringwraiths were \"dismayed\" to see \"an Elf-lord revealed in his wrath\". Frodo is in danger of \"fading\" permanently into invisibility and the twilight world, as the Ringwraiths have done, living \"in another mode of reality\". She writes, too, that Merry's sword, with the special power to sever the Witch-king's \"undead flesh\" and in particular to overcome the \"spell that knit his unseen sinews to his will\", has in fact to cut through real, but invisible, sinews and flesh.", "Steve Walker, a Tolkien scholar, writes that the story gives the Ringwraiths credibility through a \"gradual incarnation of bodiless presence\". Little by little, in his view, Tolkien increases the reader's insight into their nature, starting with Black Riders who are \"spies more human than diabolical\", rather than developing their character. Walker sees this as appropriate in psychological terms: the Nazgûl's main weapons are psychological, namely fear and despair. He writes that the progressive revelation of their capabilities, and their \"escalation of steeds\" from horses to fell beasts, builds up in the reader's mind an \"increasingly infernal vision\".", "The Tolkien critic David Day writes that Tolkien particularly disliked Shakespeare's treatment of myth, and must have resolved to do better. Day compares Tolkien's prophecy \"not by the hand of man will [the Lord of the Nazgûl] fall\" to Shakespeare's account of Macbeth, who should \"laugh to scorn / The power of man, for none of woman born / Shall harm Macbeth\" (Act 4, scene 1): Macbeth is killed by one who \"was from his mother's womb / Untimely ripp'd\" (as Macduff was born by Caesarean section: Act 5, scene 8). In both cases, the prophecies are at once true and false: Macduff was a living man, but not strictly born; while Éowyn and Meriadoc were not men, but woman and hobbit, in Day's view a distinctly better solution than Shakespeare's.", "", "The Nazgûl are featured in adaptations of \"The Lord of the Rings\" on radio, film, and stage. In Ralph Bakshi's 1978 animated film version of \"The Lord of the Rings\", the Nazgûl \"shamble and limp like zombies\". They hack and slash the Hobbits' beds at \"The Prancing Pony\" inn, whereas Tolkien does not identify the assailants. In the Rankin-Bass adaptation of \"The Return of the King\", the Nazgûl are robed skeletons with white hair. They ride winged horses, although the Witch-king rides a creature more in line with the book when he confronts Éowyn. In the 1981 BBC Radio serial of \"The Lord of the Rings\", the Nazgûl chant the Ring-inscription in the Black Speech of Mordor. In \"The Lord of the Rings\" movie trilogy (2001–2003) by Peter Jackson, the Nazgûl are almost always concealed by cloaks; they attack the inn at Bree themselves. During the siege of Minas Tirith, the Witch-king wears a distinctive helmet over his hood resembling a mask and a crown, rather than the crown worn underneath his hood in the book. Their shrieks are distorted recordings of producer and screenwriter Fran Walsh's scream. Minas Morgul is shown first in \"The Fellowship of the Ring\", when the Nazgûl leave the city and ride towards the Shire to pursue the One Ring. It features again when Frodo and Sam make their way towards Cirith Ungol. These sets were designed by the illustrator John Howe. All nine Nazgûl are shown riding winged monsters. Jackson's monsters explicitly differ from Tolkien's description in that they have teeth instead of beaks. The Nazgûl use them in battle more extensively than in the book. In the film the Witch-king's mount is largely responsible for the death of Théoden and his horse Snowmane, a departure from the book. As confirmed in the films' audio commentary, the design of the monsters was based largely on illustrations by John Howe. In the fan-made 2009 film \"The Hunt for Gollum\", Aragorn fights a Ringwraith on the borders of Mirkwood. In Jackson's 2012-2014 \"The Hobbit\" movie trilogy, a prequel to the \"Lord of the Rings\" trilogy, the men who became the Nazgûl are said to have been buried and sealed within the invented High Fells of Rhudaur. In the first film, Radagast briefly encounters the Witch-king while investigating Dol Guldur, and gives the Nazgûl's Morgul dagger to Gandalf to present at the White Council as proof of their return. In the second film, at Galadriel's behest, Gandalf heads to the High Fells and finds that all the Nazgûl have left the tomb. This confirms the Necromancer's identity as Sauron, as the Nazgûl appear alongside their master in the third film in spectral forms wearing Morgul armour and fight Elrond and Saruman before being driven away by Galadriel.", "The Nazgûl are featured in the video game \"\" and its sequel \"\". In the latter, Isildur is revealed to be one of the Nazgûl before he is killed by the game's protagonist, Talion. Talion takes Isildur's ring to prolong his life and eventually became Isildur's replacement until the demise of the Nazgûl in the \"Return of the King\". For the expansion to its real-time strategy game \"\", \"\", Electronic Arts invented the name \"Morgomir\" for one of the Nazgûl.", "In taxonomy, the black ant species \"Tetramorium nazgul\" is named for Tolkien's Ringwraiths, as are the stink bug \"Acledra nazgul\", the marine crustacean \"Potamalpheops nazgul\", and the amphibian \"Abavorana nazgul\". The genus of parasitoid wasps \"Nazgulia\", type species \"N. petiolata\", has the same origin. The fantasy novelist George R. R. Martin's 1983 \"The Armageddon Rag\" tells the tale of a rock promoter who had managed a band named the Nazgûl, and was found ritually murdered on the 10th anniversary of the band's breakup." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Career summary.", "World Longtrack Championship.", "Grand-Prix Appearance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "His father, Phil Crump, is a native Australian from the country town of Mildura and was riding for the Newport Wasps when Jason was born. Phil, a four time Australian Solo Champion (1975, 1979, 1984 and 1988) and 13 time Victorian State Champion, finished third in the world championship in 1976 at the Silesian Stadium in Katowice (Poland) when British star Peter Collins won the title, and as part of the Australian team had won the 1976 Speedway World Team Cup Final at the White City Stadium in London. The Crump family had a home in Bristol while Phil was racing in the British League. Jason's maternal grandfather Neil Street was a former speedway rider and former long time manager of the Australian speedway team. He and his wife Melody have two children, Mia-Lili and Seth.", "After finishing second in both 1988 and 1989, Crump won his first major junior speedway title in 1990 becoming Australian Under-16 champion at the Bibra Lake Speedway in Perth, Western Australia (Crump defeated future Australian champion and team mate Ryan Sullivan for the title), and he progressed through the ranks. His best placing in the Australian Under-21 Championship was third in 1992 at the Riverview Speedway in Murray Bridge (South Australia) behind reigning Australian U/21 and senior champion Leigh Adams and second placed Jason Hawkes, making it an all-Mildura podium. Crump didn't place in the 1993 Australian U/21 Championship at his then home track, Olympic Park, and like a number of young Aussie riders was denied the chance to win the title when it was not contested in 1994 or 1995. By the title resumed in 1996, Crump had turned 22 and the Aussie U/21 title would be one that got away in his career. Just two weeks following his 19th birthday, Crump rode in his first World Final (1994) held at the Speedway Center in Vojens, Denmark, where he finished in 11th place with six points scored. After winning his opening ride, he failed to score in his next two races before finishing with a third and second placing. 1994 was notable as it was the last year the World Championship was decided in the traditional single meeting format that had been in place since the inaugural Final was held at the Wembley Stadium in 1936 which was won by Australia's Lionel Van Praag. From 1995 the World Championship would be decided by the new Speedway Grand Prix series. 1995 saw Crump join his father Phil as an Australian Champion when he won his first title at the Gosford Speedway, with the pair being the first (and only) father-son combination to win the title. Later that same year he made his Speedway Grand Prix debut as a wild card in the Speedway Grand Prix of Great Britain at the Hackney Wick Stadium in London – he won his first three rides, but fell in the B final to finish 8th overall. 1995 also saw Crump win his first World Championship when he won the Under-21 World Final at the Ratinan Stadion in Tampere, Finland after defeating Swede Daniel Andersson in a runoff when both riders finished on 13 points. His previous U/21 World Finals had seen him as a reserve rider in the Czech Republic in 1993 (he did not get to ride), while he had finished third in 1994 in Norway. Crump became Australia's 3rd Under-21 World Champion following on from Adelaide rider Steve Baker (1983) and close friend from Mildura Leigh Adams who won the title in 1992. His first Grand Prix victory came in 1996, again riding at the British Grand Prix at Hackney Wick, although this time as a full-time Grand Prix rider. He has won the World Team Cup in 1999 in Pardubice and the new Speedway World Cup on two further occasions with the Australian team in 2001 in Wrocław, Poland and 2002 in Peterborough, England. In the 2001 World Cup, Crump became the first rider since the legendary Swede Ove Fundin in the inaugural Speedway World Team Cup in 1960 to go through the entire tournament (including qualification rounds) undefeated. Like their Australian Championship record as the only father and son to win the title, Jason Crump joined his dad as a World Team Cup winner by winning the 1999 Final in Pardubice in the Czech Republic. Crump's first world title came in 2004 when he beat then 5 time champion Tony Rickardsson, having won two of the nine Grand Prix that season. He dominated the 2006 season winning four out of nine Grand Prix to take the title for the second time, beating American Greg Hancock into second place. By winning the 2004 Speedway Grand Prix, Crump became Australia's first Individual World Champion since Jack Young had won his second successive World title in 1952. He also became only the fourth Australian rider to win the World Championship, joining Lionel Van Praag (1936), Arthur \"Bluey\" Wilkinson (1938) and Jack Young (1951 and 1952). By becoming World Champion in 2004, Crump also became just the third rider after Sweden's Per Jonsson (1985 and 1990) and England's Gary Havelock (1987 and 1992) as riders to win both the Under-21 and Open Individual World Championships. He also became the first (and as of 2016 the only) rider to win the Individual Under-21, Individual Open and Team World Championships. Crump began his European league career at the Poole Pirates in 1991, where his grandfather, Neil Street, was team manager. Crump won the 'treble' riding for the Peterborough Panthers in Britain during the 1999 season, winning the Elite League, the Knockout Cup and the Craven Shield. He rode for the Belle Vue Aces for five seasons until the end of 2006 when, in 2007, Crump signed for the Poole Pirates in the Elite League. At the end of the 2007 season, Poole announced that Crump would be leaving the club due to the large points limit reduction made by the British Speedway Promoters' Association (BSPA) at their 2007 annual general meeting, Crump returned to Belle Vue for 2008 and signed a two-year deal to stay with the club. However, in October 2008, Crump announced he will not be riding in the British Elite League in 2009 in order to reduce his fixture schedule, allowing him to concentrate on the Grand Prix series. He returned to Belle Vue in August 2009 to assist with their relegation fight and KO Cup campaign. On 14 September 2009, Crump fell during a last heat decider for Belle Vue against Ipswich, sustaining injuries to his left arm and shoulder. In spite of this he finally won his third world title in 2009. He announced his retirement from Grand Prix racing at the end of the 2012 season on 24 September 2012. In December 2012 he confirmed that he was retiring from the sport altogether due to a back injury. 8 years after he announced his retirement, Crump returned to the sport. He joined Ipswich Witches for the 2020 SGB Premiership season. Jason Crump was also successful when riding at home in Australia. He won the Australian Under-16 Championship in 1990 and won the Australian Championship in 1995 and 2007, the second of those while the reigning World Champion - only the second time since the national championship was first run in 1926 that a reigning World Champion had won the Australian Championship (the other being Ole Olsen's controversial win over Jason's dad Phil - the defending champion - in 1976). He also finished on the podium of the Australian Championship in 1994 (3rd), 1996 (2nd), 1997 (2nd), 1998 (3rd) and 2002 (2nd). Crump, after moving his home base from Mildura to Queensland in the mid-1990s, won the Queensland State Championship on five occasions (1995, 1997, 1998, 2001 and 2004). In 2002 Crump finished 3rd in the Speedway Grand Prix of Australia held at the Olympic Stadium in Sydney behind winner Greg Hancock and second placed Scott Nicholls. Crump also won the 1999 Series 500 in Australia (also known as the Australian Masters Series). He was a regular competitor in the series which was run from 1995-2000. The Series 500 often saw top international riders such as World Champions Tony Rickardsson, Greg Hancock, Sam Ermolenko, Billy Hamill and multiple Long Track World Champion Simon Wigg competing against leading Australian riders Crump, Leigh Adams, Ryan Sullivan, Craig Boyce, Jason Lyons and Todd Wiltshire.", "", "2004 1 app (20th) 12pts" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family origin and early life.", "Early career.", "Automobiles E. Bugatti.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Bugatti was born into an artistic family with its origin in Milan, Italy. He was the elder son of Carlo Bugatti (1856–1940), an important Italian Art Nouveau furniture and jewelry designer, and his wife Teresa Lorioli. His younger brother, Rembrandt (1884–1916), was a renowned animal sculptor. His aunt, Luigia Bugatti, was the wife of the painter Giovanni Segantini. His paternal grandfather, Giovanni Luigi Bugatti, was an architect and sculptor. Bugatti's father intended that he follow a conventional technical apprenticeship with one of the Milanese tri-/quadricycle manufacturers, but the boy quickly demonstrated a deep instinctive understanding of wide range of aspects of motor-vehicle construction, and with Prinetti & Stucchi constructed his \"Bugatti Type 1\" in 1898.", "With financial support from a Count Gulinelli, Bugatti developed a second prototype, the Type 2, which was a prize-winning exhibit at the in the Spring of 1901. His design also caught the eye of Baron Adrien de Turckheim, who offered Bugatti the opportunity to come and design automobiles at his Lorraine-Dietrich car factory in Niederbronn. Frontier changes following the Franco-Prussian War had left De Dietrich with two car factories in two different countries: the Niederbronn plant, to which Bugatti now relocated was in Alsace, which had been part of Germany since 1871, reverting to French control only in 1919. From 1902 through 1904, De Dietrich built his Type 3/4 and Type 5/6/7, identified at the time with the name \"De Dietrich, Licence Bugatti\". While working for De Dietrich Bugatti met Émile Mathis. The two became first friends and then business partners, leaving De Dietrich in 1904 in order to produce automobiles of their own, which were identified with the name \"Mathis-Hermes (Licence Bugatti)\". This arrangement lasted till 1906 after which the partners went their separate ways, and Bugatti set up a \"Research centre\" at Illkirch-Graffenstaden, now a suburb on the south-side of Strasbourg. He produced several prototypes, collaborating closely with the Cologne based Deutz company. In 1907, Bugatti was appointed Production Director (\"\"Directeur des fabrications\"\") with Deutz. Here he designed the Type 8/9. While employed at Deutz, Bugatti built the Type 10 in the basement of his home. In 1913, Bugatti designed a small car for Peugeot, the Type 19 \"Bébé\".", "Despite being born in Italy, Bugatti established his automobile company, Automobiles E. Bugatti, in 1909 in the then German town of Molsheim in the Alsace region of what is now France. The maker was known for some of the fastest, most luxurious, and technologically advanced road cars of its day. Exceptional engineering led to success in early Grand Prix motor racing, with a Bugatti being driven to victory in the first Monaco Grand Prix. While displaced from his home in Alsace by World War I, Bugatti designed airplane engines, notably the somewhat baroque 16-cylinder U-16, which was never built in any large number and was only installed in a very few aircraft. Between the wars Bugatti designed a successful motorized railcar dubbed the Autorail Bugatti, and won a government contract to construct an airplane, the Model 100. It was designed by Louis de Monge using two type 50B Bugatti engines but never flew due to the outbreak of World War II. Bugatti's son, Jean, was killed on 11 August 1939 at the age of 30 while testing a Bugatti Type 57 tank-bodied race car near the Molsheim factory. After that, the company's fortunes began to decline. World War II ruined the factory in Molsheim, and the company lost control of the property. During the war, Bugatti planned a new factory at Levallois in Paris and designed a series of new cars. Bugatti's concept of customer relations was somewhat eccentric. To a Bugatti owner who complained that his car was difficult to start on cold mornings, he is said to have retorted, \"Sir! If you can afford a Type 35, you can surely afford a heated garage!\" Another famous line he told to a customer complaining about the brakes in one model was, \"I make my cars to go, not stop!\" He was inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame in 2000.", "In 1907 Bugatti married Barbara Maria Giuseppina Mascherpa. The marriage produced two daughters, L'Ébé in 1903 and Lidia in 1907, and two sons, Jean in 1909, and Roland in 1922. His wife Barbara died in 1944, and Bugatti remarried in 1946, to Geneviève Marguerite Delcuze. This marriage produced a daughter, Thérèse in 1942 and a son, Michel in 1945. Bugatti died at the American hospital in the inner-Paris suburb of Neuilly, in the late summer of 1947. Afflicted by a paralysis of his mental faculties, he had for several months been confined to the Paris apartment in the, which he had owned since 1916. He was almost certainly unaware of the court decision whereby his property in Alsace, which had been confiscated by the state in the feverish post-liberation frenzy of anger and retribution which his Italian origins had invited, was restored to him on 20 June 1947; Bugatti died just over two months later, on 21 August without having recovered consciousness. Bugatti was buried in the Bugatti family plot at the municipal cemetery in Dorlisheim near Molsheim in the Bas-Rhin département of France. Molsheim's Musée de la Chartreuse houses a section dedicated to his life, work, and legacy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Features.", "Example.", "1. First Section", "2. Second Section", "3. Conclusion", "Implementations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Macro processors became popular when programmers commonly used assembly language. In those early days of programming, programmers noted that much of their programs consisted of repeated text, and they invented simple means for reusing this text. Programmers soon discovered the advantages not only of reusing entire blocks of text, but also of substituting different values for similar parameters. This defined the usage range of macro processors. In 1960s, an early general-purpose macro processor M was in use at AT&T Bell Laboratories, which was developed by Douglas McIlroy, Robert Morris and Andrew Hall. Kernighan and Ritchie developed m4 in 1977, basing it on the ideas of Christopher Strachey. The distinguishing features of this style of macro preprocessing included: The implementation of Rational Fortran used m4 as its macro engine from the beginning; and most Unix variants ship with it. m4 has many uses in code generation, but (as with any macro processor) problems can be hard to debug.", "m4 offers these facilities: Unlike most earlier macro processors, m4 does not target any particular computer or human language; historically, however, its development originated for supporting the Ratfor dialect of Fortran. Unlike some other macro processors, m4 is Turing-complete as well as a practical programming language. Unquoted identifiers which match defined macros are replaced with their definitions. Placing identifiers in quotes suppresses expansion until possibly later, such as when a quoted string is expanded as part of macro replacement. Unlike most languages, strings in m4 are quoted using the backtick (`) as the starting delimiter, and apostrophe (') as the ending delimiter. Separate starting and ending delimiters allows the arbitrary nesting of quotation marks in strings to be used, allowing a fine degree of control of how and when macro expansion takes place in different parts of a string.", "The following fragment gives a simple example that could form part of a library for generating HTML code. It defines a commented macro to number sections automatically: divert(-1) m4 has multiple output queues that can be manipulated with the `divert' macro. Valid queues range from 0 to 10, inclusive, with the default queue being 0. As an extension, GNU m4 supports more diversions, limited only by integer type size. Calling the `divert' macro with an invalid queue causes text to be discarded until another call. Note that even while output is being discarded, quotes around `divert' and other macros are needed to prevent expansion. define(`H2_COUNT', 0) define(`H2', divert(1)dnl dnl dnl The dnl macro causes m4 to discard the rest of the line, thus dnl preventing unwanted blank lines from appearing in the output. dnl H2(First Section) H2(Second Section) H2(Conclusion) dnl divert(0)dnl dnl <HTML> undivert(1)dnl One of the queues is being pushed to output. </HTML> Processing this code with m4 generates the following text: <HTML>", "", "", "</HTML>", "FreeBSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD provide independent implementations of the m4 language. Furthermore, the Heirloom Project Development Tools includes a free version of the m4 language, derived from OpenSolaris. \"GNU m4\" is an implementation of m4 for the GNU Project. It is designed to avoid many kinds of arbitrary limits found in traditional m4 implementations, such as maximum line lengths, maximum size of a macro and number of macros. Removing such arbitrary limits is one of the stated goals of the GNU Project. The GNU Autoconf package makes extensive use of the features of GNU m4. GNU m4 is currently maintained by Gary V. Vaughan and Eric Blake. Released under the terms of the GNU General Public License, GNU m4 is free software." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Languages.", "Contemporary groups.", "Volga Tatars.", "Crimean Tatars.", "Crimean Tatars in Dobrogea.", "Lipka Tatars.", "Astrakhan Tatars.", "Siberian Tatars.", "Genetics.", "mtDNA." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The name \"Tatar\" likely originated amongst the nomadic Tatar confederation, whose ancestors inhabited in the north-eastern Gobi desert in the 5th century. The name \"Tatar\" was first transliterated, with Chinese characters in the Book of Song, as 大檀 \"Dàtán\" (MC: *\"da-dan\") and 檀檀 \"Tántán\" (MC: *\"dan-dan\") as other names of the Rourans. The Rouran Khaganate collapsed due to internal Turk-led rebellion, and a remnant of the dispersed Rourans fled to the Greater Khingan mountain range, where they renamed themselves Tatars, after Yujiulü Datan, one of their former Khagans. The Donghu ancestors of Rourans and later Tatars were generally agreed to be Proto-Mongols, though several scholars (e.g. Xu, Sadur, etc.) suggested that Turkic elements also contributed to Tatars' ethnogenesis. The first precise phonetic transcriptions were on the Orkhon inscriptions: Kul Tigin (732 CE) and Bilge Khagan (735 CW) monuments as and referring to the Tatar confederation. \"Tatar\" became a name for populations of the former Golden Horde in Europe, such as those of the former Kazan, Crimean, Astrakhan, Qasim, and Siberian Khanates. The form \"Tartar\" has its origins in either Latin or French, coming to Western European languages from Turkish and the Persian language (, \"mounted messenger\"). From the beginning, the extra \"r\" was present in the Western forms, and according to the Oxford English Dictionary this was most likely due to an association with \"Tartarus\". The Persian word is first recorded in the 13th century in reference to the hordes of Genghis Khan and is of unknown origin, according to \"OED\" \"said to be\" ultimately from \"tata\", a name of the Mongols for themselves. The Arabic word for Tatars is. Tatars themselves wrote their name as or. The Chinese term for Tatars was, especially after the end of the Yuan period (14th century), but also recorded as a term for Mongolian-speaking peoples of the northern steppes during the Tang period (8th century). The name \"Tatars\" was used as an alternative term for the Shiwei, a nomadic confederation to which these Tatar people belonged. Russians and Europeans used the name \"Tatar\" to denote Mongols as well as Turkic peoples under Mongol rule (especially in the Golden Horde). Later, it applied to any Turkic or Mongolic-speaking people encountered by Russians. Eventually, however, the name became associated with the Turkic Muslims of Ukraine and Russia, namely the descendants of Muslim Volga Bulgars, Kipchaks, Cumans, and Turkicized Mongols or Turko-Mongols (Nogais), as well as other Turkic-speaking peoples (Siberian Tatars, Qasim Tatars, and Mishar Tatars) in the territory of the former Russian Empire (and as such generally includes all Northwestern Turkic-speaking peoples). Nowadays \"Tatar\" is usually used to refer to the people, but \"Tartar\" is still almost always used for derived terms such as tartar sauce, steak tartare, and the Tartar missile. All Turkic peoples living within the Russian Empire were named \"Tatar\" (as a Russian exonym). Some of these populations still use \"Tatar\" as a self-designation, others do not. The name \"Tatar\" is also an endonym to a number of peoples of Siberia and Russian Far East, namely the Khakas people.", "11th century Kara-khanid scholar Mahmud al-Kashgari noted that the historical Tatars were bilingual, speaking Turkic besides their own language. The modern Tatar language, together with the Bashkir language, forms the Kypchak-Bolgar (also \"Uralo-Caspian\") group within the Kipchak languages (also known as Northwestern Turkic). There are two Tatar dialects – Central and Western. The Western dialect (Misher) is spoken mostly by Mishärs, the Central dialect is spoken by Kazan and Astrakhan Tatars. Both dialects have subdialects. Central Tatar furnishes the base of literary Tatar. The Siberian Tatar language are independent of Volga–Ural Tatar. The dialects are quite remote from Standard Tatar and from each other, often preventing mutual comprehension. The claim that Siberian Tarar is part of the modern Tatar language is typically supported by linguists in Kazan and denounced by Siberian Tatars. Crimean Tatar is the indigenous language of the Crimean Tatar people. Because of its common name, Crimean \"Tatar\" is sometimes mistakenly seen as a dialect of Kazan Tatar. Although these languages are related (as both are Turkic), the Kypchak languages closest to Crimean Tatar are (as mentioned above) Kumyk and Karachay-Balkar, not Kazan Tatar. Still, there exists an opinion (E. R. Tenishev), according to which the Kazan Tatar language is included in the same Kipchak-Cuman group as Crimean Tatar.", "The largest Tatar populations are the Volga Tatars, native to the Volga region, and the Crimean Tatars of Crimea. Smaller groups of Lipka Tatars and Astrakhan Tatars live in Europe and the Siberian Tatars in Asia.", "The Volga Bulgars, who settled on the Volga river in the 7th century AD and converted to Islam in 922 during the missionary work of Ahmad ibn Fadlan, inhabited the present-day territory of Tatarstan. After the Batu Khan invasions of 1223–1236, the Golden Horde annexed Volga Bulgaria. Most of the population survived, and there was a certain degree of mixing between it and the Kipchaks of the Horde during the ensuing period. The group as a whole accepted the exonym \"Tatars\" (finally in the end of the 19th century; although the name Bulgars persisted in some places; the majority identified themselves simply as \"the Muslims\") and the language of the Kipchaks; on the other hand, the invaders eventually converted to Islam. As the Golden Horde disintegrated in the 15th century, the area became the territory of the Kazan khanate, which Russia ultimately conquered in the 16th century. Some Volga Tatars speak different dialects of the Tatar language. Accordingly, they form distinct groups such as the Mişär group and the Qasim group: A minority of Christianized Volga Tatars are known as Keräşens. The Volga Tatars used the Turkic Old Tatar language for their literature between the 15th and 19th centuries. It was written in the İske imlâ variant of the Arabic script, but actual spelling varied regionally. The older literary language included many Arabic and Persian loanwords. The modern literary language, however, often uses Russian and other European-derived words instead. Outside of Tatarstan, urban Tatars usually speak Russian as their first language (in cities such as Moscow, Saint-Petersburg, Nizhniy Novgorod, Tashkent, Almaty, and cities of the Ural and western Siberia) and other languages in a worldwide diaspora. In the 1910s the Volga Tatars numbered about half a million in the Kazan Governorate in Tatarstan, their historical homeland, about 400,000 in each of the governments of Ufa, 100,000 in Samara and Simbirsk, and about 30,000 in Vyatka, Saratov, Tambov, Penza, Nizhny Novgorod, Perm and Orenburg. An additional 15,000 had migrated to Ryazan or were settled as prisoners in the 16th and 17th centuries in Lithuania (Vilnius, Grodno and Podolia). An additional 2000 resided in St. Petersburg. Most Kazan Tatars practise Sunni Islam. The Kazan Tatars speak the Tatar language, a Turkic language with a substantial amount of Russian and Arabic loanwords. Before 1917, polygamy was practiced only by the wealthier classes and was a waning institution. An ethnic nationalist movement among Kazan Tatars that stresses descent from the Bulgars is known as Bulgarism – there have been graffiti on the walls in the streets of Kazan with phrases such as \"Bulgaria is alive\" (Булгария жива) A significant number of Volga Tatars emigrated during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, mostly to Turkey and to Harbin, China. According to the Chinese government, 5,100 Tatars still live in Xinjiang province.", "\"Crimean Tatars are a separate people, they are not a sub-ethnic group of Volga Tatars\". Crimean Tatars are an indigenous people of the Crimea. Their formation occurred during the 13th–17th centuries, primarily from Cumans that appeared in the Crimea in the 10th century, with strong contributions from all the peoples who ever inhabited Crimea. At the beginning of the 13th century, the Crimea, the majority of the population of which was already composed of a Turkic people — Cumans, became a part of the Golden Horde. The Crimean Tatars mostly adopted Islam in the 14th century and thereafter Crimea became one of the centers of Islamic civilization in Eastern Europe. In the same century, trends towards separatism appeared in the Crimean Ulus of the Golden Horde. De-facto independence of the Crimea from the Golden Horde may be counted since the beginning of princess (khanum) Canike's, the daughter of the powerful Khan of the Golden Horde Tokhtamysh and the wife of the founder of the Nogai Horde Edigey, reign in the peninsula. During her reign she strongly supported Hacı Giray in the struggle for the Crimean throne until her death in 1437. Following the death of Сanike, the situation of Hacı Giray in Crimea weakened and he was forced to leave Crimea for Lithuania. In 1441, an embassy from the representatives of several strongest clans of the Crimea, including the Golden Horde clans Shırın and Barın and the Cumanic clan — Kıpçak, went to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to invite Hacı Giray to rule in the Crimea. He became the founder of the Giray dynasty, which ruled until the annexation of the Crimean Khanate by Russia in 1783. Hacı I Giray was a Jochid descendant of Genghis Khan and of his grandson Batu Khan of the Golden Horde. During the reign of Meñli I Giray, Hacı's son, the army of the Great Horde that still existed then invaded the Crimea from the north, Crimean Khan won the general battle, overtaking the army of the Horde Khan in Takht-Lia, where he was killed, the Horde ceased to exist, and the Crimean Khan became the Great Khan and the successor of this state. Since then, the Crimean Khanate was among the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the beginning of the 18th century. The Khanate officially operated as a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire, with great autonomy after 1580, because of being a Muslim state, the Crimean Khanate just could not be separate from the Ottoman caliphate, and therefore the Crimean khans had to recognize the Ottoman caliph as the supreme ruler, in fact, the viceroy of Allah on earth. At the same time, the Nogai hordes, not having their own khan, were vassals of the Crimean one, Muskovy and Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth paid annual tribute to the khan (until 1700 and 1699 respectively). In 1711, when Peter I of Russia went on a campaign with all his troops (80,000) to gain access to the Black Sea, he was surrounded by the army of the Crimean Khan Devlet II Giray, finding himself in a hopeless situation. And only the betrayal of the Ottoman vizier Baltacı Mehmet Pasha allowed Peter to get out of the encirclement of the Crimean Tatars. When Devlet II Giray protested against the vizier’s decision, his response was: \"\"You might know your Tatar affairs. The affairs of the Sublime Porte are entrusted to me. You do not have the right to interfere in them\"\". Treaty of the Pruth was signed, and 10 years later, Russia declared itself an empire. In 1736, the Crimean Khan Qaplan I Giray was summoned by the Turkish Sultan Ahmed III to Persia. Understanding that Russia could take advantage of the lack of troops in Crimea, Qaplan Giray wrote to the Sultan to think twice, but the Sultan was persistent. As it was expected by Qaplan Giray, in 1736 the Russian army invaded the Crimea, led by Münnich, devastated the peninsula, killed civilians and destroyed all major cities, occupied the capital, Bakhchisaray, and burnt the Khan's palace with all the archives and documents, and then left the Crimea because of the epidemic that had begun in it. One year after the same was done by another Russian general — Peter Lacy. Since then, the Crimean Khanate had not been able to recover, and its slow decline began. The Russo-Turkish War of 1768 to 1774 resulted in the defeat of the Ottomans by the Russians, and according to the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) signed after the war, Crimea became independent and the Ottomans renounced their political right to protect the Crimean Khanate. After a period of political unrest in Crimea, Imperial Russia violated the treaty and annexed the Crimean Khanate in 1783. Due to the oppression by the Russian administration, the Crimean Tatars were forced to immigrate to the Ottoman Empire. In total, from 1783 till the beginning of the 20th century, at least 800 thousand Tatars left Crimea. In 1917, the Crimean Tatars, in an effort to recreate their statehood, announced the Crimean People's Republic — the first democratic republic in the Muslim world, where all peoples were equal in rights. The head of the republic was the young politician Noman Çelebicihan. However, a few months later the Bolsheviks captured Crimea, and Çelebicihan was killed without trial and thrown into the Black Sea. Soon in the Crimea, Soviet power was established. Through the fault of the Soviet government, which exported bread from Crimea to other regions of the country, in 1921-1922, at least 76,000 Crimean Tatars died of starvation, which became a disaster for such a small nation. In 1928, the first wave of repression against the Crimean Tatar intelligentsia was launched, in particular, the head of the Crimean ASSR was executed in a fabricated case. In 1938, the second wave of repression against the Crimean Tatar intelligentsia was started, during which many Crimean Tatar writers, scientists, poets, politicians, teachers were killed (, Usein Bodaninsky,, and many others). In May 1944, the USSR State Defense Committee ordered the total deportation of all the Crimean Tatars from Crimea. The deportees were transported in cattle trains to Central Asia, primarily to Uzbekistan. During the deportation and in the first years of being in exile, 46% of Crimean Tatars died. In 1956, Khrushchev exposed Stalin's cult of personality and allowed deported peoples to return to their homeland. The exception was the Crimean Tatars. Since then, a powerful national movement of the Crimean Tatars, supported abroad and by Soviet dissidents, began, and in 1989 the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union was made to condemn the deportation of Crimean Tatars from their motherland as inhumane and lawless. Crimean Tatars began to return to their homeland. Today, Crimean Tatars constitute approximately 12% of the population of Crimea. There is a large diaspora in Turkey and Uzbekistan, but most of them do not consider themselves Crimean Tatars. Still, there remains a diaspora in Dobrogea, where most of the Tatars keep identifying themselves as Crimean Tatars. Nowadays, the Crimean Tatars comprise three sub-ethnic groups:", "Some Crimean Tatars have lived in the territory of today's Romania and Bulgaria since the 13th century. In Romania, according to the 2002 census, 24,000 people declared their ethnicity as Tatar, most of them being Crimean Tatars living in Constanța County in the region of Dobrogea. Most of the Crimean Tatars, living in Romania and Bulgaria nowadays, left the Crimean peninsula for Dobrogea after the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire. Dobrujan Tatars have been present in Romania since the 13th century. The Tatars first reached the mouths of the Danube in the mid-13th century at the height of the power of the Golden Horde. In the 14th and 15th centuries the Ottoman Empire colonized Dobruja with Nogais from Bucak. Between 1593 and 1595 Tatars from Nogai and Bucak were also settled to Dobruja. (Frederick de Jong) Toward the end of the 16th century, about 30,000 Nogai Tatars from the Budjak were brought to Dobruja. After the Russian annexation of Crimea in 1783 Crimean Tatars began emigrating to the Ottoman coastal provinces of Dobruja (today divided between Romania and Bulgaria). Once in Dobruja most settled in the areas surrounding Mecidiye, Babadag, Köstence, Tulça, Silistre, Beştepe, or Varna and went on to create villages named in honor of their abandoned homeland such as Şirin, Yayla, Akmecit, Yalta, Kefe or Beybucak. Tatars together with Albanians served as gendarmes, who were held in high esteem by the Ottomans and received special tax privileges. The Ottoman's additionally accorded a certain degree of autonomy for the Tatars who were allowed governance by their own kaymakam, Khan Mirza. The Giray dynasty (1427 - 1878) multiplied in Dobruja and maintained their respected position. A Dobrujan Tatar, Kara Hussein, was responsible for the destruction of the Janissary corps on orders from Sultan Mahmut II.", "The Lipka Tatars are a group of Turkic-speaking Tatars who originally settled in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the beginning of the 14th century. The first settlers tried to preserve their shamanistic religion and sought asylum amongst the non-Christian Lithuanians. Towards the end of the 14th century Grand Duke Vytautas the Great of Lithuania (ruled 1392–1430) invited another wave of Tatars —Muslims, this time— into the Grand Duchy. These Tatars first settled in Lithuania proper around Vilnius, Trakai, Hrodna and Kaunas and spread to other parts of the Grand Duchy that later became part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569. These areas comprise parts of present-day Lithuania, Belarus and Poland. From the very beginning of their settlement in Lithuania they were known as the Lipka Tatars. From the 13th to 17th centuries various groups of Tatars settled and/or found refuge within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Grand Dukes of Lithuania especially promoted the migrations because of the Tatars' reputation as skilled warriors. The Tatar settlers were all granted \"szlachta\" (nobility) status, a tradition that survived until the end of the Commonwealth in the late-18th century. Such migrants included the Lipka Tatars (13th–14th centuries) as well as Crimean and Nogay Tatars (15th–16th centuries), all of which were notable in Polish military history, as well as Volga Tatars (16th–17th centuries). They all mostly settled in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Various estimates of the Tatars in the Commonwealth in the 17th century place their numbers at about 15,000 persons and 60 villages with mosques. Numerous royal privileges, as well as internal autonomy granted by the monarchs, allowed the Tatars to preserve their religion, traditions, and culture over the centuries. The Tatars were allowed to intermarry with Christians,a practice uncommon in Europe at the time. The May Constitution of 1791 gave the Tatars representation in the Polish Sejm (parliament). Although by the 18th century the Tatars had adopted the local language, the Islamic religion and many Tatar traditions (e.g. the sacrifice of bulls in their mosques during the main religious festivals) survived. This led to the formation of a distinctive Muslim culture, in which the elements of Muslim orthodoxy mixed with religious tolerance formed a relatively liberal society. For instance, the women in Lipka Tatar society traditionally had the same rights and status as men, and could attend non-segregated schools. About 5,500 Tatars lived within the inter-war boundaries of Poland (1920–1939), and a Tatar cavalry unit had fought for the country's independence. The Tatars had preserved their cultural identity and sustained a number of Tatar organisations, including Tatar archives and a museum in Vilnius. The Tatars suffered serious losses during World War II and furthermore, after the border change in 1945, a large part of them found themselves in the Soviet Union. It is estimated that about 3000 Tatars live in present-day Poland, of which about 500 declared Tatar (rather than Polish) nationality in the 2002 census. There are two Tatar villages (Bohoniki and Kruszyniany) in the north-east of present-day Poland, as well as urban Tatar communities in Warsaw, Gdańsk, Białystok, and Gorzów Wielkopolski. Tatars in Poland sometimes have a Muslim surname with a Polish ending: \"Ryzwanowicz\"; another surname sometimes adopted by more assimilated Tatars is \"Tatara\" or \"Tataranowicz\" or \"Taterczyński\", which literally mean \"son of a Tatar\". The Tatars played a relatively prominent role for such a small community in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth military as well as in Polish and Lithuanian political and intellectual life. In modern-day Poland, their presence is also widely known, due in part to their noticeable role in the historical novels of Henryk Sienkiewicz (1846–1916), which are universally recognized in Poland. A number of Polish intellectual figures have also been Tatars, e.g. the prominent historian Jerzy Łojek. A small community of Polish-speaking Tatars settled in Brooklyn, New York City, in the early-20th century. They established a mosque that remained in use.", "The Astrakhan Tatars (around 80,000) are a group of Tatars, descendants of the Astrakhan Khanate's population, who live mostly in Astrakhan Oblast. In the Russian census in 2010, most Astrakhan Tatars declared themselves simply as Tatars and few declared themselves as Astrakhan Tatars. Many Volga Tatars live in Astrakhan Oblast and differences between them have been disappearing.", "The Siberian Tatars occupy three distinct regions: They originated in the agglomerations of various indigenous North Asian groups which, in the region north of the Altay, reached some degree of culture between the 4th and 5th centuries, but were subdued and enslaved by the Mongols. The 2010 census recorded 6,779 Siberian Tatars in Russia. According to the 2002 census there are 500,000 Tatars in Siberia, but 400,000 of them are Volga Tatars who settled in Siberia during periods of colonization.", "Comparison of the proportions of Caucasoid and Mongoloid characteristics in the gene pools of ethnic groups in the Volga-Ural region revealed a heterogenous pattern. Data on the proportions of major racial components in the nuclear genome indicated that the Mongoloid characters were most prevalent in Bashkirs, Maris, Volga Tatars, and Chuvashes, while the Caucasoid component was maximum in Mordovians, Komis, and Udmurts. Data on restriction-deletion polymorphism of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) also indicated an increased Caucasoid contribution to Mordovian, Udmurt, and Komi gene pools and an increased Mongoloid component in Chuvashes and Volga Tatars. In general, the results obtained agree with ethnic anthropological data indicating the greatest Caucasoid contribution to the Mordovian and Komi gene pools and an increased Mongoloid component in Turkic populations of the Volga-Ural region (Volga Tatars, Bashkirs and Chuvashes).", "According to Mylyarchuk and colleagues, among 197 Kazan Tatars and Mishars. The study of Suslova et al. found indications of two non-Kipchak sources of admixture, Finno-Ugric and Bulgar." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geology and features.", "Geography of the mountain.", "Naming.", "History.", "Climbing history.", "Weather station.", "Historical record.", "Subpeaks and nearby mountains." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Denali is a granitic pluton, mostly pink quartz monzonite, lifted by tectonic pressure from the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the North American Plate; at the same time, the sedimentary material above and around the mountain was stripped away by erosion. The forces that lifted Denali also caused many deep earthquakes in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands. The Pacific Plate is seismically active beneath Denali, a tectonic region that is known as the \"McKinley cluster\". Denali has a summit elevation of above sea level, making it the highest peak in North America and the northernmost mountain above 6,000 meters elevation in the world. Measured from base to peak at some, it is among the largest mountains situated entirely above sea level. Denali rises from a sloping plain with elevations from, for a base-to-peak height of. By comparison, Mount Everest rises from the Tibetan Plateau at a much higher base elevation. Base elevations for Everest range from on the south side to on the Tibetan Plateau, for a base-to-peak height in the range of. Denali's base-to-peak height is little more than half the of the volcano Mauna Kea, which lies mostly under water.", "Denali has two significant summits: the South Summit is the higher one, while the North Summit has an elevation of and a prominence of approximately. The North Summit is sometimes counted as a separate peak (see e.g., fourteener) and sometimes not; it is rarely climbed, except by those doing routes on the north side of the massif. Five large glaciers flow off the slopes of the mountain. The Peters Glacier lies on the northwest side of the massif, while the Muldrow Glacier falls from its northeast slopes. Just to the east of the Muldrow, and abutting the eastern side of the massif, is the Traleika Glacier. The Ruth Glacier lies to the southeast of the mountain, and the Kahiltna Glacier leads up to the southwest side of the mountain. With a length of, the Kahiltna Glacier is the longest glacier in the Alaska Range.", "The Koyukon Athabaskans who inhabit the area around the mountain have for centuries referred to the peak as \"Dinale\" or \"Denali\". The name is based on a Koyukon word for \"high\" or \"tall\". During the Russian ownership of Alaska, the common name for the mountain was \"Bolshaya Gora\" (, \"bolshaya\" = Russian for \"big\"; \"gora\" = Russian for \"mountain\"), which is the Russian translation of \"Denali\". It was briefly called Densmore's Mountain in the late 1880s and early 1890s after Frank Densmore, a gold prospector who was the first non-native Alaskan to reach the base of the mountain. In 1896, a gold prospector named it \"McKinley\" as political support for then-presidential candidate William McKinley, who became president the following year. The United States formally recognized the name Mount McKinley after President Wilson signed the Mount McKinley National Park Act of February 26, 1917. In 1965, Lyndon B. Johnson declared the north and south peaks of the mountain the \"Churchill Peaks\", in honor of British statesman Winston Churchill. The Alaska Board of Geographic Names changed the name of the mountain to \"Denali\" in 1975, which was how it is called locally. However, a request in 1975 from the Alaska state legislature to the United States Board on Geographic Names to do the same at the federal level was blocked by Ohio congressman Ralph Regula, whose district included McKinley's hometown of Canton. On August 30, 2015, just ahead of a presidential visit to Alaska, the Barack Obama administration announced the name \"Denali\" would be restored in line with the Alaska Geographic Board's designation. U.S. Secretary of the Interior Sally Jewell issued the order changing the name to Denali on August 28, 2015, effective immediately. Jewell said the change had been \"a long time coming\". The renaming of the mountain received praise from Alaska's senior U.S. senator, Lisa Murkowski, who had previously introduced legislation to accomplish the name change, but it drew criticism from several politicians from President McKinley's home state of Ohio, such as Governor John Kasich, U.S. Senator Rob Portman, U.S. House Speaker John Boehner, and Representative Bob Gibbs, who described Obama's action as \"constitutional overreach\" because he said an act of Congress is required to rename the mountain. The \"Alaska Dispatch News\" reported that the Secretary of the Interior has authority under federal law to change geographic names when the Board of Geographic Names does not act on a naming request within a \"reasonable\" period of time. Jewell told the \"Alaska Dispatch News\" that \"I think any of us would think that 40 years is an unreasonable amount of time.\" Indigenous names for Denali can be found in seven different Alaskan languages. The names fall into two categories. To the south of the Alaska Range in the Dena'ina and Ahtna languages the mountain is known by names that are translated as \"big mountain\". To the north of the Alaska Range in the Lower Tanana, Koyukon, Upper Kuskokwim, Holikachuk, and Deg Xinag languages the mountain is known by names that are translated as \"the high one\", \"the tall one\" (Koyukon, Lower and Middle Tanana, Upper Kuskokwim, Deg Xinag, and Holikachuk), or \"big mountain\" (Ahtna and Dena'ina). Asked about the importance of the mountain and its name, Will Mayo, former president of the Tanana Chiefs Conference, an organization that represents 42 Athabaskan tribes in the Alaskan interior, said \"It’s not one homogeneous belief structure around the mountain, but we all agree that we’re all deeply gratified by the acknowledgment of the importance of Denali to Alaska’s people.\" The following table lists the Alaskan Athabascan names for Denali.", "The Koyukon Athabaskans, living in the Yukon, Tanana and Kuskokwim basins, were the first Native Americans with access to the flanks of the mountain. A British naval captain and explorer, George Vancouver, is the first European on record to have sighted Denali, when he noted \"distant stupendous mountains\" while surveying the Knik Arm of the Cook Inlet on May 6, 1794. The Russian explorer Lavrenty Zagoskin explored the Tanana and Kuskokwim rivers in 1843 and 1844, and was likely the first European to sight the mountain from the other side. William Dickey, a New Hampshire-born resident of Seattle, Washington who had been digging for gold in the sands of the Susitna River, wrote, after his returning from Alaska, an account in the \"New York Sun\" that appeared on January 24, 1897. His report drew attention with the sentence \"We have no doubt that this peak is the highest in North America, and estimate that it is over high.\" Until then, Mount Logan in Canada's Yukon Territory was believed to be the continent's highest point. Though later praised for his estimate, Dickey admitted that other prospector parties had also guessed the mountain to be over. On November 5, 2012, the United States Mint released a twenty-five cent piece depicting Denali National Park. It is the fifteenth of the America the Beautiful Quarters series. The reverse features a Dall sheep with the peak of Denali in the background.", "During the summer of 1902, scientist Alfred Brooks explored the flanks of the mountain as a part of an exploratory surveying party conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey. The party landed at Cook Inlet in late May, then traveled east, paralleling the Alaska Range, before reaching the slopes of Denali in early August. Camped on the flank of the mountain on August 3, Brooks noted later that while \"the ascent of Mount McKinley had never been part of our plans,\" the party decided to delay one day so \"that we might actually set foot on the slopes of the mountain.\" Setting off alone, with good weather, on August 4, Brooks aimed to reach a 10,000 ft shoulder. At 7,500 ft, Brooks found his way blocked by sheer ice and, after leaving a small cairn as a marker, descended. After the party's return, Brooks co-authored a \"Plan For Climbing Mt McKinley,\" published in \"National Geographic\" magazine in January, 1903, with fellow party-member and topographer D.L. Raeburn, in which they suggested that future attempts at the summit should approach from the north, not the south. The report received substantial attention, and within a year, two climbing parties declared their intent to summit. In the early summer of 1903, Judge James Wickersham, then of Eagle, Alaska, made the first recorded attempt to climb Denali, along with a party of four others. The group attempted to get as close to the mountain as possible via the Kantishna river by steamer, before offloading and following Chitsia Creek with a poling boat, mules and backpacks, a route suggested to them by Tanana Athabaskan people they met along the way. The party received further navigational assistance at Anotoktilon, an Athabaskan hunting camp, where residents gave the group detailed directions to reach the glaciers at the foot of Denali. On reaching the mountain, the mountaineers set up base camp on the lower portion of Peters Glacier. Aiming for the northwest buttress of Denali's north peak, they attempted to ascend directly, however crevasses, ice fall and the lack of a clear passage caused them to turn and attempt to follow a spur via Jeffery Glacier where they believed they could see a way to the summit. After a dangerous ascent, at around 10,000 ft, Wickersham found that the route did not connect as it had appeared from below, instead discovering \"a tremendous precipice beyond which we cannot go. Our only line of further ascent would be to climb the vertical wall of the mountain at our left, and that is impossible.\" This wall, now known as the Wickersham Wall, juts 14,000 ft upwards from the glacier to the north peak of Denali. Because of the route's history of avalanche danger, it was not successfully climbed until 1963. Later in the summer of 1903, Dr. Frederick Cook led a team of five men on another attempt at the summit. Cook was already an experienced explorer and had been a party-member on successful arctic expeditions led both by Robert Peary and Roald Amundsen. Yet he struggled to obtain funding for the expedition under his own leadership, eventually putting it together \"on a shoestring budget\" without any other experienced climbers. The party navigated up the Cook inlet and followed the path of the 1902 Brooks party towards Denali. Cook approached the mountain via the Peters Glacier, as Wickersham had done, however he was able to overcome the ice fall that had caused the previous group to turn up the spur towards the Wickersham Wall. Despite avoiding this obstacle, on August 31, having reached an elevation of about 10,900 ft on the northwest buttress of the north peak, the party found they had reached a dead end and could make no further progress. On the descent, the group completely circumnavigated the mountain, the first climbing party to do so. Although Cook's 1903 expedition did not reach the summit, he received acclaim for the accomplishment, a 1000 mile trek in which he not only circled the entire mountain but also found, on the descent, an accessible pass northeast of the Muldrow Glacier following the headwaters of the Toklat and Chulitna rivers. In 1906, Cook launched another expedition to Denali with co-leader Herschel Parker, a Columbia University professor of electrical engineering with extensive mountaineering experience. Belmore Browne, an experienced climber and five other men comprised the rest of the group. Cook and Parker's group spent the bulk of the summer season exploring the southern and southeastern approaches to the mountain, eventually reaching a high point on Tokositna glacier, 25 miles from the summit. During their explorations the party mapped out many of the tributaries and glaciers of the Susitna river along the mountain's south flank. As the summer ended, the team retreated to the coast and began to disperse. In September 1906, Cook and a single party-member, horseman Robert Barrill, struck out towards the summit again, in what Cook later described as \"a last desperate attempt\" in a telegram to his financial backers. Cook and Barrill spent 12 days in total on the attempt, and claimed to have reached the summit via the Ruth Glacier. Upon hearing Cook's claims, Parker and Browne were immediately suspicious. Browne later wrote that he knew Cook's claims were lies, just as \"any New Yorker would know that no man could walk from the Brooklyn Bridge to Grant's Tomb [a distance of eight miles] in ten minutes.\" In May 1907, \"Harper's Magazine\" published Cook's account of the climb along with a photograph of what appeared to be Barrill standing on the summit. By 1909, Barrill had recanted at least part of his story about the climb, and others publicly questioned the account, however Cook continued to assert his claim The controversy continued for decades. In 1956, mountaineers Bradford Washburn and Walter Gonnason tried to settle the matter, with Gonnason attempting to follow Cook's purported route to the summit. Washburn noted inconsistencies between Cook's account of locations of glaciers and found a spot, at 5,400 ft and 19 miles southeast of the summit that appeared identical to the supposed summit image. Gonnason was not able to complete the climb, but because he was turned back by poor weather, felt that this did not definitely disprove Cook's story. In 1998, historian Robert Bryce discovered an original and un-cropped version of the \"fake peak\" photograph of Barrill standing on the promontory. It showed a wider view of surrounding features, appearing to definitively discount Cook's claim. In 1910, four area locals – Tom Lloyd, Peter Anderson, Billy Taylor, and Charles McGonagall – known as the Sourdough Expedition, attempted to climb Denali despite a lack of climbing experience. The group spent approximately three months on the mountain. Their purported summit ascent day included carrying a bag of doughnuts each, a thermos of hot chocolate, and a 14-foot (4.2 m) spruce pole. Two of them reached the North Summit, the lower of the two, and erected the pole near the top. According to the group, the time they took to reach the summit was a total of 18 hours. Until the first ascent in 1913, their claims were disbelieved, in part due to false claims they had climbed both summits. In 1912, the Parker-Browne expedition nearly reached the summit, turning back within just a few hundred yards of it due to harsh weather. On July 7, the day after their descent, a 7.4 earthquake shattered the glacier they had ascended. The first ascent of the main summit of Denali came on June 7, 1913, by a party led by Hudson Stuck and Harry Karstens. The first man to reach the summit was Walter Harper, an Alaska Native. Robert Tatum also made the summit. Using the mountain's contemporary name, Tatum later commented, \"The view from the top of Mount McKinley is like looking out the windows of Heaven!\" They ascended the Muldrow Glacier route pioneered by the earlier expeditions, which is still often climbed today. Stuck confirmed, via binoculars, the presence of a large pole near the North Summit; this report confirmed the Sourdough ascent, and today it is widely believed that the Sourdoughs did succeed on the North Summit. However, the pole was never seen before or since, so there is still some doubt. Stuck also discovered that the Parker-Browne party were only about 200 feet (61 m) of elevation short of the true summit when they turned back. In 1990, Soviet high altitude mountaineer Anatoli Boukreev completed a solo speed ascent in hours from base camp to the summit via the west rib. The mountain is regularly climbed today. In 2003, around 58% of climbers reached the top. But by 2003, the mountain had claimed the lives of nearly 100 mountaineers over time. The vast majority of climbers use the West Buttress Route, pioneered in 1951 by Bradford Washburn, after an extensive aerial photographic analysis of the mountain. Climbers typically take two to four weeks to ascend Denali. It is one of the Seven Summits; summiting all of them is a challenge for mountaineers. On August 4, 2018, five people died in the K2 Aviation de Havilland Beaver (DHC-2) crash near Denali.", "The Japan Alpine Club installed a meteorological station on a ridge near the summit of Denali at an elevation of in 1990. In 1998, this weather station was donated to the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. In June 2002, a weather station was placed at the level. This weather station was designed to transmit data in real-time for use by the climbing public and the science community. Since its establishment, annual upgrades to the equipment have been performed with instrumentation custom built for the extreme weather and altitude conditions. This weather station is the third-highest weather station in the world. The weather station recorded a temperature of on December 1, 2003. On the previous day of November 30, 2003, a temperature of combined with a wind speed of to produce a North American record windchill of. Even in July, this weather station has recorded temperatures as low as and windchills as low as.", "The mountain is characterized by extremely cold weather. Temperatures as low as and wind chills as low as have been recorded by an automated weather station located at. According to the National Park Service, in 1932 the -Lindley expedition recovered a self-recording minimum thermometer left near Browne's Tower, at about, on Denali by the Stuck-Karstens party in 1913. The spirit thermometer was calibrated down to, and the lowest recorded temperature was below that point. Harry J. Lek took the thermometer back to Washington, D.C. where it was tested by the United States Weather Bureau and found to be accurate. The lowest temperature that it had recorded was found to be approximately. Another thermometer was placed at the level by the U.S. Army Natick Laboratory, and was there from 1950 to 1969. The coldest temperature recorded during that period was also.", "Besides the North Summit mentioned above, other features on the massif which are sometimes included as separate peaks are: Nearby peaks include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Vocal range.", "Subtypes and roles in opera.", "Coloratura.", "Lyric.", "Dramatic.", "Gilbert and Sullivan and operetta." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "While mezzo-sopranos typically sing secondary roles in operas, notable exceptions include the title role in Bizet's \"Carmen\", Angelina (Cinderella) in Rossini's \"La Cenerentola\", and Rosina in Rossini's \"Barber of Seville\" (all of which are also sung by sopranos). Many 19th-century French-language operas give the leading female role to mezzos, including \"Béatrice et Bénédict\", \"La damnation de Faust\", \"Don Quichotte\", \"La favorite\", \"Dom Sébastien\", \"Charles VI\", \"Mignon\", \"Samson et Dalila\", \"Les Troyens\", and \"Werther\", as well as \"Carmen\". Typical roles for mezzo-sopranos include the stereotypical triad associated with contraltos of \"witches, bitches, and britches\": witches, nurses, and wise women, such as Azucena in Verdi's \"Il trovatore\"; villains and seductresses such as Amneris in Verdi's \"Aida\"; and \"breeches roles\" or \"trouser roles\" (male characters played by female singers) such as Cherubino in Mozart's \"Le nozze di Figaro\". Mezzo-sopranos are well represented in baroque music, early music, and baroque opera. Some roles designated for lighter soubrette sopranos are sung by mezzo-sopranos, who often provide a fuller, more dramatic quality. Such roles include Despina in Mozart's \"Così fan tutte\" and Zerlina in his \"Don Giovanni\". Mezzos sometimes play dramatic soprano roles such as Santuzza in Mascagni's \"Cavalleria rusticana\", Lady Macbeth in Verdi's \"Macbeth\", and Kundry in Wagner's \"Parsifal\".", "The vocal range of the mezzo-sopranos lies between the soprano and the contralto voice types. Mezzo-sopranos generally have a heavier, darker tone than sopranos. The mezzo-soprano voice resonates in a higher range than that of a contralto. The terms \"Dugazon\" and \"Galli-Marié\" are sometimes used to refer to light mezzo-sopranos, after the names of famous singers. Usually men singing within the female range are called countertenors since there is a lighter more breathy tonal (falsetto) quality difference. In current operatic practice, female singers with very low tessituras are often included among mezzo-sopranos, because singers in both ranges are able to cover the other, and true operatic contraltos are very rare.", "Within the mezzo-soprano voice type category are three generally recognized subcategories: coloratura mezzo-soprano, lyric mezzo-soprano, and dramatic mezzo-soprano.", "A coloratura mezzo-soprano has a warm lower register and an agile high register. The roles they sing often demand not only the use of the lower register but also leaps into the upper tessitura with highly ornamented, rapid passages. They have a range from approximately the G below middle C (G, 196 Hz) to the B two octaves above middle C (B, 988 Hz). Some coloratura mezzo-sopranos can sing up to high C (C, 1047 Hz) or high D (D, 1175 Hz), but this is very rare. What distinguishes these voices from being called sopranos is their extension into the lower register and warmer vocal quality. Although coloratura mezzo-sopranos have impressive and at times thrilling high notes, they are most comfortable singing in the middle of their range, rather than the top. Many of the hero roles in the operas of Handel and Monteverdi, originally sung by male castrati, can be successfully sung today by coloratura mezzo-sopranos. Rossini demanded similar qualities for his comic heroines, and Vivaldi wrote roles frequently for this voice as well. Coloratura mezzo-sopranos also often sing lyric-mezzo-soprano roles or soubrette roles. Coloratura mezzo-soprano roles in operas (*\"denotes a lead role\"):", "The lyric mezzo-soprano has a range from approximately the G below middle C (G, 196 Hz) to the A two octaves above middle C (A, 880 Hz). This voice has a very smooth, sensitive and at times lachrymose quality. Lyric mezzo-sopranos do not have the vocal agility of the coloratura mezzo-soprano or the size of the dramatic mezzo-soprano. The lyric mezzo-soprano is ideal for most trouser roles. Lyric mezzo-soprano roles in operas (*\"denotes a lead role\"):", "A dramatic mezzo-soprano has a strong medium register, a warm high register and a voice that is broader and more powerful than the lyric and coloratura mezzo-sopranos. This voice has less vocal facility than the coloratura mezzo-soprano. The range of the dramatic mezzo-soprano is from approximately the F below middle C (F, 175 Hz) to the G two octaves above middle C (G, 784 Hz). The dramatic mezzo-soprano can sing over an orchestra and chorus with ease and was often used in the 19th century opera, to portray older women, mothers, witches and evil characters. Verdi wrote many roles for this voice in the Italian repertoire and there are also a few good roles in the French Literature. The majority of these roles, however, are within the German Romantic repertoire of composers like Wagner and Richard Strauss. Like coloratura mezzos, dramatic mezzos are also often cast in lyric mezzo-soprano roles. Dramatic mezzo-soprano roles in operas (*\"denotes a lead role\"):", "All of Gilbert and Sullivan's Savoy operas have at least one mezzo-soprano character. Notable operetta roles are:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Geologic history.", "Climbing.", "Camps.", "History.", "In popular culture.", "Dangers.", "Mythological meaning." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The origin of the name is contested; it is either from the Mapudungun \"Aconca-Hue,\" which refers to the Aconcagua River and means \"comes from the other side\", the Quechua \"Ackon Cahuak\", meaning \"'Sentinel of Stone\", the Quechua \"Anco Cahuac\", meaning \"White Sentinel\", or the Aymara \"Janq'u Q'awa\", meaning \"White Ravine\".", "The mountain was created by the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate. Aconcagua used to be an active stratovolcano (from the Late Cretaceous or Early Paleocene through the Miocene) and consisted of several volcanic complexes on the edge of a basin with a shallow sea. However, sometime in the Miocene, about 8 to 10 million years ago, the subduction angle started to decrease resulting in a stop of the melting and more horizontal stresses between the oceanic plate and the continent, causing the thrust faults that lifted Aconcagua up off its volcanic root. The rocks found on Aconcagua's flanks are all volcanic and consist of lavas, breccias and pyroclastics. The shallow marine basin had already formed earlier (Triassic), even before Aconcagua arose as a volcano. However, volcanism has been present in this region for as long as this basin was around and volcanic deposits interfinger with marine deposits throughout the sequence. The colorful greenish, blueish and grey deposits that can be seen in the Horcones Valley and south of Puente Del Inca, are carbonates, limestones, turbidites and evaporates that filled this basin. The red colored rocks are intrusions, cinder deposits and conglomerates of volcanic origin.", "In mountaineering terms, Aconcagua is technically an easy mountain if approached from the north, via the normal route. Aconcagua is arguably the highest \"non-technical\" mountain in the world, since the northern route does not absolutely require ropes, axes, and pins. Although the effects of altitude are severe (atmospheric pressure is 40% of sea-level at the summit), the use of supplemental oxygen is not common. Altitude sickness will affect most climbers to some extent, depending on the degree of acclimatization. Although the normal climb is technically easy, multiple casualties occur every year on this mountain (in January 2009 alone five climbers died). This is due to the large numbers of climbers who make the attempt and because many climbers underestimate the objective risks of the elevation and of cold weather, which is the real challenge on this mountain. Given the weather conditions close to the summit, cold weather injuries are very common. The routes to the peak from the south and south-west ridges are more demanding and the south face climb is considered quite difficult. The Polish Glacier Traverse route, also known as the \"Falso de los Polacos\" route, crosses through the Vacas valley, ascends to the base of the Polish Glacier, then traverses across to the normal route for the final ascent to the summit. The third most popular route is by the Polish Glacier itself. Provincial Park rangers do not maintain records of successful summits but estimates suggest a summit rate of 30–40%. About 75% of climbers are foreigners and 25% are Argentinean. Among foreigners, the United States leads in number of climbers, followed by Germany and the UK. About 54% of climbers ascend the Normal Route, 43% up the Polish Glacier Route, and the remaining 3% on other routes.", "The camp sites on the normal route are listed below (altitudes are approximate). Summit attempts are usually made from a high camp at either Berlín or Colera, or from the lower camp at Nido de Cóndores.", "The first attempt to summit Aconcagua by Europeans was made in 1883 by a party led by the German geologist and explorer Paul Güssfeldt. Bribing porters with the story of treasure on the mountain, he approached the mountain via the Rio Volcan, making two attempts on the peak by the north-west ridge and reaching an altitude of. The route that he prospected is now the standard route up the mountain. The first recorded ascent was in 1897 by a European expedition led by the British mountaineer Edward FitzGerald. FitzGerald failed to reach the summit himself over eight attempts between December 1896 and February 1897, but the (Swiss) guide of the expedition, Matthias Zurbriggen reached the summit on January 14. On the final attempt a month later, two other expedition members, Stuart Vines and Nicola Lanti, reached the summit on February 13. The east side of Aconcagua was first scaled by a Polish expedition, with Konstanty Narkiewicz-Jodko, Stefan Daszyński, Wiktor Ostrowski and Stefan Osiecki summiting on March 9, 1934, over what is now known as the \"Polish Glacier\". A route over the Southwest Ridge was pioneered over seven days in January 1953 by the Swiss-Argentine team of Frederico and Dorly Marmillod, Francisco Ibanez and Fernando Grajales. The famously difficult South Face was conquered by a French team led by. Pierre Lesueur, Adrien Dagory, Robert Paragot, Edmond Denis, Lucien Berardini and Guy Poulet reached the summit after a month of effort on 25 February 1954. The youngest person to reach the summit of Aconcagua was Tyler Armstrong of California. He was nine years old when he reached the summit on December 24, 2013. Kaamya Karthikeyan of India at an age of 12 became the youngest girl to reach the summit on 1 February 2020. The oldest person to climb it was Scott Lewis, who reached the summit on November 26, 2007, when he was 87 years old. In the base camp Plaza de Mulas (at above sea level) there is the highest contemporary art gallery tent called \"Nautilus\" of the Argentine painter Miguel Doura. In 2014 Kilian Jornet set a record for climbing and descending Aconcagua from Horcones in 12 hours and 49 minutes. The record was broken less than two months later by Ecuadorian-Swiss Karl Egloff, in a time of 11 hours 52 minutes, nearly an hour faster than Kilian Jornet. On 25 September 2019, an Airbus Helicopters H145 landed on the very peak of Mount Aconcagua. This is the first time in history a twin-engine helicopter has landed at this altitude. It took a total of 45 minutes for the entire trip, 30 minutes from Mendoza, Argentina and another 15 from the base camp up to the peak. Temperatures were reported as low as −22° and wind gusts up to 30 knots. This is not the highest a helicopter has landed before, as an Airbus Helicopters H125 has landed on Mount Everest, the highest mountain in the world.", "The mountain has a cameo in a 1942 Disney cartoon called \"Pedro\", which features a small, anthropomorphic airplane named Pedro who has a near-disastrous encounter with Aconcagua while carrying mail over the Andes.", "At nearly, Aconcagua is the highest peak outside of Asia. It is believed to have the highest death rate of any mountain in South America – around three a year – which has earned it the nickname “Mountain of Death”. More than 100 people have died on Aconcagua since records began. Due to the improper disposal of human waste in the mountain environment there are significant health hazards that pose a threat to both animals and human beings. Only boiled or chemically treated water is accepted for drinking. Additionally, ecofriendly toilets are available only to members of an organised expedition, meaning climbers have to \"be contracted to a toilet service\" at the base camp and similar camps along the route. Currently, from two base camps (Plaza de Mulas and Plaza Argentina), over 120 barrels of waste (approx. ) are flown out by helicopter each season. In addition, individual mountaineers must make a payment before using these toilets. Some large organisers will give a price up to US$100, some smaller US$5/day or US$10 for the entire stay. Thus, many independent mountaineers defecate on the mountainside.", "For the Incas, the Aconcagua was a sacred mountain. As on other mountains (e.g. Ampato), places of worship were built here and sacrifices, including human sacrifices, were made. The sites discovered in 1985 at an altitude of 5167 m are among the highest in the world and are the most difficult of all Inca sites to reach. Here, the remains of a child bedded on grass, cloth and feathers were found inside stone walls (Aconcagua mummy). The clothing indicates that the child was a member of the highest social class. Other offerings found included figures and coca leaves." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary.", "Development.", "Origins and authorship.", "International editions.", "Possible sequel.", "In other media.", "Film.", "Television.", "Radio.", "Theatre." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "It is the coming of the End Times: the Apocalypse is near, and Final Judgement will soon descend upon the human species. This comes as a bit of bad news to the angel Aziraphale (who was the guardian of the Eastern Gate of Eden) and the demon Crowley (who, when he was originally named Crawly, was the serpent who tempted Eve to eat the apple), respectively the representatives of Heaven and Hell on Earth, as they have become used to living their cosy, comfortable lives and have, in a perverse way, taken a liking to humanity. As such, since they are good friends (despite ostensibly representing the polar opposites of Good and Evil), they decide to work together and keep an eye on the Antichrist, destined to be the son of a prominent American diplomat stationed in Britain, and thus ensure he grows up in a way that means he can never decide between Good and Evil, thereby postponing the end of the world. In fact, Warlock, the child who everyone thinks is the Anti-Christ, is a normal eleven-year-old boy. Due to the mishandling of several infants in the hospital, the real Anti-Christ is Adam Young, a charismatic and slightly otherworldly eleven-year-old living in Lower Tadfield, Oxfordshire, an idyllic town in Britain. Despite being the harbinger of the Apocalypse, he has lived a perfectly normal life as the son of typical English parents, and as a result has no idea of his true powers. He has three close friends – Pepper, Wensleydale, and Brian – who collectively form a gang that is simply referred to as \"Them\" by the adults. As the end of the world nears, Adam blissfully and naively uses his powers, changing the world to fit things he reads in a conspiracy theory magazine, such as raising the lost continent of Atlantis and causing Little Green Men to land on earth and deliver a message of goodwill and peace. In the meantime, the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse assemble: War (a war correspondent), Death (a biker), Famine (a dietician and fast-food tycoon), and Pollution (the youngest – Pestilence having retired after the discovery of penicillin). The incredibly accurate (yet so highly specific as to be useless) prophecies of Agnes Nutter, 17th-century prophetess, are rapidly coming to pass. Agnes Nutter was a witch in the 17th century and the only truly accurate prophet to have ever lived. She wrote a book called \"The Nice and Accurate Prophecies of Agnes Nutter, Witch\", a collection of prophecies that did not sell very well because they were unspectacular, cryptic, and all true. In fact, she only decided to publish it so she could receive a free author's copy. This copy was carefully passed down to her descendants, and is currently owned by her multi-great granddaughter Anathema Device. Agnes was burned at the stake by a mob; however, because she had foreseen her fiery end and had packed 80 pounds of gunpowder and 40 pounds of roofing nails into her petticoats, everyone who participated in the burning was killed instantly. As the world descends into chaos, Adam attempts to split up the world between his gang. After realizing that by embracing absolute power, he will not be able to continue to grow up as a child in Lower Tadfield, Adam decides to stop the apocalypse. Anathema, Newton Pulsifer and Sergeant Shadwell (the two last members of the Witchfinder Army), Madame Tracey (a medium and Shadwell's neighbour), Adam and his gang, Aziraphale and Crowley gather at a military base near Lower Tadfield to stop the Horsemen from causing a nuclear war and ending the world. Adam's friends capture War, Pollution, and Famine. Just as Adam's real father, the devil, seems set to come and force the end of the world, Adam twists everything so his human father shows up instead, and everything is restored. In the aftermath of the prevented Apocalypse, Crowley and Aziraphale discuss their restored property and the possibility of a second Apocalypse between humanity and the combined forces of Heaven and Hell; Shadwell and Madame Tracey decide to get married and move into a bungalow together; Anathema receives a sequel to Agnes Nutter's prophecies but does not read it so as to not be bound by them; and Adam evades his grounding to go scrumping.", "", "Gaiman and Pratchett had known each other since 1985. It was their own idea, not that of their publisher, to collaborate on a novel. According to Gaiman, he originally began the book as a parody of Richmal Crompton's \"William\" books, named \"William the Antichrist\", but it gradually outgrew the original idea. Neil Gaiman has said: We were both living in England when we wrote it. At an educated guess, although neither of us ever counted, Terry probably wrote around 60,000 \"raw\" and I wrote 45,000 \"raw\" words of \"Good Omens\", with, on the whole, Terry taking more of the plot with Adam and the Them in, and me doing more of the stuff that was slightly more tangential to the story, except that broke down pretty quickly and when we got towards the end we swapped characters so that we'd both written everyone by the time it was done, but then we also rewrote and footnoted each other's bits as we went along, and rolled up our sleeves to take the first draft to the second (quite a lot of words), and, by the end of it, neither of us was entirely certain who had written what. It was indeed plotted in long daily phone calls, and we would post floppy disks (and this was back in 1988 when floppy disks really were pretty darn floppy) back and forth. Terry Pratchett said: I think this is an honest account of the process of writing \"Good Omens\". It was fairly easy to keep track of because of the way we sent discs to one another, and because I was Keeper of the Official Master Copy I can say that I wrote a bit over two thirds of \"Good Omens\". However, we were on the phone to each other every day, at least once. If you have an idea during a brainstorming session with another guy, whose idea is it? One guy goes and writes 2,000 words after thirty minutes on the phone, what exactly is the process that's happening? I did most of the physical writing because: Initially, I did most of Adam and the Them and Neil did most of the Four Horsemen, and everything else kind of got done by whoever – by the end, large sections were being done by a composite creature called Terryandneil, whoever was actually hitting the keys. By agreement, I am allowed to say that Agnes Nutter, her life and death, was completely and utterly mine. And Neil proudly claims responsibility for the maggots. Neil's had a major influence on the opening scenes, me on the ending. In the end, it was this book done by two guys, who shared the money equally and did it for fun and wouldn't do it again for a big clock.", "The United States edition of \"Good Omens\" had numerous alterations to the text. The most significant alteration to the main text is the addition of an extra 700-word section just before the end, dealing with what happened to the character of Warlock, the American diplomat's son, who was swapped with Adam. The American edition also adds numerous footnotes not found in British editions. The Dutch translation of \"Good Omens\" contains a preface by the translator wherein he asserts that no extra footnotes were added to clarify matters that might be unclear to a modern audience – annotated with footnotes explaining \"omen\" and \"Crowley\". In the French version, some characters were given French-sounding names. Agnes Nutter became Agnès Barge (barge is French for nutter), Anathema Device became Anathème Bidule (Bidule being French for Device). Crowley became Rampa (as 'Crawly' became 'Crowley', 'Rampant' became 'Rampa'), after the infamous author of \"The Third Eye\", T. L. Rampa. The French publisher of \"Good Omens\" (J'ai Lu) was also the French publisher of the T. L. Rampa books. In the Czech version of the book, the names of Agnes, Anathema, the Satanist nuns, Pepper and some minor characters were translated too. The book contains many extra footnotes as an explanation to some of the phrases that were translated more literally than usual and to add new jokes (for example the part where Anathema meets Adam and tells him she is an occultist, noting: \"You were thinking 'Nothin' wrong with my eyes, they don't need examining,' weren't you?\" was accompanied by a footnote: \"To those who understood what was the point, congratulations. For those whom it took as long as it took me: The Dictionary's definition: Oculist – rather an old-fashioned word for an ophthalmologist.\").", "\"668—The Neighbour of the Beast\" was slated as the title for a sequel to \"Good Omens\", but after Gaiman moved to the United States, Pratchett expressed doubt that a sequel would be written. Gaiman later affirmed this in one of his essays, titled \"Terry Pratchett: An Appreciation\". Pratchett died in 2015. In 2017, Gaiman revealed – as part of the filming of the television series based on the book – that he and Pratchett had done some plotting for the sequel, including that \"[t]here would have been a lot of angels in the sequel\", one of whom was Gabriel, who was only briefly mentioned in \"Good Omens\" but would figure more prominently in the television series. When asked if Neil had any plans on releasing a sequel to \"Good Omens\" or maintaining its status as a standalone work, Gaiman stated that there was a plot for one that Pratchett wanted to be told, but that whether or not it would be made would depend on certain factors.", "", "A film, to be directed by Terry Gilliam, was planned. As of 2002, Gilliam had still hoped to make the film with its already completed script, but by 2006, it seemed to have come to nothing. Funding was slow to appear, and Gilliam moved on to other projects. There was a rumour that Johnny Depp was originally cast as Crowley and Robin Williams as Aziraphale. However Gaiman has said on his website, \"Well, Robin's worked with Terry Gilliam before as well, of course, most famously in \"The Fisher King\". But I have no idea about \"Good Omens\" casting (except for Shadwell. Terry told me who he wanted to play Shadwell. I immediately forgot the man's name, although I can assure you that it wasn't Robin Williams).\" According to an interview in May 2006 at \"The Guardian\" Hay Festival, Gilliam was still hoping to go ahead with the film. Gaiman confirmed in a 2013 podcast interview with \"Empire\" that the majority of the funding for the film was in place in 2002, but the project could not attract the initial funding to begin production. Even in 2008, Gilliam was still hopeful about the project. Neil Gaiman's \"Stardust\" (based on his own novel of the same name) and \"Beowulf\" were successful as films in 2007, which had given the adaptation of \"Good Omens\" a better chance of being picked up. A Gilliam quote from an \"Empire\" interview appeared as follows: \"And I thought with Neil, with \"Stardust\" and with \"Beowulf\" and there's another one – an animated film, a Henry Selick thing he's written \"Coraline\" – I was thinking he's really hot now, so maybe there's a chance. I mean it's such a wonderful book. And I think our script is pretty good, too. We did quite a few changes. We weren't as respectful as we ought to have been. But Neil's happy with it!\" The history of this project and similar experiences with Gaiman's various other works (including \"The Sandman\" series) have led to his cynical view of the Hollywood process, a view which occasionally surfaces in his weblog and in some of his short fiction. Pratchett shared a similar opinion, and was quoted as saying, \"The difference between me and Neil in our attitude to movie projects is that he doesn't believe they're going to happen until he's sitting in his seat eating popcorn, and I don't believe they're going to happen.\" Pratchett had had many of the same issues with Hollywood'suits', but he, too, would love to have seen the film made. In August 2012, Rhianna Pratchett announced an establishment of a new production company, Narrativia, with plans to produce, among other projects, a television film based on her father’s book \"Good Omens\".", "In February 2011, it was reported that a television adaptation may be produced, with Terry Jones and Gavin Scott being \"in talks\" to write the series. On 19 March 2011, Gaiman announced on his website that a television series adaptation of his novel \"is in the works from Terry Jones\" with a link to Pratchett's webpage confirming the news. In April 2016, Gaiman announced that he was writing the scripts for a six-part television series as the result of a request from Pratchett, made shortly before his death. In January 2017, further details emerged. Amazon.com announced that Gaiman would adapt \"Good Omens\" into a \"comedic apocalyptic\" miniseries, set to be released on Prime Video in 2019. The adaption is a six-part limited comedy series for Amazon and the BBC, and Gaiman served as showrunner. On 14 August 2017, Michael Sheen and David Tennant were announced as having been cast in the respective lead roles of Aziraphale and Crowley. The village of Hambleden in Buckinghamshire is the filming location for 'Tadfield' with Jasmine Cottage being located just North of the village at Colstrope Farm. The miniseries was produced by BBC Studios in collaboration with Narrativia and Gaiman's The Blank Corporation. Distribution was handled by BBC Worldwide. All six episodes of the serial were released on 31 May 2019 on Amazon Prime.", "On 5 September 2014, it was confirmed that the BBC would produce a radio adaptation of the novel, to be broadcast on BBC Radio 4, starting 22 December of that year. Mark Heap and Peter Serafinowicz led the cast, which also included Louise Brealey, Phil Davis, Mark Benton, Colin Morgan, Paterson Joseph, Josie Lawrence, Jim Norton, Adam Thomas Wright and Hollie Burgess. Neil Gaiman and Terry Pratchett had cameo roles as a pair of traffic cops called \"Neil\" and \"Terry\". The series was broadcast in six episodes starting in December 2014.", "In March 2013, Cult Classic Theatre in Glasgow, Scotland, performed Amy Hoff's adaptation of \"Good Omens\" with the permission of Pratchett and Gaiman. In November 2017, Squabbalogic staged a special development reading of \"Good Omens: The Musical\" in Sydney, Australia with Nancye Hayes, Barry Quin and Paul Capsis." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Classification.", "Phonology.", "Vowels.", "Consonants.", "Phonotactics.", "Prosody.", "Morphophonology.", "Grammar.", "Syntax.", "Morphosyntactic alignment.", "Word order.", "Coordination and subordination.", "Obviation and switch-reference.", "Indefiniteness construction.", "Verbs.", "Inflection.", "Indicative and interrogative moods.", "Imperative and optative moods.", "Conditional mood.", "Causative mood.", "Contemporative mood.", "Participial mood.", "Derivation.", "Time reference and aspect.", "Noun incorporation.", "Nouns.", "Pronouns.", "Case.", "Possession.", "Vocabulary.", "Orthography.", "Sample text." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "4", "4", "4", "4", "4", "4", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The Greenlandic language was brought to Greenland with the arrival of the Thule people in the 1200s. It is unknown which languages were spoken by the earlier Saqqaq and Dorset cultures in Greenland. The first descriptions of Greenlandic date from the 1600s, and with the arrival of Danish missionaries in the early 1700s, and the beginning of Danish colonialism in Greenland, the compilation of dictionaries and description of grammar began. The missionary Paul Egede wrote the first Greenlandic dictionary in 1750, and the first grammar in 1760. From the Danish colonization in the 1700s to the beginning of Greenlandic home rule in 1979, Greenlandic experienced increasing pressure from the Danish language. In the 1950s, Denmark's linguistic policies were directed at strengthening Danish. Of primary significance was that post-primary education and official functions were conducted in Danish. From 1851 to 1973, Greenlandic was written in a complicated orthography devised by the missionary linguist Samuel Kleinschmidt. In 1973, a new orthography was introduced, intended to bring the written language closer to the spoken standard, which had changed considerably since Kleinschmidt's time. The reform was effective and in the years following it, Greenlandic literacy received a boost. Another development that strengthened the Greenlandic language has been the policy of \"greenlandization\" of Greenlandic society which began with the homerule agreement of 1979. This policy has worked to reverse the former trend towards marginalization of the Greenlandic language by making it the official language of education. The fact that Greenlandic has become the only language used in primary schooling has meant that today monolingual Danish-speaking parents in Greenland are raising children bilingual in Danish and Greenlandic. Today Greenlandic has several dedicated news media: the Greenlandic National Radio, Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa, which provides television and radio programming in Greenlandic. The newspaper Sermitsiaq, has been published since 1958, and in 2010 merged with the other newspaper \"Atuagagdliutit/Grønlandsposten\", which was established already in 1861 to form a single large Greenlandic language publishing house. Before June 2009, Greenlandic shared its status as the official language in Greenland with Danish. Since then, Greenlandic has become the sole official language. This has made Greenlandic a unique example of an indigenous language of the Americas that is recognized by law as the only official language of a semi-independent country. Nevertheless, it is still considered to be in a \"vulnerable\" state by the UNESCO Red Book of Language Endangerment. The country has a 100% literacy rate. As the Western Greenlandic standard has become dominant, a UNESCO report has labelled the other dialects as endangered, and measures are now being considered to protect the Eastern Greenlandic dialect.", "Kalaallisut and the other Greenlandic dialects belong to the Eskimo–Aleut family and are closely related to the Inuit languages of Canada and Alaska. Illustration 1 shows the locations of the different Eskimoan languages, among them the three main dialects of Greenlandic. The most prominent Greenlandic dialect is West Greenlandic \"(Kalaallisut),\" which is the official language of Greenland. The name \"Kalaallisut\" is often used as a cover term for all of Greenlandic. The northern dialect, \"Inuktun (Avanersuarmiutut),\" spoken in the vicinity of the city of Qaanaaq (Thule), is particularly closely related to Canadian Inuktitut. The eastern dialect \"(Tunumiit oraasiat)\", spoken in the vicinity of Ammassalik Island and Ittoqqortoormiit, is the most innovative of the Greenlandic dialects, having assimilated consonant clusters and vowel sequences to a greater extent than West Greenlandic. Kalaallisut is further divided into four subdialects. One that is spoken around Upernavik has certain similarities to East Greenlandic, possibly because of a previous migration from eastern Greenland. A second dialect is spoken in the region of Uummannaq and the Disko Bay. The standard language is based on the central Kalaallisut dialect spoken in Sisimiut in the north, around Nuuk and as far south as Maniitsoq. Southern Kalaallisut is spoken around Narsaq and Qaqortoq in the south. Table 1 shows the differences in the pronunciation of the word for \"humans\" in the three main dialects. It can be seen that Inuktun is the most conservative, maintaining the \"gh\" which has been elided in Kalaallisut, and Tunumiisut is the most innovative, having further simplified the structure by eliding the.", "Letters between slashes indicate phonemic transcription, letters in square brackets indicate phonetic transcription and letters in triangular brackets indicate standard Greenlandic orthography.", "The Greenlandic three vowel system, composed of,, and, is typical for an Eskimo–Aleut language. Double vowels are analyzed as two morae, so they are phonologically a vowel sequence and not a long vowel; they are also written as two vowels in the orthography. The only diphthong in the language is, which occurs only at the ends of words. Before a uvular consonant ( or ), is realized allophonically as, or, and is realized allophonically as or, and the two vowels are written \"e, o\" respectively (as in some orthographies used for Quechua and Aymara). becomes retracted to in the same environment. is rounded to before labial consonants. is fronted to between two coronal consonants. The allophonic lowering of and before uvular consonants is shown in the modern orthography by writing and as and respectively before uvulars and. For example:", "Greenlandic has consonants at five points of articulation: labial, alveolar, palatal, velar and uvular. It distinguishes stops, fricatives, and nasals at the labial, alveolar, velar, and uvular points of articulation. The earlier palatal sibilant has merged with in all but a few dialects. The labiodental fricative is only contrastive in loanwords. The alveolar stop is pronounced as an affricate before the high front vowel. Often, Danish loanwords containing preserve these in writing, although this does not imply a change in pronunciation, for example \"beer\" and \"God\"; these are pronounced exactly as.", "The Kalaallisut syllable is simple, allowing syllables of (C)(V)V(C), where C is a consonant and V is a vowel and VV is a double vowel or word-final. Native words may only begin with a vowel or ; they may end only in a vowel or or rarely. Consonant clusters only occur over syllable boundaries and their pronunciation is subject to regressive assimilations that convert them into geminates. All non-nasal consonants in a cluster are voiceless.", "Greenlandic prosody does not include stress as an autonomous category; instead, prosody is determined by tonal and durational parameters. Intonation is influenced by syllable weight: heavy syllables are pronounced in a way that may be perceived as stress. Heavy syllables include syllables with long vowels and syllables before consonant clusters. The last syllable is stressed in words with fewer than four syllables and without long vowels or consonant clusters. The antepenultimate syllable is stressed in words with more than four syllables that are all light. In words with many heavy syllables, syllables with long vowels are considered heavier than syllables before a consonant cluster. Geminate consonants are pronounced long, almost exactly with the double duration of a single consonant. Intonation in indicative clauses usually rises on the antepenultimate syllable, falls on the penult and rises on the last syllable. Interrogative intonation rises on the penultimate and falls on the last syllable.", "Greenlandic phonology distinguishes itself phonologically from the other Inuit languages by a series of assimilations. Greenlandic phonology allows clusters, but it does not allow clusters of two different consonants unless the first one is. In all other cases the first consonant in a cluster is assimilated to the second one resulting in a geminate consonant. Geminate is pronounced and written. Geminate is pronounced. Geminate is pronounced but is written. Geminate is pronounced. Geminate is pronounced and written. is also pronounced and written after. These assimilations mean that one of the most recognizable Inuktitut words, \"iglu\" (\"house\"), is \"illu\" in Greenlandic, where the consonant cluster of Inuktitut is assimilated into a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative. And the word \"Inuktitut\" itself, when translated into Kalaallisut, becomes \"Inuttut\". The Old Greenlandic diphthong has assimilated to. The consonant has disappeared when between and or. This means that affixes beginning with -va or -vi have forms without when suffixed to stems ending in. The vowel of modern Greenlandic is the result of a historic merger of the Proto-Eskimo–Aleut vowels *i and *ɪ. The fourth vowel was still present in Old Greenlandic as attested by Hans Egede. In modern West Greenlandic the difference between the two original vowels can only be discerned morphophonologically in certain environments. The vowel that was originally *ɪ has the variant when preceding another vowel and sometimes disappears before certain suffixes. The degree to which the assimilation of consonant clusters has taken place is an important dialectal feature separating Polar Eskimo, Inuktun, which still allows some ungeminated consonant clusters, from West and East Greenlandic. East Greenlandic (\"Tunumiit oraasiat\") has shifted some geminate consonants, e.g. to. Thus, for example, the East Greenlandic name of a particular town is Ittoqqortoormiit, which would appear as \"Illoqqortoormiut\" in Kalaallisut.", "The morphology of Greenlandic is highly synthetic and exclusively suffixing, with the exception of a single highly limited and fossilized demonstrative prefix. It creates very long words by means of adding strings of suffixes to a stem. In principle there is no limit to the length of a Greenlandic word, but in practice words with more than half a dozen derivational suffixes are not so frequent, and the average number of morphemes per word is 3 to 5. The language employs around 318 inflectional suffixes and between four hundred and five hundred derivational ones. There are few compound words, but lots of derivations. The grammar employs a mixture of head and dependent marking: both agent and patient are marked on the predicate and the possessor is marked on nouns, while dependent noun phrases inflect for case. The primary morphosyntactic alignment of full noun phrases in Kalaallisut is ergative-absolutive, although verbal morphology follows a nominative-accusative pattern and pronouns are syntactically neutral. The language distinguishes four persons (1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th or 3rd reflexive (see Obviation and switch-reference), two numbers (singular and plural; no dual as in Inuktitut), eight moods (indicative, interrogative, imperative, optative, conditional, causative, contemporative and participial) and eight cases (absolutive, ergative, equative, instrumental, locative, allative, ablative and prolative). Verbs carry a bipersonal inflection for subject and object. Possessive noun phrases inflect for their possessor, as well as for case. In this section the examples are written in Greenlandic standard orthography except that morpheme boundaries are indicated by a hyphen.", "Greenlandic distinguishes three open word classes: nouns, verbs and particles. Verbs inflect for person and number of subject and object as well as for mood. Nouns inflect for possession and for case. Particles do not inflect. The verb is the only word required to build a sentence. Since verbs inflect for number and person of both subject and object, the verb is in fact a clause itself. Therefore, clauses where all participants are expressed as free-standing noun phrases are rather rare. The following examples show the possibilities of leaving out these verbal arguments: Intransitive clause with no subject noun phrase: Intransitive clause with subject noun phrase: Transitive clause with no overt arguments: Transitive clause with agent noun phrase: Transitive clause with patient noun phrase:", "The Greenlandic language uses case to express grammatical relations between participants in a sentence. Nouns are inflected with one of the two core cases or one of the six oblique cases. Greenlandic is an ergative language. This means that, instead of treating the grammatical relations as in most European languages where grammatical subjects are marked with nominative case and objects with accusative, the grammatical roles are defined differently. In Greenlandic the ergative case is used for agents of transitive verbs and for possessors. Absolutive case is used for patients of transitive verbs and subjects of intransitive verbs. Research into Greenlandic as used by the younger generation has shown that the use of ergative alignment in Kalaallisut may be becoming obsolete, converting the language into a nominative–accusative language. Intransitive: Transitive with agent and object:", "In transitive clauses where both object and subject are expressed as free noun phrases, basic, pragmatically neutral word order is AOXV / SXV, where X is a noun phrase in one of the oblique cases. This order is fairly free, though. Topical noun phrases occur at the beginning of a clause whereas new or emphasized information generally come last. This is usually the verb, but it can also be a focal subject or object as well. In spoken language also \"afterthought\" material or clarifications may follow the verb, usually in a lowered pitch. On the other hand, the noun phrase is characterized by a rigid order where the head of the phrase precedes any modifiers and the possessor precedes the possessum. In copula clauses the order is usually Subject-Copula-Complement. An attribute appears after its head noun. An attribute of an incorporated noun appears after the verb:", "Syntactic coordination and subordination is done by combining predicates in the superordinate moods (indicative, interrogative, imperative, optative) with predicates in the subordinate moods (conditional, causative, contemporative and participial). The contemporative has both coordinative and subordinative functions depending on context. The relative order of the main clause and its coordinate or subordinate clauses is relatively free, and mostly subject to pragmatic concerns.", "The Greenlandic pronominal system includes a distinction known as obviation or switch-reference. There is a special so-called fourth person used to denote a third person subject of a subordinate verb or the possessor of a noun that is coreferent with the third person subject of the matrix clause. Below are examples of the difference between third and fourth person:", "There is no category of definiteness in Greenlandic, so the information whether participants are already known to the listener or new in the discourse is encoded by other means. According to some authors, morphology related to transitivity such as the use of the construction sometimes called antipassive or intransitive object conveys such meaning, along with strategies of noun incorporation of non-topical noun phrases. This view, however, is controversial. Active: Antipassive/intransitive object:", "The morphology of Greenlandic verbs is enormously complex. The two main processes are inflection and derivation. Inflectional morphology includes the processes of obligatory inflection for mood, person, and voice (tense/aspect is not an inflectional category in Kalaallisut). Derivational morphology modifies the meaning of verbs in a way similar to that expressed by adverbs in English. Derivational suffixes of this kind number in the hundreds. Many of these suffixes are so semantically salient that they are often referred to as postbases rather than suffixes, particularly in the American tradition of Eskimo grammar. Such semantically \"heavy\" suffixes may express concepts such as \"to have\", \"to be\", \"to say\", or \"to think\". The Greenlandic verb word consists of a root + derivational suffixes/postbases + inflectional suffixes. Tense and aspect is marked by optional suffixes that appear between the derivational and inflectional suffixes.", "Greenlandic verbs inflect for agreement with agent and patient, for mood and for voice. There are eight moods, of which four are used in independent clauses and four in subordinate clauses. The four independent moods are: indicative, interrogative, imperative, optative. The four dependent moods are causative, conditional, contemporative, and participial. Verbal roots can take transitive, intransitive or negative inflections, so that all eight mood suffixes have these three forms. The inflectional system is further complicated by the fact that transitive suffixes encode both agent and patient in a single morpheme, requiring up to 48 different suffixes to cover all possible combinations of agent and patient for each of the eight transitive paradigms. As some moods do not have forms for all persons (imperative only has 2nd person, optative only 1st and 3rd person, participial mood has no 4th person and contemporative has no 3rd person), the total number of verbal inflectional suffixes is about 318.", "The indicative mood is used in all independent expository clauses. The interrogative mood is used for posing questions. Questions with the question particle \"immaqa\" \"maybe\" cannot use the interrogative mood. Table 5 shows the intransitive indicative inflection for patient person and number of the verb \"neri-\" \"to eat\" in the indicative and interrogative moods (question marks mark interrogative intonation—questions have falling intonation on the last syllable as opposed to most Indo-European languages in which questions are marked by rising intonation). The indicative and the interrogative mood each have a transitive and an intransitive inflection, but here only the intransitive inflection is given. Consonant gradation like that in Finnish appears to show up in the verb conjugation (with strengthening to \"pp\" in the 3rd person plural and weakening to \"v\" elsewhere). Table 6 shows the transitive indicative inflection for patient person and number of the verb \"asa-\" \"to love\" (an asterisk means that this form does not occur as such but would have to use a different reflexive inflection).", "The imperative mood is used to issue orders. It is always combined with the second person. The optative is used to express wishes or exhortations and is never used with the second person. There is a negative imperative form used to issue prohibitions. Both optative and imperative have transitive and intransitive paradigms. There are two transitive positive imperative paradigms: a standard one, and one that is considered rude and is usually used to address children.", "The conditional mood is used to construct subordinate clauses with the meaning \"if\" or \"when\".", "The causative mood (sometimes called the \"conjunctive\") is used to construct subordinate clauses with the meaning \"because\", \"since\" or \"when\"; it is also sometimes used with the meaning of \"that\". The causative is also used in main clauses to imply some underlying cause.", "The contemporative mood is used to construct subordinate clauses with the meaning of simultaneity. It is only used if the subject of the subordinate clause and of the main clause are identical. If they differ, the participial mood or causative mood are used. The contemporative can also be used to form complement clauses for verbs of speaking or thinking.", "The participial mood is used to construct a subordinate clause describing its subject in the state of carrying out an activity. It is used when the matrix clause and the subordinate clause have different subjects. It is often used in appositional phrases such as relative clauses.", "Verbal derivation is extremely productive, and Greenlandic employs many hundreds of derivational suffixes. Often a single verb will use more than one derivational suffix, resulting in very long words. Below are given some examples of how derivational suffixes can change the meaning of verbs. -\"katak\"- \"be tired of\" -\"ler\"- \"begin to/be about to\" -\"llaqqik\"- \"be proficient at\" -\"niar\"- \"plans to/wants to\" -\"ngajak\"- \"almost\" -\"nikuu-nngila\"- \"has never\" -\"nngitsoor\"- \"not anyway/afterall\"", "Greenlandic grammar has morphological devices to mark a distinction between, for example, recent and distant past, but the use of these is not obligatory, and they should therefore rather be understood as parts of Greenlandic's extensive derivational system than as a system of tense markers. Rather than by morphological marking, fixed temporal distance is expressed by temporal adverbials: All other things being equal and in the absence of any explicit adverbials, the indicative mood will be interpreted as complete or incomplete depending on the verbal aktionsart. But if a sentence containing an atelic verbal phrase is embedded within the context of a past time narrative, it would be interpreted as past. Greenlandic has several purely derivational devices of expressing meaning related to aspect and aktionsart, e.g. \"sar\" expressing \"habituality\" and \"ssaar\" expressing \"stop to\". Next to these, there are at least two major perfect markers: \"sima\" and \"nikuu\". \"sima\" can occur in several positions with obviously different function Rightmost position indicates evidential meaning, but this can be determined only if a number of suffixes are present. With atelic verbs, there is a regular contrast between indirective evidentiality marked by \"sima\" and witnessed evidentiality marked by \"nikuu\". Due to its evidential meaning, the combination of first person and \"sima\" sometimes is marked. In the written language and more recently also in the spoken language especially of younger speakers, \"sima\" and \"nikuu\" can be used together with adverbials referring to a particular time in the past. That is, they might arguably mark time reference, but not yet systematically. Just as Greenlandic does not systematically mark past tense, the language also does not have a future tense. Rather, it employs three different strategies to express future meaning: While the status of the perfect markers as aspect is not very controversial, some scholars have claimed that Greenlandic has a basic temporal distinction between future and non-future. Especially, the suffix \"-ssa\" and handful of other suffixes have been claimed to be obligatory future markers. However, at least for literary Greenlandic, these suffixes have been shown to have other semantics that can be used to refer to the future via the strategies just described.", "There is also a debate in the linguistic literature whether Greenlandic has noun incorporation. This is because Greenlandic does not allow the kind of incorporation common in many languages in which a noun root can be incorporated into almost any verb to form a verb with a new meaning. On the other hand, Greenlandic does often form verbs that include noun roots. The question then becomes whether to analyse these verb formations as incorporation or as denominal derivation of verbs. Greenlandic has a number of morphemes that require a noun root as their host and which form complex predicates that correspond closely in meaning to what is often seen in languages that have canonical noun incorporation. Linguists who propose that Greenlandic does have incorporation argue that these morphemes are in fact verbal roots that must obligatorily incorporate nouns to form grammatical clauses. This argument is supported by the fact that many of the derivational morphemes that form denominal verbs work almost identically to canonical noun incorporation. They allow the formation of words with a semantic content corresponding to an entire English clause with verb, subject and object. Another argument is that the morphemes used to derive denominal verbs come from historical noun incorporating constructions that have become fossilized. Other linguists maintain that the morphemes in question are simply derivational morphemes that allow the formation of denominal verbs. This argument is supported by the fact that the morphemes cannot occur without being latched on to a nominal element. The examples below illustrate how Greenlandic forms complex predicates including nominal roots. \"qimmeq\" \"dog\" + \"-qar- \"have\" (+ \"-poq\" \"3p\") \"illu\" \"house\" + -'lior\"- \"make\" \"kaffi\" \"coffee\" + -\"sor\"- \"drink/eat\" \"puisi\" \"seal\" + -\"nniar\"- \"hunt\" \"allagaq\" \"letter\" + -\"si\"- \"receive\" \"anaana\" \"mother\" + -\"a\"- \"to be\"", "Nouns are obligatorily inflected for case and number and optionally for number and person of possessor. Singular and plural are distinguished and 8 cases used: absolutive, ergative (relative), instrumental, allative, locative, ablative, prosecutive (also called vialis or prolative), and equative. Case and number are marked by a single suffix. Nouns can be derived from verbs or from other nouns by a number of suffixes, e.g. \"atuar\"- \"to read\" + -\"fik\" \"place\" becomes \"atuarfik\" \"school\" and \"atuarfik\" + -\"tsialak\" \"something good\" becomes \"atuarfitsialak\" \"good school\". The fact that the possessive agreement suffixes on nouns and the transitive agreement suffixes on verbs in a number of instances have similar or identical shapes has even resulted in the theory that Greenlandic has a distinction between transitive and intransitive nouns, parallel to the same distinction in the verbs.", "There are personal pronouns for first-, second-, and third-person singular and plural. These pronouns are optional as subjects or objects, but only when the verbal inflection refers to such arguments. Personal pronouns are, however, necessary in the oblique case:", "The two grammatical core cases ergative and absolutive are used to express grammatical and syntactical roles of participant noun phrases. The oblique cases express information related to movement and manner. The instrumental case is versatile. It is used for the instrument with which an action is carried out, for oblique objects of intransitive verbs (also called antipassive verbs) and for secondary objects of transitive verbs. It is also used to express the meaning of \"give me\" and for forming adverbs from nouns: The allative case describes movement towards something. It is also used with numerals and the question word \"qassit\" to express the time of the clock, and in the meaning \"amount per unit\": The locative case describes spatial location: The ablative case describes movement away from something or the source of something: The prosecutive case describes movement through something as well as the medium of writing or a location on the body. It is also used to describe a group of people such as a family as belonging to the modified noun. The equative case describes similarity of manner or quality. It is also used for deriving language names from nouns denoting nationalities, i.e. \"like a person of x nationality [speaks]\".", "In Greenlandic possession is marked on the noun which agrees with the person and number of its possessor. The possessor is in the ergative case. There are different possessive paradigms for all of the different cases. Table 4 gives the possessive paradigm for the absolutive case of \"illu\" \"house\". Below are given examples of the use of the possessive inflection, the use of the ergative case for possessors and the use of fourth person possessors.", "Greenlandic vocabulary is mostly inherited from Proto-Eskimo–Aleut, but it has also taken a large number of loans from other languages, especially from Danish. Early loans from Danish have often become acculturated to the Greenlandic phonological system, for example the Greenlandic word \"palasi\" \"priest\" is a loan from the Danish \"præst\". But since Greenlandic has an enormous potential for the derivation of new words from existing roots, many modern concepts have Greenlandic names that have been invented rather than borrowed, e.g. \"qarasaasiaq\" \"computer\" which literally means \"artificial brain\". This potential for complex derivations also means that Greenlandic vocabulary is built on very few roots which combined with affixes come to form large word families. For example the root for \"tongue\" \"oqaq\" is used to derive the following words: Lexical differences between dialects are often considerable. This is due to the earlier cultural practice of imposing taboo on words which had served as names for a deceased person. Since people were often named after everyday objects, many of these have changed their name several times because of taboo rules, causing dialectal vocabulary to diverge further.", "Greenlandic is written with the Latin script. The alphabet: To spell loanwords from other languages, especially from Danish and English, the additional letters \"B\", \"C\", \"D\", \"H\", \"W\", \"X\", \"Y\", \"Z\", \"Æ\", \"Ø\" and \"Å\" are used. Greenlandic uses the symbols \"...\" and »...« as quotation marks. From 1851 until 1973, Greenlandic was written in the alphabet invented by Samuel Kleinschmidt. This alphabet employed the special character \"kra\" (Κʼ / ĸ) which was replaced by q in the 1973 reform. In the Kleinschmidt alphabet, long vowels and geminate consonants were indicated by means of diacritics on the vowels (in the case of consonant gemination, the diacritics were placed on the vowel preceding the affected consonant). For example, the name \"Kalaallit Nunaat\" was spelled \"Kalâdlit Nunât\". This scheme uses a circumflex accent ( ˆ ) to indicate a long vowel (\"e.g.\", \"ât/ît/ût\", modern: \"aat\", \"iit\", \"uut\"), an acute accent ( ́ ) to indicate gemination of the following consonant: (\"i.e.\", \"á\", \"í\", \"ú\" modern: \"a(kk)\", \"i(kk)\", \"u(kk)\")] and, finally, a tilde ( ̃ ) or a grave accent ( ` ), depending on the author, indicates vowel length \"and\" gemination of the following consonant (\"e.g.\", \"ãt\", \"ĩt\", \"ũt\" or \"àt\", \"ìt\", \"ùt\", modern: \"aatt\", \"iitt\", \"uutt\"). The letters \"ê\" and \"ô\", used only before \"r\" and \"q\", are now written \"ee\" and \"oo\" in Greenlandic. The spelling system of Nunatsiavummiutut, spoken in Nunatsiavut in northeastern Labrador, is derived from the old Greenlandic system. Technically, the Kleinschmidt orthography focused upon morphology: the same derivational affix would be written in the same way in different contexts, despite its being pronounced differently in different contexts. The 1973 reform replaced this with a phonological system: Here, there was a clear link from written form to pronunciation, and the same suffix is now written differently in different contexts. The differences are due to phonological changes. It is therefore easy to go from the old orthography to the new (cf. the online converter) whereas going the other direction would require a full lexical analysis.", "\"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.\" (Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formation and \"Acrobatic Tenement\" (1994–97).", "\"In/Casino/Out\" and \"Vaya\" (1998–1999).", "\"Relationship of Command\" (2000–2001).", "Breakup (2001).", "Post-breakup activity (2001–2009).", "First reunion (2009–2012).", "Second reunion and \"in•ter a•li•a\" (2015–2018).", "Hiatus (2018–present).", "Musical style and influences.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "At the Drive-In was founded in 1994 by guitarist Jim Ward and vocalist Cedric Bixler-Zavala. The newly formed band played its first live show on October 14, 1994 at The Attic, a venue in El Paso, Texas, followed up by a show on the 15th at the Loretto High School Fair. Not long after, At the Drive-In released its first studio recording entitled \"Hell Paso\", a 7-inch EP issued in November 1994. Following \"Hell Paso\"’s release, the band members embarked on their first tour – a 2,000-mile trek across the state of Texas. After a drummer change due to Bernie Rincon's death, At the Drive-In released its second EP \"¡Alfaro Vive, Carajo!\" in June 1995. The band then set out on another tour, this one in a newly purchased 1981 Ford Econoline and spanning 42 days and 10,000 miles across the United States. During these tours, At the Drive-In began developing a large underground following by mostly playing in basements and small venues across the western United States, with their popularity spread by word of mouth among fans. One such show that changed the course of history for the band was in a now defunct bar in Los Angeles, where the band put on an explosive performance for just nine people – some of them employees of the Flipside record label. The staffers were so enthralled by the show that they offered to put out At the Drive-In's record then and there. Accepting the offer, the band first headed out on another 21-day tour of the Southwest before ending in Los Angeles again where they recorded their debut full-length album titled \"Acrobatic Tenement\" for $600. The album was released August 18, 1996, and the band commenced another tour of the United States the following year spanning 100 days (February to June 1997) and 24,000 miles. This tour included shows with hundreds of other bands such as Screw 32, J Church, AFI, Still Life, Mustard Plug, Face to Face, and Cosmic Psychos. At the Drive-In's fan base began to swell with every show it performed. Following this tour, the band members took a month vacation (Jim Ward remained on vacation until the recording of \"In/Casino/Out\") before rehearsing for their next record and subsequent tour. Following the recording of \"Acrobatic Tenement\" in July 1996, the final line-up of At the Drive-In fell into place with the addition of Tony Hajjar and Paul Hinojos and with Omar Rodríguez-López transitioning from bass to guitar. At the Drive-In's third EP titled \"El Gran Orgo\" was released on September 18, 1997, and “showed a more melodic side of the band, but the musical depth and heartfelt emotion was never more apparent.” Two days after its release, the band was in Boulder, Colorado playing a show with Welt to kick off its next 35-day, 11,000-mile tour that also included six dates with Karp and the Young Pioneers, and one-offs with Guttermouth, The Criminals, Piss Drunks, and the Humpers. At the Drive-In's popularity at this point was undeniable, with headlining shows in the Midwest drawing between 100 and 350 fans.", "When the time came for At the Drive-In's next recording, Flipside quit producing records and Offtime was financially unable to, \"so the band literally approached almost every indie label they could think of.\" When hope was almost lost and the possibility of another record seemed dim, Bob and Michelle Becker of Fearless Records saw At the Drive-In open for Supernova at a bar named Club Mesa. Despite Fearless's history of producing mainly pop punk bands, the band members \"felt very comfortable with Bob and Michelle on a personal level\" and a deal was signed. Consequently, At the Drive-In began recording its second full-length album titled \"In/Casino/Out\" on June 3, 1998. With producer and mixer Alex Newport, the band spent four days recording at Doug Messenger's, in North Hollywood, Revolver Recordings in Costa Mesa with Engineer Andy Troy for Fearless Records, and an additional two days mixing the album at Paramount, in Hollywood. This album marked a notable maturation in At the Drive-In's sound and is special in that it was recorded live with just a small number of overdubs. \"In/Casino/Out\" was chosen to be recorded live because, according to some sources, At the Drive-In struggled to capture the intensity and emotion of its live shows in the recording studio. \"In/Casino/Out\" was released on August 18, 1998, although the band toured almost non-stop from July until December, playing shows with bands like Knapsack and The Murder City Devils. At the Drive-In took a couple month break until March 1999, at which point they kicked off another tour with a two-week stint with Jimmy Eat World in the United States until they headed to Europe for a six-week European tour spanning eleven countries. Upon returning to the United States, At the Drive-In played a handful of shows before returning to the studio to record their fourth EP entitled \"Vaya\", which was released on July 13, 1999. Without missing a beat, the band kicked off another tour on July 28 at Emo's in Austin, Texas with El Paso band Universal Recovered and Austin band Schatzi opening this show. This tour included shows with bands like The Get Up Kids and Rage Against the Machine. Later, in April 2000, At the Drive-In released a split EP with the Czech band Sunshine, containing five songs, two of them by At the Drive-In.", "Recording for At the Drive-In's third and then-final full-length album \"Relationship of Command\" began on January 17, 2000. The recording took place at Indigo Ranch Studios in Malibu, California with producer Ross Robinson (and mixer Andy Wallace), who the band had met on an earlier tour and who had \"convinced the boys that he was the guy who could get every ounce of them onto tape.\" \"Relationship of Command\" was recorded over a seven-week period and featured Iggy Pop with minor parts on a couple of the album's songs. It was released September 12, 2000 to critical acclaim, and catapulted At the Drive-In into the mainstream musical spotlight. In addition to touring worldwide in Europe, Japan, and the United States following the release of \"Relationship of Command\", At The Drive-In performed on several television shows. The band's first nationally televised performance was on \"Farmclub\", a now defunct television show which aired late at night on the USA Network. After that performance, they also appeared on \"Later with Jools Holland,\" \"Late Night with Conan O'Brien\" and the \"Late Show with David Letterman\". Additionally, their minor hit radio single \"One Armed Scissor\" had circulation on MTV and significantly contributed to the band's popularity.", "On November 12, 2000, At the Drive-In was involved in a motor vehicle accident when their touring van skidded out of control on ice and flipped onto its roof. Though the accident left the band shaken, none of the members sustained serious injury – Hajjar and Bixler-Zavala were taken to the hospital for minor injuries and released. In January 2001, At the Drive-In traveled to Australia for the Big Day Out music festival. While performing in Sydney, they left partway through their set after telling the attendance to calm down and observe the safety rules against moshing. After the refusal of the crowd, frontman Cedric Bixler-Zavala told them \"You're a robot, you're a sheep!\" and bleated at them several times before the band left the stage after performing only three songs. \"I think it's a very, very sad day when the only way you can express yourself is through slam-dancing\", he proclaimed. The following month, At the Drive-In cancelled the last five dates of its European tour, citing \"complete mental and physical exhaustion\" of the members. In March 2001—less than a month away from a United States tour set to begin on April 14—at the peak of their popularity and following a world tour, At the Drive-In broke up, initially referring to the split as an \"indefinite hiatus\". The band played their last show at Groningen's Vera venue on February 21, 2001. A combination of excessive hype, relentless touring, artistic differences, and Rodríguez-López and Bixler-Zavala's drug habits contributed to the demise of the band. Commenting on the hiatus, guitarist Rodríguez-López said: \"After a non-stop six-year cycle of record/tour/record/tour, we are going on an indefinite hiatus. We need time to rest up and re-evaluate, just to be human beings again and to decide when we feel like playing music again.\" Cedric Bixler-Zavala took responsibility for the breakup, saying repeatedly in interviews that he felt almost as if At the Drive-In was holding him back and that he didn't want his music to be confined to punk or hardcore — that it should encompass many genres and be even more progressive, alternative, and \"against-the-grain.\" Bixler-Zavala and Rodríguez-López had stated that they wanted their next album to sound like Pink Floyd's \"The Piper at the Gates of Dawn\", while the other members were intent on progressing in a more alternative rock direction.", "Following the break-up of At the Drive-In, Bixler-Zavala and Rodríguez-López focused on their dub side-project De Facto, before starting The Mars Volta. This project was a departure from their previous work, as it pursued the progressive rock sound that they had been interested in. Meanwhile, the other members – Ward, Hinojos, and Hajjar – started the more traditional band Sparta. Hinojos would then leave Sparta to join Bixler-Zavala and Rodríguez-López in The Mars Volta from 2005 to 2009. The Mars Volta disbanded in 2013, and Rodríguez-López went on to play with Bosnian Rainbows, while Bixler-Zavala started a new band called Zavalaz. Bixler-Zavala and Rodríguez-López eventually reunited once again and formed Antemasque in 2014.", "During an interview with Drowned in Sound in June 2009, Bixler-Zavala stated that he had been in discussions with the band's former members and suggested that they could get back together after they sorted their financial business out. He added, \"I wouldn't mind it. It might happen, we just have to iron out a lot of personal things. A lot of it we've dealt with already and I've apologized for a lot of things I've said and the way it ended... we'll see what happens.\" In response to Bixler-Zavala's comments, guitarist Jim Ward quickly quashed rumors of a reunion by stating \"I don’t think that I'll be answering any questions or doing any interviews anymore, thank you very much. I haven't got much to say about anything except with songs which I will continue to make and release.\" At the Drive-in finally got back together in late 2011 and officially announced their reunion on January 9, 2012. They played their first show since 2001 on April 9 at Red 7 in Austin, Texas as part of a 4-date tour across Texas with Zechs Marquise warming up prior to performing at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival on April 15 and 22. Later in the year At the Drive-in have also performed at festivals such as Lollapalooza, Splendour in the Grass, Fuji Rock and Reading and Leeds Festival. The band had also acquired the rights from Fearless Records to reissue most of their catalogue (three full-length albums as well as \"Vaya\" EP) and launched their own label, Twenty-first Chapter, to handle the reissues. The name of the label is a reference to the chapter omitted from the US version of the Anthony Burgess book \"A Clockwork Orange\". While the reunion shows were met with mostly positive reviews, Rodríguez-López received criticism from fans and observers for his evident lack of enthusiasm while playing on stage; initially this was attributed to the recent death of his mother; however, Rodríguez-López later stated that he also no longer felt being connected with At the Drive-in's music. Rodríguez-López also ruled out the possibility of the band recording new material, though he reversed this stance in light of the band's 2016 reunion. Following the dissolution of The Mars Volta in 2013, Bixler-Zavala and Rodríguez-López ceased all contact with each other. Bixler-Zavala blamed Rodríguez-López for the breakup on Twitter; however, he stated that he was still happy with At the Drive-In's reunion: \"And for the record I'm still in love with ATDI. Proof was in MY performance. I would never get on stage if my heart was else where.\" The two subsequently focused their efforts on their respective projects, Zavalaz and Bosnian Rainbows, and remained on non-speaking terms until the early 2014, when they finally resolved their issues. An initial attempt to restart At the Drive-In didn't work out, however, so Bixler-Zavala and Rodríguez-López went on to form Antemasque, touring and recording for the next two years.", "In October 2015, At the Drive-In agreed on doing another reunion, and an appearance at Rock On The Range festival in the following May was scheduled. In January 2016, trailed by a 15-second video of seemingly new music, the band detailed plans for a world tour and new album later in the year. After initial rehearsals, Jim Ward left the reunited band, and was replaced by his former Sparta bandmate Keeley Davis. Looking back on Ward's departure, in 2017 Bixler-Zavala stated that Ward wasn't ready for a new album and tour: \"His head wasn’t there. His head wasn’t trustworthy. Because of the way Omar and I exploded [with Mars Volta], I completely understood that. You know, you either let it go and keep going forward, or the train goes on without you. We have to honor what is happening now, which is age and the want to do it. I love him. He’s a beautiful human being. A beautiful artist. I just wish he would remember that he’s an amazing guitar player. I don’t know if he does.” The band canceled part of their North American tour after Bixler-Zavala began to have issues with his voice. On December 8, the band released their first new song in 16 years, \"Governed by Contagions\", through Rise Records. A new album, \"in•ter a•li•a\", was released on May 5, 2017, preceded by another single, \"Incurably Innocent\". The \"Diamanté\" EP was released on the November 24 as part of Record Store Day; it had a limited vinyl release of 4000 copies. In May 2018, the band headlined the Neon Desert Music Festival.", "During a show on November 17, 2018, at the Circo Voador in Brazil, Bixler-Zavala announced to the crowd that the following night's show would be their final show for the foreseeable future. That night, Bixler-Zavala posted on Twitter stating “Maybe it’s a sign of weakness to some of you but I had to give a huge thank you to my ATDI family. This was our 2nd to last show. Tomorrow is the last. Don’t know when we’ll play again. Thank you Rio. How do I even sleep now?\" The following day on November 18, 2018, the band played their final show at Bar Opinião in Porto Alegre, Brazil. On November 19, 2018, the band released a statement on their official Instagram announcing a hiatus.", "At the Drive-In's style is usually described as post-hardcore. Their sound has also been called punk rock, emo, and art punk. Some of the group's influences are Indian Summer, Swing Kids, Fugazi, Sunny Day Real Estate (referred to by Ward as \"Fugazi beyond Fugazi\"), Bad Brains, and the Gravity Records-led post-hardcore sound of the 1990s that featured acts such as Antioch Arrow and Heroin. In their last period before their initial breakup, the biggest influences of At the Drive-In included bands such as Drive Like Jehu and The Nation of Ulysses, with frontman Bixler-Zavala going on to say that \"there would be no \"Relationship of Command\" without Drive Like Jehu.\" The band also performed cover versions of songs such as \"This Night Has Opened My Eyes\" by The Smiths and \"Take Up Thy Stethoscope and Walk\" by Pink Floyd, both included in the 2004 compilation \"This Station Is Non-Operational\". Their name was taken from the fact that Bad Brains took their name from the Ramones' song \"Bad Brain\" (from \"Road to Ruin\"), and Bixler-Zavala liked the Bad Brains' song title \"At the Movies\" (track featured in \"Rock for Light\"); while Ward liked \"at the drive-in\", and his suggestion would eventually win out. Though \"In/Casino/Out\" was recorded live, \"\"Relationship of Command\" may very well be the first record to harness the chaotic balance of adrenaline and intellect of ATDI's live performance.\" \"Ross was instrumental in bringing out a lot of feeling from us,\" Bixler-Zavala recalls. \"We channeled a lot of emotion into this record. He pushed us farther than we thought we could go. I learned to cut loose the way we do live and not to be afraid to break something or whatever.\" While capturing the essence of ATDI's live shows in a way never before seen, the record also featured some of the band's most experimental songs, including \"Rolodex Propaganda,\" \"Non-Zero Possibility,\" and \"Invalid Litter Dept.\" The band's guitar-playing, in the majority of their songs, is characterized by unusual chords, a fast tempo, and a quiet-loud-quiet song structure. While Jim Ward and Paul Hinojos provided the rhythmic structure of the song, Omar often played more experimental riffs and melodies over the top. Effects were heavily used by Omar, especially on \"Relationship of Command,\" while Jim used the keyboard to create melody, often switching between the guitar and keyboard such as in \"Invalid Litter Department\".", "At the Drive-In is considered one of the most influential post-hardcore acts of the late 1990s and early 2000s. Accolades for their album \"Relationship of Command\" include being ranked 47th in the 50 Greatest Albums of the 21st century in \"Kerrang!\", 83rd on \"Spin Magazine\"'s 100 Greatest Albums 1985–2005, and 90 on MTV2's greatest albums ever list. BBC's Mike Diver stated that the success and eventual \"landmark status\" of the album helped post-hardcore position itself as a \"vital commercial force,\" adding that \"Relationship of Command\" \"is the high against which every post-hardcore record since 2000 has been measured.\" In October 2011, \"Rock Sound\" magazine inducted \"Relationship of Command\" into Rock Sound's \"Hall Of Fame\". Their writer Ryan Bird spoke about the legacy of the album, stating that \"though At the Drive-In may not have built the road, they were most certainly leading the convoy, allowing those who followed behind to reap the of their navigation while they crashed and burned on the hard shoulder. What remains, however, is a legacy the likes of which may not been seen again.\" Among the artists who have cited At the Drive-In as an influence or expressed admiration for them are Billy Talent, Biffy Clyro, Underoath, Will Swan of Dance Gavin Dance, Nick Hipa of As I Lay Dying, The Fall of Troy, Jamie Lenman, Rolo Tomassi, La Dispute, Mutiny on the Bounty, sleepmakeswaves and Night Verses." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "By country." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Charles Minot, a Division Superintendent on the Erie Railroad is credited with the first effort to control the movement of a train beyond the rule book and operating timetable, when, in September 1851, he sent a telegram to a railroad employee at another location directing that all trains be held at that point until the train Minot was riding could arrive. From that beginning, a system of train dispatching evolved. The operating rule book, later standardized for all railroads, contained the basic rules for the operation of trains, such as the meaning of the all fixed, audible and hand signals; the form, format and meaning of train orders; and the duties and obligations of each class of employee. The operating, or official, timetable established train numbers and schedules; meeting points for those trains; showed the length of passing tracks at each station as well as indicating the locations where train orders might be issued and contained a variety of other information which might be necessary or useful to train crews operating trains over the territory covered. Train orders supplemented the timetable and the rule book. They were addressed to a particular train or trains and directed that train or trains to do whatever the train dispatcher had decided needed to be done: meet another train, wait at specified locations, run late on its published schedule, be cautious under the circumstances described or numerous other actions. Train dispatchers are required to be intimately familiar with the physical characteristics of the railroad territory for which they are responsible, as well as the operating capabilities of the locomotive power being used. Experienced train dispatchers learned the idiosyncrasies of the locomotive engineers and train conductors and melded that knowledge into the operating decisions made. An efficient train dispatcher could utilize the rule book, timetable, train orders and personal experience to move a large number of trains over the assigned territory with minimal delay to any train, even in single-track territory. Initially, train dispatchers issued train orders using American Morse code over telegraph wires. Later, after the telephone was invented in 1876 and became common, most railroads constructed their own telephone systems, for internal communications, which the train dispatchers used to issue train orders. The last train order known to have been issued using Morse code was copied at Whitehall, Montana, on May 6, 1982, on the Burlington Northern Railroad. Beginning before World War II and accelerating after it, most major railroads installed centralized traffic control (CTC) systems to control train movements. Using CTC, a train dispatcher could align track switches anywhere on the territory so that trains could move into and out of sidings without having to stop and hand throw switches. The train dispatcher could also control the trackside signals governing the movement of trains. Two-way radios enabled train dispatchers to communicate directly with train and engine crews. These capabilities eliminated the need for most train orders, but still required the oversight of a train dispatcher.", "In Australia train dispatchers are known as train controllers. Most train controllers are employed by such Australian State and Federal Government organisations as the Australian Rail Track Corporation (ARTC), the Public Transport Authority of Western Australia (PTA), Queensland Rail, and Sydney Trains. Others are the employees of privately operated railways such as those found in the Pilbara region. The mining giants BHP Billiton, Rio Tinto, Fortesque Metals Group, and now also Roy Hill, all operate their own networks from Remote Operation Centres and employ large numbers of train controllers. In Canada a train dispatcher is known as a rail traffic controller (RTC). The two biggest employers of rail traffic controllers are Canadian National Railway and Canadian Pacific. In New Zealand a dispatcher is known as a train controller, as in Australia. KiwiRail recently centralised all of its train control functions in a single control centre located in the national capital, Wellington, at the southern end of the North Island. Singapore refers to their train dispatchers as train service controllers (TSC). On its Mass Rapid Transit (MRT), they run the Operations Control Centre (OCC) and ensure that trains run on time and manage any incidents on the system." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Origins.", "Flight testing.", "Production.", "Further development.", "Design.", "Overview.", "Crew accommodation.", "Armament.", "Defensive armament.", "Bombs.", "Radio, radar and countermeasures equipment.", "Operational history.", "Second World War.", "Postwar.", "Surviving aircraft.", "Notable pilots and crew members.", "Victoria Cross awards.", "Notable appearances in media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In the 1930s, the Royal Air Force (RAF) was primarily interested in twin-engine bombers. These designs put limited demands on engine production and maintenance, both of which were already stretched with the introduction of so many new types into service. Power limitations were so serious that the British invested heavily in the development of huge engines in the 2,000 horsepower (1,500 kW) class in order to improve performance. During the late 1930s, none of these was ready for production. Both the United States and the Soviet Union were pursuing the development of bombers powered by arrangements of four smaller engines; the results of these projects proved to possess favourable characteristics such as excellent range and fair lifting capacity. Accordingly, in 1936, the RAF also decided to investigate the feasibility of the four-engined bomber. The origins of the Lancaster stem from a twin-engined bomber design that had been submitted in response to Specification P.13/36, which had been formulated and released by the British Air Ministry during the mid 1930s. This specification had", "As early as mid-1940, Avro's chief design engineer, Roy Chadwick, had been working on an improved Manchester design. This redesign was powered by four of the more reliable but less powerful Rolls-Royce Merlin engines, specifically adopting the form of the Merlin \"Power Plant\" installations which had been developed by Rolls-Royce for the earlier Beaufighter II, installed on a larger wing. Initially, the improved aircraft was designated as the \"Type 683 Manchester III\"; it was subsequently renamed as the Lancaster. The prototype aircraft, serial number \"BT308\", was assembled by the Avro experimental flight department at Ringway Airport, Manchester; the prototype was constructed from a production Manchester airframe, which was combined with a new wing centre section designed to accommodate the additional engines. On 9 January 1941, test pilot H. A. \"Sam\" Brown performed the prototype's maiden flight at RAF Ringway, Cheshire. Flight testing of the new aircraft quickly proved it to", "Avro received an initial contract for 1,070 Lancasters. The majority of Lancasters manufactured during the war years were constructed by Avro at its factory at Chadderton near Oldham, Greater Manchester and were test-flown from Woodford Aerodrome in Cheshire. As it was quickly recognised that Avro's capacity was exceeded by the wartime demand for the type, it was decided to form the \"Lancaster Aircraft Group\", which comprised a number of companies that undertook the type's manufacture, either performing primary assembly themselves or producing various subsections and components for the other participating manufacturers. In addition to Avro, further Lancasters were constructed by Metropolitan-Vickers (1,080, also tested at Woodford) and Armstrong Whitworth. They were also produced at the Austin Motor Company works in Longbridge, Birmingham, later in the Second World War and post-war by Vickers-Armstrongs at Chester as well as at the Vickers", "The Lancaster B I was never fully superseded in production by a successor model, remaining in production until February 1946. According to aviation authors Brian Goulding and M. Garbett, the Lancaster B I altered little during its production life, partially as a result of the sound basic structure and design; of the visible changes, the fuselage side-windows were deleted, the Perspex chin of the bomb-aimer was enlarged, and a larger astrodome was provided. Various additional bumps and blisters were also added, which would typically house radar equipment and radio navigational aids. Some Lancaster B I bombers were outfitted with bulged bomb bay doors in order to accommodate increased armament payloads. Early production Lancaster B Is were outfitted with a ventral gun turret position. In response to feedback on the lack of application for the ventral turret, the ventral turret was often eliminated during", "", "The Avro Lancaster was a British four-engined strategic bomber that was used as the RAF's principal heavy bomber during the latter half of the Second World War. The typical aircraft was powered by an arrangement of four wing-mounted Rolls-Royce Merlin piston engines, each of which drove a 13 ft diameter de Havilland Hydromatic three-bladed propeller. While not optimal, the Lancaster was capable of flying the return journey home on only two operational engines, along with very limited distances on a single running engine. Aviation authors Brian Goulding and M. Garbett have claimed that experienced Lancaster pilots were often able to out-manoeuver Luftwaffe fighters. It possessed largely favourable flying characteristics, having been described by Goulding and Garbett as being: \"a near-perfect flying machine, fast for its size and very smooth...such a delightfully easy aeroplane to fly...there are instances of Lancasters having been looped and barrel-rolled, both intentionally and otherwise\". The Lancaster benefited from a structure that possessed considerable strength and durability, which had been intentionally designed to maximise", "The standard crew for a Lancaster consisted of seven men, stationed in various positions in the fuselage. Starting at the nose, the bomb aimer had two positions to man. His primary location was lying prone on the floor of the nose of the aircraft, with access to the bombsight controls facing forward, with the Mark XIV bomb sight on his left and bomb release selectors on the right. He also used his view out of the large transparent perspex nose cupola to assist the navigator with map reading. To man the Frazer Nash FN5 nose turret, he stood up placing himself in position behind the triggers of the twin.303 in (7.7 mm) guns. Ammunition for", "", "The Avro Lancaster was initially equipped with four Nash & Thompson Frazer Nash hydraulically operated turrets mounted in the nose, tail, mid-upper and underside. The original tail turret was equipped with four Browning.303 Mark II machine guns and all other turrets with two such machine guns. Late on in the war, as a result of statistical analysis, Freeman Dyson put forward a case for the removal of the majority of the Lancaster's defensive armament. He argued that this would reduce the overall loss rate as it would have the benefit of increasing the Lancaster's cruise speed by up to (assuming the bomb load was not increased at the same time), and thus make the bomber harder to shoot down. He also considered that the modification would be justified regardless of the envisioned decreased loss rate as, by requiring fewer crew to serve as defensive air gunners, that would be a lower number of human losses incurred with each aircraft lost.", "An important feature of the Lancaster was its unobstructed long bomb bay. At first, the heaviest bomb carried was the high capacity HC \"Cookie\". Bulged doors were added to 30 per cent of B Is to allow the aircraft to carry and later \"Cookies\". The Lancaster also carried a variety of smaller weapons, including the Small Bomb Container (SBC) which held 236 or 24 incendiary and explosive incendiary bomblets; and General Purpose High Explosive (GP/HE) bombs (these came in a variety of designs); parachute deployed magnetic or acoustic mines, or armour-piercing (AP) bombs; Semi-Armour-Piercing (SAP) bombs, used up to 1942 against submarines; post 1942: or anti-submarine depth charges. In 1943, 617 Squadron was created to carry out Operation Chastise, the raid against the Ruhr dams. This unit was equipped with B.III (Specials), officially designated the \"Type 464 (Provisioning)\", modified to carry the \"Upkeep\" bouncing bomb. The bomb bay doors were removed and the ends of the bomb bay were covered with fairings. \"Upkeep\" was suspended on laterally pivoted, vee-shaped struts which sprang apart beamwise when the bomb-release button was pressed. A drive belt and pulley to rotate the bomb at 500 rpm was mounted on the starboard strut and driven by a hydraulic motor housed in the forward fairing. The mid-upper turret was removed and a more bulbous bomb aimer's blister", "The Lancaster had a very advanced communications system for its time. Most British-built Lancasters were fitted with the R1155 receiver", "", "During early 1942, No. 44 Squadron, based at RAF Waddington, Lincolnshire, became the first RAF squadron to convert to the Lancaster; it was quickly followed by No. 97 Squadron, which was also based at Waddington. On 2 March 1942, the first operational mission of the Lancaster, deploying naval mines in the vicinity of Heligoland Bight, was performed by aircraft of No. 44 Sqn. On 10 March 1942, the first bombing mission was conducted over the German city of Essen, North Rhine-Westphalia. While the Lancaster had been designed to conduct night-time operations, daylight raids were occasionally performed by the type as well. The existence of the Lancaster was revealed after a daytime raid upon an engine factory located in Augsburg, Swabia, Bavaria conducted by Nos. 44 and 97 Sqns on 17 April 1942. Due to the high loss rates typically involved in such operations, daytime bombing missions were performed sparingly until the Allies had achieved a level of aerial supremacy over the Axis powers. On 17 October 1942, another audacious daytime raid was performed by 90 Lancasters of No. 5 Group, bombing the", "In the post-war climate, the Lancaster continued to see use for several more years, during which a number of high-profile operations were conducted. Immediately following the end of hostilities, the Lancaster was used as a crude transport aircraft, being used to ferry thousands of prisoners of war (POWs) back to the British Isles from across the continent. Aerial tours of the devastated German cities were also performed using the type. Repatriation flights returning POWs and ordinary troops alike continued until November 1945. During the summer of 1946, Lancasters of No. 35 Squadron performed a tour of the United States. These aircraft were autographed by various American movie stars during the tour, and continued to bear these up to their retirements. A pair of", "Of the 17 surviving and largely intact Lancasters known to exist, two are airworthy; one, PA474, based in Coningsby, the UK, is operated by The Battle of Britain Memorial Flight, and the other, called Vera (coded VR-A, FM213), is in Canada, operated by the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum in Mount Hope, a suburb of Hamilton, Ontario. Another Lancaster, Just Jane, NX611, a B MkVII, based in East Kirkby Lincolnshire Aviation Heritage Centre is able to taxi but is not currently airworthy, though there are plans to return her to flight in the future. The fourth Lancaster with working engines and", "", "Many Lancaster crew members were highly decorated for", "The Avro Lancaster featured prominently in the 1955 film \"The Dam Busters\", and a number of B VII Lancasters in storage were modified to the original configuration of the B III (Special) for use on screen. Lancaster play a prominent part in \"Appointment in London\" with Dirk Bogarde." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and background.", "Professional tennis career.", "Playing style and coaches.", "Coaching career.", "Personal life.", "Sexuality and relationships.", "Health problems.", "Activism and opinions.", "Gay rights.", "Communism and Republicans.", "Transgender athletes.", "Career statistics.", "Grand Slam Singles finals: 32 (18–14).", "Awards.", "Recognition.", "Media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Navratilova was born Martina Šubertová in Prague, Czechoslovakia. Her parents divorced when she was three, and her mother, an accomplished gymnast, tennis player, and ski instructor, moved the family to Řevnice. In 1962, her mother Jana married Miroslav Navrátil, who became her first tennis coach. Martina then took the name of her stepfather (adding the feminine suffix \"ová\"), thus becoming Martina Navrátilová (). Her father, Mirek (officially Miroslav Šubert), was a ski instructor. Navratilova has a sister, Jana, and an older paternal half-brother. Her grandmother, Agnes Semanska, was a tennis player for the Czechoslovak Federation before the Second World War and had a ranking as high as No. 2 among Czech women during her amateur career. When Navratilova was four, she was hitting a tennis ball off a concrete wall and started to play tennis regularly at age seven. In 1972, at the age of 15, Navratilova won the Czechoslovakia national tennis championship. In 1973, aged 16, she made her debut on the United States Lawn Tennis Association professional tour but did not turn professional until 1975. Although perhaps most renowned for her mastery of fast low-bouncing grass, her best early showing at majors was on the red clay at the French Open, where she would go on to reach the final six times. In 1973, she made the quarterfinals where she lost 6–7, 4–6 to Evonne Goolagong. She made the quarterfinals the next year and lost to Helga Masthoff (née Niessen), after again losing the first set in a tiebreak.", "Navratilova won her first professional singles title in Orlando, Florida in 1974, at the age of 17. Upon arriving in the United States, Navratilova first lived with former Vaudeville actress, Frances Dewey Wormser, and her husband, Morton Wormser, a tennis enthusiast. Navratilova was the runner-up at two major singles tournaments in 1975. She lost in the final of the Australian Open to Evonne Goolagong and in the final of the French Open to Chris Evert over three sets. After losing to Evert in the semifinals of that year's US Open in September, the 18-year-old Navratilova went to the offices of the Immigration and Naturalization Service in New York City and informed them that she wished to defect from Communist Czechoslovakia. Within a month, she received a green card and in 1981 became a US citizen. Also, in 1975, Navratilova teamed with then world number one, Chris Evert, to win the French Open women's doubles title, Martina's first major title outside of mixed doubles. They teamed again in 1976 to win the women's Wimbledon doubles title over Billie Jean King and Bette Stove. Navratilova won her first major singles title at Wimbledon in 1978, where she defeated Evert in three sets in the final and captured the world No. 1 ranking for the first time on the WTA computer, a position she held until Evert took it back in January 1979. Navratilova successfully defended her Wimbledon title in 1979, again beating Evert in the final in straight sets, and earned the World No. 1 ranking at the end of the year for the first time. Just before Wimbledon in 1979, Navratilova and Evert played possibly the highest scoring women's professional match ever in the Eastbourne final, in which Evert edged Navratilova 7–5, 5–7, 13-11 after facing match points herself. In April 1981, Evert defeated Navratilova in the finals of the Women's Tennis Association championships, held on clay at Amelia Island, 6–0, 6–0. It was Navratilova's only professional double bagel loss (one she later avenged with a crushing 6–2, 6–0 defeat of Evert in the finals of the same Amelia Island event in 1984). It was at this point that Navratilova began working with Nancy Lieberman to improve her fitness and toughen her mental approach to better compete with Evert and fulfil her true potential. In 1981, Navratilova won her third major singles title by defeating Evert in the final of the Australian Open. Navratilova also defeated Evert to reach the final of the US Open, where she lost a third set tiebreak to Tracy Austin. Navratilova won both Wimbledon and the French Open in 1982. After adopting basketball player Nancy Lieberman's exercise plan and using Yonex isometric midsize graphite-fiberglass composite racquets, Navratilova became the most dominant player in women's tennis. After losing in the fourth round of the first major event of 1983, the French Open, she captured the year's three remaining major titles (the Australian Open was held in December at that time). Navratilova's loss at the French Open was her only singles defeat during that year, during which she established an 86–1 record. Her winning percentage was the best ever for a post-1968 professional tennis player. During 1982, 1983, and 1984, Navratilova lost a total of only six singles matches. This included a run of 13 consecutive victories over her closest rival and world-ranked No. 2, Chris Evert. Navratilova's reign from 1982 to 1986 is the most dominant unbroken spell in the professional era. Navratilova won the 1984 French Open, thus holding all four major singles titles simultaneously. Her accomplishment was declared a \"Grand Slam\" by Philippe Chatrier, president of the International Tennis Federation, although some tennis observers countered that it was not a true slam because the titles had not been won in a single calendar year. Navratilova extended her major singles tournament winning streak to a record-equalling six following wins at Wimbledon and the US Open. Navratilova's victory meant she became the first player to win majors on clay, grass and hard court on the same year. She entered the 1984 Australian Open with a chance of winning all four titles in the same year. In the semifinals, however, Helena Suková ended Navratilova's 74-match winning streak (a record for a professional) 1–6, 6–3, 7–5. A left-hander, Navratilova completed a calendar grand slam in women's doubles in 1984, partnering right-handed Pam Shriver, a tall and talented player whose most noted stroke was a slice forehand, a shot virtually unheard of in the game today. This was part of a record 109-match winning streak that the pair achieved between 1983 and 1985. (Navratilova was ranked the world No. 1 doubles player for a period of over three years in the 1980s.) From 1985 through 1987, Navratilova reached the women's singles final at all 11 major tournaments held during those three years, winning six of them. From 1982 through 1990, she reached the Wimbledon final nine consecutive times. She reached the US Open final five consecutive times from 1983 through 1987 and appeared in the French Open final five out of six years from 1982 through 1987. In 1985, Navratilova played in what many consider to be perhaps the best woman's match of all time, the French Open final against Chris Evert. Navratilova battled back from 3–6, 2–4 down to 5-5 all in the third set, before Evert hit a winning backhand passing shot on match point to defeat Navratilova 6–3, 6–7(4), 7–5. This was a major turnaround for Evert, who was so outmatched the year earlier in the final that Bud Collins remarked as a TV commentator that the sport needed to create a higher league for Navratilova to compete in. In outdoor matches against Evert, Navratilova led 10–5 on grass and 9–7 on hardcourts, while Evert was up 11–3 on clay. On indoor courts, however, Navratilova had a decisive 21–14 lead. At the end of what is widely regarded as the greatest rivalry in women's tennis, Navratilova led Evert 43–37 in total matches, 14–8 in Grand Slams and 10–4 in Grand Slam finals. In 1986 at the U.S. Open, Navratilova prevailed over sixteen-year-old German Steffi Graf in a close semi-final winning 6-1, 6-7 (7-3), 7-6 (10-8), before handily winning the final over Helena Sukova 6-3, 6-2. Navratilova, with partner Pam Shriver, also won the women's doubles title. Navratilova also defeated Graf in straight sets at the WTA Tour Championship and with an 89-3 record, earned the number-one ranking for the fifth consecutive year. Graf dominated the first half of the 1987 season including defeating Navratilova in straight sets in the semi-finals of the Miami Open and in the final of the French Open, 6–4, 4–6, 8–6. However, Navratilova defeated Graf in straight sets in the finals of both Wimbledon and the US Open (and at the US Open became only the third player in the Open Era, joining tennis legends Margaret Court and Billie Jean King, to win the women's singles, women's doubles, and mixed doubles at the same event—the rare \"Triple Crown\"). Navratilova reached all four Grand Slam finals in 1987, winning two of them (she lost the Australian Open to Hana Mandlikova). Graf's two losses to Navratilova were her only losses of the year and with 11 tournament wins over the year versus 4 for Navratilova she was able to obtain year-end world No. 1 ranking ahead of Navratilova at No. 2. Graf eventually broke Navratilova's records of 156 consecutive weeks and 331 total weeks as the world No. 1 singles player but fell 60 short of Navratilova's record of 167 singles titles. Including doubles, Navratilova won almost three times as many titles as Graf with a record doubles/mixed/singles combined total of 344 titles to Graf's 118. In 1988, Graf won all four major singles titles, beating the 31-year-old Navratilova 5–7, 6–2, 6–1 in the Wimbledon final, their only match of the year, recovering from a set and a break down. Navratilova did not reach the finals of any of the other Grand Slam events but did win nine tournaments enabling her to claim the No. 2 ranking behind Graf. In 1989, Graf and Navratilova met in the finals of both Wimbledon and the US Open, with Graf winning both encounters 6-1 in the third set. Graf also defeated Navratilova in the finals of the WTA Tour Championships their third and final match of the year. Navratilova, who skipped the French Open that year, did win eight titles and was able to capture the No. 2 ranking behind Graf for the third straight year. Despite the 13 year age difference between the two players, and Graf's comparative lack of investment in doubles and mixed doubles, Navratilova won 9 of the 18 career singles matches with Graf and 5 of the 9 major singles matches with her. At age 34, Navratilova defeated Graf the last time they played in a major in the semifinals of the 1991 US Open 7–6(2), 6–7(6), 6–4, to end their Grand Slam rivalry 5-4 up, although it is noteworthy that all 4 of Graf's Grand Slam victories over Navratilova came in the finals of a Slam. This is reflected in the Grand Slams Finals chart below. Navratilova's final Grand Slam singles triumph was in 1990. In the final at Wimbledon, the 33-year-old Navratilova swept Zina Garrison 6–4, 6–1 to claim an all-time record ninth Wimbledon singles crown. She won four other tournaments that year, although she did not participate in the Australian or French Opens, and finished the year ranked No. 3 in the world, narrowing edge out by sixteen-year-old Monika Seles for the No. 2 spot. Though that was her last major singles title, Navratilova reached two additional major singles finals during the remainder of career: in 1991, she lost in the US Open final to the new world No. 1, Monica Seles; and, in 1994, at age 37, Navratilova reached the Wimbledon final, where she lost in three sets to Conchita Martínez. In November that year, after losing to Gabriela Sabatini in the first round of the WTA Tour Championships, she retired from full-time competition on the singles tour. She was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 2000. In 2000, Navratilova returned to the tour to mostly play doubles events, while rarely also playing singles. In her first singles performance in eight years, at Eastbourne in 2002, she beat world No. 22, Tatiana Panova, before losing in the next round to Daniela Hantuchová in three sets. In 2003, she won the mixed doubles titles at both the Australian Open and Wimbledon, partnering Leander Paes. This made her the oldest ever major champion (aged 46 years, 8 months). The Australian Open victory made her the third player in history to complete a \"boxed set\" of major titles by winning the singles, women's doubles, and mixed doubles at all four majors. The Wimbledon win allowed her to equal Billie Jean King's record of 20 Wimbledon titles (in singles, women's doubles, and mixed doubles combined) and extended her overall number of major titles to 58 (second only to Margaret Court, who won 62). Despite being criticized for receiving a wildcard, Navratilova won a singles match over Catalina Castaño 6–0 6–1 at the first round of Wimbledon in 2004, aged 47 years and eight months, to make her the oldest player to win a professional singles match in the open era. Navratilova then lost her second round match with Gisela Dulko in three sets. On Thursday, July 6, 2006, Navratilova played her last matches at Wimbledon, with partner Liezel Huber losing a quarterfinal match in women's doubles to fourth seeds and eventual champions Yan Zi and Zheng Jie, and later in the same day with partner Mark Knowles losing in the third round of mixed doubles to eventual champions Andy Ram and Vera Zvonareva. She had said that her last Wimbledon wasn't about breaking her record shared with Billie Jean King of 20 championships. In an interview, Navratilova was quoted as saying, \"People keep saying that, but it so wasn't. I just wanted to win one more title here, period.\" Navratilova capped off her career by winning the mixed doubles title, her 41st major doubles title (31 in women's doubles and 10 in mixed doubles) and 177th overall, at the 2006 US Open with American doubles specialist Bob Bryan. At the time, she was only about a month shy of her 50th birthday and broke her own record as the oldest ever major champion (aged 49 years, 10 months). Navratilova won 167 top-level singles titles (more than any other player in the open era) and 177 doubles titles. Her last title in women's doubles came on August 21, 2006, at the Tier I Rogers Cup in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, where she partnered Nadia Petrova. Navratilova won 18 major singles titles: nine at Wimbledon, four at the US Open, three at the Australian Open, and two at the French Open. Her overall record in 67 major singles events was 306–49 (120–14 at Wimbledon, 89–17 at the US Open, 51–11 at the French Open, and 46–7 at the Australian Open). Some observers argue that the very few singles matches she played in her forties should be counted separately in her career statistics. She is the only player to have won at least one tour event for 21 consecutive years and won the singles and doubles at the same event a record 84 times. She was ranked in the world top 3 in singles for 15 years between 1977 and 1993. Her career singles match win total of 1,442 is the most during the open era. In September 1992, the 35-year-old Navratilova played 40-year-old Jimmy Connors in the third Battle of the Sexes tennis match at Caesars Palace in Paradise, Nevada. Connors was allowed only one serve per point and Navratilova was allowed to hit into half the doubles court. Connors won 7–5, 6–2. She played for the Boston Lobsters in the World TeamTennis pro league through the 2009 season.", "Navratilova had an attacking serve and volley. Under Renée Richards, she improved her game tactics. Evert said that \"Martina revolutionized the game by her superb athleticism and aggressiveness... She brought athleticism to a whole new level with her training techniques — particularly cross-training, the idea that you could go to the gym or play basketball to get in shape for tennis.\" Throughout her long career, Navratilova had many coaches. They included: Miroslav Navrátil, George Parma, Věra Suková, Renée Richards (1981–1983), Mike Estep (1983–1986), and Craig Kardon (1988–1994)", "In December 2014, it was announced that Navratilova had joined Agnieszka Radwańska's coaching staff. However, in April 2015, after Radwańska struggled in the first half of the season, the pair decided to part ways.", "In 1985, Navratilova released an autobiography, co-written with \"The New York Times\" sports columnist George Vecsey, titled \"Martina\" in the U.S. and \"Being Myself\" in the rest of the world. She had earlier co-written a tennis instruction book with Mary Carillo in 1982, entitled \"Tennis My Way\". She later wrote three mystery novels with Liz Nickles: \"The Total Zone\" (1994), \"Breaking Point\" (1996), and \"Killer Instinct\" (1997). Navratilova's most recent literary effort was a health and fitness book entitled \"Shape Your Self,\" which came out in 2006. An ESPN Documentary was produced about her rivalry with Chris Evert titled, 'Unmatched'. Her rivalry and friendship with Evert is also detailed in the book, The Rivals by Johnette Howard and the children's book, Martina and Chrissie by Phil Bildner.", "In 1981, shortly after becoming a United States citizen, Navratilova gave an interview to \"New York Daily News\" sports reporter Steve Goldstein, coming out as bisexual and revealing that she had a sexual relationship with Rita Mae Brown, but asked her not to publish the article until she was ready to come out publicly. However, the \"New York Daily News\" published the article on July 30, 1981. Navratilova and Nancy Lieberman, her girlfriend at the time, gave an interview to \"Dallas Morning News\" columnist Skip Bayless, where Navratilova reiterated that she was bisexual and Lieberman identified herself as straight. Navratilova has since identified herself as a lesbian. From 1984 to 1991, Navratilova had a long-term relationship with Judy Nelson, whom she met at a tournament in Fort Worth in 1982. Their split in 1991 resulted in a televised palimony lawsuit which was settled out of court. On September 6, 2014, Navratilova proposed to her longtime girlfriend Julia Lemigova at the US Open. They married in New York on December 15, 2014.", "According to the \"New York Times\"' Jane E. Brody, in September 1982, an acute attack of toxoplasmosis \"contributed to Martina Navratilova's defeat during the United States Open tennis tournament\", in which No. 1 seed Navratilova unexpectedly lost to No. 7 seed Pam Shriver in the quarterfinal round. (Shriver—Navratilova's doubles partner in the same tournament—subsequently lost to No. 5 seed Hana Mandlíková in the semifinal. Mandlíková was then defeated in the final by Navratilova's longtime rival, No. 2 seed Chris Evert.) By late October, Navratilova had \"apparently recovered\". Navratilova began to wear glasses in 1985 and recalled that her vision had begun to deteriorate in 1984. She continued to wear glasses for tennis for many years. Few tennis players wear sunglasses regularly for tennis and Navratilova is one of them. Although she achieved so much prior to using glasses, her glasses have become iconic. Some sports writers have said that they made her, as with other top athletes who had imperfect health, seem more vulnerable and human. On April 7, 2010, Navratilova announced that she was being treated for breast cancer. A routine mammogram in January 2010 revealed that she had a ductal carcinoma in situ in her left breast, which she was informed of on February 24, and in March she had the tumour surgically removed; she received radiation therapy in May. In December 2010, Navratilova was hospitalized after developing high altitude pulmonary edema while attempting a climb of Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania.", "Navratilova is involved with various charities that benefit animal rights, underprivileged children, and gay rights. Navratilova has described herself as a vegetarian. In an April 2006 interview, however, she said she had recently begun eating fish again because she found it hard to get enough protein while on the road. Navratilova is a Democrat, and has donated more than $25,000 to Democratic campaigns.", "Navratilova participated in a lawsuit against Amendment 2, a successful 1992 ballot proposition in Colorado designed to prevent sexual orientation from being a protected class. In 1993, Navratilova spoke before the March on Washington for Lesbian, Gay and Bi Equal Rights and Liberation. Navratilova serves as the Health and Fitness Ambassador for AARP in an alliance created to help AARP's millions of members lead active, healthy lives. In 2000, she was the recipient of National Equality Award from the Human Rights Campaign, the nation's largest gay and lesbian activist/lobbying group.", "She has spoken out on a number of volatile political issues, including tort/litigation reform, but perhaps her most consistent theme—aside from gay and lesbian rights—has been her unstinting opposition to Communism, and unrelenting opposition to the former Eastern Bloc power structure that compelled her to flee her native Czechoslovakia. She has denounced the Soviet Union's control over Czechoslovakia, maintaining that she refuses to speak Russian to this day because of the Soviet Union's former hegemony over Eastern Europe. Whenever people go into politics and they try to say that Communism was a good thing, I say, 'Go ahead and live in a Communist country then, if you think it's so great.' \" Navratilova was a guest on CNN's \"Connie Chung Tonight\" show on July 17, 2002. During the show, Chung quoted a German newspaper which quoted Navratilova as saying: The most absurd part of my escape from the unjust system is that I have exchanged one system that suppresses free opinion for another. The Republicans in the U.S. manipulate public opinion and sweep controversial issues under the table. It's depressing. Decisions in America are based solely on the question of how much money will come out of it and not on the questions of how much health, morals or environment suffer as a result. Navratilova said that the remarks referred to what she perceived as a trend of centralization of government power and a loss of personal freedom. In the discussion that followed, Chung stated: Can I be honest with you? I can tell you that when I read this, I have to tell you that I thought it was un-American, unpatriotic. I wanted to say, go back to Czechoslovakia. You know, if you don't like it here, this a country that gave you so much, gave you the freedom to do what you want. Navratilova responded, And I'm giving it back. This is why I speak out. When I see something that I don't like, I'm going to speak out because you can do that here. And again, I feel there are too many things happening that are taking our rights away. Navratilova was quoted in 2007 as being ashamed of the US under President George W. Bush because unlike the communist regime in Czechoslovakia, Bush was democratically elected.", "Navratilova is critical of allowing trans women to compete in women's sports, unless \"fair\". She rejects accusations of transphobia, and says she deplores \"a growing tendency among transgender activists to denounce anyone who argues against them and to label them all as 'transphobes.'\" Following an article on the subject that Navratilova wrote for \"The Times\" in February 2019, Athlete Ally, an LGBTQ athlete advocacy group, removed Navratilova from their advisory board, stating her comments \"are transphobic [and] based on a false understanding of science and data\". In March 2019, Navratilova apologized for using the term \"cheating\" when discussing whether transgender athletes should be allowed to compete in women's sport. She also called for \"a debate, a conversation that includes everyone and is based, as I have said, not on feeling or emotion but science.\" In an April 2019 article for \"The Washington Post\", she opined that the Equality Act, in its current form, \"would make it unlawful to differentiate among girls and women in sports on the basis of sex for any purpose\". In June 2019, the BBC broadcast \"The Trans Women Athlete Dispute with Martina Navratilova\", where she interviewed people including trans women athletes and sports researchers, presenting evidence on both sides of the debate of whether trans women have any advantage in elite sports. Her closing remarks were \"The way I started this journey, I just wanted to see if there are any big surprises, any misconceptions that I had. And what I think I have come to realise, the biggest thing for me, is just that the level of difficulty that trans people go through cannot be underestimated. The fight for equality and recognition is just huge. That being said, still, for me, the most important thing in sports... and you have to remember, trans rights and elite sports are two different things, although of course they are connected. What's the right way to set rules so that everybody feels like they have a fighting chance? It feels to me that it is impossible to come to any real conclusions or write any meaningful rules until more research is done. But for now, I think we need to include as many transgender athletes as possible within elite sports, while keeping it as level a playing field as possible. Look, society has changed so much. Things evolve, things change and maybe I need to evolve, I need to change. The rules certainly need to evolve. If you don't adapt, you've got problems. And so we'll just keep adapting and try to find a happy way forward.\"", "", "By winning the 1983 US Open title, Navratilova completed the Career Grand Slam. She became only the seventh female player in history to achieve this.", "AP Female Athlete of the Year 1983 and 1984", "Navratilova is considered one of the best female tennis players of all time and in 2005, \"Tennis\" magazine selected her as the greatest female tennis player for the years 1965 through 2005, directly over Steffi Graf. Billie Jean King, a former World No. 1 player, said in 2006 that Navratilova is \"the greatest singles, doubles and mixed doubles player who's ever lived.\" In 2008, tennis historian and journalist Bud Collins called Navratilova \"arguably, the greatest player of all time.\" In 2000, she became a member of the Laureus Sports Foundation's Academy. In 2006, Martina Navratilova was named by Equality Forum as one of their 31 Icons of the LGBT History Month. Tennis writer Steve Flink, in his book \"The Greatest Tennis Matches of the Twentieth Century\" (1999), named her as the second best female player of the 20th century, directly behind Steffi Graf. In June 2011, she was named one of the \"30 Legends of Women's Tennis: Past, Present and Future\" by \"Time\". In March 2012, The Tennis Channel named Navratilova as the second greatest female tennis player of all times, behind Steffi Graf, in their list of 100 greatest tennis players of all times. On August 2, 2013, Navratilova was among the first class of inductees into the National Gay and Lesbian Sports Hall of Fame. On May 12, 2016, Navratilova was made an honorary fellow of Lucy Cavendish College of the University of Cambridge.", "In 1983, Martina Navratilova and Vijay Amritraj appeared in the \"Hart to Hart\" episode \"Love Game\" as themselves, as the guests of honor at a charity tennis event. Her role was the more significant; she partnered with the lead male character Jonathan Hart (Robert Wagner) in a mixed doubles match. In 1996, Navratilova was featured with American football player Art Monk in an endorsement for PowerBook in an ad series \"What's on Your PowerBook?\" In 2000 Martina appeared as herself on Will & Grace \"Lows in the Mid-Eighties\" as one of Karen Walker's (Megan Mullally) paramours in a flashback sequence. In November 2008, Martina Navratilova appeared on the UK's ITV series Series 8 of \"I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!\"; she finished runner-up to Joe Swash. In February 2012 Navratilova was announced as a cast member on the 14th season of ABC's \"Dancing with the Stars\". She was partnered with Tony Dovolani, but they were the first pair eliminated. Navratilova guest-starred as a dissatisfied Yelp reviewer in episode three of the third season of absurdist comedy \"Portlandia\". Navratilova currently has a recurring role portraying Brigitte, a horse trainer who is also the lover of Georgina (Gwyneth Paltrow), the mother of the titular character Payton Hobart Ben Platt), on the Ryan Murphy produced Netflix series, \"The Politician\". Pulitzer-Prize winning journalist Glenn Greenwald is developing a feature film documentary film about Navratilova as his childhood hero and as a social justice pioneer, with Reese Witherspoon's production company, Hello Sunshine." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background and writing.", "Composition.", "Response.", "Critical reception.", "Awards and recognition.", "Chart performance.", "Music video.", "Background.", "Synopsis.", "Reception and accolades.", "Live performances.", "Cover versions and use in media.", "Legacy.", "Track listing.", "Credits and personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In an interview for \"Blender\", Martin and Dr. Luke revealed that they had originally intended Pink to sing \"Since U Been Gone\", however, she turned it down. Dr. Luke also explained that Hilary Duff's management was interested in the song but rejected it because Duff could not reach the song's higher notes. It was Clive Davis who convinced Martin and Dr. Luke to give the song to Clarkson, even though they were initially reluctant. Davis said, \"Max was looking to move on from what he had done with Backstreet Boys, and I really spent time convincing them that an 'American Idol' winner could bring all the feeling and passion that was required to the song.\" According to MTV, Clarkson had already finished recording her materials for her second album, \"Breakaway\" in late 2004 when she was advised by her A&R to fly to Sweden to meet with Martin and Dr. Luke. Both Martin and Dr. Luke were associated with pop music but they wanted to produce rock songs. Realizing that her record had more of a rock influence, Clarkson finally agreed to collaborate with them.\" \"Since U Been Gone\" was inspired by the 2003 song \"Maps\" by the Yeah Yeah Yeahs. In an interview with \"Billboard\", Dr. Luke said: That was a conscious move by Max and myself, because we were listening to alternative and indie music... I said, \"Ah, I love this song,' and Max was like, 'If they would just write a damn pop chorus on it!' It was driving him nuts, because that indie song was sort of on six, going to seven, going to eight, the chorus comes... and it goes back down to five. It drove him crazy. And when he said that, it was like, light bulb. 'Why don't we do that, but put a big chorus on it?\" It worked. \"Maps\" and \"Since U Been Gone\" share similar introductions, post-chorus guitar breaks, and middle eights, and are both in the key of G major. Yeah Yeah Yeahs songwriter Karen O said noticing the similarity was \"like getting bitten by a poisonous varmint\". \"Since U Been Gone\" was the last track that Clarkson recorded for \"Breakaway\"; it was recorded in Sweden. At first, Clarkson was not fully convinced by the prospect of recording the song saying, \"It didn't have any lyrics and the melody really wasn't finalized... the track was done on a computer, there was no band on it. My record label was freaking out about it and I was, like, why?\" Clarkson also explained that when she first heard \"Since U Been Gone\", she felt that it sounded a little bit pop for her direction and she decided to tweak the song musically by incorporating drums and guitars. Clarkson told MTV that the song is about a relationship turned sour although it was going well at the very beginning. The song was officially released to mainstream radio stations in the United States on November 16, 2004 as the lead single of \"Breakaway\".", "\"Since U Been Gone\" is a pop rock and power pop power ballad written and produced by Max Martin and Dr. Luke. The song, which is set in common time with a moderate tempo of 132 beats per minute, is written in the key of G major. Popdose staff noted that the song contains \"electronics-enhanced sheen\" which infuses an appropriate dichotomy between the loud and soft sound of alternative-rock. The song also incorporates ringing guitars with plaintive lyrics and a huge chorus. It has a chord progression of G-Am–Em–F and Clarkson's vocal range in the song spans two octaves from the low note of G to the high note of G. Film Laureate of Blogcritics praised \"Since U Been Gone\" for its \"high energy, vocally powered, pop/rock jam with a hook that is infectious\". The same opinion was echoed by \"Entertainment Weekly\" staff who thought that the song highlighted Clarkson's \"sublime\" vocals and praised the song for its \"addictive\" hook. Dave Donnelly of Sputnikmusic compared the musical arrangements of \"Since U Been Gone\" to Clarkson's \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\". He opined that the two songs allow the melodies to represent themselves because the tight musical arrangements complement Clarkson's vocals. The song's narrative is in first person, from the point of view of a woman who is relieved with the end of her relationship. Steve Lampiris of ZME Music lauded Clarkson's vocals as the heart of the song. He praised the way Clarkson sings the chorus, which implies that she was the one who ended the relationship. He also thought that the line \"I can breathe for the first time/ I'm so moving on, yeah yeah\" was believable \"that either her ex is a total prick or she's deserves [\"sic\"] an Oscar nom.\" In an interview with Dan Snierson of \"Entertainment Weekly\", it was noted that Clarkson sang \"So together but so broken up inside/ 'Cause I can't breathe\" in \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" but in \"Since U Been Gone\", she sang \"But since you been gone/ I can breathe for the first time.\" When asked whether she was a bipolar asthmatic, Clarkson responded that \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" is about a dipstick who is unhappy because she has completely screwed up and \"Since U Been Gone\" is an expression of relief because her ex is now miserable.", "", "The song received positive reviews upon its release. In his review for \"Breakaway\", Stephen Thomas Erlewine of MSN considered \"Since U Been Gone\", \"Walk Away\", and \"You Found Me\" as the spine of the album. He added that the songs sound mainstream and youthful. Rohin of Blogcritics gave a positive response to the song, emphasizing that \"it is almost one of the best pieces of throwaway pop in recent history\". He also thought that the song represents a song \"that you can roll down the windows of your car and proudly headbang your way through a yellow light somewhere on a suburban side street.\" Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine thought that Clarkson did a good impression of Pat Benatar in \"Since U Been Gone\". He concluded his review by emphasizing that \"Breakaway\" proves that Clarkson has successfully dodged the sophomore slump but \"Since U Been Gone\" helped her establish her success. The staff of Slant Magazine later ranked \"Since U Been Gone\" at number thirteen in their list of Best Singles of the Aughts, writing that the song proves Clarkson's powerful ability as a vocalist as well as her versatility as an artist. Stephen Thompson of NPR Music called the song \"one of the decade's finest pop anthems\" which is infused with energy, charisma and full-throated intensity. Steve Lampiris of ZME Music opined that the song is \"one of very few perfect pop songs released in the last ten years,\" stating that it is hard to determine the principal reason that makes the song very successful. Gary Trust of \"Billboard\" thought that \"Since U Been Gone\" is a defining song of the 2000s. He commented on its status as a blueprint for female pop songs, as seen in song productions by artists such as Miley Cyrus, Katy Perry and Pink. In 2014, Ryan Kailath of NPR Music argued that the song succeeded by borrowing from musical trends that preceded it, such as 1990s R&B and alternative rock. In 2015, Gary Trust of \"Billboard\" wrote that \"Kelly Clarkson's \"Since U Been Gone,\" co-written by Max Martin, especially helped lead to pure pop's reemergence, and the breakthroughs of Rihanna, Katy Perry, [Taylor] Swift and Lady Gaga would soon follow (as well as [Britney] Spears' own revival)\", stating that the song \"began to erode hip-hop's early '00s reign, with women at the forefront of turning the tide\".", "At the 48th Grammy Awards, \"Since U Been Gone\" won the category of Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. At the 2005 Teen Choice Awards, the song won the category of Choice Single. It also won the award for Best Pop Sing-Along Song at the 2005 XM Nation Music Awards. The song received a nomination in the category of Song of the Year: Mainstream Hit Radio at the 2005 Radio Music Awards but lost to Mariah Carey's \"We Belong Together\". At the 2005 Billboard Music Awards, the song received nominations for two awards. It received a nomination for the Hot 100 Single of the Year but lost to Mariah Carey's \"We Belong Together\" and for the Digital Song of the Year but lost to Gwen Stefani's \"Hollaback Girl\".", "\"Since U Been Gone\" entered the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 at number seventy for the week ending December 18, 2004. On its second week, the song moved to number fifty-three, before jumping to number thirty-eight the following week. During the week ending April 9, 2005, \"Since U Been Gone\" ascended to a new peak of number two on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, second to 50 Cent's \"Candy Shop\". This made \"Since U Been Gone\" the first pop song by a solo female artist to reach the top two chart positions in 2005. The song also became the first non-R&B/hip hop song by a solo female artist to reach top two on the chart since Christina Aguilera's \"Beautiful\" hit number two in February 2003. Fred Bronson of \"Billboard\" noted that had \"Since U Been Gone\" moved to number one, it would become the 41st chart-topper for the \"American Idol\" franchise. The song stayed in the top ten on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 for twenty weeks. After the week ending March 26, 2005, the song topped the US Pop 100 for six consecutive weeks, through the week ending March 26, 2005. It also spent seven consecutive weeks at number one on the US Pop Songs. On the \"Billboard\"s Radio Songs chart, the song peaked at number four on April 23, 2005. Since U Been Gone was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on January 25, 2006. As of September 2017, \"Since U Been Gone\" has sold 2,973,000 paid digital downloads. Internationally, \"Since U Been Gone\" was a commercial success. In Australia, the song debuted and peaked at number three on February 13, 2005. It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of over 70,000 units. In New Zealand, Since U Been Gone debuted at number eighteen on the week ending March 21, 2005. Three weeks later, it peaked at number eleven and matched that position for three non-consecutive weeks. On July 16, 2005, \"Since U Been Gone\" debuted and peaked at number five in the United Kingdom and as of April 2016 the song sold over 400,000 copies there. In Ireland, it entered the Irish Singles Chart at number eight on the week ending July 7, 2005 and peaked at number four three weeks later. Elsewhere in Europe, the song was also a success; it peaked at number three in Austria, number seven in Switzerland, number nine in Norway, number ten in the Netherlands, and number 16 in Sweden.", "", "The music video for \"Since U Been Gone\" was directed by Alex De Rakoff in early November 2004. Clarkson told MTV that she conceived the idea of the video after assuming that revenge is what every girl wants to do when their boyfriend cheats on them. She added, \"You know, 'Why don't I just go trash her house? [...] And so I do it in the video. All I do is break stuff. It's a cool job. I could get used to this.\" Clarkson expressed that in the music video, viewers would get to see her act out of character. She explained, \"In the beginning, I'm like tipping things over and smearing mud all over the walls and it seems like my apartment, but it ends up being the other girl's that he's with, so it's a humorous video.\" The music video premiered on \"Total Request Live\" on November 16, 2004.", "The music video begins with Clarkson sitting on a couch in an apartment's living room, holding a heart-shaped locket in her hand. The next scene shows Clarkson in the bathroom where she fixes her face in the mirror, she opens the medicine cabinet and tossing all the pills in the medicine cabinet over her shoulder and messing all the bathroom items on the floor, squirting the toothpaste into the sink. When she gets to a container of birth control pills, she turns on the water in the sink, snaps the pills out, and drops them down the drain. Clarkson then starts to take other items; she throws a container of makeup powder spray in the air and smears a container of facial mud mask on the wall. During the chorus, Clarkson and her band perform the song for a dancing crowd in a club. After the first chorus, Clarkson walks into a room full of closets. She cuts up dresses, rifling through the closets and pulling out clothes, destroying them and singing in a pile of them. After the second chorus, she walks into a bedroom and begins to tear the pillow on the bed, filling the room with feathers. The scenes of Clarkson singing with her band then alternate with a montage of her destroying the apartment, breaks the glass window from the door, breaks the vase, television, clock, fridge, lights, microwave, phone, furniture and the chair. Later, Clarkson takes a framed photo of her ex-boyfriend with another girl in the living room, before pushing a tall CD rack over. She then smashes the framed photo through a glass table, breaking it in half. Having decimated the apartment, Clarkson walks out the door and down the hallway with a hat on her head, just as her ex-boyfriend appears with his girlfriend, walking arm in arm. Clarkson hides her face as she walks away from them. The final scene shows the couple seeing their damaged apartment in shock and the scene of the locket swinging.", "Stephen Thompson of NPR Music was disappointed with the music video because it \"undercuts its message to an alarming degree: The words say 'Since you've been gone / I can breathe for the first time,' but the pictures say, 'Breaking up with you necessitates destroying all of your property.'\" On the other hand, Johnni Macke of E! felt the video was amusing and Clarkson was \"at her rocker prime.\" She added, \"It features the tomboy side of the singer messing up her ex's closet, destroying his bed and getting some major revenge by destroying his place.\" At the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards, the music video received nominations for three awards; it won Best Female Video and Best Pop Video, and received a nomination for the Viewer's Choice Awards but lost to Green Day's \"Boulevard of Broken Dreams\". MusicOMH ranked the music video as the 86th best video of the last decade. In February 2012, the music video received a \"Pop-Up Video\" treatment by VH1 which shows \"pops up\" bubbles containing trivia, witticisms and borderline sexual innuendos throughout the video.", "Clarkson performed \"Since U Been Gone\" at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards. Her performance garnered positive reviews from critics, who considered it one of the highlights in the event. Performing barefoot, Clarkson sang the song as rain cascaded onto the audience. Clarkson told \"People\" that one of her favourite moments on television was performing \"Since U Been Gone\" at the MTV Video Music Awards, saying \"I hate being all dressed up, so the fact that I was soaking wet with mascara smeared all over my face was definitely the highlight of my evening!\" Becky Bain of Idolator thought that the performance was Clarkson's most memorable live performances while Kelefa Sanneh of \"The New York Times\" thought Clarkson's performance was very solid despite the feeling that she sounded better dry than drenched. Clarkson performed the song on \"Saturday Night Live\" in 2005, along with the 2006 BRIT Awards which took place in Earls Court, London. \"Since U Been Gone\" was performed by Clarkson in her many headlining tours. It was included in the setlist of her My December Tour as an encore. While performing at Mohegan Sun Arena, Uncasville, Connecticut, Clarkson performed \"Since U Been Gone\" and let the audience sing the song's chorus. Clarkson's performance of the song at the Beacon Theatre, New York City stirred crowd into a frenzy, causing the show to be closed abruptly. During her All I Ever Wanted Tour, Clarkson performed the song at the Hammerstein Ballroom, where Caryn Ganz of \"Rolling Stone\" remarked that \"the room turned into an electric sea of flailing arms and pogo-ing heads.\" In 2011, Clarkson performed \"Since U Been Gone\" as well as \"Mr. Know It All\" on \"The Ellen DeGeneres Show\" while promoting her fifth album, \"Stronger\". At the \"VH1 Divas Celebrates Soul\" television special, Clarkson performed a medley of \"You Keep Me Hangin' On\", \"Spotlight\", \"Real Love\", and \"Since U Been Gone\" with Mary J. Blige and Jennifer Hudson. The song was also performed by Clarkson during her 2012 Stronger Tour. While touring at the Times Union Center, Albany, New York, Clarkson performed the song with a musical arrangement. Grey Haymes of Times Union remarked that the song was \"re-made and re-modeled with a throbbing, fuzzed-out bassline and an irresistible techno pulse as the foundation for her hook-filled pop song.\" He also added that it was one of the several surprises from the concert.", "\"Since U Been Gone\" has been covered by many artists. On September 27, 2011, Joseph Gordon-Levitt covered the song in the style of Axl Rose on \"Late Night with Jimmy Fallon\". The song was also covered by American musician Butch Walker in his 2005 album, \"Cover Me Badd\". Dave Donelly of Sputnikmusic praised Walker's cover for sticking closely to Clarkson's version. American rock band A Day to Remember recorded their own version of \"Since U Been Gone\" which was included in the reissued version of their album, \"For Those Who Have Heart\". Indie rock artist Ted Leo recorded an acoustic version of \"Since U Been Gone\" for a videotaped web session a few hours after watching the song's music video. He commented, \"It's just one great hook after another. I also really appreciate the more advanced pop pastiche aspects of it. It's written in a way that is so transparent in terms of drawing from a lot of what's vaguely edgy and popular right now, but put together in such a perfect little package. It's undeniable.\" A cover of the song by Canadian indie rock band Tokyo Police Club was included in their \"Ten Days, Ten Covers, Ten Years\" project where they covered a song every day for ten days. \"Since U Been Gone\" was sampled in Girl Talk's \"Here's The Thing\" on his 2008 album, \"Feed the Animals\". The song was included as the opening track of the \"American Idol 10th Anniversary – The Hits\", a compilation album that celebrates 10 years of \"American Idol\" which features tracks from nine winners of the show. \"Since U Been Gone\" has also been covered by contestants from reality television singing competitions. The song was performed by Todrick Hall on the eighth season of \"American Idol\". Despite fulfilling the judges' desire to hear something original, his rendition of the song drew criticism from the judges, with Simon Cowell commenting that Hall seemed like a dancer trying to sing. On November 26, 2011, Amelia Lily performed the song on the eighth series of \"The X Factor UK\". Her rendition was praised by the judges; Louis Walsh felt that her performance was effortless while Kelly Rowland remarked that \"Amelia Lily hits those notes in her sleep!\" The song was also covered by Luke O'Dell on the third season of \"The X Factor Australia\". On June 13, 2012, John Legend and his duet partner, Meleana Brown, covered \"Since U Been Gone\" in \"Duets\". Katy Kroll of \"Rolling Stone\" lambasted their cover for being \"pitchy\" and \"almost unlistenable\", Gord Craig of \"Leader-Post\" felt that Brown did not deliver her best although she sounded great with Legend. In the third season of \"The Sing Off\", the winning group Pentatonix sang a \"mastermix\" of \"Since U Been Gone\" and \"Forget You\". All three judges were impressed with Ben Folds commenting \"You guys gave voices to the instruments\" while Shawn Stockman, praising the rhythm and percussion section, renamed Kevin and Avi \"Meat and Potatoes\". \"Since U Been Gone\" was performed by Ester Dean and Skylar Astin in the 2012 musical comedy film, \"Pitch Perfect\". Lanford Beard of \"Entertainment Weekly\" noted that the song was used during the audition sequences in the film, writing \"Set to Kelly Clarkson’s \"Since U Been Gone,\" it arranged the singers in a clever a cappella tapestry that simultaneously landed laughs and showed off their talents.\" Christy Lemire of \"The Boston Globe\" was positive of the song's incorporation in the film during the audition process due to its beautiful editing which makes \"it feels like a fresh take on the tried-and-true, bad-first-date montage.\" The song was used in twelfth season of Brazilian soap opera \"Malhação\". The song was also used in the first season \"Supergirl.\"", "As of 2014, the song has appeared in more than 40 different albums either remixed or in its original format. The song propelled Clarkson to success in mainstream pop music and was regarded as a power pop milestone in the 2000s. Maura Johnston from \"Billboard\" asserted that \"the song inspired covers from all corners—Ted Leo, Kidz Bop—and helped prime the pop world for tracks like Pink's \"Who Knew\" and Paramore's \"Misery Business\", not to mention later Clarkson hits like \"My Life Would Suck Without You\". \"Entertainment Weekly\" put it on its end-of-the-decade \"best-of\" list, saying, \"Can anyone do bitter better? Nothing packs more romantic rage than the original Idol's 2004 kiss-off to a coldhearted ex.\" The song was ranked by \"Pitchfork Media\" as the 21st best track of the 2000s; they wrote that \"'Since U Been Gone' gave us one of the most blunt rallying cries of the last ten years, a perfectly realized sing-along chorus that will be a karaoke staple for years.\" In 2014, \"The Atlantic\" magazine dubbed \"Since U Been Gone\" as the best pop song of the past decade. Bill Lamb of About.com ranked the song as the 29th best pop song of all time, expressing that \"Kelly Clarkson has stated that she insisted on adding the rock feel to the recording. The result was a record that captured the prevailing sound of mainstream pop with near perfection.\" \"NME\" placed it at number 135 on its list of the \"150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years\", writing \"What should have been a slice of American schlock power-pop turned into a brilliant kiss-off, in any genre.\" \"The A.V. Club\" staff rated the song as one of their favorite gleeful breakup songs, writing \"The minute that bass and drum machine start, this song is an anthem of the scorned, a call to self-actualization, and an instant hands-in-the-air dance party.\" \"Rolling Stone\" ranked \"Since U Been Gone\" at number 482 of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time in 2010, whose readers listed it as the ninth-ranked single of the last decade. The AOL Radio Staff put the song at number 10 on their list of 10 Best Break Up Songs. The song also appeared at number one in Sarah Muller of MTV's Valentine's Day Playlist: Top 10 Breakup Songs. \"Since U Been Gone\" has also appeared in several \"Billboard\" lists; in March 2013, it was ranked at number one on its list of Top 100 American Idol Hits of All Time. In April 2017, it appeared at number two of \"Billboard\"'s 100 greatest choruses of the 21st century and is also one of Clarkson's biggest \"Billboard\" Hot 100 hits. The song has been ranked 342nd by \"Billboard\" on its 600 most massive smashes over the chart's six decades.", "RCA – 82876-66958-7 Vinyl 7\" Since U Been Gone / Breakaway", "Credits adapted from the liner notes of \"Breakaway\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Characters.", "Main cast.", "Production.", "Writing.", "Set location.", "Smithsonian exhibit.", "Content.", "Vehicles.", "Laugh track.", "Episodes.", "Final episode: \"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\".", "International broadcast.", "Reception.", "Ratings and recognition.", "Awards.", "Home media.", "Spin-offs and specials.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"M*A*S*H\" aired weekly on CBS, with most episodes being a half-hour in length. The series is usually categorized as a situation comedy, though it has also been described as a \"dark comedy\" or a \"dramedy\" because of the often dramatic subject matter. The show is an ensemble piece revolving around key personnel in a United States Army \"Mobile Army Surgical Hospital\" (MASH) in the Korean War (1950–53). (The asterisks in the name are not part of military nomenclature and were creatively introduced in the novel and used in only the posters for the movie version, not the actual movie.) The \"4077th MASH\" was one of several surgical units in Korea. While the show is traditionally viewed as a comedy, many episodes had a more serious tone. Early seasons aired on network prime time while the Vietnam War was still going on; the show was forced to walk the fine line of commenting on that war while at the same time not seeming to protest against it. For this reason, the show's discourse, under the cover of comedy, often questioned, mocked, and grappled with America's role in the Cold War. Episodes were both plot- and character-driven, with several narrated by one of the show's characters as the contents of a letter home. The show's tone could move from silly to sobering from one episode to the next, with dramatic tension often occurring between the civilian draftees of 4077th – Hawkeye, Trapper John, and B.J. Hunnicutt, for example – who are forced to leave their homes to tend the wounded and dying of the war, and the \"regular Army\" characters, such as Margaret Houlihan and Colonel Potter, who tend to represent patriotism and duty (though Houlihan and Potter could also represent the other perspective at times). Other characters, such as Col. Blake, Maj. Winchester, and Cpl. Klinger, help demonstrate various American civilian attitudes toward Army life, while guest characters played by such actors as Eldon Quick, Herb Voland, Mary Wickes, and Tim O'Connor also help further the show's discussion of America's place as Cold War war maker and peace maker.", "", "Through changes of personnel \"M*A*S*H\" maintained a relatively constant ensemble cast, with four characters – Hawkeye, Father Mulcahy, Margaret Houlihan, and Maxwell Klinger – on the show for all 11 seasons. Several other main characters departed or joined the program during its run, and numerous guest actors and recurring characters were used. The writers found creating so many names difficult, and used names from elsewhere; for example, characters on the seventh season were named after the 1978 Los Angeles Dodgers.", "", "As the series progressed, it made a significant shift from being primarily a comedy with dramatic undertones to a drama with comedic undertones. This was a result of changes in writing and production staff, rather than the cast defections of McLean Stevenson, Larry Linville, Wayne Rogers and Gary Burghoff. Series co-creator and joke writer Larry Gelbart departed after Season 4, the first featuring Mike Farrell and Harry Morgan. This resulted in Farrell and Morgan having only a single season reading scripts featuring Gelbart's comic timing, which defined the feel and rhythm of Seasons 1–4 featuring predecessors Rogers and Stevenson, respectively. Larry Linville (the show's comic foil) and Executive Producer Gene Reynolds both departed at the conclusion of Season 5 in 1977, resulting in \"M*A*S*H\" being fully stripped of its original comedic foundation by the beginning of Season 6 — the debut of the Charles Winchester era. Whereas Gelbart and Reynolds were the comedic voice of \"M*A*S*H\" for the show's first five seasons (1972–1977), Alan Alda and newly promoted Executive Producer Burt Metcalfe became the new dramatic voice of \"M*A*S*H\" for Seasons 6–11. By the start of Season 8 (1979–1980), the writing staff had been completely overhauled, and with the departure of Gary Burghoff, \"M*A*S*H\" displayed a distinctively different feel, consciously moving between comedy and drama. The end of the Vietnam War in 1975 was a significant factor as to why storylines become less political in nature and more character driven. Several episodes experimented by going outside the sitcom format: Another change was the infusion of story lines based on actual events and medical developments that materialized during the Korean War. Considerable research was done by the producers, including interviews with actual MASH surgeons and personnel to develop story lines rooted in the war itself. Such early 1950s events as the McCarthy era, various sporting events, and the stardom of Marilyn Monroe were all incorporated into various episodes, a trend that continued until the end of the series. While the series remained popular through these changes, it eventually began to run out of creative steam. Korean War doctors regularly contacted producers with experiences that they thought might make for a good storyline, only to learn the idea had previously been used. Harry Morgan admitted that he felt \"the cracks were starting to show\" by season 9 (1980–1981). Alda wished to make season 10 (1981-1982) \"M*A*S*H\"s last, but was persuaded by CBS to produce a slightly shortened 11th season, coupled with a farewell movie finale, at CBS' request. In the end, season 11 had 15 episodes (although six had been filmed during season 10 and held over) and a 2-1/2 hour movie, which was treated as five episodes and was filmed before the nine remaining episodes. The final episode produced was the penultimately aired episode \"As Time Goes By\". The series finale movie, titled \"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\", became the most watched U.S. television broadcast in history at that time, with 106 million viewers.", "The 4077th consisted of two separate sets. An outdoor set in the mountains near Malibu (Calabasas, Los Angeles County, California) was used for most exterior and tent scenes for every season. This was the same set used to shoot the movie, although there were changes made to the positions of several tents for the TV show. The indoor set, on a sound stage at Fox Studios in Century City, was used for the indoor scenes for the run of the series. Later, after the indoor set was renovated to permit many of the \"outdoor\" scenes to be filmed there, both sets were used for exterior shooting as script requirements dictated (e.g., night scenes were far easier to film on the sound stage, but scenes at the helicopter pad required using the ranch). Just as the series was wrapping production, a brush fire destroyed most of the outdoor set on October 9, 1982. The fire was written into the final episode as a forest fire caused by enemy incendiary bombs that forced the 4077th to move out. The Malibu location is today known as Malibu Creek State Park. Formerly called the Century Ranch and owned by 20th Century Fox Studios until the 1980s, the site today is returning to a natural state, and is marked by a rusted Jeep and a Dodge ambulance used in the show. Through the 1990s, the area was occasionally used for television commercial production. On February 23, 2008, series stars Mike Farrell, Loretta Swit and William Christopher (along with producers Gene Reynolds and Burt Metcalfe and \"M*A*S*H\" director Charles S. Dubin) reunited at the set to celebrate its partial restoration. The rebuilt signpost is now displayed on weekends, along with tent markers and maps and photos of the set. The state park is open to the public. It was also the location where the film \"How Green Was My Valley\" (1941) and the \"Planet of the Apes\" television series (1974) were filmed, among many other productions. Much of this location, including the signpost and markers, was thought to have been destroyed in the 2018 Woolsey Fire but subsequently was determined to have survived the fire.", "The exhibit \"M*A*S*H: Binding Up the Wounds\" was at the National Museum of American History from July 30, 1983 through February 3, 1985. The exhibit was extremely popular, drawing more than 17,000 in a single week, a record for any Smithsonian display. On exhibit were The Swamp and Operating Room sets, one of the show's 14 Emmy Awards, early drafts of the pilot script, costumes from the show and other memorabilia. Sets were decorated with props from the show including the iconic signpost, Hawkeye's still and Major Winchester's Webcor tape recorder and phonograph. The exhibit also encouraged visitors to compare the show to real Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals of the Korean and the Vietnam Wars. Radar's teddy bear, originally found at the ranch set, was never on display at the Smithsonian. Following completion of production, the prop was kept by the show's set designer. It was sold several times including to Burghoff himself. It was sold at auction on July 29, 2005 for $11,800, it sold again on March 27, 2015 for $14,307.50 after 19 bids.", "\"M*A*S*H\" was one of the first network series to feature brief partial nudity (notably Gary Burghoff's buttocks in \"The Sniper\" and Hawkeye in one of the \"Dear Dad\" episodes). A different innovation was based on the show's producers' desire not to have a laugh track, contrary to the network's desire to have one. They compromised by omitting laughter in the scenes set in the operating room. The DVD releases of the series allow viewers to select an audio version with no laugh track. In his blog, writer Ken Levine revealed that on one occasion, when the cast offered too many nitpicking \"notes\" on a script, his writing partner and he changed the script to a \"cold show\" – one set during the frigid Korean winter. The cast then had to stand around barrel fires in parkas at the Malibu ranch when the temperatures neared. Levine says, \"This happened maybe twice, and we never got a ticky-tack note again.\" Jackie Cooper wrote that Alan Alda, whom Cooper directed in several episodes during the first two seasons, concealed a lot of hostility beneath the surface, and the two of them barely spoke to each other by the time Cooper's tenure on the show ended.", "The helicopters used on the series were model H-13 Sioux (military designation and nickname of the Bell 47 civilian model). As in the film, some care seems to have been taken to use the correct model of the long-lived Bell 47 series. In the opening credits and many of the episodes, Korean War-vintage H-13Ds and Es (Bell 47D-1s) were used complete with period-correct external litters. A later (1954–73) 47G occasionally made an appearance. The helicopters are similar in appearance (with the later \"G\" models having larger two-piece fuel tanks, a slightly revised cabin, and other changes) with differences noticeable only to a serious helicopter fan. In the pilot episode, a later Bell 47J (production began in 1957) was shown flying Henry Blake to Seoul, en route to a meeting with General Hammond in Tokyo. A Sud Aviation Allouette II helicopter was also shown transporting Henry Blake to the 4077th in the episode \"Henry, Please Come Home\". The Jeeps used were 1953 military M38 or civil CJ2A Willys Jeeps and also World War II Ford GPWs and Willys MB's. Two episodes featured the M38A1 Jeep, one of which was stolen from a General by Radar and Hawkeye after their Jeep was stolen. Two of the ambulances were WC-54 Dodges and one was a WC-27. A WC-54 ambulance remains at the site and was burned in the Malibu fires on October 9, 1982, while a second WC-27 survives at a South El Monte museum without any markings. The bus used to transport the wounded was a 1954 Ford model. In the last season, an M43 ambulance from the Korean War era also was used in conjunction with the WC-54s and WC-27.", "Series creators Larry Gelbart and Gene Reynolds wanted \"M*A*S*H\" broadcast without a laugh track. Though CBS initially rejected the idea, a compromise was reached that allowed for omitting the laughter during operating room scenes if desired. \"We told the network that under no circumstances would we ever can laughter during an OR scene when the doctors were working,\" said Gelbart in 1998. \"It's hard to imagine that 300 people were in there laughing at somebody's guts being sewn up.\" Seasons 1–5 utilized a more invasive laugh track; a more subdued audience was employed for Seasons 6–11 when the series shifted from sitcom to comedy-drama with the departure of Gelbart and Reynolds. Several episodes (\"O.R.\",d \"The Bus\", \"Quo Vadis, Captain Chandler?\", \"The Interview\", \"Point of View\", and \"Dreams\" among them) omitted the laugh track altogether; as did almost all of Season 11, including the 135-minute series finale, \"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\". The laugh track is also omitted from some international and syndicated airings of the show; on one occasion during an airing on BBC2, the laugh track was accidentally left on, and viewers expressed their displeasure, an apology from the network for the \"technical difficulty\" was later released, as during its original run on BBC2 in the UK, it was shown without the laugh track. UK DVD critics speak poorly of the laugh track, stating \"canned laughter is intrusive at the best of times, but with a programme like \"M*A*S*H\", it's downright unbearable.\" On all released DVDs, both in Region 1 (including the US and Canada) and Region 2 (Europe, including the UK), an option is given to watch the show with or without the laugh track. \"They're a lie,\" said Gelbart in a 1992 interview. \"You're telling an engineer when to push a button to produce a laugh from people who don't exist. It's just so dishonest. The biggest shows when we were on the air were \"All in the Family\" and \"The Mary Tyler Moore Show\" both of which were taped before a live studio audience where laughter made sense,\" continued Gelbart. \"But our show was a film show – supposedly shot in the middle of Korea. So the question I always asked the network was, 'Who are these laughing people? Where did they come from?'\" Gelbart persuaded CBS to test the show in private screenings with and without the laugh track. The results showed no measurable difference in the audience's enjoyment. \"So you know what they said?\" Gelbart said. \"'Since there's no difference, let's leave it alone!' The people who defend laugh tracks have no sense of humor.\" Gelbart summed up the situation by saying, \"I always thought it cheapened the show. The network got their way. They were paying for dinner.\"", "", "\"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\" was the final episode of \"M*A*S*H.\" Special television sets were placed in PX parking lots, auditoriums and day rooms of the U.S. Army in Korea so that military personnel could watch that episode, in spite of 14 hours' time-zone difference with the East Coast of the US. The episode aired on February 28, 1983, and was 2 hours long. The episode got a Nielsen rating of 60.2 and 77 share and according to a \"New York Times\" article from 1983, the final episode of \"M*A*S*H\" had 125 million viewers. When the \"M*A*S*H\" finale aired in 1983, more than 83.3 million homes in the United States had televisions, compared to almost 115 million in February 2010. \"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\" broke the record for the highest percentage of homes with television sets to watch a television series. Stories persist that the episode was seen by so many people that the New York City Sanitation/Public Works Department reported the plumbing systems broke down in some parts of the city from so many New Yorkers waiting until the end to use the toilet. Articles copied into Alan Alda's book \"The Last Days of M*A*S*H\" include interviews with New York City Sanitation workers citing the spike in water use on that night. According to the interviews at 11:03 pm, EST New York City public works noted the highest water usage at one given time in the City's history. They attributed this to the fact that in the three minutes after the finale ended, around 77 percent of the people of New York City flushed their toilets. These stories have all since been identified as part of an urban legend dating back to the days of the\" Amos and Andy\" radio program in the 1930s. The finale was referenced in a passage from Stephen Chbosky's coming-of-age novel \"The Perks of Being a Wallflower,\" in which the main character and his family watch the finale together.", "And many more international broadcasts.", "", "The series premiered in the US on September 17, 1972, and ended on February 28, 1983, with the finale, showcased as a television film, titled \"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\", becoming the most-watched and highest-rated single television episode in US television history at the time, with a record-breaking 125 million viewers (60.2 rating and 77 share), according to the \"New York Times.\" It had struggled in its first season and was at risk of being cancelled. In season two, \"M*A*S*H\" was placed in a better time slot by CBS (airing after the popular \"All in the Family\"); the show then became one of the top 10 programs of the year and stayed in the top 20 programs for the rest of its run. It is still broadcast in syndication on various television stations. The series, which depicted events occurring during a three-year war, spanned 256 episodes and lasted 11 seasons. The Korean War lasted 1,128 days, meaning each episode of the series would have averaged almost four and a half days of real time. Many of the stories in the early seasons are based on tales told by real MASH surgeons who were interviewed by the production team. Like the movie, the series was as much an allegory about the Vietnam War (still in progress when the show began) as it was about the Korean War. The episodes \"Abyssinia, Henry\" and \"The Interview\" were ranked number 20 and number 80, respectively, on TV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time in 1997. In 2002, \"M*A*S*H\" was ranked number 25 on TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time. In 2013, the Writers Guild of America ranked it as the fifth-best written TV series ever and \"TV Guide\" ranked it as the eighth-greatest show of all time. In 2016, \"Rolling Stone\" ranked it as the 16th-greatest TV show.", "\"M*A*S*H\" was nominated for over 100 Emmy Awards during its 11-year run, winning 14: The show won the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series (Musical or Comedy) in 1981. Alan Alda won the Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Television Series (Musical or Comedy) six times: in 1975, 1976, 1980, 1981, 1982, and 1983. McLean Stevenson won the award for Best Supporting Actor in a Television Series in 1974. The series earned the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in a Comedy Series seven times: 1973 (Gene Reynolds), 1974 (Reynolds), 1975 (Hy Averback), 1976 (Averback), 1977 (Alan Alda), 1982 (Alda), 1983 (Alda). The show was honored with a Peabody Award in 1975 \"for the depth of its humor and the manner in which comedy is used to lift the spirit and, as well, to offer a profound statement on the nature of war.\" \"M*A*S*H\" was cited as \"an example of television of high purpose that reveals in universal terms a time and place with such affecting clarity.\" Writers for the show received several Humanitas Prize nominations, with Larry Gelbart winning in 1976, Alan Alda winning in 1980, and the team of David Pollock and Elias Davis winning twice in 1982 and 1983. The series received 28 Writers Guild of America Award nominations – 26 for Episodic Comedy and two for Episodic Drama. Seven episodes won for Episodic Comedy in 1973, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1979, 1980, and 1981.", "20th Century Fox Home Entertainment has released all 11 seasons of \"M*A*S*H\" on DVD in Region 1 and Region 2. In January 2015, it was announced that the first five seasons of \"M*A*S*H\" would be available on Netflix's instant streaming service beginning February 1, 2015. This marked the first time the series was made available on an internet platform. As of July 1, 2015, all 11 seasons were available; syndicated versions of hour-long episodes were utilized for streaming, splitting these shows into two parts. In contrast to the DVD sets, the Netflix streams did not have an option for disabling the laugh track on the soundtrack. On April 1, 2016, Netflix' contract to stream the series expired and \"M*A*S*H\" was removed from the platform. In July 2017, it was announced that Hulu had acquired online streaming rights for the entire run of \"M*A*S*H,\" along with several other 20th Century Fox-owned TV programs. All 256 episodes were added to Hulu beginning June 29, 2018. All episodes were scanned in 1080 HD from the original 35mm negatives and are presented in 16:9 widescreen.", "The two-season spin-off \"AfterMASH\" (1983–1985) inherited the parent show's Monday night time slot and featured several of its characters reunited in a Midwestern hospital after the war. The more successful \"Trapper John, M.D.\" (1979–1986) took place nearly three decades after the events of \"M*A*S*H\" and depicted Trapper John McIntyre as chief of surgery at a San Francisco hospital; its producers argued successfully in court that it was based on the earlier movie rather than the TV series. In an unpurchased television pilot, \"W*A*L*T*E*R\" (1984), Walter \"Radar\" O'Reilly joins the St. Louis police force after his farm fails following his return to the U.S. \"Making M*A*S*H,\" a documentary special narrated by Mary Tyler Moore that takes viewers behind the production of the season 8 episodes \"Old Soldiers\" and \"Lend a Hand\", was produced for PBS in 1981. The special was later included in the syndicated rerun package, with new narration by producer Michael Hirsch. Two retrospective specials were produced to commemorate the show's 20th and 30th anniversaries: The two specials are included as bonuses on the Collector's Edition DVD of \"Goodbye, Farewell, and Amen\". Also included is \"M*A*S*H: Television's Serious Sitcom,\" a 2002 episode of A&E channel's \"Biography\" program that detailed the show's history. In the late 1980s, the cast had a partial reunion in a series of commercials for IBM personal computers. All of the front-billed regulars (with the exceptions of Farrell, Stiers, and Stevenson) appeared in the spots over time.", "Informational notes Citations Further reading" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Vocal range.", "In choral music.", "Subtypes and roles in opera.", "Leggero.", "Lyric.", "Spinto.", "Dramatic.", "Heldentenor.", "Mozart.", "Tenor buffo or spieltenor.", "Gilbert and Sullivan and operetta.", "Other uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"tenor\" derives from the Latin word \"tenere\", which means \"to hold\". As Fallows, Jander, Forbes, Steane, Harris and Waldman note in the \"Tenor\" article at \"Grove Music Online\": All other voices were normally calculated in relation to the tenor, which often proceeded in longer note values and carried a borrowed Cantus firmus melody. Until the late 16th century introduction of the contratenor singers, the tenor was usually the highest voice, assuming the role of providing a foundation. It was also in the 18th century that \"tenor\" came to signify the male voice that sang such parts. Thus, for earlier repertoire, a line marked 'tenor' indicated the part's role, and not the required voice type; indeed, even as late as the eighteenth century, partbooks labelled 'tenor' might contain parts for a range of voice types.", "The vocal range of the tenor is one of the highest of the male voice types. Within opera, the lowest note in the standard tenor repertoire is probably A in Rossini's rarely performed \"La donna del lago\" in the role of Rodrigo di Dhu, written for Andrea Nozzari. Within more frequently performed repertoire, Mime and Herod both call for an A. A few tenor roles in the standard repertoire call for a \"tenor C\" (C, one octave above middle C). Some, if not all, of the few top Cs in the standard operatic repertoire are either optional—such as in \"Che gelida manina\" in Puccini's \"La bohème\"—or interpolated (added) by tradition, such as in \"Di quella pira\" from Verdi's \"Il trovatore\"); however, the highest demanded note in the standard tenor operatic repertoire is D, found in \"Mes amis, écoutez l'histoire\" from Adolphe Adam's \"Le postillon de Lonjumeau\" and \"\" from Fromental Halévy's \"La Juive\"). In the \"leggero\" repertoire, the highest note is F (Arturo in \"Credeasi, misera\" from Bellini's \"I puritani\"), therefore, very few tenors have this role in their repertoire without transposition (given the raising of concert pitch since its composition), or resorting to falsetto.", "In SATB four-part mixed chorus, the tenor is the second lowest vocal range, above the bass and below the alto and soprano. Men's chorus usually denotes an ensemble of TTBB in which the first tenor is the highest voice. Whilst certain choral music does require the first tenors to ascend the full tenor range, the majority of choral music places the tenors in the range from approximately B up to A. The requirements of the tenor voice in choral music are also tied to the style of music most often performed by a given choir. Orchestra choruses require tenors with fully resonant voices, but chamber or a cappella choral music (sung with no instrumental accompaniment) can sometimes rely on light baritones singing in falsetto. Even so, one nearly ubiquitous facet of choral singing is the shortage of tenor voices. Most men tend to have baritone voices and for this reason the majority of men tend to prefer singing in the bass section of a choir. (However true basses are even rarer than tenors.) Some men sing tenor even if they lack the full range, and sometimes low altos sing the tenor part. In men's choruses that consist of four male vocal parts TTBB (tenor 1, tenor 2, bass 1, bass 2), tenors will often sing both in chest tone and falsetto, extending the vocal range of the choir.", "Within the tenor voice type category are seven generally recognized subcategories: \"leggero\" tenor, lyric tenor, spinto tenor, dramatic tenor, heldentenor, Mozart tenor, and tenor buffo or spieltenor. There is considerable overlap between the various categories of role and of voice-type; some tenor singers have begun with lyric voices but have transformed with time into spinto or even dramatic tenors.", "Also known as the \"tenore di grazia\", the \"leggero\" tenor is essentially the male equivalent of a lyric coloratura. This voice is light, agile, and capable of executing difficult passages of fioritura. The typical \"leggero\" tenor possesses a range spanning from approximately C3 to E5, with a few being able to sing up to F or higher in full voice. In some cases, the chest register of the \"leggero\" tenor may extend below C. Voices of this type are utilized frequently in the operas of Rossini, Donizetti, Bellini and in music dating from the Baroque period. \"Leggero\" tenor roles in operas:", "The lyric tenor is a warm graceful voice with a bright, full timbre that is strong but not heavy and can be heard over an orchestra. Lyric tenors have a range from approximately the C one octave below middle C (C) to the D one octave above middle C (D). Similarly, their lower range may extend a few notes below the C. There are many vocal shades to the lyric tenor group, repertoire should be selected according to the weight, colors, and abilities of the voice. Lyric tenor roles in operas:", "The spinto tenor has the brightness and height of a lyric tenor, but with a heavier vocal weight enabling the voice to be \"pushed\" to dramatic climaxes with less strain than the lighter-voice counterparts. Spinto tenors have a darker timbre than a lyric tenor, without having a vocal color as dark as many (not all) dramatic tenors. The German equivalent of the Spinto \"fach\" is the'and encompasses many of the Dramatic tenor roles as well as some Wagner roles such as Lohengrin and Stolzing. The difference is often the depth and metal in the voice where some lyric tenors age or push their way into singing as a Spinto giving them a lighter tone and a'tends to be either a young heldentenor or true lyric spinto. Spinto tenors have a range from approximately the C one octave below middle C (C) to the C one octave above middle C (C). Spinto tenor roles in operas:", "Also \"tenore di forza\" or \"robusto\", the dramatic tenor has an emotive, ringing and very powerful, clarion, heroic tenor sound. The dramatic tenor's approximate range is from the B one octave below middle C (B2) to the B one octave above middle C (B4) with some able to sing up to the C one octave above middle C (C5). Many successful dramatic tenors though have historically avoided the coveted high C in performance. Their lower range tends to extend into the baritone tessitura or, a few notes below the C3, even down to A♭2. Some dramatic tenors have a rich and dark tonal colour to their voice (such as the mature Enrico Caruso) while others (like Francesco Tamagno) possess a bright, steely timbre. Dramatic tenor roles in operas:", "The heldentenor (English: \"heroic tenor\") has a rich, dark, powerful and dramatic voice. As its name implies, the heldentenor vocal \"fach\" features in the German romantic operatic repertoire. The heldentenor is the German equivalent of the tenore drammatico, however with a more baritonal quality: the typical Wagnerian protagonist. The keystone of the heldentenor's repertoire is arguably Wagner's \"Siegfried\", an extremely demanding role requiring a wide vocal range and great power, plus tremendous stamina and acting ability. Often the heldentenor is a baritone who has transitioned to this \"fach\" or tenors who have been misidentified as baritones. Therefore, the heldentenor voice might or might not have facility up to high B or C. The repertoire, however, rarely calls for such high notes. Heldentenor roles in operas:", "A Mozart tenor is yet another distinct tenor type. In Mozart singing, the most important element is the instrumental approach of the vocal sound which implies: flawless and slender emission of sound, perfect intonation, legato, diction and phrasing, capability to cope with the dynamic requirements of the score, beauty of timbre, secure line of singing through perfect support and absolute breath control, musical intelligence, body discipline, elegance, nobility, agility and, most importantly, ability for dramatic expressiveness within the narrow borders imposed by the strict Mozartian style. The German Mozart tenor tradition goes back to the end of the 1920s, when Mozart tenors started making use of Caruso's technique (a tenor who rarely sang Mozart) to achieve and improve the required dynamics and dramatic expressiveness. Mozart tenor roles in operas:", "A Tenor buffo or spieltenor is a tenor with good acting ability, and the ability to create distinct voices for his characters. This voice specializes in smaller comic roles. The range of the tenor buffo is from the C one octave below middle C (C) to the C one octave above middle C (C). The tessitura of these parts ranges from lower than other tenor roles to very high and broad. These parts are often played by younger tenors who have not yet reached their full vocal potential or older tenors who are beyond their prime singing years. Only rarely will a singer specialize in these roles for an entire career. In French opéra comique, supporting roles requiring a thin voice but good acting are sometimes described as 'trial', after the singer Antoine Trial (1737–1795), examples being in the operas of Ravel and in \"The Tales of Hoffmann\". Tenor buffo or spieltenor roles in operas:", "All of Gilbert and Sullivan's Savoy operas have at least one lead lyric tenor character. Notable operetta roles are:", "There are four parts in Barbershop harmony: bass, baritone, lead, and tenor (lowest to highest), with \"tenor\" referring to the highest part. The tenor generally sings in falsetto voice, corresponding roughly to the countertenor in classical music, and harmonizes above the lead, who sings the melody. The barbershop tenor range is Middle C to A one octave above Middle C, though it is written an octave lower. The \"lead\" in barbershop music is equivalent to the normal tenor range. In bluegrass music, the melody line is called the lead. Tenor is sung an interval of a third above the lead. Baritone is the fifth of the scale that has the lead as a tonic, and may be sung below the lead, or even above the lead (and the tenor), in which case it is called \"high baritone.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Local industries.", "Present day." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first historical mention of Davle is the founding of benedictine monastery of st. John the Baptist by Bohemian duke Boleslaus II in 999. When the important monastery at Sekanka was destroyed in 1278 by Brandenburg, Davle monastic building were enlarged. The site became the center of religious communities within Upper Davle area. In 1310 Davle received a papal bull from Pope Clement V giving it rights as a market town. These privilege and coat of arms were conferred on Davle by Premysl Otakar II in the 14th century. In the second half of the 13th century, gold was found at the confluence of mined gold creating a boom period for the area. The village was also an important stopping point for rafters using the two waterways as trade routes. However, after the monastery was abandoned in 1517, Davle reverted to a village. In 1848, Davle was incorporated into a municipality with nearby villages of Měchenice and Svatý Kilián. In the 1930s, the village's status was again revised. After the end of World War II, it was assigned to the Okres Praha-jih district. In the 1950s Svatý Kilián lost its status as a hamlet. Since 1961 Davle was an independent municipality part of Prague-Měchenice. In 1900 a railway line connecting Davle to Prague was completed. In the summer of 1968 scenes for the film \"The Bridge at Remagen\" were filmed using the \"Davelský Old Bridge\".", "Davle is known for its pottery, metalwork and leather goods such as saddlery and footwear.", "On 11 March 2008, Davle was given the status of town in the Czech Republic. The area is popular with walkers and hikers as several long-distance trails pass through the town. Davle has a basic network of shops, medical facilities, primary school, post office, sports hall, community hall, savings bank and library. In 2006 a new sewage and wastewater treatment plant was built near the town." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Recording.", "Music and lyrics.", "Singles.", "Critical reception.", "Commercial performance.", "Track listing.", "Personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Following Amerie's meeting with producer Rich Harrison and signing to a record deal with Harrison's Richcraft Entertainment, in partnership with Columbia Records, she released her debut album. Amerie's debut album, \"All I Have\", was released in July 2002 to generally positive reviews. It debuted at number nine on the US \"Billboard\" 200, selling 89,000 copies in its first week of release; the album has since been certified hold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and had sold 657,000 copies as of June 2008, according to Nielsen SoundScan. In 2004, Amerie earned her first acting role, portraying the role of Mia Thompson, a college student who rooms with the president's daughter, in the film \"First Daughter\", alongside actress Katie Holmes. Shortly after her acting debut, Amerie began work on her second studio album.", "Amerie began work on the album in early 2004. As with \"All I Have\", the album was co-written and produced by mentor Harrison, who contributed seven (new) tracks to the record; additional productions came from Lil Jon, Bryce Wilson, Red Spyda, and Dre & Vidal. Unlike on her first album, Amerie co-wrote every track but one, \"Come with Me\", which Harrison wrote. She also assumed more creative control over the visual imagery accompanying the album, such as videos and artwork—\"I feel like when you do a record, you have a vision in your mind and you want to carry it across—and it doesn't end with the studio\", she has said. In 2004, when working on her second album, Amerie enlisted the services of Harrison, who had helped produce and write her first album. In May 2004, Harrison heard \"Oh, Calcutta!\" for the first time and began working on the beat accompanying the ten-second back-and-forth breakdown between Meters drummer Ziggy Modeliste and guitarist Leo Nocentelli. Harrison said he loved the work of the Meters, especially Modeliste, commenting, \"Ziggy, he's crazy.\" He processed the way the breakdown could be \"flipped\", added a bongo drum, a cowbell, and a ride cymbal, and sent it to Amerie. According to Harrison, they wrote and finished the song in two to three hours. Amerie's manager, Len Nicholson, felt the song was \"the single\" to release. When executives at Amerie's label, Columbia/Sony Urban Music, heard \"1 Thing\", they felt that the song's choruses needed to be \"bigger\". They recommended that more music be added to the percussion-focused beat, but Harrison and Amerie replied that adding more to the beat would overpower the song. Harrison and Amerie returned to the studio several times to rework the track. Each time they submitted a new version to the label, Columbia told them that the song sounded unfinished, but was unable to specify what should be changed. The label continued to refuse to release \"1 Thing\"; in Amerie's words, \"People just weren't getting it\".", "\"Touch\" is an R&B album, which musically differs from Amerie's neo-soul debut. \"Touch\" is built over \"pulses with funky percussion, pumping sexy energy\" and incorporates elements of go-go beats. Janet Tzou from \"Entertainment Weekly\" described the album's musical style as being \"revitalizing R&B\" that differs from other contemporary R&B artists. The album's production is characterised as having an \"organic core\" and \"loose-limbed swagger\", which relies heavily on sampled horn screams and weeping electric pianos with all the songs having a \"glossy, processed sheen.\" The album's title track was produced by Lil Jon and is a dance and crunk&B track that experiments with Latin influences.", "Six months after recording \"1 Thing\", Amerie and Harrison leaked it to American radio stations in an attempt to get it released officially. The response from DJs and listeners was positive, and it consequently received airplay across the country. Columbia Records attempted to suppress the song because it was an unofficial release, and because Amerie's labelmate Jennifer Lopez had expressed interest in recording the song for her own album, \"Rebirth\". Radio stations refused to retract the song from their playlists, and Columbia eventually began promoting \"1 Thing\" as a single, making it a last-minute addition to the soundtrack to the film \"Hitch\". The song became Amerie's best-performing single to date. In the United States, it peaked at number eight on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 and topped the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. The RIAA awarded a gold certification for digital sales in October 2005, and another gold certification for ringtone sales in June 2006. Internationally, the single peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart and attained top-10 and top-20 positions across continental Europe. The album's title track \"Touch\" was released as the album's second single and peaked at number 95 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart in the United States, while reaching number 19 on the UK chart. \"Talkin' About\" was released as the album's third and final single. According to Amerie, it is one of her \"really personal\" songs and one of her favorite tracks on the album. Released as a promotional single, \"Talkin' About\" peaked at number two on \"Billboard\"s Bubbling Under R&B/Hip-Hop Singles chart. A remix was made featuring rapper Jadakiss. It was the third single from the album and Amerie told MTV News in August 2005 that she would be co-directing the music video with Chris Robinson, with whom she collaborated on the videos for the two previous singles. The video, however, was not filmed.", "\"Touch\" received generally positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 70, based on 12 reviews. AllMusic's Andy Kellman said that \"Touch\" is an improvement over \"All I Have\" because of better written songs and consistent production, which is accessible to listeners of different ages. Tom Breihan of \"Pitchfork\" felt that Harrison makes the most out of Amerie's \"thin, reedy\" voice, which he found more sophisticated than singers such as Nivea or Ashanti. Ben Sisario of \"Blender\" magazine wrote that \"Amerie's heat is irresistible, in large part because it's subtle.\" \"Vibe\" magazine's Angie Romero complimented her emotional singing, but was most impressed by her songs with Harrison: \"Their exquisite blend of the delicate and the demonstrative proves that, whether it's hard or soft, love is love.\" Bill Werde of \"Rolling Stone\" observed some ordinary R&B songs on what is otherwise a more mature album by Amerie. In a less enthusiastic review, \"Stylus Magazine\"s Al Shipley was disappointed that Harrison did not produce the rest of \"Touch\", which he felt would have made it more consistent. Both \"Uncut\" magazine and Kelefa Sanneh of \"The New York Times\" said that none of the album's other songs are as impressive as \"1 Thing\"; Sanneh called it one of the year's best singles. Robert Christgau of \"The Village Voice\" singled out \"1 Thing\" and the title track as \"choice cuts\", which indicates good songs on an otherwise bad album. He referred to \"1 Thing\" as \"a machine-gun one-shot on an album with its safety engaged\" in his accompanying essay for the Pazz & Jop critics poll, in which the song had been voted the third best single of 2005.", "\"Touch\" debuted at number five on the US \"Billboard\" 200, selling 124,000 copies in its first week of release. The album was certified gold by the RIAA in August 2005, and by June 2009, it had sold 406,000 copies in the United States. The album entered the UK Albums Chart at number 32 before peaking at number 28; it spent a total of six weeks on the chart. Elsewhere, \"Touch\" reached number 57 in Australia, number 59 in France, number 70 the Netherlands, number 83 in Switzerland, number 91 in Germany and number 93 in Belgium.", "Notes Sample credits", "Credits adapted from the liner notes of \"Touch\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "19th century.", "Subtypes.", "20th century.", "Vocal range.", "Subtypes and roles in opera.", "Baryton-Martin.", "Lyric.", "\"Kavalierbariton\".", "Verdi.", "Dramatic.", "\"Baryton-noble\".", "Bass-baritone.", "Gilbert and Sullivan and operetta.", "Baritone in popular music." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The first use of the term \"baritone\" emerged as \"baritonans\", late in the 15th century, usually in French sacred polyphonic music. At this early stage it was frequently used as the lowest of the voices (including the bass), but in 17th-century Italy the term was all-encompassing and used to describe the average male choral voice. Baritones took roughly the range as it is known today at the beginning of the 18th century, but they were still lumped in with their bass colleagues until well into the 19th century. Indeed, many operatic works of the 18th century have roles marked as bass that in reality are low baritone roles (or bass-baritone parts in modern parlance). Examples of this are to be found, for instance, in the operas and oratorios of George Frideric Handel. The greatest and most enduring parts for baritones in 18th-century operatic music were composed by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. They include Count Almaviva in \"The Marriage of Figaro\", Guglielmo in \"Così fan tutte\", Papageno in \"The Magic Flute\" and the lead in \"Don Giovanni\".", "In theatrical documents, cast lists, and journalistic dispatches that from the beginning of the 19th century till the mid 1820s, the terms \"primo basso\", \"basse chantante\", and \"basse-taille\" were often used for men who would later be called baritones. These included the likes of Filippo Galli, Giovanni Inchindi, and Henri-Bernard Dabadie. The basse-taille and the proper bass were commonly confused because their roles were sometimes sung by singers of either actual voice part. The bel canto style of vocalism which arose in Italy in the early 19th century supplanted the castrato-dominated \"opera seria\" of the previous century. It led to the baritone being viewed as a separate voice category from the bass. Traditionally, basses in operas had been cast as authority figures such as a king or high priest; but with the advent of the more fluid baritone voice, the roles allotted by composers to lower male voices expanded in the direction of trusted companions or even romantic leads—normally the province of tenors. More often than not, however, baritones found themselves portraying villains. The principal composers of bel canto opera are considered to be: The prolific operas of these composers, plus the works of Verdi's maturity, such as \"Un ballo in maschera\", \"La forza del destino\", \"Don Carlos\"/\"Don Carlo\", the revised \"Simon Boccanegra\", \"Aida\", \"Otello\" and \"Falstaff\", blazed many new and rewarding performance pathways for baritones. Figaro in \"Il barbiere\" is often called the first true baritone role. However, Donizetti and Verdi in their vocal writing went on to emphasize the top fifth of the baritone voice, rather than its lower notes—thus generating a more brilliant sound. Further pathways opened up when the musically complex and physically demanding operas of Richard Wagner began to enter the mainstream repertory of the world's opera houses during the second half of the 19th century. The major international baritone of the first half of the 19th century was the Italian Antonio Tamburini (1800–1876). He was a famous Don Giovanni in Mozart's eponymous opera as well as being a Bellini and Donizetti specialist. Commentators praised his voice for its beauty, flexibility and smooth tonal emission, which are the hallmarks of a bel canto singer. Tamburini's range, however, was probably closer to that of a bass-baritone than to that of a modern \"Verdi baritone\". His French equivalent was Henri-Bernard Dabadie, who was a mainstay of the Paris Opera between 1819 and 1836 and the creator of several major Rossinian baritone roles, including Guillaume Tell. Dabadie sang in Italy, too, where he originated the role of Belcore in \"L'elisir d'amore\" in 1832. The most important of Tamburini's Italianate successors were all Verdians. They included: Among the non-Italian born baritones that were active in the third quarter of the 19th century, Tamburini's mantle as an outstanding exponent of Mozart and Donizetti's music was probably taken up most faithfully by a Belgian, Camille Everardi, who later settled in Russia and taught voice. In France, Paul Barroilhet succeeded Dabadie as the Paris opera's best known baritone. Like Dabadie, he also sang in Italy and created an important Donizetti role: in his case, Alphonse in \"La favorite\" (in 1840). Luckily, the gramophone was invented early enough to capture on disc the voices of the top Italian Verdi and Donizetti baritones of the last two decades of the 19th century, whose operatic performances were characterized by considerable re-creative freedom and a high degree of technical finish. They included Mattia Battistini (known as the \"King of Baritones\"), Giuseppe Kaschmann (born Josip Kašman) who, atypically, sang Wagner's Telramund and Amfortas not in Italian but in German, at the Bayreuth Festival in the 1890s; Giuseppe Campanari; Antonio Magini-Coletti; Mario Ancona (chosen to be the first Silvio in \"Pagliacci\"); and Antonio Scotti, who came to the Met from Europe in 1899 and remained on the roster of singers until 1933. Antonio Pini-Corsi was the standout Italian \"buffo\" baritone in the period between about 1880 and World War I, reveling in comic opera roles by Rossini, Donizetti and Paer, among others. In 1893, he created the part of Ford in Verdi's last opera, \"Falstaff\". Notable among their contemporaries were the cultured and technically adroit French baritones Jean Lassalle (hailed as the most accomplished baritone of his generation), Victor Maurel (the creator of Verdi's Iago, Falstaff and Tonio in Leoncavallo's \"Pagliacci\"), Paul Lhérie (the first Posa in the revised, Italian-language version of \"Don Carlos\"), and Maurice Renaud (a singing actor of the first magnitude). Lassalle, Maurel and Renaud enjoyed superlative careers on either side of the Atlantic and left a valuable legacy of recordings. Five other significant Francophone baritones who recorded, too, during the early days of the gramophone/phonograph were Léon Melchissédec and Jean Noté of the Paris Opera and Gabriel Soulacroix, Henry Albers and Charles Gilibert of the Opéra-Comique. The Quaker baritone David Bispham, who sang in London and New York between 1891 and 1903, was the leading American male singer of this generation. He also recorded for the gramophone. The oldest-born star baritone known for sure to have made solo gramophone discs was the Englishman Sir Charles Santley (1834–1922). Santley made his operatic debut in Italy in 1858 and became one of Covent Garden's leading singers. He was still giving critically acclaimed concerts in London in the 1890s. The composer of \"Faust\", Charles Gounod, wrote Valentine's aria \"Even bravest heart\" for him at his request for the London production in 1864 so that the leading baritone would have an aria. A couple of primitive cylinder recordings dating from about 1900 have been attributed by collectors to the dominant French baritone of the 1860s and 1870s, Jean-Baptiste Faure (1830–1914), the creator of Posa in Verdi's original French-language version of \"Don Carlos\". It is doubtful, however, that Faure (who retired in 1886) made the cylinders. However, a contemporary of Faure's, Antonio Cotogni, (1831–1918)—probably the foremost Italian baritone of his generation—can be heard, briefly and dimly, at the age of 77, on a duet recording with the tenor Francesco Marconi. (Cotogni and Marconi had sung together in the first London performance of Amilcare Ponchielli's \"La Gioconda\" in 1883, performing the roles of Barnaba and Enzo respectively.)", "Above reference has been made to bass-baritone, modern \"Verdi baritone,\" Donizetti, and Francophone (though it is uncertain if the editor meant that as merely a nationality or as a subtype). There are 19th-century references in the musical literature to certain baritone subtypes. These include the light and tenorish baryton-Martin, named after French singer Jean-Blaise Martin (1768/69–1837), and the deeper, more powerful Heldenbariton (today's bass-baritone) of Wagnerian opera. Perhaps the most accomplished \"Heldenbaritons\" of Wagner's day were August Kindermann, Franz Betz and Theodor Reichmann. Betz created Hans Sachs in \"Die Meistersinger \"and undertook Wotan in the first \"Der Ring des Nibelungen\" cycle at Bayreuth, while Reichmann created Amfortas in \"Parsifal\", also at Bayreuth. Lyric German baritones sang lighter Wagnerian roles such as Wolfram in \"Tannhäuser\", Kurwenal in \"Tristan und Isolde \"or Telramund in \"Lohengrin\". They made large strides, too, in the performance of art song and oratorio, with Franz Schubert favouring several baritones for his vocal music, in particular Johann Michael Vogl. Nineteenth-century operettas became the preserve of lightweight baritone voices. They were given comic parts in the tradition of the previous century's comic bass by Gilbert and Sullivan in many of their productions. This did not prevent the French master of operetta, Jacques Offenbach, from assigning the villain's role in \"The Tales of Hoffmann \"to a big-voiced baritone for the sake of dramatic effect. Other 19th-century French composers like Meyerbeer, Hector Berlioz, Camille Saint-Saëns, Georges Bizet and Jules Massenet wrote attractive parts for baritones, too. These included Nelusko in \"L'Africaine\" (Meyerbeer's last opera), Mephistopheles in \"La damnation de Faust \"(a role also sung by basses), the Priest of Dagon in \"Samson and Delilah\", Escamillo in \"Carmen\", Zurga in \"Les pêcheurs de perles\", Lescaut in \"Manon\", Athanael in \"Thaïs \"and Herod in \"Hérodiade\". Russian composers included substantial baritone parts in their operas. Witness the title roles in Peter Tchaikovsky's \"Eugene Onegin \"(which received its first production in 1879) and Alexander Borodin's \"Prince Igor \"(1890). Mozart continued to be sung throughout the 19th century although, generally speaking, his operas were not revered to the same extent that they are today by music critics and audiences. Back then, baritones rather than high basses normally sang Don Giovanni – arguably Mozart's greatest male operatic creation. Famous Dons of the late 19th and early 20th centuries included Scotti and Maurel, as well as Portugal's Francisco De Andrade and Sweden's John Forsell. The verismo baritone, Verdi baritone, and other subtypes are mentioned below, though not necessarily in 19th century context.", "The dawn of the 20th century opened up more opportunities for baritones than ever before as a taste for strenuously exciting vocalism and lurid, \"slice-of-life\" operatic plots took hold in Italy and spread elsewhere. The most prominent verismo baritones included such major singers in Europe and America as the polished Giuseppe De Luca (the first Sharpless in \"Madama Butterfly\"), Mario Sammarco (the first Gerard in \"Andrea Chénier\"), Eugenio Giraldoni (the first Scarpia in \"Tosca\"), Pasquale Amato (the first Rance in \"La fanciulla del West\"), Riccardo Stracciari (noted for his richly attractive timbre) and Domenico Viglione Borghese, whose voice was exceeded in size only by that of the lion-voiced Titta Ruffo. Ruffo was the most commanding Italian baritone of his era or, arguably, any other era. He was at his prime from the early 1900s to the early 1920s and enjoyed success in Italy, England and America (in Chicago and later at the Met). Between them, these baritones established the \"echt\" performance style for baritones undertaking roles in verismo operas. The chief verismo composers were Giacomo Puccini, Ruggero Leoncavallo, Pietro Mascagni, Alberto Franchetti, Umberto Giordano and Francesco Cilea. Verdi's works continued to remain popular, however, with audiences in Italy, the Spanish-speaking countries, the United States and the United Kingdom, and in Germany, where there was a major Verdi revival in Berlin between the wars. Outside the field of Italian opera, an important addition to the Austro-German repertory occurred in 1905. This was the premiere of Richard Strauss's \"Salome\", with the pivotal part of John the Baptist assigned to a baritone. (The enormous-voiced Dutch baritone Anton van Rooy, a Wagner specialist, sang John when the opera reached the Met in 1907). Then, in 1925, Germany's Leo Schützendorf created the title baritone role in Alban Berg's harrowing \"Wozzeck\". In a separate development, the French composer Claude Debussy's post-Wagnerian masterpiece \"Pelléas et Mélisande\" featured not one but two lead baritones at its 1902 premiere. These two baritones, Jean Périer and Hector Dufranne, possessed contrasting voices. (Dufranne – sometimes classed as a bass-baritone – had a darker, more powerful instrument than did Périer, who was a true baryton-Martin.) Characteristic of the Wagnerian baritones of the 20th century was a general progression of individual singers from higher-lying baritone parts to lower-pitched ones. This was the case with Germany's Hans Hotter. Hotter made his debut in 1929. As a young singer he appeared in Verdi and created the Commandant in Richard Strauss's \"Friedenstag \"and Olivier in \"Capriccio\". By the 1950s, however, he was being hailed as the top Wagnerian bass-baritone in the world. His Wotan was especially praised by critics for its musicianship. Other major Wagnerian baritones have included Hotter's predecessors Leopold Demuth, Anton van Rooy, Hermann Weil, Clarence Whitehill, Friedrich Schorr, Rudolf Bockelmann and Hans Hermann Nissen. Demuth, van Rooy, Weil and Whitehill were at their peak in the late 19th and early 20th centuries while Schorr, Bockelmann and Nissen were stars of the 1920s and 1930s. In addition to their heavyweight Wagnerian cousins, there was a plethora of baritones with more lyrical voices active in Germany and Austria during the period between the outbreak of WW1 in 1914 and the end of WW2 in 1945. Among them were, Heinrich Schlusnus, Herbert Janssen, Willi Domgraf-Fassbaender, Karl Schmitt-Walter and Gerhard Hüsch. Their abundant inter-war Italian counterparts included, among others, Carlo Galeffi, Giuseppe Danise, Enrico Molinari, Umberto Urbano, Cesare Formichi, Luigi Montesanto, Apollo Granforte, Benvenuto Franci, Renato Zanelli (who switched to tenor roles in 1924), Mario Basiola, Giovanni Inghilleri, Carlo Morelli (the Chilean-born younger brother of Renato Zanelli) and Carlo Tagliabue, who retired as late as 1958. One of the best known Italian Verdi baritones of the 1920s and 1930s, Mariano Stabile, sang Iago and Rigoletto and Falstaff (at La Scala) under the baton of Arturo Toscanini. Stabile also appeared in London, Chicago and Salzburg. He was noted more for his histrionic skills than for his voice, however. Stabile was followed by Tito Gobbi, a versatile singing actor capable of vivid comic and tragic performances during the years of his prime in the 1940s, 1950s and early 1960s. He learned more than 100 roles in his lifetime and was mostly known for his roles in Verdi and Puccini operas, including appearances as Scarpia opposite soprano Maria Callas as Tosca at Covent Garden. Gobbi's competitors included Gino Bechi, Giuseppe Valdengo, Paolo Silveri, Giuseppe Taddei, Ettore Bastianini, Cesare Bardelli and Giangiacomo Guelfi. Another of Gobbi's contemporaries was the Welshman Geraint Evans, who famously sang Falstaff at Glyndebourne and created the roles of Mr. Flint and Mountjoy in works by Benjamin Britten. Some considered his best role to have been Wozzeck. The next significant Welsh baritone was Bryn Terfel. He made his premiere at Glyndebourne in 1990 and went on to build an international career as Falstaff and, more generally, in the operas of Mozart and Wagner. Perhaps the first famous American baritone appeared in the 1900s. It was the American-born but Paris-based Charles W. Clark who sang Italian, French and German composers. An outstanding group of virile-voiced American baritones appeared then in the 1920s. The younger members of this group were still active as recently as the late 1970s. Outstanding among its members were the Met-based Verdians Lawrence Tibbett (a compelling, rich-voiced singing actor), Richard Bonelli, John Charles Thomas, Robert Weede, Leonard Warren and Robert Merrill. They sang French opera, too, as did the American-born but also Paris-based baritone of the 1920s, and 1930s Arthur Endreze. Also to be found singing Verdi roles at the Met, Covent Garden and the Vienna Opera during the late 1930s and the 1940s was the big-voiced Hungarian baritone, Sandor (Alexander) Sved. The leading Verdi baritones of the 1970s and 1980s were probably Italy's Renato Bruson and Piero Cappuccilli, America's Sherrill Milnes, Sweden's Ingvar Wixell and the Romanian baritone Nicolae Herlea. At the same time, Britain's Sir Thomas Allen was considered to be the most versatile baritone of his generation in regards to repertoire, which ranged from Mozart to Verdi and lighter Wagner roles, through French and Russian opera, to modern English music. Another British baritone, Norman Bailey, established himself internationally as a memorable Wotan and Hans Sachs. However, he had a distinguished, brighter-voiced Wagnerian rival during the 1960s, 70s, and 80s in the person of Thomas Stewart of America. Other notable post-War Wagnerian baritones have been Canada's George London, Germany's Hermann Uhde and, more recently, America's James Morris. Among the late-20th-century baritones noted throughout the opera world for their Verdi performances was Vladimir Chernov, who emerged from the former USSR to sing at the Met. Chernov followed in the footsteps of such richly endowed East European baritones as Ippolit Pryanishnikov (a favorite of Tchaikovski's), Joachim Tartakov (an Everardi pupil), Oskar Kamionsky (an exceptional \"bel canto\" singer nicknamed the \"Russian Battistini\"), Waclaw Brzezinski (known as the \"Polish Battistini\"), Georges Baklanoff (a powerful singing actor), and, during a career lasting from 1935 to 1966, the Bolshoi's Pavel Lisitsian. Dmitri Hvorostovsky and Sergei Leiferkus are two Russian baritones of the modern era who appear regularly in the West. Like Lisitsian, they sing Verdi and the works of their native composers, including Tchaikovsky's \"Eugene Onegin\" and \"The Queen of Spades\". In the realm of French song, the bass-baritone José van Dam and the lighter-voiced Gérard Souzay have been notable. Souzay's repertoire extended from the Baroque works of Jean-Baptiste Lully to 20th-century composers such as Francis Poulenc. Pierre Bernac, Souzay's teacher, was an interpreter of Poulenc's songs in the previous generation. Older baritones identified with this style include France's Dinh Gilly and Charles Panzéra and Australia's John Brownlee. Another Australian, Peter Dawson, made a small but precious legacy of benchmark Handel recordings during the 1920s and 1930s. (Dawson, incidentally, acquired his outstanding Handelian technique from Sir Charles Santley.) Yet another Australian baritone of distinction between the wars was Harold Williams, who was based in the United Kingdom. Important British-born baritones of the 1930s and 1940s were Dennis Noble, who sang Italian and English operatic roles, and the Mozartian Roy Henderson. Both appeared often at Covent Garden. Prior to World War II, Germany's Heinrich Schlusnus, Gerhard Hüsch and Herbert Janssen were celebrated for their beautifully sung lieder recitals as well as for their mellifluous operatic performances in Verdi, Mozart, and Wagner respectively. After the war's conclusion, Hermann Prey and Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau appeared on the scene to take their place. In addition to his interpretations of lieder and the works of Mozart, Prey sang in Strauss operas and tackled lighter Wagner roles such as Wolfram or Beckmesser. Fischer-Dieskau sang parts in 'fringe' operas by the likes of Ferruccio Busoni and Paul Hindemith as well as appearing in standard works by Verdi and Wagner. He earned his principal renown, however, as a lieder singer. Talented German and Austrian lieder singers of a younger generation include Olaf Bär, Matthias Goerne, Wolfgang Holzmair (who also performs regularly in opera), Thomas Quasthoff, and Christian Gerhaher. Well-known non-Germanic baritones of recent times have included the Italians Giorgio Zancanaro and Leo Nucci, the Frenchman François le Roux, the Canadians Gerald Finley and James Westman and the versatile American Thomas Hampson, his compatriot Nathan Gunn and the Englishman Simon Keenlyside.", "The vocal range of the baritone lies between the bass and the tenor voice types. The baritone vocal range is usually between the second G below middle C (G) and the G above middle C (G).", "Within the baritone voice type category are seven generally recognized subcategories: baryton-Martin baritone (light baritone), lyric baritone, \"Kavalierbariton\", Verdi baritone, dramatic baritone, \"baryton-noble\" baritone, and the bass-baritone.", "The baryton-Martin baritone (sometimes referred to as light baritone) lacks the lower G–B range a heavier baritone is capable of, and has a lighter, almost tenor-like quality. Its common range is from C to the B above middle C (C to B). Generally seen only in French repertoire, this \"Fach\" was named after the French singer Jean-Blaise Martin. Associated with the rise of the baritone in the 19th century, Martin was well known for his fondness for falsetto singing, and the designation 'baryton Martin' has been used (Faure, 1886) to separate his voice from the 'Verdi Baritone', which carried the chest register further into the upper range. It is important to note that this voice type shares the \"primo passaggio\" and \"secondo passaggio\" with the Dramatic Tenor and Heldentenor (C and F respectively), and hence could be trained as a tenor. Baryton-Martin roles in opera:", "The lyric baritone is a sweeter, milder sounding baritone voice, lacking in harshness; lighter and perhaps mellower than the dramatic baritone with a higher tessitura. Its common range is from the A below C to the G above middle C (A to G). It is typically assigned to comic roles. Lyric baritone roles in opera:", "The \"Kavalierbariton\" baritone is a metallic voice that can sing both lyric and dramatic phrases, a manly, noble baritonal color. Its common range is from the A below low C to the G above middle C (A to G). Not quite as powerful as the Verdi baritone who is expected to have a powerful appearance on stage, perhaps muscular or physically large. \"Kavalierbariton\" roles in opera:", "The Verdi baritone is a more specialized voice category and a subset of the Dramatic Baritone. Its common range is from the G below low C to the A above middle C (G to A). A Verdi baritone refers to a voice capable of singing consistently and with ease in the highest part of the baritone range. It will generally have a lot of squillo. Verdi baritone roles in opera:", "The dramatic baritone is a voice that is richer, fuller, and sometimes harsher than a lyric baritone and with a darker quality. Its common range is from the G half an octave below low C to the G above middle C (G to G). The dramatic baritone category corresponds roughly to the Heldenbariton in the German \"Fach\" system except that some Verdi baritone roles are not included. The primo passaggio and secondo passaggio of both the Verdi and dramatic baritone are at B and E respectively, hence the differentiation is based more heavily on timbre and tessitura. Accordingly, roles that fall into this category tend to have a slightly lower tessitura than typical Verdi baritone roles, only rising above an F at the moments of greatest intensity. Many of the Puccini roles fall into this category. However, it is important to note, that for all intents and purposes, a Verdi Baritone is simply a Dramatic Baritone with greater ease in the upper tessitura (Verdi Baritone roles center approximately a minor third higher). Because the Verdi Baritone is sometimes seen as subset of the Dramatic Baritone, some singers perform roles from both sets of repertoire. Similarly, the lower tessitura of these roles allow them frequently to be sung by bass-baritones. Dramatic baritone roles in opera:", "The \"baryton-noble\" baritone is French for \"noble baritone\" and describes a part that requires a noble bearing, smooth vocalisation and forceful declamation, all in perfect balance. This category originated in the Paris Opera, but it greatly influenced Verdi (Don Carlo in \"Ernani \"and \"La forza del destino\"; Count Luna in \"Il trovatore\"; \"Simon Boccanegra\") and Wagner as well (\"Wotan\"; \"Amfortas\"). Similar to the Kavalierbariton. \"Baryton-noble\" roles in opera are:", "The bass-baritone range extends from the E below low C to the F or F above middle C (F to F). Bass-baritones are typically divided into two separate categories: lyric bass-baritone and dramatic bass-baritone. Lyric bass-baritone roles in opera include: Dramatic bass-baritone roles in opera include:", "All of Gilbert and Sullivan's Savoy operas have at least one lead baritone character (frequently the comic principal). Notable operetta roles are:", "In barbershop music, the baritone part sings in a similar range to the Lead (singing the melody) however usually singing lower than the lead. A barbershop baritone has a specific and specialized role in the formation of the four-part harmony that characterizes the style. The baritone singer is often the one required to support or \"fill\" the bass sound (typically by singing the fifth above the bass root) and to complete a chord. On the other hand, the baritone will occasionally find himself harmonizing above the melody, which calls for a tenor-like quality. Because the baritone fills the chord, the part is often not very melodic. In bluegrass music, the melody line is called the lead. Tenor is sung an interval of a third above the lead. Baritone is the fifth of the scale that has the lead as a tonic, and may be sung below the lead, or even above the lead (and the tenor), in which case it is called \"high baritone\". Conversely, the more \"soul\" baritones have the more traditional timbre, but sing in a vocal range that is closer to the tenor vocal range. Some of these singers include David Ruffin, Wilson Pickett, Otis Redding, Tom Jones, Michael McDonald, and Levi Stubbs of the Four Tops." ] }